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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Chinese theater - -Author: Adolf Eduard Zucker - -Release Date: December 4, 2022 [eBook #69475] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian - Libraries) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHINESE THEATER *** - - - - - - -THE CHINESE THEATER - -[Illustration] - - - - - _Seven hundred and fifty copies - of THE CHINESE THEATER have - been printed from type and the - type distributed. Of this Limited - Edition, seven hundred and - twenty copies are for sale, of - which this is_ - - _Number 16_ - - - - -[Illustration: A GENERAL - -Chinese Character Type] - - - - - THE - CHINESE THEATER - - BY - A. E. ZUCKER - _Professor of Comparative Literature, University of Maryland - Formerly, Assistant Professor of English, - Peking Union Medical College_ - - WITH ILLUSTRATIONS - - [Illustration] - - BOSTON - LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY - MCMXXV - - _Copyright, 1925_, - BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY. - - _All rights reserved_ - - Published November, 1925 - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - - -_To_ - -MY WIFE, LOIS MILES - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -PREFACE - - -The genial Reverend Arthur Smith in his “Village Life in China” says -that the Chinese sometimes finds it hard to understand the Westerner. -As an instance he cites the case of a tired traveler who stops at an -inn for the night and is told that there will be theatricals in the -evening. Instead of sharing the glee of the natives, he gathers his -tired self together and hurries on to the next village that he may enjoy -his sleep far away from sounding brass and clanging[1] cymbal. Possibly -this explains why among all the books written on China comparatively -few concern themselves with the theater. One might add too that the -drama stands on a relatively lower level than some other Chinese arts, -for example, landscape painting and lyric poetry. Yet though his dramas -are poor the Chinese actor has at his command consummate skill to hold -the mirror up to life; he is no less of an artist than his Occidental -colleague. - -Still, the subject has attracted a fair number of Occidental writers. -Du Halde was the first; in his monumental description of China published -in 1735 he printed a translation by a Jesuit missionary of the Yuan -Dynasty drama, “The Orphan of the Chao Family.” It was this translation -that inspired Voltaire’s “L’Orphelin de la Chine.” Other translations -followed in the nineteenth century, together with some critical material -and various descriptions of Chinese staging. In the last few years the -interest in the Chinese stage has evidently become greater than ever, -both in China and in Western lands. A history of the Chinese drama, -however, has never been written; largely because the Chinese themselves -have no such work. Only a few present-day innovators among Celestial -scholars consider the drama as literature. Thus the information we -possess on this vast subject is very meager, and much of it is also -out of print. This book is an attempt to gather together what is known -on the subject, as well as to present in a volume supplied with vivid -illustrations the results of five years’ experience with the Peking -theater by a student of comparative literature possessed of a modest -knowledge of the Peking dialect. - -Those who have so far written on the subject have always spoken of a -decadence of the drama which set in immediately after the first period of -bloom in the Yuan Dynasty (1280-1368). In the course of the revaluation -of values now going on in China this opinion is being changed. Mr. Wang -Kuo-wei has recently compiled a dramatical catalogue which shows that -numerically, at least, there is no decrease in the production of dramas. -A trenchant critic, Doctor Hu Shih, holds that only technically can the -drama of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) be said to be inferior, because -the compact and unified plays of the Yuan period become diffuse and of -serpentine length; but that in the matter of characterization, poetic -diction, and content they are far superior. Furthermore, modern Chinese -criticism considers the very highest point of the drama to have been -reached in two historical tragedies of the Ching Dynasty (1644-1911). -As can readily be seen, there is an enormous amount of work to be done -in this field; and if the gaps and errors in this book shall impel a -competent scholar to write the long overdue history of the Chinese drama -this work will have served its purpose. - -In general the Chinese drama is like ours. It is divided into acts, often -corresponding in number to our customary four or five. It is presented in -a manner strikingly similar to that employed during our greatest period -of the drama—Shakespeare’s day. It can be classified according to content -into our usual divisions. Historical drama prevails perhaps; because of -the great love of the Chinese for his long tradition contemporaries of -the Romans or even earlier heroes are favorites on the stage. Family -drama is extremely popular, with subdivisions such as the drama of -the court room and criminal drama. The magic or mythological drama, -recalling perhaps “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”, is also very important; -among this group the very best plays are those that treat superstitious -beliefs satirically. Then there are dramas of character, among which can -be found a good counterpart to “The Miser” of Plautus or Molière. Dramas -of intrigue abound on every program. Even the monodrama can be found -among modern innovations. And last, but by no means least, there is the -religious drama in some ways analogous to our miracle and mystery plays. - -The three chief religions of China have exerted their influence on the -stage. Confucianism supplies the general moral background of the majority -of plays. The veneration of the scholar rather than of the warrior makes -the former the chief hero on the Chinese stage, while filial piety is -the most outstanding virtue which the hero displays. Taoism, generally -described as the religion of superstitions, is responsible for the many -mythological and ghostly figures that fill Chinese plays. Rational -Confucianism is not conducive to imaginative writing, but under the -influence of Taoism the Chinese allowed his fancy to roam to the end -that innumerable delightful fairy and ghost stories were invented. The -keen sense of humor of the Chinese often comes to the fore in plays -dealing with Buddhist monks. These monks are the exact counterpart of -the lazy, ignorant, sensual, superstitious brethren who people the -pages of Boccaccio, Chaucer, Hans Sachs, and many other tellers of droll -tales. In fact when Père Prémave first came to China (around 1700) and -saw the monasteries with the celibate monks, who abstained from meat, -chanted offices, burned incense, shaved their heads, prayed with beads, -and gathered money from the pious, he decided that this was an invention -of the Evil One for the sole purpose of exasperating the Jesuits. With -the exception of some satire on the migration of souls the doctrine of -Sakyamouni has had little influence, but whenever chanting priests or -monks are brought on the stage they are burlesqued. The Chinese are -extremely tolerant in regard to religion and never fanatical; their -attitude toward the supernatural has been aptly defined as “politeness -toward possibilities.” - -But the main theme of the Chinese drama, as of all drama, is the human -side of life. The stage is naturally enough a mirror in which we can see -the Chinese as they see themselves. They present themselves not as the -wise men of the East that some idealizing travelers would like to make -them, nor as the bloodthirsty monsters of the “Limehouse Nights” brand; -but as human beings, neither white nor black. We see the corruption of -officials, the callousness toward suffering, the selfishness of parents, -the eagerness for compromise, and the lack of physical or moral courage; -on the other hand the polite civilization with its long tradition, the -respect for the past and for learning, the love of poetry and art, the -general kindliness and honesty of the people, the love of humor, the -extreme democracy in social relations, and the reasonableness and lack of -fanaticism. He who would know the Chinese ought to know their stage; and -furthermore, he who loves our Middle Ages will derive endless pleasure -from its counterpart, the pageant of Chinese life. - -In my years in the East I received helpful suggestions from many friends -in the course of hundreds of visits to the theater. Professor Soong -Tsung-faung first introduced me to this fascinating spectacle. Doctor Hu -Shih discussed it illuminatingly in conversation and by correspondence. -Lucius Porter, Professor of Chinese, Columbia University, 1922-1924, -offered helpful suggestions on the manuscript, which he read in part, -as did likewise Professor Ferdinand Lessing, formerly of the National -University, Peking. Two of my students, Huang Ke-k’ung and Jung Tu-shan, -who learned from me about Sophocles and Shakespeare, introduced me in -turn to many fine things on the Chinese stage. And finally, I wish to -express my appreciation to Mr. Chang Ziang-ling and the many other -_p’iao-yu_ (amateurs) for acquainting me with the nonprofessional stage. -Thanks are due to the editors of _La Revue de Littérature Comparée_ and -of _Asia_ for permission to reprint a number of chapters. - - A. E. ZUCKER - -RIVERDALE, MARYLAND, December 7, 1924 - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - Preface vii - - CHAPTER - - 1 Early History 3 - - 2 Formal Development—Yuan Dynasty, 1206-1368 A.D. 19 - - 3 The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644 A.D. The Pi-Pa-Chi 43 - - 4 The Drama under the Manchus and the Republic—1644 to the - Present Day 69 - - 5 Modern Tendencies 108 - - 6 External Aspects of the Chinese Theater 129 - - 7 The Conventions 161 - - 8 Mei Lan-fang—China’s Greatest Actor 171 - - 9 Analogies Between East and West 190 - - Chronological Table 221 - - Bibliography 223 - - Index 231 - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - -For the purpose of giving a vivid impression of the colorfulness of the -Chinese stage, the publishers have imported from China four thousand -paintings on silk, done by students of the Peking School of Fine Arts. -They represent four of the standing character type of the Chinese stage, -in their traditional make-ups. - - A General _Frontispiece_ - - FACING PAGE - - A Scholar 52 - - A Demi-Mondaine 152 - - A Clown 206 - - Illustration by a Chinese artist for “The Chalk Circle” 28 - - Illustration by a Chinese artist for “The Chalk Circle” 32 - - Illustration by a Chinese artist. Tou-E before the judge 38 - - Illustration by a Chinese artist. Tou-E about to be beheaded 40 - - A Chinese artist’s conception of two pious souls 48 - - Warrior-acrobats 80 - - Amateur actors in an old-style Chinese play 110 - - Hu Shih 118 - - A typical Peking audience with the inevitable teapots 130 - - Orchestral instruments 146 - - Orchestral instruments 148 - - The actress Kin Feng-Kui in a male rôle 164 - - Mei Lan-fang in European dress, and in parts 176 - - “Burying the Blossoms” 180 - - The Fortune Theater 198 - - A typical Peking theater 198 - - The orchestra seated in a corner of the stage 202 - - - - -THE CHINESE THEATER - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER ONE - -EARLY HISTORY - - -“Students of the Pear Garden” (Li Yuan Tzu Ti) is the name by which -actors in China are called in elegant literary style. This appellation -was given them in memory of the traditional origin of the Chinese theater -in the imperial palace gardens of a T’ang Dynasty emperor, Ming Huang -(Yuen Tsung, 713-756 A.D.), who was a generous patron of the arts in his -splendid capital Ch’ang An. This ruler established a college called the -Pear Garden for the training in music and dramatics of young actors of -both sexes. His plan for court entertainment the emperor had derived, -according to legend, from a visit to the moon where he had seen a troupe -of performers in the Jade Palace of the lunar emperor. In the annals of -the T’ang Dynasty the following is told about the art-loving ruler: - -“Ming Huang was not only passionately fond of music, but he also had a -thorough knowledge of its essential principles. He established an academy -of music with three hundred students. Ming Huang himself gave them -lessons in the Pear Garden; if any of the students sang in poor taste -or incorrectly the emperor noted the fault immediately and corrected it -sharply. The young girls of the harem, several hundred in number, were -later also attached to the academy as students.... On the occasion of -the emperor’s birthday the empress ordered them to perform some musical -numbers in the Palace of Eternal Life.” - -The French scholar Bazin in the introduction to his translation of four -Chinese plays comments upon this as follows: “Surely it is a great -thing that, at a time when the Chinese had as yet no idea of dramatic -performances, a man who had founded the institution of the Han-Lin -(literally ‘The Forest of Pencils’, i.e., The Imperial Academy of -Scholars), and who could justly call himself ‘the teacher of his nation’, -conceived and carried out single-handed a work of art, in which we find -for the first time with all its marvelous charm the union of lyric -poetry with the drama. This work, fitted to arouse in the souls of the -spectators the sentiment of the sublime, could be the product only of a -genius.” - -In “The Chinese Drama”, William Stanton writes on the origin of the drama -as follows: - - The long reign of Yuen Tsung, styled the Illustrious Emperor - (Ming Huang) owing to its splendid beginning and disastrous - close, is one of the most remarkable in Chinese history. - - On ascending the throne, the young emperor zealously strove to - purge the empire of the extravagance and debauchery that was - ruining it; and in his austerity went so far as to prohibit - the wearing of the then fashionable costly apparel, and, as an - example to his subjects, he made a large bonfire in his palace - of an immense quantity of embroidered garments and jewellery. - Under the wise administration of this stern ruler and his able - ministers the state attained a great height of prosperity. - But unexpectedly the emperor’s character underwent a change; - he developed a love of sensuality and himself indulged in the - luxuries he had formerly so strongly condemned. - - In A.D. 734 he obtained a sight of his daughter-in-law, the - beautiful Yang Kuei-fei, and became so violently enamoured - with her that he took her into his own seraglio. She speedily - obtained a complete ascendency over him and succeeded in - getting raised to the highest position next the throne. - - According to legendary stories the Herdsman and Spinning Damsel - are two lovers who each inhabit a star separated by the Silver - River (the Milky Way) and are unable to meet except on the - seventh night of the seventh moon, when magpies from all parts - of the world assemble, and with their linked bodies form a - bridge to enable the damsel to cross to her lover. Consequently - this is one of the great festive occasions of China. On the - said evening of A.D. 735, Yuen Tsung and his celebrated - consort stood gazing into the starlit sky. Remembering the - occasion Yang Kuei-fei burst into protestations of affection - and assured the monarch that she was more faithful than the - Spinning Damsel, for that she would never leave him, but, - inseparably with him, tread the spiritual walks of eternity. - In order to reward such love the emperor sought to discover a - novel amusement for her. After consideration he summoned his - prime minister and commanded him to select a number of young - children, and, after carefully instructing and handsomely - dressing them, to bring them before the beautiful Yang - Kuei-fei, to recite for her delectation the heroic achievements - of his ancestors. That was the origin of the drama in China. - The first performances were generally held in a pavilion in - the open air, among fruit trees, and Yuen Tsung subsequently - established an Imperial Dramatic College in a pear garden, - where hundreds of male and female performers were trained to - afford him pleasure. From the site of the college the actors - become known as the “Young Folks of the Pear Garden”, a title - they claim to the present day. - -The Pear Garden origin of the Chinese drama is a fine legend and heroic -history, but it is typical of Chinese who have come in touch with -Occidental science that they should search for a more realistic, if less -picturesque, account of the beginning of their theater. The first, and -so far the only, systematic and scientific work on this subject is “The -History of the Drama under the Sung and Yuan Dynasties”, by Mr. Wang -Kuo-wei.[2] This author has taken great pains in collecting all evidences -of pantomimes, dramatic dances, satirical buffoonery, or anything else to -which the roots of a theater might be traced. While he is not yet able -on the basis of his evidence to lead us back step by step to the genesis -of the theater—as could for example a scholar dealing with the Greek -drama—yet the evidence he adduces is most interesting. - -About 2000 B.C. there were found mediums called _wu_ when they were women -or _hsien_ when men, who performed dances and sang songs in the worship -of the gods, to exorcise evil spirits, to induce the gods to send rain, -or to act as mourners in times of calamity. It was believed that the gods -descended to earth and communicated with men through these mysterious -beings, especially in the course of violent dances. This form of worship -designed for the pleasure of the gods was evidently much according to -the taste of men, for we find it such a widespread form of popular -amusement that I-Yin, famous minister of the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 -B.C.), issued an edict prohibiting it. “The late sovereign instituted -punishments for the officers, and warned the men in authority, saying, -‘If you dare to have constant dancing in your mansions, and drunken -singing in your houses, I call it wu-fashion’.”[3] During the classical -Chou Dynasty, beginning 1122 B.C. with Wu Wang, everything in Chinese -life was cast into the fetters of a strict ritual. There were regulations -governing the dress to be worn, the speeches to be made, and the -postures to be assumed on all possible occasions, whether at the court -or in private life; in fact, these rules were the prototypes of most of -the characteristic features governing Chinese public and social life -down to the present day. It can be seen readily that the more or less -spontaneous and popular mimicry of the _wu_ (mediums) would naturally -enough be suppressed at this time; but in later dynasties we find again -many references to the beauty, the splendid costumes, the singing and -dancing, and in general the charm of these actors in popular religious -ceremonies. - -These performances of the early Chinese centered about the divine -worship, as everything of æsthetic nature in the life of primitive man -seems to do. Even to-day all of the theatrical performances in China -outside the large cities are a form of divine worship, usually harvest -festivals staged by way of thanksgiving for good crops. That there -is in the minds of the Chinese a definite religious association with -theatricals performed in the villages is shown by the fact that the -Christian converts always receive a dispensation for their share of -the sum demanded by the traveling company. Sometimes missionaries hear -complaints from the village elders that some thrifty members of their -flocks save the tax for theatricals and yet go to look on at the shows; -however, thanks to the reasonable and unfanatic character of the Chinese -such quarrels are usually easily adjusted. - -Because of this close association of the theater with temple worship,[4] -it seems reasonable to seek for another possible origin of the drama -in the early ancestor worship in which the deceased forefather of the -family was impersonated by one of his descendants. A ceremony of honoring -a revered ancestor could easily be expanded into a representation of -his great deeds. It is also known that not only men but also gods were -impersonated by the actors; as Mr. Wang puts it, they dressed in the -attire of the gods and imitated their gestures. However, in regard to -these representations of the gods our author feels that it is impossible -to give any definite details. Yet in the verse of the time there are -allusions to these performances referring to extravagance in dress and in -articles of toilet, such as perfume; to a change in the style of music; -to the employment of themes of love or of sadness in parting—all of which -indicates the great popularity of these entertainments of singing or -dancing. Hence our Chinese scholar believes that out of these beginnings -the drama has grown. - -In this connection it would seem proper to mention the work of the -Cambridge University scholar, Professor William Ridgeway. He holds -that Greek tragedy proper did not arise in the worship of the Thracian -god Dionysus; but that it sprang out of the indigenous worship of the -dead, especially dead chiefs who in some cases are later deified.[5] -In dramatic dances in honor of ancestors or deceased heroes in Asiatic -countries Professor Ridgeway finds support for his theory of the origin -of the Greek theater. Speaking of the Chinese theater, he says that -already in the time of Confucius certain solemn dances were held in the -ancestral temples; at the present time in the temples of local deities, -who were once heroes or heroines of the immediate neighborhood, dramatic -performances are held in which these deified heroes are supposed to take -an interest for the reason that they are themselves frequently the object -of the worship; and that these modern theatricals seem to be descended -directly from the ancient cult practiced five hundred years before -Christ. It would seem from the foregoing that Mr. Wang’s evidence gives -support to Professor Ridgeway’s theories of the origin of tragedy out of -the worship of deified heroes. - -Doctor Berthold Laufer, curator of the Field Museum, Chicago, has stated -to me that in his opinion a discussion of the origin of the Chinese drama -ought to differentiate between the beginnings of the “military plays” and -the “civil plays.” The latter are, as will be explained more fully in a -later chapter, plays in our sense of the word, while the “military plays” -consist of acrobatics that symbolize fighting. Doctor Laufer believes -that these last-named take their origin from ancient ceremonials in -which the use of weapons was the chief feature. Doctor Laufer has had -considerable experience with the Chinese theater, and his museum is -the only one in the world, so far as I know, which possesses life-size -figures of Chinese actors in correct costume. - -So much for ancestor worship as the source of the drama with the _wu_ -or _hsien_. Mr. Wang adduces records also of other types of actors. As -early as 1818 B.C., according to a none too reliable Han Dynasty (206 -B.C.-221 A.D.) record, a ruler is said to have abolished the temple rites -and ceremonies and to have collected about his court clowns, dwarfs, and -actors to perform amusing plays. In the more historic period of “Spring -and Autumn” (770-544 B.C.) there are records of dwarfs in rôles similar -to those of our court fools. They attempted to gain the favor of the -rulers by their witty sayings which were often full of satire. Confucius -in his capacity of prime minister saw himself forced to put to death one -of these wits[6] because of his disrespectful allusions to the ruler—an -action, incidentally, that seems most characteristic of the noble sage, -who with all his virtues certainly was not endowed with a sense of humor. -The function of these dancing, singing, play-acting dwarfs was not a -religious one; “they were to amuse men, not to amuse the gods.” - -In a review[7] of Mr. Wang’s “History of the Drama under the Sung -and Yuan Dynasties” Professor Soong calls attention to the following -interesting analogies between Orient and Occident: - - The influence of the court fools was considerable, and on the - whole salutary in China. Shih Huang-ti (255-206 B.C.), the - builder of the Great Wall, was so addicted to great building - enterprises that the people suffered in consequence. It was Yu - Sze, the court fool, who caused the emperor to treat the people - with more consideration. The successor of this mighty ruler - conceived the plan of having the Great Wall painted—perhaps - just a caprice on his part, perhaps in order to render the - Wall less subject to the influence of the weather. Again Yu - Sze dissuaded the emperor from carrying out such a costly - and wasteful project. The history of Yu Meng is even more - interesting. In the kingdom of Chou the family of Suen Lo - Ngao had become extremely impoverished because the king had - forgotten the merits of the chief of the house, a famous - general. Yu Meng, the court fool, donned the armor of the - defunct military leader and sang of his exploits before the - royal palace; now the king could no longer refuse to recognize - and recompense the merits of the family. This touching episode - told by the historian in the “Biography of Court Fools” cannot - but recall Will Sommer to whom “The King would ever grant what - he would crave.” - -During the Han Dynasty records show the existence of jugglers, magicians, -rope-walkers, sword-swallowers, and also of plays in which masked actors -disguised as gods, fearful leopards, cruel tigers, white bears, and gray -dragons had their parts. Dwarfs and giants were made to play together in -humorous pieces. Singing girls in costumes of feathers executed artful -dances. Some of these performances are said to have been so indecent that -passers-by covered their eyes. However, such performances were sharply -censored at the time, just as they would be in present-day China. - -All of these performances were very much favored by the rulers, but they -consisted mostly of singing and dancing, while there was very little -that might be called drama. In the northern Ch’i Dynasty (550-570 A.D.) -however, there arose what might be called a historical play based on an -episode in the life of a heroic warrior, Duke Lan Lu. This warrior had -a somewhat effeminate aspect, and therefore he wore a mask in battle to -inspire fear in the hearts of his enemies. His story was dramatized and -became a very popular play, probably similar to the present-day “military -plays” in which the play with swords and spears forms the _pièce de -résistance_. There is a record about the same time of a comedy also -based on an actual occurrence, called “The Drunkard.” A certain man, -Su Pao-pi (a name alluding to red spots on his nose) was a very heavy -drinker and after each spree would beat his wife in the village street -until she wept pitifully. Two actors, one dressed as a woman and the -other as a man, would amuse the people by a popular farce portraying -this quarrel between husband and wife. The playlet must have been one of -extraordinary vitality, for there are records of it in the Chi, Chou, and -Sui dynasties—to be sure, three short dynasties that followed one closely -upon the other. Music and dancing also played a part in these two early -dramatic presentations, so that they were probably of the melodramatic -(in the etymological sense of the term) variety, such as is most of the -Chinese drama of to-day. - -The dramas in China are classified according to the style of music they -employ. Another play of the same, or perhaps a little earlier period, -called “The Tiger,” is thought by Mr. Wang, because of the music of -foreign tribes employed in it, to have been brought into China from “The -Western Regions” (central Asia).[8] It is the story of a man who was -killed by a tiger and whose son then set out on a search for the wild -beast, fought with it and avenged his father by killing it in turn. Mr. -Wang even hazards the suggestion that the two plays mentioned above, “The -Mask” and “The Drunkard,” were in their music and manner of presentation -imitations of “The Tiger,” in which case this form of drama would be a -borrowing from a foreign country and not indigenous to China. - -Two other early plays which Mr. Wang mentions deal with historical -episodes. From the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-221 A.D.) dates the story of an -unjust mandarin who had “squeezed” as they say in China, ten thousand -rolls of silk and was put in jail. Later on the emperor moderated this -punishment, because of the mandarin’s great learning, into the following: -the culprit had to appear at court dressed in a white robe while for the -period of one year the court fools were at liberty to make sport of him. -This became the basis of a play shown by a number of records to have -been acted frequently before the T’ang Dynasty. The plot seems, indeed, -to have been a comedy made to order for the court fools to display -their wit. There is evidence to show that this play was enacted in the -imperial palace in the middle of the eighth century. A group of actors -from Chekiang in presenting this play were said to have had voices so -loud that they penetrated to the clouds—a circumstance that would win the -favor of the devotees of certain types of modern Chinese drama. The other -historical play has for a hero Fan Kuai, a noble who saved the emperor’s -life by his prompt action against rebels. It is said to have been written -by the T’ang Dynasty emperor, Chao Tsung himself, and to have been acted -in the imperial palace in Ch’ang An. - -It was during the T’ang Dynasty especially that a nonmusical type of -drama flourished in the form of extemporized comedies. The plots hinged -on local occurrences and differed with practically each presentation. -However, much as in the Italian _commedia dell’ arte_, with its -Arlecchino, Pantalone, Dottore, Scapino, etc., certain characters or -character types seem to have arisen. The very same extortionate mandarin, -mentioned above as the central figure of a play, became such a type who -figured in almost all of these comedies—in fact he is a stock character -on the Chinese stage even to-day—while opposite him there appeared as his -regular companion a fool wearing a green cap. Thus dialogue between two -actors—in other words rudimentary drama—became firmly established. Since -the satirizing of current events and of local characters was the avowed -purpose of these comedies, it will be readily understood by all familiar -with life in the East that the dishonest official came in for his fair -share. - -A topical comedy with a purpose from the Sung Dynasty (960-1126 A.D.) -played before the emperor attained all that might have been desired. -Through the efforts of an unpopular official a system of coinage had -been introduced in which the smallest coin had a value of ten cash. -Naturally enough this caused great inconvenience to very many poor -people. Therefore some actors called upon to play before the emperor -in the course of a feast proceeded to give him a lesson in rudimentary -economics. A vendor of syrups appeared and shortly afterwards a thirsty -customer. The latter paid one coin and demanded one drink. The merchant -explained that he had no change for the coin and asked his patron -therefore to take a number of drinks. The buyer does his best, but after -the fifth or sixth cup taps his bulging stomach and exclaims, “Well, I’ve -done it at last. But if the gentlemen in the government were to make us -use hundred-cash coins I should surely burst!” The emperor was moved to -gay laughter and smaller coins were at once issued. However, the efforts -of these actors were not always so fortunate in outcome. The story is -told, for example, of actors who had dressed up to represent Confucius, -Mencius, and other sages for the purpose of giving the emperor some very -pertinent advice on the division of land in the very words of the great -moral teachers. The advice proved to be so inconvenient that the emperor -had the actors whipped for their pains. - -From the Sung Dynasty (960-1127 A.D.) Mr. Wang reports the names of 280 -plays and from the Chin Dynasty (1115-1234 A.D.) 690 plays, but fails to -state how many are extant. Of the so-called Ancient Drama it is known -that a certain kind of free metrical form adapted to music (_ch’ü_) was -employed; that as a rule only two actors appeared in each play; and that -theatricals, though still very primitive, were quite popular, as they -were presented both to the general public in shabby mat-sheds and to -the court at magnificent feasts. Our knowledge of the Ancient Drama is -very meager to be sure, yet the work of Mr. Wang has made it possible to -go beyond what Mr. Giles says in his “History of Chinese Literature”[9] -after having mentioned the Pear Garden myth: “Nothing, however, which can -be truly identified with the actor’s art seems to have been known until -the thirteenth century, when suddenly the Drama, as seen in the modern -Chinese stage play, sprang into being.” Owing to the great interest in -Western drama in China at the present time it is very likely that other -Chinese scholars will make researches in this interesting field and that -more light will soon be shed on the origin of the Chinese drama. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER TWO - -FORMAL DEVELOPMENT—YUAN DYNASTY, 1206-1368 - - -The rise of the Chinese drama was due to a national disaster that broke -the sway of the ruling literary class. In 1264 Kublai Khan with his -Mongols fixed his capital at Peking and for the first time in their -history the sons of Han passed under the rule of an alien sovereign. -The barbarians naturally enough abolished the literary examinations for -government posts, consisting of competitions in the writing of essays and -poetry in the language of the classics, for they did not care to appoint -as viceroys and justices members of the subject race. The Mongol language -had absolutely no literature and, indeed, not even an alphabet until -1279, when a Tibetan priest constructed one by imperial order. Chinese -scholars were thrust out of their high offices and could find employment -only as writers of petitions or as lowly clerks. There was no longer any -call for the exercise of their talents in the writing of descriptive -essays or lyrical poetry such as had been demanded in the examinations -formerly leading to the highest offices; they found, however, a fruitful -outlet for their literary powers in a genre previously greatly despised -by the literati—the drama. - -The cause of the scholar’s disdain for the drama and the novel was -the great chasm that yawned between the classical language and the -spoken language of the day in which, perforce, popular literature of -entertainment or of the stage had to be written. For over a thousand -years the literary language had been a dead language, so dead that a -learned scholar could comprehend it only if he saw the text in black and -white before his eyes—to hear it read did not by any means enable him to -understand it. Everything that had been considered literature up to that -time was composed in this language, and anything composed in the vulgar -tongue was considered beneath the dignity of a scholar. Now, however, -clever writers turned to the drama and the novel with the result that the -written language was to a certain extent democratized in the works that -appealed to the broad masses of readers or hearers. But let it be noted, -_to a certain extent only_; for, as vanquished Greece in turn conquered -Rome by her superior culture, so Chinese culture conquered the Mongols. -After having been abolished for practically eighty years the literary -examinations were reinstated and the drama too was gradually caught -in pedantic fetters of formalism. Yet in spite of the fact that the -Yuan dramatists moved away from the spoken language to one presupposing -considerable erudition on the part of the reader, there are many scholars -even to-day who regard the novel and drama as beneath their notice, -just as a medieval scholar would have despised any work not written in -Latin.[10] - -In fact these works have been recognized at their true worth only as -late as 1917, when Hu Shih, Columbia University doctor of philosophy -and professor at the National University in Peking, began to lecture on -the Chinese drama as drama and to publish the best of the novels with -historical introductions. Professor Hu Shih finds in the language of -these works a compromise which he hopes will be an aid in inducing the -Chinese of to-day finally to adopt the vernacular as the language of -science and belles-lettres. For, in spite of the concessions made to -the firmly rooted conventions of the conservative class of scholars for -the sake of lending dignity to their works and securing the approval of -the literati, the novel and the drama, owing to their popular appeal, -deviated largely from the dead language and approached the vernacular of -the day. - -The dramatists are as a rule men who are not otherwise famous as writers. -Biographical material concerning the authors of the “One Hundred Yuan -Dramas”, the collection of plays considered classical in China, is so -meager that it does not seem worth while to mention names about whose -bearers little more can be said than that they “flourished.” About five -hundred plays were extant at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, while -to-day there exist but one hundred and sixteen. Modern Celestial scholars -are proud of the fact that an overwhelming percentage of the authors -were real Chinese, practically all from the territory now covered by the -provinces of Chihli, Shantung and Shansi, about a third of them born in -Peking (called Yenching at the time). Nine tenths of the authors lived -in what is called the first period of the Yuan drama (1235-1280) with -its center in Peking; while the much smaller Southern School developed -later (1280-1335) around Hangchow. Most of the authors were from among -the common people, and only one among the whole ninety odd was a Tartar. -Chinese critics regard Kuan Han-ching (the author of “The Sufferings of -Tou-E”, a play discussed below) as the greatest of all these writers, -because his manner is true and natural. Others are spoken of as having a -style that is lofty and magnificent, or pure and beautiful, or biting and -vigorous. - -The historian of the Chinese drama, Mr. Wang Kuo-wei, quoted above, -states that the Yuan drama is a natural growth out of the previously -existing forms and the traditional plots. More than thirty Yuan plots, -he points out, had been used before in plays of the Sung Dynasty. He -finds the chief advance of the Yuan drama to consist in the employment -of more flexible verse forms for the poetic sections and the use of more -dialogue in the place of narration and description. Thus the essence of -drama, action, takes the place of narration. Moreover, the drama rose to -the dignity of an art. Previous to this the plays, generally dialogues -by clowns, had been mostly interlarded in entertainments of acrobatics, -dancing, and music. Such performances took place frequently at the royal -court and are described also in the writings of the Italian Ma-Ke-Po-Lo -(Marco Polo) when he tells about the feast of the Grand Khan: “When the -repast is finished, and the tables have been removed, persons of various -descriptions enter the hall and amongst these a troop of comedians -and performers on various instruments, as also tumblers and jugglers, -who exhibit their skill in the presence of the Grand Khan to the high -amusement and gratification of all the spectators.”[11] - -As has been stated above, the dramas soon took on certain formal aspects. -In general they have four acts, with a prologue, epilogue, or interlude, -which makes them in appearance and length quite similar to our five-act -plays. Some plays—analogous to our trilogies—have acts of a number that -is a multiple of four and each group of four acts forms a unity by -itself. For example, “The Western Chamber”, has twenty acts and forms -really five plays. According to Chinese critics the drama is composed -of three elements: (1) action; (2) speech; (3) singing. Speech may be -divided into monologue and dialogue; the purpose of the latter is to -advance the action and of the former to arouse emotions—a function that -very properly invites comparison with the rôle of the chorus in the Greek -drama. No longer are there only two characters in these plays, but we -now find four chief rôles along with various minor parts. In very rigid -manner only one character is made to sing in each act, which means that -each of the four characters has one act in which he or she plays the -main rôle. This arrangement has had its peculiar effect which can be -witnessed in present-day Peking, where plays of this type are staged, -inasmuch as a famous actor who plays, let us say, the rôle of the lover, -will not present entire dramas, but only such of the acts as give him -the principal part. In the new plays of to-day, of course, a different -practice is followed but the old repertoire of the average Chinese -theater is so well known that it makes very little difference whether a -drama is presented as a whole or in part. The character types of the Yuan -drama, the _Mei_ (male) and _Tan_ (female), with their many variations, -are in general quite similar to the types of present-day drama, a -discussion of which is given in a later chapter. In the printed texts of -the play characters are designated not by their names, but by the rôles -which they play. - -The classical drama of China offers many interesting parallels to -different stages in the development of our drama, though it nowhere -equals the plays of our great masters. Its greatest height reaches the -level of perhaps the pre-Shakespearean drama in content, construction, -and manner of presentation. The presentation of Chinese plays with -the projecting platform stage, the lack of scenery and the emphasis -on gorgeous costume, the playing of female parts by male actors, the -extemporizing of clowns, and the use of music in “flourish” and “alarums” -offers a strikingly close parallel to Elizabethan staging. But that is a -chapter by itself. - -In the consideration of Chinese drama a few facts of Chinese life -must be borne in mind. The beau ideal in the Middle Kingdom is not the -warrior, but the scholar. There is no hereditary aristocracy, but wealth -and power falls to him who distinguishes himself in the competitive -examinations and thus becomes viceroy of a province or some other type -of high official. The passing of the examination therefore serves as the -_deus ex machina_ in many plays, solving all knotty problems accumulated -by the fifth act. Marriages are arranged by the parents, and the romance -of courtship is a rare and forbidden fruit. The religious and ethical -background consists chiefly of a respect for the minute moral precepts of -Confucius, with some Buddhistic notions of reincarnation and some Taoist -superstitions impartially admixed. - -To examine a few of the acknowledged masterpieces of the Yuan drama is -to invite fascinating comparisons. In “Chao Mei Hsiang” (Intrigue of a -Lady’s Maid) we have a young servant girl uniting two lovers, a sort of -Dorine of Molière’s “Tartuffe” in a Chinese setting. The destiny of the -young man and the girl have been settled beforehand by their parents, -much as Orgon in “Tartuffe” disposes of his daughter’s future: - - _Enfin, ma fille, il faut payer d’obeissance,_ - _Et montrer pour mon choix entière déférence._ - -The lovers in both plays revolt against parental authority, and in both -cases a happy ending is brought about indirectly through fortunate -intervention on the part of the monarch himself. The meat contained in -the Chinese play is about what “Tartuffe” would be with Tartuffe left out. - -Two generals arrange, shortly before they die in battle, that their -children are to marry. The son of the one, therefore, while on his -journey to the capital to take his examination, visits at the home of the -widow of his father’s friend. The widow invites him to take up his abode -in a pleasant pavilion in the garden, but she meets with icy silence -every reference on the part of the young man to marriage. This is because -she wishes to observe the very strictest code of conduct, which ordains -that when a girl has lost her father she dare not marry until three years -afterward. The young people fall in love at first sight; the young man -so desperately that the yearning for the girl he is not permitted to -see after their first accidental meeting causes him to become violently -ill. The quick-witted, impertinent maid sent to look after the wants of -the patient carries messages between him and the young girl and finally -arranges a meeting on a moonlit night. The lovers have exchanged but a -few words when the mother discovers them. She punishes the maid and sends -the young man away in disgrace. He goes to the capital and passes such a -brilliant examination that he attracts the attention of the emperor. The -latter becomes interested in the young man’s future and decides to carry -out the wish of his two faithful generals. The marriage is arranged by -imperial command. Both lovers are in ignorance as to who their selected -mates are to be, and at first are very much dejected; but when they meet -as bride and groom their happiness is all the greater when they realize -that the choice of their elders is also the choice of their hearts. - -[Illustration: ILLUSTRATION BY A CHINESE ARTIST FOR “THE CHALK CIRCLE” - -This, together with three similar illustrations, has been taken from the -standard edition of the Yuan Dynasty classics] - -The play moves in an atmosphere of strictly prescribed etiquette of which -the mother is a stony-eyed incarnation. The facetious little maid is -a breaker of rules in the interest of more human considerations, and, -like the servant in all our comedies from the time of Menander downward, -she tells her mistress some frank home-truths. Not only is the young -man a scholar, but the heroine with her maid-companion also have been -ardent students of the classics. Quotations from Confucius, Mencius, -Laotze, and the Buddhist writings lend their sparkle to the dialogue. -The lovers exchange poems exhibiting that charming impressionism of -delicately sketched moonlight on the lotus or snowfall on pine trees so -characteristic of Chinese verse. Allusions to myths abound; for example, -to the moonlit cloud that wooed the mother of Huang Ti as Jupiter did -Io. As in the plays of Bernard Shaw and of his predecessor Shakespeare, -the heroine takes the initiative by tossing into the room of the rather -passive hero a bag embroidered with characters revealing her love. A -wistful note is sounded by the young scholar when the wedding commanded -by the emperor is, as he believes, about to unite him to a woman other -than the one he loves: “Musicians, please do not now play the air of the -teals meeting in chaste pleasure who lament and yet feel no sorrow.” This -speech gives the same blending of the emotions so often spoken of by -our poets in analyzing the mystery of love, perhaps most strikingly in -Goethe’s lines: - - _Freudvoll und leidvoll,_ - _Gedankenvoll sein,_ - _Langen und bangen_ - _In schwebender Pein,_ - _Himmelhoch jauchzend_, - _Zum Tode betrübt,_ - _Glücklich allein ist_ - _Die Seele die liebt._ - -The play “Ho Lang Tan” (The Singing Girl) portrays the punishment of vice -and the triumph of virtue. A rich merchant decides to take into his house -a second wife, a certain singing girl. He finds himself desperately in -love with this lady of easy virtue, while the girl herself is planning to -get his money in order to run off with her real lover. There is a scene -between husband and wife in which the latter bitterly resents the plan -of bringing a concubine into the house and pronounces grave warnings of -the evils that will befall her husband in consequence. But the merchant -persists in his plan and brings the singing girl to salute his wife as -mistress of the house. The former is required by etiquette to make -four bows, of which the last two must be returned by the wife. The wife -refuses to greet the interloper, and after a short but violent quarrel -she dies of anger. The next scene shows the singing girl stealing the -merchant’s money and setting his house on fire. Her lover, disguised as -a boatman, throws the husband into a stream and tries to strangle the -latter’s son and his nurse. But passers-by prevent the cowardly murder, -and one of the strangers buys from the nurse the seven-year-old boy for -one ounce of silver. The poor nurse faces starvation and decides to -adopt the profession of a singing girl. While traveling about in this -capacity she meets the merchant who has had a miraculous escape from -drowning and has sunk to the position of swineherd in a far country. His -lowly state eloquently points the moral. At first he upbraids the nurse -for having adopted her dishonorable calling, but afterward he accepts -her invitation to quit his miserable post and to be supported by her. -Thirteen years have passed and the young son has become a famous judge -by virtue of having passed a brilliant examination. He happens to arrive -in the same city where his relatives are and calls on the keeper of his -inn to provide some singers for his entertainment. The host leads in his -childhood nurse and his father. The young judge wipes his teacup with a -piece of paper which he throws on the floor. As this paper happens to be -the contract of his sale by the nurse to the kind-hearted stranger who -later made him his heir and as it happens to be picked up by the father, -a recognition is effected. At the same time two thieves are brought -before the judge, who turn out to be the erstwhile second wife and her -scoundrel lover. They meet their just punishment; the judge puts them to -death with his own hand as a pious offering to the spirit of his deceased -mother. The father praises the justice of Heaven and asks his son to -order a feast that they may celebrate in due form this remarkable meeting. - -The chief interest of this clumsy play lies in the light it throws on -Chinese life. The indignation and subsequent death of the wife show how -even in countries where “they are used to it” women resent bitterly the -advent of a concubine into the house. During my stay in Peking there -occurred several weddings that were marred by violent quarrels between -the first wife and the new bride. The husband in our play vainly exhorts -his wife to be good, to observe the three obediences and the four virtues -of a wife.[12] - -Yet he cannot exile her, because she has borne him a son. All of the -characters are drawn with great realism in their ignoble conduct. The -sale of the child by the nurse is followed by a tearful monologue on the -part of the sailor who had come to the rescue: “Poor child, your lot -is to be pitied. This woman who was just about to be strangled by the -brigands finds herself reduced to the necessity of selling her child. -Could one find a sadder and more heart-rending situation? Who would not -shed tears of pity for her?” - -The author sets out with a realistic portrayal of a phase of life, but -he yields to the force of convention which required a moral and happy -ending—an influence not unknown in the drama of Western countries. - -Our plays, from “The Merchant of Venice” to “Madam X”, abound in court -scenes, but the Chinese theater makes use of this effective device even -more frequently. A play called “The Chalk Circle” presents in a trial -scene a story almost identical with a Biblical one. Two women appearing -before a judge with a child each claim it as their own. The judge orders -the child placed in a circle drawn on the floor, while the women are to -decide who is the mother by pulling at the child in a sort of tug-of-war. -One woman refuses to hurt the child by pulling at his arm, and the judge -decides with Solomonic wisdom that she must be the true mother. Very -frequently these plays are satirical in character, making sport of the -notoriously corrupt judges. In one of the naively primitive speeches of -introduction, required by the theatrical convention of every character -on entering the stage, a judge is made to say, “I am the governor of -Ching-Chou. My name is Sou Shen. Although I fulfill the functions of a -judge, yet I do not know a single article of the code. I like only one -thing and that is money. By means of the bright metal every plaintiff can -always make sure the winning of his suit.” - -[Illustration: ILLUSTRATION BY A CHINESE ARTIST FOR “THE CHALK CIRCLE”] - -“The Transmigration of You Hsin” is a play dealing with the popular -superstitions regarding the reincarnation of souls in much the same -spirit in which Voltaire in “Candide” treats the belief that this is the -best of all possible worlds. As in Gogol’s “Revizor” the government sends -an inspector to a certain village where the officials of the law court -are said to be corrupt. The rumor of the coming inspection reaches town -before the inspector; and most of the judges flee. Only You Hsin remains, -together with the clerks and minor officials. One of these expresses his -surprise at the fact that You Hsin is going to meet the inspector so -calmly, especially since he had recently accepted a scandalously large -bribe. You Hsin answers, “Yes, to be sure, I’ve accepted presents. But my -friend, you certainly are simple! Isn’t it necessary that we fulfill our -destiny? No one can die before his time has come. Have the courts ever -prolonged by one minute the life of a man? If it were otherwise people -would no longer believe in lucky and unlucky fates; they would no longer -call Heaven and Earth the arbiters of life and death.” A famous anchorite -appears prophesying that You Hsin will die within two hours. Then the -inspector enters the village and begins immediately his examination of -the court records. However, since he is an extremely stupid and incapable -man, the clerks succeed in persuading him that everything is in order. -But You Hsin in his home has fallen ill. He implores his beautiful wife -never to show her face in public and to remain a widow forever. He dies -at the very hour the holy man had foretold—even though his death is not -due to a sentence imposed on him because of his corrupt practices. - -You Hsin’s soul appears before the judge of the lower world. As he had -been very avaricious in life his punishment is to consist in having to -gather coppers tossed into a deep kettle of boiling oil. But the holy -man appears and obtains forgiveness for You Hsin, because he allows -himself to be quickly converted to Taoism and makes the vows of poverty -and chastity. The judge will even grant him the boon of a speedy return -to earth. He cannot reënter his own body, because his wife has been a -bit precipitate in cremating it; but he is allowed to enter that of a -butcher who has just died, a blue-eyed, lame, and otherwise ugly man. The -butcher’s parents, wife, and neighbors are engaged in mourning, when the -dead man suddenly rises from his coffin. You Hsin wants, first of all, to -see his pretty wife, but when he tries to walk he stumbles with his lame -leg. As they hand him the crutch he reflects, “Ah, yes, in my former life -I had a crooked conscience and in this life I have a crooked and useless -leg. I realize only too well the heavenly justice!” The butcher’s -relatives follow him to his former home, where his wife had been happy -to receive him after he had fully explained his miraculous return. A -violent quarrel breaks out between the two women, each of whom claims -her husband. The case is taken before the stupid imperial inspector, -who is in great perplexity before the question as to whether the body -or the soul constitutes the husband. The case and the play end when the -anchorite arrives to remind You Hsin of his vows and to take him into the -unworldly wilderness. - -Plautus’ and Molière’s subject for a comedy of character, the miser, -has been employed by a Chinese playwright with strong local color to -his humor. One of the many scenes of his play describes how the miser -comes to feel that he must have a son to pray at his grave and therefore -decides to buy one from an unlucky scholar reduced by poverty to selling -his children. He offers the parents one ounce of silver. The mother -exclaims in her disappointment, “Why, for that sum you couldn’t buy a boy -modeled in clay.” Perhaps this is a bit unmotherly in sentiment, but the -retort is truly miserly, “Yes, but a boy of clay does not eat or cause -other expenses.” When this sum is refused the miser instructs his servant -to go once more to the man, to hold the silver high, very high, above his -head and to say, “There, you poor scholar, His Excellency Lord Kou deigns -to give you one precious ounce of silver.” His servant replies that no -matter how high he holds it an ounce will be only an ounce; and finally -he pays the father more out of his own wages! - -When the son has reached the age of twenty the miser scolds him one day -because he seems to think that money is for the purpose of buying food -and clothes! By way of instruction he tells how one can live economically: - -“One day I felt inclined to eat roast duck and therefore I went to the -market to that shop which you know. They were just roasting a fine duck -and the delicious juice was running down. Under the pretext of bargaining -I handled it and soaked my fingers thoroughly in the gravy. Then I went -home without having bought it and called for a plate of boiled rice. -With each spoonful of rice I sucked one finger. At the fourth spoonful I -became tired and fell asleep. During my nap a treacherous dog came and -licked my last finger. When on awakening I noticed this theft, I became -so angry that I have been ill ever since.” - -The house is in need of a picture of the god of luck, and the miser -instructs his son to order the artist to paint a rear view, because to -paint the face costs most. When he is about to die he orders his son to -bury him not in a coffin of pine, nor even of willow wood, but to use the -old watering trough standing in the back yard. The son objects that it -is too short, but the father instructs him to chop his body in two to -make it fit. “And there is one more important thing I wish to say to you -before I die; don’t use my good ax to cut me in two, but borrow one from -the neighbor.” - -“Since we have an ax, why should I bother the neighbor?” - -“Perhaps you don’t know that my bones are extremely hard, and that if -you’d use my good cutting edge you’d have to spend some coppers to get it -resharpened.” - -The miser’s last words are inaudible, but he persists in holding up two -fingers. All the relatives assembled in the death chamber are very much -puzzled and try to please him by doing this or that, but the dying man’s -discomfort increases. Finally his old servant enters and he understands. -There are two candles burning where one might do; and after one of them -has been extinguished the miser dies in peace. - -Tragedy is not found in the Chinese drama. The plays abound in sad -situations, but there is none that by its nobility or sublimity would -deserve to be called tragic. The closest approach to it is found perhaps -in “The Orphan of the Chao Family”,[13] made familiar to Western readers -by Voltaire; or in “The Sorrows of Han.” This latter play, in the -Chinese literally “Autumn in the House of Han”, is full of poetical -touches. North of the Great Wall there is the Tartar Khan who sees in -the weakness of the Han emperor his opportunity for further conquest. -This young emperor is addicted to a life of dissipation, and through his -minister Mao he gathers beauties for his harem from the four corners of -his realm. As a true Oriental, Mao demands a heavy bribe from the family -of every girl whose portrait he submits to the emperor. But the family of -the most beautiful girl of all is so poor as to be unable to pay a bribe, -and therefore the minister causes the artist to distort the portrait. -Naturally the emperor does not summon this lady into his presence. But -one evening, when in a melancholy mood he walks in an unfrequented part -of his palace grounds, he comes by chance upon this girl as she is -singing to her lute. Her beauty enchants him. “The very lantern shines -brighter in the presence of this maid,” he exclaims, and falls violently -in love with her. Of course, he orders the grasping minister to be -beheaded; but the latter flees to the Tartar Khan to show him a truthful -picture of the favorite and to incite him to war against China. - -The Khan sends an ultimatum: “Either give me this beauty for a wife or -I will make war on China.” The emperor is aghast with fear of a Tartar -invasion, but the princess is willing to be sacrificed. “In return for -your bounties it is your handmaiden’s duty to brave death for you,” she -says and adds that surpassing beauty has always been coupled with great -sorrow, but that she will leave a name ever green in history. After a sad -farewell she departs for the country of the Tartars and meets the Khan -on the banks of the Amur. She drinks a last cup of wine to her lover: -“Emperor of Han, this life is ended. I await thee in the next.” With -these words the princess casts herself into the swift current and drowns -in spite of the Khan’s valiant effort to save her. He erects for her a -tomb on the bank of the river, which tradition says is green both summer -and winter. Moved by her noble character, the Tartar decides to live in -peace with China. - -[Illustration: ILLUSTRATION BY A CHINESE ARTIST. TOU-E BEFORE THE JUDGE] - -A play that is even to-day a favorite in Peking playhouses under the -title of “Snow in June” was called by its Yuan dynasty author “The -Sufferings of Tou-E.” It is the record of the endless sufferings at the -hands of a pitch-black, wicked world of an innocent girl and her final -vindication through a triple miracle from Heaven. In her childhood she -was sold by her own father into a family where she became the son’s -wife and the drudge of her mother-in-law. For thirteen years she was a -dutiful wife and when her husband died she hoped to remain faithful to -his memory, as every widow in China is expected to do. But two cowardly -ruffians, father and son, force themselves into the house where she -is living with her likewise widowed mother-in-law and demand that the -women marry them, endowing them at the same time with all their worldly -goods. The two women refuse to yield to these insolent demands. Then -the younger intruder, or rather bandit, places some poison in a bowl of -soup, intending to murder the older woman, but his father drains the -cup by mistake. Hereupon he tries once more to coerce the heroine into -marriage by threatening to fasten the murder upon her. She feels quite -secure in her innocence and dares him to bring the case to court, very -certain in the belief that justice will prevail. But the wicked judge -begins by having the accused tortured, and this so brutally that the girl -is at last forced into a false confession merely to escape the unbearable -pain. Upon this she is promptly condemned to death. As she is kneeling -to be beheaded she announces that three things will prove her innocence; -her blood will not fall on the ground but on a banner ten feet above her -head; snow will fall although the season is summer; and there will be a -drought of three years’ duration. All of this comes true as it had been -foretold, and the strange tale is noised abroad in the land. Finally, a -just judge—her very father who as a poor scholar had been forced to sell -his child!—hears of the case and decides to investigate it. The spirit -of his daughter comes to enlighten him in regard to the true state of -affairs, and the real murderer is punished by being nailed to a wooden -ass and cut into a hundred and twenty pieces. - -[Illustration: ILLUSTRATION BY A CHINESE ARTIST. TOU-E ABOUT TO BE -BEHEADED] - -This obtrusively moral ending is a _sine qua non_ in Chinese plays; -likewise the crude plot as well as the rôle played by accident rather mar -one’s enjoyment of the play. Yet the courage of the girl in the face of -her persecutors, her firm belief that justice will prevail in the end, -and her stoical manner of meeting death are elements not without their -charm. The scene of the execution is rather impressive in its simplicity. - - Tou-E: (sings) Ye clouds that float in the air on my account, - make dark the sky! Ye winds that sigh because of my fate, come - down in storms! Oh, that Heaven would make my three predictions - come true! - - Mother-in-law: Rest assured that snow will fall for six months, - and that a drought will afflict the country for three years. - - Now, Tou-E, let your soul reveal clearly the great injustice - which is about to cause your death. - - (The executioner strikes off Tou-E’s head). - - The Judge (seized with terror): O Heavens! The snow is - beginning to fall! This is surely a miracle! - - Executioner: I behead criminals every day and their blood - always flows on the ground, but the blood of Tou-E has spotted - the two banners of white silk and not a drop has fallen on the - ground. There is something supernatural about this catastrophe. - - The Judge: This woman was truly innocent! - -The plays discussed in this chapter are sufficient to show that in the -thirteenth century the Chinese possessed a theater of fair merit. To -be sure, the technique is extremely crude; characters on their first -appearance on the stage tell the audience their names followed by a -conscientious account of their past lives and the part to be played by -them in the drama; the motivation of the actions is very poor; many plays -seem to be dramatized narratives rather than real dramas; there is a -great paucity of invention as shown by the rather frequent repetition -of dramatic devices and motives; the necessity of having a moral ending -leads to numerous absurdities; and chance rules the playwright’s world -from beginning to end, always in the interest of the good. Furthermore, -there is lacking a real sense of the tragic; there are no sublime heroes -overcome by the universal human limitations which they challenge, nor -are there moral conflicts of an elevating nature in which poetic justice -triumphs. The characters are in general types rather than individuals, -and there is very little deep psychological insight displayed. And on the -whole it must be said, the plays do not rise to a very high spiritual -level. Yet there is great charm in this drama which brings on the stage -characters of all sorts from emperors down to coolies, and displays in -full the rich life in the Middle Kingdom of the days when Marco Polo -described it. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER THREE - -THE MING DYNASTY—1368-1644 THE PI-PA-CHI - - -The Yuan Dynasty of Mongol rulers was a very powerful one and extended -the Chinese frontiers to include Korea, Yünnan, Annam, and Burma. -The rulers proved themselves very tolerant of Chinese religions and -institutions; the emperor Jen Tsung even reëstablished the Hanlin Academy -and the official examinations. But though the government of these -foreigners was fairly efficient yet it was by no means popular, and -frequent rebellions occurred. Finally, the Chinese under the leadership -of a former Buddhist monk, Chu Yuan-chang, drove the Mongols beyond the -Great Wall and founded the Ming Dynasty. The ex-monk ascended the throne -in 1368 and is known in history as Emperor Hung Wu. - -The Ming Dynasty is known as a period of prosperity in which industry -and commerce, as well as the arts of poetry and painting, flourished. -It was also a great period for the drama. Over six hundred Ming dramas -are still extant or are at least known by title, and many of them were -written by well-known authors of high literary standing and great -scholarship. The drama was so much appreciated at this time that many -high officials and wealthy families had private troupes of actors, a -large number of the dramas being specially written for these troupes. -Since the audiences were composed of the élite, the language of the -dramas could be of a highly literary character. - -A development took place at this time that altered considerably the -form of the drama. Instead of the compact and unified three, four, or -five-act plays of the Yuan period, playwrights began to produce dramas of -thirty-two, forty, or even forty-eight acts. The name of this new form -is _ch’an ch’i_ (literally “novel”) in distinction to the _tsa ch’i_ of -the Yuan Dynasty. Doctor Hu Shih, writing to me about these two forms, -suggests that one might call the former “play” and the latter “drama.” -“Technically the new form seems to be a degradation,” he says, “but aside -from the aspect of literary economy the Ming dramas were superior to the -Yuan plays in many respects, viz. (1) profounder conception, (2) far -better characterization, (3) more even distribution of parts among the -characters. In the Yuan plays only one character had a ‘singing’ part -and the others were completely subordinated; while in Ming dramas the -rôles are more evenly balanced. In many cases the same theme was treated -by Yuan and Ming dramatists, and in most cases the Ming version is far -better.” - -In this chapter I am presenting an example of this new variety of drama, -a 24-act piece called “Pi-Pa-Chi” (The Story of a Lute). Except for the -fact that dialogue and stage directions are used the work might well be -called a novel. Aside from the technical interest of the drama it is most -significant as a presentation of Confucian ideals, a revival of which -was typical likewise of the Ming Dynasty. Such ideals are embodied in -the family system with the selfishness—as it appears to us—of old age. -After reading about the adventures of the hero, Tsai Yung, the Westerner -can understand why in Confucian writings along with widows and orphans -there are enumerated “son-less fathers.” The conflict in the drama -centers about the “higher” and the “lower” obedience—service to the state -or to the family. But the problem is not a clear-cut one, as the son -is to serve the state in the interest of the greater prosperity of his -own family; nor can it be said that it is solved in any way. The drama, -however, is full of Chinese moralizing along lines far removed from the -thinking of the “practical” Westerner. - -Indeed, much of the famous mystery of the East or the inscrutability -of the Orientals might be less baffling to the average American if he -were better acquainted with the literature of China. I have known, for -example, a young Chinese politician who was none too scrupulous in the -manner in which he went about earning his living, who drank, supported a -number of concubines, and in fact was what might be called by the vulgar -a “rounder.” In the course of a dinner one evening he told me between -the sharks’ fins and the Peking duck that he had been offered a post in -Washington, but, lucrative though it was, he could not accept it because -of “filial piety”—his very words. Now piety in any sense of the word was -the last thing I associated with this youth, and therefore his statement -seemed to me surprising. There was another Chinese, the owner of an -excellent stable, with whom I went riding frequently in the Temple of -Heaven. He was a vigorous young man, educated in Paris, very businesslike -and progressive in all his ideas. One day I received an invitation to -his wedding, and, on going, found a merry throng in the gaily decorated -courtyard, with dancing in European fashion going on in full blast. I -noted the groom among the dancers, congratulated him and remarked, “Well, -I’m sure you’re very happy to-day!” But he shook his head and, as tears -came into his eyes, he told me that the bride was not of his choice but -had been selected and forced on him by his elder brother, the head of -the family. Again, in speaking one day with a progressive young student -who talked a great deal about reforms in politics and who participated -eagerly in parades and other demonstrations staged for that end, I -mentioned a certain official who had flagrantly stolen funds collected -for the famine sufferers. The student expressed perfunctory disapproval -of the official’s conduct, but added, “Still, if I were in his position, -I’d probably do the same.” Such is the manner in which the Chinese act -and as such they show themselves in their literature. - -“Pi Pa Chi” was written by an otherwise unknown author, Kao Tsi-ch’ing, -about the end of the fourteenth century. The first performance of the -play is known to have taken place in 1404, in the reign of Yung Loh, -the ruler who, as every tourist knows, has the most prominent monument -among the Tombs of the Ming Emperors north of Peking. The play is -typically Chinese inasmuch as the hero is not a warrior or a prince, but -a poor scholar who rises to fame through his knowledge of literature. -It abounds in sad situations and is praised by Chinese critics because -it makes the spectators or readers weep. Furthermore, it conforms to -the demand made on all Chinese dramas by being strictly ethical in its -tendency. The moral lesson inculcated is that of the chief virtue of the -Chinese—veneration of parents. This is done with such devotion and force -that the play might well be called the Song of Songs of Filial Piety. - -The first scene introduces a young scholar, Tsai-yung, face to face with -the alternatives of remaining in his village to take care of his aged -parents or of going to the capital in search of honors and lucrative -posts. His own wishes are to remain at home, less for his parents’ sake -than because of the beautiful wife whom he has married but two months -ago. But his father urges him to go to Ch’ang An, to use his talents, -and to gain fame and wealth. “At fifteen one must study, at thirty a man -must act.” A friend of the family, an elderly gentleman called Chang, -sides with the father against the mother, who wishes to keep her son at -home. She tells the story of a young man who had left his family to take -the examination at the capital, but who, when at last his learning had -gained him a post as superintendent of an almshouse, found his parents -as inmates in the very institution. The young wife takes no part in -the discussion at all; in fact, the elderly gentlemen seem to consider -affection for her an unmanly weakness on the son’s part. “He thinks of -nothing but love and the sweet pleasures of the nuptial couch,” says his -father. “Here it’s two months that he is married, and yet one cannot tear -him away from this place.” This represents a very common attitude in -China—I remember reading in a Peking paper in 1917 in an attack on the -vice-president of Tsing Hua College that one of his faults was that he -occasionally went walking with his wife! One of my students from Shansi -told me one day that he had been married during the summer vacation. -I asked whether his wife was with him in Peking, and when he answered -in the negative, whether he was writing to her. “Oh, no,” he said -shamefacedly, “I wouldn’t do such a thing.” - -[Illustration: A CHINESE ARTIST’S CONCEPTION OF TWO PIOUS SOULS] - -The father calls on the son to state what he understands by filial piety. -The son answers by quoting the “Book of Rites,” “It is the duty of the -son to take every care that in summer as well as in winter his parents -should enjoy all comforts of life. He must every evening himself arrange -the bed on which they are to sleep; every morning at the first crowning -of the cock he must inquire in affectionate terms about the state of -their health; then, in the course of the day, he must ask repeatedly -whether they are suffering from the cold or whether the heat incommodes -them. The duty of the son is to watch over his parents wherever they go, -to love those whom they love, honor those whom they honor; he must even -love the horses and dogs whom his father loves.” And he adds from the -“Sayings of Confucius”: “A son should not leave the home of his father -and his mother so long as they are still living.” - -To this the father retorts with a quotation from “The Book of Filial -Piety”; “The first degree of filial piety consists in serving one’s -parents; the second in serving one’s prince, and the third in seeking -after honors.” The father persuades the son to go. His son will soon be a -mandarin, he says, and then, “The three kinds of meat (beef, mutton and -pork) and the rare foods which are offered up in the great sacrifices -will be served to me three times a day in tripods of elegant form or -in dishes of fine porcelain. That will be better than eating beans and -drinking water.” - -But the mother gives expression to her grief in a metaphor praised by -Chinese commentators: “In a moment they will tear away the pearl I was -holding in my hand.” Forebodings of evil fill her heart. “Go then, my -son, but if during your absence your father and mother should die of -hunger and cold, your honor will not therefore be smirched when you -return in an embroidered robe.” - -The second scene of the play transfers the action to Ch’ang An, the -old capital. With the symmetry so characteristic of all Chinese art -the action of the drama is divided almost equally between the scenes -in Tsai-yung’s native village, and those in the imperial city. We are -introduced into the palace of an imperial minister, a certain Niu, -and here through the words of a maidservant we learn of the dull, -tedious, joyless life in the women’s apartments. The author pictures -the minister’s daughter, Niu-hsi, as the model young woman who prefers -working at embroidery to playing in the open air. The servant girl on -the other hand is sad because spring (used symbolically for love) is -passing her by. In a beautiful allegory on spring and its manifestations -she gives expression to her feelings, while her mistress cites in reply -the ancient Chinese rule of conduct: “Women must not leave the interior -apartments.” The scene seems to be a protest on the author’s part against -this cruel stunting of the lives of his countrywomen. - -Into Minister Niu’s house come two rival go-betweens who make offers -of marriage for Niu’s daughter in the interest of two fathers of -distinguished sons. But Niu refuses; he will accept for his daughter none -but the scholar who has won the very highest honors at the examinations. -The two women begin to quarrel and are driven off with blows by Niu’s -orders, because by fighting in his house they offend against the rites. -A marriage arranged by such wrangling old hags between young people who -meet for the first time on the day of their wedding certainly does not -offer much in the way of romance. An even more depressing picture of -the life of the young girl one gains from the manner in which Niu takes -his daughter to task for having walked in the garden. “Don’t you know -of what the principal merit of a young woman consists? I have told you -before, men are looking for women who don’t like to leave the women’s -apartments.” Everywhere the ghost of Confucius giving precepts for the -regulation of the private life down to the minutest details! - -The play returns to Tsai-yung, who is now on the road to the capital in -the company of three other candidates for the examination. Each in turn -tells of the purpose of his studies. Tsai-yung outlines his principles as -follows: - -“Here is the method I have adopted. When I was seated I read, when -I walked I recited from memory what I had learned. I have studied -thoroughly ten thousand chapters; I have carried on difficult studies -and researches. But as there are two things in life that one must never -lose sight of—loyalty to the prince and filial piety—I have always tried -to show myself grateful for the emperor’s benefits and to return with -thankfulness the kindness of my parents.” This speech is applauded by the -other scholars and they in turn give their answers, some of which are of -rather satirical turn, especially the one of the student who explains -that with him the essential is correct pronunciation and beautiful -penmanship! - -The next scene presents a burlesque on the literary examinations. It -recalls somewhat an entrance examination given in a “prep” school I once -attended, where the older students, dressed up in frock coats and with -false beards on their faces, took the part of faculty. The examination -of freshmen consisted of the singing of hymns, the shining of shoes, and -a guessing contest as to which of the “professors” had paddled them in -the rear. The imperial examiner announces solemnly to the five hundred -candidates that the present test would not be like last year’s, when they -had been asked to write essays, one on literature, another on morals, -and a third on politics, but that he was going to ask them first, to -compose a rhyme; second, to guess a riddle; and third, to sing a song. -Needless to state, Tsai-yung passes with flying colors in this test full -of humorous puns which are, of course, untranslatable. The examiner is -made to say at the end, “Tsai-yung, I recognize the superiority of your -talents, your learning is indeed profound; you rise far above the others; -your merit is most extraordinary. Immediately I am going to apprise the -emperor of the outcome of the examinations!” This scene leads one to -suspect that the author of the play had good reasons for venting his -satire on the inane literary competitions—probably he had failed and was -therefore forced to waste his talents in a life of retirement. - -[Illustration: A SCHOLAR - -Chinese Character Type] - -The real hero, or rather heroine, of the play now appears for the first -time, namely Tsai-yung’s young wife Wu-niang. No news has come from -the capital as to her husband’s success, a famine is ravishing the -district, and the old parents of Tsai-yung are making one trip to the -pawnshop after the other. But Wu-niang is determined to do her duty -as daughter-in-law; she is going to show filial piety to the last in -conformity with precepts such as the following, quoted from the “Book of -Rewards and Punishments”, a work which is not for sale in bookshops but -is distributed in the temples to the pious: “A daughter-in-law must serve -the father and mother of her husband as a daughter serves her father and -mother. She must show filial piety and complete obedience. If she lacks -in her duty toward them she lacks at the same time filial piety. This -crime always becomes known to Heaven, as the following story illustrates. -In the territory of Chang-Chu there were three sisters-in-law entirely -lacking in filial piety. One day they heard a clap of thunder and at the -same time they were changed: one into a cow, the second into a lamb, and -the third into a dog; their heads alone preserved the original form.... -Chin-ing, the governor of that district, had an engraving made showing -the metamorphoses and had it distributed among the people to teach them a -lesson. That is how Heaven punishes!” - -Wu-niang’s immediate duty is to try to make peace between her aged -parents-in-law. Tsai’s wife is not slow in telling her husband “I told -you so” in regard to the evils that have followed their son’s departure, -while Tsai naturally enough does not become any calmer for being told -what a fool he is. To appease their wrath and to supply a bit of food -Wu-niang pawns the few hairpins and other ornaments that she possesses. - -While his parents are slowly dying of hunger, Tsai-yung, by his brilliant -record, has attracted the attention of the emperor himself. The latter -orders that the daughter of Minister Niu, who has been refused to many a -deserving suitor, should be given to him. Niu is overjoyed to receive as -a son-in-law the candidate accorded the highest honors and immediately -sends a go-between to arrange the affair. However, she returns to -announce that Tsai-yung refuses, because he is married and has various -obligations toward his parents. But the real reason, she whispers, is -that the bride’s feet are too long. Minister Niu flies into a rage; he -says that no one would any longer respect his position if he were to -accept this refusal. He is going to speak to the emperor about it. Small -wonder that under the circumstances Tsai-yung’s petition to the emperor -to be allowed to return home is refused; instead he is again ordered to -marry Niu-hsi in a mandate beginning with the words, “If filial piety is -the basis of all virtues, then the perfection of all morals consists in -serving one’s prince.” With tears he leaves the imperial palace and must -submit to being married against his wishes to a second wife. He regrets -that he cannot return to his parents (does not seem to feel any regrets -about Wu-niang) and breaks out into a lamentation: “High reputation is a -tie that binds; good fortune is an iron chain. Fortune and reputation are -the instruments used by Heaven to inflict tortures on mankind!” - -The scene again shifts to the famine-stricken province. A mandarin -finds that a corrupt official has stolen the little grain that is to be -distributed to the poor. This commissioner is caught in the very act, -yet in typical Chinese fashion he has a ready but translucent excuse -to offer; however, when he is threatened with torture he is willing -to confess that he is a robber. This wicked official is then made to -sign a written confession of his guilt and is led off to jail. His kind -appears in hundreds of plays; in fact, he is probably the very favorite -type on the Chinese stage. The mandarin asks Wu-niang why she had come -to the court herself instead of sending a male member of the family; -a woman, he says, should not leave the inner apartments of the house. -It is interesting to note that a Chinese commentator considers this an -erroneous interpretation of the passage in the “Book of Rites”; it is -only the young girl who is not to leave the inner apartments; once a -woman is married she may do so. When the mandarin learns of Wu-niang’s -sad situation, he commands an attendant to give her three portions of the -rice embezzled by the official. Another official, who seems to be hand -in glove with the embezzler, follows Wu-niang and in a lonely place on -the road demands that she return the rice, lest he kill her on the spot. -Wu-niang offers him her clothes; if he will only not demand the food that -is to save the lives of the old people. The black-hearted villain says -that he wants the rice and does not care to expose her limbs to the fury -of the elements. Then comes the young woman’s touching answer, which -reaches perhaps the highest level of a daughter’s devotion: “What matters -it if my body be exposed to the fury of the elements, so long as I can -save the lives of my father-in-law and my mother-in-law!” The cowardly -wretch pretends to be touched and bids her go her way in peace, but as -soon as she is off her guard he snatches from the defenseless woman her -bag of rice. Fearing the reproaches of her parents-in-law Wu-niang plans -suicide, but the memory of her husband’s admonition that she watch over -his parents decides her to continue in the thankless task. - -The next scenes show just how ungrateful her parents-in-law are for -her unlimited devotion. Wu-niang herself is eating roots, buds, the -bark of trees, and other things classified as material containing some -slight food values in so-called “famine food books”—a type of literature -enjoying a wide circulation in China. But her suspicious mother-in-law -fears that the young woman is eating better food than she is serving to -her, because Wu-niang eats her miserable stew in private. At one of her -meals the author, by a strange realism, has her say, “When I have eaten -this mess my hunger ceases, but then there begin pains in the intestines -much more violent than the hunger had been.” When the mother-in-law -surprises her she finds that Wu-niang had been extremely self-sacrificing -instead of selfish as she had supposed, and the shock is too much for her -weakened body; she dies. - -The husband too is very much enfeebled, and when the friend of the -family, Chang, comes to call, he is mortified that he cannot rise to meet -his guest. Throughout the play there is in the speeches of practically -all the characters an urbanity and a politeness which show how deeply the -lessons of Confucius to do or say always the fitting thing have gone over -into the flesh and blood of his nationals. Wu-niang tells Chang of their -greatest cause for anguish—they have not the means to give the deceased a -proper burial. Chang then shows himself an ideal friend from the Chinese -point of view by saying, “I shall order a servant to prepare a wooden -coffin in which we shall place the body of your wife. I myself shall then -select a lucky day for the funeral, and after having had a grave dug on -the hill in the south, I shall accompany the procession.” - -The scene that gives the title to the play is one in which Tsai-yung -gives expression to his tenderest emotion by playing on the lute. This -instrument is regarded by the Chinese as the noblest and æsthetically -the highest musical instrument in existence. A Chinese lover of music -cannot find words to express the delight the lute can provide.[14] As -a general thing the Chinese are ashamed to display emotion, and the -Westerner is often shocked by apparent callousness, as for example when -a person who has just lost a dear relative gives vent to a nervous -laugh instead of yielding to tears when the subject is alluded to. -Therefore it is by means of the lute that Tsai-yung gives expression to -his repressed feelings. He does this with the delicate touch employed -by Chinese painters in their impressionistic pictures and by the poets -in their suggestive verses in which, as some one has said, the i’s are -never dotted, but a definite mood is nevertheless conveyed all the more -forcefully.[15] While Tsai-yung touches the strings of his instrument -one servant fans him with an ivory fan, and a second burns incense, and -a third places his books before him. Under such ideal conditions the -Chinese scholar is quietly singing to his lute. - -At this point his newly wedded wife, Niu-hsi, enters. Evidently the -relation between the two is still an extremely distant one, for his wife, -in asking Tsai-yung to sing a ballad for her, remarks that every time -she comes to listen to his music, he stops. She too has her grief which -she would like to have dispelled by sweet music. Tsai-yung begins to -play, “The pheasant in the morning begins his long flight”, and “The wild -duck separated from the companion he loves.” But these songs do not suit -Niu-hsi’s mood. She wants not a song of a disappointed lover, but one to -fit the present situation where husband and wife are together. - -“My lord, in the calm of this lovely evening, in full view of this -ravishingly beautiful scenery, sing me the ballad, ‘When the storm wind -moves the pine trees.’” Tsai-yung starts to play it, but alas! as Niu-hsi -discovers, he gradually slips into the air, “When I think of returning to -my native land.” - -Niu-hsi is disappointed because she cannot penetrate her husband’s -melancholy mood. He explains that he cannot play better because he has -his old lute no longer. In answer to his wife’s questions Tsai-yung -speaks of his lute with evident symbolism, telling her that he has thrown -his old lute aside but that at the bottom of his heart he loves it still. -Niu-hsi guesses the cause of her husband’s grief, but she cannot persuade -him to confide it to her. The two drink wine together and recite verses, -but when the hour becomes late Tsai-yung asks his wife to retire and -calls for his servant. Before the latter appears Tsai-yung sings to notes -of his lute about a dream in which Wu-niang had appeared to him; but, in -the words of Heine, “Es war ein Traum.” - -He asks the servant to find him a trustworthy messenger whom he may send -to his native village to inquire about his parents. But before this -plan is put into operation an impostor appears, bringing an alleged -letter from Tsai-yung’s father, according to which all the family are -enjoying the very best of health. The letter gives the young scholar -great pleasure and earns its bearer a rich reward; Tsai-yung gives the -impostor some pearls and some gold for his father in addition to a letter -in which he states that he is detained at the capital, but that he hopes -to return home soon. Meanwhile, he very humbly begs forgiveness for -the long delay. The false messenger is portrayed in a monologue as the -most cowardly and the direst of villains. That it is so easy for him to -deceive Tsai-yung is not so far-fetched as it may seem to the Westerner, -for the employment of professional letter-writers is a very common -practice in China where the percentage of illiteracy is high. - -Of course, the father never receives his son’s letter; on the contrary, -the next scene shows him dying of hunger. His faithful daughter-in-law -watches over him to the last. For three years Tsai-yung has been absent -without so much as sending a letter; therefore the father asks his -daughter-in-law to marry again as soon as he has died. Wu-niang replies -with a Chinese proverb, “No one can serve two masters”, and affirms her -resolve to remain faithful to her husband. He is so grateful to her that -he hopes, according to Buddhist beliefs, to be her daughter-in-law in -his next life while she is to be his father-in-law. He curses the day he -asked his son to leave home and gives to his friend Chang the injunction: -“I leave you my cane. When this ungrateful and disobedient son of mine -returns home, beat him for me with my stick and chase him out of the -house.” With these fatherly words he breathes his last. - -In order to earn the money for her father-in-law’s funeral Wu-niang cuts -her hair and tries to sell it in the street. Her bald head gives her the -appearance of a nun, although she feels scarcely worthy of becoming one. -In the anguish of her poverty she runs through the streets, imploring -people not to bargain with a wretched woman in her position, but to help -her by buying the very last thing of value she possesses. The faithful -Chang meets her in the street, and, on learning her story, promises to -send to her house enough money to enable her to bury her father-in-law -properly according to the rites. She in return gives him her hair, -asking him to sell it. He accepts it, but not in order to sell it; far -from that, he is going to keep it until Tsai-yung’s return, in order to -prove to him the full extent of Wu-niang’s filial piety. This piety is -so great that when Wu-niang goes to the cemetery to erect a monument -over the grave of the deceased, a genie, touched by her devotion, comes -to her aid by calling the white monkey of the south and the black tiger -of the north to help him erect this tomb with the well-known speed and -skill that genii possess. He also advises Wu-niang through the medium of -a dream to assume the garb of a nun and to search for her husband in the -capital. Wu-niang decides to follow this advice. She plans to earn her -subsistence by taking with her Tsai-yung’s lute, in order to sing in the -villages songs in praise of filial piety. In order to be able to accord -the spirits of her parents-in-law their proper worship she paints their -portraits and carries them with her. The Octogenarian Chang totters with -Wu-niang to the edge of the village and bids her godspeed on her long -journey. - -Meanwhile Tsai-yung has been acting all this time like a man in a stupor, -his wife says. Niu-hsi is pictured as a kindly young woman watching over -her husband with loving care. “What ails you?” she asks. “You have the -finest delicacies served you. You eat boiled tongues of orang-outang and -roasted leopard embryos. You wear robes of violet silk; your belt is a -belt of jade. When you go out or when you return your horse crushes under -foot all manner of flowers which people spread on your path. Your head -is shaded by an umbrella with three layers of silk. Formerly you were -only a poor scholar living in a thatched hut; now you fulfill the highest -functions in the emperor’s palace. You swim in wealth, but this wealth -is not sufficient for you; you do nothing but wrinkle your forehead and -heave sighs.” - -Niu-hsi asks many more questions, but her husband refuses to reveal the -cause of his grief. But when she leaves the room Tsai-yung relieves -his feelings in a monologue which she overhears. When he has finished -lamenting his separation from his parents and his wife (the latter is -always mentioned after father and mother), Niu-hsi comes in to say -simply that she will travel with him to his native village, if that is -what he is longing for. He retorts, with the timidity found in most -scholar-heroes in Chinese plays, that he is afraid to let her father -hear of the matter and that he therefore forbids her to mention it. But -the otherwise docile and obedient wife simply overrides his wishes and -takes the matter to her father. The latter is quite willing to give his -permission for the journey; only suggests that it might be better to send -a faithful servant to bring Tsai-yung’s parents and wife to the capital. -This plan is agreed to by all except the servant who, in a somewhat -humorous scene, speaks of the evils that are sure to follow when two -wives are living under one roof. But at last he agrees to go, even though -he feels his mistress will never thank him for having obeyed on this -occasion. - -Wu-niang has meanwhile reached the capital. She enters a Buddhist temple -where she is asked to sing by two clowns who pretend to be mandarins. -The long series of misfortunes that has followed her consistently does -not forsake her at this point—the two clowns simply make sport of her -and pay her nothing. After her disappointment she unrolls the pictures -of her parents-in-law to render homage before them and to pray to Heaven -that she may find her husband. At this very moment Tsai-yung enters to -pray for a safe journey for his parents. The bonze asks Wu-niang to -leave and to make room for the great man. She forgets the pictures in -her haste, and Tsai-yung carries off the scroll without having looked at -it closely. But Wu-niang recognizes him and makes inquiries in regard to -his residence. In this whole scene there is, as in many Chinese plays, -a great deal of satire on Buddhist priests. One priest while saying a -prayer is corrected by the abbot for mispronouncing one of the Sanskrit -names for Buddha, Po-lo-t’ang instead of Po-lo-mi. The ignorant priest -retorts, “Well, ‘_t’ang_’ is sugar and ‘_mi_’ is honey; both are sweet, -so what difference does it make?” An Occidental parallel for this scene -would be the medieval priest who baptized, “In nomine patriae, filiae, et -spiritus sanctae.” - -Wu-niang goes to her husband’s house as a mendicant nun and meets -Niu-hsi. In a scene which the Chinese commentators consider the best -in the play she gradually tells her story and reveals her identity to -her husband’s second wife. Niu-hsi is touched by the filial piety of -Wu-niang, calls her sister, and asks her to live with them. First she -advises her how to reveal herself to her husband, namely by writing -him a letter and placing it on his table in the library where he will -be sure to find it. When Tsai-yung comes home he reads in the “Book of -Annals”, a collection of historical illustrations selected by Confucius -to give point to his moral teachings. In every passage he finds a rebuke -for his lack of filial piety, and when he finds Wu-niang’s letter with -the picture of his parents in their famished condition this means to -him a greater reproof still. He begins to suspect that the messenger -with the letter from his father had been an impostor. His wife’s letter -contains nothing but hidden allusions to his actions. Among ancient -examples quoted there is mention of one man to whom an emperor had -offered his daughter but who had refused to degrade his wife to the -rank of a concubine, and of another who had under similar circumstances -repudiated his wife. Niu-hsi asks him whose conduct he approves of and he -says the former’s, of course. Then she asks whether, if his first wife -were to step before him now clad in rags, he would not blush with shame -and repudiate her? He answers that he would not, that he considers his -marriage indissoluble. When Wu-niang appears and tells him her story he -feels deep shame because an ironic fate had led him to serve his emperor -but to neglect his parents. Since his parents have died Chinese etiquette -demands that he give up his office for a number of years and mourn for -the death of his father and mother. Tsai-yung with his two wives sets out -to make a pilgrimage to the ancestral tomb to offer proper worship to the -deceased. The emperor is going to give posthumous honors to his parents -because of Wu-niang’s faithfulness, and the historians will keep ever -fresh the memory of the daughter-in-law’s filial piety. - -Even after the death of his parents the son must put their interests (or -supposed interests) above his own by a three-year period of mourning, -a space of time which is simply lost out of his life. In his “Chinese -Characteristics”, Doctor Arthur H. Smith points out the one-sidedness of -the matter of filial piety—the Chinese ethical code mentions no duties -of the parents toward their children. His summary of the subject, given -in the chapter on Filial Piety, seems most apropos of the action of this -play: - -“Every son has performed his filial duties to his father, and demands the -same from his own son. That is what children are for. Upon this point -the popular mind is explicit. ‘Trees are raised for shade, children are -reared for old age.’ Neither parents nor children are under any illusions -upon this subject. ‘If you have no children to foul the bed, you will -have no one to burn paper at the grave.’ Each generation pays the debt -which is exacted of it by the generation which preceded it, and in turn -requires from the generation which comes after full payment to the -uttermost farthing. Thus is filial piety perpetuated from generation to -generation, and from age to age.” - -Of course, this is as the matter appears to the Occidental from the -outside. But for the Chinese, who has grown up in a deep veneration of -Confucius, filial piety is the most laudable institution in existence. -Confucius laid it down as a principle that in the relations of ruler and -subject, husband and wife, father and son, elder brother and younger -brother, there must be rule on one side and submission on the other. -Moreover, the “Book of Filial Piety” condemns sharply “selfish attachment -to wife and children”; in other words, if the claims of father and -wife clash, the son must neglect his wife to serve his father. These -things are among the bases of Chinese society on which it has outlived -the Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, Roman and other civilizations; it -is small wonder therefore that they seem good to the Chinese. The -other extreme perhaps is found in Anglo-Saxon countries where a son, -on becoming of age, goes where he likes and does what he likes without -feeling any responsibility toward his parents. To quote Doctor Smith -once more, “To the Chinese such customs must appear like the behaviour -of a well-grown calf or colt to the cow and the mare, suitable enough -for animals, but by no means conformable to _li_ (ethical standards) -as applied to human beings. An attentive consideration of the matter -from a Chinese standpoint will show that there is abundant room in our -own social practice for improvement, and that most of us really live in -glass houses, and would do well not to throw stones recklessly.” To both -the Westerner and the Chinese the practice of the other seems inferior, -and neither can express an impartial opinion as to which is the better -system. But the Westerner who wishes to understand the Chinese point of -view can gain an insight into many things from reading “The Story of a -Lute.” - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER FOUR - -THE DRAMA UNDER THE MANCHUS AND THE REPUBLIC—1644 TO THE PRESENT DAY - - -In 1644 the last of the Ming emperors committed suicide when a rebel army -entered his capital. But the rebel did not become the next emperor; the -throne went to a Manchu leader who, in characteristically Chinese manner, -had been called in by the Ming ruler to help put down the rebellion. The -Manchus soon established themselves as firm rulers of the land and forced -all Chinese to adopt the queue. China became under their rule a strong -and united empire; in fact, many writers believe that the reigns of K’ang -Hsi (1662-1723) and of Ch’ien Lung (1736-1795) were the most glorious -in all Chinese history. Both of these rulers were great warriors and -administrators, as well as patrons of literature and the arts. The drama, -too, flourished; a recently published catalogue of Chinese dramas records -eight hundred and fifteen plays of some literary merit from the Ch’ing -Dynasty. - -Among these the critics assign the first places to two historical -tragedies written about the beginning of the eighteenth century: “The -Blood-Stained Fan” (T’ao Hua Shan) by Kung Shang-jen and “The Palace of -Eternal Life” (Ch’ang Shan Tien) by Hung Sen. The former deals with the -last days of the Ming Dynasty. The author presents the struggles of the -various parties and the dissensions among the generals in the face of -a tottering throne. In the foreground of the revolutionary scene stand -two lovers. The hero, a courageous young literary man, is forced to flee -before his political enemies, and the heroine is likewise threatened. -Since she prefers death to disgrace she attempts suicide. The play -takes its name from the fact that some of her blood stained the fan her -lover had presented to her. An artist, coming across this fan, painted -the bloodstains into peach blossoms so cleverly as to deceive every -one. After years of civil war, in the course of which the dynasty is -overthrown, the lovers meet again. They feel that love has no place in -a broken and disrupted fatherland; patriotism is higher than love—such -seems to be the author’s meaning. - -The other play, “The Palace of Eternal Life”, goes back to a much earlier -period, that of the T’ang Dynasty. It has for hero and heroine the -emperor Ming Huang, traditional founder of the Chinese theater, and his -capricious concubine, Yang Kuei-fei. The Palace of Eternal Life was the -name they had given to the pleasure dome where the famous lovers gave -themselves up to idyllic and voluptuous amusements.[16] This story is -full of romantic and dramatic elements; there are said to be more than -fifty plays that have Yang Kuei-fei for heroine. Versions by ballad -singers have been well translated by George Carter Stent,[17] a Britisher -who secured unprinted popular ballads by having street singers come to -his house to recite them while his teacher wrote them down verbatim. -Since Yang Kuei-fei and her lover play such an important part in the -Chinese drama, it might be well to quote two of the numerous ballads -about her. - -AN IMPERIAL LOVER - - Tang Ming-kuang loved Yang Kuei-fei— - Living for her, in her, with her,— - Walking by her, hither, thither— - In the pleasant summer weather, - Strolling hand in hand together. - Side by side with Yang Kuei-fei, - Listening to the play of fountains— - Climbing up the mimic mountains— - Through romantic scenery - Of hill and lake, rock, dell and tree. - - “If I had not Yang Kuei-fei, - What were all my Empire worth? - With her, earth is heaven to me,— - This is paradise on earth.” - - Mid-day in the lakelet found them, - Lotus leaves and blossoms round them; - Disporting gaily in the water, - (Daily to this place he brought her). - Now an avenue they tread, - Where the trees arch overhead,— - Saving just enough of space - To catch a glimpse of heaven’s face, - Showing its intensest blue, - Peering down upon the two. - - “If I had not Yang Kuei-fei, - What were all this lovely scene? - With her, walking thus by me,— - This is heaven, and she its queen.” - - On the sward beneath their feet, - Flowers of every hue were springing; - Bright plumed birds with voices sweet - Their passage here and there were winging. - Sheltered here from mid-day heat, - She taught to them the art of singing.[18] - Now is heard from every tree - Leafy voices, softly uttering - Whispers, which sound mysteriously— - Like wings of angels, gently fluttering. - - “If I had not Yang Kuei-fei, - What were all my empire worth? - With her, sitting thus by me,— - This is paradise on earth.” - - Streaks of light through foliage glancing— - Mixing, blending, interlacing— - Now retreating—now advancing— - Sunbeams after shadows racing, - Flinging on the sward a net-work - Of embroidered golden fret-work— - Quaintly beautifully grotesque, - As of _flickering_ arabesque - Sculpt’d from sunbeams, light and shade, - Its ground the green enameled glade. - - “If I had not Yang Kuei-fei, - What were all this lovely scene? - With her, sitting thus by me,— - This is heaven, and she its queen.” - -THE DEATH OF YANG KUEI-FEI - - In silence unbroken, - They sat side by side; - Not a word had been spoken:— - They both of them tried - The dread that was o’er them - Of what lay before them - In their bosoms to hide. - - What is that? In the distance a murmur is heard, - Is’t the wail of the night wind—the surge of the sea? - As nearer it floats it takes form in a word— - And that word, Oh, God! is the name Yang Kuei-fei! - They listen, but speak not—though _both_ know full well - Those murmuring sounds are for _one_ a death-knell. - - Nearer,—still nearer - Those hoarse murmurs came: - Now they sound clearer, - They shout out a name. - ’Tis Yang-fei’s name they call! - - Break her accursed thrall! - Too long we have borne it— - This night, we have sworn it— - Her life pays for all! - - Where is she,—your minion,—frail Yang Kuei-fei? - Drag her forth—the vile traitress! our daggers would see - If in her fair body the blood flows more pure - Than in those of your subjects who have had to endure - Wrongs, which her arts have heaped on them for years:[19] - Whose bread has been moistened by blood, sweat and tears! - Whose sons have been slaughtered—whose daughters defiled! - Whose homes have been pillaged—whose fields made a wild! - ’Tis she is the cause of rebellion and strife,[20] - We fight not your foes till we’ve taken her life! - - “Nought but the blood - Of Yang Kuei-fei - Can stem this flood - Of anarchy!” - - “Oh! bitter destiny! - Oh! dire necessity! - Must I pronounce your doom? - Consign you to the tomb? - - “Alas! my Yang Kuei-fei, - I’m powerless to save! - My life—throne—empire—all I’d give - Had I the power to bid you live— - To snatch you from the grave. - Yet they have willed it thus—and I - Who’d die to save you, bid you die.” - - “See I am calm,—it is not death I fear, - It is their savage mode of death I dread; - Say could you bear to see me lying here, - Weltering in blood, by ruthless butchers shed? - - “Fancy their bloody hands wreathed in my hair— - That silken hair you used so much to prize; - Dragged—struck—faint—bleeding!—could you bear - To see all this before your very eyes? - - “Pierced by a hundred knives, my life-blood flows - In purple streams—could you look on and see, - Unmoved—my murderers watch my dying throes— - With hungry eyes gloat on my agony? - - “I have been vile, but let my penitence - In these last moments that to me are given, - Make some atonement for my great offence, - And Oh! ‘forgive me as you’d be forgiven!’ - - “One last entreaty—let me die alone— - Let no one enter—none but you stand by - To watch my death;—the act, too, be my own; - Let not the ignoble rabble see me die. - - “The means are here; I have but to unloose - This silken girdle from my slender waist; - I knot it thus, and thus, and form a noose, - This by my own hand round my neck is placed. - - “With my own hands the ends are tightly drawn, - And I die thus”—scarce had the words been said— - A few brief struggles, and Yang-fei had gone - “With all her inperfections on her head.” - - “Hide her from my sight! - Let me not see - That face so ghastly white— - Those eyes so wildly bright - Glaring at me! - - “They follow mine everywhere, - Look where I may— - On the earth—in the air, - Still the same glassy stare. - Take them away! - - “Place her gently in the grave - E’en as she fell; - Here, where the willows wave, - Near this old well. - - “Lightly cover her with earth— - Oh! Yang Kuei-fei! - What is all my empire worth - Now I’ve lost thee!” - -During the Ch’ing Dynasty the native music was gradually superseded by a -much cruder, less melodious product imported from barbarian lands. With -the old style of music went many of the better plays; in many cases they -were replaced by the so-called “military plays”, that is to say acrobatic -exhibitions of stage fighting to the accompaniment of crashing orchestral -pandemonium. Toward the end of the Ch’ing Dynasty the Yuan drama had -almost entirely vanished from the Peking stage. In a later chapter will -be found a fuller discussion of the newer types of music. - -But the chief innovation in the drama under the Manchu rule came through -the influence of popular novels. Episodes from the famous novels read -by everybody were brought on the stage in ever-increasing numbers. The -novel, like the drama, is a literary form despised by the pundits and -it too began to flourish during the Mongol Dynasty when the literary -examinations were suppressed. Many novels are of unknown authorship, -because their authors considered such works as beneath their dignity. -But for the very reason that the authors did not employ the literary -language the great masses of the people were able to enjoy these stories. -Let it be remarked in passing that the novel is now coming into its own -and is receiving its just share of attention from scholars, at least -from the progressive ones. Doctor Hu Shih, of the National University, -Peking, has pointed out that it is the novel written in the vernacular -that has given to spoken Chinese such unity as it possesses, and that it -is through works in the popular language that a common speech for all -China may ultimately be achieved. To-day, of course, natives of Peking, -Shanghai, and Canton speak languages differing as widely as do those of -Berlin, Amsterdam, and London, or Rome, Paris, and Madrid. Due to the -crystallization of the written language, however, students from the three -Chinese centers can read one another’s letters, although, as I have often -observed in laboratories or on the playground, when they converse they -have recourse to English. It is due to their linguistic and literary -importance that Doctor Hu Shih has edited critical editions of about a -dozen famous Chinese novels. - -Among the novels, “The Story of the Three Kingdoms” (San Kuo Ch’i) is -by far the most popular. It was written in the Yuan Dynasty and deals -with the period of romantic chivalry, 221-265 A.D., when three dynasties -ruled in three separate capitals. In it appear the cruel Tsao Tsao and -the resourceful Chu Ko-liang, together with many another brave warrior. -Every educated Chinese has read it, and the illiterate coolies have hired -readers, that they too may learn of the stirring adventures of their -more or less mythical heroes. The enthusiasm for this book is simply -unbounded, as the following instance may serve to illustrate. Friends -of mine in Peking, a young architect and his wife, were continually -annoyed during hot August evenings by a fairly loud voice with a -monotonous rising and falling inflection that kept coming over the wall -of the adjoining courtyard from eight o’clock until midnight. It cast a -shadow over conversation, it distracted attention from reading, and it -effectually prevented peaceful sleep. My friends began by setting their -victrola on their side of the wall to playing “Over There!” for an hour -or two on end; next they sent out the house boy to buy firecrackers -and ordered him to set off package after package under a tin pail; and -finally they allowed a bottle of asafetida to trickle over the wall—but -all to no avail. They recovered neither their peace of mind nor their -slumber until the _shuo-shu-te_ had read to his coolie audience the last -chapter of “The Three Kingdoms”, a novel as long as the whole Bible. - -An endless number of plays are based on this book of romantic history, -which deserves to be called the national epic of the Chinese. A long list -of “military plays” derive their plots from the “Shui Hu Chuan” (Story -of the River Bank), a novel based upon the doings of a band of brigands -who terrorized a number of provinces early in the twelfth century. Some -of the swashbucklers in this story had Robin Hood’s habit of giving to -the poor what they had stolen from the rich and corrupt officials. From -the “Liao Chai” (translated by Mr. Giles, “Strange Stories from a Chinese -Studio”) come many plays dealing with fairies and other supernatural -beings. The novel that might be considered a possible rival in popularity -to the story of “The Three Kingdoms”, is “The Dream of the Red Chamber” -(Hung Lou Meng), the story of the love of a young idler for his two -pretty cousins, and the decay of an old and wealthy family. Poetic love -stories from this novel were brought on the stage only in recent years by -Mei Lan-fang, the actor who is responsible for many innovations in the -Peking theater. The play, “Burying the Flowers”, mentioned in the chapter -on Mei Lan-fang, is one example of a dramatization of an episode from -this book. - -In his “Geschichte der chinesischen Litteratur” the German scholar -Wilhelm Grube, who knew the Chinese character well, remarks in discussing -the novel that a ruse or a sly calculation on the part of a warrior seems -to appeal to the Chinese much more than actual bravery on the battle -field. A number of plays taken from the story of “The Three Kingdoms” -bear out this point by reason of their perennial popularity. No play -perhaps is oftener acted than “The Ruse of the Empty City” (Kung Chuan -Chi). The famous hero Chu Ko-liang is in a city stripped of all its -defenders when suddenly a strong enemy force arrives. He orders the -gates to be opened wide as though peace were reigning throughout the -country, and seats himself on the wall above the gate. When the advance -guard of the enemy arrives it finds the commander, who more than any -other is known for his resourcefulness and his stratagems, calmly reading -a book in the face of the threatening attack. Naturally enough the enemy -fears an ambush of some sort and withdraws. By his calm Chu Ko-liang has -saved a city; his bluff has won. - -[Illustration: WARRIOR ACROBATS] - -Another “peculiar” (as Bret Harte would put it) play from the same -source is “Hsü Mu Ma Tsao” (Hsü’s Mother Curses Tsao Tsao). The famous -general Tsao Tsao found that he was being defeated continually through -the clever stratagems suggested to his opponent by a certain Hsü Su. He -therefore plotted to get this clever adviser into his hands in order -that he might profit by his knowledge of strategy. For this purpose he -kidnaped Hsü Su’s mother and sent a forged letter asking the son to -come to her. Filial piety demanded that Hsü Su obey and therefore he -came into Tsao Tsao’s camp only to be forced into the service of his -enemy. When Hsü Su’s mother heard how her son had been tricked she went -to Tsao Tsao’s tent, called him a man without honor, a traitor, and a -wretched deceiver. This scene, when the tottering old lady scolds in a -shrill voice, as only a Chinese woman can ma, is of course the _pièce de -résistance_ of the play. When she has spoken out her mind she returns to -her own tent and commits suicide. Although Tsao Tsao continued to hold -Hsü Su, yet the latter never offered a single stratagem to the general, -an outstanding piece of bravery according to the Chinese view. The very -favorite play from this novel is “Ch’un Yin Hui” (The Meeting of Many -Heroes). When this play is staged with the parts of the great heroes of -the novel filled by stars, the Chinese theater lovers feel that such an -ensemble offers about the finest thing possible. The plot again turns -chiefly upon a ruse by Chu Ko-liang. His side is facing tremendous odds -in the huge fleet of wooden vessels under the control of the enemy, and -therefore his commander decides to attack them with fiery arrows. Chu -Ko-liang is commissioned to procure 100,000 arrows, and is given for -this task five days, which he himself cuts down to three. Two and a half -days he spends in calm meditation, doing nothing about the arrows. When -one of his comrades discovers him sitting under a tree he is very much -alarmed at the waste of time and suggests that the only thing left for -his friend is to commit suicide. But our hero is undaunted. He places -a number of straw men in the prows of a few boats and sails toward the -position of the enemy. Owing to the dense fog the enemy commander is -unable to ascertain the size of the attacking force, but he orders his -archers to shoot as fast as they can. The arrows strike the straw men and -pierce them without doing any harm. When 100,000 arrows have been caught -up in his decoys, Chu Ko-liang orders his boats to retreat, and thus is -able to deliver the required number of arrows to his commander on time. -The manner in which the play is staged, with two or three arrows flitting -across the scene, provides, at least for the Westerner, a distinct -anticlimax. - -Another play in which three stars play together to good effect is “The -Three Strange Meetings” (Ch’i San Hui) or, as it is popularly nicknamed, -“The Three Pulls.” It is a popular comedy written during the time of -the Manchu Dynasty, and is one of the favorite plays of Mei Lan-fang. -Through his great prestige he is able to induce other stars to play with -him, and when he presents the rôle of the wife supported by Chü Su-yün -as husband and Li Shou-shan as father, the Chinese consider it a perfect -performance. The play is rich in glimpses of Chinese life and also full -of excellent opportunities for the actors to show their mettle. The -opening of the play is also most unusual, for, like Goethe’s “Faust” and -some of our other famous plays, it has a prologue in heaven. There is as -a general thing no curtain used in the Chinese theater, a rule to which -a scene in heaven forms an exception. Stage hands bring on a curtain -about eight feet high and twelve feet wide, supported by bamboo poles and -painted with clouds and bats to symbolize the sky. Behind this the stage -is set for the divine scene. When the curtain is removed the spectator -sees a god seated on a high throne. Four spirits bearing tall shields -painted with the conventionalized cloud pattern stand by his side. The -horns of the orchestra are blown mightily and fireworks are set off -until finally the god begins to speak in a slow, impressive bass. Like a -Homeric Zeus he sends a messenger to earth to free a certain innocent man -who is languishing in prison. The messenger is ordered to find the man’s -daughter and to conduct her to the prison. The divine herald departs, -carrying a horsehair switch, the conventional symbol by which a spirit -may be recognized on the Chinese stage. - -The next scene begins the first of the four acts on earth: 1. The Weeping -in Prison; 2. Writing the Petition; 3. The Three Pulls; 4. The Family -Reunited. - -Li Kuei-chih (played by Mei Lan-fang), newly married to a young -magistrate, visits the prison, inspired by the divine messenger. There -she sees the jailer mistreating an old man, in whom, to her surprise and -grief, she recognizes her father, from whom she had been separated in -childhood at the time of his unjust condemnation. The jailer is willing -to relent after the daughter, without disclosing her identity, has paid -him a good-sized bribe. Li Kuei-chih then asks her husband to make an -effort to free her father by writing an appeal to a higher court. The -husband complies very willingly, but, in order to write the petition -he must know his wife’s “little name”, a sort of family nickname of -the little girls, which, according to Chinese custom, is never revealed -to the husband. There ensues a fine comedy scene in which the wife at -first withholds and then shamefacedly tells her “little name”, to the -great triumph of her husband. In presenting the petition to the judge of -the higher court, the wife is recognized by the judge as his long-lost -sister. He rises from his seat, and discarding the stiff formality of -the courtroom, pulls Li Kuei-chih out of the room in order to reveal -his identity to her in the privacy of his home. The husband is told -of this by the servant, and rushes to the court in a rage, because he -fears that the judge has been induced by his wife’s beauty to make her -his concubine. The judge is not in the courtroom, but he sends out two -officers to bring the husband also into his home. The second of the three -pulls comes when the messengers drag the husband off-stage in a state of -comical terror; for, like a true Oriental, he fears sudden death,—a fear -that caused Abraham to lie to the Pharaoh of Egypt about his relationship -to the beautiful Sarah. In the next scene brother, sister, and husband -are happily reunited. The father is summoned from the prison into the -court. He recognizes his son, the presiding judge, and gratefully bows -toward the audience (that is, toward heaven) for, according to Chinese -custom, a father dare never bow toward his son, no matter what position -the latter may hold. Thereupon the father is also pulled off-stage to -complete the happy family reunion. The jailer, knowing full well what -manner of unpleasant death may be in store for him, ends his life by -jumping down a well. - -This last-named action is accomplished by the jailer’s making a quick -leap and running off-stage, the conventional expression for suicide by -drowning. The court scenes, especially when the play is given by Mei -Lan-fang, abound in gorgeous costumes of richly embroidered silk. The -various characters wear historically correct dress, the Manchu robes -with wide sleeves. So far as my own observation goes, I have found that -for Manchu or Ming Dynasty events the styles of the respective periods -are followed, but that beyond this no attempt is made at providing -historically correct costume. Characters in plays taking place before the -Ming Dynasty wear Ming costume; it is the style worn before the coming of -the Manchus and therefore serves for all ancient settings. - -The actor who plays the part of the husband in this play is Chu Su-yün. -He is nearly fifty years old, but he continues to play the rôle of the -lover opposite Mei Lan-fang, because there is no younger man who can -do it half so well. He is really as good as any Occidental comedian in -assuming the expressions of surprise, anger, or terror; he stutters -admirably whenever necessary, and in laughing gets a comical effect by -means of his faulty teeth, blackened by opium smoking. In another play, -“Ngoh Chia Chuan” (The Ngoh Family Village), he plays the part of a -young boy who has prodigious strength; in fact, he, though a mere child, -protects his family’s home by killing two generals. In one of the first -scenes the parents forbid their abnormally strong offspring to handle -dangerous weapons, whereupon this actor in the costume of a child goes -into tantrums of weeping that convulse the audience by their realistic -imitation of the overgrown baby. Li Shou-shan, in the rôle of the father, -is made up as a fine, dignified old Chinese gentleman. He brings out -very poignantly the tragic situation of the helpless old man unjustly -imprisoned; though perhaps by some of his pitiful wails he somewhat -overdoes his part. - -Another very popular domestic drama is “Ta Chih Shang Wen” (Beating the -Nephew and Worshiping at the Grave). The Chinese prodigal son is Ta Kuan, -an orphan boy raised by his uncle. Wicked companions taught him gambling -and other ways of squandering money, and as he needed funds for these -pursuits he insisted that his uncle give him his paternal heritage. In -a short time, of course, all his substance has been wasted with riotous -living and Ta Kuan is forced to beg for his food. His uncle at that -time is distributing alms among the poor and the nephew is not ashamed -to appear among the beggars at his uncle’s door. Naturally, the uncle’s -“loss of face” is tremendous; he becomes extremely angry and chases Ta -Kuan off with blows. But his aunt, in the kindness of her heart, gives -him some money and urges him to avoid his angered uncle. But in China too -there is a destiny that shapes our ends: Ta Kuan’s money is stolen from -him, and with no prospects whatever before him, he suddenly becomes pious -and worships at his father’s grave. While he is busy burning paper money -(i.e. paper imitations of silver ingots) for the spirits of his ancestors -his uncle and aunt happen also to visit the family graveyard. The moment -Ta Kuan sees them, remembering his uncle’s blows and curses, he runs -away. His foster-father is very much surprised that some one should have -been burning paper money at his brother’s tomb. He never would have -suspected his nephew of such an action, but when he finds that it really -was Ta Kuan, his heart is touched by such a display of filial piety that -he sends for the nephew, inviting him to return to his house, and then -persuades him to study under the direction of a teacher. There has been a -real change of heart in the youth, for he applies himself diligently to -his task. And virtue is not without its reward; for when Ta Kuan takes -the examination he passes with the very highest honors. - -A play similar to the previous one in that it is much more moral than -probable is “Chu Sha Chü” (A Cinnabar Spot). A certain elderly gentleman -by the name of Han was very unhappy because he had no son. To remedy this -condition he bought himself a concubine; but when the marriage was about -to be consummated, the bride wept bitterly. Han asked the cause of the -tears at such an inappropriate time, and learned that his new spouse was -in reality a married woman who had allowed herself to be sold to aid her -sick husband. The old man took pity on her, burned the marriage contract, -and presented her with more money for her unfortunate husband. A noble -and unusual action, to be sure, which merited and received an unusual -reward! The woman returned to her husband and the latter recovered at -once. Returned once more to health, he went about his business which -carried him to Sze-chuan province. He brought with him a present for his -benefactor, a young boy whom he had bought in a district afflicted by -famine. Han was very much pleased with the bright boy and devoted himself -eagerly to his education. He gradually remarked that the boy resembled -him a great deal and began to wonder if it might not be possible that -it was his own son, who had been carried off a few years before in the -course of a rebellion. One day it occurred to him to examine the sole of -the boy’s foot, and there he found the very same cinnabar spot that had -always been his own distinguishing mark. This proved conclusively that it -was his own son, and both were very happy over the reunion that had been -brought about through Han’s kindness to a poor woman! - -The moral Chinese stage sets forth not only the reward of virtue, but -also the punishment of vice. There can be seen on the Peking stage -almost any day a warning to cruel husbands called “Pang Ta Pao Ch’ing -Lang” (Beating the Heartless Husband). Mu Chi was a scholar holding -the first degree (_Hsiu Tsai_, corresponding somewhat to our A.B.), -but he was very poor because his parents had not left him any property -whatsoever. When a famine struck the country he was forced to beg for -his bread. In his half-starved condition he was one day caught in a -snowstorm, in the course of which he fell to the ground more dead than -alive. In this condition the daughter of the head of the beggar’s guild -found him lying before the door of her home. She took pity on him and -nursed him back to health. At first her father was none too pleased -with his daughter’s action; but when the daughter represented that the -gods would surely reward her good deed, he became reconciled to the -presence of the young man in the house. The daughter fell in love with -her protégé and was very proud of his rank as a _Hsiu Tsai_. The father -also became quite fond of the young man and gave him his daughter in -marriage. Then it was arranged that Mu Chi was to go to Peking to take -the examination, while his wife and father-in-law were to go along to -beg and thus furnish the young man with a living until such time as he -should have secured a profitable post. Mu Chi passed the examination and -was appointed the magistrate of a town. The moment he had received his -appointment he became extremely disdainful of his new relatives and in -the course of the journey by boat to the town where he was to become -magistrate he pushed his wife overboard into the stream and drove off his -father-in-law. However, a certain high official saved the life of the -beggar chief’s daughter and adopted her as his child. When he had learned -from her the story of her husband’s ingratitude he decided to punish the -wretch properly. He called on him in his magistracy and offered him his -daughter in marriage. Mu Chi, the cad, naturally was glad to marry into -the family of such an influential man, and accepted eagerly. But what was -his chagrin and fright when on the evening of his marriage he raised the -bride’s veil to find under it the beggar’s daughter! The official then -entered the bridal chamber with a powerful stick and ordered the beggar’s -daughter to give Mu Chi a sound thrashing. This she did with a great deal -of “heart”, as the Chinese say, for which no one can blame her. But Mu -Chi decided to become a wiser and a better man; he sent out men to find -his father-in-law, and the three lived happy ever after. - -But the very crowning piece of righteous moral indignation in all the -Flowery Kingdom is found in a story connected with Yo Fei, deified as -the god of war and worshiped as a special patron of the theater. In -his lifetime Yo Fei was a faithful general of the Sung emperors, a -great fighter against the Mongols. In fact, he had almost succeeded in -capturing the Mongol emperor with his entire army when the enemy bribed -some high Chinese officials, chief among them Ch’in Kuei, to do away with -their great patriotic leader. Yo Fei was summoned before a court for -trial, but was cleared of all charges. Then he was tried again before -Ch’in Kuei and two other judges, this time being condemned to death by -strangling. Before the sentence was carried out, his cruel executioners -tore the skin off his back where his mother had tattooed the famous -inscription, “I repay the state with integrity and loyalty.” - -At Hangchow is found the tomb of this great Chinese patriot. Before it, -as every tourist sees to his surprise, are four statues in a kneeling -position and bound with chains, while an inscription invites the wanderer -to urinate on them.[21] These villains, who are literally in very bad -odor, are Ch’in Kuei, his wife, and the two other judges who condemned -Yo Fei to death. This drastic, posthumous punishment seems to have had -very little effect in furthering patriotism in China, for in recent -decades neither the Russians nor the Japanese seem ever to have had any -trouble in finding Chinese statesmen willing to accept bribes for the -betrayal of their country. The story is also told that in 1678, fully 500 -years after Yo Fei’s death, this play was performed in a certain town, -when suddenly an excited spectator rushed on the stage and stabbed to -death the unfortunate actor who was playing the part of Ch’in Kuei, the -traitor. In the course of the trial this fervent patriot told that in all -his books he had carefully cut out the name of Ch’in Kuei wherever it -occurred. The man was not put to death, as would have been the case had -he been a Britisher, nor was he celebrated as a hero, as would have been -the case had he been a Frenchman, but in characteristic Chinese manner he -was dismissed as an idiot. - -Though as a general thing there is very little courtship on the part -of young people in China, yet there are on the stage quite a number of -romantic love stories. In the chapter on Mei Lan-fang I have mentioned -some taken from the novel, “Dream of the Red Chamber.” The same actor -frequently presents “Yü Chan Chih” (A Precious Hairpin), the plot of -which might be an Occidental love story. In a certain convent the -abbess had living with her the daughter of her deceased brother, a very -attractive young girl by the name of Ch’en Miao. In the vicinity there -lived also the abbess’ nephew, with whom, because of his personal charm -and great learning, the young lady fell in love. One day the nephew -became ill and Ch’en Miao asked permission to assist in taking care -of the patient. Under the tender care of such an attractive nurse the -young man recovered speedily, but he too had lost his heart. He found -means to visit Ch’en Miao in her room one day as she was reading poetry, -whereupon, like Paolo and Francesca, that day they read no more. In -the village there lived an elderly magistrate who wished to marry Ch’en -Miao, but when the generous judge learned that she loved a younger rival, -he did not show any signs of jealousy; on the contrary, he went to the -abbess to urge her to join in marriage the young lovers. - -Peking theaters have very few properties, as has been stated, but behind -practically every stage one finds a pair of plaster-of-Paris lions in -imitation of the marble lions that guard the gateways of Chinese palaces -and temples. They are used in a very popular play called “Chü T’eng Kuan -Hua” (Trial of Strength and Viewing the Ancestral Portraits). The play -seems to be a modern imitation of the Yuan Dynasty drama “The Orphan -of the Chao Family.” A wicked minister persuades the emperor that an -entire family, one of whose members he hates, must be exterminated root -and branch. A friend decides to save the family name by substituting -just before the execution his own young son for a child of the condemned -family. His wife absolutely refuses to enter upon his plan, but when he -kneels before her she is compelled to yield to his wishes to sacrifice -her child; this is typical of the Chinese, inasmuch as they seem to think -that when some one humbles himself unduly he must gain his end and other -people must grant him whatever he asks. The man and his wife then bring -up the orphan as their own son. The child they sacrificed was chopped -into three pieces by the wicked minister himself, because he feared that -it might some day revenge on him the slaughter of his relatives. - -The play as given in Peking theaters opens at the time when the orphan -has attained the age of fifteen. He and his servant are playing in the -courtyard of his foster-father’s house. The boy proposes that they make -a test of their strength by moving the stone lions standing at the door -of the house. The servant tries in vain to move them, while the boy, a -prodigy of strength, picks up the massive stones and moves them with -ease. Soon afterward the master of the house returns and asks angrily -who is responsible for displacing the stone lions. The good-natured -servant, who has the rôle of the clown in this play, says that he did -it. His master then orders him to return them to their proper place, and -thus in a comedy scene he is soon proved a liar. Then the adopted son -is called; like George Washington he acknowledges what he has done, and -returns the lions to their proper places without the slightest trouble. -His foster-father now perceives that although but fifteen years of age, -the boy is strong enough to avenge the cruel injustice done his family. -Therefore he conducts him into the ancestral temple where he shows him -the portraits of his ancestors down to the ones put to death by the -wicked minister. No sooner has the orphan boy heard the story than he -puts on his armor and sets out on his mission of revenge on the enemy of -his family. Incidentally there is often a bit of comedy of a simple kind -thrown in by the stage hands when they remove the stone lions, which they -pretend to find very heavy. - -On one occasion when I saw this play I was surprised to hear the audience -break out into peals of laughter at the point when the boy set out on his -errand of revenge. I inquired the cause of this from a Chinese friend. -Amid sobs of mirth he told me that the orphan boy had left the temple -on horseback! As usual, there was no scenery, the stage was bare, only -a picture suspended from a chair set on a table marked the locality as -an ancestral temple. The actor dressed for war had absent-mindedly acted -as though he were on the battle field and had made with his leg the -conventional sign for mounting a horse. I had not noticed the gesture at -all, as it was a rather inconspicuous one. The humor of the episode is of -about the same variety as that engendered years ago in the Philadelphia -Little Theater when, in the course of the action, a cat wandered on the -stage and in her haste to remove him an actress thrust him into the -glowing stage fireplace—in reality, of course, off-stage into the wings. - -In this imitation of a Yuan drama, in fact of the drama that several -Western writers have called the nearest approach to true tragedy among -all Chinese plays, practically all that is presented to modern audiences -is the farcical element. Of farces the Chinese stage possesses many, some -good and some less so. A certain Liu Yen-ming, in a farce by that name, -lends money to a magistrate for a journey to the capital. The loan is -arranged, like most things in China, through a third party—in this case -an abbess of a convent. When a year has elapsed and the magistrate has -not returned, Liu demands his money, or, in case the abbess cannot repay -him, the hand of Yu Ying, the magistrate’s pretty daughter. He brings -such pressure to bear by means of threats that the abbess finally agrees -to arrange a rendezvous at midnight in the Convent of Great Purity. Yu -Ying naturally enough refuses to marry a man just because her father -owes him money, but when the abbess pictures the old miser as a dashing -youth of twenty-three she gradually changes her tone and at last gives -her consent. At midnight, therefore, Liu Yen-ming stealthily approaches -the convent, but unfortunately he meets with a patrol of police who -arrest the nocturnal prowler as he is unable to account for his presence -near the convent at such an unseemly hour. Instead of in the arms of -his beloved the money-lender spends the night in jail. But much more -disagreeable for him is another development of the story. A young scholar -on his way to the capital is on the same road when he observes that the -police have arrested Liu Yen-ming. He decides that the police must be -very strict in these parts and so demands hospitality at the very next -house, which is of course the convent. The door is opened by a novice who -has been told by the abbess what to do; the young scholar is asked to -enter and to await the young lady. The youth, though somewhat surprised, -is wise enough to hold his tongue and to follow instructions. Soon Yu -Ying enters and finds that the young man possesses all the charms the -abbess had falsely attributed to her father’s creditor. Love at first -sight, then follow mutual explanations, and before morning an engagement -sealed by pledges. - -A rather good scene follows when on the next day the abbess calls on the -miser to felicitate him on the pleasant night he has spent! There are -delightful misunderstandings, but at the end of the scene Liu Yen-ming -is in a towering rage, and determined to have revenge. He forces the -daughter of his debtor to become a maid in his tavern, where she must -perform the most menial tasks. In the end, of course, the young scholar -returns from the capital as a magistrate; he enters the very inn where -his beloved is serving the guests, recognizes and rescues her, giving the -miser the punishment he so richly deserves. - -One evening when I had gone to see Mei Lan-fang at the Chen Kwang -Theater, there was performed as the last play among the curtain raisers -another farce, “San Yao Hui” (Shaking Dice). This farce is much less -presentable in every way, but is, I believe, more typical of the -present-day drama, because of its episodic nature and lack of real plot. -On the eve of the husband’s return the wife and the concubine are -quarreling as to which is to share his first night at home. The dispute -waxes hot and violent; herewith follows a prize specimen of the dialogue: - - Wife: He has no right to have a concubine. - - Concubine: He would not have one, if you were able to bear him - a son. - - Wife: Don’t say that, for before I was married I had several - sons. - -Two neighbors, the clowns in the piece, enter and after much discussion -suggest that the women settle the disagreement by shaking dice. Three -dice are used, and the wife throws a score of seventeen. The concubine -then prostrates herself before the house god and when her dice are -counted it is found that she has eighteen points. She is victorious! - -Probably about as much as one fourth of the drama played in China at the -present time deals with religious or mythological subjects. Kuan-yin, -the goddess of mercy, the Buddhist madonna, very frequently figures in -these plays, releasing unfortunates from punishments and otherwise doing -deeds of kindness. A direct contrast to her is found in the cruel judge -of the lower world. In the Field Museum, Chicago, there are exhibits -portraying a number of Chinese religious plays and the curator, Doctor -Berthold Laufer, has written an excellent guidebook dealing with these -theatrical representations having for their aim the inculcation of better -morals through the fear of punishments in the hereafter. I cannot resist -quoting from Doctor Laufer on the typically Chinese attitude toward this -form of religious drama: - - It must not be supposed, however, that the Chinese have ever in - reality practiced the tortures demonstrated in the ten courts - of Purgatory. This lore is not their own, they adopted it from - India. It is the visual illustration of what is described in - the sacred books of the Buddhists. On the stage, moreover, - everything is mitigated and permeated by a willful, grotesque - humor which makes it difficult for the spectator to take - these punishments too seriously. Skeptical and rationalistic - as many of the Chinese are, they will be moved to smile at - this performance, or to entertain doubt as to its reality. - The baroque features and semi-comic gestures of the devils - contribute to the relief and exhilaration of the audience. - The visitor should bear in mind that he is witnessing a fine - piece of scenic illusion, which, while moralistic at its root - and ethical in its tendency, is far from being calculated to - shock the nerves or frighten the conscience, but which, on the - contrary, will encourage and elevate by pointing the way to - ultimate salvation. The keynote of this drama is not misery and - despair, but hope and the possibility of self-perfection. - -A favorite example of the mythological drama is the story of “The White -and the Black Snake” (Po She Chuan), taken from a novel of the same -name. Two snake demons took on the form of lovely virgins. One day they -quarreled and the White Snake said to the black, “If you can defeat me -in a fight I’ll serve you, but if you are beaten you shall be my slave.” -The White Snake won and according to the agreement the other became -her servant. In a former incarnation a certain young man had saved the -life of the White Snake and she decided to reward him by becoming his -beautiful and loving wife. Their marriage was indeed a very happy one -for a time. It is a Chinese custom on the fifth day of the fifth month -to drink a cup of wine containing a certain blossom which acts as a -charm against venomous animals. Hsü Hsuan, the husband, followed this -custom and gave some also to his unsuspecting wife. The White Snake felt -uncomfortable after this draught and retired early. Hardly had she gone -to sleep when she lost her human form and was changed into a snake. When -her husband later on parted the curtains of their bed, he saw a huge -white snake lying there, raising her head toward him and spewing fire. -Hsü Hsuan was so frightened that he fell to the ground dead. Aroused by -the noise, the Black Snake came on the scene and awoke her mistress, who -on awakening once more took on human form. When she realized what she had -unwittingly done, she burst into tears; but she soon recalled that on the -mountain dominated by the God of Long Life there grew an herb capable of -restoring the dead to life. She hurried to this mountain to steal a bit -of the herb. But the God of Long Life saw her and in great anger pursued -her. By means of enveloping her in the fumes of a charm against snakes he -captured her; but on learning for what purpose she had come to steal he -not only released her, but presented her with the herb. By means of it -the dead man was soon restored to life. - -The two demons wished to please Hsü Hsuan in every way, but in doing -him favors they harmed the community. They robbed the state treasury to -enrich their favorite; but the treasurer was beheaded in consequence. -Thereupon they opened a drug store and in order to make the business -prosper they spread various diseases in the village. But the abbot of a -nearby monastery discovered their tricks. He visited Hsü Hsuan under the -pretense of collecting alms and warned him that he had better come for -a time to the monastery to be freed from the influence of evil demons -that were besetting him. Hsü Hsuan, who remembered only too well his -experience on the fifth day of the fifth month, was glad to go. He told -his wife that he was going to the temple to worship. - -But when her husband failed to return, the White Snake decided to go -to the monastery to seek him. On the way she confessed to her servant -that she was soon going to give birth to a child, an event which she -hoped would give great pleasure to Hsü Hsuan. The two snakes in human -form rode in a boat to the monastery which was located on an island. -The abbot met them and sternly ordered them off lest he destroy them -utterly by means of his magic power. Full of anger the two demons drew -their magic swords against the abbot, but the latter tossed into the -air his cane with a dragon’s head, which was changed immediately into -a living dragon and attacked the two snakes so savagely that they were -forced to flee for their lives. But by means of their magic they sent a -flood which threatened to destroy the island. The abbot, surrounded by -all his priests, spread his garment at the edge of the water, thereby -causing the island to rise in the same degree as the water. At this point -K’uei Shing, god of the literati, arrived like the _deus ex machina_ of -a Euripidean play. He had been sent by Wen Chang, the god of science and -literature, to put an end to the quarrel because the son of Hsü Hsuan and -the White Snake was destined to obtain the highest degree in the literary -examinations. Thus the island was saved and the snakes returned home -unscathed. - -Hsü Hsuan, on the abbot’s advice, also set out for home, and met his wife -with her servant on a bridge. The Black Snake drew her sword to avenge -on him the humiliation done her mistress, but the White Snake protected -him from the fury of her servant. Both were overcome by their emotions; -they wept in silence, unable to put their feelings into words, in this -struggle between love and fear. Soon afterward the son was born; but -three days later the god Wen Chang abducted the two demons to his magic -pagoda, while Hsü Hsuan was left in wistful happiness with his promising -son, the greatest boon in the life of a Chinese. - -This charming story, by the way, forms the basis of Grimm’s tale, “The -White and the Black Snake.” - -I have never seen the first part of this play, but on several occasions -I saw the visit of the snakes to the island monastery called “Chin -Shan-tze.” One of these performances was at the annual benefit for the -poor riksha-runners of Peking organized by that widely beloved American -missionary, Mrs. Goodrich. As the play was given at the theater of the -foreign community, many of the crudities and incongruities of the Chinese -stage were absent. The orchestra was not sitting on the stage and was -muffled somewhat. Back and side drops with good lighting effects served -to set off well the colorful robes of the shaven-headed monks praying -before an immense image of Buddha. The fighting staged by the demon -warriors was an exhibition of graceful and acrobatic movements that would -do credit to a Russian ballet. The story with all its pathos was very -well acted, so that the whole formed a memorable performance such as -would, I am sure, delight American audiences if a theatrical manager were -to engage Mei Lan-fang with his troupe for a tour. - -In Chapter Six are mentioned the many seasonal plays of the Chinese -theater which make of this institution a true folk theater. In concluding -this chapter I shall quote a synopsis of the libretto of “Ch’ang-O Pin -Yüeh” (Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the Moon). This playlet is one of those into -which Mei Lan-fang has woven his graceful dances, an innovation on his -part on the Chinese stage. I follow the translation given on the program -at a performance before the American College Club on November 17, 1917. - - -FOREWORD - -The youthful Emperor Ho Yi of the Hsia Dynasty (about 2,000 B.C.) being -of divine origin, as a child played with fairies. When he grew to -manhood, he was in a dream led by fairies to the palace of the Heavenly -Queen, Hsi Wang Mu, who gave the young Emperor the Elixir of Life. -Ch’ang-O, the Imperial Concubine of Ho Yi, famed for her grace and -beauty, learned of this precious gift and in childish innocence drank -it, scarcely realizing what she had done. Filled with remorse and shame, -upon being apprised of the gravity of her offence, she flew to the moon, -where because of her wonderful beauty she was elected by the moon fairies -as their queen. The scene of the play is laid in the moon and has to do -with the preparations for and the celebration of the Mid-Autumn Festival -with Ch’ang-O, the Queen of the Moon, as the central figure and the moon -fairies and their invited guests as participants. - - -SYNOPSIS - - FIRST ACT.—The scene depicts a garden blossoming in celestial - flowers, with Ch’ang-O plucking the flowers to be used in - making the wines for the Mid-Autumn Festival Banquet. - -CH’ANG-O opens with a song in praise of the beautiful surroundings in -which she is about to pick flowers. (_Speaks_) Since arriving in the -Moon, I have had a very pleasant time. The hot summer is now past and -Mid-Autumn is come. In preparation for the celebration of the Festival, -I look forward with delight to the making of wine for the entertainment -of the fairies whom I am inviting to my feast. (_Sings_) Deftly though I -roll up my sleeves and lightly though I pluck the flowers, I cannot help -brushing off the bees and butterflies. This sprig is full of fragrance -and is weighed down with abundance and splendor. That one is yet in bud. -And when I lift up my eyes I behold above me a tree that reaches to the -clouds. Lifting my hand I begin to pluck the flowers. (_Speaking_) Ah! -How beautiful! I have so soon filled my basket with flowers, and now I -must carry them home to make my wine. (_Singing_) How thickly do the -butterflies follow in my trail! - - SECOND ACT.—The Moon Fairies invite other fairies to the - Banquet. - - THIRD ACT.—The invited guests proceed to the Banquet Hall. - - FOURTH ACT.—The Moon Palace. The Moon Fairies dust the Palace - and make preparations for the coming Banquet and the receiving - of their guests. - - FIFTH ACT.—The Banquet. Ch’ang-O, under the influence of wine, - soliloquises on the lonesomeness of her life amid her present - surroundings and yearns for the companionship of mortals and - more particularly of Ho Yi. - -CH’ANG-O (_singing_). Forsaking the mortal world, I have come to the Moon -to be Queen of the Fairies. My time has passed so pleasantly and fast -that I have lost all count of time. I have gathered flowers and made -wine, and have invited other fairies to join me on this festive occasion. -(_Sitting in meditation_) Spring and autumn come and go, as the evening -follows the morn. My time has flown by pleasantly amidst these beautiful -surroundings. Once a year the moon is fullest on this night. Heaven -and earth are happy in mutual enjoyment. (_Speaking_) This day is the -Mid-Autumn Festival. I have directed the Palace to be dusted and cleaned. -The attendants have conveyed the invitations to the fairies to share with -me in my happiness. You, attendants, await their arrival. (_The fairies -arrive and sit down to feast._) - -FAIRIES. O Queen! behold the mortal world! See how every family on earth -prepares its delicious food and wine to offer to thee as sacrifice? -(_Ch’ang-O speaking_) Let me look. (_Ch’ang-O is moved and the fairies -speak._) - -FAIRIES. Why, Queen, dost thou feel so sad? - -CH’ANG-O. Look at the mortals and see how they celebrate in couples. A -hundred times better are they than we who lead a lonesome life. - -FAIRIES. Do not speak thus, O Queen! But partake more of this beautiful -wine and drown thy sorrow. - -CH’ANG-O. Then let us drink. (_Lifts her cup._) - -(_Ch’ang-O is overcome with wine and the fairies take their leave._) - -CH’ANG-O. When we were feasting I perceived how mortals celebrated this -happy occasion in couples and enjoyed each other’s company. The thought -of my lonely life fills me with sorrow. (_Singing_) I go down by marble -steps and part the crystal curtains to see how mortal couples live and -prepare fresh fruits and delicious wines to celebrate the Festival. -Here I see a family feasting and chatting, there a group walking hand -in hand, and others while away their time in their modest homes, while -I sit in my Palace, lonely and companionless. Ah! who is there to pity -me? (_Speaking_) Deeply do I regret my offence of stealing the Elixir of -Life. As punishment I am now destined to spend my nights in sorrow. - -(_Fairies reappear to escort Ch’ang-O to visit the Heavenly Queen, Hsi -Wang Mu._) - -(_Exeunt all._) - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER FIVE - -MODERN TENDENCIES - - -During the last decades of the Ch’ing Dynasty, that is to say about forty -years ago, many of the idle and rich members of the ruling class, the -Manchus, developed an interest in the theater. The government provided -these men with an income but imposed no duties on them; and while a large -number filled the time that hung heavy on their hands by smoking opium, -others imitated the work of the socially disinherited actor. Sometimes -princes of the royal family appeared on the stage in much the same spirit -of a search for new sensations in which others impersonated beggars on -the streets. Naturally enough, such undignified behavior was highly -disapproved of in government circles, and therefore the idlers who spent -most of their time in the theaters found it more expedient to perform in -private when their artistic natures felt the itch for self-expression. -For this purpose clubs were formed called _p’iao yu_, friends of the -theater or amateurs. It is interesting to note that many of the palaces -of the princes of the Manchu Dynasty in the vicinity of Peking are -provided with stages where the theater lovers could perform in private. -Many wealthy merchants followed this fashion set by the princes, and in -recent years also a large number of students have devoted their leisure -time to the study of acting. To-day the number of amateurs in Peking is -enormous; there is such a craze for acting that every photographer’s -shop is provided with costumes and other theatrical paraphernalia in -order that the _p’iao yu_ may have his picture taken in the rôle of his -favorite character. - -Among this class of amateurs the tendency is to be very conservative. -When a club is formed the members hire an old and experienced actor who -teaches them to sing and to act in the traditional manner. Once a month -performances are given at which the amateurs show what they have learned. -Frequently, too, these tyros are given opportunities to act at weddings, -funerals, or other festivities held in private homes or in restaurants. -To belong to such a club is within the reach of even the ordinary clerks, -for the dues are about four dollars a year. I have known former members -of the diplomatic corps who had spent many years abroad as well as -ten-dollar-a-month clerks among the ranks of the amateurs. - -When an amateur goes over to the professional stage the Chinese call -it “_hsia hai_”, going down to the bottom of the sea, an expression -that indicates the low esteem in which the professional actor is held. -However, in these days of the Republic, when the social disqualification -of the actor counts for very little, and what is more important, a good -actor can command the equivalent of a princely income of the days of the -Empire, the actor is no longer despised so thoroughly as in former days. -Formerly an actor who could read and write was a notable exception, while -now occasionally a fairly well-educated man goes on the stage. - -I know, for example, a youth of twenty who had been carefully trained -by a devout American lady in the Christian way in which he was to go. -She had taught him stenography and typing, and Percy, as all Americans -called him, worked in an office in a modest but useful capacity. Suddenly -rumor had it that he was going to go on the stage and, to be sure, an -enterprising manager had offered him about forty times the sum the office -was paying him. Many of the pious folk felt grieved when Percy accepted. - -[Illustration: AMATEUR ACTORS IN AN OLD-STYLE CHINESE PLAY - -The face painting of the actor on the right shows him to be a wicked man, -probably a robber. The other is the hero of the piece, a young warrior.] - -Percy’s going on the stage was perhaps more of a surprise to some other -people than to me, for I had not only seen him perform several times with -other amateurs at weddings, but I had also observed him during office -hours studying Mei Lan-fang’s acting in the Market Theater. One hot -summer night I went to a feast where Percy had told me that he was going -to play. In the first courtyard of the host’s large residence a score of -guests were eating delicious Chinese food and drinking cool beer, while a -temporary stage had been erected in the second courtyard. Accompanied by -loud music from the orchestra an indifferent play was going on; therefore -I set out to find my hero of the evening. I found Percy seated at a table -back of the stage busy with his make-up. On his head he was wearing a -wig, his eyebrows were penciled, his cheeks rouged, and he was busy -painting his eyeballs. - -“Good heavens, Percy,” I said. “What are you doing to your eyes?” - -“I have to put Chinese ink into them to make my pupils large and black.” - -“Doesn’t it hurt like the very Satan?” - -“Oh, yes, it hurts pretty badly, but when it’s done it looks lovely.” - -How I wished that Percy’s missionary sponsors might have seen the -show! As imitator of Mei Lan-fang he played the rôle of the maid, and -he certainly looked beautiful. The maid in this particular farce (“Yi -Tsai Hua”, one of the plays forbidden by the police!) is sent by her -mistress—who is minded to improve her husband’s absence—to induce a -handsome young man to come to the lady’s boudoir. But the maid prefers, -unlike John Alden, to speak for herself! So she sets about destroying -the young man’s virtue, while the efforts of the youth to escape her -coquettish wiles supply the comic element. It was a bedroom farce, and -I noticed with pride the effects of Percy’s Christian training—he used -sheets on his bed! - -But in recent years other groups of amateurs have arisen with the -definite purpose of reforming the Chinese theater. In 1915 a group of -returned students from Japan who had derived their inspiration from -modern European dramas they had seen in Tokyo founded a dramatic club in -Shanghai called “The Spring Willow Dramatic Society.” Their aim was to -educate the taste of the public both as regards modern drama and modern -staging. They introduced non-musical, spoken drama acted on a stage with -footlights and scenery. “La Dame aux Camélias” and “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” -formed part of their repertoire. But they found only a small following -composed of students and people who had been abroad, and therefore -this effort was discontinued after one year. Shanghai is the logical -spot for such modern theaters—there have been quite a number of others -since—because Occidental influence is stronger in this city than anywhere -else in China, and the Southerners on the whole are less conservative -than the Northerners. - -One of the idealists of the “Spring Willow Society”, on finding that -the audiences were not yet ready for drama in the European style, began -to act in the Chinese theater the rôle of the ingénue (_Ch’ing-I_ and -_Hua-tan_). However, he made the reform of avoiding all plays that taught -superstitions and of turning to social plays with a purpose. But this -experiment did not succeed very well either, and therefore in 1920 he -accepted the position of director of the dramatic club in Nantun, in the -province of Kiangsi, endowed by Mr. Chang Chien, one of the wealthiest -business men in China. This gentleman believes that the theater is an -instrument of great potential force in making over society and that -through the proper kind of theater his fellow countrymen can be made -honest and patriotic. Nantun is an industrial city and an educational -center with ten middle schools and three colleges, and therefore a -favorable location for an experimental theater. Moreover, through Mr. -Chang Chien’s influence, a course in dramatics has been made a part of -the curriculum in all the schools, in order that every student may learn -to act. The students, Mr. Chang Chien hopes, will spread the message of -the modern drama far and wide by giving performances in their native -towns and villages. - -Such a tour of student actors, from quite another educational center, to -be sure, was described to me by one of my students, Mr. Jung Tu-shan. -The lad undoubtedly had considerable talent as an actor—I remember -particularly a performance of “Maître Patelin” given at the Peking -Union Medical College in which he played the leading part with great -success. In the year 1917, thirty-six students, all from the vicinity -of Wusih, set out to perform plays in all the villages in the district. -They carried with them some painted scenery and each student supplied -his costumes and traveling expenses. The families of different students -acted as hosts to the whole company in the various villages visited. -Performances were given in the afternoon. In the course of the morning -the stage was gotten ready—usually the stage at the village temple. Four -coppers admission fee was charged to pay for the cost of transporting the -scenery, and the surplus was given to various charitable enterprises. -The audiences numbered from two hundred to eight hundred spectators. -The plays were propaganda against opium smoking and foot binding or—as -this was the time of the patriotic fervor of the students—anti-Japanese -agitation. The most popular play was “The Sorrowful Korean”, in which -the maltreatment of Koreans by the Japanese was graphically portrayed, -together with the warning that the same thing would happen to the Chinese -if they did not show more patriotism. After the representation of the -pulling out of finger nails or other tortures, the cry of “boycott the -Japanese” would arise among the spectators, and those who had had the -forethought to provide themselves with Japanese-made umbrellas would -start a bonfire with them. Next, everybody would swear never again to -buy Japanese goods. At times, too, improvised plays would be given in -which the foibles or crimes of certain natives of the village would -be castigated. Some professional blackmailers whose machinations were -publicly exposed became very angry at the students, but since they were -sons of wealthy and influential men they could not harm them. It is quite -a favorable testimonial for the native ability of the Chinese as actors -that such plays could be gotten up at a moment’s notice; the method of -the students was for one of the members to tell the story in the morning, -while in the afternoon those who had been awarded the various parts would -act it out. Mr. Jung Tu-shan is of the opinion that for his illiterate -countrymen such performances are of vast educational value, especially -since newspapers are few and travel is rather restricted. - -It would lead too far afield to enumerate even a small number of the -professional companies and student clubs now presenting “modern drama”, -i.e. drama in imitation of the present-day drama of the West. Moreover -most of these undertakings are very short-lived. The professional -companies are generally found in Shanghai where many a modern European -or American drama has been presented for better or for worse. The best -work among the student dramatic clubs has been done by the one at Nankai -College, Tientsin. In the _Quarterly_ of that institution many plays have -been published dealing with Chinese life in imitation of the manner of -Ibsen, Tolstoy, Shaw, and other moderns. One play from this school, “The -New Mayor”, was singled out for particular praise by a revolutionary -critic, because it overthrew one of the ancient traditions of the Chinese -drama—the villain is not punished at the end of the play. This play too -is quite realistic and “peculiarly” Chinese. - -Mr. Tsao, the mayor of a village, together with three other unscrupulous -men, agrees to sell to a European company the land around the village -temple on which are situated the huts of many poor people. The agents of -the foreign company begin to drive off the poor people and cause untold -suffering among them. At this point a nephew of the mayor appears on -the scene. He has been studying in a “modern” school in Shanghai and -has acquired some conceptions of honesty and pity. He takes the matter -of the illegal sale to court and when he appears followed by a mob of -the poor the court annuls the contract of sale. There is even some talk -of punishing the four guilty scoundrels. In this crisis the son of the -mayor rushes to one of the three other villains, named Hou, in order to -plan for his father’s safety. Mr. Hou tells him that the only thing to -do is to bring him $4000 for bribes, with which he says he can save the -situation. The family of the mayor sell all their property in order to -raise this large sum, so that only the hope of future extortions stands -between them and absolute poverty. After what has passed the mayor is -forced to resign, but Mr. Hou promises to do all he can to influence the -election to the effect that the son succeed his father as mayor and the -office remain in the family. With this understanding the mayor’s family -pay out the $4000. But when the votes are counted it is found that the -new mayor is none other than Mr. Hou! - -It may be worth while briefly to summarize the views of two critics on -how to reform the Chinese theater. Professor Soong Tsung-faung of the -National University, Peking, for many years a student in France, Germany -and Switzerland, in his book “La Littérature Chinoise Contemporaine” -makes suggestions as follows: 1. Music and drama should be separated, -performances of operas and plays should be made as distinct genres; 2. -An approach should be made to the Aristotelian unities; 3. The false -morality of the stage should be replaced by a realistic presentation of -life; 4. More attention should be paid to effective dialogue; 5. Male and -female rôles should be played by actors of the two sexes respectively; -6. The stage and auditorium of the Chinese theater should be reformed to -resemble that of the modern European theater. - -“Europeanize the theater” is, in short, what Professor Soong suggests. -Much the same thing, from a somewhat different angle, is said by Doctor -Hu Shih, professor of philosophy in the same university. He argues that -literature is constantly changing and that such a change is a gradual -progress from low origins to classical perfection. The history of Chinese -drama represents a continuous struggle against formal restrictions which -have been gradually overcome. But in the course of this advance useless -survivals remained intact owing to the conservatism of the Chinese. As -such survivals he mentions ballad singing, military plays (acrobatics), a -conventional manner of walking on the stage, facial painting in a highly -unnatural manner, use of falsetto speech, and musical accompaniment. -These ought to be eliminated, just as the chorus, the mask, and the aside -have long gone out of style in the Western theater. Furthermore, since -progress in literature generally comes about through contact with foreign -literatures (he quotes here the influence of Ibsen on the English stage), -China ought to learn from the Occidental drama. Two things especially -China is in need of: first, the conception of tragedy to take the place -of the eternal happy ending; and second, a conception of dramatic economy. - -This same critic has himself written a play, which he modestly calls a -farce. It has been acted very successfully by student dramatic societies -in Peking and other cities. Doctor Hu Shih does not pride himself -particularly on this effort of his, yet, in my opinion, it is by far -the best “modern” play written by a Chinese under the influence of the -Western drama, including some published in American magazines. I shall -reprint it here as an index, showing the direction the Chinese drama of -the future may take. The influence of Mei Lan-fang, as Professor Soong -notes in his book, is in the direction of art for art’s sake, while the -drama of the students and reformers is the play with a purpose. - -[Illustration: HU SHIH - -Doctor of Philosophy, Columbia University. Professor of Philosophy, -National University, Peking. Author of first critical history of Chinese -philosophy, giving a new evaluation of the ancient sages. Editor, poet, -and author of play reprinted in chapter five. His most important work -was his campaign for the introduction of the vernacular in place of the -dead language of the scholars, a reform that will be of inestimable -consequence in democratizing knowledge among China’s four hundred -million.] - - -THE GREATEST EVENT IN LIFE - -A Farce in One Act by Doctor Hu Shih - - _CHARACTERS_—Mr. Tien, a gentleman and scholar. - Mrs. Tien, his wife. - Miss Tien Ah-may, their daughter. - Lee Fuh, their old servant. - A fortune-teller (blind). - - _SCENE—A parlor in Mr. Tien’s home. A door on the right leading - to the hall; a door on the left leading to the dining room. - Sofa at the back end. Armchairs. A round table in the center - with flower-vase and writing materials on it. Two chairs beside - the table. A writing desk at the left side of the stage._ - - _On the walls are hanging rolls of Chinese painting and - writing, together with framed Dutch landscapes, bespeaking the - complexity of taste in a partially modernized Chinese family._ - - _As the curtain slowly goes up, there is heard the voice of the - fortune-teller, who is seated by the table, and the final notes - of his accompanying string instrument are still audible. Mrs. - Tien is seated on one of the armchairs._ - -MRS. TIEN—I don’t quite understand what you say. Tell me, what do you -think of this match. - -FORTUNE-TELLER—I only speak the truth, Mrs. Tien. We all speak the truth. -You see— - -MRS. TIEN—But what is the truth? - -FORTUNE-TELLER—I am sorry to say that this match is undesirable. It would -be a very unhappy marriage if your daughter should marry this young man. - -MRS. TIEN—Why so? - -FORTUNE-TELLER—Well, you see, I only speak the truth. This young man was -born in the year of the Tiger and your daughter was born in the year of -the Rabbit. In the books of fortune-telling, this is called “conquering -the rabbit by the tiger.” - -The wife would live in constant fear of being swallowed up. And, as the -conquest is complete, the wife will probably die long before her husband. -I have examined the Month and the Day and the Hour, and found no way to -escape it. Of course I am only telling the truth: please don’t blame my -frankness. - -MRS. TIEN—Not at all. I like truth spoken in frankness. I know what you -said is true. For the Goddess of Mercy said the same thing yesterday. - -FORTUNE-TELLER—So the Goddess of Mercy also disapproved of this union? - -MRS. TIEN—Yes, she said that this couple, if married, will not live long -together. - -FORTUNE-TELLER—That’s exactly what I said. - -MRS. TIEN—What the Goddess said must be true. But you see, this is a very -important matter; it is the greatest event in my daughter’s life. We -parents cannot take too much care in selecting the best possible mates -for our children. So, having known the Goddess’s opinion, I sent for you -to see if there is any possible escape. You know the words of the gods -are always very brief: one may not be sure of their exact meaning. - -FORTUNE-TELLER—Quite so, quite so. - -MRS. TIEN—I am glad that you have confirmed the Goddess’s judgment. -(_Rises and hands him some money_) Thank you; here is your pay. - -FORTUNE-TELLER—(_Groping for the money_) No, no, that is not necessary. -Thanks, thanks. I am glad that the Goddess has confirmed my truth. -(_Rises_) - -MRS. TIEN—Lee Fuh! (_Enter Lee Fuh from the right-hand door_) Show him -out. (_The fortune-teller goes out led by Lee Fuh_) - -MRS. TIEN—(_Taking up the red paper on which are written the dates of -the young couple, folds it and puts it back into a drawer of the writing -desk_) It’s a pity!—it’s a pity!— - -(_Miss Ah-may Tien enters by the right-hand door. She is a young woman of -about twenty-four, tastefully dressed and wearing a rather anxious look -on her face_) - -MISS TIEN—Mother, are you consulting fortune-tellers again? I met one at -the gate. Have you forgotten that father had forbidden fortune-telling in -our house? - -MRS. TIEN—Just once more, my dear. - -MISS TIEN—But you have promised father never to call fortune-tellers into -our house. - -MRS. TIEN—I know that. But you see I can’t help doing it just once more. -I have sent for him to see if you and Mr. Chen— - -MISS TIEN—Oh, Oh!— - -MRS. TIEN—You see this is the greatest event in your life, and you are my -only child. I can’t let you marry a man with whom you can’t live long. - -MISS TIEN—But we _can_! - -MRS. TIEN—No, you can’t. The fortune-teller says so. - -MISS TIEN—What does he know about us? - -MRS. TIEN—And the Goddess of Mercy says so, too. - -MISS TIEN—So you have asked the Goddess too? What would father say to -this? - -MRS. TIEN—I know your father would object to this, as he always objects -to everything I do. But how can we old folks decide a matter which -concerns your entire life? We are liable to make grave mistakes. But the -gods cannot deceive us. Moreover, the fortune-teller has confirmed what -the goddess said. (_Going to the desk and opening the drawer_) Let me -show you what the goddess said. - -MISS TIEN—Oh, no! I don’t want to see it! - -MRS. TIEN—(_Closing the door reluctantly_) My dear, don’t be too -obstinate. I like your young man whom you have known during your stay in -Japan. He seems to be a fine fellow. You say you know him well. But you -are young and inexperienced. Even we old folks dare not trust our own -judgment in such important matters. That’s why I went to the Goddess of -Mercy and sent for the fortune-teller. They both said that this match -would be undesirable. It must be true. The fortune-teller said that this -is a case of conquering the rabbit by the tiger, because you were born in -the year of— - -MISS TIEN—Please don’t say any more of it. (_Sobbing_) I don’t want to -hear it. I know father will not agree with you. I know he will not. - -MRS. TIEN—I will tell him what I have done. He must not give away my -daughter against my wish. (_Approaching her daughter and trying to dry -her tears with a handkerchief_) Now, don’t cry. I’ll leave you to think -it over. Your father will be back soon; I go to see if dinner is ready. -Be a good child and cry no more. (_Goes by the door leading to the dining -room._ - -_A pause. As Miss Tien looks up, Lee Fuh appears at the door. She beckons -him to come near_) - -MISS TIEN—Lee Fuh, I need your help. (_Lee Fuh bows amicably_) My mother -does not want to let me marry Mr. Chen. - -LEE FUH—It’s a pity, a great pity. He is such a fine gentleman. He even -bowed to me when I met him this morning at the street corner. - -MISS TIEN—Yes, he saw you bring in the fortune-teller and he was afraid -of any sudden change. So he telephoned to me at the school and followed -me back in his motor-car. He may still be waiting at the street corner. -Go and tell him that my mother has made up her mind not to let us marry. -Of course father will help us. Tell Mr. Chen to move his car to the next -street and wait for further news. Go quickly. (_Lee Fuh bows to go_) Come -back. Tell him—tell him—not to be anxious. (_Lee Fuh bows smilingly and -goes by the right-hand door_) - -MISS TIEN—(_Goes to the desk and opens the drawer; looks at its contents -without taking it out. Then looks at her watch_) Father ought to be back -now; it is almost twelve. (_Mr. Tien, a man of about fifty, enters by the -right-hand door_) - -MISS TIEN—(_Quickly closes the drawer and rises to meet him_) Oh, father, -you are back! Mother was—(hesitates) mother has something to say to -you,—something very important. - -MR. TIEN—What’s that? Tell me first what it is. - -MISS TIEN—Mother will tell you. (_Runs to the dining-room door and -calls_) Mother, mother, father is back. - -MR. TIEN—What’s in this now? (_Sits down in the armchair. Mrs. Tien -enters_) Ah-may told me that you have something very important to say to -me. - -MRS. TIEN—Yes, something very important. Now don’t contradict me. -(_Sitting down by the table_) It is about Mr. Chen’s proposal to marry -Ah-may. - -MR. TIEN—Yes, I have been thinking about it too. - -MRS. TIEN—Good, we all ought to be thinking about it. It is the greatest -event in her life. I was simply overawed at the idea of its importance. -It is true that Ah-may has known this young man for some years during -their stay in Japan. But we don’t know him. How can we be sure of his -character? He is wealthy, but many wealthy young men are simply awful. He -is well-educated, but I have heard many returned students abandon their -wives. - -MR. TIEN—What are you driving at? - -MRS. TIEN—My point is this. We should not trust our own poor judgments. -At least I can’t, I dare not trust myself in this matter. So I went -yesterday to the Temple of the Goddess of Mercy. - -MR. TIEN—What! Have you forgotten what you promised me? - -MRS. TIEN—I can’t help it. I did it merely for the sake of our daughter. - -MR. TIEN—Pooh, pooh! Go on. - -MRS. TIEN—I went there and asked for a Divine Stick. It says that this -match is undesirable. Let me show you the poem on the Stick. (_Going to -the desk_) - -MR. TIEN—Pooh, pooh! I don’t want to see it. I’ll have nothing of this -stuff! If you don’t trust yourself, how can you trust such an important -matter to wooden images and clay idols? - -MISS TIEN—(_Cheering up_) I know father doesn’t believe in all this. -(_Going to him_) Thank you, father. We should trust our own judgment, -should we not? - -MRS. TIEN—But it isn’t the Goddess alone that says no. - -MR. TIEN—Who else then? - -MRS. TIEN—I still had my doubts, so I sent for the best fortune-teller in -this city. - -MR. TIEN—Ahem! You have broken another promise to me. - -MRS. TIEN—I know it, but you see this is the greatest event in Ah-may’s -life, and I want to clear up every little doubt in my mind. - -MR. TIEN—But, for heaven’s sake, why did you create the doubt by going to -the Goddess? Why didn’t you come to me? - -MRS. TIEN—Don’t be blasphemous. Well, the fortune-teller said exactly the -same thing as the Goddess of Mercy. Wasn’t that wonderful? - -MR. TIEN—Oh, come. Don’t be foolish. You have no confidence in your own -eyes, so you go and put complete confidence in those who have no eyes at -all! - -MISS TIEN—I quite agree with you, father. I knew you would be on our side. - -MRS. TIEN—(_To her daughter_) How dare you talk in that manner about -your own marriage? “Our” side? Whose side is “our” side? For shame! You -all conspire against me! (_Putting her face into her handkerchief and -sobbing_) Have I no right to decide my own daughter’s greatest event in -life? - -MR. TIEN—Just because this is our daughter’s greatest event in life, -we must go about it in a sane and intelligent manner. We must not be -deceived by wooden images and clay idols,—and blind fortune-tellers. Am I -not right, Ah-may? - -MISS TIEN—You are quite right, father. I knew you would not believe in -all this. - -MR. TIEN—Now, let us talk seriously. (_To Mrs. Tien_) Don’t cry. No -more childish superstitions! (_To Miss Tien_) Sit down and we’ll have a -serious talk. (_She seats herself on the sofa. A pause_) - -MR. TIEN—Ah-may, I don’t want you to marry Mr. Chen. - -MISS TIEN—(_Greatly agitated_) Oh, father, you don’t mean it! - -MR. TIEN—Yes, I do mean it. This union is impossible. I am sorry. - -MISS TIEN—Have you found anything against him? - -MR. TIEN—No, I like him very much. I could not possibly choose a better -son-in-law. So much the more I am sorry. - -MISS TIEN—(_Puzzled and grieved_) And you don’t believe in the gods and -fortune-tellers? - -MR. TIEN—Oh, no. - -MRS. TIEN AND MISS TIEN—(_At the same time_) What is it then? - -MR. TIEN—(_To Miss Tien_) My child, you have been abroad for so long that -you have forgotten our own custom and etiquette. You have even forgotten -the law of our ancestors. - -MISS TIEN—What is the law of our ancestors that forbids our marriage? - -MR. TIEN—Let me show you. (_Goes out by the dining-room door_) - -MRS. TIEN—What could it be? But I am glad that he is opposed to this -union. - -MISS TIEN—(_Reflecting, then suddenly showing determination_) I know what -to do. - -MR. TIEN—(_Enters with a set of big folio volumes_) Here is our -genealogy. (_Turning over the leaves_) Look at this long line of our -ancestors and see if there has been any marriage between the Chens (陈) -and the Tiens (田). - -MISS TIEN—Why couldn’t there be any marriage between the two families? - -MR. TIEN—Because it is the custom of the country to forbid intermarriage -between persons bearing the same family name. - -MISS TIEN—But our family is Tien and Mr. Chen’s family name is Chen: we -are not of the same family name. - -MR. TIEN—Yes, we are of the same family name. About two thousand five -hundred years ago, these two words, Tien and Chen, were pronounced in the -same way, and our family name was sometimes written in the form of Chen -and sometimes in the form of Tien. As the ages passed by, these two words -came to be pronounced quite differently, and the two branches of our -family had all the appearances of a separate origin. But the philologists -know it, and our family records show that the two families have sprung -from one and the same stock. The law of both the Chen family and the Tien -family forbids intermarriage between them. - -MISS TIEN—Does this prohibition apply to persons whose relationship dates -back two thousand five hundred years? - -MR. TIEN—Unfortunately it does. - -MISS TIEN—Oh, father, surely you don’t believe in the reasonableness of -such a custom. - -MR. TIEN—I don’t, but society does and the old scholars do. A story was -told of a peasant woman of the Tien family who married a Mr. Chen by -mistake. But after her death, she was not allowed to occupy a seat in the -ancestral temple until her name was changed into Shen (申) by prolonging -the middle stroke of the word Tien (田). - -MISS TIEN—I am willing to prolong the middle stroke of my family name, if -that is the only objection. - -MR. TIEN—You are willing, but I am not. I don’t want to be criticized by -the old scholars of our clan on your account. - -MISS TIEN—(_Sobbing_) But we are _not_ of the same family! - -MR. TIEN—Our genealogy says we _are_, and the old scholars say we _are_. -I have consulted a number of scholars on this point, and they all oppose -this union. You see, in a matter of such importance, although one must -not be deceived by the wooden gods and blind fortune-tellers, one must -respect the opinion of old scholars. And then, your young man is from -a very wealthy family. I don’t want people to think that I sold my -daughter to a rich man at the cost of sacrificing my family name. - -MISS TIEN—(_In despair_) Oh, oh! Father! You have destroyed the idols of -superstition, but you bow to the idols of tradition! - -MR. TIEN—You are angry with me? Well, I don’t blame you. I understand -your feelings. (_Lee Fuh enters_) - -LEE FUH—Dinner is ready. (_All rise except Miss Tien_) - -MR. TIEN—Let us talk it over after dinner. Come, I am hungry. (_Goes into -the dining room_) - -MRS. TIEN—(_Going to her daughter_) Don’t cry now. We all wish for your -best. Compose yourself and come to dinner. - -MISS TIEN—I don’t want dinner. - -MRS. TIEN—Don’t be obstinate. We’ll wait for you. (_Goes into the dining -room. Lee Fuh closes the door after her_) - -MISS TIEN—(_Looks up and sees Lee Fuh standing_) Is Mr. Chen still -waiting in his car? - -LEE FUH—(_In a low voice_) Yes, here is a note for you. (_Hands her a -note_) - -MISS TIEN—(_Reads_) “This concerns us alone. Decide for yourself.” -(_Repeating the last sentence_) “Decide for yourself.” Yes. I must decide -for myself. I must! (_To Lee Fuh_) Tell father and mother not to wait for -me. I’ll join them after dinner. (_Lee Fuh bows knowingly and retires. -Miss Tien rises and puts on the cloak which she had taken off when she -first entered. Goes to the desk and writes a note which she leaves under -the flower vase; then she hurries out by the right-hand door. A pause_) - -MRS. TIEN—(_From within_) Ah-may, you must come and have dinner with us. -(_Enters_) Where are you? Ah-may! - -MR. TIEN—(_From within_) Leave her alone for a while: she is angry with -us. (_Enters_) Where is she? - -MRS. TIEN—Where is she? She has gone with her cloak on. - -MR. TIEN—(_Seeing the note under the vase, takes it and reads_) “This is -the greatest event in my life. I must decide for myself. I am gone with -Mr. Chen in his car. Good-by!” - -(_Mrs. Tien sinks into the armchair. Mr. Tien rushes to the door and then -hesitates. Curtain._) - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER SIX - -EXTERNAL ASPECTS OF THE CHINESE THEATER - - -Foreigners in general regard the Chinese theater as noisy, dirty, and -dull, and therefore as a most unattractive spot; yet the Chinese must -think differently about it, for the houses are always crowded. When still -at a great distance from the theater one can hear a horrible racket -of drums, cymbals, and screeching string instruments. On entering the -building one is struck by the lack in the Chinese of the sense of how -to make things attractive, for, just as one enters a Chinese restaurant -through a dirty kitchen, so one often enters a theater through the -laundry; four or five men are seen in the “foyer” bending over steaming -tubs, washing towels, essentials in a Chinese theater the use of which -the spectator is soon to learn. On entering one finds the house—which, -by the way, is arranged like a beer garden with the spectators seated at -little tables—packed to the last seat. But the usher says nothing about -S. R. O.; he leads you somewhere and as the other spectators seem to -telescope you are asked to sit down either at a table or on a bench which -has before it a board to hold the teapot and watermelon seeds that arrive -the minute you have taken your seat. - -As you settle down and look about, you find yourself in the usual kindly, -dirty, ill-smelling, smoking, talking, shouting, eating crowd that -one finds everywhere in China. Everybody is glad to give the newcomer -information or a match; the inimitable, gentle Peking old men with their -pairs of walnuts in their right hands which they roll around to keep -their fingers supple for writing Chinese characters, drink tea, and smoke -pewter water pipes, smiling the carefree smile that old age has graven -on their faces. Waiters are continually walking around, jostling the -spectators and shouting the merits of their tobacco, candy, fruit or what -not, and depositing teapots and steaming dishes of food wherever they -are wanted. The most spectacular thing is the manner in which the towels -arrive. One waiter throws them to the other in tightly wrapped bundles, -the pitcher standing near the entrance and the catcher near the stage -or wherever people need to wipe their hands and faces. In hurling these -bundles they show an unfailing aim and in catching they never miss. Even -though one of these soggy masses of steaming cloth seems headed straight -for your face, you need not dodge, for without fail a waiter’s hand will -always be stretched out to catch it and all that the drama lover will -ever suffer is to have a fine mist sprinkled over his face. Needless to -say for this he neither expects nor receives any sympathy—not even a -passing notice. A great many soldiers—about whom the Chinese says the -worst thing he can think of, that they are “rough”—are admitted free, not -because the manager is exceedingly patriotic, but because he thinks that -discretion is better than having the door kicked in. In the gallery are -seated the women, also eating, drinking, smoking and chattering. How much -attention does this audience pay to the play? About as much as we do to -the music in a restaurant. They don’t come for a few hours’ excitement, -they come to pass the day that hangs heavy on their hands. As one French -returned student put it, “In Europe one works during the day and amuses -oneself at night; in China one amuses oneself during the day and sleeps -at night.” - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL PEKING AUDIENCE WITH THE INEVITABLE TEAPOTS - -From Jacovleff, “Le Théâtre Chinois”] - -The returned student finds the Chinese theater very little to his taste, -but yet he goes because Chinese social life is so dull that there is -nothing better to do. Comforts in our sense are lacking absolutely in -these theaters. You sit on stools without backs, your feet rest on stone -slabs when the thermometer is hovering about zero and the cold wind is -blowing down on Peking from Mongolia; there is absolutely no effort -at heating or ventilation—it is Chinese animal heat that keeps the -spectators comfortable and in a frame of mind to enjoy the performance. -Yet these discomforts are felt only by those used to Western standards of -life, for nine out of ten who leave the theater after the last villain -has been duly punished go to houses that are likewise unheated and have -no light, no agreeable company, and of course no play to charm the soul -away from reality. - -Peking is the real center of Chinese drama, the city that sets the -style for the rest of the country so far as native drama is concerned. -Innovations of Occidental nature generally have their origin in -Shanghai and are adopted later on in Peking; such imitations of Western -institutions are, for example, the amusement arcades called in both -cities “The New World”; boxes in the theaters in which men and women -sit together; and, of course, motion pictures, at first imported from -Europe and America, but in recent years manufactured by Chinese firms in -China. But as regards the native theater, Shanghai learns from Peking. -The language of the theater, in general, is the Peking dialect spoken -by actors all over China. Famous actors from Peking regularly visit -Shanghai. It is only in Peking and the treaty ports that regular theaters -exist. The vast majority of the four hundred million also have their -plays, but they are dependent for them on traveling companies, that set -up their mat-shed theaters wherever the citizens are willing to pay them -for acting. Thus the political capital Peking is also the leading city -for Chinese drama. - -The eight hundred thousand residents of Peking have, according to Mr. -Gamble’s recently published social survey, twenty-two regular theaters -and eight mat-shed theaters; that is, portable buildings covered with -matting. Furthermore, there are some nine restaurants, provincial -halls, and temples where theatrical performances are regularly given. -It is customary to mark all big weddings, funerals, banquets, charity -events, and other festivities by theatricals for which the services of -professionals are engaged or in which the many eager amateurs are given -opportunities to appear in public. Most of the large buildings,—temples, -guildhalls, palaces, etc.—are equipped with the simple projecting stages, -either inside a large hall or out of doors in a courtyard. If you happen -to live near a restaurant or a temple you will be able to speak feelingly -of the love of the Chinese for theatricals! - -The business organization of the Chinese theater is the same as that -which obtained in Elizabethan playhouses. Our theater owner-manager -of to-day who selects a play, determines the manner in which it is to -be staged and played, and then engages actors to do what he pays them -for—this enemy of real art and _bête noire_ of the theater uplifters can -be found neither in Elizabethan England nor in the Chinese theater. In -staging and acting the company of players has entire freedom in China, -just as it had in London. The theater-owner (quite like the “housekeeper” -of Shakespeare’s day) engages a troupe to play in his theater, but he -never dreams of interfering with the actor’s art. The Chinese call him -the “behind-the-curtain” while the actors are the “before-the-curtain.” -The former receives thirty per cent. of the income, while seventy per -cent, goes to the manager of the company, who then pays the salaries -of his actors. Some of these troupes or actors’ clubs are of a rather -democratic nature, because all the actors belong to their guild. The -actors’ guild has its special temple just outside the Hata Gate, for the -actors are religious folk—much as are the members of most guilds in China. - -In this temple the actors worship three deities, or rather deified men. -The first of these is Kuan Yu (Yo Fei), the god of war, during his -lifetime a great fighter against the Chin Tartars in the course of the -twelfth century. There is a well-known play that sets forth the high -qualities of this hero. Though he had been dismissed by the emperor as -the result of a court intrigue, yet he refused to join the rebels, no -matter how tempting the offers they made him, but remained loyal to his -emperor. His mother was so pleased at this that she tattooed on his back: -“He repays the state with loyalty and integrity.” Later on the emperor -reinstated him in his high honors and placed his mother’s inscription on -the banner of the army.[22] - -The second deity is the T’ang Dynasty emperor mentioned in the first -chapter as the traditional founder of the theater, T’ang Ming Huang. In -his “Pear Garden” school for actors he is said himself to have acted the -rôle of the clown. It is for this reason that the clown enjoys special -privileges; for example, he is the first one to receive the attention of -the make-up artist, while other actors must wait until the clown has had -his turn; and he may sit on any actor’s box in the greenroom. It is the -clown, furthermore, who burns the incense before the idols found in every -theater on the rear wall just opposite the stage and in the dressing -room. Such a little religious ceremony is carried out before and after -every performance to ward off bad luck. Another feature of the theater -that impresses us as being typically Chinese is found in the boards -placed at the rear of the stage and on the two supporting columns on -which are found inscriptions, generally in gilt characters, setting forth -the high moral purpose of the stage. In comparing these mottoes with what -is being presented on the stage one is often reminded of the saying of -the Reverend Arthur Smith, that no one _knows_ so well as the Chinese -what is fitting and proper. - -The third deity is Lin Ming-ju, generally pictured as a little boy. This -noble youth was a pupil in the “Pear Garden”, and all who were friendly -to him made rapid progress in their art. Hence they realized gradually -that he was a god. Like other well-known gods he afterwards disappeared -in a sudden and miraculous manner. Because the second part of this god’s -name is the word for dream, actors never speak of their dreams in the -morning. - -But religion does not mean to the actors merely the burning of incense or -the making of an annual pilgrimage to Miao Feng Shan, two days’ journey -from Peking. There is a definite tradition that an actor must show filial -piety. Whenever he undertakes something out of the ordinary, such as -perhaps accepting a contract to act in Shanghai, he must first ask his -mother’s permission. I asked repeatedly about this custom, and learned -not a reason for it, but simply the fact that if an actor did not ask his -mother’s permission he would be laughed at. Often it is the mother who -makes the contract and receives most of the money. Of a certain rising -actor it is said that his mother never allows him to act unless he is to -receive twenty dollars for each performance. - -In the fairly democratic China of the imperial times the son of the -poorest man could rise to the position of viceroy of a province by virtue -of passing a brilliant literary examination—and if we are to believe -Chinese playwrights he often did. However, the actor, together with -the son of the prostitute, and one or two other despised classes, was -debarred from these examinations. Of course, with the discontinuance of -the examinations in 1907 and the establishment of the republic in 1912, -these disqualifications dropped away. Socially the position of the actor -is improving rapidly nowadays. For example, in July, 1922, the son of -a high official of Shantung Province married the actress Li Feng-yün. -Far from being ashamed of her profession, she acted several plays on her -wedding day as part of the festivities of the occasion. However, she -abandoned her professional career on becoming the wife of this wealthy -man. The fact that she was the first wife was the remarkable thing to -the Chinese who spoke to me of the event; for that an actress becomes -the concubine of a rich official is almost an everyday occurrence in -Peking. Progress along such lines is not a unique or surprising thing in -China; to mention but one example, coeducation has come into being since -1919, almost overnight, so to speak, with surprisingly little opposition. -Actresses were forbidden on Chinese stages during the days of the Manchu -Dynasty, but since 1912 their number has increased rapidly so that -they are appearing now on eleven stages in Peking. Only in the foreign -concessions of such treaty ports as Tientsin and Shanghai do men and -women appear together on the stage, however; in Peking, Chinese prudery -still forbids this. - -There is a current notion that Chinese plays last a week or a lunar -month, but as a matter of fact about a dozen plays, or separate acts -taken from different plays, are given in one performance. Toward the end -of the afternoon’s or evening’s entertainment the spectator may observe -that some long strips of red paper covered with Chinese characters in -black ink are removed from the two side railings of the balcony and -others substituted in their place. In this manner the program of the -following day is announced. The performances generally last from noon -to about six and from seven in the evening until midnight. The best -plays with the stars are reserved until the last, while dull, long plays -with inferior actors generally begin the program. These poor actors are -often retained merely for charity’s sake; often, too, famous actors give -benefits for their less fortunate colleagues. In Shanghai actors get -monthly contracts; but in Peking the minor actors are hired by the day, -and some of them must play in several theaters in one afternoon in order -to eke out a meager living at about twenty coppers a day. - -Men of this type, of course, are hardly more than “supers.” Regular -actors on the average earn about one dollar a day, while some of a higher -grade receive five dollars to ten dollars. To receive twenty-five dollars -for a regular performance a man must be quite prominent in the theatrical -world. A few stars, like Mei Lan-fang and Yang Hsiao-lo, receive one -hundred dollars for each regular performance, and considerably more when -they act at banquets or on other special occasions. - -The charges in the theaters depend on the type of theater and even more -on the actors. Theaters where women or boys appear as actors are lower in -price. There is no ticket or money demanded as one enters the theater, -but the price is collected by the usher when he seats the spectator. -In the ordinary theater one can sit at a comfortable table for forty -cents or in a box for a dollar and a half. There are two large theaters -in Peking built in Occidental style with receding stages, in which the -prices are somewhat higher: eighty cents for a first-class seat and nine -dollars for a box seating eight persons. When a star is playing, these -prices are augmented somewhat. The poorer classes can enjoy theatrical -performances for five coppers by going to the mat-shed theaters. The -average seating capacity of a Peking theater is about a thousand, and the -average attendance is very near this figure, if not above it. - -The course of an actor’s training is an extremely hard one. For -seven years he is instructed in singing and acrobatics, and then he -begins to play in some of the boys’ theaters, institutions connected -with the training schools for actors. During the longest part of his -apprenticeship he receives no wages, he has long hours, menial tasks, and -severe taskmasters. Actresses are trained by special private teachers -and their courses have not yet become so uniform as have those for the -men. The police have very strict regulations to prevent actresses from -becoming prostitutes, but according to Mr. Gamble, in some theaters -women from the licensed quarter appear, make engagements after giving -their acts, and do some other soliciting. The connection between the -lower-grade theaters and the segregated district is rather close. - -In order to give an idea of the different kinds of theaters one -encounters in Peking, I can do no better than to describe several typical -entertainments from my notes stretching over five years. There is in the -Southern City, for example, the Tung Lo Yuan, a fine specimen of the -old-style Chinese theater. No women are allowed to visit this theater—not -because of immoralities, but simply because the place is conservative. -The seats run at right angles to the stage, along tables, showing that -people come to hear the music rather than to observe the action on the -stage. I paid twenty-four coppers for my seat in the balcony; the usual -price in this theater is eighteen coppers, but because Han Hsi-ch’ang was -going to act, the price was raised on that particular day. After a series -of plays dealing with murders and robberies, in the course of which the -audience gloated over the shuddering and weeping of the victims, there -came the chief play of the day—a Yuan Dynasty drama revived in this -theater. - -The play deals with a poor woodcutter and his wife. The hero takes no -interest in his humble calling; in fact, he neglects it for the study of -literature. Since he does not support his wife, she deserts him for a -smith. Finally the husband goes to Peking for the literary examination -and passes with honors. When the wife learns that her first husband is -to become a mandarin she is filled with joy; she sits down at a table, -falls asleep, and has a wonderful dream. The dream is portrayed just as -it would be in our moving pictures; a conventional symbol, a short pause -in the action and the tapping of the drum, indicates to the audience -that there is going to be a dream, and then the dream action continues -in the same way in which the rest of the play had gone on. A number of -men—recalling the Wise Men of the East—enter, bringing all manner of -silk robes, headdresses, and other rich gifts for the lady. In her dream -the faithless wife sees all this; she tries on her robes, shows them off -to the neighbors, and glories in her riches. Then she returns to her -sleeping position at the table and awakens to find that all had been a -dream. In the fourth act the husband returns, dressed in embroidered -robes, a prosperous mandarin. He pours a cup of water on the ground, -saying that he will take his wife back provided she can gather up the -water again. From this play comes the proverbial expression, “Water once -spilled cannot be gathered up again”, which means, of course, that a wife -who has been unfaithful cannot be taken back by the husband. - -According to the custom of Chinese theaters only one act was presented; -it was the third act, the dream, that I saw. The too-severe strain on -the chief actor who must sing very long arias is generally given as -the reason why plays are not presented in their entirety. Sometimes -when an entire play is presented—this is frequently done at guildhalls -and other private theatricals—three or four actors in turn play the -leading rôle. The actor portrayed exceedingly well the wife’s emotions -of joy, surprise, and pride. He wore a black dress, because this is -the conventional color for the poor, although it was made of fine silk -instead of the cotton which is actually worn by the masses. In the -old-style Chinese music (called _kuan-ch’ang_) the flute is the leading -instrument and the strains are melodious and sweet, not at all offensive -to the foreigner’s ear as is a great deal of the modern music. - -One evening I was the guest of Mr. Chang Ziang-ling, the present Chinese -Consul-General in New York, at a performance by Mei Lan-fang in the -so-called First Theater, a large playhouse built in European style. -The usher took us to two good seats near the stage occupied by two -ragamuffins, and asked the latter to give up their seats to us. Mr. Chang -then paid him two dollars for two seventy-cent seats and explained that -it is a little graft on the part of the ushers to place vagabonds in good -seats until people who they know will tip them come to the theater. - -The play again was a Yuan drama called “Snow in June”; a play discussed -in a previous chapter under the title, “The Sufferings of Tou-E.” Mei -Lan-fang is introducing many innovations into the manner of producing -plays, turning the stage into a veritable riot of colors selected -with exquisite taste. The rear of the stage is covered by a curtain -painted with plum blossoms and chrysanthemums in allusion to two of the -characters of his name. The executioners, dressed in rich red trousers -lined with white, come on the stage leading in their midst the victim -wearing a long robe of a delicate shade of light blue. Some of the -executioners have their faces painted in vivid reds and blacks; I find -that this adds a great deal to the spectacle, even though it is the -very opposite of realism. To illustrate the sort of gagging constantly -practiced by Chinese actors I might quote what the judge says to the -prisoner: “What! One so young as you is accused of having committed a -murder? For this you will be beheaded. Let that be a lesson to you not -to do it again.” Such a feeble joke in the face of the innocent young -victim is, of course, just as fitting as many calembours in Shakespeare’s -tragedies. After the execution snow falls; that is, bits of paper are -tossed down from above. All in all the staging of the play is most -agreeable and Mei Lan-fang’s acting is extremely good. - -Quite a different performance can be observed in one of the “new” -theaters, a blight which has come to Peking via Shanghai. One evening I -went to the one in the “New World”, a four-story concrete building, an -amusement palace offering for the single admission fee of thirty cents, -old-style plays, “new” drama, story-tellers, singsong girls, moving -pictures, performances by acrobats, jugglers, and sword-swallowers, -restaurants both for foreign and Chinese food, tea room, billiard tables, -and bowling alleys, convex and concave mirrors, and penny slotmachines -showing pictures of various sorts. (“A number of these pictures were -of rather coarse nature,” observes Mr. Sidney Gamble in his “Peking, A -Social Survey”, “but none of them could be called immoral.”) My goal was -the “new” theater, namely plays staged in what the Chinese fondly believe -to be the manner of the Occidental theaters. Before a very crowded -auditorium a play was being performed by actors dressed in European -style, or perhaps better, the style of the mail-order-house type of -clothing. The play was in spoken Chinese, and no music accompanied the -action. Only in the intermissions between the rather short scenes the -band from the Boys’ Industrial School, sitting in a corner in the rear of -the hall, played “John Brown’s Body” and other appropriate dirges. - -The play dealt with a woman who had lured men into her house in order to -have them robbed there by her accomplices. This woman was dressed in a -red silk waist and a lavender skirt; she no doubt seemed very Western to -the audience, because she wore a corset and allowed the contour of her -body to show instead of being bound so as to look flat-chested like the -Chinese women. The part, however, was acted by a man who spoke in a high -falsetto. There was a great deal of love-making of a kind unknown to the -Chinese stage—the men kissed the woman’s hand and even put their arms -about her. At times the vampire left the stage for a short time with -one of the victims, in a significant manner. Most applause was accorded -the actor who played the ruffian, when he strode “toughly” across the -stage with his coat collar turned up and his cap pulled down over his -eyes. By way of giving a good imitation of the manners of Europeans the -actors, when speaking to the lady, consistently took off their coats, -held them on their arms, and displayed brand-new red suspenders! The -scenery was changed with every act and showed crude imitations of our -painted interiors or street scenes with lamp posts. The play was endless -and the action extremely slow. This heart-breaking imitation of our worst -melodramas is, I am glad to say, not making the rapid progress it has -made in India, where it has driven out completely the native drama, at -least in Calcutta and Bombay. - -As I have stated above, the Chinese stage lacks scenery almost -altogether. Practically the only ornate—and to a certain extent the -most realistic—part of the Chinese theater is found in the costumes. In -regard to the dress of the actors, historical truth, as has been stated, -is observed to a certain extent. The magistrates, the courtiers, the -yamen-runners, the merchants, the doctors, the students, the priests, -the monks and nuns, the matchmakers, and similar characters appear in -appropriate costumes, but usually much more elaborate than they would -be in real life. In the troupe of Mei Lan-fang, Peking’s most famous -actor, the men carrying banners in processions are dressed in silk of -the same color as the cotton gowns which these ragamuffins wear in the -streets of Chinese cities. Honorable personages appear in silk robes in -solid colors: purple, yellow, orange, or red. In the dress of common -soldiers the spectator finds the styles of the various periods followed -with historical accuracy, but the dress of great warriors is fanciful and -highly ornamented. These peacocks of the Chinese stage with their feather -headdress, their painted faces, and their richly embroidered gowns -studded with little mirrors, are the most colorful sights in the theater. -Such warriors wear shoes with thick soles, thus adding about three or -four inches to their natural height, a touch recalling the _soccus_ of -the classical theater. The peculiarly slit-eyed expression of the warrior -is achieved by binding a strip of silk tightly about the head, pulling up -the eyebrows. - -A conception of the immense popularity on the Chinese stage of the -warrior performing acrobatics signifying tremendous battles can be gained -from the Chinese classification of plays. One of the two main divisions -is the _wu-hsi_ or fighting play, involving very little plot and almost -continuous acrobatics or “fighting.” The other main division is the -_wen-hsi_ or civil play, which is practically the same thing we mean -by the term drama. In general, the two kinds of plays alternate in the -course of the performances so that each division makes up about fifty per -cent. of the plays presented. Westerners are frequently surprised that -the Chinese do not make the division into comedy and tragedy, but it may -be well to recall that even with us this differentiation is a floating -conception. Practically all the divisions mentioned in “Hamlet” could be -matched on the Chinese stage; historical, comical, tragical, pastoral, -and so on. The Chinese have farces called _nao-hsi_ (noise plays) and -_fen-hsi_ (painted, make-up plays), both full of comical and burlesque -elements. The only difference between them is, an old Peking resident has -observed, that the latter excel the former in obscenity.[23] - -[Illustration: ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS - -1—_Shou._ 2—_Ti-tze._ 3—_Peng-ku._ 4—_Hu-ch’in._ 5—_Ch’a._ 6—_La-pa._] - -A cross division of the above classification is found in the distinction -drawn between plays according to the style of music employed; -_kuan-ch’ü_, _er-huang_, _hsi-p’i_, and _pan-tzu_. Among them only the -first mentioned has an appeal to literary men, while the other three -are considered fit for the mob only. The _kuan-ch’ü_ music is a real -Chinese product descended from the classical plays of the Yuan Dynasty. -It flourished during the Ming Dynasty, but during the Ch’ing rule it -fell into desuetude until at the time of the late Dowager Empress it -had entirely passed out of fashion. In the last decades there have been -made fairly successful efforts to revive it, especially on the part of -Mei Lan-fang. The chief instrument in this style of music is the flute. -_Er-huang_ and _hsi-p’i_ are very similar. Both styles came to Peking -from the province of Hupeh at the beginning of the Ch’ing Dynasty, -and in both the _hu-ch’in_, a string instrument with a sounding-box -played by a bow, gives the characteristic touch to the music. These two -styles, together with the _pan-tzu_, are considered rather vulgar music, -especially the _pan-tzu_. This latter style came to Peking from the -province of Shansi, where the barbarian Mongol blood predominates in the -population over the purer Chinese strain. The _hu-ch’in_ is also played -in _pan-tzu_; but the instrument that gives the name as well as the -character to this style is a wooden board held in one hand by a member of -the orchestra and beaten with the other to indicate the rhythm. As can be -gathered from this fact, the music is very simple and primitive. - -In addition to the instruments mentioned above there are various others -employed by the orchestra sitting on the stage. On the whole the -instruments are practically the same for all kinds of music. They are -shown in the accompanying illustrations drawn for me by a Chinese artist. -The _hsien-tzu_ is a sort of three-stringed banjo, the sounding box -of which is covered with a snake skin. The _yüeh-ch’in_ (moon guitar) -has four strings and a wooden sounding-box. Other wind instruments in -addition to the _ti-tzu_ (flute) are the _shou_, resembling somewhat a -bagpipe, and the _la-pa_, a brass horn used to announce the entry of -great military personages. Instruments of percussion outnumber those of -other varieties. The _ch’iao-pan_ are two flat boards tied together -with a string, used by the leader of the orchestra to indicate the time. -The _t’ang-ku_ is a brass plate beaten furiously in battle scenes, as -are also the _lo_ and the _ch’a_ (cymbals). The _peng-ku_ is a drum -made of a solid block of wood which gives piercing, high notes when -beaten in a whirlwind tattoo by means of two thin sticks. The _ku_ has -a leather drumhead and resembles somewhat our kettledrum. It should be -noted that the size of the orchestra and the kind of instruments employed -vary a great deal. However, the above may serve to give an approximate -conception of the Chinese theater music. Just as in much of our own -earlier drama, emotional or poetic passages are sung by the actors on the -Peking stage. - -[Illustration: ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS - -1—_Hsien-tze._ 2—_Ku._ 3—_Yüeh-ch’in._ 4—_Chiao-pan_ or _pan-tze_. -5—_Lo._] - -Another striking similarity to the European medieval theater is the fact -that the Chinese stage has its fixed character types. The four most -important among these, called the _t’ai chih_ or pillars of the stage, -are: 1, the _cheng-sheng_; 2, the _wu-sheng_; 3, the _ching-i_; 4, the -_hua-tan_. Each company must always have its best actors among these -four, because one of them is sure to be the star in the play. - -The _cheng-sheng_ is an elderly man wearing a long beard. The great -actor T’an Shen-pei, who died about five years ago, but whose fame lives -on in his many imitators, played this part. It comprises the rôles of -emperors, generals, and also old faithful servants, the latter generally -characters oppressed by grief. T’an Shen-pei, who became the founder -of a tradition called the _t’an-p’ai_, was famous for his skill in -acting, his fine singing, and his distinct, measured pronunciation. -Among his most famous followers are Yü Ssu-yen and T’an Hsiao-sheng, -the latter one of his sons. A related type is the _hsiao-sheng_, a -youthful civilian or military character, frequently the young scholar -who plays the part of the lover. The young military hero is called the -_ch’ü-fei-sheng_ (wearing pheasant feathers) and the young scholar and -lover _shan-tze-sheng_ (carrying a fan). Chu Su-yung is the most famous -_hsiao-sheng_ in Peking at present. He has been nicknamed the “living -Chou Yü”, after a hero from the ancient tale of “The Three Kingdoms” -whom he frequently impersonates upon the stage. Mei Lan-fang has found -in the handsome Chang Miao-shang a very satisfactory partner for his -romantic plays. This young man, who acts the part of the ardent lover to -perfection, has the probably unique distinction among actors of being -the product of a Christian missionary school, the Peking Methodist -Academy. The Chinese criticize the weakness of his voice and say that his -reputation is due only to the fact that he plays opposite the greatest -actor of the present day in China. - -The _wu-sheng_ is the military hero. To impersonate this rôle properly -an actor must be very skillful in the art of stage fighting, which means -that he must possess great acrobatic skill. He must understand how to -fence with wooden stage swords or spears, and furthermore how to box. -Chinese boxing has nothing whatever to do with the bloodthirsty Boxers of -1900, for the latter received their name through a misunderstanding. It -is, on the other hand, a most inoffensive art, consisting of a series of -poses rapidly and skillfully executed. I believe that formerly it was a -method of fighting, but that it has become thoroughly conventionalized at -present into a system of posturing and rapid movements. - -For a gorgeous riot of color one might recommend a play acted by Yang -Hsiao-lou, Peking’s most famous actor of military plays, who is beginning -to command the same salary as Mei Lan-fang. He is known not only for his -ability in fighting, but also because he can sing well and enunciate -very clearly. The tourist can tell the home folks that he has seen -something if he has watched Yang Hsiao-lou with a face painted in heavy -reds and blues, wearing tall feathers on his head, dressed in a garment -embroidered in rich colors and studded with little mirrors, mounted -on shoes with very thick soles, strutting about the stage in martial -attitude, and finally engaging in combat a similarly dressed hero to -the end that both whirl about the stage with lightning speed, while the -orchestra supplies the excitement by means of a terrific noise which -threatens to take the roof off the building. It makes a truly exciting -spectacle of which even an untrained Westerner can feel the thrill. - -The two types of _ching-i_ and _hua-tan_ are both young women characters. -The difference made between them is that the former represents an honest -and simple girl generally playing a sad part in which great emphasis is -placed on the singing, while the _hua-tan_ represents a woman of doubtful -reputation or a maid servant in a comedy part, requiring great skill in -acting. It is one of the merits of Mei Lan-fang that he acts both types -and thus breaks down one of the stiff rules of the Chinese theater in -the interest of developing it into a freer art. Indeed, for over ten -years he has been the supreme artist in both types. It is said of him by -Peking critics that he sings as beautifully as a nightingale, that he -has a pretty face, that he dances gracefully, and that his acting, in -the Chinese simile, is like quicksilver which fills up every crevice and -crack of a hole into which it is poured—that is to say, satisfying to -the last detail. Teh Hing, a man over sixty years old, is another famous -_ching-i_; however, he scorns to play the rôle of the _hua-tan_, the -flowery maiden who treads the primrose path. Still another type in which -Mei Lan-fang appears at times is that of _wu-tan_, or warrior maiden, a -rôle comparatively rarely seen. - -[Illustration: A DEMI-MONDAINE - -Chinese Character Type] - -For some of the best make-ups and the most natural action on the Chinese -stage one ought to see men playing the part of _lao-tan_, or old -woman. I have frequently found it difficult to believe that it was a -man who appeared with the sorrowful, lined face, the black headdress, -tottering along with the stiff walk engendered by bound feet, leaning -on a tall staff with a carved handle, and all in all giving a perfect -representation of a _lao-t’ai-t’ai_ (old lady). Very touching bits often -appear in plays in which an old woman in her broken voice bewails the -loss of a son, her only support in life. Among other minor types are -found the _lao-sheng_ (old man), the _ta-ching_ (male part, either wicked -or honest—his character is indicated by the style of face-painting he -wears), and the _er-hua-mien_ (usually a robber). In addition to these -there are an infinite number of other possible parts; for example one -sees not infrequently various wild and domestic animals interpreted in -very droll make-ups that recall Shakespeare’s “Midsummer Night’s Dream.” - -A very important type is the _ch’ou_, the clown, as much an institution -on the Chinese stage as he was on that of our Middle Ages. It is very -difficult, Chinese critics say, to become a famous clown. The part of the -clown consists largely of improvisation, but it is quite risky for him -to be as funny as he can. He is permitted topical allusions, but he must -gauge carefully the mood of the audience. I remember one quite successful -hit. In a certain play a husband returns after an absence of ten years -and finds his wife and son in good health, but with an added blessing -of Heaven in the shape of a one-year-old boy. He berates his wife for -her infidelity and exclaims, “Who could have done me such a turn?” At -that moment the clown leaped to the edge of the stage shouting, “It was -he!” and allowed his pointing finger to sweep slowly across the sleek, -blushing faces of the row of rich merchants in the front seats. - -It may seem surprising that I speak so glibly of the “best” actors among -the various types, but I should hasten to state that this is a matter in -which I do not give my own judgment but the result of popular balloting. -A Peking newspaper holds an annual vote for the best actors among each -rubric, and the judgment of the readers of this journal is generally -accepted among theatergoers. Although the daily papers are an innovation -in Peking, perhaps less than twenty years old, yet many of them have -their theatrical critics who “puff” actors and more often actresses for -other reasons than for art’s sake. Press-agenting is far from being -an unknown art in the Middle Kingdom. Much of the writing is done by -students of the National University who earn a little extra money by this -means. The most picturesque among the Peking critics is a Japanese called -by his Chinese name, T’ing Hua. For the last twenty years he has devoted -himself to the Chinese theater heart and soul, and shows his devotion -by adopting orphans whom he gives a schooling as actors. T’ing Hua has -over twenty such “sons”, one of whom is becoming very famous, especially -in the _Shun T’ien Shih Pao_, the paper for which father writes. Yet in -spite of all touting the vote reflects the popular feeling, especially -as regards Mei Lan-fang and Yang Hsiao-lou, the most famous interpreters -of the rôles of young girl and military hero respectively. - -Theaters on a commercial basis are also practically a new thing in China; -that is to say something that has developed on a large scale only within -the last twenty years. Before that time theatrical performances were -given mostly at temples or harvest festivals, at the houses of rich men, -and, most elaborately, at the imperial court. As a sign of the times I -should like to quote an item clipped from the _Peking Daily News_ of -June 28, 1922. The article tells of a meeting of the representatives -of Peking’s five thousand blind men held in a temple. The end of the -paragraph I shall quote verbatim in the English of the Chinese translator: - - Among the business matters discussed was the organization of a - blind man’s association for the purpose of carrying on their - trade effectively. The usual crafts of the blind men in Peking - are singing and fortune telling, but conditions have gradually - changed, whereby theaters are established everywhere, popular - education has paralyzed superstition, so now their crafts are - generally getting out of date, and thereby need reformation. - -But the Peking police force, perhaps the best in the world, has drawn -up full regulations, which are adequate for preserving order in the -playhouses that have multiplied so rapidly in the capital. Each company -must be registered, must pay a tax of five dollars for each performance, -must reserve certain seats for policemen who keep order, must not crowd -extra seats into the aisles, must avoid immoral plays, must submit all -new plays to the police, and must apprise the police beforehand of -every performance to be held. The ordinance requiring the separation of -the sexes in the theater is an Eastern touch that is sure to impress -Occidentals—who have forgotten that in Shakespeare’s day also women were -confined to the gallery. Peking police rules demand that the ushers and -tea-venders in the galleries must also be women and that these galleries -must have their separate exits. The rule that spectators are forbidden to -sit on the stage also recalls Elizabethan manners. One can read in these -police regulations: - - If the program has been changed and the spectators start a - protest by throwing teacups at the actors, these disturbers of - the peace must be arrested and conducted to the nearest police - station. - -There is, however, very little disturbance in the theaters; at least -I have never seen the least sign of a fight or quarrel among the -spectators. Actors on the stage are forbidden to curse and are fined if -they do so. The hours for the performances are fixed from twelve noon -to five in winter and spring, and from noon to six in summer and fall, -while all evening performances must end at midnight. The latter are an -innovation at Peking and are taxed more heavily than the regular daytime -performances. There is also a ruling aimed against “claques” which -forbids too boisterous applause. - -On one occasion when I took some New Yorkers to see Mei Lan-fang in the -rôle of “Yang Kuei-fei on a Spree”, one of my guests exclaimed, “If this -play is permitted, I wonder what kind of plays the police forbid!” The -obliging Chinese police have supplied me not only with the regulations -for theaters, but also with the list of forbidden plays. Naturally enough -gross immorality realistically presented is forbidden. There is no -question of the display of nudity; it never occurs and, I believe, would -hold little appeal for a Chinese audience. Some of the plays forbidden -are rather interesting. - -There is the “Shang Ting Chi” (Ruse of the Nail). A wife killed her -husband because she was in love with another man. The police were -unable to learn the cause of the man’s sudden death, but the examining -magistrate was told by his superior that he must fathom the mystery or -be himself beheaded. When he went home sorrowfully to tell his wife of -his plight, the latter asked whether he had examined the part of the head -covered with hair. The officer hastened to investigate the back of the -victim’s head and found that a nail had been driven into it. When the -superior learned of this he ordered the officer’s wife to be arrested. -She confessed that she had known of the ruse because she had put her -former husband to death by driving a nail into his head and braiding the -queue over the wound. Thereupon both women were put to death. The play -is forbidden lest women learn how to rid themselves of their husbands! - -Another forbidden play is “Sha Tze Pao”, the story of a young woman who -loved a monk. One day her young son discovered them _in flagranti_. The -mother feared that the boy would tell of her shame and therefore she -killed him. His sister suspected a crime, told the boy’s teacher about -it, and he in turn reported it to the authorities. As a result, both the -woman and the monk were put to death. The play is based on an actual -incident that happened in the province of Hunan about forty years ago. -The sister, later in life, at one time visited a theater where this very -play was being staged and received a shock comparable to the one an -honest son of a famous murderer might receive if he went to visit Madame -Tussaud’s Waxworks and suddenly beheld his own father reënacting his -crime in wax. The Chinese authorities forbid the play because the killing -of the child by the mother is realistically acted out. The mother’s face -is covered with blood as she cuts the body into many pieces and places -them in a wine vat. It is a curious thing that on the Chinese stage where -fixed conventions leave so much to the imagination one finds occasionally -the most revolting realism in plays of the “shuddering” variety. I have -seen, for example, the victim of an assault dragging his entrails across -the stage—a nauseating imitation of the real thing. The Chinese love -their “horrors” just as much as our medieval ancestors did. - -It is a custom on the Chinese stage to play on the occasion of various -seasonal festivals pieces pertaining to the holiday in question. The best -known of the seasonal plays is perhaps the “Ta Yin Ho” (Crossing the -Milky Way), played on the seventh day of the seventh month of the Chinese -calendar, that is to say, generally some time during our month of July. -This story is an old legend, varying somewhat in different versions, -related in the quotation from William Stanton in Chapter One, where Yang -Kuei-fei in the T’ang Dynasty makes allusion to it. It can be seen on a -number of stages in Peking at the time of this festival, and is staged in -an especially colorful manner by Mei Lan-fang. - -The same actor plays another mythological fancy on the occasion of the -mid-autumn festival, “Ch’ang-O Pin Yüeh” (Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the -Moon).[24] This custom of seasonal plays shows a very close connection -existing between the popular beliefs and the theater which recalls in a -manner the medieval mysteries of the Easter and Christmas seasons. The -fact that some of the plays have been written within recent years only -indicates that the Chinese theater is in no way declining as a typical -Chinese institution, as is, for example, the popular theater of India. -What the visitor sees in the native theaters of Calcutta or Bombay, as -has been stated above, is a diluted imitation of our weakest and worst -melodrama with all its mannerisms. In contrast to this the Chinese -theater of Peking is continuing as a living popular art, introducing some -external features from our stage, but on the whole remaining true to its -own genius. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER SEVEN - -THE CONVENTIONS - - -To the average Occidental the Chinese stage appears a very queer -institution with ridiculous customs. This is due largely to the fact -that in the Chinese make-believe world the conventions differ from those -employed by us on the stages where we mock life. We accept our own stage -conventions as something so natural that habit permits us to forget the -strangeness of the devices employed. How many Americans among those who -have been under the spell of the realistic action of “The Bat” have -thought of the fact that the characters were at all times moving about -in rooms with only three walls, that darkness was symbolized by lights -carried by the actors, that the attic in the country home of the astute -spinster was lighted by footlights, and that an actor who had been killed -appeared a moment later for a curtain call? And if in a play that has -been pushed approximately to the extreme of realism, an unsophisticated -rustic on his first visit to New York might discover the above-mentioned -ridiculous customs, what might his comments be on the fact that -Mephistopheles sings melodiously in encouraging Faust to fight for his -life, that stage whispers are heard by every one in the house except the -one person most in need of hearing them, that a flimsy canvas door can -shut out a stout villain, or that the last words of a dying man reach to -the very highest seat in the top gallery? - -Thus it would seem that any one who laughs at the conventions of the -Chinese stage simply displays his provincialism. Our forefathers -tolerated almost the identical conventions on the medieval stage, as I -have shown at length in Chapter Nine. Moreover, it is a very striking -fact that there is in many of our theaters at present an extreme reaction -against a minute and pedantic imitation on the stage of the realities of -everyday life. Because it is felt that too much attention to external -things deadens the imagination of the spectators, stage managers of -to-day are beginning to prefer once more a conventional presentation. - -As a Westerner learns to recognize the conventions of the Chinese stage -he quickly becomes used to them, and soon he is as little disturbed by -the make-believe of the Oriental theater as he had been before by that -of the Occidental. He is then ready to appreciate the art of the Chinese -actor, which runs the gamut of human emotions quite as fully as that of -the great actors of the West. He must know, however, that the rug on -the floor of the projecting, curtainless stage is a magic carpet which -carries the actors without change of scenery from Mongolia to Tibet, -from the market place to the audience hall in the palace, or from the -forest to the prison by the simple device on the actor’s part of walking -once or twice about the stage or of exiting and reappearing immediately -afterward. The stage has two doors; the one at the spectators’ left is -generally used for entrances and the one at the right for exits. However, -at times the door at the left is also used for exits, if the actor wishes -to indicate that he is not leaving the house or is otherwise remaining -in the immediate vicinity. The crossing of a doorsill is presented by -raising the feet about eight inches off the floor in making the steps. To -open or close a door the actor raises both hands and makes the pantomime -of drawing a bolt and moving a door. Slow steps in which the feet are -raised well off the floor show that the actor is walking up a stairway. -When a general ascends a hill to review a battle he mounts on a chair or -table. If a mountain is to be crossed, a similar pantomime is performed. -That a man is on horseback is shown by the fact that he carries a riding -whip. When he mounts he takes the whip and raises one leg in a movement -intended to imitate the action of leaping into the saddle, and when he -dismounts he hands the whip to an attendant with a similarly appropriate -movement. When the groom leads off the horse he pulls after him the -seemingly refractory whip. Sometimes these actions attain a touch of -realism, but generally they are—in better taste—confined to quite -conventionalized movements. Frequently they escape the newcomer entirely. - -A mandarin arriving in a chair walks on the stage surrounded by four -attendants, who make a stooping movement such as chair-bearers might -make by way of setting down the imaginary palanquin. A lady traveling in -a carriage carries with the aid of a servant two pieces of canvas about -three feet square, on each of which is painted a wheel; the squares of -cloth are supported on bamboo rods, the lady holding the rear ends and -the servant the front ends of the rods as they walk across the stage. -When she descends she makes an appropriate movement, while the servant -folds up and carries off the two painted wheels. Characters who wish to -show that they are riding in a boat indicate this by carrying oars with -which they paddle in the air. If some one is to enter the boat an oar -is stretched out, the new arrival grips it and takes a long step, as -though he were boarding a vessel. A man committing suicide by drowning -performs a leap as though he were jumping into a well and then quickly -runs off the stage. Some commit suicide by throwing themselves down from -a wall, indicating this by leaping off a table or a chair placed on top -of a table, at times falling on their backs in a manner that requires -great acrobatic skill. However, many of the somersaults and similar -feats performed on the stage are simply ornamental, with no symbolic -significance whatever. - -[Illustration: THE ACTRESS KIN FENG-KUI IN A MALE RÔLE - -The long feathers and the headdress mark the warrior, while the -riding-whip signifies that the general is on horseback] - -Stage fighting has been developed in China into an intricate art with -many cut-and-dried conventions and a minimum of realism. The warriors -fly at one another, but they never hit with their swords or spears. The -art consists simply in making quick passes at the opponent, whirling -about rapidly, throwing a weapon into the air and catching it again, -or spinning a spear about much as a drum major does his baton. All the -while the orchestra is playing wild and loud music, the kind that Thomas -Moore’s Mr. Fudge would call the music of the spears, for every tone -seems to go right through you. As neither of the contestants is wounded -or falls down, the spectator learns the issue of the battle from the fact -that the defeated warrior exits first, while his victorious opponent -makes a sort of bow to the audience and then struts off with a dignified -step. Sometimes a spear is thrown at a soldier who catches it and sinks -to the ground clutching it to his breast, denoting that he has been -pierced; then he runs off quickly, a dead man. In stage armies one man -carrying a banner signifies one thousand men. - -The stage in Peking theaters is lighted by daylight or by means of huge -arc lamps that illumine the auditorium and the stage alike. Therefore -darkness must be indicated by a conventional symbol, and the same one is -chosen that we have selected in the West, namely, a lighted (sometimes -unlighted) candle, lamp, or lantern. It is hardly necessary to recall -here that even in our most realistically staged plays the darkness on -the stage is only relative and never, except for very brief moments, -absolute. The passing of time at night is indicated by the drummer of the -orchestra, who beats the hours on his kettledrum while otherwise there is -silence on the stage. As the Chinese divide their day into twelve periods -of two hours each, this can be done more quickly than would be the case -if our divisions of time were used and the entire gesture is fairly -inconspicuous. - -High military officers can be recognized readily by the four pheasant -feathers, sometimes as long as six feet, which form part of their -headdress. The Chinese call them “back-protecting feathers”, because they -are supposed to ward off the blows of the enemy swords. In the same way -the painted faces of the warriors can be traced to originally utilitarian -purposes; about a thousand years ago a famous Chinese warrior whose -scholarly face had a very unmartial appearance painted his face in a -gruesome manner in order to inspire fear in the hearts of his enemies. - -The manner in which the faces of traditional heroes of war are painted is -an attempt at a conventionalized reproduction of the facial expression of -these terror-inspiring men as they are described in the books of history -or in novels. Therefore it is not possible to give a definite color or -color scheme for warriors. But in some other respects there is a definite -custom. A face painted pure white denotes a wicked person, while no color -on the face means a good character. Pure red designates an honest and -faithful man, gold a heavenly being, and several colors applied unevenly -a robber. The white nose is the mark of the clown. It is interesting to -note that in Chinese clown has likewise the three connotations given for -the word in Webster’s dictionary: rustic, ill-bred, and buffoonish. - -Gods and spirits can be recognized by the horsehair switch they carry -whenever they appear and by the slight tapping of the gong as they -enter the stage. The ghosts of the deceased wear black veils over their -heads, or bundles of strips of paper under their right ears. Whenever -any character from the world beyond, god or ghost, appears, fireworks -are set off by a stage hand; usually this takes the form of large flames -emitted repeatedly from an oil lamp. Monks and nuns carry the same -horsehair switch, perhaps because of their “spiritual” lives. A bride can -be recognized by the red veil she wears on her head. Good officials wear -square hats, while wicked officials wear round ones. The wicked jailer in -his round hat is a frequent figure on the Chinese stage. - -A strong wind is indicated by the waving of flags, which recalls the fact -that the flags used in our operatic performances are not made of silk as -are ordinary banners, but of stiff material, giving them the appearance -of banners flying in the wind. A snowstorm is produced by flakes of paper -tossed into the air by a stage hand in full view of the audience. A sick -person is designated by a yellow cloth which covers his face. When a -character has died his face is covered with a red cloth. The head of a -decapitated person is symbolized by some object about the size of a human -head, wrapped in red cloth. Sometimes an execution is portrayed by making -a sword thrust at the victim who then runs off the stage, after which his -head is brought on. - -For new or exceptional situations new symbols must be invented. There -is a play called “Chu Fang Ts’ao” taken from the novel “The Three -Kingdoms.” It is the story of a guest who hears his host sharpening a -butcher knife and, as he fears the worst, runs off under somewhat amusing -circumstances. However, his host was the very reverse of a robber; he -was in fact slaughtering the fatted pig in honor of the visitor. The -business of slaughtering the pig is done in the following manner: an -actor with a black cloth thrown over his head and back walks on the -stage in a stooping posture, driven forward by another actor’s stick -and making the various deviations from the right path by which a pig in -real life exasperates the swineherd. The actor-pig finally walks up to a -chair on which he can rest his hands in comfort, while the business of -slaughtering is given in pantomime. After this has been done the cloth -is removed and the man, now neither pig nor actor, walks off the stage -erect. - -The above conventions, which have come under my observation in the -course of my attendance in Chinese theaters, do not by any means -exhaust the list, nor do they represent anything permanent. Changes -are continually occurring. One that I have been observing is that the -long conventionalized beards no longer hang down from the upper lip, -covering the mouth; probably because this was found to be inconvenient -for purposes of speaking or drinking tea, and some one hit upon the idea -of having the beard only below the mouth and of painting in the moustache -to match. Incidentally, only good characters have a moustache, while the -villains of the Chinese stage have no hair on the upper lip. One ought -to note, too, that these conventions are not so arbitrary as they might -seem at first glance, but are generally founded on some real element in -Chinese life. The yellow dress denoting the emperor, the red veil marking -the bride, and the black costume signifying the poor man have their basis -in everyday Chinese custom. A mourner on the Chinese stage appears in -white, and the long beards of old men naturally enough have the same -color, both quite as in real life. The symbols are an imitation of real -life more or less stiffened into conventions. Of course, the origins of -the conventional signs are sometimes a bit difficult to trace, especially -in the case of ghosts and gods. - -From the instances cited above it is plain that the Chinese theater -contains much that from our point of view tends to “destroy the -illusion.” Another factor in this process is the “property man”—made -known to Americans through “The Yellow Jacket”—who is ever on the stage -in the midst of all action. When the heroine must kneel before the judge -a coolie in a dirty blue cotton gown rushes forward to place a pillow -on the floor lest the actor’s costly embroidered gown be soiled. An -actor is frequently handed a cup of tea by another such attendant; some -actors to-day even equip their servants with thermos bottles for these -occasions. A general preparing for combat by removing his outer coat is -aided in this operation by ordinary stage hands, not by servants forming -part of the _dramatis personae_. From all the above it would seem that -human nature does not demand any particular kind of realism on the stage, -but is quite able to adapt itself to any illusion whatsoever. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER EIGHT - -MEI LAN-FANG—CHINA’S GREATEST ACTOR - - -Every traveler who comes to China hears of the fame of Mei Lan-fang. He -is told that in his visit to Peking he ought not to miss the opportunity -of seeing this male actor of female rôles interpret the gay or tragic -events of the lives of coy Chinese maidens. When the Chinese Government -entertains a distinguished foreign visitor, General Joffre or Secretary -of the Navy Denby, for example, Mei Lan-fang gives a performance which -forms the _pièce de résistance_ of the Oriental splendors shown to the -visitor by way of hospitality. Americans who in turn entertain Chinese -friends in Peking generally resort also to a play by this actor. In 1919 -a group of American bankers paid Mei Lan-fang four thousand dollars (I -have the information from the man who wrote out the check) for half an -hour of acting and singing; it is true that in this case an especially -large price was paid by way of gaining that imponderable Oriental asset -known as “face”, because shortly before this a group of Japanese bankers -had tried to impress their Chinese guests by paying Mei Lan-fang one -thousand dollars for an evening’s entertainment. The common masses among -the Chinese also appreciate this actor, and a manager who succeeds in -inducing Mei Lan-fang to sign a contract with him is always sure of a -crowded house. For five years I have had the opportunity of observing Mei -Lan-fang’s work and I have come to the conclusion that he justly deserves -his fame and his popularity. - -Perhaps some who have heard Mei sing in his falsetto voice and have seen -him act a “slow” play, or opera, if you will, in the conventionalized -Chinese manner, to the accompaniment of a screeching violin and -ear-splitting brass cymbals, feel that they would have been willing -to pay a good sum to be excused from the performance. There is, to -be sure, a long list of martyrs who with lavish Oriental hospitality -were treated to interminable sessions of Chinese drama; General Wood, -for example, recently suffered two hours of it. I should like to say -that in my opinion, keenly as I appreciate the Chinese drama and its -interpreter, Mei Lan-fang, I realize fully that it does not present such -a finished product as is found in our theater. The Chinese have no great -tragedies to place by the side of Shakespeare’s; they have no profound -comedies such as Molière’s; their plays are never so closely knit as are -our “well-made” plays; while in staging they are centuries behind us. -The Chinese drama is a case of arrested development; it is childish, -medieval, and very trying to our ears. Yet it is typically Chinese. -No other art is so popular in China as that of the theater, which -presents the old legends of the nation, the famous novels read by the -masses, intrigues such as occur on every hand, the music of the various -provinces, and the moral ideals of the four hundred millions in general. -In fact, the Chinese consider the theater fit for the gods; for whenever -they wish to thank their deities or reconcile them, they give theatrical -performances for the pleasure of the gods and that of the entire village -as well. As Mr. R. F. Johnston remarks in his characteristic manner, -designed to shock the ultra-pious, the taste of the gods as regards -the drama seems to coincide in a remarkable manner with that of the -villagers. Since the theater is in a manner the mirror of the Chinese -nation, and is also of intrinsic interest to the student of the drama, -it is well worth some attention on the part of any Westerner at all -interested in the Orient. Furthermore, because Mei Lan-fang is the most -widely known actor, and because he is an extremely intelligent and -progressive artist, it is perhaps best to approach this exotic drama -through him. - -Since Mei Lan-fang is an actor and his ancestors were actors before -him, he comes from the lowest class of society. In the otherwise -extremely democratic organization of the Chinese empire, where the -poorest boy could rise to wealth and fame by virtue of passing the -literary examination in the capital, sons of prostitutes, lictors, and -actors, as has been said, were barred from competing for government -posts. This system of examinations was abolished in 1907, but the -social disqualification was felt by Mei Lan-fang, for he is now just -thirty years old. His youth was tainted also by his being subjected to -unspeakable immoral practices which were openly tolerated in Peking -until the Revolution in 1911. Quite aside from this, the childhood of an -actor is no bed of roses in a land where the struggle for existence is -so desperate, and ninety per cent. constantly hover near the starvation -line. In the Southern City of Peking one meets frequently a long line of -boys, with prematurely old faces, ranging from eight to sixteen years, -marching along seriously and apathetically under the stern eye of a -preceptor—the pupils of an actors’ training school. Or if one takes the -morning canter along the city wall on the smooth stretch to the south of -the Temple of Heaven, one may see the boys at their interminable lessons, -which begin at sunrise. They must learn to sing in the shrill, artificial -falsetto voice characteristic of the Chinese theater, under a master -whose cruel discipline would make Dotheboys Hall seem a pleasant place -for week-ends. When there is a sharp wind blowing Peking dust in a gale, -the boys are taken to sing against the storm in order that their throats -may become properly hardened. The competition for a livelihood as actor -is deadly. Three boys’ theaters are training hundreds of boys, while -about two thousand actors are already out of work in Peking or are being -hired by the day with about twenty coppers’ reward for their long hours -of labor. In such an environment Mei Lan-fang grew up facing a drab, -dismal existence such as the vast majority of Orientals suffer cheerfully. - -But Mei Lan-fang’s originality and talents brought him to the highest -position in his art. He had been trained, because of his slender build, -girl-like face, and high voice, to act the type of _hua-tan_, the -_hetaera_. This figure appears regularly in Chinese plays in the rôle of -servant girl, lady’s maid, or demi-mondaine. The method pursued by most -tyro actors is to attempt to approximate down to the minutest mannerisms -the style of the actor at the top of their special class. Mei Lan-fang, -however, decided to copy nature instead. He introduced into his acting -female traits and foibles observed in the women about him, and this -freshness in his style pleased his audiences. He was gradually accorded -more and more prominent parts until twelve years ago he was voted the -most popular interpreter of female rôles in the capital. The actors -selected as the best “lovers”, “warriors”, “old men”, “old women”, and -the various other conventional types can count their fortunes as made. -After he had been chosen as the most popular actor of female rôles, Mei -Lan-fang commanded fifty to one hundred dollars for one regular daily -performance, and for private performances some such amounts as were -mentioned in the first paragraph of this chapter. He organized his own -company, made a triumphal tour through Japan, and began to fill annual -engagements in Shanghai, the “Paris of China” so-called.[25] - -Let us suppose that in wishing to see Mei Lan-fang you have done as -many Pekingese do—sent your servant to the theater to hold a seat for -you. Your menial has been enjoying an afternoon’s work by grabbing a -good seat in the almost empty theater at one o’clock and warming it -until five-thirty, at the same time drinking tea, chewing watermelon -seeds, smoking cigarettes, gossiping blandly with his neighbors, and -occasionally watching the actors on the stage. Now comes the hour for -the star, and you, with many sleek Chinese merchants, displace coolies -whose figures—in blue cotton—shrink inconspicuously toward the exit. -The moment you sit down a waiter with the inevitable teapot is at your -elbow, depositing on the table before you a cup containing one grimy -thumb. The tea and watermelon seeds are, as they say in the Moulin Rouge, -“_obligatoire_”, but you are free to refuse threescore flies resting on -a bar of candy, eggs of uncertain age whose whites have become black, or -apples just the proper softness with which to pelt actors. At the tables -all around you men are audibly sipping tea or eating dishes of steaming -viands, after which they wipe face and hands on hot towels which the -waiters are passing. Bundles of towels continually soaring overhead may -remind you of bats under the rafters, or if you are medically minded you -may exclaim, “Look at them throwing the smallpox around!” - -[Illustration: MEI LAN-FANG - -In European Dress - -Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the Moon - -Burying the Blossoms - -A Young Nun Seeks Love] - -The indifferent actors have been on the stage for hours, impersonating -famous emperors of the time of Attila, cunning counselors as old as -Alcuin, or sages contemporary with Pope Sylvester. One short play or -part of a play after the other—each lasting about thirty to forty-five -minutes—has been going on without intermission since noon. The fact that -no pause is made between the plays often leads foreigners to believe -that Chinese plays are of serpentine length, while in reality they are -no longer than the separate numbers of our continuous vaudeville. The -orchestra leader merely beats a few short notes on a gong and the stage -is set for the next play—that is to say, Chinese drama has no stage -settings whatever. A brightly colored curtain forms the background of the -bare stage; in other words, the scenery is left to the imagination, as it -was in Shakespeare’s theater. - -When the hour for the star has finally come, a special fluteplayer takes -his seat as leader of the orchestra and sends out soft, wistful notes -that contrast gratefully with the brass din of the preceding battle -scene. With tense interest Mei Lan-fang is awaited, for to-day he is to -play “A Young Nun Seeks Love.” - -With light, mincing step he enters in a long nun’s gown of white silk, -over which he wears a white coat dotted with a diamond pattern in light -blue. Long black tresses and a narrow black belt set off the delicate -shades of the light colors. The exquisite color combination is enhanced -by his soft, clear voice and the emotional play of his facial expression. -The theme of the forty-minute monodrama is similar to Browning’s “Fra -Lippo Lippi”, a story which Mei alternately sings and recites to -orchestral accompaniment. - - A pitiful existence is that of the nun with the shaven head! At - night only a lone lantern consorts me to sleep. Time quickly - pursues one to old age, leaving only the memory of a monotonous - youth. - -Sent to the convent at a tender age, she finds her life at sixteen a -dull round divided between the burning of incense and the reading of -monotonous Buddhistic sutras. The abbess has deprived her of the ornament -of her hair and forces her to carry water from the well at the foot of -the hill. On these excursions she has stolen long looks at a handsome -youth playing outside the city gate, and he seems not indifferent toward -her. - - For the price of a little sympathy I would be willing to go - to the palace of Yen Wang, the god of Hell, to be ground up - in the mortar, cut into bits by the saw, crushed between the - millstones, or to seethe in burning oil. My love is deep enough - to outweigh the punishments of all devils. - -Her childhood at the home of her pious parents had been an interminable -droning of the sacred syllables, “_O mane padme hum, o mane padme -hum_”, beating of drums, ringing of bells, blowing of horns, tinkling -of cymbals—all to drive away the devils. Her heart, hungry for a bit -of brightness, feels cramped in her cell and she decides to enter the -large hall filled with the statues of five hundred saints and Buddhas. -Since the stage is absolutely bare, Mei at this point goes through the -pantomime of opening a door and closing it again behind him. After some -quaint meditations before the various ascetic _lohans_ and the figure -of the “laughing Buddha”,[26] who seems to say, “Why waste the precious -days of sweet youth?”, the young nun decides to risk all for the sake of -finding love. In a graceful, rhythmic dance Mei moves off the stage. The -young girl has gone into the “black world”, as the Buddhist nuns call -life outside the convent walls. - -Another favorite among Mei Lan-fang’s plays is “Burying the Blossoms.” A -young girl, tormented by jealousy and doubt of her lover’s good faith, -finds the garden path covered with fallen blossoms. In these flowers, -broken from their stems and lying crushed on the ground, she sees the -image of herself, a girl whose parents are dead and who is neglected by -every one. She takes pity on the flowers, and, placing them in a silk -bag, buries them under a tree. As she is shedding tears over the little -mound her lover comes upon her. The explanation that follows effects a -deepening of their love. - -In Professor Giles’ translation (“Chinese Literature”, page 368) we have -the sentiment of the play expressed (_Cf._ Moore’s “The Last Rose of -Summer”): - - Farewell, dear flowers, forever now, - Thus buried as ’twere best, - I have not yet divined when I, - With you shall sink to rest. - I who can bury flowers like this - A laughing-stock shall be; - I cannot say in days to come - What hands shall bury me. - See, how when spring begins to fail - Each opening floweret fades; - So too there is a time of age - And death for beauteous maids; - And when the fleeting spring is gone, - And days of beauty o’er, - Flowers fall, and lovely maidens die, - And both are known no more. - -But not only such pale, wistful themes are found in Mei’s repertoire. The -“Three Pulls”[27] is a tragi-comedy of bourgeois life where Mei presents -a delightfully coquettish wife. This is a four-act play in which a large -company appears in gorgeous costumes of embroidered silk studded with -the little mirrors characteristic of Chinese stage apparel. The various -characters wear historically correct dress, the well-known Manchu robes. -But as an example of the extreme incongruities in the mixture of the -Oriental and the Occidental now taking place in Peking I should like to -mention an incident that occurred when the play was staged for the first -time at the Chen Kwang Theater. This new playhouse has a large European -stage and various other modern conveniences as yet not fully understood -or appreciated by the Chinese, for I observed that the petition written -by the husband and later flaunted in court was written on a three-foot -strip of toilet paper! - -[Illustration: BURYING THE BLOSSOMS - -The setting in this amateur production shows more stage properties than -are customary in most Chinese theaters.] - -The very best-beloved of Mei Lan-fang’s plays is “Yang Kuei-fei Tsui -Chou” (Yang Kuei-fei’s Spree). Yang Kuei-fei, the famous concubine of -the Emperor T’ang Ming-huang, of about 900 A.D., as has been stated, -lives on in Chinese poetry as a charming beauty of absolutely bewitching -qualities. In connection with this play one ought to say that drunkenness -is rare in China and is not considered a vice or a disgrace. On the other -hand a genial spree is looked upon as an exploit. A Chinese gentleman -will tell you “I was roundly drunk last night”, much as an American might -beamingly confide his triumphs at golf. K’ang Hsi, perhaps the greatest -emperor China ever had, used to urge his guests to drink heartily, -assuring them that if they drank too deep he would have them taken to -their homes in a dignified manner. - -The plot of the play is a short episode in the imperial palace. Yang -Kuei-fei learns from two eunuchs that the emperor is supping with a rival -beauty, and in her jealous rage she orders one bumper of wine after the -other. As the wine begins to take effect, she performs some charming -dances in which other court ladies join, to the end that a beautiful -inebriated ballet is performed. The effect of the dancers in the ancient -Chinese dress, the style with the long sleeves taken over by the Japanese -as the kimono, is much like a vision of fluttering, multicolored -butterflies. Later Yang Kuei-fei, in a low-comedy scene, uses her charms -first on one and then on the other of the servants, who prefer to run -away rather than be found in a compromising position with the favorite -concubine. Finally Yang Kuei-fei leaves the stage alone, singing, “Now -lonely I return to the palace.” - -One specialty of this play is the manner in which Mei Lan-fang drinks -the wine. He grips the cup with his teeth and bends backward very slowly -until his head touches the ground. Such “stunts” are fairly frequent in -Chinese plays and are used just as traditionally as some of the byplay -in French masterpieces staged at the Comédie Française. The great T’an -had a very famous trick which no actor has been able to imitate; in the -play, “Seeing the Ancestral Portraits”, he would kick off his shoe in -such a manner that in falling it would always strike exactly on his head. -Mei Lan-fang is not stressing these acrobatic and other tricks, but is -placing the emphasis on the interpretation of the emotional content of -the scenes. - -A little farce that Mei presents in a droll manner is the “Ch’ing Shang -Lao Shüeh” (Slave Girl Plays Tricks on the Old Schoolmaster). This play -presents the perennial theme of the impertinent servant. The make-up of -the old scholar in Ming costume is comical to the last degree. The slave -girl receives instruction, together with her mistress. When asked to -recite she does so with the swaying body motion commonly found in our -urchins when they “say their piece.” She catches a fly off the teacher’s -face, and in mixing ink, spits in his eye. When he sets out to beat -her, she catches the switch, and as he pulls, lets go, with the result -that teacher falls back into his chair and rolls over on the floor with -a tremendous crash. After suffering many similar tricks the pedagogue -decides to teach in that house no longer. As he leaves the room the -audience sees that the slave girl has pinned on his back a picture of a -turtle—than which there is no greater insult in all the Middle Kingdom! - -This is the only play I have ever seen that makes fun of a scholar. I -consider it a pleasant tribute to the Chinese sense of humor that it -allows them to laugh occasionally, even at the figure of their national -hero. The scholar who by virtue of having passed the examination in -Peking is made magistrate or even viceroy of a province is the hero -of hundreds of Chinese plays. The examination in the capital with the -attendant change of fortune in the life of the hero is the _deus ex -machina_ of the Chinese stage. As an example I shall mention another -play of Mei Lan-fang’s, the one he played before Secretary of the Navy -Denby on July 17, 1922. This play is called “Yü Pei T’ing” (The Pavilion -of the Royal Monument). A poor scholar on his way to Peking is caught -in a heavy storm and seeks shelter in the pavilion of a royal monument. -He finds, however, that a lady has come before him and taken possession -of the interior of the small building. Since he is both a scholar and a -gentleman, he passes the night on the outside, where the eaves afford him -only insufficient shelter from the rain. In the morning the lady thanks -him for his consideration, and he continues on his way. The courtesy of -the young scholar has made so deep an impression on the lady that she -cannot refrain from telling her sister-in-law about it, who in turn tells -the lady’s husband. The latter thinks that the story is only a disguise -for what he believes to have been the true state of affairs, namely that -his wife has been unfaithful to him. He therefore divorces his wife and -abandons her to a life of misery and disgrace. The scholar, on the other -hand, passes his examination with such distinction that the emperor -grants him an audience, in the course of which he asks the young man to -tell of the noblest thing he has ever done. The scholar tells of his -night spent out in the rain for the sake of an unknown lady. The husband -happens to be among the courtiers present, and, upon this corroboration -of his wife’s story, he takes her back into his home, and all live happy -ever afterward! - -The scholar’s quick change of fortune as a theme in the Chinese theater -finds a close rival in the motive of filial piety. Among Mei Lan-fang’s -plays the latter is best illustrated by the play “Mu Lan”, the name of a -girl who goes to war in place of her father because the latter is too old -to undertake a heavy campaign. It is characteristically Chinese that this -Joan of Arc does not fight for motives of patriotism, but out of regard -for the comfort of her aged father. This fascinating play gives Mei an -opportunity of showing in the first part his skill in portraying a demure -young maiden, while in the second part he can display his address in the -extremely conventionalized art of Chinese stage fighting. - -All of these and many more characters Mei Lan-fang is on the stage, but -of his real character very little is known among foreigners in China. It -is known that he has a kindly heart, for every year he contributes his -services to a dramatic entertainment arranged by American missionaries -for the purpose of providing shelters for the riksha runners during -the bitter Peking winters. One reads about it in the papers when he -makes his annual pilgrimage to Miao Feng Shan, a mountain temple three -days distant from Peking, the traditional shrine where actors worship. -But artists eager to paint his portrait have never been able to secure -him as a sitter, because he is very shy about entering any society -outside his immediate circle. I considered myself very lucky when -after some negotiations I secured an interview with him in the typical -Chinese fashion through some friends of some friends of his friends. -The house in which I called on Mei was _his_ house; he keeps two other -establishments—one for his wife and the other for his concubine. For many -years Mei Lan-fang was known as the faithful husband of one wife, but -finally friends prevailed on him to act in the manner of every Chinese -gentleman who respects himself and to take a concubine into his domestic -circle. Among Mei’s friends I met a young actor with eloquent scars on -his cheeks; he had been the one who introduced Mei to the concubine and -the scars were the result of some acid thrown by a brother of the jealous -wife. Another gentleman present was a stocky officer of the Peking -_gendarmerie_, a useful friend to the actor, because on several occasions -ruffians have attempted to extort blackmail from him by violence—as they -do with every one in China who has any money. Mei was the last one to -appear, wearing a long white silk gown, the customary hot-weather dress -of the Chinese gentleman. - -Some of the coyness that gives such a true ring to his stage -presentations of young ladies clings to Mei off-stage. He seems like a -charming, bookish, slightly effeminate boy of seventeen. In reality he -is thirty, but like so many other Orientals he appears to Westerners -much younger than he is. He is of the frail, willowy build demanded in a -Chinese beauty, but he is the very opposite of languid, sparkling with -vivacity and full of life. His voice is high, gentle, and soft; in fact, -it sounds very much like that of one of his heroines on the stage. - -All in all Mei gives the impression of a youthful scholar rather than -of an actor. There is not the slightest touch of Bohemianism about him. -His favorite avocations are music and drawing; opium smoking and other -fashionable dissipations hold no charms for him whatever. He is very -fond of Western music, and hopes ultimately to win over his audiences -to an appreciation of the piano and the violin, which would give him -an immensely richer field for his musical repertoire. He has for a -close friend and daily companion a learned scholar with whom he makes -researches in ancient works dealing with the drama. Instead of following -in the beaten path he is intent on improving the drama by presenting -ancient plays with a staging historically correct, and by reviving -whatever was vital in the past. With great pride he showed me his -extensive library, lingering long over a neatly written text of a play -copied by his grandfather, who had been musician to the great actor T’an. - -To sum up Mei Lan-fang: like most other men who achieve distinction, he -is in love with his work and devotes himself to it night and day. - -His great merit is that he is bringing good taste and sensible -innovations to the Chinese theater, which had been stagnant—in a state -of arrested development. The old Empress Dowager, showing her usual -bad taste, had made fashionable in Peking a Mongolian style of music -intended for open-air theaters on the wind-swept plains, which in a -roofed theater is absolutely ear-splitting. Mei Lan-fang is returning to -traditional Chinese music in which the soft notes of the flute prevail. -Instead of the old hackneyed themes Mei has staged numerous new plays -based on the famous romantic novel, “The Dream of the Red Chamber”, as -well as many other plays written especially for him. Into his fanciful -plays of the type of “Midsummer Night’s Dream” he has woven graceful -dances, an absolute innovation on his part. New and often historically -correct costumes appear in his plays, enlivening the otherwise rather -drab Chinese stage. In contrast to the Chinese habit of presenting -only the favorite acts of the well-known plays (as though our managers -should stage only the balcony scene from “Romeo and Juliet”, or the -husband-under-the-table scene from “Tartuffe”), he presents even the -older plays in their entirety. When he plays in Japan or in the European -theater in Peking, he removes the ill-clothed orchestra from the stage; -but he cannot do this in the native theaters, where the strong tradition -insists that the musicians must sit on the stage and destroy the -illusion, for the foreigners at least. - -In this ability of his to make innovations and at the same time to -adapt himself to his audiences to a certain extent, lies the key of -Mei Lan-fang’s success. Even the most hidebound theater devotees and -connoisseurs must recognize the skill of his acting and the perfection -of his enunciation, and therefore they are willing to accept the foreign -elements which he introduces. Mei Lan-fang’s greatness lies in the fact -that he is able to introduce bold reforms into the theater without -cutting himself off from the tradition. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER NINE - -ANALOGIES BETWEEN EAST AND WEST - - -I have often met with people who ask: “Do the Chinese have the division -of plays into tragedies and comedies?” and when they learn that there -is no such division they feel this to be a great defect in the Chinese -theater. But it might be well worth recalling that these Greek terms -did not originally have their present-day connotations, and that their -original meanings were perhaps not far removed from the divisions which -the Chinese make in classifying their plays. Tragedy meant originally a -“goat song”, and philologists are divided on the question as to whether -the name is derived from the fact that the song was sung by revelers -worshiping Dionysus, who, because of their appearance and licentious -character were called “goats”, or whether it was sung at the sacrifice -of a goat, or whether a goat was the prize which was awarded to the -successful poet.[28] At any rate there is no doubt that tragedy was -a musical term. The same is true of comedy, which is the song of the -_comus_, or band of revelers, who marched along in procession carrying -aloft the phallus and chanting songs to Dionysus which were called -phallic songs. The scurrilous remarks interlarded in the intervals -between songs by the leader of the _comus_ gave rise to the form of light -entertainment known as comedy in the theater of to-day. In the Middle -Ages it had the meaning of a poetic work with a happy ending, for which -reason Dante called his long poem a “comedy”, which later writers made -“The Divine Comedy.” Thus we see the two words have deviated altogether -from their original meanings. We know very little about Greek music of -these earliest days, but we hear also of Doric music and Phrygian music -employed in the theater. The Doric music was grave, dignified, and -employed the harp as the chief musical instrument, while the Phrygian -mode was emotional and was accompanied by the flute. - -Now let us look for a moment at the Chinese classification of styles of -drama. We generally hear of the divisions of _kuan-ch’ü_, _p’i-huang_ -(a telescoping of _hsi-pi_ and _er-huang_) and thirdly of _pang-tzu_. -These are all musical terms. _Kuan-ch’ü_ is accompanied by the flute, -and is said to be the most literary, the most graceful and soft; also -because of its lack of vulgarity it is caviare to the general. It is -rarely performed nowadays, but was quite popular in the Ming Dynasty. -It was directly descended from the classical Yuan drama, whose authors -were scholars ousted by the Mongols from their public offices. This name -is derived from a geographical term, just as are the Greek Doric and -Phrygian modes. The _pang-tzu_ came to Peking from Shansi during the -Ch’ing Dynasty. The chief instrument is a rude kind of fiddle with a -round, flat sounding box, and the _genre_ is considered to be exciting -and vulgar. The _er-huang_ or _hsi-p’i_ (said to be very similar) are -also styles adopted during the Manchu Dynasty. They employ as their chief -instrument the well-known _hu-ch’in_. There is a great similarity between -Greek and Chinese thought, in that both speak of the good moral effects -of music if only there be the proper harmony; and likewise of the immoral -effects of vulgar, exciting music. I believe one could find almost exact -parallels in the writings of Plato and of many Chinese authors,[29] even -so modern a one as Tsai Yuan-pei. We modern Europeans and Americans, on -the other hand, seem to have given up the idea of music as a means for -developing harmonious and moral souls. - -In practice music was employed in the Greek theater not only by the -chorus, but also by the actors in the midst of the spoken dialogue when -a particularly emotional point was reached. When the passions rose to a -high pitch the musical accompaniment commenced and the actor sang; such -a passage was, for example, the recital of the forebodings of Cassandra -in Æschylus’ “Agamemnon”, interrupted by the Argive elders who form the -chorus. Exactly the same practice obtains in the Chinese theater, as any -one can readily observe in almost any play. Some scholars have asserted -that the whole of a Greek play was accompanied by music, but it is -generally believed now that only the lyrical passages were sung, while -the iambic dialogue was spoken. In this similarity of the Greek and the -Chinese theaters we can find an aid in our efforts at reconstructing the -past—perhaps worthy of consideration by _régisseurs_ who attempt to put -on the stage to-day some of the plays which stirred the imagination of -the Athenians of old. Possibly it may also be a shock to some who have -seen modern representations in which the actors, as well as the chorus, -employ a solemn and stately, sometimes monotonous recitative, to learn -that the ancients sang or chanted a great part of their plays; a shock -such as we are likely to receive when we first learn that the ancients -did not employ marble in their architecture in its austere virginal -whiteness only, but that they frequently colored their buildings. But -just as a traveler coming to China may see beautiful architectural -results achieved by the bold use of color in architecture, so he may come -closer to the real—not the pseudo-classical—art by reflecting on the -effect of musical interruptions in Sophocles’ “Œdipus” or Euripides’ -“Medea.” - -In Greece the theater was an institution which gave performances at -the time of certain religious festivals, and it was in this sense a -folk theater. In Peking also there are certain plays given always at -particular festivals, and dealing always with the supernatural, or if you -prefer, with religion. On the first day of the New Year, for example, -there is the “Ch’ing Shih Shan”, a play dealing with the gods’ conquest -of the devils; on the fifth day of the New Year comes a play in honor of -the god of wealth; on the fifth of the fifth month, a play describing -the overcoming of the five dangerous poisons; and on the seventh of the -seventh month the “Meeting on the Milky Way.” These plays persist in -spite of the commercialization of the Peking theaters. - -The student of European literature whose field of research lies in the -reconstruction of the past can find in China a wonderful source book, -for this is a magic land where for Europeans and Americans the clock -has been set back several centuries. We can see the Middle Ages enacted -before our very eyes, and get in that way a vivid picture of things as -they were in the Europe of yesterday. In illustration of this I wish to -cite the Chinese theater of to-day, and to offer the suggestion that the -Shakespeare scholar who has seen the Peking theaters of the present time -has—if one may use the figure—not only the words, but also the tune, of -the Elizabethan drama. - -If I take a tourist to the theater his first remark often is that this -is just like the Shakespearean theater. And it is indeed not surprising -that it should be so, for China to-day is at about the same stage of -culture as England was at the beginning of the seventeenth century. -There is a court where royal splendor can be seen; the deposed emperor -still receives in the Forbidden City the faithful Manchus, who come in -gorgeous raiment and with fastidious regard for court etiquette to offer -their congratulations on the occasion of his birthday.[30] The ordinary -man of means dresses not in the stereotyped manner of our present-day -civilization, but follows his taste in the selection of rich purple, -wine-colored, or other shades of silk. Sedan chairs are still used as -a common means of transportation. Torture is still practiced, and the -heads of executed criminals are hung up in the streets in case of a -revolution or other great excitement. The servants are typical Dromios -in their submissiveness and occasional impertinence. The streets are -frequently still the narrow and filthy lanes of medieval times. Most -important, there are few factories, and manufacture is done by leisurely -home industry. Much of this is passing with the coming of industry, -the automobile and the tram car, the Europeanized tailor and the -moving-picture machine; yet much that is picturesque in Peking continues -to flourish, and the theater with its huge community of actors is one of -the most conservative elements. - -To begin with, the Chinese and the Elizabethan theaters are almost -identical in structure, and for much the same reasons. The origin of the -sixteenth-century theater in London is to be found in the innyard in -which a platform had been erected for the performance; and when James -Burbage in 1576 built the “Theater” outside the jurisdiction of the City -Fathers of London he erected what was practically an innyard without -the inn. There was a platform stage projecting into the yard, where the -rabble could find standing room, and a gallery in which the wealthier -patrons could be seated. The origin of the Chinese theater building, -such as it is found in Peking, is very similar. Performances were first -given in the courtyards of temples or of the houses of rich men. A -platform was erected at one end. The spectators stood in the courtyard -or sat at tables. The latter was particularly the case when theaters -were held in the private courtyards of princes or other rich men. For -centuries theatricals in China were either religious or private, and -public theaters which any one may attend for the payment of an admission -fee are a fairly recent institution, but when they were built they -were constructed on the model of the temple or palace theaters, with a -projecting roofed stage at one end, the cheaper seats on the ground -floor and the more expensive ones in the gallery. The Chinese audiences -have been trained to regard the stage as anywhere and not as a particular -place; it is unlocalized, as in Shakespeare’s time. The roof on the stage -serves the same purposes as in Elizabethan times; it is a protection for -the actors against rain, and a “heaven” from which deities may be lowered. - -In distinction to our modern theater in which we present a series of -pictures within a frame called the proscenium, which we cover with a -curtain while the pictures are being shifted, both the Elizabethan and -the Chinese stage have neither a proscenium nor, in general, a curtain. -In both the stages is an unframed rostrum thrust bodily forth into the -auditorium, surrounded on three sides, if not on four, by spectators. In -short it is not a picture stage, but a platform stage. On such a stage -there can be, of course, no question of artistic lighting effects; the -plays are performed either by daylight, as they were in Shakespeare’s -day, or by the light of huge arc lamps that illuminate stage and audience -alike. As the actors cannot present artistic stage pictures to three -sides of the house at the same time, it is not surprising that, as the -English literary historians tell us, the appeal was more to the ear than -to the eye. That this is equally true in China is seen from the Peking -term for a theatrical performance, _t’ing-hsi_, which means a play that -is heard. In old Peking theaters the seats on the ground floor are -arranged at right angles to the stage, along tables on which are served -tea and cakes; recently built theatres, however, have their seats (with -rails for the inevitable teapots) running parallel to the stage. - -In speaking of the chief characteristics that distinguish the Elizabethan -from other stages Professor Thorndyke says:[31] - - The fixed and most important principle was the use of the - projecting platform as a sort of neutral, vaguely localized - territory, where almost anything might happen. The second - principle was the use of the inner stage with its curtains - (and to some extent the upper stage) as a means to denote - locality more exactly, to employ properties more readily, and - to indicate changes of scene more effectively. - -[Illustration: THE FORTUNE THEATER] - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL PEKING THEATER] - -From what has been said it is apparent that in regard to the first -principle the Chinese and the Shakespearean stage are identical. In -regard to the use of the curtain and the inner stage, scholars are -very much divided as to the manner and frequency with which they were -employed. To quote Professor Thorndyke once more:[32] - - The total evidence of the stage directions alone indicates that - the arrangement prescribed was in general use in important - theaters, public and private, though doubtless its adoption was - gradual and subject to variation. We may suppose that the size - and visibility of the inner stage varied in different theaters, - and that the extent to which the curtain was used changed - from decade to decade, or playwright to playwright, or manager - to manager, or even according to the state of the weather and - light. - -The use of the curtain in Chinese theaters is very rare; and the curtain -itself is by no means like the curtain to which we are accustomed. When -a relatively elaborate setting is about to be placed on the stage a -curtain about ten feet high by about twenty feet wide is carried by stage -hands to the front of the stage, and there stretched out to cut off the -view of the audience. The ends of the curtain are each sewed to a bamboo -pole held upright by two coolies. In this most primitive manner a garden -setting or a heavenly throne is made to appear to the audience in one -burst of glory instead of being carried on piece by piece, as is the -case with most properties and sceneries. The Chinese playhouse has no -inner and likewise no upper stage. Curtains about beds or other pieces of -furniture are used to “discover” actors in the same manner as was done on -the Elizabethan stage. But all of these articles are regularly carried -on the stage in full view of the audience. The size of the two stages -seems to be about the same, except that the Elizabethan was much wider. -The dimensions given for the stage of the Fortune are forty-three feet -wide by twenty-seven and a half feet deep; while a typical Chinese stage -measures about twenty-five feet in both directions. - -We generally think of the Elizabethan stage as very primitive, and in -this respect the Chinese stage is very much like it, only a bit more -so. Both stages lack curtains, and therefore in both properties are -brought on in full sight of the audience, making necessary in China the -“property men” who furnished so much amusement in the performances of -“The Yellow Jacket.” Shakespeare however arranged that at the end of -a play, for example in “Hamlet”, the dead were carried off the stage, -while in Peking convention allows that a victim of murder arise and walk -off, after having gone through the motion of falling dead. The London -theaters also had (at least such seems to have been definitely proved -by recent writers) a small curtain at the rear of the stage shutting -off a place which served as cave, shop, tomb, bed, Bathsheba’s bath, or -any other locality that needed to be “discovered.” In Peking theaters -things are much more conventionalized; a table represents a shop, a blue -curtain with lines painted on it, held up by two stage hands, makes a -city wall, a chair may be a gate or a prison door, a boat on a lake may -be represented simply by the actors appearing with oars with which they -seem to be rowing. Much is also symbolized; an actor on the bare stage -goes through the motions of opening and shutting a door and thus shows -that he has left the house. When a curtain is needed to represent a -listener in another room, or a patient in a bed behind drawn curtains, -two vertical bamboo poles with a horizontal one attached to them from -which the curtain hangs are placed on the stage by the “property men.” -The arrangement is most primitive and casual; the poles are generally -tied to chairs. If the drawing of the “Swan” showing neither an inner -stage nor a curtain is authentic, a similar portable curtain may have -been the method employed in Elizabethan times. In Peking this is a rich, -figured fabric, even though not exactly an “Arras.” If a Chinese Polonius -were to conceal himself behind the arras, it would have been previously -brought on by the “property men” at the beginning of the act or perhaps -even just a few moments before it was needed. In a Chinese theater the -center back of the stage is a wall hung with a rich piece of tapestry -just as free from doors or recesses as the wall of the “Swan.” There are -doors, however, at both sides of the rear wall, corresponding to those -in the “Swan” drawing. As the Chinese theater has no upper stage, men on -a city wall, for example, stand on a table behind the curtain held up by -the stage hands. A general surveying his troops from a mountain top or a -god on his throne in heaven sit on a chair placed on top of a table. - -In the paucity of the stage properties we find another parallel. In -Albright’s “The Shakespearean Stage”,[33] the properties are listed, and -I can say from my five years’ experience that the same and no more are -found on the Chinese stage; bedroom: a bed, table, chairs or stools, and -lights; a hall: table, chairs, and stools; presence chamber: a throne, -and occasionally tables and chairs; a church: an altar, and if needed a -tomb; prison scenes: usually no properties are mentioned except fetters -and chains; woods or park: large and small artificial trees, shrubbery, -and benches; shop scenes: a counter and a few wares. The Chinese theater -is often even a bit more simple; for example, a chair serves as a throne, -or a table with a few decorations as an altar. However, for certain -plays fairly elaborate paper properties are used, which are brought -on and removed in full sight of the audience. In both theaters the -imagination of the audience is strained a great deal more than is the -case in a Belasco play; and many conventions that differ from ours, such -as bringing on properties in full sight of the audience, seem just as -natural as it seems to us that a stage room has only three walls. - -Even though the Elizabethan and the Chinese stages have no scenery of -any kind, yet it is wrong to imagine that they seem bare, for the color -is supplied in the rich and elaborate robes of the actors. A Chinese -stage filled with actors in court costumes of yellow, red, black, blue, -or purple, with inwoven designs, fierce warriors with masks or painted -faces, wearing pheasant feathers six feet long, and lovely maidens in -costumes of exquisite pastel shades, walking or running about on a gaudy -Oriental rug against a background of rich tapestry, form a veritable -riot of color, very similar in its effect, no doubt, to what was seen -on the Elizabethan stage when the actors appeared in their gowns costing -from £80 to £100 in modern money. They were elaborate creations of -velvet trimmed with gold and silver lace and embroidery, capped by the -“forest of feathers” that Hamlet mentions as necessary for the equipment -of an actor, with tapestry from Arras as background. To quote Professor -Thorndyke,[34] “No stage cared more for fine clothes than the Elizabethan -or lavished a larger portion of its expenses on dress.” In both theaters -almost no attention is paid to historical appropriateness of costume. -Elizabethan actors sometimes wore masks also, just as the Chinese often -do. - -[Illustration: THE ORCHESTRA SEATED IN A CORNER OF THE STAGE - -From Jacovleff, “Le Théâtre Chinois”] - -The stage direction “alarums” for the entry of a king or other important -personage, which may never have been associated by the reader with -anything definite at all, will be full of meaning to any Westerner who -has heard the Chinese orchestra sound the _Leitmotiv_ for the entry of -a famous general. The Chinese orchestra sits on the stage in full view -of the audience, while in Shakespeare’s day the upper stage was the -normal place for the “noise.” The use in the Elizabethan days of the -word “noise” for both music and orchestra establishes another great -similarity between the two theaters. In Shakespeare’s day the music seems -to have been confined chiefly to the intermissions between the acts and -to occasional songs, while in the Chinese drama almost every emotional -part is punctuated by song. It approaches close to opera in many cases -in the number of lines sung by the actors. One division of Chinese plays -is that into civil and military, and in the latter the fighting is -always accompanied by a terrible din of brass, drum and string music. -This frantic noise stimulates in the audience the excitement which -the desperate contest in arms is supposed to arouse. As a fact, these -military plays are very popular with the masses, and they take up fully -half the program. - -In the eating, drinking, smoking, hawking, towel-throwing, spitting, and -loud interruptions always found in the Chinese theater we have another -close parallel to the Elizabethan. It is well known that hawkers went -about before and during the performance selling ale, tobacco, and various -articles of food. Apples were fought over by young apprentices and -sometimes even used to pelt the actors. The women in the galleries were -offered pipes to smoke. Young nobles insisted on sitting on the stage in -order that they might display themselves and their garments, while pages -lighted their pipes for them. The groundlings in the yard were intent -on the broad humor and the fighting in the plays. The women of the town -in the gallery probably also had other motives for coming besides that -of seeing the play. All of this a Westerner can understand very much -better after he has seen a Chinese theater, for the conditions are very -similar; except that the Chinese lack of pugnacity makes the spectators -perhaps a little less violent.[35] In this connection it is interesting -to compare the methods of applause and criticism in Shakespeare’s time -and in present-day China. Applause was rendered by clapping—some writers -refer to it as “thundering”—while disapproval was evinced by hissing, -and by even more violent methods, as may be judged from the verse of an -Elizabethan drama: - - We may be pelted off for aught we know, - With apples, egges, or stones, from thence belowe. - -In China applause is expressed by shouting the word “_hao_”, good, and -disapproval by no more violent method generally than by a sarcastic -intonation of the same word! It it difficult for a foreigner to tell -which is meant, especially since applause is rendered for subtleties -of intonation often lost even on natives. However there is also the -word “_t’ung_”, which is very rarely used to express disgust with the -performance; but when it is employed the actors are driven off the stage -in utter shame and confusion. In recent years, however, clapping has been -introduced from the West along with many other innovations. But in spite -of all distractions one can very often see a Chinese audience sitting -spellbound during the recitation of a particularly beautiful passage or -the presentation of a tragic scene, as I imagine must have been the case -in Shakespearean England also. - -Without the aid of scenery or lighting the acting must be splendid -to hold an audience, and there is the danger that it become loudly -declamatory and bombastic. Hamlet’s well-known criticisms frequently -apply in Peking, for there are many who mouth their lines so that the -town crier could improve upon them, who saw the air too much with their -hands, who tear a passion to tatters, who strut and bellow as though one -of nature’s journeymen had made them, and thus make the judicious grieve. -However, good actors of all times avoid this. Hamlet tells of a good -actor who - - Could force his soul to this conceit - That from her working all his visage wann’d; - Tears in his eyes, distraction in ’s aspect, - A broken voice, and his whole function suiting - With form to his conceit! and all for nothing! - For Hecuba! - -It is similarly impressive to see Mei Lan-fang, for example, playing -Mu Lan, the Chinese Joan of Arc, presenting in the first part the coy -maiden and loving daughter, and in the second the brave warrior, or to -see him (he is an actor who always interprets female rôles) portray the -emotions of the daughter who finds her old father in prison but who dares -not make herself known. In most theaters in Peking the acting is good, -so that the foreigner can often follow the play, even though he does not -understand one word of what the actors are saying. For vivid portrayal of -emotions, facial expression, and delightful byplay, the Chinese actors -are wonderful, just as the scholars conjecture that the English players -must have been in Shakespeare’s day. - -[Illustration: A CLOWN - -Chinese Character Type] - -The Chinese audiences demand the fool, the acrobat, and the dancer quite -as loudly as they were demanded by the groundling in Shakespeare’s -time. The Chinese clown is very good at improvising, and provokes the -same criticism that Hamlet made, “And let those that play your clowns -speak no more than is set down for them.” Giles in his “History of -Chinese Literature” writes in this connection, “As they stand in the -classical collections or the acting editions, Chinese plays are as -unobjectionable[36] as Chinese poems or general literature. On the stage, -however, actors are allowed great license in gagging, and the direction -which their gag takes is chiefly the reason which keeps respectable women -away from the playhouse.” This recalls that in Elizabethan days the -respectable women who attended the theater wore masks or made judicious -use of their fans to hide their blushes.[37] It is only in the last few -years that the better class of women have begun to attend the theater -in Peking; just as the mingling of the sexes in the theater was an -innovation in the early seventeenth century in England. In Peking, as -formerly was the case in London, the women are admitted to the gallery -only. - -A vital similarity between the two theaters is the fact that women’s -parts are played by men. The reasons in both cases are moral or -Puritanical motives. The similarity in this case is accidental, for it -was only about George Washington’s time that women were forbidden to -appear upon the stage; during the Ming Dynasty many princes and officials -had large numbers of actresses in their palaces—a custom that led to -gross abuses and immorality. Therefore the early Manchu emperors forbade -women to appear as actresses. But things are fast changing in this -respect in China, for in some parts of the country men and women appear -together on the stage, while in Peking, where this is forbidden by the -police, there exist two theaters in which women act both male and female -rôles. The Chinese consider the women poor artists, and the connoisseurs -do not patronize these theaters, or if they do they apologize for it. A -Chinese actor who respects himself will never appear on the same stage -with actresses. That the Elizabethans likewise thought women incapable -of good acting can be seen from the patronizing tone of Thomas Coryat -in which he tells (1611) of having seen women acting in Venice “and -they performed it with as good a grace, action, gesture and whatsoever -convenient for a player, as ever I saw any masculine actor.”[38] - -In connection with the subject of impersonation of the other sex, -which we see nowadays only in burlesque or minstrel shows, I should -like to quote some observations made by Goethe[39] in Italy on seeing a -performance of Goldoni’s “La Locandiera” in which a man acted the part -of the heroine, the pretty innkeeper. Goethe of course grants that the -highest form of art cannot be found in such a representation, but he -says that he would like to speak a few words in defense of this practice -to tell how one might well derive considerable pleasure from such a -performance. He states that he went to the theater with prejudice, but -once there he became reconciled to it and even experienced a certain kind -of pleasure never felt by him before. He tried to analyze this æsthetic -sensation and came to the conclusion it consisted in the enjoyment of -the fact that the actor could not possibly play himself, but had to -put his art of imitation to a far greater test, that of holding the -mirror up to life in a sex not his own. The spectator enjoys a much -more self-conscious delusion, just as when he sees a young man playing -the part of Rip Van Winkle or King Lear. There is a more conscious -æsthetic pleasure in seeing how well a young man has studied the actions -of a young girl in order to present a Rosalind, or how perfectly Mei -Lan-fang can copy the dainty dress, actions, and walk of a Chinese -lady. My experience has been that this is much more pleasant than to -see round-cheeked girls essay the rôles of fearful generals or cruel -husbands in the woman’s theater in Peking. - -It has often been remarked that as a result of the fact that boy actors -played the women’s parts in the Elizabethan theater we find Shakespeare’s -heroines very frequently masquerading as pages. Julia, Portia, Nerissa, -Jessica, Viola, Rosalind, and Imogen all appear as handsome youths. An -analogous result in the Chinese theater of to-day is that the heroines -appear in an endless number of cases as warriors. The Chinese have not -only their Mu Lan (who goes to war in her father’s place because the -latter is old and feeble), but very many other heroines who invariably -defeat men in battle. Chinese history or legend does not account for -this, but it is due to the fact that the actors who portray women seek -opportunities to display their skill in fighting. This fighting is a -highly conventionalized art, a combination of dancing and acrobatics -performed to a deafening and exciting music, which, in regard to its -place on the program, can best be compared to our ballet. Most foreigners -in Peking are kept away from the theater by the fearful noise made in -these “fighting plays”, as they are called, but if these same people -could attend an Elizabethan theater they would possibly find that the -great delight of the audiences was the “noise” (music), the clatter and -scuffle of the battles, the drums, the squibs, and the cannon.[40] - -There are in Peking three companies of boy actors, the largest of which -has about three hundred in its theater. These are training schools for -actors in which the boys of eight to sixteen or eighteen years are given -very arduous courses in singing, acrobatics, stage fighting, and all -the other arts that an actor requires. The competition of these “little -eyases” in Peking might well arouse the ire of some of the regular -actors, as it did Shakespeare’s (“Hamlet”, II, 2, 362), for in China the -life of the common actor is a hard one, most of them eking out a meager -living at about twenty cents a day. - -The position of the actor in society is very low in Peking, just as -it was in London. A Chinese moralist might well apply to them the -words written in 1759:[41] “Players are masters of vice, teachers of -wantonnesse, spurres to impuritie, the Sonnes of idlenesse, so longe -as they live in this order, loathe them.” Under the former dynasty the -actors and their sons, together with the sons of prostitutes, jailers, -and lictors, were not eligible for taking the examinations. Even now they -usually intermarry only among their own number, and they suffer also from -various other discriminations. Most of them were catamites, until the -Republic abolished this formerly legalized institution. Mei Lan-fang, an -actor who has risen to high perfection in his art, as well as to great -wealth, an artist who may tour America in the near future, would have -ample reason in the present organization of Chinese society to reproach -Fortune in Shakespeare’s words: - - That did not better for my life provide, - Than public means which public manners breeds, - Thence comes it that my name receives a brand, - And almost thence my nature is subdued - To what it works in, like the dyer’s hand: - Pity me then and wish I were renewed. - -Peoples are alike and differ also in what they consider to be humorous. -It has been said that the first comedy was the torture of a captive -by his enemies. This sort of performance would nowadays of course -be impossible; yet in most of our comedies we enjoy heartily the -discomfiture of victims of circumstances. We have not yet become too -refined to enjoy the difficulties of a man whose senses are benumbed by -alcohol, of a bald man, a lame man, yes, even a deaf man. The condition -of a blind man, however, strikes us as too tragic to figure in a comedy, -and no modern comedian could draw a laugh from his audience by fooling a -tottering old man bereft of his sight. Yet every one who has seen “The -Merchant of Venice” acted recalls very well what Launcelot Gobbo does to -his blind old father, and I have seen in Chinese theaters how a blind old -beggar deceived by a clown affords huge amusement to the audience. - -As I have already stated, Chinese and Elizabethan audiences are alike -also in that they use their imaginations much more vividly than we do. -For them a draped screen represents a city wall, and the bare stage any -country, a ship, a mountain, any house, a street, or whatever is needed -in the particular scene acted. Warriors on horseback in the Chinese -theaters carry whips to let the audience know that they are mounted on -chargers, while Macbeth and Banquo rode on the stage on hobbyhorses—and -were taken seriously. I recall a performance in the Chinese City in which -there suddenly came running on the stage on all fours a man in a tiger -skin, and I laughed because of droll recollections of Shaw’s “Androcles -and the Lion.” But no one else laughed; to the Chinese present it was -a tiger, just as real a tiger as the actors on the stage were for the -moment real kings and queens, soldiers and servants. Of this particular -illusion more anon. - -Because there are many similarities in the theaters, stages, actors, -conventions, audiences, and the psychology of the spectator of -Shakespeare’s day and of present-day Peking, I certainly should be the -last to say that because a thing is so in local theaters, it must have -been identical in London three hundred years ago. Yet it seems that -since human nature is very much the same everywhere, it would be safer, -if one wished to hazard conjectures as to what was true in the past, -to take a living example of the theater on the same level of culture, -than to look back at the Elizabethan stage in the light of what has been -accomplished since, and what happens to be the fad at the present time. -This is the day of stage lighting and color effects, of Gordon Craig, -Max Reinhardt, and Bakst, but we should hardly think that these problems -troubled Burbage, who had neither electric light nor scenery, and who -performed his plays on an uncurtained stage by daylight. Yet Professor -H. T. Stephenson of Indiana University, for fifteen years a lecturer -on Shakespeare, author of “Shakespeare’s London”, and “The Elizabethan -People”, by profession a specialist in reconstructing the times of -“Merrie England”, discusses seriously in his very stimulating “Study of -Shakespeare” (page 40) the plight of the stage manager of Shakepearean -days, who could never tell beforehand how the gaily dressed young nobles -sitting on the stage would fit into his color scheme! He also believes -that changes in the stage setting could not have been made in full sight -of the audience, because “this would have upset entirely the unity if not -the gravity of the piece.” - -In Peking one can see very remarkable things on the stage that fail to -upset the gravity of any present except the Westerners, who are used to -different conventions in the theater. Professor Stephenson, with the -results of three hundred years of stage experience at his hand, believes -that the Elizabethans must have been fools if they could not have thought -of the same useful devices for the theater that he knows of. To quote -(page 47): - -“To my mind the situation suggested by these facts reduces itself almost -to a mathematical problem; if one of us can easily invent such a staging -for an Elizabethan scene, as any ingenious person could construct out -of what we know they had in those days, is it unfair to assume that the -ingenious Elizabethans did as well if not better? More likely better. -They were more used than we are to making a little go a great way.” -He even goes on to explain how one could put up a curtain, simply by -the use of canvas, wire, a few rings, and presto, the thing is done. A -play without the commonplace scenic devices of the twentieth century is -unthinkable to him. - -Another theorist is Mr. Corbin, in the _Century Magazine_ for December, -1911. He proves to his own satisfaction that Burbage and his colleagues -had means for darkening the stage.[42] It seems this author staged “The -Winter’s Tale” in New York a few years ago. In this play a bear has to -appear on the stage, and this part was acted by a man on all fours. At -first the scene was played on a lighted stage, and all the New Yorkers -present laughed at the sight of the actor in a bearskin. Then they hit -upon the device of darkening the stage, and having the actor-bear run -quickly across. When this was done, no one’s risibilities were affected. -This forms one of Mr. Corbin’s chief arguments for his assumption that -the Elizabethan stage was darkened; namely, that it would have offended -the good taste of the audience to see in broad daylight in a serious -scene, an actor impersonating a bear. If human nature can endure this -convention in Peking, with the above-mentioned tiger, why should we -assume that three hundred years ago people felt as we do now, and base on -this the novel theory that stages were darkened in those days? - -A large measure of the success attained by “The Yellow Jacket” was due -to the fact that the Chinese stage conventions employed seemed so funny -to us provincial Westerners that they caused a great deal of happy -laughter. But this is really quite as intelligent as the attitude of the -rustic who sought out Richard III after the performance and offered to -sell him a good horse for less than a kingdom. It is very strange that -even otherwise scholarly men, like, for example, Victor Albright in “The -Shakespearean Stage”, struggle with all fours against the possibility -that in the theater of the gentle Shakespeare there might have been -committed such desecrations as setting properties on the stage in full -view of the audience. He approaches the evidence with blinkers when it -seems to contradict his theory. He says (page 126): “Only the dramatists -had not yet learned to use explicit stage directions.” On page 143 he -tells us that the Elizabethans did not read stage directions literally. -Then on page 106: “Here in the midst of a street scene is a direction -to set the stage with a table, stand, chairs, stools, etc.,—just such -properties as are used in the next scene, a counting room. We cannot -believe that a manager would disturb an important scene by setting the -stage for a coming one.” Further, on page 110: “The placing and replacing -of a regular setting in full view of the audience never was a _general -custom_. It is contrary to the very nature of the stage,—an illusive, -make-believe world.” In my opinion it is contrary only to the very nature -of a provincial New Yorker. - -Let me add in passing that William Archer holds that “in the generality -of cases properties were brought on in full sight of the audience, often -in the middle of the action.”[43] - -Doctor Albright, in “The Shakespearean Stage” (pages 122_ff._) condemns -with sarcasm (which seems well merited) the theory of Brodmeier, who -holds that the entire stage in Shakespeare’s theater was curtained from -view. But I should like to question whether or not his own judgments -would have been quite the same if he had known the Chinese stage before -he wrote his estimable thesis. A Chinese actor walks once around the -stage in full view of the audience, and in conformity with the ruling -conventions he has traveled miles, or hundreds of miles, as the plot -requires. Doctor Albright, arguing backwards from the Restoration -staging, comes to the conclusion that there was in the Elizabethan -theater a regular changing from inner to outer scenes, and vice versa, -and that the few pieces of furniture which constituted the stage setting -were always carefully shut off from the view of the audience. He quotes -an example with his comment from a play called “Pinner of Wakefield”, Act -IV, Scenes 3-4. “Jenkins enters a shoemaker’s shop, and dares the owner -to meet him at ‘the towne’s end.’ The challenge is accepted, and after a -certain amount of stage business, _during which the curtains must have -been closed_ [italics mine], Jenkins says, ‘Now we are at the towne’s -end, what say you now?’” However, I should add that in his concluding -paragraph Doctor Albright is by no means dogmatic, but gives this merely -as his theory, stating that there is absolutely no way of proving it. - -With all the striking similarities in the Shakespearean and the Chinese -theater there are of course also vast differences, especially in the -background of the two. So far as I know there has never existed in China -a manner of staging which could in any way be compared to the medieval -system of mansions. Likewise the evolution of the platform stage into the -picture-frame stage of the present day makes it seem that even on the -projecting stage the feeling for the need of the curtain for the sake -of the illusion increased as time went on. I repeat that I have not the -slightest intention of arguing from certain conventions on the Chinese -stage that they must have been identical in Elizabethan times. My point -is simply that scholars ought not to assert that certain primitive -conventions are “against the nature of the stage” or “contrary to human -nature”, for this point of view is based on the current conventions -with which the particular writer is acquainted. I should like to quote -the concluding words of Doctor Albright’s thesis, spoken out of the -depth of his experience of wrestling for years with the problems we -are discussing. He calls an article by William Archer “one of the most -original and enlightening articles on the Shakespearean stage that has -yet appeared.” He says further about this writer, “As a learned dramatic -critic of to-day, he approaches the Elizabethan stage with that special -insight and ability which a closet student cannot hope to have. The stage -and the staging have changed since the days of Shakespeare, but the mimic -world is still the mimic world; and the deeper the scholar is grounded -in the stage of to-day, the better he is qualified to study the stage -of yesterday.” And, allow me to add, the knowledge of a living stage at -a similar period of culture will likewise add to his qualifications to -study the theater of the past. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE - - - B.C. - - 2705-2595 Huang Ti, mythological emperor. - - 2357-2206 Legendary sages to whose teachings Confucius harked - back. - - 551 Birth of Confucius. - - 255-206 Ch’in Shih Huang Ti, the emperor who burned the books - and built the Great Wall. - - 206 B.C. to - 221 A.D. Han Dynasty—Recovery of literature—Introduction of - Buddhism. - - A.D. - - 221-265 The “Three Kingdoms”—Age of romantic chivalry. - - 618-906 The T’ang Dynasty—Emperor Ming Huang, traditional - founder of the theater, and his consort Yang - Kuei-fei, China’s most famous beauty. China was - at this time the most civilized country in the - world. Li Po and other great lyric poets. - - 960-1127 The Sung Dynasty—Development of landscape painting. - - 1280-1368 The Yuan or Mongol Dynasty—Classical age of Chinese - drama. Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan. Marco Polo. - - 1368-1644 The Ming Dynasty—Restoration of Chinese rulers—Drama - in the hands of scholars. - - 1644-1911 The Ch’ing or Manchu Dynasty—Emperors K’ang Hsi and - Ch’ien Lung encourage arts and letters, including - the theater. - - 1912- The Republic. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -History of the Drama under the Sung and Yuan Dynasties. Wang Kuo-wei. -Commercial Press. Shanghai, 1915. - - Not translated into any European language. - -Théâtre Chinois, ou Choix de Pièces de Théâtre Composées sous les -Empereurs Mongols. Bazin Ainé. Paris, 1838. - - Four Yuan Dynasty plays translated by a French sinologue who - was for years Professor of Chinese at the École des Langues - Orientales. - -Chine Moderne, ou Description Historique, Géographique, et Littéraire de -ce vaste Empire, d’après des Documents Chinois. Paris, 1853. - - In the second part of this volume M. Bazin gives numerous - discussions of Chinese plays with summaries of their plots. - Very valuable work. - -Le Pi-Pa-Ki, ou L’Histoire du Luth. Traduit sur le texte original par M. -Bazin Ainé. Paris, 1841. - - Contains also a very good introduction to this important Ming - drama. - -L’Orphelin de la Chine. Drame en prose et en vers, accompagné des pièces -historiques qui en ont fourni le sujet, de nouvelles et de poésies -chinoises traduit de chinois par Stanislas Julien. Paris, 1834. - - A complete translation by the famous French sinologue of the - Yuan drama, The Orphan of the Chao Family. Voltaire made an - abridged version by a Jesuit missionary the basis of his - L’Orphelin de la Chine (1755), a stiff and artificial piece, - presenting a Genghis Khan who falls in love in the manner of a - French courtier of the 18th century. - -L’Histoire du Cercle de Craie. Traduit du chinois par Stanislas Julien. -London, 1832. - - Translation of a Yuan drama. - -The Sorrows of Han. Translated by John Francis Davis, F.R.S. London, 1829. - - A Yuan drama translated by a British sinologue; The Fortunate - Union, a Chinese romance, appears in the same volume. - -Le Chagrin dans le Palais de Han. Louis Laloy. Publié par la Société -littéraire de France. Paris, 1921. - - M. Laloy’s version of this Yuan drama attempts to introduce - some modern motivation. In his preface the author expresses - the fear that in working over this Chinese tragedy “_il l’a - défigurée en tachant de l’embellir_”, and perhaps his fears - were justified. - -La Chine Familière et Galante. Jules Arène. Paris, 1876. - - In this volume by a French consul “_qui contient des détails - fort curieux et intéressants sur les chinois, et surtout sur - les chinoises_” are printed translations of four realistic - comedies of popular life, “_sorte de vaudeville au gros sel, - où, en gestes comme en paroles, la license chinoise se donne - libre carrière_.” About ninety pages are devoted to the theater. - -The Chinese Drama. William Stanton. Kelly and Walsh. Hongkong, 1899. - - A British colonial official has translated three plays. The - Willow Lute, The Golden-leafed Chrysanthemum, and The Sacrifice - for the Soul of Ho Man Sau. In an introduction of eighteen - pages the author discusses the types and conventions of the - Chinese stage as seen in Hongkong and Canton. It is interesting - to note that in general the southern theater is identical - with that of Peking, but that there are some variations, - particularly in customs and ceremonials. - -Catching a Golden Tortoise. - -Beating the Gold Bough. - - Two Chinese plays translated by Charles Budd, Tung Wen - Kuan Translation Office, Shanghai, 1913. Short and mildly - interesting plays, translated partly for the purpose of aiding - Chinese who wish to learn English. - -Chinesische Schattenspiele. Übersetzt von Wilhelm Grube, herausgegeben -und eingeleitet von Berthold Laufer, Verlag der königlich bayerischen -Akademie der Wissenschaften. München, 1915. - - A huge volume containing in translation the entire repertoire - of a company of shadow players which Berthold Laufer, Curator - of the Field Museum, had bought in Peking in 1901 and which - were translated by the famous German sinologue. Though these - plays are not presented on the stage, but recited by shadow - players to accompany the movements of their puppets that cast - shadows on a screen, yet the plots are the same as those of the - theater. The book thus serves as a wonderful source for some - one wishing to familiarize himself with Chinese plays. Berthold - Laufer has prefaced the book with a meaty introduction. - -Pekinger Volksleben. Wilhelm Grube. Berlin, 1901. - - Sociological studies on popular customs and usages in Peking. A - chapter is devoted to the theater in which numerous summaries - of modern plays are given. The author also deals with related - subjects: acrobats, story-tellers, annual ceremonies of guilds, - etc. - -Geschichte der chinesischen Litteratur. Wilhelm Grube. Leipzig, 1909. - - Several chapters are devoted to the drama. Professor Grube, - in his discussion of Yuan and Ming plays, is using Bazin’s - translations, but in his evaluation of modern plays he is - drawing on his long and intimate experience with the theater in - Peking. - -A History of Chinese literature. Herbert A. Giles. Heinemann, London. - - This well-known sinologue devotes two chapters to the drama, - but they are not up to the standard of the rest of this - excellent work. Pi-Pa-Chi is the most modern drama he discusses. - -Das Theater und Drama der Chinesen. Rudolf von Gottschall. Breslau, 1887. - - This small volume of 209 pages was written by a minor German - dramatist without first-hand knowledge of China. The author - based his study upon French translations of older dramas. Yet - the book is not lacking in remarks showing a keen insight into - the Chinese character. - -La Littérature Chinoise Contemporaine. Soong Tsung Faung, _Journal de -Pékin_. Peking, 1919. - - A volume by a professor of literature at the National - University, Peking, in which his critical articles from - Peking’s French paper are reprinted. Forty-seven pages are - devoted to the theater under headings such as the following: - “Origin of the Drama”, “Evolution of the Modern Chinese - Theater”, “Ibsenism in China”, etc. Professor Soong follows to - a certain extent Wang Kuo-wei’s History of the Drama under the - Sung and Ming Dynasties. His thorough knowledge of the European - stage enables him to make very striking comparisons. - -Peking, A Social Survey. Sidney Gamble and Stewart J. Burgess. Doran, -1921. - - The chapter “Recreations” in this interesting and painstaking - survey presents statistics on the number of theaters, their - locations, prices of admission, status of the actor and - actress, etc. - -En Chine, Mœurs et Institutions, Hommes et Faits. Maurice Courant. Paris, -1901. - - The French diplomat devotes one chapter to the theater. He - writes before the Revolution, but most things connected with - the theater have been changed very little. He reports one - abuse, however, which the Revolution (1912) abolished. Page - 144: “_La prostitution féminine reste discrète, car la femme - est toujours tenue à l’écart; mais la prostitution masculine - s’étale au grand jour; il n’est guère de pàrtie de théâtre où - l’amphitryon ne réunisse ses amis d’abord au restaurant et - ne convie quelques jeunes garçons de bonne mine, richement - habillés, sachant causer et ‘rendre le vin plus agréable’; - ils plaisantent et rient avec les convives, les accompagnent - au théâtre et restent avec eux jusqu’à ce que, la fête finie, - chacun rentre chez soi. Naturellement, aux simples lettrés on - ne demande que leur bonne humeur, et ce sont les riches qui - paient la note; bien de fils de famille se ruinent de cette - façon._” - -The Yellow Jacket. A Chinese play done in the Chinese manner, in three -acts, by George C. Hazelton and Benrimo. Bobbs-Merrill, 1913. - - This play represents a unique example of Chinese influence - producing a worth-while drama on our stage. Will Irwin was kind - enough to write to me concerning its origin: - - “... I can tell you the history of the play. Harry Benrimo, - actor and stage-director, is a native of San Francisco. He - saw much of the Chinese in California. His father was a - contractor, employing Chinese labor and doing business with - Chinese merchants. As a young actor, Benrimo became interested - in the Chinese theaters of San Francisco. That was the golden - age of the Chinese theater in America. The price of admission - made the Jackson Street Company and the Washington Street - Company rich on Chinese standards and they were able to get - some great actors—just as the money from the Metropolitan - Opera drew Caruso from Italy. Ah Chic, leading tragedian of - the Jackson Street Company, was as great an actor as I ever - saw.... Benrimo sketched out a scenario made not from any one - Chinese play, but from a dozen—situations or bits of business - or dialogue which he remembered from his old days in San - Francisco theaters. Benrimo called into collaboration the late - George Hazelton, playwright. On this scenario they worked out - The Yellow Jacket.... Several Chinese, notably one man—name - forgotten—from the Consulate helped with the rehearsals. - Deliberately the authors took certain liberties with Chinese - drama and psychology in order to make the play effective for - an Occidental audience. Notably, they made the love of man for - woman the main theme. One piece of business, I remember, caused - endless dispute. It is where the happy and united lovers kiss. - That would not happen, of course, with the Chinese. Benrimo - understood that perfectly. But he said that an Occidental - audience would expect it. And he had his way. I remember that - whenever this piece of business occurred in the rehearsals, the - man from the Consulate used to giggle. - - “Lately I was talking over The Yellow Jacket with Percy - Hammond, dramatic critic. ‘Do you know what made it a success?’ - he said, ‘The Property Man as played by Shaw.’ Possibly he’s - right about that. But the play served its artistic purpose. - It made American audiences understand something of this - extraordinary art. And I’ve no doubt but that if Hazelton and - Benrimo had stuck close to the originals our audiences wouldn’t - have understood half so well.” - - So far as my experience goes, making love the main theme is not - un-Chinese, but The Property Man as played on our stages is. - Possibly Cantonese usage differs in this respect, but in Peking - property men are always on the stage, coolies dressed in shabby - blue cotton, but they are conspicuous only to the Westerner - not used to Chinese conventions. They by no means have the - importance attached to them in The Yellow Jacket. Compare the - chapter, “External Aspects.” - -The Chinese Drama. R. F. Johnston. Kelly & Walsh, 1921. - - A slender volume that came to be written because the publishing - firm had four paintings of Chinese actors which they wanted - to issue in calendar form with a few words of comment from - the well-known sinologue. Mr. Johnston became absorbed in the - subject and wrote so much and so interestingly on it that Kelly - & Walsh decided to make a book out of it. The text is much - better than the pictures. - -Le Théâtre Chinois. Chu Chia-chien. Paris, 1922. - - The chief features of this book are the excellent paintings - and sketches made in Peking theaters by the Russian artist, - Alexandre Jacovleff. An English edition has been published by - Putnam. No other book can give such a vivid notion of the real - appearance as well as the spirit of the Chinese stage as this - volume of inspired drawings. M. Chu Chia-chien, instructor in - the École des Langues Orientales in Paris, writes well, but too - briefly, on the conditions and conventions of the Chinese stage. - -Chinesische Literatur. Eduard Erkes. Hirt, Breslau, 1924. - - A brief, but up-to-the-minute sketch of Chinese literature. - This volume by a University of Leipzig Privatdozent is one of - a series on the literatures of various nations. The book came - to me too late to include what it said on the origin of the - theater in China in the text, and therefore I shall quote an - interesting paragraph here. (The author speaks of the Pear - Garden origin as a myth and says that the Chinese had a theater - as early as other nations): - - “_Es hat sich aus den bei festlichen Gelegenheiten aller Art, - bei Krieg und Jagd, bei Opfer und Gelage, inszenierten Tänzen - entwickelt, in denen man vorher im Spiel darstellte, was sich - nachher zutragen sollte, um so auf magische Weise das Geschick - günstig zu lenken, und nachher seiner Freude mimischen - Ausdruck verlieh. Zu diesen Tänzen sang man Wechselgesänge mit - Rede und Gegenrede, wie solche uns anscheinend aus mehreren - Liedern des Schi-king erhalten sind, so dasz das China der - Urzeit auch hierin das Leben anderer primitiver Völker geführt - hat. Aus Südchina sind uns Texte solcher Dramen religiösen - Charakters, wie sie auch K’üh Yüan im dritten Jahrhundert - vor Christo bearbeitete, mehrfach überliefert, und bereits - aus dem Jahre 545 v. Chr. haben wir eine Notiz nach der bei - Tempelfesten, ganz ähnlich wie im alten Hellas, nach den - ernsten Schaustellungen eine Burleske von den Stallknechten - aufgeführt wurde. Das zeigt also, dasz die dramatische Kunst - der Tang-Zeit nicht einen Anfang, sondern nur eine späte - Etappe auf einem langen Wege bedeutet. Auch die Han-Zeit - hatte ihre Singspiele, die bereits mit einem umfangreichen - szenischen Apparat auf geführt wurden und vielleicht - kompliziertere Bühneneinrichtungen voraussetzen lassen, - als sie das heutzutage an Einfachheit unserer modernsten - Schaubühne ebenbürtige—vielleicht für sie vorbildlich - gewordene?—chinesische Theater jetzt bietet._” Pages 58-59. - -Altchinesische Liebeskomödien, aus dem chinesischen Urtexte ausgewählt -und übertragen von Hans Rudelsberger. Kunstverlag von Anton Schroll & Co. -Wien, 1923. - - Free translations of five comedies of love (among them two - comedies discussed in this book on pages 33 and 96). The - work is a splendid specimen of book-making with five colored - illustrations by the Chinese artist Hua Mei-chai and numerous - woodcuts from the original Chinese editions. - -_Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society._ - - This very interesting journal, so far as I have been able to - examine the files, contains only two articles on the theater: - Volume XX, “Chinese Theatricals”, and Volume XXI, “Histrionic - Notes.” Neither is very important. - -This bibliography is by no means exhaustive. There are a great many -articles not mentioned here, but they are generally not very instructive. -In most cases they are written by travelers who note the obvious things -about the Chinese theater. Naturally there is also a great deal of -repetition in these writings. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] As I find the Revised Version, with a fuller understanding of -Oriental life, prefers to phrase it. - -[2] Commercial Press, Shanghai, 1915.—A small volume of about 200 pages. -Not translated into a European language.—The same author has issued a -“Dramatical Catalogue”, same publishers, 1917. - -[3] Quoted by De Groot, “Religious Systems of China”, vol. VI, p. 1187. - -[4] The chief reason why theatricals are given at the village temples -to-day is that they are public buildings with convenient stages. Not only -religious but also secular plays are performed, sometimes vulgar and -immoral ones. On the whole the moral standard of the Chinese stage is -very high and must be called a good influence for the largely illiterate -population. The worship at Chinese temples in the course of the religious -festivals has the general character of a carnival with money changers, -booths for eating and drinking, acrobats, magicians, beggars, gambling -devices, etc. - -[5] See Sir William Ridgeway, “The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of -Non-European Races in Special Reference to the Origin of Greek Tragedy,” -Cambridge University Press, 1915. - -[6] Professor Porter calls my attention to the fact that Doctor Hu -Shih calls these court jesters “sophists.” They were the ones to make -the shrewdest observations among all courtiers. The suggestion of the -revolutionary element probably accounts for the death sentence. - -[7] _La Revue de Genève_, January, 1921. - -[8] Note by Professor Porter: Mr. Wang develops his argument very well, -using evidence from the odd foreign names of countries, localities and -places. At the period it is known that there was extensive intercourse -between Western countries and China along the northern and southern -caravan routes. - -[9] Page 257. - -[10] The difficulty in acquiring a reading knowledge of the classical -Chinese (Wen Li) does not consist chiefly in learning to read five -thousand or more ideograms—that is only a minor trouble—but in the -retention in the memory of the texts of the classics to which constant -allusion is made in a manner to confuse utterly the uninitiated. “The -dragon has gone down to the sea” means “the emperor has died.” Or to -translate the idea into English; the Bible says, “The words of the wise -are as goads” (Ecclesiastes xii, II) and Shakespeare (Hamlet V, I). -“There is no ancient gentleman but gardeners”; therefore the reader would -have to know that “goads” stands for the words of the wise and “ancient -gentlemen” for gardeners. But connoisseurs regard this classical language -as the greatest monument of China, far finer than Sung pottery or the -Temple of Heaven. Said a friend to me one day, picking up a copy of Omar -at the verse: - - O Thou, who man of baser earth didst make, - And didst with Paradise devise the snake, - For all the sin wherewith the face of man - Is blackened, man’s forgiveness give and take. - -“Such is this wonderfully rich, poetic Wen Li, while in Pai Hua (the -vernacular) this same thought would cover pages of dull, colorless -prose.” Of course, the spoken language is still as poor a vehicle for -poetic thought as Italian was before Dante, but its advocates hope for -its growth and development. - -[11] “Travels of Marco Polo”, Everyman Edition, Dutton and Company, page -186. - -[12] The Chinese woman must as a child obey her father, as a wife her -husband, and as a widow her son. The four wifely virtues are: (1) to -honor and serve her mother-in-law; (2) to respect her husband; (3) to -live in peace with her sisters-in-law; and (4) to have pity on the poor. - -[13] See Bibliography. - -[14] The Chinese name for the instrument is _chin_. Chinese writers on -music have set down seven conditions under which one should not play the -instrument: when one has just heard the news of a death; when some one -is playing the flute in the vicinity; when one is oppressed by business -cares; when one has not purified his body; when one is not wearing the -ceremonial cap and gown; when one has not lighted sweet-smelling incense; -and when there is not present a friend who understands music. Chancellor -Tsai Yuan-pei, until 1923 the head of the National University in Peking, -was a believer in training in æsthetics, and considered a proper -appreciation of the music of the chin a most desirable element in the -_mental equipment_ of a cultured man. - -[15] Giles, “Chinese Literature”, page 155. “A poet should not dot his -i’s. The Chinese reader likes to do that for himself, each according to -his own fancy. Hence such a poem as the following, often quoted as a -model in its own particular line: - - “A tortoise I see - on a lotus-flower resting: - A bird mid the reeds - and the rushes is nesting; - A light skiff propelled - by some boatman’s fair daughter, - Whose song dies away - o’er the fast-flowing water.” - -[16] A most readable biography in English has just been published by the -Commercial Press, Shanghai: “Yang Kuei-fei”, by Mrs. Wu Lien-teh.—In -the _Mercure de France_, beginning August, 1922, there appeared a -fascinating series of articles: “La Passion de Yang Kuei-fei”, by Soulie, -translations of songs by blind Chinese singers woven into the story of -the greatest Chinese tale of love. - -[17] “The Jade Chaplet, A Collection of Songs, Ballads, etc., from the -Chinese.” Trübner and Company, London, 1874. - -[18] The Chinese actually say that the birds imitated her voice in their -notes. - -[19] One of the many complaints against Yang Kuei-fei was her fancy for -fresh _Li-chihs_. She was so fond of these, that she had them, when in -season, brought from the South to Ch’ang An daily, a distance of three -thousand _li_. This apparently simple fancy was the cause of immense -suffering, distress, and injustice; the messengers carrying the luxury, -presuming on the protection of their mistress, committed all manner of -depredation and violence. - -[20] Yang Kuei-fei had intrigued with a noble named An Lu-shan, who -afterwards raised the standard of rebellion, it is said, with the hope -of obtaining possession of her. Be that as it may, the Emperor assembled -a large army, and accompanied by Yang Kuei-fei, went to meet him. On -arriving at a place called Ma-kuei in Sze-chuen, the Emperor’s troops -mutinied, declaring that Yang Kuei-fei was the cause of the rebellion, -and demanding her life, otherwise they would not fight. The Emperor, -having no alternative, was forced to comply. Some say he ordered her to -be strangled, and that this was done by the soldiers; others again, that -she strangled herself—the latter appears the correct version. - -[21] For similar practices among the Romans, see Sumner, “Folkways”, page -445. - -[22] See also pages 91 and 92. - -[23] See Bibliography, book by Arène, for examples. - -[24] See outline, page 105. - -[25] About a year after the earthquake Tokio’s Imperial Theater was -reopened, and the Japanese honored Mei Lan-fang by engaging him for this -occasion. - -[26] This popular figure, called also “big stomach” or “cloth sack” -Buddha, is laughing in anticipation of the happiness to come. His image -is found in practically all Buddhist temples and frequently among the -_bibelots_ collected by foreigners. In regard to the taste of collectors, -Baron de Staël-Holstein, a Russian scholar versed in Buddhist lore, -remarked to me one day, “The ugliest of all these figures is the one most -sought after by Westerners.” - -[27] See page 83_ff._ - -[28] See Haigh, “The Tragic Drama of the Greeks”, Oxford University -Press; Murray, “Ancient Greek Literature”, Appleton, etc.—So far as I -know no scholar has suggested that the goat did the singing of the “goat -songs.” - -[29] See “Sacred Books of the East”, vol. XXVIII, pp. 92-131. - -[30] This has now come to an end. In October, 1924, the deposed emperor -was driven out of his palace by the “Christian” General Feng Yu-hsiang. - -[31] Thorndyke, “Shakespeare’s Theater”, Macmillan Company, page 139. - -[32] _Ib._, page 87. - -[33] Page 76. - -[34] _Op. cit._, page 394. - -[35] See Taine’s description, Book II, chapter II, in his “History of -English Literature.” - -[36] Page 261.—According to my friend Ferdinand Lessing, a German -sinologist, Giles has here made a mistake. In Lessing’s words, Chinese -plays contain “_faustdicke Zoten_.” - -[37] “Shakespeare’s England,” II, 308_ff._ - -[38] Quoted from “Shakespeare’s England”, II, 246. See also Thorndyke’s -“Shakespeare’s Theater”, page 372. - -[39] Goethe, “Frauenrollen auf dem römischen Theater von Männern -gespielt.” - -[40] “Shakespeare’s England”, page 252_ff._ - -[41] “Shakespeare’s England”, II, 241. - -[42] Thorndyke, page 138, refers to this article, but takes no stock in -Mr. Corbin’s arguments. He says that darkness was symbolized by lighted -candles, etc., which is precisely the thing done on the Chinese stage. - -[43] “Shakespeare’s England”, II, 301. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -INDEX - -[The names of Chinese dramas are printed in italics] - - - Albright, Victor, 201, 216, 217, 218 - - Amateurs, 109 - - Archer, William, 217, 219 - - _Autumn in the House of Han._ _See_ SORROWS OF HAN - - - Bakst, Leon, 214 - - Bazin, A. P. L., 4 - - _Beating the Heartless Husband_, 90 - - _Beating the Nephew and Worshiping at the Grave_, 87 - - _Blood-Stained Fan, The_, 70 - - Brodmeier, Professor, 217 - - _Burying the Flowers_, 80, 179 - - _Butchering the Pig_, 168 - - - _Chalk Circle, The_, 32 - - Ch’ang An, 3, 15, 48, 50, 74 - - Chang Chien, Mr., 113 - - _Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the Moon_, 104 _ff._, 159 - - _Ch’ang-O Pin Yüeh._ _See_ CH’ANG-O’S FLIGHT TO THE MOON - - Ch’ang Shan Tien. _See_ PALACE OF ETERNAL LIFE - - Chang Yao-shang, actor, 15 - - Chang Ziang-ling, 142 - - _Chao Chia Ku-er._ _See_ ORPHAN OF THE CHAO FAMILY - - _Chao Mei Hsiang._ _See_ INTRIGUES OF A LADY’S MAID - - Chao Tsung, Emperor, 15 - - Character Types, 25, 112, 149, 151, 152, 153, 175 - - Chen Kwang Theater, 181 - - _Ch’i San Hui._ _See_ THREE STRANGE MEETINGS - - Ch’ien Lung, Emperor, 69 - - _Ch’ing Shang Lao Shüeh._ _See_ SLAVE GIRL PLAYS TRICKS ON THE OLD - SCHOOLMASTER - - Ch’ing Shih Shan, 194 - - _Chu Fang Tsao._ _See_ BUTCHERING THE PIG - - _Chu Sha Chü._ _See_ CINNABAR SPOT, A - - Chu Su-yün, actor, 83, 86 - - _Chü T’eng Kuan Hua._ _See_ TRIAL OF STRENGTH AND VIEWING THE - ANCESTRAL PORTRAITS - - Chu Yuan-chang. _See_ HUNG WU - - _Ch’un Yin Hui._ _See_ MEETING OF MANY HEROES - - _Cinnabar Spot, A_, 88 - - Civil Plays, 10, 146 - - Classical Language. _See_ WEN LI - - Clowns, 23, 25, 153, 207. _Cf._ COURT FOOLS - - Commedia dell’ Arte, 16 - - Confucius, 10, 17, 25, 28, 49 - - Corbin, John, 215 - - Coryat, Thomas, 208 - - Court Fool, Yu Meng, 12 - Yu Sze, 12 - - Court Fools, 11, 12, 15, 16. _Cf._ CLOWNS - - Craig, Gordon, 214 - - _Crossing the Milky Way_, 159, 194 - - - Dances, Dramatic, 6 - - Dottore. _See_ COMMEDIA DELL’ ARTE - - Dream of the Red Chamber, The, 80, 93, 188 - - _Drunkard_, 13 - - Duke Lan Lu, 13 - - Dwarfs, 11, 13. _Cf._ COURT FOOLS - - - Elizabethan Theater, 25, 133, 194 _ff._ - - Empress Dowager, 188 - - - Fan Kuai, 15 - - Feng Yu-hsiang, General, 195 - - Fools, Court. _See_ COURT FOOLS - - - Gamble, Sidney, 133, 144 - - Giles, Herbert, 18, 59, 80, 180, 207 - - Goodrich, Mrs., 104 - - _Greatest Event in Life, The_, 119 _ff._ - - Greek Theater, 10, 192 _ff._ - - Grube, Wilhelm, 80 - - - Han Hsi-ch’ang, actor, 140 - - _Han Kung Tsu._ _See_ SORROWS OF HAN - - Han Lin Academy, 4, 43 - - Harlequin. _See_ COMMEDIA DELL’ ARTE - - _Ho Lan-chi._ _See_ CHALK CIRCLE, THE - - _Ho Lang Tan._ _See_ SINGING GIRL, THE - - Ho Yi, Emperor, 105 - - _Hsi Hsiang Chi._ _See_ WESTERN CHAMBER, THE - - Hsien, 7, 11 - - _Hsü Mu Ma Tsao._ _See_ HSÜ’S MOTHER CURSES TSAO TSAO - - _Hsü’s Mother Curses Tsao Tsao_, 81 - - Hu Shih, 11, 21, 22, 74, 78, 117, 198 - - Hung Lou Meng. _See_ DREAM OF THE RED CHAMBER, THE - - Hung Sen, author, 70 - - Hung Wu, Emperor, 43 - - - Intrigue of a Lady’s Maid, 26 - - I-Yin, 7 - - - Jade Palace, 3 - - Jen Tsung, Emperor, 43 - - Jesters. _See_ COURT FOOLS - - Jung Tu-shan, 113, 115 - - - _K’an Tsien Wu._ _See_ MISER, THE - - K’ang Hsi, Emperor, 69, 182 - - Kuan Han-ching, dramatist, 23 - - Kuan Yin, 99 - - Kublai Khan, 19 - - _Kung Chuan Chi._ _See_ RUSE OF THE EMPTY CITY - - Kung Shang-jen, author, 70 - - - Lao Tze, 28 - - Laufer, Berthold, 10, 11, 99 - - Lessing, Ferdinand, 207 - - Li Fang-yün, 137 - - Li Shou-shan, actor, 83 - - Li Yuan Tzu-ti, 3 - - Liao Chai. _See_ STRANGE STORIES FROM A CHINESE STUDIO - - Literary Language. _See_ WEN LI - - Liu Ming-ju, 135 - - Liu Yen Ming, 96 - - - Marco Polo, 23, 41 - - _Mask, The_, 13, 14 - - _Meeting of Many Heroes, The_, 82 - - Mei Lan-fang, Chapter VIII; 80, 83, 84, 86, 98, 104, 105, 110, 118, - 138, 142, 143, 145, 150, 151, 152, 155, 157, 159, 206, 211 - - Mencius, 17, 28 - - Military Plays, 10, 13, 77, 79, 146 - - Ming Huang (Yuen Tsung), Emperor, 3, 70, 135, 181 - - _Miser, The_, 35 _ff._ - - _Mu Lan_, 185, 201, 212 - - Music, Types of, 142, 147, 191 _ff._ - - Musical Instruments, 148 _ff._, 192 - - - _New Mayor, The_, 115 - - New World, 132, 143 - - _Ngoh Chia Chuan._ _See_ NGOH FAMILY VILLAGE - - _Ngoh Family Village_, 87 - - - Orphan of the Chao Family, The, 37, 94 - - - _Pai Hua_, 21, 22 - - Palace of Eternal Life, 4, 70 - - _Pang Ta Poo Ching Lang._ _See_ BEATING THE HEARTLESS HUSBAND - - Pantalone. _See_ COMMEDIA DELL’ ARTE - - Pantomimes, 6 - - _Pavilion of the Royal Monument_, 184 - - Pear Garden, 3, 18, 135 - - _Pi Pa Chi._ _See_ STORY OF A LUTE - - P’iao Yu. _See_ AMATEURS - - Plays, Types of, 146 _ff._, 197 - - _Po She Chuan._ _See_ WHITE AND BLACK SNAKES, THE - - Porter, Lucius, 11, 14 - - Precious Hairpin, The, 93 - - - Reinhardt, Max, 214 - - Ridgeway, Professor William, 9, 10 - - _Ruse of the Empty City, The_, 80 - - _Ruse of the Nail, The_, 157 - - - San Kuo Chi. _See_ THREE KINGDOMS, THE - - _San Yao Hui._ _See_ SHAKING DICE - - Scapino. _See_ COMMEDIA DELL’ ARTE - - Seasonal Plays, 104 _ff._, 159, 194 - - _Seeing the Ancestral Portraits._ _See_ TRIAL OF STRENGTH - - _Shaking Dice_, 98 - - _Sha Tze Pao._ _See_ SLAYING THE SON - - _Shang Ting Chi._ _See_ RUSE OF THE NAIL - - Shih Hu. _See_ HU SHIH - - Shih Wang-ti, Emperor, 12 - - Shui Hu Chuan. _See_ STORY OF A RIVER BANK - - _Singing Girl, The_, 29 - - _Slave Girl Plays Tricks on the Old Schoolmaster, The_, 183 - - _Slaying of the Son_, 158 - - Smith, Doctor Arthur H., 66, 68 - - _Snow in June._ _See_ SUFFERINGS OF TOU-E - - Soong Tsung-faung, author, 12, 117, 118 - - Sophists. _See_ COURT FOOLS - - _Sorrowful Korean, The_, 114 - - _Sorrows of Han_, 37 - - Spring Willow Dramatic Society, 112 - - _Ssu Pao-pi._ _See_ DRUNKARD, THE - - Stäel Holstein, Baron de, 179 - - Stanton, William, 4, 159 - - Stent, George Carter, 71 - - Stephenson, Professor H. T., 214, 215 - - _Story of a Lute._ _See_ CHAPTER III - - Story of the River Bank, 79 - - Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, 80 - - Suen Lo Ngao, 12 - - _Sufferings of Tou-E_, 23, 39, 142 - - - _Ta Chih Shang Wen._ _See_ BEATING THE NEPHEW - - _Ta Yin Ho._ _See_ CROSSING THE MILKY WAY - - _Tai Yü Chuan Hua._ _See_ BURYING THE FLOWERS - - Taine, H., 205 - - T’an Shen-pei, actor, 149, 188 - - T’an Shoo-shan, actor, 150 - - _T’ao Hua Shan._ _See_ BLOOD-STAINED FAN, THE - - Taoism, 34 - - Teh Hing, actor, 152 - - Theater. _See_ ELIZABETHAN THEATER; GREEK THEATER - - Thorndyke, Professor A. H., 198, 203, 208 - - Three Kingdoms, The, 78, 79, 80 - - _Three Pulls._ _See_ THREE STRANGE MEETINGS - - _Three Strange Meetings_, 83, 180 - - _Tiger, The_, 14 - - T’ing Hua, critic, 154 - - _Tou-E._ _See_ SUFFERINGS OF TOU-E - - _Transmigration of You Hsin_, 33 - - _Trial of Strength and Viewing the Ancestral Portraits_, 94, 183 - - Tsai Yuan-pei, 58 - - Tung Lo Yuan, 140 - - Types of Character. _See_ CHARACTER TYPES - - Types of Music. _See_ MUSIC, TYPES OF - - Types of Plays. _See_ PLAYS, TYPES OF - - - Vernacular. _See_ PAI HUA - - - Wang Kuo-wei, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 23 - - Wen Li, 20, 21 - - _Western Chamber, The_, 24 - - _White and Black Snakes, The_, 100 - - Wu, 7, 11 - - Wu Lien-teh, Mrs., 71 - - Wu Wang, Empress, 7 - - - Yang Kuei-fei, 4, 70, 71, 72 _ff._, 159, 181 _ff._ - - _Yang Kuei-fei on a Spree_, 157, 181 - - _Yang Kuei-fei Tsui Chou._ _See_ YANG KUEI-FEI ON A SPREE - - Yang Shiao-lo, actor, 138, 151, 155 - - _Yellow Jacket, The_, 170, 200, 216 - - _Yi Tsai Hua_, 111 - - Yo Fei, 91, 92, 134 - - _Young Nun Seeks Love, A_, 178 - - _Yü Chan Chih._ _See_ PRECIOUS HAIRPIN, A - - Yu Meng, Court Fool, 12 - - _Yü Pei T’ing._ _See_ PAVILION OF THE ROYAL MONUMENT - - Yü San-yen, actor, 150 - - Yü Sze, Court Fool, 12 - - Yuen Tsung. _See_ MING HUANG - - Yung Lo, Emperor, 47 - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHINESE THEATER *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Chinese theater</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Adolf Eduard Zucker</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: December 4, 2022 [eBook #69475]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHINESE THEATER ***</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> - -<p class="center larger">THE CHINESE THEATER</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/flowers.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> - -<p class="center"><i>Seven hundred and fifty copies<br> -of <span class="smcap">The Chinese Theater</span> have<br> -been printed from type and the<br> -type distributed. Of this Limited<br> -Edition, seven hundred and<br> -twenty copies are for sale, of<br> -which this is</i><br> -<br> -<i>Number 16</i></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="painting1" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/painting1.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">A GENERAL</p> - <p class="caption">Chinese Character Type</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger"><span class="smaller">THE</span><br> -CHINESE THEATER</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br> -A. E. ZUCKER<br> -<span class="smaller"><i>Professor of Comparative Literature, University of Maryland<br> -Formerly, Assistant Professor of English,<br> -Peking Union Medical College</i></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage">WITH ILLUSTRATIONS</p> - -<div class="figcenter titlepage illowp37" style="max-width: 7.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/dragon.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="titlepage">BOSTON<br> -LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY<br> -MCMXXV</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Copyright, 1925</i>,<br> -<span class="smcap">By Little, Brown, and Company</span>.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><i>All rights reserved</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller">Published November, 1925</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smaller"><i>To</i></span><br> -MY WIFE, LOIS MILES</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> - -</div> - -<p>The genial Reverend Arthur Smith in his -“Village Life in China” says that the -Chinese sometimes finds it hard to understand -the Westerner. As an instance -he cites the case of a tired traveler -who stops at an inn for the night and is told that -there will be theatricals in the evening. Instead -of sharing the glee of the natives, he gathers his -tired self together and hurries on to the next village -that he may enjoy his sleep far away from sounding -brass and clanging<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> cymbal. Possibly this explains -why among all the books written on China comparatively -few concern themselves with the theater. One -might add too that the drama stands on a relatively -lower level than some other Chinese arts, for example, -landscape painting and lyric poetry. Yet -though his dramas are poor the Chinese actor has -at his command consummate skill to hold the mirror -up to life; he is no less of an artist than his Occidental -colleague.</p> - -<p>Still, the subject has attracted a fair number of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span> -Occidental writers. Du Halde was the first; in his -monumental description of China published in 1735 -he printed a translation by a Jesuit missionary of -the Yuan Dynasty drama, “The Orphan of the Chao -Family.” It was this translation that inspired Voltaire’s -“L’Orphelin de la Chine.” Other translations -followed in the nineteenth century, together -with some critical material and various descriptions -of Chinese staging. In the last few years the interest -in the Chinese stage has evidently become -greater than ever, both in China and in Western -lands. A history of the Chinese drama, however, -has never been written; largely because the Chinese -themselves have no such work. Only a few present-day -innovators among Celestial scholars consider -the drama as literature. Thus the information we -possess on this vast subject is very meager, and -much of it is also out of print. This book is an attempt -to gather together what is known on the subject, -as well as to present in a volume supplied with -vivid illustrations the results of five years’ experience -with the Peking theater by a student of comparative -literature possessed of a modest knowledge -of the Peking dialect.</p> - -<p>Those who have so far written on the subject -have always spoken of a decadence of the drama -which set in immediately after the first period of -bloom in the Yuan Dynasty (1280-1368). In the -course of the revaluation of values now going on in -China this opinion is being changed. Mr. Wang Kuo-wei<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[ix]</span> -has recently compiled a dramatical catalogue -which shows that numerically, at least, there is no -decrease in the production of dramas. A trenchant -critic, Doctor Hu Shih, holds that only technically -can the drama of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) -be said to be inferior, because the compact and -unified plays of the Yuan period become diffuse -and of serpentine length; but that in the matter of -characterization, poetic diction, and content they -are far superior. Furthermore, modern Chinese -criticism considers the very highest point of the -drama to have been reached in two historical tragedies -of the Ching Dynasty (1644-1911). As can -readily be seen, there is an enormous amount of -work to be done in this field; and if the gaps and -errors in this book shall impel a competent scholar -to write the long overdue history of the Chinese -drama this work will have served its purpose.</p> - -<p>In general the Chinese drama is like ours. It is -divided into acts, often corresponding in number to -our customary four or five. It is presented in a -manner strikingly similar to that employed during -our greatest period of the drama—Shakespeare’s -day. It can be classified according to content into -our usual divisions. Historical drama prevails perhaps; -because of the great love of the Chinese for -his long tradition contemporaries of the Romans or -even earlier heroes are favorites on the stage. -Family drama is extremely popular, with subdivisions -such as the drama of the court room and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[x]</span> -criminal drama. The magic or mythological drama, -recalling perhaps “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”, -is also very important; among this group the very -best plays are those that treat superstitious beliefs -satirically. Then there are dramas of character, -among which can be found a good counterpart to -“The Miser” of Plautus or Molière. Dramas of intrigue -abound on every program. Even the monodrama -can be found among modern innovations. -And last, but by no means least, there is the religious -drama in some ways analogous to our miracle and -mystery plays.</p> - -<p>The three chief religions of China have exerted -their influence on the stage. Confucianism supplies -the general moral background of the majority of -plays. The veneration of the scholar rather than -of the warrior makes the former the chief hero on -the Chinese stage, while filial piety is the most outstanding -virtue which the hero displays. Taoism, -generally described as the religion of superstitions, -is responsible for the many mythological and ghostly -figures that fill Chinese plays. Rational Confucianism -is not conducive to imaginative writing, but -under the influence of Taoism the Chinese allowed -his fancy to roam to the end that innumerable delightful -fairy and ghost stories were invented. The -keen sense of humor of the Chinese often comes to -the fore in plays dealing with Buddhist monks. -These monks are the exact counterpart of the lazy, -ignorant, sensual, superstitious brethren who people<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[xi]</span> -the pages of Boccaccio, Chaucer, Hans Sachs, and -many other tellers of droll tales. In fact when Père -Prémave first came to China (around 1700) and -saw the monasteries with the celibate monks, who -abstained from meat, chanted offices, burned incense, -shaved their heads, prayed with beads, and gathered -money from the pious, he decided that this was an -invention of the Evil One for the sole purpose of -exasperating the Jesuits. With the exception of -some satire on the migration of souls the doctrine of -Sakyamouni has had little influence, but whenever -chanting priests or monks are brought on the stage -they are burlesqued. The Chinese are extremely -tolerant in regard to religion and never fanatical; -their attitude toward the supernatural has been -aptly defined as “politeness toward possibilities.”</p> - -<p>But the main theme of the Chinese drama, as of -all drama, is the human side of life. The stage is -naturally enough a mirror in which we can see the -Chinese as they see themselves. They present themselves -not as the wise men of the East that some -idealizing travelers would like to make them, nor -as the bloodthirsty monsters of the “Limehouse -Nights” brand; but as human beings, neither white -nor black. We see the corruption of officials, the -callousness toward suffering, the selfishness of parents, -the eagerness for compromise, and the lack -of physical or moral courage; on the other hand the -polite civilization with its long tradition, the respect -for the past and for learning, the love of poetry and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[xii]</span> -art, the general kindliness and honesty of the people, -the love of humor, the extreme democracy in social -relations, and the reasonableness and lack of fanaticism. -He who would know the Chinese ought to -know their stage; and furthermore, he who loves -our Middle Ages will derive endless pleasure from -its counterpart, the pageant of Chinese life.</p> - -<p>In my years in the East I received helpful suggestions -from many friends in the course of hundreds -of visits to the theater. Professor Soong Tsung-faung -first introduced me to this fascinating spectacle. -Doctor Hu Shih discussed it illuminatingly -in conversation and by correspondence. Lucius -Porter, Professor of Chinese, Columbia University, -1922-1924, offered helpful suggestions on the manuscript, -which he read in part, as did likewise Professor -Ferdinand Lessing, formerly of the National -University, Peking. Two of my students, Huang -Ke-k’ung and Jung Tu-shan, who learned from me -about Sophocles and Shakespeare, introduced me in -turn to many fine things on the Chinese stage. And -finally, I wish to express my appreciation to Mr. -Chang Ziang-ling and the many other <i>p’iao-yu</i> -(amateurs) for acquainting me with the nonprofessional -stage. Thanks are due to the editors of <i>La -Revue de Littérature Comparée</i> and of <i>Asia</i> for -permission to reprint a number of chapters.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">A. E. Zucker</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Riverdale, Maryland</span>, -December 7, 1924</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii"></a>[xiii]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header2.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2> - -</div> - -<table> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Preface</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PREFACE">vii</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="smaller">CHAPTER</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1 Early History</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_ONE">3</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2 Formal Development—Yuan Dynasty, 1206-1368 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWO">19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>3 The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> The Pi-Pa-Chi</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_THREE">43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>4 The Drama under the Manchus and the Republic—1644 to the Present Day</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_FOUR">69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>5 Modern Tendencies</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_FIVE">108</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>6 External Aspects of the Chinese Theater</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_SIX">129</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>7 The Conventions</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_SEVEN">161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>8 Mei Lan-fang—China’s Greatest Actor</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_EIGHT">171</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>9 Analogies Between East and West</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_NINE">190</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chronological Table</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHRONOLOGICAL_TABLE">221</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bibliography</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">223</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INDEX">231</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv"></a>[xiv]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv"></a>[xv]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header3.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">For the purpose of giving a vivid impression of the colorfulness -of the Chinese stage, the publishers have imported -from China four thousand paintings on silk, done by -students of the Peking School of Fine Arts. They represent -four of the standing character type of the Chinese -stage, in their traditional make-ups.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>A General</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#painting1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">FACING PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A Scholar</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#painting2">52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A Demi-Mondaine</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#painting3">152</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A Clown</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#painting4">206</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Illustration by a Chinese artist for “The Chalk Circle”</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus01">28</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Illustration by a Chinese artist for “The Chalk Circle”</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus02">32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Illustration by a Chinese artist. Tou-E before the judge</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus03">38</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Illustration by a Chinese artist. Tou-E about to be beheaded</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus04">40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A Chinese artist’s conception of two pious souls</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus05">48</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi"></a>[xvi]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Warrior-acrobats</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus06">80</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Amateur actors in an old-style Chinese play</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus07">110</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hu Shih</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus08">118</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A typical Peking audience with the inevitable teapots</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus09">130</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orchestral instruments</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus10">146</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orchestral instruments</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus11">148</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The actress Kin Feng-Kui in a male rôle</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus12">164</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mei Lan-fang in European dress, and in parts</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus13">176</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>“Burying the Blossoms”</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus14">180</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The Fortune Theater</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus15">198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A typical Peking theater</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus16">198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The orchestra seated in a corner of the stage</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus17">202</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<h1>THE CHINESE THEATER</h1> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/boat.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_ONE">CHAPTER ONE<br> -<span class="smcap">Early History</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-s.jpg" width="200" height="225" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">“Students of the Pear Garden” (Li Yuan -Tzu Ti) is the name by which actors -in China are called in elegant literary -style. This appellation was given them -in memory of the traditional origin of -the Chinese theater in the imperial palace gardens -of a T’ang Dynasty emperor, Ming Huang (Yuen -Tsung, 713-756 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), who was a generous patron -of the arts in his splendid capital Ch’ang An. This -ruler established a college called the Pear Garden -for the training in music and dramatics of young -actors of both sexes. His plan for court entertainment -the emperor had derived, according to legend, -from a visit to the moon where he had seen a troupe -of performers in the Jade Palace of the lunar emperor. -In the annals of the T’ang Dynasty the following -is told about the art-loving ruler:</p> - -<p>“Ming Huang was not only passionately fond of -music, but he also had a thorough knowledge of its -essential principles. He established an academy of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> -music with three hundred students. Ming Huang -himself gave them lessons in the Pear Garden; if -any of the students sang in poor taste or incorrectly -the emperor noted the fault immediately and corrected -it sharply. The young girls of the harem, -several hundred in number, were later also attached -to the academy as students.... On the occasion -of the emperor’s birthday the empress ordered them -to perform some musical numbers in the Palace of -Eternal Life.”</p> - -<p>The French scholar Bazin in the introduction to -his translation of four Chinese plays comments -upon this as follows: “Surely it is a great thing -that, at a time when the Chinese had as yet no idea -of dramatic performances, a man who had founded -the institution of the Han-Lin (literally ‘The Forest -of Pencils’, i.e., The Imperial Academy of Scholars), -and who could justly call himself ‘the teacher -of his nation’, conceived and carried out single-handed -a work of art, in which we find for the first -time with all its marvelous charm the union of lyric -poetry with the drama. This work, fitted to arouse -in the souls of the spectators the sentiment of the -sublime, could be the product only of a genius.”</p> - -<p>In “The Chinese Drama”, William Stanton -writes on the origin of the drama as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The long reign of Yuen Tsung, styled the Illustrious -Emperor (Ming Huang) owing to its splendid beginning -and disastrous close, is one of the most remarkable -in Chinese history.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p> - -<p>On ascending the throne, the young emperor zealously -strove to purge the empire of the extravagance and debauchery -that was ruining it; and in his austerity went so -far as to prohibit the wearing of the then fashionable -costly apparel, and, as an example to his subjects, he made -a large bonfire in his palace of an immense quantity of -embroidered garments and jewellery. Under the wise administration -of this stern ruler and his able ministers the -state attained a great height of prosperity. But unexpectedly -the emperor’s character underwent a change; -he developed a love of sensuality and himself indulged in -the luxuries he had formerly so strongly condemned.</p> - -<p>In <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 734 he obtained a sight of his daughter-in-law, -the beautiful Yang Kuei-fei, and became so violently -enamoured with her that he took her into his own seraglio. -She speedily obtained a complete ascendency over him and -succeeded in getting raised to the highest position next -the throne.</p> - -<p>According to legendary stories the Herdsman and -Spinning Damsel are two lovers who each inhabit a star -separated by the Silver River (the Milky Way) and are -unable to meet except on the seventh night of the seventh -moon, when magpies from all parts of the world assemble, -and with their linked bodies form a bridge to enable the -damsel to cross to her lover. Consequently this is one of -the great festive occasions of China. On the said evening -of <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 735, Yuen Tsung and his celebrated consort -stood gazing into the starlit sky. Remembering the occasion -Yang Kuei-fei burst into protestations of affection -and assured the monarch that she was more faithful than -the Spinning Damsel, for that she would never leave him, -but, inseparably with him, tread the spiritual walks of -eternity. In order to reward such love the emperor -sought to discover a novel amusement for her. After -consideration he summoned his prime minister and commanded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -him to select a number of young children, and, -after carefully instructing and handsomely dressing them, -to bring them before the beautiful Yang Kuei-fei, to recite -for her delectation the heroic achievements of his -ancestors. That was the origin of the drama in China. -The first performances were generally held in a pavilion -in the open air, among fruit trees, and Yuen Tsung subsequently -established an Imperial Dramatic College in a pear -garden, where hundreds of male and female performers -were trained to afford him pleasure. From the site of the -college the actors become known as the “Young Folks of -the Pear Garden”, a title they claim to the present day.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The Pear Garden origin of the Chinese drama is -a fine legend and heroic history, but it is typical of -Chinese who have come in touch with Occidental -science that they should search for a more realistic, -if less picturesque, account of the beginning of their -theater. The first, and so far the only, systematic -and scientific work on this subject is “The History -of the Drama under the Sung and Yuan Dynasties”, -by Mr. Wang Kuo-wei.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> This author has taken -great pains in collecting all evidences of pantomimes, -dramatic dances, satirical buffoonery, or anything -else to which the roots of a theater might be traced. -While he is not yet able on the basis of his evidence -to lead us back step by step to the genesis of the -theater—as could for example a scholar dealing -with the Greek drama—yet the evidence he adduces -is most interesting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p> - -<p>About 2000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> there were found mediums called -<i>wu</i> when they were women or <i>hsien</i> when men, -who performed dances and sang songs in the -worship of the gods, to exorcise evil spirits, to induce -the gods to send rain, or to act as mourners in -times of calamity. It was believed that the gods -descended to earth and communicated with men -through these mysterious beings, especially in the -course of violent dances. This form of worship designed -for the pleasure of the gods was evidently -much according to the taste of men, for we find it -such a widespread form of popular amusement -that I-Yin, famous minister of the Shang Dynasty -(1766-1122 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), issued an edict prohibiting it. -“The late sovereign instituted punishments for the -officers, and warned the men in authority, saying, -‘If you dare to have constant dancing in your mansions, -and drunken singing in your houses, I call it -wu-fashion’.”<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> During the classical Chou Dynasty, -beginning 1122 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> with Wu Wang, everything in -Chinese life was cast into the fetters of a strict -ritual. There were regulations governing the dress -to be worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures -to be assumed on all possible occasions, whether at -the court or in private life; in fact, these rules were -the prototypes of most of the characteristic features -governing Chinese public and social life down to the -present day. It can be seen readily that the more or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -less spontaneous and popular mimicry of the <i>wu</i> -(mediums) would naturally enough be suppressed -at this time; but in later dynasties we find again -many references to the beauty, the splendid costumes, -the singing and dancing, and in general the -charm of these actors in popular religious ceremonies.</p> - -<p>These performances of the early Chinese centered -about the divine worship, as everything of æsthetic -nature in the life of primitive man seems to do. -Even to-day all of the theatrical performances in -China outside the large cities are a form of divine -worship, usually harvest festivals staged by way of -thanksgiving for good crops. That there is in the -minds of the Chinese a definite religious association -with theatricals performed in the villages is shown -by the fact that the Christian converts always receive -a dispensation for their share of the sum demanded -by the traveling company. Sometimes -missionaries hear complaints from the village elders -that some thrifty members of their flocks save the -tax for theatricals and yet go to look on at the -shows; however, thanks to the reasonable and unfanatic -character of the Chinese such quarrels are -usually easily adjusted.</p> - -<p>Because of this close association of the theater -with temple worship,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> it seems reasonable to seek<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span> -for another possible origin of the drama in the early -ancestor worship in which the deceased forefather -of the family was impersonated by one of his descendants. -A ceremony of honoring a revered ancestor -could easily be expanded into a representation -of his great deeds. It is also known that not only -men but also gods were impersonated by the actors; -as Mr. Wang puts it, they dressed in the attire of -the gods and imitated their gestures. However, in -regard to these representations of the gods our -author feels that it is impossible to give any definite -details. Yet in the verse of the time there are allusions -to these performances referring to extravagance -in dress and in articles of toilet, such as -perfume; to a change in the style of music; to the -employment of themes of love or of sadness in parting—all -of which indicates the great popularity of -these entertainments of singing or dancing. Hence -our Chinese scholar believes that out of these beginnings -the drama has grown.</p> - -<p>In this connection it would seem proper to mention -the work of the Cambridge University scholar, -Professor William Ridgeway. He holds that Greek -tragedy proper did not arise in the worship of the -Thracian god Dionysus; but that it sprang out of -the indigenous worship of the dead, especially dead<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> -chiefs who in some cases are later deified.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> In -dramatic dances in honor of ancestors or deceased -heroes in Asiatic countries Professor Ridgeway -finds support for his theory of the origin of the -Greek theater. Speaking of the Chinese theater, he -says that already in the time of Confucius certain -solemn dances were held in the ancestral temples; -at the present time in the temples of local deities, -who were once heroes or heroines of the immediate -neighborhood, dramatic performances are held in -which these deified heroes are supposed to take an -interest for the reason that they are themselves frequently -the object of the worship; and that these -modern theatricals seem to be descended directly -from the ancient cult practiced five hundred years -before Christ. It would seem from the foregoing -that Mr. Wang’s evidence gives support to Professor -Ridgeway’s theories of the origin of tragedy -out of the worship of deified heroes.</p> - -<p>Doctor Berthold Laufer, curator of the Field -Museum, Chicago, has stated to me that in his opinion -a discussion of the origin of the Chinese drama -ought to differentiate between the beginnings of the -“military plays” and the “civil plays.” The latter -are, as will be explained more fully in a later -chapter, plays in our sense of the word, while the -“military plays” consist of acrobatics that symbolize -fighting. Doctor Laufer believes that these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> -last-named take their origin from ancient ceremonials -in which the use of weapons was the chief -feature. Doctor Laufer has had considerable experience -with the Chinese theater, and his museum -is the only one in the world, so far as I know, which -possesses life-size figures of Chinese actors in correct -costume.</p> - -<p>So much for ancestor worship as the source of -the drama with the <i>wu</i> or <i>hsien</i>. Mr. Wang adduces -records also of other types of actors. As -early as 1818 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, according to a none too reliable -Han Dynasty (206 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>-221 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) record, a ruler is -said to have abolished the temple rites and ceremonies -and to have collected about his court clowns, -dwarfs, and actors to perform amusing plays. In -the more historic period of “Spring and Autumn” -(770-544 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) there are records of dwarfs in rôles -similar to those of our court fools. They attempted -to gain the favor of the rulers by their witty sayings -which were often full of satire. Confucius in his -capacity of prime minister saw himself forced to -put to death one of these wits<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> because of his disrespectful -allusions to the ruler—an action, incidentally, -that seems most characteristic of the noble -sage, who with all his virtues certainly was not endowed -with a sense of humor. The function of these -dancing, singing, play-acting dwarfs was not a religious<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> -one; “they were to amuse men, not to amuse -the gods.”</p> - -<p>In a review<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> of Mr. Wang’s “History of the -Drama under the Sung and Yuan Dynasties” -Professor Soong calls attention to the following -interesting analogies between Orient and -Occident:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The influence of the court fools was considerable, and -on the whole salutary in China. Shih Huang-ti (255-206 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), the builder of the Great Wall, was so addicted to -great building enterprises that the people suffered in consequence. -It was Yu Sze, the court fool, who caused the -emperor to treat the people with more consideration. -The successor of this mighty ruler conceived the plan of -having the Great Wall painted—perhaps just a caprice -on his part, perhaps in order to render the Wall less subject -to the influence of the weather. Again Yu Sze dissuaded -the emperor from carrying out such a costly and -wasteful project. The history of Yu Meng is even more -interesting. In the kingdom of Chou the family of Suen -Lo Ngao had become extremely impoverished because the -king had forgotten the merits of the chief of the house, -a famous general. Yu Meng, the court fool, donned the -armor of the defunct military leader and sang of his -exploits before the royal palace; now the king could no -longer refuse to recognize and recompense the merits of -the family. This touching episode told by the historian -in the “Biography of Court Fools” cannot but recall -Will Sommer to whom “The King would ever grant what -he would crave.”</p> - -</div> - -<p>During the Han Dynasty records show the existence -of jugglers, magicians, rope-walkers, sword-swallowers,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -and also of plays in which masked -actors disguised as gods, fearful leopards, cruel -tigers, white bears, and gray dragons had their -parts. Dwarfs and giants were made to play together -in humorous pieces. Singing girls in costumes -of feathers executed artful dances. Some of -these performances are said to have been so indecent -that passers-by covered their eyes. However, -such performances were sharply censored -at the time, just as they would be in present-day -China.</p> - -<p>All of these performances were very much favored -by the rulers, but they consisted mostly of singing -and dancing, while there was very little that might -be called drama. In the northern Ch’i Dynasty -(550-570 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) however, there arose what might be -called a historical play based on an episode in the -life of a heroic warrior, Duke Lan Lu. This warrior -had a somewhat effeminate aspect, and therefore -he wore a mask in battle to inspire fear in the -hearts of his enemies. His story was dramatized -and became a very popular play, probably similar to -the present-day “military plays” in which the play -with swords and spears forms the <i>pièce de résistance</i>. -There is a record about the same time of a -comedy also based on an actual occurrence, called -“The Drunkard.” A certain man, Su Pao-pi (a -name alluding to red spots on his nose) was a very -heavy drinker and after each spree would beat his -wife in the village street until she wept pitifully.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -Two actors, one dressed as a woman and the other -as a man, would amuse the people by a popular farce -portraying this quarrel between husband and wife. -The playlet must have been one of extraordinary -vitality, for there are records of it in the Chi, Chou, -and Sui dynasties—to be sure, three short dynasties -that followed one closely upon the other. Music and -dancing also played a part in these two early dramatic -presentations, so that they were probably of -the melodramatic (in the etymological sense of the -term) variety, such as is most of the Chinese drama -of to-day.</p> - -<p>The dramas in China are classified according to -the style of music they employ. Another play of the -same, or perhaps a little earlier period, called “The -Tiger,” is thought by Mr. Wang, because of the -music of foreign tribes employed in it, to have been -brought into China from “The Western Regions” -(central Asia).<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> It is the story of a man who was -killed by a tiger and whose son then set out on a -search for the wild beast, fought with it and avenged -his father by killing it in turn. Mr. Wang even -hazards the suggestion that the two plays mentioned -above, “The Mask” and “The Drunkard,” were in -their music and manner of presentation imitations -of “The Tiger,” in which case this form of drama<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -would be a borrowing from a foreign country and -not indigenous to China.</p> - -<p>Two other early plays which Mr. Wang mentions -deal with historical episodes. From the Han dynasty -(206 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>-221 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) dates the story of an unjust -mandarin who had “squeezed” as they say in -China, ten thousand rolls of silk and was put in jail. -Later on the emperor moderated this punishment, -because of the mandarin’s great learning, into the -following: the culprit had to appear at court dressed -in a white robe while for the period of one year the -court fools were at liberty to make sport of him. -This became the basis of a play shown by a number -of records to have been acted frequently before the -T’ang Dynasty. The plot seems, indeed, to have been -a comedy made to order for the court fools to display -their wit. There is evidence to show that this -play was enacted in the imperial palace in the middle -of the eighth century. A group of actors from -Chekiang in presenting this play were said to have -had voices so loud that they penetrated to the clouds—a -circumstance that would win the favor of the -devotees of certain types of modern Chinese drama. -The other historical play has for a hero Fan Kuai, -a noble who saved the emperor’s life by his prompt -action against rebels. It is said to have been written -by the T’ang Dynasty emperor, Chao Tsung himself, -and to have been acted in the imperial palace in -Ch’ang An.</p> - -<p>It was during the T’ang Dynasty especially that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -a nonmusical type of drama flourished in the form -of extemporized comedies. The plots hinged on -local occurrences and differed with practically each -presentation. However, much as in the Italian <i>commedia -dell’ arte</i>, with its Arlecchino, Pantalone, Dottore, -Scapino, etc., certain characters or character -types seem to have arisen. The very same extortionate -mandarin, mentioned above as the central -figure of a play, became such a type who figured in -almost all of these comedies—in fact he is a stock -character on the Chinese stage even to-day—while -opposite him there appeared as his regular companion -a fool wearing a green cap. Thus dialogue between -two actors—in other words rudimentary -drama—became firmly established. Since the satirizing -of current events and of local characters was -the avowed purpose of these comedies, it will be -readily understood by all familiar with life in the -East that the dishonest official came in for his fair -share.</p> - -<p>A topical comedy with a purpose from the Sung -Dynasty (960-1126 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) played before the emperor -attained all that might have been desired. Through -the efforts of an unpopular official a system of coinage -had been introduced in which the smallest coin -had a value of ten cash. Naturally enough this -caused great inconvenience to very many poor people. -Therefore some actors called upon to play before -the emperor in the course of a feast proceeded -to give him a lesson in rudimentary economics. A<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -vendor of syrups appeared and shortly afterwards a -thirsty customer. The latter paid one coin and demanded -one drink. The merchant explained that he -had no change for the coin and asked his patron -therefore to take a number of drinks. The buyer -does his best, but after the fifth or sixth cup taps -his bulging stomach and exclaims, “Well, I’ve done -it at last. But if the gentlemen in the government -were to make us use hundred-cash coins I should -surely burst!” The emperor was moved to gay -laughter and smaller coins were at once issued. -However, the efforts of these actors were not always -so fortunate in outcome. The story is told, -for example, of actors who had dressed up to represent -Confucius, Mencius, and other sages for the -purpose of giving the emperor some very pertinent -advice on the division of land in the very words of -the great moral teachers. The advice proved to -be so inconvenient that the emperor had the actors -whipped for their pains.</p> - -<p>From the Sung Dynasty (960-1127 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) Mr. -Wang reports the names of 280 plays and from the -Chin Dynasty (1115-1234 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) 690 plays, but fails -to state how many are extant. Of the so-called -Ancient Drama it is known that a certain kind of -free metrical form adapted to music (<i>ch’ü</i>) was employed; -that as a rule only two actors appeared in -each play; and that theatricals, though still very -primitive, were quite popular, as they were presented -both to the general public in shabby mat-sheds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -and to the court at magnificent feasts. Our -knowledge of the Ancient Drama is very meager to -be sure, yet the work of Mr. Wang has made it -possible to go beyond what Mr. Giles says in his -“History of Chinese Literature”<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> after having -mentioned the Pear Garden myth: “Nothing, however, -which can be truly identified with the actor’s -art seems to have been known until the thirteenth -century, when suddenly the Drama, as seen in the -modern Chinese stage play, sprang into being.” -Owing to the great interest in Western drama in -China at the present time it is very likely that other -Chinese scholars will make researches in this interesting -field and that more light will soon be shed on -the origin of the Chinese drama.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header5.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_TWO">CHAPTER TWO<br> -<span class="smcap">Formal Development—Yuan Dynasty, 1206-1368</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The rise of the Chinese drama was due -to a national disaster that broke the -sway of the ruling literary class. In -1264 Kublai Khan with his Mongols -fixed his capital at Peking and for the -first time in their history the sons of Han passed -under the rule of an alien sovereign. The barbarians -naturally enough abolished the literary examinations -for government posts, consisting of -competitions in the writing of essays and poetry in -the language of the classics, for they did not care -to appoint as viceroys and justices members of the -subject race. The Mongol language had absolutely -no literature and, indeed, not even an alphabet until -1279, when a Tibetan priest constructed one by imperial -order. Chinese scholars were thrust out of -their high offices and could find employment only as -writers of petitions or as lowly clerks. There was no -longer any call for the exercise of their talents in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -the writing of descriptive essays or lyrical poetry -such as had been demanded in the examinations -formerly leading to the highest offices; they found, -however, a fruitful outlet for their literary powers -in a genre previously greatly despised by the literati—the -drama.</p> - -<p>The cause of the scholar’s disdain for the drama -and the novel was the great chasm that yawned -between the classical language and the spoken language -of the day in which, perforce, popular literature -of entertainment or of the stage had to be -written. For over a thousand years the literary -language had been a dead language, so dead that a -learned scholar could comprehend it only if he saw -the text in black and white before his eyes—to hear -it read did not by any means enable him to understand -it. Everything that had been considered -literature up to that time was composed in this -language, and anything composed in the vulgar -tongue was considered beneath the dignity of a -scholar. Now, however, clever writers turned to -the drama and the novel with the result that the -written language was to a certain extent democratized -in the works that appealed to the broad masses -of readers or hearers. But let it be noted, <i>to a certain -extent only</i>; for, as vanquished Greece in turn -conquered Rome by her superior culture, so Chinese -culture conquered the Mongols. After having been -abolished for practically eighty years the literary -examinations were reinstated and the drama too<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -was gradually caught in pedantic fetters of formalism. -Yet in spite of the fact that the Yuan dramatists -moved away from the spoken language to one -presupposing considerable erudition on the part of -the reader, there are many scholars even to-day who -regard the novel and drama as beneath their notice, -just as a medieval scholar would have despised any -work not written in Latin.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> - -<p>In fact these works have been recognized at their -true worth only as late as 1917, when Hu Shih, -Columbia University doctor of philosophy and professor -at the National University in Peking, began -to lecture on the Chinese drama as drama and to -publish the best of the novels with historical introductions.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -Professor Hu Shih finds in the language -of these works a compromise which he hopes will be -an aid in inducing the Chinese of to-day finally to -adopt the vernacular as the language of science and -belles-lettres. For, in spite of the concessions made -to the firmly rooted conventions of the conservative -class of scholars for the sake of lending dignity to -their works and securing the approval of the literati, -the novel and the drama, owing to their popular -appeal, deviated largely from the dead language and -approached the vernacular of the day.</p> - -<p>The dramatists are as a rule men who are not -otherwise famous as writers. Biographical material -concerning the authors of the “One Hundred Yuan -Dramas”, the collection of plays considered classical -in China, is so meager that it does not seem worth -while to mention names about whose bearers little -more can be said than that they “flourished.” -About five hundred plays were extant at the beginning -of the Ming Dynasty, while to-day there -exist but one hundred and sixteen. Modern Celestial -scholars are proud of the fact that an overwhelming -percentage of the authors were real -Chinese, practically all from the territory now covered -by the provinces of Chihli, Shantung and -Shansi, about a third of them born in Peking (called -Yenching at the time). Nine tenths of the authors -lived in what is called the first period of the Yuan -drama (1235-1280) with its center in Peking; while -the much smaller Southern School developed later<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> -(1280-1335) around Hangchow. Most of the authors -were from among the common people, and -only one among the whole ninety odd was a Tartar. -Chinese critics regard Kuan Han-ching (the author -of “The Sufferings of Tou-E”, a play discussed -below) as the greatest of all these writers, because -his manner is true and natural. Others are spoken -of as having a style that is lofty and magnificent, or -pure and beautiful, or biting and vigorous.</p> - -<p>The historian of the Chinese drama, Mr. Wang -Kuo-wei, quoted above, states that the Yuan drama -is a natural growth out of the previously existing -forms and the traditional plots. More than thirty -Yuan plots, he points out, had been used before in -plays of the Sung Dynasty. He finds the chief advance -of the Yuan drama to consist in the employment -of more flexible verse forms for the poetic -sections and the use of more dialogue in the place -of narration and description. Thus the essence of -drama, action, takes the place of narration. Moreover, -the drama rose to the dignity of an art. Previous -to this the plays, generally dialogues by clowns, -had been mostly interlarded in entertainments of -acrobatics, dancing, and music. Such performances -took place frequently at the royal court and are described -also in the writings of the Italian Ma-Ke-Po-Lo -(Marco Polo) when he tells about the feast -of the Grand Khan: “When the repast is finished, -and the tables have been removed, persons of various -descriptions enter the hall and amongst these a troop<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -of comedians and performers on various instruments, -as also tumblers and jugglers, who exhibit -their skill in the presence of the Grand Khan to the -high amusement and gratification of all the spectators.”<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<p>As has been stated above, the dramas soon took -on certain formal aspects. In general they have -four acts, with a prologue, epilogue, or interlude, -which makes them in appearance and length quite -similar to our five-act plays. Some plays—analogous -to our trilogies—have acts of a number that -is a multiple of four and each group of four acts -forms a unity by itself. For example, “The Western -Chamber”, has twenty acts and forms really -five plays. According to Chinese critics the drama -is composed of three elements: (1) action; (2) -speech; (3) singing. Speech may be divided into -monologue and dialogue; the purpose of the latter -is to advance the action and of the former to arouse -emotions—a function that very properly invites -comparison with the rôle of the chorus in the Greek -drama. No longer are there only two characters in -these plays, but we now find four chief rôles along -with various minor parts. In very rigid manner -only one character is made to sing in each act, which -means that each of the four characters has one act -in which he or she plays the main rôle. This arrangement -has had its peculiar effect which can be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -witnessed in present-day Peking, where plays of -this type are staged, inasmuch as a famous actor -who plays, let us say, the rôle of the lover, will not -present entire dramas, but only such of the acts as -give him the principal part. In the new plays of -to-day, of course, a different practice is followed -but the old repertoire of the average Chinese theater -is so well known that it makes very little difference -whether a drama is presented as a whole or in part. -The character types of the Yuan drama, the <i>Mei</i> -(male) and <i>Tan</i> (female), with their many variations, -are in general quite similar to the types of -present-day drama, a discussion of which is given -in a later chapter. In the printed texts of the play -characters are designated not by their names, but -by the rôles which they play.</p> - -<p>The classical drama of China offers many interesting -parallels to different stages in the development -of our drama, though it nowhere equals the -plays of our great masters. Its greatest height -reaches the level of perhaps the pre-Shakespearean -drama in content, construction, and manner of presentation. -The presentation of Chinese plays with -the projecting platform stage, the lack of scenery -and the emphasis on gorgeous costume, the playing -of female parts by male actors, the extemporizing -of clowns, and the use of music in “flourish” -and “alarums” offers a strikingly close parallel to -Elizabethan staging. But that is a chapter by itself.</p> - -<p>In the consideration of Chinese drama a few facts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -of Chinese life must be borne in mind. The beau -ideal in the Middle Kingdom is not the warrior, but -the scholar. There is no hereditary aristocracy, but -wealth and power falls to him who distinguishes -himself in the competitive examinations and thus -becomes viceroy of a province or some other type -of high official. The passing of the examination -therefore serves as the <i>deus ex machina</i> in many -plays, solving all knotty problems accumulated by -the fifth act. Marriages are arranged by the parents, -and the romance of courtship is a rare and -forbidden fruit. The religious and ethical background -consists chiefly of a respect for the minute -moral precepts of Confucius, with some Buddhistic -notions of reincarnation and some Taoist superstitions -impartially admixed.</p> - -<p>To examine a few of the acknowledged masterpieces -of the Yuan drama is to invite fascinating -comparisons. In “Chao Mei Hsiang” (Intrigue of -a Lady’s Maid) we have a young servant girl -uniting two lovers, a sort of Dorine of Molière’s -“Tartuffe” in a Chinese setting. The destiny of -the young man and the girl have been settled beforehand -by their parents, much as Orgon in “Tartuffe” -disposes of his daughter’s future:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>Enfin, ma fille, il faut payer d’obeissance,</i></div> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>Et montrer pour mon choix entière déférence.</i></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The lovers in both plays revolt against parental -authority, and in both cases a happy ending is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -brought about indirectly through fortunate intervention -on the part of the monarch himself. The -meat contained in the Chinese play is about what -“Tartuffe” would be with Tartuffe left out.</p> - -<p>Two generals arrange, shortly before they die in -battle, that their children are to marry. The son of -the one, therefore, while on his journey to the capital -to take his examination, visits at the home of -the widow of his father’s friend. The widow invites -him to take up his abode in a pleasant pavilion -in the garden, but she meets with icy silence every -reference on the part of the young man to marriage. -This is because she wishes to observe the very -strictest code of conduct, which ordains that when -a girl has lost her father she dare not marry until -three years afterward. The young people fall in -love at first sight; the young man so desperately that -the yearning for the girl he is not permitted to see -after their first accidental meeting causes him to -become violently ill. The quick-witted, impertinent -maid sent to look after the wants of the patient -carries messages between him and the young girl -and finally arranges a meeting on a moonlit night. -The lovers have exchanged but a few words when -the mother discovers them. She punishes the maid -and sends the young man away in disgrace. He -goes to the capital and passes such a brilliant examination -that he attracts the attention of the emperor. -The latter becomes interested in the young -man’s future and decides to carry out the wish of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -his two faithful generals. The marriage is arranged -by imperial command. Both lovers are in ignorance -as to who their selected mates are to be, and at first -are very much dejected; but when they meet as bride -and groom their happiness is all the greater when -they realize that the choice of their elders is also the -choice of their hearts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus01" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus01.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">ILLUSTRATION BY A CHINESE ARTIST FOR “THE CHALK CIRCLE”</p> - <p class="caption">This, together with three similar illustrations, has been taken - from the standard edition of the Yuan Dynasty classics</p> -</div> - -<p>The play moves in an atmosphere of strictly prescribed -etiquette of which the mother is a stony-eyed -incarnation. The facetious little maid is a breaker -of rules in the interest of more human considerations, -and, like the servant in all our comedies from -the time of Menander downward, she tells her mistress -some frank home-truths. Not only is the -young man a scholar, but the heroine with her maid-companion -also have been ardent students of the -classics. Quotations from Confucius, Mencius, -Laotze, and the Buddhist writings lend their sparkle -to the dialogue. The lovers exchange poems exhibiting -that charming impressionism of delicately -sketched moonlight on the lotus or snowfall on pine -trees so characteristic of Chinese verse. Allusions -to myths abound; for example, to the moonlit cloud -that wooed the mother of Huang Ti as Jupiter -did Io. As in the plays of Bernard Shaw and of -his predecessor Shakespeare, the heroine takes the -initiative by tossing into the room of the rather passive -hero a bag embroidered with characters revealing -her love. A wistful note is sounded by the young -scholar when the wedding commanded by the emperor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span> -is, as he believes, about to unite him to a -woman other than the one he loves: “Musicians, -please do not now play the air of the teals meeting -in chaste pleasure who lament and yet feel no sorrow.” -This speech gives the same blending of the -emotions so often spoken of by our poets in analyzing -the mystery of love, perhaps most strikingly in -Goethe’s lines:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>Freudvoll und leidvoll,</i></div> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>Gedankenvoll sein,</i></div> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>Langen und bangen</i></div> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>In schwebender Pein,</i></div> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>Himmelhoch jauchzend</i>,</div> - <div class="verse indent2"><i>Zum Tode betrübt,</i></div> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>Glücklich allein ist</i></div> - <div class="verse indent0"><i>Die Seele die liebt.</i></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The play “Ho Lang Tan” (The Singing Girl) -portrays the punishment of vice and the triumph of -virtue. A rich merchant decides to take into his -house a second wife, a certain singing girl. He finds -himself desperately in love with this lady of easy -virtue, while the girl herself is planning to get his -money in order to run off with her real lover. There -is a scene between husband and wife in which the -latter bitterly resents the plan of bringing a concubine -into the house and pronounces grave warnings -of the evils that will befall her husband in consequence. -But the merchant persists in his plan and -brings the singing girl to salute his wife as mistress -of the house. The former is required by etiquette<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -to make four bows, of which the last two must be -returned by the wife. The wife refuses to greet the -interloper, and after a short but violent quarrel she -dies of anger. The next scene shows the singing -girl stealing the merchant’s money and setting his -house on fire. Her lover, disguised as a boatman, -throws the husband into a stream and tries to -strangle the latter’s son and his nurse. But passers-by -prevent the cowardly murder, and one of the -strangers buys from the nurse the seven-year-old -boy for one ounce of silver. The poor nurse faces -starvation and decides to adopt the profession of a -singing girl. While traveling about in this capacity -she meets the merchant who has had a miraculous -escape from drowning and has sunk to the position -of swineherd in a far country. His lowly state -eloquently points the moral. At first he upbraids -the nurse for having adopted her dishonorable calling, -but afterward he accepts her invitation to quit -his miserable post and to be supported by her. -Thirteen years have passed and the young son has -become a famous judge by virtue of having passed -a brilliant examination. He happens to arrive in the -same city where his relatives are and calls on the -keeper of his inn to provide some singers for his -entertainment. The host leads in his childhood -nurse and his father. The young judge wipes his -teacup with a piece of paper which he throws on the -floor. As this paper happens to be the contract of -his sale by the nurse to the kind-hearted stranger<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> -who later made him his heir and as it happens to be -picked up by the father, a recognition is effected. -At the same time two thieves are brought before the -judge, who turn out to be the erstwhile second wife -and her scoundrel lover. They meet their just punishment; -the judge puts them to death with his own -hand as a pious offering to the spirit of his deceased -mother. The father praises the justice of Heaven -and asks his son to order a feast that they may -celebrate in due form this remarkable meeting.</p> - -<p>The chief interest of this clumsy play lies in the -light it throws on Chinese life. The indignation and -subsequent death of the wife show how even in -countries where “they are used to it” women resent -bitterly the advent of a concubine into the house. -During my stay in Peking there occurred several -weddings that were marred by violent quarrels between -the first wife and the new bride. The husband -in our play vainly exhorts his wife to be good, -to observe the three obediences and the four virtues -of a wife.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - -<p>Yet he cannot exile her, because she has borne -him a son. All of the characters are drawn with -great realism in their ignoble conduct. The sale of -the child by the nurse is followed by a tearful monologue -on the part of the sailor who had come to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span> -rescue: “Poor child, your lot is to be pitied. This -woman who was just about to be strangled by the -brigands finds herself reduced to the necessity of -selling her child. Could one find a sadder and more -heart-rending situation? Who would not shed tears -of pity for her?”</p> - -<p>The author sets out with a realistic portrayal of -a phase of life, but he yields to the force of convention -which required a moral and happy ending—an -influence not unknown in the drama of Western -countries.</p> - -<p>Our plays, from “The Merchant of Venice” to -“Madam X”, abound in court scenes, but the Chinese -theater makes use of this effective device even more -frequently. A play called “The Chalk Circle” presents -in a trial scene a story almost identical with a -Biblical one. Two women appearing before a judge -with a child each claim it as their own. The judge -orders the child placed in a circle drawn on the floor, -while the women are to decide who is the mother by -pulling at the child in a sort of tug-of-war. One -woman refuses to hurt the child by pulling at his -arm, and the judge decides with Solomonic wisdom -that she must be the true mother. Very frequently -these plays are satirical in character, making sport -of the notoriously corrupt judges. In one of the -naively primitive speeches of introduction, required -by the theatrical convention of every character on -entering the stage, a judge is made to say, “I am -the governor of Ching-Chou. My name is Sou<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -Shen. Although I fulfill the functions of a judge, -yet I do not know a single article of the code. I like -only one thing and that is money. By means of the -bright metal every plaintiff can always make sure -the winning of his suit.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus02" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus02.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">ILLUSTRATION BY A CHINESE ARTIST FOR “THE CHALK CIRCLE”</p> -</div> - -<p>“The Transmigration of You Hsin” is a play -dealing with the popular superstitions regarding the -reincarnation of souls in much the same spirit in -which Voltaire in “Candide” treats the belief that -this is the best of all possible worlds. As in Gogol’s -“Revizor” the government sends an inspector to a -certain village where the officials of the law court are -said to be corrupt. The rumor of the coming inspection -reaches town before the inspector; and most of -the judges flee. Only You Hsin remains, together -with the clerks and minor officials. One of these expresses -his surprise at the fact that You Hsin is -going to meet the inspector so calmly, especially -since he had recently accepted a scandalously large -bribe. You Hsin answers, “Yes, to be sure, I’ve -accepted presents. But my friend, you certainly are -simple! Isn’t it necessary that we fulfill our destiny? -No one can die before his time has come. -Have the courts ever prolonged by one minute the -life of a man? If it were otherwise people would no -longer believe in lucky and unlucky fates; they -would no longer call Heaven and Earth the arbiters -of life and death.” A famous anchorite appears -prophesying that You Hsin will die within two -hours. Then the inspector enters the village and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -begins immediately his examination of the court -records. However, since he is an extremely stupid -and incapable man, the clerks succeed in persuading -him that everything is in order. But You Hsin in -his home has fallen ill. He implores his beautiful -wife never to show her face in public and to remain -a widow forever. He dies at the very hour the holy -man had foretold—even though his death is not -due to a sentence imposed on him because of his -corrupt practices.</p> - -<p>You Hsin’s soul appears before the judge of the -lower world. As he had been very avaricious in life -his punishment is to consist in having to gather -coppers tossed into a deep kettle of boiling oil. But -the holy man appears and obtains forgiveness for -You Hsin, because he allows himself to be quickly -converted to Taoism and makes the vows of poverty -and chastity. The judge will even grant him the -boon of a speedy return to earth. He cannot reënter -his own body, because his wife has been a bit precipitate -in cremating it; but he is allowed to enter -that of a butcher who has just died, a blue-eyed, -lame, and otherwise ugly man. The butcher’s parents, -wife, and neighbors are engaged in mourning, -when the dead man suddenly rises from his coffin. -You Hsin wants, first of all, to see his pretty wife, -but when he tries to walk he stumbles with his lame -leg. As they hand him the crutch he reflects, “Ah, -yes, in my former life I had a crooked conscience -and in this life I have a crooked and useless leg. I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -realize only too well the heavenly justice!” The -butcher’s relatives follow him to his former home, -where his wife had been happy to receive him after -he had fully explained his miraculous return. A -violent quarrel breaks out between the two women, -each of whom claims her husband. The case is taken -before the stupid imperial inspector, who is in great -perplexity before the question as to whether the -body or the soul constitutes the husband. The case -and the play end when the anchorite arrives to remind -You Hsin of his vows and to take him into -the unworldly wilderness.</p> - -<p>Plautus’ and Molière’s subject for a comedy of -character, the miser, has been employed by a Chinese -playwright with strong local color to his humor. -One of the many scenes of his play describes how -the miser comes to feel that he must have a son to -pray at his grave and therefore decides to buy one -from an unlucky scholar reduced by poverty to selling -his children. He offers the parents one ounce -of silver. The mother exclaims in her disappointment, -“Why, for that sum you couldn’t buy a boy -modeled in clay.” Perhaps this is a bit unmotherly -in sentiment, but the retort is truly miserly, “Yes, -but a boy of clay does not eat or cause other expenses.” -When this sum is refused the miser instructs -his servant to go once more to the man, to -hold the silver high, very high, above his head and -to say, “There, you poor scholar, His Excellency -Lord Kou deigns to give you one precious ounce of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -silver.” His servant replies that no matter how high -he holds it an ounce will be only an ounce; and -finally he pays the father more out of his own -wages!</p> - -<p>When the son has reached the age of twenty the -miser scolds him one day because he seems to think -that money is for the purpose of buying food and -clothes! By way of instruction he tells how one can -live economically:</p> - -<p>“One day I felt inclined to eat roast duck and -therefore I went to the market to that shop which -you know. They were just roasting a fine duck and -the delicious juice was running down. Under the -pretext of bargaining I handled it and soaked my -fingers thoroughly in the gravy. Then I went home -without having bought it and called for a plate of -boiled rice. With each spoonful of rice I sucked one -finger. At the fourth spoonful I became tired and -fell asleep. During my nap a treacherous dog came -and licked my last finger. When on awakening I -noticed this theft, I became so angry that I have -been ill ever since.”</p> - -<p>The house is in need of a picture of the god of -luck, and the miser instructs his son to order the -artist to paint a rear view, because to paint the face -costs most. When he is about to die he orders his -son to bury him not in a coffin of pine, nor even of -willow wood, but to use the old watering trough -standing in the back yard. The son objects that it -is too short, but the father instructs him to chop<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -his body in two to make it fit. “And there is one -more important thing I wish to say to you before I -die; don’t use my good ax to cut me in two, but borrow -one from the neighbor.”</p> - -<p>“Since we have an ax, why should I bother the -neighbor?”</p> - -<p>“Perhaps you don’t know that my bones are extremely -hard, and that if you’d use my good cutting -edge you’d have to spend some coppers to get it -resharpened.”</p> - -<p>The miser’s last words are inaudible, but he persists -in holding up two fingers. All the relatives -assembled in the death chamber are very much -puzzled and try to please him by doing this or that, -but the dying man’s discomfort increases. Finally -his old servant enters and he understands. There -are two candles burning where one might do; and -after one of them has been extinguished the miser -dies in peace.</p> - -<p>Tragedy is not found in the Chinese drama. The -plays abound in sad situations, but there is none -that by its nobility or sublimity would deserve to be -called tragic. The closest approach to it is found -perhaps in “The Orphan of the Chao Family”,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> -made familiar to Western readers by Voltaire; or -in “The Sorrows of Han.” This latter play, in the -Chinese literally “Autumn in the House of Han”, -is full of poetical touches. North of the Great Wall -there is the Tartar Khan who sees in the weakness<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -of the Han emperor his opportunity for further conquest. -This young emperor is addicted to a life of -dissipation, and through his minister Mao he gathers -beauties for his harem from the four corners of his -realm. As a true Oriental, Mao demands a heavy -bribe from the family of every girl whose portrait -he submits to the emperor. But the family of the -most beautiful girl of all is so poor as to be unable -to pay a bribe, and therefore the minister causes the -artist to distort the portrait. Naturally the emperor -does not summon this lady into his presence. But -one evening, when in a melancholy mood he walks -in an unfrequented part of his palace grounds, he -comes by chance upon this girl as she is singing to -her lute. Her beauty enchants him. “The very -lantern shines brighter in the presence of this maid,” -he exclaims, and falls violently in love with her. Of -course, he orders the grasping minister to be beheaded; -but the latter flees to the Tartar Khan to -show him a truthful picture of the favorite and to -incite him to war against China.</p> - -<p>The Khan sends an ultimatum: “Either give me -this beauty for a wife or I will make war on China.” -The emperor is aghast with fear of a Tartar invasion, -but the princess is willing to be sacrificed. -“In return for your bounties it is your handmaiden’s -duty to brave death for you,” she says and adds that -surpassing beauty has always been coupled with -great sorrow, but that she will leave a name ever -green in history. After a sad farewell she departs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -for the country of the Tartars and meets the Khan -on the banks of the Amur. She drinks a last cup of -wine to her lover: “Emperor of Han, this life is -ended. I await thee in the next.” With these words -the princess casts herself into the swift current and -drowns in spite of the Khan’s valiant effort to save -her. He erects for her a tomb on the bank of the -river, which tradition says is green both summer -and winter. Moved by her noble character, the -Tartar decides to live in peace with China.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus03" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus03.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">ILLUSTRATION BY A CHINESE ARTIST. TOU-E BEFORE THE JUDGE</p> -</div> - -<p>A play that is even to-day a favorite in Peking -playhouses under the title of “Snow in June” was -called by its Yuan dynasty author “The Sufferings -of Tou-E.” It is the record of the endless sufferings -at the hands of a pitch-black, wicked world of -an innocent girl and her final vindication through a -triple miracle from Heaven. In her childhood she -was sold by her own father into a family where she -became the son’s wife and the drudge of her mother-in-law. -For thirteen years she was a dutiful wife -and when her husband died she hoped to remain -faithful to his memory, as every widow in China is -expected to do. But two cowardly ruffians, father -and son, force themselves into the house where she -is living with her likewise widowed mother-in-law -and demand that the women marry them, endowing -them at the same time with all their worldly goods. -The two women refuse to yield to these insolent -demands. Then the younger intruder, or rather -bandit, places some poison in a bowl of soup, intending<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> -to murder the older woman, but his father -drains the cup by mistake. Hereupon he tries once -more to coerce the heroine into marriage by threatening -to fasten the murder upon her. She feels quite -secure in her innocence and dares him to bring the -case to court, very certain in the belief that justice -will prevail. But the wicked judge begins by having -the accused tortured, and this so brutally that -the girl is at last forced into a false confession -merely to escape the unbearable pain. Upon this -she is promptly condemned to death. As she is -kneeling to be beheaded she announces that three -things will prove her innocence; her blood will not -fall on the ground but on a banner ten feet above -her head; snow will fall although the season is summer; -and there will be a drought of three years’ -duration. All of this comes true as it had been foretold, -and the strange tale is noised abroad in the -land. Finally, a just judge—her very father who -as a poor scholar had been forced to sell his child!—hears -of the case and decides to investigate it. The -spirit of his daughter comes to enlighten him in regard -to the true state of affairs, and the real murderer -is punished by being nailed to a wooden ass -and cut into a hundred and twenty pieces.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus04" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus04.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">ILLUSTRATION BY A CHINESE ARTIST. TOU-E ABOUT TO BE BEHEADED</p> -</div> - -<p>This obtrusively moral ending is a <i>sine qua non</i> -in Chinese plays; likewise the crude plot as well as -the rôle played by accident rather mar one’s enjoyment -of the play. Yet the courage of the girl in the -face of her persecutors, her firm belief that justice<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -will prevail in the end, and her stoical manner of -meeting death are elements not without their charm. -The scene of the execution is rather impressive in -its simplicity.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Tou-E: (sings) Ye clouds that float in the air on my -account, make dark the sky! Ye winds that sigh because -of my fate, come down in storms! Oh, that Heaven -would make my three predictions come true!</p> - -<p>Mother-in-law: Rest assured that snow will fall for -six months, and that a drought will afflict the country for -three years.</p> - -<p>Now, Tou-E, let your soul reveal clearly the great injustice -which is about to cause your death.</p> - -<p>(The executioner strikes off Tou-E’s head).</p> - -<p>The Judge (seized with terror): O Heavens! The -snow is beginning to fall! This is surely a miracle!</p> - -<p>Executioner: I behead criminals every day and their -blood always flows on the ground, but the blood of -Tou-E has spotted the two banners of white silk and not -a drop has fallen on the ground. There is something -supernatural about this catastrophe.</p> - -<p>The Judge: This woman was truly innocent!</p> - -</div> - -<p>The plays discussed in this chapter are sufficient to -show that in the thirteenth century the Chinese possessed -a theater of fair merit. To be sure, the technique -is extremely crude; characters on their first -appearance on the stage tell the audience their -names followed by a conscientious account of their -past lives and the part to be played by them in the -drama; the motivation of the actions is very poor; -many plays seem to be dramatized narratives rather -than real dramas; there is a great paucity of invention<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> -as shown by the rather frequent repetition of -dramatic devices and motives; the necessity of having -a moral ending leads to numerous absurdities; -and chance rules the playwright’s world from beginning -to end, always in the interest of the good. -Furthermore, there is lacking a real sense of the -tragic; there are no sublime heroes overcome by the -universal human limitations which they challenge, -nor are there moral conflicts of an elevating nature -in which poetic justice triumphs. The characters -are in general types rather than individuals, and -there is very little deep psychological insight displayed. -And on the whole it must be said, the plays -do not rise to a very high spiritual level. Yet there -is great charm in this drama which brings on the -stage characters of all sorts from emperors down to -coolies, and displays in full the rich life in the -Middle Kingdom of the days when Marco Polo -described it.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header6.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_THREE">CHAPTER THREE<br> -<span class="smcap">The Ming Dynasty—1368-1644 The Pi-Pa-Chi</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Yuan Dynasty of Mongol rulers was -a very powerful one and extended the -Chinese frontiers to include Korea, Yünnan, -Annam, and Burma. The rulers -proved themselves very tolerant of -Chinese religions and institutions; the emperor -Jen Tsung even reëstablished the Hanlin Academy -and the official examinations. But though the government -of these foreigners was fairly efficient yet -it was by no means popular, and frequent rebellions -occurred. Finally, the Chinese under the leadership -of a former Buddhist monk, Chu Yuan-chang, drove -the Mongols beyond the Great Wall and founded the -Ming Dynasty. The ex-monk ascended the throne in -1368 and is known in history as Emperor Hung Wu.</p> - -<p>The Ming Dynasty is known as a period of prosperity -in which industry and commerce, as well as -the arts of poetry and painting, flourished. It was -also a great period for the drama. Over six hundred<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -Ming dramas are still extant or are at least -known by title, and many of them were written by -well-known authors of high literary standing and -great scholarship. The drama was so much appreciated -at this time that many high officials and -wealthy families had private troupes of actors, a -large number of the dramas being specially written -for these troupes. Since the audiences were composed -of the élite, the language of the dramas could -be of a highly literary character.</p> - -<p>A development took place at this time that altered -considerably the form of the drama. Instead of the -compact and unified three, four, or five-act plays of -the Yuan period, playwrights began to produce -dramas of thirty-two, forty, or even forty-eight -acts. The name of this new form is <i>ch’an ch’i</i> (literally -“novel”) in distinction to the <i>tsa ch’i</i> of the -Yuan Dynasty. Doctor Hu Shih, writing to me -about these two forms, suggests that one might call -the former “play” and the latter “drama.” “Technically -the new form seems to be a degradation,” he -says, “but aside from the aspect of literary economy -the Ming dramas were superior to the Yuan plays -in many respects, viz. (1) profounder conception, -(2) far better characterization, (3) more even distribution -of parts among the characters. In the -Yuan plays only one character had a ‘singing’ part -and the others were completely subordinated; while -in Ming dramas the rôles are more evenly balanced. -In many cases the same theme was treated by Yuan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -and Ming dramatists, and in most cases the Ming -version is far better.”</p> - -<p>In this chapter I am presenting an example of this -new variety of drama, a 24-act piece called “Pi-Pa-Chi” -(The Story of a Lute). Except for the fact -that dialogue and stage directions are used the work -might well be called a novel. Aside from the technical -interest of the drama it is most significant as -a presentation of Confucian ideals, a revival of -which was typical likewise of the Ming Dynasty. -Such ideals are embodied in the family system with -the selfishness—as it appears to us—of old age. -After reading about the adventures of the hero, -Tsai Yung, the Westerner can understand why in -Confucian writings along with widows and orphans -there are enumerated “son-less fathers.” The conflict -in the drama centers about the “higher” and -the “lower” obedience—service to the state or to -the family. But the problem is not a clear-cut one, -as the son is to serve the state in the interest of the -greater prosperity of his own family; nor can it be -said that it is solved in any way. The drama, however, -is full of Chinese moralizing along lines far -removed from the thinking of the “practical” -Westerner.</p> - -<p>Indeed, much of the famous mystery of the East -or the inscrutability of the Orientals might be less -baffling to the average American if he were better -acquainted with the literature of China. I have -known, for example, a young Chinese politician who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -was none too scrupulous in the manner in which he -went about earning his living, who drank, supported -a number of concubines, and in fact was what might -be called by the vulgar a “rounder.” In the course -of a dinner one evening he told me between the -sharks’ fins and the Peking duck that he had been -offered a post in Washington, but, lucrative though -it was, he could not accept it because of “filial piety”—his -very words. Now piety in any sense of the -word was the last thing I associated with this youth, -and therefore his statement seemed to me surprising. -There was another Chinese, the owner of an -excellent stable, with whom I went riding frequently -in the Temple of Heaven. He was a vigorous young -man, educated in Paris, very businesslike and progressive -in all his ideas. One day I received an invitation -to his wedding, and, on going, found a -merry throng in the gaily decorated courtyard, with -dancing in European fashion going on in full blast. -I noted the groom among the dancers, congratulated -him and remarked, “Well, I’m sure you’re very -happy to-day!” But he shook his head and, as tears -came into his eyes, he told me that the bride was not -of his choice but had been selected and forced on -him by his elder brother, the head of the family. -Again, in speaking one day with a progressive young -student who talked a great deal about reforms in -politics and who participated eagerly in parades and -other demonstrations staged for that end, I mentioned -a certain official who had flagrantly stolen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -funds collected for the famine sufferers. The student -expressed perfunctory disapproval of the official’s -conduct, but added, “Still, if I were in his -position, I’d probably do the same.” Such is the -manner in which the Chinese act and as such they -show themselves in their literature.</p> - -<p>“Pi Pa Chi” was written by an otherwise unknown -author, Kao Tsi-ch’ing, about the end of -the fourteenth century. The first performance of -the play is known to have taken place in 1404, in the -reign of Yung Loh, the ruler who, as every tourist -knows, has the most prominent monument among -the Tombs of the Ming Emperors north of Peking. -The play is typically Chinese inasmuch as the hero -is not a warrior or a prince, but a poor scholar who -rises to fame through his knowledge of literature. -It abounds in sad situations and is praised by Chinese -critics because it makes the spectators or readers -weep. Furthermore, it conforms to the demand -made on all Chinese dramas by being strictly ethical -in its tendency. The moral lesson inculcated is that -of the chief virtue of the Chinese—veneration of -parents. This is done with such devotion and force -that the play might well be called the Song of Songs -of Filial Piety.</p> - -<p>The first scene introduces a young scholar, Tsai-yung, -face to face with the alternatives of remaining -in his village to take care of his aged parents or -of going to the capital in search of honors and lucrative -posts. His own wishes are to remain at home,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> -less for his parents’ sake than because of the beautiful -wife whom he has married but two months ago. -But his father urges him to go to Ch’ang An, to use -his talents, and to gain fame and wealth. “At fifteen -one must study, at thirty a man must act.” A -friend of the family, an elderly gentleman called -Chang, sides with the father against the mother, who -wishes to keep her son at home. She tells the story -of a young man who had left his family to take the -examination at the capital, but who, when at last his -learning had gained him a post as superintendent of -an almshouse, found his parents as inmates in the -very institution. The young wife takes no part in -the discussion at all; in fact, the elderly gentlemen -seem to consider affection for her an unmanly weakness -on the son’s part. “He thinks of nothing but -love and the sweet pleasures of the nuptial couch,” -says his father. “Here it’s two months that he is -married, and yet one cannot tear him away from -this place.” This represents a very common attitude -in China—I remember reading in a Peking paper -in 1917 in an attack on the vice-president of Tsing -Hua College that one of his faults was that he occasionally -went walking with his wife! One of my -students from Shansi told me one day that he had -been married during the summer vacation. I asked -whether his wife was with him in Peking, and when -he answered in the negative, whether he was writing -to her. “Oh, no,” he said shamefacedly, “I -wouldn’t do such a thing.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="illus05" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus05.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">A CHINESE ARTIST’S CONCEPTION OF TWO PIOUS SOULS</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p> - -<p>The father calls on the son to state what he understands -by filial piety. The son answers by quoting -the “Book of Rites,” “It is the duty of the son -to take every care that in summer as well as in -winter his parents should enjoy all comforts of life. -He must every evening himself arrange the bed on -which they are to sleep; every morning at the first -crowning of the cock he must inquire in affectionate -terms about the state of their health; then, in the -course of the day, he must ask repeatedly whether -they are suffering from the cold or whether the heat -incommodes them. The duty of the son is to watch -over his parents wherever they go, to love those -whom they love, honor those whom they honor; he -must even love the horses and dogs whom his father -loves.” And he adds from the “Sayings of Confucius”: -“A son should not leave the home of his father -and his mother so long as they are still living.”</p> - -<p>To this the father retorts with a quotation from -“The Book of Filial Piety”; “The first degree of -filial piety consists in serving one’s parents; the second -in serving one’s prince, and the third in seeking -after honors.” The father persuades the son to go. -His son will soon be a mandarin, he says, and then, -“The three kinds of meat (beef, mutton and pork) -and the rare foods which are offered up in the great -sacrifices will be served to me three times a day -in tripods of elegant form or in dishes of fine porcelain. -That will be better than eating beans and -drinking water.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p> - -<p>But the mother gives expression to her grief in a -metaphor praised by Chinese commentators: “In a -moment they will tear away the pearl I was holding -in my hand.” Forebodings of evil fill her heart. -“Go then, my son, but if during your absence your -father and mother should die of hunger and cold, -your honor will not therefore be smirched when you -return in an embroidered robe.”</p> - -<p>The second scene of the play transfers the action -to Ch’ang An, the old capital. With the symmetry -so characteristic of all Chinese art the action of the -drama is divided almost equally between the scenes -in Tsai-yung’s native village, and those in the imperial -city. We are introduced into the palace of an -imperial minister, a certain Niu, and here through -the words of a maidservant we learn of the dull, -tedious, joyless life in the women’s apartments. -The author pictures the minister’s daughter, Niu-hsi, -as the model young woman who prefers working -at embroidery to playing in the open air. The -servant girl on the other hand is sad because spring -(used symbolically for love) is passing her by. In a -beautiful allegory on spring and its manifestations -she gives expression to her feelings, while her mistress -cites in reply the ancient Chinese rule of -conduct: “Women must not leave the interior apartments.” -The scene seems to be a protest on the -author’s part against this cruel stunting of the lives -of his countrywomen.</p> - -<p>Into Minister Niu’s house come two rival go-betweens<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span> -who make offers of marriage for Niu’s -daughter in the interest of two fathers of distinguished -sons. But Niu refuses; he will accept for -his daughter none but the scholar who has won the -very highest honors at the examinations. The two -women begin to quarrel and are driven off with -blows by Niu’s orders, because by fighting in his -house they offend against the rites. A marriage -arranged by such wrangling old hags between young -people who meet for the first time on the day of -their wedding certainly does not offer much in the -way of romance. An even more depressing picture -of the life of the young girl one gains from the manner -in which Niu takes his daughter to task for having -walked in the garden. “Don’t you know of -what the principal merit of a young woman consists? -I have told you before, men are looking for -women who don’t like to leave the women’s apartments.” -Everywhere the ghost of Confucius giving -precepts for the regulation of the private life down -to the minutest details!</p> - -<p>The play returns to Tsai-yung, who is now on the -road to the capital in the company of three other -candidates for the examination. Each in turn tells -of the purpose of his studies. Tsai-yung outlines -his principles as follows:</p> - -<p>“Here is the method I have adopted. When I -was seated I read, when I walked I recited from -memory what I had learned. I have studied thoroughly -ten thousand chapters; I have carried on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -difficult studies and researches. But as there are -two things in life that one must never lose sight of—loyalty -to the prince and filial piety—I have always -tried to show myself grateful for the emperor’s -benefits and to return with thankfulness the -kindness of my parents.” This speech is applauded -by the other scholars and they in turn give their -answers, some of which are of rather satirical turn, -especially the one of the student who explains that -with him the essential is correct pronunciation and -beautiful penmanship!</p> - -<p>The next scene presents a burlesque on the literary -examinations. It recalls somewhat an entrance -examination given in a “prep” school I once -attended, where the older students, dressed up in -frock coats and with false beards on their faces, -took the part of faculty. The examination of freshmen -consisted of the singing of hymns, the shining -of shoes, and a guessing contest as to which of the -“professors” had paddled them in the rear. The -imperial examiner announces solemnly to the five -hundred candidates that the present test would not -be like last year’s, when they had been asked to write -essays, one on literature, another on morals, and a -third on politics, but that he was going to ask them -first, to compose a rhyme; second, to guess a riddle; -and third, to sing a song. Needless to state, Tsai-yung -passes with flying colors in this test full of -humorous puns which are, of course, untranslatable. -The examiner is made to say at the end, “Tsai-yung,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> -I recognize the superiority of your talents, -your learning is indeed profound; you rise far above -the others; your merit is most extraordinary. Immediately -I am going to apprise the emperor of the -outcome of the examinations!” This scene leads -one to suspect that the author of the play had -good reasons for venting his satire on the inane -literary competitions—probably he had failed and -was therefore forced to waste his talents in a life -of retirement.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="painting2" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/painting2.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">A SCHOLAR</p> - <p class="caption">Chinese Character Type</p> -</div> - -<p>The real hero, or rather heroine, of the play now -appears for the first time, namely Tsai-yung’s young -wife Wu-niang. No news has come from the capital -as to her husband’s success, a famine is ravishing -the district, and the old parents of Tsai-yung are -making one trip to the pawnshop after the other. -But Wu-niang is determined to do her duty as -daughter-in-law; she is going to show filial piety to -the last in conformity with precepts such as the following, -quoted from the “Book of Rewards and -Punishments”, a work which is not for sale in bookshops -but is distributed in the temples to the pious: -“A daughter-in-law must serve the father and -mother of her husband as a daughter serves her -father and mother. She must show filial piety and -complete obedience. If she lacks in her duty toward -them she lacks at the same time filial piety. This -crime always becomes known to Heaven, as the following -story illustrates. In the territory of Chang-Chu -there were three sisters-in-law entirely lacking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> -in filial piety. One day they heard a clap of thunder -and at the same time they were changed: one into a -cow, the second into a lamb, and the third into a -dog; their heads alone preserved the original form.... -Chin-ing, the governor of that district, had an -engraving made showing the metamorphoses and -had it distributed among the people to teach them a -lesson. That is how Heaven punishes!”</p> - -<p>Wu-niang’s immediate duty is to try to make -peace between her aged parents-in-law. Tsai’s wife -is not slow in telling her husband “I told you so” -in regard to the evils that have followed their son’s -departure, while Tsai naturally enough does not become -any calmer for being told what a fool he is. -To appease their wrath and to supply a bit of food -Wu-niang pawns the few hairpins and other ornaments -that she possesses.</p> - -<p>While his parents are slowly dying of hunger, -Tsai-yung, by his brilliant record, has attracted the -attention of the emperor himself. The latter orders -that the daughter of Minister Niu, who has been refused -to many a deserving suitor, should be given to -him. Niu is overjoyed to receive as a son-in-law -the candidate accorded the highest honors and immediately -sends a go-between to arrange the affair. -However, she returns to announce that Tsai-yung -refuses, because he is married and has various obligations -toward his parents. But the real reason, -she whispers, is that the bride’s feet are too long. -Minister Niu flies into a rage; he says that no one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> -would any longer respect his position if he were to -accept this refusal. He is going to speak to the emperor -about it. Small wonder that under the circumstances -Tsai-yung’s petition to the emperor to -be allowed to return home is refused; instead he is -again ordered to marry Niu-hsi in a mandate beginning -with the words, “If filial piety is the basis of -all virtues, then the perfection of all morals consists -in serving one’s prince.” With tears he leaves the -imperial palace and must submit to being married -against his wishes to a second wife. He regrets -that he cannot return to his parents (does not seem -to feel any regrets about Wu-niang) and breaks out -into a lamentation: “High reputation is a tie that -binds; good fortune is an iron chain. Fortune and -reputation are the instruments used by Heaven to -inflict tortures on mankind!”</p> - -<p>The scene again shifts to the famine-stricken -province. A mandarin finds that a corrupt official -has stolen the little grain that is to be distributed to -the poor. This commissioner is caught in the very -act, yet in typical Chinese fashion he has a ready -but translucent excuse to offer; however, when he is -threatened with torture he is willing to confess that -he is a robber. This wicked official is then made to -sign a written confession of his guilt and is led off -to jail. His kind appears in hundreds of plays; in -fact, he is probably the very favorite type on the -Chinese stage. The mandarin asks Wu-niang why -she had come to the court herself instead of sending<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> -a male member of the family; a woman, he says, -should not leave the inner apartments of the house. -It is interesting to note that a Chinese commentator -considers this an erroneous interpretation of the -passage in the “Book of Rites”; it is only the young -girl who is not to leave the inner apartments; once -a woman is married she may do so. When the mandarin -learns of Wu-niang’s sad situation, he commands -an attendant to give her three portions of the -rice embezzled by the official. Another official, who -seems to be hand in glove with the embezzler, follows -Wu-niang and in a lonely place on the road -demands that she return the rice, lest he kill her on -the spot. Wu-niang offers him her clothes; if he -will only not demand the food that is to save the -lives of the old people. The black-hearted villain -says that he wants the rice and does not care to expose -her limbs to the fury of the elements. Then -comes the young woman’s touching answer, which -reaches perhaps the highest level of a daughter’s -devotion: “What matters it if my body be exposed -to the fury of the elements, so long as I can save the -lives of my father-in-law and my mother-in-law!” -The cowardly wretch pretends to be touched and bids -her go her way in peace, but as soon as she is off her -guard he snatches from the defenseless woman her -bag of rice. Fearing the reproaches of her parents-in-law -Wu-niang plans suicide, but the memory of -her husband’s admonition that she watch over his -parents decides her to continue in the thankless task.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p> - -<p>The next scenes show just how ungrateful her -parents-in-law are for her unlimited devotion. Wu-niang -herself is eating roots, buds, the bark of trees, -and other things classified as material containing -some slight food values in so-called “famine food -books”—a type of literature enjoying a wide circulation -in China. But her suspicious mother-in-law -fears that the young woman is eating better -food than she is serving to her, because Wu-niang -eats her miserable stew in private. At one of her -meals the author, by a strange realism, has her say, -“When I have eaten this mess my hunger ceases, -but then there begin pains in the intestines much -more violent than the hunger had been.” When the -mother-in-law surprises her she finds that Wu-niang -had been extremely self-sacrificing instead of -selfish as she had supposed, and the shock is too -much for her weakened body; she dies.</p> - -<p>The husband too is very much enfeebled, and -when the friend of the family, Chang, comes to call, -he is mortified that he cannot rise to meet his guest. -Throughout the play there is in the speeches of -practically all the characters an urbanity and a politeness -which show how deeply the lessons of Confucius -to do or say always the fitting thing have -gone over into the flesh and blood of his nationals. -Wu-niang tells Chang of their greatest cause for -anguish—they have not the means to give the deceased -a proper burial. Chang then shows himself -an ideal friend from the Chinese point of view by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -saying, “I shall order a servant to prepare a wooden -coffin in which we shall place the body of your wife. -I myself shall then select a lucky day for the funeral, -and after having had a grave dug on the hill in the -south, I shall accompany the procession.”</p> - -<p>The scene that gives the title to the play is one in -which Tsai-yung gives expression to his tenderest -emotion by playing on the lute. This instrument is -regarded by the Chinese as the noblest and æsthetically -the highest musical instrument in existence. -A Chinese lover of music cannot find words to express -the delight the lute can provide.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> As a general -thing the Chinese are ashamed to display emotion, -and the Westerner is often shocked by apparent callousness, -as for example when a person who has just -lost a dear relative gives vent to a nervous laugh instead -of yielding to tears when the subject is alluded -to. Therefore it is by means of the lute that Tsai-yung -gives expression to his repressed feelings. He -does this with the delicate touch employed by Chinese -painters in their impressionistic pictures and by the -poets in their suggestive verses in which, as some -one has said, the i’s are never dotted, but a definite<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> -mood is nevertheless conveyed all the more forcefully.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> -While Tsai-yung touches the strings of his -instrument one servant fans him with an ivory fan, -and a second burns incense, and a third places -his books before him. Under such ideal conditions -the Chinese scholar is quietly singing to his -lute.</p> - -<p>At this point his newly wedded wife, Niu-hsi, -enters. Evidently the relation between the two is -still an extremely distant one, for his wife, in asking -Tsai-yung to sing a ballad for her, remarks that -every time she comes to listen to his music, he stops. -She too has her grief which she would like to have -dispelled by sweet music. Tsai-yung begins to play, -“The pheasant in the morning begins his long -flight”, and “The wild duck separated from the -companion he loves.” But these songs do not suit -Niu-hsi’s mood. She wants not a song of a disappointed -lover, but one to fit the present situation -where husband and wife are together.</p> - -<p>“My lord, in the calm of this lovely evening, in -full view of this ravishingly beautiful scenery, sing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -me the ballad, ‘When the storm wind moves the pine -trees.’” Tsai-yung starts to play it, but alas! as -Niu-hsi discovers, he gradually slips into the air, -“When I think of returning to my native land.”</p> - -<p>Niu-hsi is disappointed because she cannot penetrate -her husband’s melancholy mood. He explains -that he cannot play better because he has his old -lute no longer. In answer to his wife’s questions -Tsai-yung speaks of his lute with evident symbolism, -telling her that he has thrown his old lute aside but -that at the bottom of his heart he loves it still. Niu-hsi -guesses the cause of her husband’s grief, but she -cannot persuade him to confide it to her. The two -drink wine together and recite verses, but when the -hour becomes late Tsai-yung asks his wife to retire -and calls for his servant. Before the latter appears -Tsai-yung sings to notes of his lute about a dream in -which Wu-niang had appeared to him; but, in the -words of Heine, “Es war ein Traum.”</p> - -<p>He asks the servant to find him a trustworthy -messenger whom he may send to his native village -to inquire about his parents. But before this plan is -put into operation an impostor appears, bringing an -alleged letter from Tsai-yung’s father, according to -which all the family are enjoying the very best of -health. The letter gives the young scholar great -pleasure and earns its bearer a rich reward; Tsai-yung -gives the impostor some pearls and some gold -for his father in addition to a letter in which he states -that he is detained at the capital, but that he hopes to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -return home soon. Meanwhile, he very humbly -begs forgiveness for the long delay. The false -messenger is portrayed in a monologue as the most -cowardly and the direst of villains. That it is so -easy for him to deceive Tsai-yung is not so far-fetched -as it may seem to the Westerner, for the -employment of professional letter-writers is a very -common practice in China where the percentage of -illiteracy is high.</p> - -<p>Of course, the father never receives his son’s -letter; on the contrary, the next scene shows him -dying of hunger. His faithful daughter-in-law -watches over him to the last. For three years Tsai-yung -has been absent without so much as sending a -letter; therefore the father asks his daughter-in-law -to marry again as soon as he has died. Wu-niang -replies with a Chinese proverb, “No one can serve -two masters”, and affirms her resolve to remain -faithful to her husband. He is so grateful to her -that he hopes, according to Buddhist beliefs, to be -her daughter-in-law in his next life while she is to -be his father-in-law. He curses the day he asked -his son to leave home and gives to his friend Chang -the injunction: “I leave you my cane. When this -ungrateful and disobedient son of mine returns -home, beat him for me with my stick and chase him -out of the house.” With these fatherly words he -breathes his last.</p> - -<p>In order to earn the money for her father-in-law’s -funeral Wu-niang cuts her hair and tries to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -sell it in the street. Her bald head gives her the -appearance of a nun, although she feels scarcely -worthy of becoming one. In the anguish of her -poverty she runs through the streets, imploring people -not to bargain with a wretched woman in her -position, but to help her by buying the very last -thing of value she possesses. The faithful Chang -meets her in the street, and, on learning her story, -promises to send to her house enough money to enable -her to bury her father-in-law properly according -to the rites. She in return gives him her hair, -asking him to sell it. He accepts it, but not in order -to sell it; far from that, he is going to keep it until -Tsai-yung’s return, in order to prove to him the full -extent of Wu-niang’s filial piety. This piety is so -great that when Wu-niang goes to the cemetery to -erect a monument over the grave of the deceased, -a genie, touched by her devotion, comes to her aid -by calling the white monkey of the south and the -black tiger of the north to help him erect this tomb -with the well-known speed and skill that genii -possess. He also advises Wu-niang through the -medium of a dream to assume the garb of a nun and -to search for her husband in the capital. Wu-niang -decides to follow this advice. She plans to earn her -subsistence by taking with her Tsai-yung’s lute, in -order to sing in the villages songs in praise of filial -piety. In order to be able to accord the spirits of -her parents-in-law their proper worship she paints -their portraits and carries them with her. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -Octogenarian Chang totters with Wu-niang to the -edge of the village and bids her godspeed on her -long journey.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile Tsai-yung has been acting all this -time like a man in a stupor, his wife says. Niu-hsi -is pictured as a kindly young woman watching over -her husband with loving care. “What ails you?” -she asks. “You have the finest delicacies served -you. You eat boiled tongues of orang-outang and -roasted leopard embryos. You wear robes of violet -silk; your belt is a belt of jade. When you go out or -when you return your horse crushes under foot all -manner of flowers which people spread on your -path. Your head is shaded by an umbrella with -three layers of silk. Formerly you were only a poor -scholar living in a thatched hut; now you fulfill the -highest functions in the emperor’s palace. You -swim in wealth, but this wealth is not sufficient for -you; you do nothing but wrinkle your forehead and -heave sighs.”</p> - -<p>Niu-hsi asks many more questions, but her husband -refuses to reveal the cause of his grief. But -when she leaves the room Tsai-yung relieves his -feelings in a monologue which she overhears. When -he has finished lamenting his separation from his -parents and his wife (the latter is always mentioned -after father and mother), Niu-hsi comes in to say -simply that she will travel with him to his native -village, if that is what he is longing for. He retorts, -with the timidity found in most scholar-heroes in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> -Chinese plays, that he is afraid to let her father hear -of the matter and that he therefore forbids her to -mention it. But the otherwise docile and obedient -wife simply overrides his wishes and takes the matter -to her father. The latter is quite willing to give -his permission for the journey; only suggests that -it might be better to send a faithful servant to bring -Tsai-yung’s parents and wife to the capital. This -plan is agreed to by all except the servant who, in -a somewhat humorous scene, speaks of the evils that -are sure to follow when two wives are living under -one roof. But at last he agrees to go, even though he -feels his mistress will never thank him for having -obeyed on this occasion.</p> - -<p>Wu-niang has meanwhile reached the capital. -She enters a Buddhist temple where she is asked to -sing by two clowns who pretend to be mandarins. -The long series of misfortunes that has followed -her consistently does not forsake her at this point—the -two clowns simply make sport of her and pay her -nothing. After her disappointment she unrolls the -pictures of her parents-in-law to render homage before -them and to pray to Heaven that she may find -her husband. At this very moment Tsai-yung enters -to pray for a safe journey for his parents. The -bonze asks Wu-niang to leave and to make room for -the great man. She forgets the pictures in her haste, -and Tsai-yung carries off the scroll without having -looked at it closely. But Wu-niang recognizes him -and makes inquiries in regard to his residence. In<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> -this whole scene there is, as in many Chinese plays, -a great deal of satire on Buddhist priests. One -priest while saying a prayer is corrected by the abbot -for mispronouncing one of the Sanskrit names -for Buddha, Po-lo-t’ang instead of Po-lo-mi. The -ignorant priest retorts, “Well, ‘<i>t’ang</i>’ is sugar and -‘<i>mi</i>’ is honey; both are sweet, so what difference -does it make?” An Occidental parallel for this -scene would be the medieval priest who baptized, -“In nomine patriae, filiae, et spiritus sanctae.”</p> - -<p>Wu-niang goes to her husband’s house as a mendicant -nun and meets Niu-hsi. In a scene which the -Chinese commentators consider the best in the play -she gradually tells her story and reveals her identity -to her husband’s second wife. Niu-hsi is touched -by the filial piety of Wu-niang, calls her sister, and -asks her to live with them. First she advises her -how to reveal herself to her husband, namely by -writing him a letter and placing it on his table in -the library where he will be sure to find it. When -Tsai-yung comes home he reads in the “Book of -Annals”, a collection of historical illustrations selected -by Confucius to give point to his moral teachings. -In every passage he finds a rebuke for his -lack of filial piety, and when he finds Wu-niang’s -letter with the picture of his parents in their famished -condition this means to him a greater reproof -still. He begins to suspect that the messenger with -the letter from his father had been an impostor. -His wife’s letter contains nothing but hidden allusions<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -to his actions. Among ancient examples quoted -there is mention of one man to whom an emperor -had offered his daughter but who had refused to -degrade his wife to the rank of a concubine, and of -another who had under similar circumstances repudiated -his wife. Niu-hsi asks him whose conduct -he approves of and he says the former’s, of course. -Then she asks whether, if his first wife were to step -before him now clad in rags, he would not blush -with shame and repudiate her? He answers that he -would not, that he considers his marriage indissoluble. -When Wu-niang appears and tells him her -story he feels deep shame because an ironic fate had -led him to serve his emperor but to neglect his parents. -Since his parents have died Chinese etiquette -demands that he give up his office for a number of -years and mourn for the death of his father and -mother. Tsai-yung with his two wives sets out to -make a pilgrimage to the ancestral tomb to offer -proper worship to the deceased. The emperor is -going to give posthumous honors to his parents because -of Wu-niang’s faithfulness, and the historians -will keep ever fresh the memory of the daughter-in-law’s -filial piety.</p> - -<p>Even after the death of his parents the son must -put their interests (or supposed interests) above his -own by a three-year period of mourning, a space of -time which is simply lost out of his life. In his -“Chinese Characteristics”, Doctor Arthur H. Smith -points out the one-sidedness of the matter of filial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> -piety—the Chinese ethical code mentions no duties -of the parents toward their children. His summary -of the subject, given in the chapter on Filial Piety, -seems most apropos of the action of this play:</p> - -<p>“Every son has performed his filial duties to his -father, and demands the same from his own son. -That is what children are for. Upon this point the -popular mind is explicit. ‘Trees are raised for -shade, children are reared for old age.’ Neither -parents nor children are under any illusions upon -this subject. ‘If you have no children to foul the -bed, you will have no one to burn paper at the grave.’ -Each generation pays the debt which is exacted of -it by the generation which preceded it, and in turn -requires from the generation which comes after full -payment to the uttermost farthing. Thus is filial -piety perpetuated from generation to generation, and -from age to age.”</p> - -<p>Of course, this is as the matter appears to the -Occidental from the outside. But for the Chinese, -who has grown up in a deep veneration of Confucius, -filial piety is the most laudable institution in -existence. Confucius laid it down as a principle -that in the relations of ruler and subject, husband -and wife, father and son, elder brother and younger -brother, there must be rule on one side and submission -on the other. Moreover, the “Book of -Filial Piety” condemns sharply “selfish attachment -to wife and children”; in other words, if the claims -of father and wife clash, the son must neglect his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> -wife to serve his father. These things are among -the bases of Chinese society on which it has outlived -the Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, Roman and -other civilizations; it is small wonder therefore that -they seem good to the Chinese. The other extreme -perhaps is found in Anglo-Saxon countries where -a son, on becoming of age, goes where he likes and -does what he likes without feeling any responsibility -toward his parents. To quote Doctor Smith once -more, “To the Chinese such customs must appear -like the behaviour of a well-grown calf or colt to the -cow and the mare, suitable enough for animals, but -by no means conformable to <i>li</i> (ethical standards) -as applied to human beings. An attentive consideration -of the matter from a Chinese standpoint will -show that there is abundant room in our own social -practice for improvement, and that most of us really -live in glass houses, and would do well not to throw -stones recklessly.” To both the Westerner and the -Chinese the practice of the other seems inferior, and -neither can express an impartial opinion as to which -is the better system. But the Westerner who wishes -to understand the Chinese point of view can gain an -insight into many things from reading “The Story -of a Lute.”</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_FOUR">CHAPTER FOUR<br> -<span class="smcap">The Drama under the Manchus and the Republic—1644 to the Present Day</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In 1644 the last of the Ming emperors committed -suicide when a rebel army entered -his capital. But the rebel did not become -the next emperor; the throne went -to a Manchu leader who, in characteristically -Chinese manner, had been called in by -the Ming ruler to help put down the rebellion. The -Manchus soon established themselves as firm rulers -of the land and forced all Chinese to adopt the -queue. China became under their rule a strong -and united empire; in fact, many writers believe -that the reigns of K’ang Hsi (1662-1723) and of -Ch’ien Lung (1736-1795) were the most glorious -in all Chinese history. Both of these rulers were -great warriors and administrators, as well as patrons -of literature and the arts. The drama, too, -flourished; a recently published catalogue of Chinese -dramas records eight hundred and fifteen plays of -some literary merit from the Ch’ing Dynasty.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span></p> - -<p>Among these the critics assign the first places to -two historical tragedies written about the beginning -of the eighteenth century: “The Blood-Stained -Fan” (T’ao Hua Shan) by Kung Shang-jen and -“The Palace of Eternal Life” (Ch’ang Shan Tien) -by Hung Sen. The former deals with the last days -of the Ming Dynasty. The author presents the -struggles of the various parties and the dissensions -among the generals in the face of a tottering throne. -In the foreground of the revolutionary scene stand -two lovers. The hero, a courageous young literary -man, is forced to flee before his political enemies, -and the heroine is likewise threatened. Since she -prefers death to disgrace she attempts suicide. The -play takes its name from the fact that some of her -blood stained the fan her lover had presented to her. -An artist, coming across this fan, painted the bloodstains -into peach blossoms so cleverly as to deceive -every one. After years of civil war, in the -course of which the dynasty is overthrown, the -lovers meet again. They feel that love has no place -in a broken and disrupted fatherland; patriotism is -higher than love—such seems to be the author’s -meaning.</p> - -<p>The other play, “The Palace of Eternal Life”, -goes back to a much earlier period, that of the T’ang -Dynasty. It has for hero and heroine the emperor -Ming Huang, traditional founder of the Chinese -theater, and his capricious concubine, Yang Kuei-fei. -The Palace of Eternal Life was the name they had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -given to the pleasure dome where the famous lovers -gave themselves up to idyllic and voluptuous amusements.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> -This story is full of romantic and dramatic -elements; there are said to be more than fifty plays -that have Yang Kuei-fei for heroine. Versions by -ballad singers have been well translated by George -Carter Stent,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> a Britisher who secured unprinted -popular ballads by having street singers come to his -house to recite them while his teacher wrote them -down verbatim. Since Yang Kuei-fei and her lover -play such an important part in the Chinese drama, -it might be well to quote two of the numerous ballads -about her.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<p class="center">AN IMPERIAL LOVER</p> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Tang Ming-kuang loved Yang Kuei-fei—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Living for her, in her, with her,—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Walking by her, hither, thither—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In the pleasant summer weather,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Strolling hand in hand together.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Side by side with Yang Kuei-fei,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Listening to the play of fountains—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Climbing up the mimic mountains—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Through romantic scenery</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of hill and lake, rock, dell and tree.</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent2">“If I had not Yang Kuei-fei,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">What were all my Empire worth?</div> - <div class="verse indent2">With her, earth is heaven to me,—</div> - <div class="verse indent4">This is paradise on earth.”</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Mid-day in the lakelet found them,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Lotus leaves and blossoms round them;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Disporting gaily in the water,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">(Daily to this place he brought her).</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Now an avenue they tread,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Where the trees arch overhead,—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Saving just enough of space</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To catch a glimpse of heaven’s face,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Showing its intensest blue,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Peering down upon the two.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent2">“If I had not Yang Kuei-fei,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">What were all this lovely scene?</div> - <div class="verse indent2">With her, walking thus by me,—</div> - <div class="verse indent4">This is heaven, and she its queen.”</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">On the sward beneath their feet,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Flowers of every hue were springing;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Bright plumed birds with voices sweet</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Their passage here and there were winging.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sheltered here from mid-day heat,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">She taught to them the art of singing.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></div> - <div class="verse indent0">Now is heard from every tree</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Leafy voices, softly uttering</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Whispers, which sound mysteriously—</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Like wings of angels, gently fluttering.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent2">“If I had not Yang Kuei-fei,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">What were all my empire worth?</div> - <div class="verse indent2">With her, sitting thus by me,—</div> - <div class="verse indent4">This is paradise on earth.”</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Streaks of light through foliage glancing—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Mixing, blending, interlacing—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Now retreating—now advancing—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sunbeams after shadows racing,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Flinging on the sward a net-work</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of embroidered golden fret-work—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Quaintly beautifully grotesque,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">As of <i>flickering</i> arabesque</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sculpt’d from sunbeams, light and shade,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Its ground the green enameled glade.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent2">“If I had not Yang Kuei-fei,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">What were all this lovely scene?</div> - <div class="verse indent2">With her, sitting thus by me,—</div> - <div class="verse indent4">This is heaven, and she its queen.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<p class="center">THE DEATH OF YANG KUEI-FEI</p> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent6">In silence unbroken,</div> - <div class="verse indent8">They sat side by side;</div> - <div class="verse indent6">Not a word had been spoken:—</div> - <div class="verse indent8">They both of them tried</div> - <div class="verse indent6">The dread that was o’er them</div> - <div class="verse indent6">Of what lay before them</div> - <div class="verse indent8">In their bosoms to hide.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">What is that? In the distance a murmur is heard,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Is’t the wail of the night wind—the surge of the sea?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">As nearer it floats it takes form in a word—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And that word, Oh, God! is the name Yang Kuei-fei!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">They listen, but speak not—though <i>both</i> know full well</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Those murmuring sounds are for <i>one</i> a death-knell.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Nearer,—still nearer</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Those hoarse murmurs came:</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> - <div class="verse indent0">Now they sound clearer,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">They shout out a name.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">’Tis Yang-fei’s name they call!</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Break her accursed thrall!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Too long we have borne it—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">This night, we have sworn it—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Her life pays for all!</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Where is she,—your minion,—frail Yang Kuei-fei?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Drag her forth—the vile traitress! our daggers would see</div> - <div class="verse indent0">If in her fair body the blood flows more pure</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Than in those of your subjects who have had to endure</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wrongs, which her arts have heaped on them for years:<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></div> - <div class="verse indent0">Whose bread has been moistened by blood, sweat and tears!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Whose sons have been slaughtered—whose daughters defiled!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Whose homes have been pillaged—whose fields made a wild!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">’Tis she is the cause of rebellion and strife,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></div> - <div class="verse indent0">We fight not your foes till we’ve taken her life!</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent14">“Nought but the blood</div> - <div class="verse indent16">Of Yang Kuei-fei</div> - <div class="verse indent14">Can stem this flood</div> - <div class="verse indent16">Of anarchy!”</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent14">“Oh! bitter destiny!</div> - <div class="verse indent14">Oh! dire necessity!</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Must I pronounce your doom?</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Consign you to the tomb?</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent10">“Alas! my Yang Kuei-fei,</div> - <div class="verse indent12">I’m powerless to save!</div> - <div class="verse indent4">My life—throne—empire—all I’d give</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Had I the power to bid you live—</div> - <div class="verse indent12">To snatch you from the grave.</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Yet they have willed it thus—and I</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Who’d die to save you, bid you die.”</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“See I am calm,—it is not death I fear,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">It is their savage mode of death I dread;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Say could you bear to see me lying here,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Weltering in blood, by ruthless butchers shed?</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Fancy their bloody hands wreathed in my hair—</div> - <div class="verse indent2">That silken hair you used so much to prize;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Dragged—struck—faint—bleeding!—could you bear</div> - <div class="verse indent2">To see all this before your very eyes?</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Pierced by a hundred knives, my life-blood flows</div> - <div class="verse indent2">In purple streams—could you look on and see,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Unmoved—my murderers watch my dying throes—</div> - <div class="verse indent2">With hungry eyes gloat on my agony?</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“I have been vile, but let my penitence</div> - <div class="verse indent2">In these last moments that to me are given,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Make some atonement for my great offence,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And Oh! ‘forgive me as you’d be forgiven!’</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“One last entreaty—let me die alone—</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Let no one enter—none but you stand by</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To watch my death;—the act, too, be my own;</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Let not the ignoble rabble see me die.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“The means are here; I have but to unloose</div> - <div class="verse indent2">This silken girdle from my slender waist;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">I knot it thus, and thus, and form a noose,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">This by my own hand round my neck is placed.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“With my own hands the ends are tightly drawn,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And I die thus”—scarce had the words been said—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A few brief struggles, and Yang-fei had gone</div> - <div class="verse indent2">“With all her inperfections on her head.”</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent10">“Hide her from my sight!</div> - <div class="verse indent12">Let me not see</div> - <div class="verse indent10">That face so ghastly white—</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Those eyes so wildly bright</div> - <div class="verse indent12">Glaring at me!</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent10">“They follow mine everywhere,</div> - <div class="verse indent12">Look where I may—</div> - <div class="verse indent10">On the earth—in the air,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Still the same glassy stare.</div> - <div class="verse indent12">Take them away!</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent10">“Place her gently in the grave</div> - <div class="verse indent12">E’en as she fell;</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Here, where the willows wave,</div> - <div class="verse indent12">Near this old well.</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent10">“Lightly cover her with earth—</div> - <div class="verse indent12">Oh! Yang Kuei-fei!</div> - <div class="verse indent10">What is all my empire worth</div> - <div class="verse indent12">Now I’ve lost thee!”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>During the Ch’ing Dynasty the native music was -gradually superseded by a much cruder, less melodious -product imported from barbarian lands. With -the old style of music went many of the better plays; -in many cases they were replaced by the so-called -“military plays”, that is to say acrobatic exhibitions -of stage fighting to the accompaniment of crashing -orchestral pandemonium. Toward the end of the -Ch’ing Dynasty the Yuan drama had almost entirely -vanished from the Peking stage. In a later chapter -will be found a fuller discussion of the newer types -of music.</p> - -<p>But the chief innovation in the drama under the -Manchu rule came through the influence of popular -novels. Episodes from the famous novels read -by everybody were brought on the stage in ever-increasing -numbers. The novel, like the drama, is a -literary form despised by the pundits and it too -began to flourish during the Mongol Dynasty when -the literary examinations were suppressed. Many -novels are of unknown authorship, because their -authors considered such works as beneath their dignity. -But for the very reason that the authors did -not employ the literary language the great masses -of the people were able to enjoy these stories. Let it -be remarked in passing that the novel is now coming<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -into its own and is receiving its just share of attention -from scholars, at least from the progressive -ones. Doctor Hu Shih, of the National University, -Peking, has pointed out that it is the novel written -in the vernacular that has given to spoken Chinese -such unity as it possesses, and that it is through -works in the popular language that a common speech -for all China may ultimately be achieved. To-day, -of course, natives of Peking, Shanghai, and Canton -speak languages differing as widely as do those of -Berlin, Amsterdam, and London, or Rome, Paris, -and Madrid. Due to the crystallization of the written -language, however, students from the three -Chinese centers can read one another’s letters, although, -as I have often observed in laboratories or -on the playground, when they converse they have -recourse to English. It is due to their linguistic and -literary importance that Doctor Hu Shih has edited -critical editions of about a dozen famous Chinese -novels.</p> - -<p>Among the novels, “The Story of the Three -Kingdoms” (San Kuo Ch’i) is by far the most -popular. It was written in the Yuan Dynasty and -deals with the period of romantic chivalry, 221-265 -<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, when three dynasties ruled in three separate -capitals. In it appear the cruel Tsao Tsao and the -resourceful Chu Ko-liang, together with many another -brave warrior. Every educated Chinese has -read it, and the illiterate coolies have hired readers, -that they too may learn of the stirring adventures<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -of their more or less mythical heroes. The enthusiasm -for this book is simply unbounded, as the following -instance may serve to illustrate. Friends of -mine in Peking, a young architect and his wife, -were continually annoyed during hot August evenings -by a fairly loud voice with a monotonous -rising and falling inflection that kept coming over -the wall of the adjoining courtyard from eight -o’clock until midnight. It cast a shadow over conversation, -it distracted attention from reading, and -it effectually prevented peaceful sleep. My friends -began by setting their victrola on their side of the -wall to playing “Over There!” for an hour or two -on end; next they sent out the house boy to buy firecrackers -and ordered him to set off package after -package under a tin pail; and finally they allowed a -bottle of asafetida to trickle over the wall—but all -to no avail. They recovered neither their peace of -mind nor their slumber until the <i>shuo-shu-te</i> had -read to his coolie audience the last chapter of “The -Three Kingdoms”, a novel as long as the whole -Bible.</p> - -<p>An endless number of plays are based on this book -of romantic history, which deserves to be called the -national epic of the Chinese. A long list of “military -plays” derive their plots from the “Shui Hu -Chuan” (Story of the River Bank), a novel based -upon the doings of a band of brigands who terrorized -a number of provinces early in the twelfth -century. Some of the swashbucklers in this story<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> -had Robin Hood’s habit of giving to the poor what -they had stolen from the rich and corrupt officials. -From the “Liao Chai” (translated by Mr. Giles, -“Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio”) come -many plays dealing with fairies and other supernatural -beings. The novel that might be considered -a possible rival in popularity to the story of “The -Three Kingdoms”, is “The Dream of the Red -Chamber” (Hung Lou Meng), the story of the love -of a young idler for his two pretty cousins, and the -decay of an old and wealthy family. Poetic love -stories from this novel were brought on the stage -only in recent years by Mei Lan-fang, the actor who -is responsible for many innovations in the Peking -theater. The play, “Burying the Flowers”, mentioned -in the chapter on Mei Lan-fang, is one example -of a dramatization of an episode from this -book.</p> - -<p>In his “Geschichte der chinesischen Litteratur” -the German scholar Wilhelm Grube, who knew the -Chinese character well, remarks in discussing the -novel that a ruse or a sly calculation on the part of -a warrior seems to appeal to the Chinese much more -than actual bravery on the battle field. A number -of plays taken from the story of “The Three Kingdoms” -bear out this point by reason of their perennial -popularity. No play perhaps is oftener acted -than “The Ruse of the Empty City” (Kung Chuan -Chi). The famous hero Chu Ko-liang is in a city -stripped of all its defenders when suddenly a strong<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -enemy force arrives. He orders the gates to be -opened wide as though peace were reigning throughout -the country, and seats himself on the wall above -the gate. When the advance guard of the enemy -arrives it finds the commander, who more than any -other is known for his resourcefulness and his stratagems, -calmly reading a book in the face of the -threatening attack. Naturally enough the enemy -fears an ambush of some sort and withdraws. By -his calm Chu Ko-liang has saved a city; his bluff has -won.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus06" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus06.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">WARRIOR ACROBATS</p> -</div> - -<p>Another “peculiar” (as Bret Harte would put -it) play from the same source is “Hsü Mu Ma -Tsao” (Hsü’s Mother Curses Tsao Tsao). The -famous general Tsao Tsao found that he was being -defeated continually through the clever stratagems -suggested to his opponent by a certain Hsü Su. He -therefore plotted to get this clever adviser into his -hands in order that he might profit by his knowledge -of strategy. For this purpose he kidnaped Hsü Su’s -mother and sent a forged letter asking the son to -come to her. Filial piety demanded that Hsü Su -obey and therefore he came into Tsao Tsao’s camp -only to be forced into the service of his enemy. -When Hsü Su’s mother heard how her son had been -tricked she went to Tsao Tsao’s tent, called him a -man without honor, a traitor, and a wretched deceiver. -This scene, when the tottering old lady -scolds in a shrill voice, as only a Chinese woman can -ma, is of course the <i>pièce de résistance</i> of the play.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span> -When she has spoken out her mind she returns to -her own tent and commits suicide. Although Tsao -Tsao continued to hold Hsü Su, yet the latter never -offered a single stratagem to the general, an outstanding -piece of bravery according to the Chinese -view. The very favorite play from this novel is -“Ch’un Yin Hui” (The Meeting of Many Heroes). -When this play is staged with the parts of the great -heroes of the novel filled by stars, the Chinese -theater lovers feel that such an ensemble offers -about the finest thing possible. The plot again turns -chiefly upon a ruse by Chu Ko-liang. His side is -facing tremendous odds in the huge fleet of wooden -vessels under the control of the enemy, and therefore -his commander decides to attack them with -fiery arrows. Chu Ko-liang is commissioned to procure -100,000 arrows, and is given for this task five -days, which he himself cuts down to three. Two -and a half days he spends in calm meditation, doing -nothing about the arrows. When one of his comrades -discovers him sitting under a tree he is very -much alarmed at the waste of time and suggests -that the only thing left for his friend is to commit -suicide. But our hero is undaunted. He places a -number of straw men in the prows of a few boats -and sails toward the position of the enemy. Owing -to the dense fog the enemy commander is unable -to ascertain the size of the attacking force, but he -orders his archers to shoot as fast as they can. The -arrows strike the straw men and pierce them without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> -doing any harm. When 100,000 arrows have -been caught up in his decoys, Chu Ko-liang orders -his boats to retreat, and thus is able to deliver the -required number of arrows to his commander on -time. The manner in which the play is staged, with -two or three arrows flitting across the scene, provides, -at least for the Westerner, a distinct anticlimax.</p> - -<p>Another play in which three stars play together -to good effect is “The Three Strange Meetings” -(Ch’i San Hui) or, as it is popularly nicknamed, -“The Three Pulls.” It is a popular comedy written -during the time of the Manchu Dynasty, and is one -of the favorite plays of Mei Lan-fang. Through -his great prestige he is able to induce other stars to -play with him, and when he presents the rôle of the -wife supported by Chü Su-yün as husband and Li -Shou-shan as father, the Chinese consider it a perfect -performance. The play is rich in glimpses of -Chinese life and also full of excellent opportunities -for the actors to show their mettle. The opening of -the play is also most unusual, for, like Goethe’s -“Faust” and some of our other famous plays, it has -a prologue in heaven. There is as a general thing -no curtain used in the Chinese theater, a rule to -which a scene in heaven forms an exception. Stage -hands bring on a curtain about eight feet high and -twelve feet wide, supported by bamboo poles and -painted with clouds and bats to symbolize the sky. -Behind this the stage is set for the divine scene.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span> -When the curtain is removed the spectator sees a -god seated on a high throne. Four spirits bearing -tall shields painted with the conventionalized cloud -pattern stand by his side. The horns of the orchestra -are blown mightily and fireworks are set off until -finally the god begins to speak in a slow, impressive -bass. Like a Homeric Zeus he sends a messenger to -earth to free a certain innocent man who is languishing -in prison. The messenger is ordered to find the -man’s daughter and to conduct her to the prison. -The divine herald departs, carrying a horsehair -switch, the conventional symbol by which a spirit -may be recognized on the Chinese stage.</p> - -<p>The next scene begins the first of the four acts -on earth: 1. The Weeping in Prison; 2. Writing -the Petition; 3. The Three Pulls; 4. The Family -Reunited.</p> - -<p>Li Kuei-chih (played by Mei Lan-fang), newly -married to a young magistrate, visits the prison, inspired -by the divine messenger. There she sees the -jailer mistreating an old man, in whom, to her surprise -and grief, she recognizes her father, from -whom she had been separated in childhood at the -time of his unjust condemnation. The jailer is willing -to relent after the daughter, without disclosing -her identity, has paid him a good-sized bribe. Li -Kuei-chih then asks her husband to make an effort -to free her father by writing an appeal to a higher -court. The husband complies very willingly, but, in -order to write the petition he must know his wife’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> -“little name”, a sort of family nickname of the little -girls, which, according to Chinese custom, is never -revealed to the husband. There ensues a fine comedy -scene in which the wife at first withholds and then -shamefacedly tells her “little name”, to the great -triumph of her husband. In presenting the petition -to the judge of the higher court, the wife is recognized -by the judge as his long-lost sister. He rises -from his seat, and discarding the stiff formality of -the courtroom, pulls Li Kuei-chih out of the room -in order to reveal his identity to her in the privacy -of his home. The husband is told of this by the -servant, and rushes to the court in a rage, because -he fears that the judge has been induced by his -wife’s beauty to make her his concubine. The judge -is not in the courtroom, but he sends out two officers -to bring the husband also into his home. The second -of the three pulls comes when the messengers drag -the husband off-stage in a state of comical terror; -for, like a true Oriental, he fears sudden death,—a -fear that caused Abraham to lie to the Pharaoh of -Egypt about his relationship to the beautiful Sarah. -In the next scene brother, sister, and husband are -happily reunited. The father is summoned from -the prison into the court. He recognizes his son, the -presiding judge, and gratefully bows toward the -audience (that is, toward heaven) for, according to -Chinese custom, a father dare never bow toward his -son, no matter what position the latter may hold. -Thereupon the father is also pulled off-stage to complete<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> -the happy family reunion. The jailer, knowing -full well what manner of unpleasant death may -be in store for him, ends his life by jumping down a -well.</p> - -<p>This last-named action is accomplished by the -jailer’s making a quick leap and running off-stage, -the conventional expression for suicide by drowning. -The court scenes, especially when the play is -given by Mei Lan-fang, abound in gorgeous costumes -of richly embroidered silk. The various characters -wear historically correct dress, the Manchu -robes with wide sleeves. So far as my own observation -goes, I have found that for Manchu or Ming -Dynasty events the styles of the respective periods -are followed, but that beyond this no attempt is -made at providing historically correct costume. -Characters in plays taking place before the Ming -Dynasty wear Ming costume; it is the style worn -before the coming of the Manchus and therefore -serves for all ancient settings.</p> - -<p>The actor who plays the part of the husband in -this play is Chu Su-yün. He is nearly fifty years -old, but he continues to play the rôle of the lover -opposite Mei Lan-fang, because there is no younger -man who can do it half so well. He is really as good -as any Occidental comedian in assuming the expressions -of surprise, anger, or terror; he stutters admirably -whenever necessary, and in laughing gets a -comical effect by means of his faulty teeth, blackened -by opium smoking. In another play, “Ngoh<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span> -Chia Chuan” (The Ngoh Family Village), he plays -the part of a young boy who has prodigious strength; -in fact, he, though a mere child, protects his family’s -home by killing two generals. In one of the first -scenes the parents forbid their abnormally strong -offspring to handle dangerous weapons, whereupon -this actor in the costume of a child goes into tantrums -of weeping that convulse the audience by -their realistic imitation of the overgrown baby. Li -Shou-shan, in the rôle of the father, is made up as a -fine, dignified old Chinese gentleman. He brings -out very poignantly the tragic situation of the helpless -old man unjustly imprisoned; though perhaps -by some of his pitiful wails he somewhat overdoes -his part.</p> - -<p>Another very popular domestic drama is “Ta -Chih Shang Wen” (Beating the Nephew and Worshiping -at the Grave). The Chinese prodigal son -is Ta Kuan, an orphan boy raised by his uncle. -Wicked companions taught him gambling and other -ways of squandering money, and as he needed funds -for these pursuits he insisted that his uncle give him -his paternal heritage. In a short time, of course, -all his substance has been wasted with riotous living -and Ta Kuan is forced to beg for his food. His -uncle at that time is distributing alms among the -poor and the nephew is not ashamed to appear -among the beggars at his uncle’s door. Naturally, -the uncle’s “loss of face” is tremendous; he becomes -extremely angry and chases Ta Kuan off with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> -blows. But his aunt, in the kindness of her heart, -gives him some money and urges him to avoid his -angered uncle. But in China too there is a destiny -that shapes our ends: Ta Kuan’s money is stolen -from him, and with no prospects whatever before -him, he suddenly becomes pious and worships at his -father’s grave. While he is busy burning paper -money (i.e. paper imitations of silver ingots) for -the spirits of his ancestors his uncle and aunt happen -also to visit the family graveyard. The moment -Ta Kuan sees them, remembering his uncle’s blows -and curses, he runs away. His foster-father is very -much surprised that some one should have been -burning paper money at his brother’s tomb. He -never would have suspected his nephew of such an -action, but when he finds that it really was Ta Kuan, -his heart is touched by such a display of filial piety -that he sends for the nephew, inviting him to return -to his house, and then persuades him to study -under the direction of a teacher. There has been a -real change of heart in the youth, for he applies -himself diligently to his task. And virtue is not -without its reward; for when Ta Kuan takes the examination -he passes with the very highest honors.</p> - -<p>A play similar to the previous one in that it is -much more moral than probable is “Chu Sha Chü” -(A Cinnabar Spot). A certain elderly gentleman -by the name of Han was very unhappy because he -had no son. To remedy this condition he bought -himself a concubine; but when the marriage was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span> -about to be consummated, the bride wept bitterly. -Han asked the cause of the tears at such an inappropriate -time, and learned that his new spouse was -in reality a married woman who had allowed herself -to be sold to aid her sick husband. The old man took -pity on her, burned the marriage contract, and presented -her with more money for her unfortunate -husband. A noble and unusual action, to be sure, -which merited and received an unusual reward! -The woman returned to her husband and the latter -recovered at once. Returned once more to health, -he went about his business which carried him to -Sze-chuan province. He brought with him a present -for his benefactor, a young boy whom he had bought -in a district afflicted by famine. Han was very -much pleased with the bright boy and devoted himself -eagerly to his education. He gradually remarked -that the boy resembled him a great deal and -began to wonder if it might not be possible that it -was his own son, who had been carried off a few -years before in the course of a rebellion. One day it -occurred to him to examine the sole of the boy’s -foot, and there he found the very same cinnabar -spot that had always been his own distinguishing -mark. This proved conclusively that it was his own -son, and both were very happy over the reunion that -had been brought about through Han’s kindness to -a poor woman!</p> - -<p>The moral Chinese stage sets forth not only the -reward of virtue, but also the punishment of vice.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span> -There can be seen on the Peking stage almost any -day a warning to cruel husbands called “Pang Ta -Pao Ch’ing Lang” (Beating the Heartless Husband). -Mu Chi was a scholar holding the first degree -(<i>Hsiu Tsai</i>, corresponding somewhat to our -A.B.), but he was very poor because his parents had -not left him any property whatsoever. When a -famine struck the country he was forced to beg for -his bread. In his half-starved condition he was one -day caught in a snowstorm, in the course of which -he fell to the ground more dead than alive. In this -condition the daughter of the head of the beggar’s -guild found him lying before the door of her home. -She took pity on him and nursed him back to health. -At first her father was none too pleased with his -daughter’s action; but when the daughter represented -that the gods would surely reward her good -deed, he became reconciled to the presence of the -young man in the house. The daughter fell in love -with her protégé and was very proud of his rank as -a <i>Hsiu Tsai</i>. The father also became quite fond of -the young man and gave him his daughter in marriage. -Then it was arranged that Mu Chi was to go -to Peking to take the examination, while his wife -and father-in-law were to go along to beg and thus -furnish the young man with a living until such time -as he should have secured a profitable post. Mu Chi -passed the examination and was appointed the magistrate -of a town. The moment he had received his -appointment he became extremely disdainful of his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> -new relatives and in the course of the journey by -boat to the town where he was to become magistrate -he pushed his wife overboard into the stream and -drove off his father-in-law. However, a certain -high official saved the life of the beggar chief’s -daughter and adopted her as his child. When he -had learned from her the story of her husband’s ingratitude -he decided to punish the wretch properly. -He called on him in his magistracy and offered him -his daughter in marriage. Mu Chi, the cad, naturally -was glad to marry into the family of such an -influential man, and accepted eagerly. But what -was his chagrin and fright when on the evening of -his marriage he raised the bride’s veil to find under -it the beggar’s daughter! The official then entered -the bridal chamber with a powerful stick and ordered -the beggar’s daughter to give Mu Chi a -sound thrashing. This she did with a great deal of -“heart”, as the Chinese say, for which no one can -blame her. But Mu Chi decided to become a wiser -and a better man; he sent out men to find his father-in-law, -and the three lived happy ever after.</p> - -<p>But the very crowning piece of righteous moral -indignation in all the Flowery Kingdom is found in -a story connected with Yo Fei, deified as the god -of war and worshiped as a special patron of the -theater. In his lifetime Yo Fei was a faithful general -of the Sung emperors, a great fighter against -the Mongols. In fact, he had almost succeeded in -capturing the Mongol emperor with his entire army<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -when the enemy bribed some high Chinese officials, -chief among them Ch’in Kuei, to do away with their -great patriotic leader. Yo Fei was summoned before -a court for trial, but was cleared of all charges. -Then he was tried again before Ch’in Kuei and two -other judges, this time being condemned to death -by strangling. Before the sentence was carried -out, his cruel executioners tore the skin off his -back where his mother had tattooed the famous -inscription, “I repay the state with integrity and -loyalty.”</p> - -<p>At Hangchow is found the tomb of this great -Chinese patriot. Before it, as every tourist sees to -his surprise, are four statues in a kneeling position -and bound with chains, while an inscription invites -the wanderer to urinate on them.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> These villains, -who are literally in very bad odor, are Ch’in Kuei, -his wife, and the two other judges who condemned -Yo Fei to death. This drastic, posthumous punishment -seems to have had very little effect in furthering -patriotism in China, for in recent decades neither -the Russians nor the Japanese seem ever to have had -any trouble in finding Chinese statesmen willing to -accept bribes for the betrayal of their country. The -story is also told that in 1678, fully 500 years after -Yo Fei’s death, this play was performed in a certain -town, when suddenly an excited spectator rushed on -the stage and stabbed to death the unfortunate actor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -who was playing the part of Ch’in Kuei, the traitor. -In the course of the trial this fervent patriot told -that in all his books he had carefully cut out the -name of Ch’in Kuei wherever it occurred. The man -was not put to death, as would have been the case -had he been a Britisher, nor was he celebrated as a -hero, as would have been the case had he been a -Frenchman, but in characteristic Chinese manner -he was dismissed as an idiot.</p> - -<p>Though as a general thing there is very little -courtship on the part of young people in China, yet -there are on the stage quite a number of romantic -love stories. In the chapter on Mei Lan-fang I have -mentioned some taken from the novel, “Dream of -the Red Chamber.” The same actor frequently presents -“Yü Chan Chih” (A Precious Hairpin), the -plot of which might be an Occidental love story. In -a certain convent the abbess had living with her the -daughter of her deceased brother, a very attractive -young girl by the name of Ch’en Miao. In the -vicinity there lived also the abbess’ nephew, with -whom, because of his personal charm and great -learning, the young lady fell in love. One day the -nephew became ill and Ch’en Miao asked permission -to assist in taking care of the patient. Under the -tender care of such an attractive nurse the young -man recovered speedily, but he too had lost his heart. -He found means to visit Ch’en Miao in her room one -day as she was reading poetry, whereupon, like -Paolo and Francesca, that day they read no more.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span> -In the village there lived an elderly magistrate who -wished to marry Ch’en Miao, but when the generous -judge learned that she loved a younger rival, he did -not show any signs of jealousy; on the contrary, he -went to the abbess to urge her to join in marriage -the young lovers.</p> - -<p>Peking theaters have very few properties, as has -been stated, but behind practically every stage one -finds a pair of plaster-of-Paris lions in imitation of -the marble lions that guard the gateways of Chinese -palaces and temples. They are used in a very popular -play called “Chü T’eng Kuan Hua” (Trial of -Strength and Viewing the Ancestral Portraits). -The play seems to be a modern imitation of the -Yuan Dynasty drama “The Orphan of the Chao -Family.” A wicked minister persuades the emperor -that an entire family, one of whose members he -hates, must be exterminated root and branch. A -friend decides to save the family name by substituting -just before the execution his own young son for -a child of the condemned family. His wife absolutely -refuses to enter upon his plan, but when he -kneels before her she is compelled to yield to his -wishes to sacrifice her child; this is typical of the -Chinese, inasmuch as they seem to think that when -some one humbles himself unduly he must gain his -end and other people must grant him whatever he -asks. The man and his wife then bring up the -orphan as their own son. The child they sacrificed -was chopped into three pieces by the wicked minister<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> -himself, because he feared that it might some day -revenge on him the slaughter of his relatives.</p> - -<p>The play as given in Peking theaters opens at the -time when the orphan has attained the age of fifteen. -He and his servant are playing in the courtyard of -his foster-father’s house. The boy proposes that -they make a test of their strength by moving the -stone lions standing at the door of the house. The -servant tries in vain to move them, while the boy, -a prodigy of strength, picks up the massive stones -and moves them with ease. Soon afterward the -master of the house returns and asks angrily who is -responsible for displacing the stone lions. The good-natured -servant, who has the rôle of the clown in -this play, says that he did it. His master then orders -him to return them to their proper place, and thus in -a comedy scene he is soon proved a liar. Then the -adopted son is called; like George Washington he -acknowledges what he has done, and returns the -lions to their proper places without the slightest -trouble. His foster-father now perceives that although -but fifteen years of age, the boy is strong -enough to avenge the cruel injustice done his family. -Therefore he conducts him into the ancestral temple -where he shows him the portraits of his ancestors -down to the ones put to death by the wicked minister. -No sooner has the orphan boy heard the story -than he puts on his armor and sets out on his mission -of revenge on the enemy of his family. Incidentally -there is often a bit of comedy of a simple<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -kind thrown in by the stage hands when they remove -the stone lions, which they pretend to find very -heavy.</p> - -<p>On one occasion when I saw this play I was surprised -to hear the audience break out into peals of -laughter at the point when the boy set out on his -errand of revenge. I inquired the cause of this -from a Chinese friend. Amid sobs of mirth he told -me that the orphan boy had left the temple on horseback! -As usual, there was no scenery, the stage was -bare, only a picture suspended from a chair set on -a table marked the locality as an ancestral temple. -The actor dressed for war had absent-mindedly -acted as though he were on the battle field and had -made with his leg the conventional sign for mounting -a horse. I had not noticed the gesture at all, as -it was a rather inconspicuous one. The humor of -the episode is of about the same variety as that -engendered years ago in the Philadelphia Little -Theater when, in the course of the action, a cat -wandered on the stage and in her haste to remove -him an actress thrust him into the glowing stage -fireplace—in reality, of course, off-stage into the -wings.</p> - -<p>In this imitation of a Yuan drama, in fact of the -drama that several Western writers have called the -nearest approach to true tragedy among all Chinese -plays, practically all that is presented to modern -audiences is the farcical element. Of farces the -Chinese stage possesses many, some good and some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> -less so. A certain Liu Yen-ming, in a farce by that -name, lends money to a magistrate for a journey to -the capital. The loan is arranged, like most things -in China, through a third party—in this case an -abbess of a convent. When a year has elapsed and -the magistrate has not returned, Liu demands his -money, or, in case the abbess cannot repay him, the -hand of Yu Ying, the magistrate’s pretty daughter. -He brings such pressure to bear by means of threats -that the abbess finally agrees to arrange a rendezvous -at midnight in the Convent of Great Purity. -Yu Ying naturally enough refuses to marry a man -just because her father owes him money, but when -the abbess pictures the old miser as a dashing youth -of twenty-three she gradually changes her tone and -at last gives her consent. At midnight, therefore, -Liu Yen-ming stealthily approaches the convent, -but unfortunately he meets with a patrol of police -who arrest the nocturnal prowler as he is unable to -account for his presence near the convent at such -an unseemly hour. Instead of in the arms of his -beloved the money-lender spends the night in jail. -But much more disagreeable for him is another development -of the story. A young scholar on his -way to the capital is on the same road when he -observes that the police have arrested Liu Yen-ming. -He decides that the police must be very strict -in these parts and so demands hospitality at the very -next house, which is of course the convent. The -door is opened by a novice who has been told by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> -abbess what to do; the young scholar is asked to -enter and to await the young lady. The youth, -though somewhat surprised, is wise enough to hold -his tongue and to follow instructions. Soon Yu -Ying enters and finds that the young man possesses -all the charms the abbess had falsely attributed to -her father’s creditor. Love at first sight, then follow -mutual explanations, and before morning an -engagement sealed by pledges.</p> - -<p>A rather good scene follows when on the next day -the abbess calls on the miser to felicitate him on the -pleasant night he has spent! There are delightful -misunderstandings, but at the end of the scene Liu -Yen-ming is in a towering rage, and determined to -have revenge. He forces the daughter of his debtor -to become a maid in his tavern, where she must perform -the most menial tasks. In the end, of course, -the young scholar returns from the capital as a -magistrate; he enters the very inn where his beloved -is serving the guests, recognizes and rescues her, -giving the miser the punishment he so richly deserves.</p> - -<p>One evening when I had gone to see Mei Lan-fang -at the Chen Kwang Theater, there was performed -as the last play among the curtain raisers -another farce, “San Yao Hui” (Shaking Dice). -This farce is much less presentable in every way, -but is, I believe, more typical of the present-day -drama, because of its episodic nature and lack of -real plot. On the eve of the husband’s return the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span> -wife and the concubine are quarreling as to which is -to share his first night at home. The dispute waxes -hot and violent; herewith follows a prize specimen -of the dialogue:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Wife: He has no right to have a concubine.</p> - -<p>Concubine: He would not have one, if you were able -to bear him a son.</p> - -<p>Wife: Don’t say that, for before I was married I -had several sons.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Two neighbors, the clowns in the piece, enter and -after much discussion suggest that the women settle -the disagreement by shaking dice. Three dice are -used, and the wife throws a score of seventeen. The -concubine then prostrates herself before the house -god and when her dice are counted it is found that -she has eighteen points. She is victorious!</p> - -<p>Probably about as much as one fourth of the -drama played in China at the present time deals -with religious or mythological subjects. Kuan-yin, -the goddess of mercy, the Buddhist madonna, very -frequently figures in these plays, releasing unfortunates -from punishments and otherwise doing -deeds of kindness. A direct contrast to her is found -in the cruel judge of the lower world. In the Field -Museum, Chicago, there are exhibits portraying a -number of Chinese religious plays and the curator, -Doctor Berthold Laufer, has written an excellent -guidebook dealing with these theatrical representations -having for their aim the inculcation of better -morals through the fear of punishments in the hereafter.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span> -I cannot resist quoting from Doctor Laufer -on the typically Chinese attitude toward this form -of religious drama:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>It must not be supposed, however, that the Chinese -have ever in reality practiced the tortures demonstrated -in the ten courts of Purgatory. This lore is not their own, -they adopted it from India. It is the visual illustration -of what is described in the sacred books of the Buddhists. -On the stage, moreover, everything is mitigated and permeated -by a willful, grotesque humor which makes it -difficult for the spectator to take these punishments too -seriously. Skeptical and rationalistic as many of the -Chinese are, they will be moved to smile at this performance, -or to entertain doubt as to its reality. The baroque -features and semi-comic gestures of the devils contribute -to the relief and exhilaration of the audience. The -visitor should bear in mind that he is witnessing a fine -piece of scenic illusion, which, while moralistic at its root -and ethical in its tendency, is far from being calculated -to shock the nerves or frighten the conscience, but which, -on the contrary, will encourage and elevate by pointing -the way to ultimate salvation. The keynote of this drama -is not misery and despair, but hope and the possibility of -self-perfection.</p> - -</div> - -<p>A favorite example of the mythological drama is -the story of “The White and the Black Snake” (Po -She Chuan), taken from a novel of the same name. -Two snake demons took on the form of lovely virgins. -One day they quarreled and the White Snake -said to the black, “If you can defeat me in a fight -I’ll serve you, but if you are beaten you shall be my -slave.” The White Snake won and according to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> -the agreement the other became her servant. In a -former incarnation a certain young man had saved -the life of the White Snake and she decided to reward -him by becoming his beautiful and loving -wife. Their marriage was indeed a very happy one -for a time. It is a Chinese custom on the fifth day -of the fifth month to drink a cup of wine containing -a certain blossom which acts as a charm against -venomous animals. Hsü Hsuan, the husband, followed -this custom and gave some also to his unsuspecting -wife. The White Snake felt uncomfortable -after this draught and retired early. Hardly had -she gone to sleep when she lost her human form and -was changed into a snake. When her husband later -on parted the curtains of their bed, he saw a huge -white snake lying there, raising her head toward -him and spewing fire. Hsü Hsuan was so frightened -that he fell to the ground dead. Aroused by -the noise, the Black Snake came on the scene and -awoke her mistress, who on awakening once more -took on human form. When she realized what she -had unwittingly done, she burst into tears; but she -soon recalled that on the mountain dominated by the -God of Long Life there grew an herb capable of -restoring the dead to life. She hurried to this mountain -to steal a bit of the herb. But the God of Long -Life saw her and in great anger pursued her. By -means of enveloping her in the fumes of a charm -against snakes he captured her; but on learning for -what purpose she had come to steal he not only released<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span> -her, but presented her with the herb. By -means of it the dead man was soon restored to life.</p> - -<p>The two demons wished to please Hsü Hsuan in -every way, but in doing him favors they harmed the -community. They robbed the state treasury to enrich -their favorite; but the treasurer was beheaded -in consequence. Thereupon they opened a drug -store and in order to make the business prosper they -spread various diseases in the village. But the -abbot of a nearby monastery discovered their tricks. -He visited Hsü Hsuan under the pretense of collecting -alms and warned him that he had better come -for a time to the monastery to be freed from the -influence of evil demons that were besetting him. -Hsü Hsuan, who remembered only too well his experience -on the fifth day of the fifth month, was glad -to go. He told his wife that he was going to the -temple to worship.</p> - -<p>But when her husband failed to return, the White -Snake decided to go to the monastery to seek him. -On the way she confessed to her servant that she -was soon going to give birth to a child, an event -which she hoped would give great pleasure to Hsü -Hsuan. The two snakes in human form rode in a -boat to the monastery which was located on an -island. The abbot met them and sternly ordered -them off lest he destroy them utterly by means of -his magic power. Full of anger the two demons -drew their magic swords against the abbot, but the -latter tossed into the air his cane with a dragon’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span> -head, which was changed immediately into a living -dragon and attacked the two snakes so savagely that -they were forced to flee for their lives. But by -means of their magic they sent a flood which threatened -to destroy the island. The abbot, surrounded -by all his priests, spread his garment at the edge of -the water, thereby causing the island to rise in the -same degree as the water. At this point K’uei -Shing, god of the literati, arrived like the <i>deus ex -machina</i> of a Euripidean play. He had been sent by -Wen Chang, the god of science and literature, to -put an end to the quarrel because the son of Hsü -Hsuan and the White Snake was destined to obtain -the highest degree in the literary examinations. -Thus the island was saved and the snakes returned -home unscathed.</p> - -<p>Hsü Hsuan, on the abbot’s advice, also set out -for home, and met his wife with her servant on a -bridge. The Black Snake drew her sword to avenge -on him the humiliation done her mistress, but the -White Snake protected him from the fury of her -servant. Both were overcome by their emotions; -they wept in silence, unable to put their feelings into -words, in this struggle between love and fear. Soon -afterward the son was born; but three days later the -god Wen Chang abducted the two demons to his -magic pagoda, while Hsü Hsuan was left in wistful -happiness with his promising son, the greatest boon -in the life of a Chinese.</p> - -<p>This charming story, by the way, forms the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> -basis of Grimm’s tale, “The White and the Black -Snake.”</p> - -<p>I have never seen the first part of this play, but on -several occasions I saw the visit of the snakes to the -island monastery called “Chin Shan-tze.” One of -these performances was at the annual benefit for the -poor riksha-runners of Peking organized by that -widely beloved American missionary, Mrs. Goodrich. -As the play was given at the theater of the -foreign community, many of the crudities and incongruities -of the Chinese stage were absent. The -orchestra was not sitting on the stage and was -muffled somewhat. Back and side drops with good -lighting effects served to set off well the colorful -robes of the shaven-headed monks praying before -an immense image of Buddha. The fighting staged -by the demon warriors was an exhibition of graceful -and acrobatic movements that would do credit -to a Russian ballet. The story with all its pathos -was very well acted, so that the whole formed a -memorable performance such as would, I am sure, -delight American audiences if a theatrical manager -were to engage Mei Lan-fang with his troupe for a -tour.</p> - -<p>In Chapter Six are mentioned the many seasonal -plays of the Chinese theater which make of this institution -a true folk theater. In concluding this -chapter I shall quote a synopsis of the libretto of -“Ch’ang-O Pin Yüeh” (Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the -Moon). This playlet is one of those into which Mei<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> -Lan-fang has woven his graceful dances, an innovation -on his part on the Chinese stage. I follow the -translation given on the program at a performance -before the American College Club on November 17, -1917.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center">FOREWORD</p> - -<p>The youthful Emperor Ho Yi of the Hsia Dynasty -(about 2,000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) being of divine origin, as a child -played with fairies. When he grew to manhood, he was -in a dream led by fairies to the palace of the Heavenly -Queen, Hsi Wang Mu, who gave the young Emperor the -Elixir of Life. Ch’ang-O, the Imperial Concubine of Ho -Yi, famed for her grace and beauty, learned of this precious -gift and in childish innocence drank it, scarcely realizing -what she had done. Filled with remorse and shame, -upon being apprised of the gravity of her offence, she flew -to the moon, where because of her wonderful beauty she -was elected by the moon fairies as their queen. The scene -of the play is laid in the moon and has to do with the -preparations for and the celebration of the Mid-Autumn -Festival with Ch’ang-O, the Queen of the Moon, as the -central figure and the moon fairies and their invited guests -as participants.</p> - -<p class="center">SYNOPSIS</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">First Act.</span>—The scene depicts a garden blossoming in -celestial flowers, with Ch’ang-O plucking the flowers -to be used in making the wines for the Mid-Autumn -Festival Banquet.</p> - -<p>CH’ANG-O opens with a song in praise of the beautiful -surroundings in which she is about to pick flowers. -(<i>Speaks</i>) Since arriving in the Moon, I have had a very -pleasant time. The hot summer is now past and Mid-Autumn -is come. In preparation for the celebration of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span> -the Festival, I look forward with delight to the making -of wine for the entertainment of the fairies whom I am -inviting to my feast. (<i>Sings</i>) Deftly though I roll up -my sleeves and lightly though I pluck the flowers, I cannot -help brushing off the bees and butterflies. This sprig -is full of fragrance and is weighed down with abundance -and splendor. That one is yet in bud. And when I lift -up my eyes I behold above me a tree that reaches to the -clouds. Lifting my hand I begin to pluck the flowers. -(<i>Speaking</i>) Ah! How beautiful! I have so soon filled -my basket with flowers, and now I must carry them home -to make my wine. (<i>Singing</i>) How thickly do the butterflies -follow in my trail!</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Second Act.</span>—The Moon Fairies invite other fairies to -the Banquet.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Third Act.</span>—The invited guests proceed to the Banquet -Hall.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Fourth Act.</span>—The Moon Palace. The Moon Fairies -dust the Palace and make preparations for the coming -Banquet and the receiving of their guests.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Fifth Act.</span>—The Banquet. Ch’ang-O, under the influence -of wine, soliloquises on the lonesomeness of -her life amid her present surroundings and yearns -for the companionship of mortals and more particularly -of Ho Yi.</p> - -<p>CH’ANG-O (<i>singing</i>). Forsaking the mortal world, I -have come to the Moon to be Queen of the Fairies. My -time has passed so pleasantly and fast that I have lost all -count of time. I have gathered flowers and made wine, -and have invited other fairies to join me on this festive -occasion. (<i>Sitting in meditation</i>) Spring and autumn -come and go, as the evening follows the morn. My time -has flown by pleasantly amidst these beautiful surroundings. -Once a year the moon is fullest on this night.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> -Heaven and earth are happy in mutual enjoyment. -(<i>Speaking</i>) This day is the Mid-Autumn Festival. I -have directed the Palace to be dusted and cleaned. The -attendants have conveyed the invitations to the fairies to -share with me in my happiness. You, attendants, await -their arrival. (<i>The fairies arrive and sit down to feast.</i>)</p> - -<p>FAIRIES. O Queen! behold the mortal world! See -how every family on earth prepares its delicious food and -wine to offer to thee as sacrifice? (<i>Ch’ang-O speaking</i>) -Let me look. (<i>Ch’ang-O is moved and the fairies speak.</i>)</p> - -<p>FAIRIES. Why, Queen, dost thou feel so sad?</p> - -<p>CH’ANG-O. Look at the mortals and see how they -celebrate in couples. A hundred times better are they than -we who lead a lonesome life.</p> - -<p>FAIRIES. Do not speak thus, O Queen! But partake -more of this beautiful wine and drown thy sorrow.</p> - -<p>CH’ANG-O. Then let us drink. (<i>Lifts her cup.</i>)</p> - -<p>(<i>Ch’ang-O is overcome with wine and the fairies take -their leave.</i>)</p> - -<p>CH’ANG-O. When we were feasting I perceived how -mortals celebrated this happy occasion in couples and enjoyed -each other’s company. The thought of my lonely -life fills me with sorrow. (<i>Singing</i>) I go down by -marble steps and part the crystal curtains to see how -mortal couples live and prepare fresh fruits and delicious -wines to celebrate the Festival. Here I see a family feasting -and chatting, there a group walking hand in hand, -and others while away their time in their modest homes, -while I sit in my Palace, lonely and companionless. Ah! -who is there to pity me? (<i>Speaking</i>) Deeply do I regret -my offence of stealing the Elixir of Life. As punishment -I am now destined to spend my nights in sorrow.</p> - -<p>(<i>Fairies reappear to escort Ch’ang-O to visit the Heavenly -Queen, Hsi Wang Mu.</i>)</p> - -<p>(<i>Exeunt all.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_FIVE">CHAPTER FIVE<br> -<span class="smcap">Modern Tendencies</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-d.jpg" width="200" height="225" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">During the last decades of the Ch’ing -Dynasty, that is to say about forty -years ago, many of the idle and rich -members of the ruling class, the Manchus, -developed an interest in the theater. -The government provided these men with an -income but imposed no duties on them; and while -a large number filled the time that hung heavy on -their hands by smoking opium, others imitated the -work of the socially disinherited actor. Sometimes -princes of the royal family appeared on the stage in -much the same spirit of a search for new sensations -in which others impersonated beggars on the streets. -Naturally enough, such undignified behavior was -highly disapproved of in government circles, and -therefore the idlers who spent most of their time in -the theaters found it more expedient to perform in -private when their artistic natures felt the itch for -self-expression. For this purpose clubs were formed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> -called <i>p’iao yu</i>, friends of the theater or amateurs. -It is interesting to note that many of the palaces of -the princes of the Manchu Dynasty in the vicinity of -Peking are provided with stages where the theater -lovers could perform in private. Many wealthy -merchants followed this fashion set by the princes, -and in recent years also a large number of students -have devoted their leisure time to the study of acting. -To-day the number of amateurs in Peking is -enormous; there is such a craze for acting that -every photographer’s shop is provided with costumes -and other theatrical paraphernalia in order -that the <i>p’iao yu</i> may have his picture taken in the -rôle of his favorite character.</p> - -<p>Among this class of amateurs the tendency is to -be very conservative. When a club is formed the -members hire an old and experienced actor who -teaches them to sing and to act in the traditional -manner. Once a month performances are given at -which the amateurs show what they have learned. -Frequently, too, these tyros are given opportunities -to act at weddings, funerals, or other festivities held -in private homes or in restaurants. To belong to -such a club is within the reach of even the ordinary -clerks, for the dues are about four dollars a year. -I have known former members of the diplomatic -corps who had spent many years abroad as well as -ten-dollar-a-month clerks among the ranks of the -amateurs.</p> - -<p>When an amateur goes over to the professional<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> -stage the Chinese call it “<i>hsia hai</i>”, going down to -the bottom of the sea, an expression that indicates -the low esteem in which the professional actor is -held. However, in these days of the Republic, when -the social disqualification of the actor counts for -very little, and what is more important, a good actor -can command the equivalent of a princely income of -the days of the Empire, the actor is no longer despised -so thoroughly as in former days. Formerly -an actor who could read and write was a notable -exception, while now occasionally a fairly well-educated -man goes on the stage.</p> - -<p>I know, for example, a youth of twenty who had -been carefully trained by a devout American lady -in the Christian way in which he was to go. She -had taught him stenography and typing, and Percy, -as all Americans called him, worked in an office in a -modest but useful capacity. Suddenly rumor had it -that he was going to go on the stage and, to be sure, -an enterprising manager had offered him about forty -times the sum the office was paying him. Many of -the pious folk felt grieved when Percy accepted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="illus07" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus07.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">AMATEUR ACTORS IN AN OLD-STYLE CHINESE PLAY</p> - <p class="caption">The face painting of the actor on the right shows - him to be a wicked man, probably a robber. The other is the hero of - the piece, a young warrior.</p> -</div> - -<p>Percy’s going on the stage was perhaps more of -a surprise to some other people than to me, for I had -not only seen him perform several times with other -amateurs at weddings, but I had also observed him -during office hours studying Mei Lan-fang’s acting -in the Market Theater. One hot summer night I -went to a feast where Percy had told me that he was -going to play. In the first courtyard of the host’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span> -large residence a score of guests were eating delicious -Chinese food and drinking cool beer, while a -temporary stage had been erected in the second -courtyard. Accompanied by loud music from the -orchestra an indifferent play was going on; therefore -I set out to find my hero of the evening. I -found Percy seated at a table back of the stage busy -with his make-up. On his head he was wearing a -wig, his eyebrows were penciled, his cheeks rouged, -and he was busy painting his eyeballs.</p> - -<p>“Good heavens, Percy,” I said. “What are you -doing to your eyes?”</p> - -<p>“I have to put Chinese ink into them to make my -pupils large and black.”</p> - -<p>“Doesn’t it hurt like the very Satan?”</p> - -<p>“Oh, yes, it hurts pretty badly, but when it’s -done it looks lovely.”</p> - -<p>How I wished that Percy’s missionary sponsors -might have seen the show! As imitator of Mei Lan-fang -he played the rôle of the maid, and he certainly -looked beautiful. The maid in this particular farce -(“Yi Tsai Hua”, one of the plays forbidden by the -police!) is sent by her mistress—who is minded to -improve her husband’s absence—to induce a handsome -young man to come to the lady’s boudoir. But -the maid prefers, unlike John Alden, to speak for -herself! So she sets about destroying the young -man’s virtue, while the efforts of the youth to escape -her coquettish wiles supply the comic element. It -was a bedroom farce, and I noticed with pride the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span> -effects of Percy’s Christian training—he used -sheets on his bed!</p> - -<p>But in recent years other groups of amateurs have -arisen with the definite purpose of reforming the -Chinese theater. In 1915 a group of returned students -from Japan who had derived their inspiration -from modern European dramas they had seen in -Tokyo founded a dramatic club in Shanghai called -“The Spring Willow Dramatic Society.” Their -aim was to educate the taste of the public both as -regards modern drama and modern staging. They -introduced non-musical, spoken drama acted on a -stage with footlights and scenery. “La Dame aux -Camélias” and “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” formed part -of their repertoire. But they found only a small following -composed of students and people who had -been abroad, and therefore this effort was discontinued -after one year. Shanghai is the logical spot -for such modern theaters—there have been quite -a number of others since—because Occidental influence -is stronger in this city than anywhere else -in China, and the Southerners on the whole are less -conservative than the Northerners.</p> - -<p>One of the idealists of the “Spring Willow Society”, -on finding that the audiences were not yet -ready for drama in the European style, began to act in -the Chinese theater the rôle of the ingénue (<i>Ch’ing-I</i> -and <i>Hua-tan</i>). However, he made the reform of -avoiding all plays that taught superstitions and of -turning to social plays with a purpose. But this experiment<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span> -did not succeed very well either, and therefore -in 1920 he accepted the position of director of -the dramatic club in Nantun, in the province of -Kiangsi, endowed by Mr. Chang Chien, one of the -wealthiest business men in China. This gentleman -believes that the theater is an instrument of great -potential force in making over society and that -through the proper kind of theater his fellow countrymen -can be made honest and patriotic. Nantun -is an industrial city and an educational center with -ten middle schools and three colleges, and therefore -a favorable location for an experimental theater. -Moreover, through Mr. Chang Chien’s influence, a -course in dramatics has been made a part of the -curriculum in all the schools, in order that every -student may learn to act. The students, Mr. Chang -Chien hopes, will spread the message of the modern -drama far and wide by giving performances in their -native towns and villages.</p> - -<p>Such a tour of student actors, from quite another -educational center, to be sure, was described to me -by one of my students, Mr. Jung Tu-shan. The -lad undoubtedly had considerable talent as an -actor—I remember particularly a performance of -“Maître Patelin” given at the Peking Union Medical -College in which he played the leading part with -great success. In the year 1917, thirty-six students, -all from the vicinity of Wusih, set out to perform -plays in all the villages in the district. They carried -with them some painted scenery and each student<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span> -supplied his costumes and traveling expenses. The -families of different students acted as hosts to the -whole company in the various villages visited. Performances -were given in the afternoon. In the -course of the morning the stage was gotten ready—usually -the stage at the village temple. Four coppers -admission fee was charged to pay for the cost of -transporting the scenery, and the surplus was given -to various charitable enterprises. The audiences -numbered from two hundred to eight hundred spectators. -The plays were propaganda against opium -smoking and foot binding or—as this was the time -of the patriotic fervor of the students—anti-Japanese -agitation. The most popular play was “The -Sorrowful Korean”, in which the maltreatment of -Koreans by the Japanese was graphically portrayed, -together with the warning that the same thing -would happen to the Chinese if they did not show -more patriotism. After the representation of the -pulling out of finger nails or other tortures, the cry -of “boycott the Japanese” would arise among the -spectators, and those who had had the forethought -to provide themselves with Japanese-made umbrellas -would start a bonfire with them. Next, everybody -would swear never again to buy Japanese goods. -At times, too, improvised plays would be given in -which the foibles or crimes of certain natives of the -village would be castigated. Some professional -blackmailers whose machinations were publicly exposed -became very angry at the students, but since<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> -they were sons of wealthy and influential men they -could not harm them. It is quite a favorable testimonial -for the native ability of the Chinese as actors -that such plays could be gotten up at a moment’s -notice; the method of the students was for one of -the members to tell the story in the morning, while -in the afternoon those who had been awarded the -various parts would act it out. Mr. Jung Tu-shan -is of the opinion that for his illiterate countrymen -such performances are of vast educational value, -especially since newspapers are few and travel is -rather restricted.</p> - -<p>It would lead too far afield to enumerate even a -small number of the professional companies and student -clubs now presenting “modern drama”, i.e. -drama in imitation of the present-day drama of the -West. Moreover most of these undertakings are -very short-lived. The professional companies are -generally found in Shanghai where many a modern -European or American drama has been presented -for better or for worse. The best work among the -student dramatic clubs has been done by the one at -Nankai College, Tientsin. In the <i>Quarterly</i> of that -institution many plays have been published dealing -with Chinese life in imitation of the manner of -Ibsen, Tolstoy, Shaw, and other moderns. One play -from this school, “The New Mayor”, was singled -out for particular praise by a revolutionary critic, -because it overthrew one of the ancient traditions of -the Chinese drama—the villain is not punished at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span> -the end of the play. This play too is quite realistic -and “peculiarly” Chinese.</p> - -<p>Mr. Tsao, the mayor of a village, together with -three other unscrupulous men, agrees to sell to a -European company the land around the village -temple on which are situated the huts of many poor -people. The agents of the foreign company begin -to drive off the poor people and cause untold suffering -among them. At this point a nephew of the -mayor appears on the scene. He has been studying -in a “modern” school in Shanghai and has acquired -some conceptions of honesty and pity. He -takes the matter of the illegal sale to court and -when he appears followed by a mob of the poor the -court annuls the contract of sale. There is even -some talk of punishing the four guilty scoundrels. -In this crisis the son of the mayor rushes to one of -the three other villains, named Hou, in order to plan -for his father’s safety. Mr. Hou tells him that the -only thing to do is to bring him $4000 for bribes, -with which he says he can save the situation. The -family of the mayor sell all their property in order -to raise this large sum, so that only the hope of -future extortions stands between them and absolute -poverty. After what has passed the mayor is forced -to resign, but Mr. Hou promises to do all he can -to influence the election to the effect that the son -succeed his father as mayor and the office remain -in the family. With this understanding the -mayor’s family pay out the $4000. But when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> -the votes are counted it is found that the new mayor -is none other than Mr. Hou!</p> - -<p>It may be worth while briefly to summarize the -views of two critics on how to reform the Chinese -theater. Professor Soong Tsung-faung of the National -University, Peking, for many years a student -in France, Germany and Switzerland, in his book -“La Littérature Chinoise Contemporaine” makes -suggestions as follows: 1. Music and drama should -be separated, performances of operas and plays -should be made as distinct genres; 2. An approach -should be made to the Aristotelian unities; 3. The -false morality of the stage should be replaced by a -realistic presentation of life; 4. More attention -should be paid to effective dialogue; 5. Male and -female rôles should be played by actors of the two -sexes respectively; 6. The stage and auditorium of -the Chinese theater should be reformed to resemble -that of the modern European theater.</p> - -<p>“Europeanize the theater” is, in short, what Professor -Soong suggests. Much the same thing, from -a somewhat different angle, is said by Doctor Hu -Shih, professor of philosophy in the same university. -He argues that literature is constantly changing -and that such a change is a gradual progress -from low origins to classical perfection. The history -of Chinese drama represents a continuous -struggle against formal restrictions which have -been gradually overcome. But in the course of this -advance useless survivals remained intact owing to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> -the conservatism of the Chinese. As such survivals -he mentions ballad singing, military plays (acrobatics), -a conventional manner of walking on the -stage, facial painting in a highly unnatural manner, -use of falsetto speech, and musical accompaniment. -These ought to be eliminated, just as the chorus, -the mask, and the aside have long gone out of style -in the Western theater. Furthermore, since progress -in literature generally comes about through -contact with foreign literatures (he quotes here the -influence of Ibsen on the English stage), China -ought to learn from the Occidental drama. Two -things especially China is in need of: first, the conception -of tragedy to take the place of the eternal -happy ending; and second, a conception of dramatic -economy.</p> - -<p>This same critic has himself written a play, which -he modestly calls a farce. It has been acted very -successfully by student dramatic societies in Peking -and other cities. Doctor Hu Shih does not pride -himself particularly on this effort of his, yet, in my -opinion, it is by far the best “modern” play written -by a Chinese under the influence of the Western -drama, including some published in American magazines. -I shall reprint it here as an index, showing -the direction the Chinese drama of the future -may take. The influence of Mei Lan-fang, as Professor -Soong notes in his book, is in the direction of -art for art’s sake, while the drama of the students -and reformers is the play with a purpose.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="illus08" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus08.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">HU SHIH</p> - <p class="caption">Doctor of Philosophy, Columbia University. Professor - of Philosophy, National University, Peking. Author of first critical - history of Chinese philosophy, giving a new evaluation of the ancient - sages. Editor, poet, and author of play reprinted in chapter five. His - most important work was his campaign for the introduction of the - vernacular in place of the dead language of the scholars, a reform - that will be of inestimable consequence in democratizing knowledge - among China’s four hundred million.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span></p> - -<h3>THE GREATEST EVENT IN LIFE</h3> - -<p class="center">A Farce in One Act by Doctor Hu Shih</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<ul> -<li><i>CHARACTERS</i>—Mr. Tien, a gentleman and scholar.</li> -<li>Mrs. Tien, his wife.</li> -<li>Miss Tien Ah-may, their daughter.</li> -<li>Lee Fuh, their old servant.</li> -<li>A fortune-teller (blind).</li> -</ul> - -<p><i>SCENE—A parlor in Mr. Tien’s home. A door on the -right leading to the hall; a door on the left leading to the -dining room. Sofa at the back end. Armchairs. A round -table in the center with flower-vase and writing materials on -it. Two chairs beside the table. A writing desk at the left -side of the stage.</i></p> - -<p><i>On the walls are hanging rolls of Chinese painting and -writing, together with framed Dutch landscapes, bespeaking -the complexity of taste in a partially modernized Chinese -family.</i></p> - -<p><i>As the curtain slowly goes up, there is heard the voice of -the fortune-teller, who is seated by the table, and the final -notes of his accompanying string instrument are still audible. -Mrs. Tien is seated on one of the armchairs.</i></p> - -</div> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I don’t quite understand what you say. -Tell me, what do you think of this match.</p> - -<p>FORTUNE-TELLER—I only speak the truth, Mrs. -Tien. We all speak the truth. You see—</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—But what is the truth?</p> - -<p>FORTUNE-TELLER—I am sorry to say that this -match is undesirable. It would be a very unhappy marriage -if your daughter should marry this young man.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Why so?</p> - -<p>FORTUNE-TELLER—Well, you see, I only speak the -truth. This young man was born in the year of the Tiger -and your daughter was born in the year of the Rabbit. In -the books of fortune-telling, this is called “conquering the -rabbit by the tiger.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span></p> - -<p>The wife would live in constant fear of being swallowed up. -And, as the conquest is complete, the wife will probably die -long before her husband. I have examined the Month and the -Day and the Hour, and found no way to escape it. Of course -I am only telling the truth: please don’t blame my frankness.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Not at all. I like truth spoken in frankness. -I know what you said is true. For the Goddess of -Mercy said the same thing yesterday.</p> - -<p>FORTUNE-TELLER—So the Goddess of Mercy also -disapproved of this union?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Yes, she said that this couple, if married, -will not live long together.</p> - -<p>FORTUNE-TELLER—That’s exactly what I said.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—What the Goddess said must be true. -But you see, this is a very important matter; it is the greatest -event in my daughter’s life. We parents cannot take too -much care in selecting the best possible mates for our children. -So, having known the Goddess’s opinion, I sent for -you to see if there is any possible escape. You know the -words of the gods are always very brief: one may not be -sure of their exact meaning.</p> - -<p>FORTUNE-TELLER—Quite so, quite so.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I am glad that you have confirmed the -Goddess’s judgment. (<i>Rises and hands him some money</i>) -Thank you; here is your pay.</p> - -<p>FORTUNE-TELLER—(<i>Groping for the money</i>) No, -no, that is not necessary. Thanks, thanks. I am glad that -the Goddess has confirmed my truth. (<i>Rises</i>)</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Lee Fuh! (<i>Enter Lee Fuh from the -right-hand door</i>) Show him out. (<i>The fortune-teller goes -out led by Lee Fuh</i>)</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—(<i>Taking up the red paper on which are -written the dates of the young couple, folds it and puts it -back into a drawer of the writing desk</i>) It’s a pity!—it’s -a pity!—</p> - -<p>(<i>Miss Ah-may Tien enters by the right-hand door. She -is a young woman of about twenty-four, tastefully dressed -and wearing a rather anxious look on her face</i>)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span></p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Mother, are you consulting fortune-tellers -again? I met one at the gate. Have you forgotten -that father had forbidden fortune-telling in our house?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Just once more, my dear.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—But you have promised father never to -call fortune-tellers into our house.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I know that. But you see I can’t help -doing it just once more. I have sent for him to see if you -and Mr. Chen—</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Oh, Oh!—</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—You see this is the greatest event in your -life, and you are my only child. I can’t let you marry a man -with whom you can’t live long.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—But we <i>can</i>!</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—No, you can’t. The fortune-teller says so.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—What does he know about us?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—And the Goddess of Mercy says so, too.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—So you have asked the Goddess too? -What would father say to this?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I know your father would object to this, -as he always objects to everything I do. But how can we -old folks decide a matter which concerns your entire life? -We are liable to make grave mistakes. But the gods cannot -deceive us. Moreover, the fortune-teller has confirmed what -the goddess said. (<i>Going to the desk and opening the -drawer</i>) Let me show you what the goddess said.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Oh, no! I don’t want to see it!</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—(<i>Closing the door reluctantly</i>) My dear, -don’t be too obstinate. I like your young man whom you -have known during your stay in Japan. He seems to be a -fine fellow. You say you know him well. But you are -young and inexperienced. Even we old folks dare not trust -our own judgment in such important matters. That’s why -I went to the Goddess of Mercy and sent for the fortune-teller. -They both said that this match would be undesirable. -It must be true. The fortune-teller said that this is a case -of conquering the rabbit by the tiger, because you were born -in the year of—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span></p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Please don’t say any more of it. (<i>Sobbing</i>) -I don’t want to hear it. I know father will not agree -with you. I know he will not.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I will tell him what I have done. He -must not give away my daughter against my wish. (<i>Approaching -her daughter and trying to dry her tears with a -handkerchief</i>) Now, don’t cry. I’ll leave you to think it -over. Your father will be back soon; I go to see if dinner -is ready. Be a good child and cry no more. (<i>Goes by the -door leading to the dining room.</i></p> - -<p><i>A pause. As Miss Tien looks up, Lee Fuh appears at -the door. She beckons him to come near</i>)</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Lee Fuh, I need your help. (<i>Lee Fuh -bows amicably</i>) My mother does not want to let me marry -Mr. Chen.</p> - -<p>LEE FUH—It’s a pity, a great pity. He is such a fine -gentleman. He even bowed to me when I met him this -morning at the street corner.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Yes, he saw you bring in the fortune-teller -and he was afraid of any sudden change. So he telephoned -to me at the school and followed me back in his -motor-car. He may still be waiting at the street corner. Go -and tell him that my mother has made up her mind not to -let us marry. Of course father will help us. Tell Mr. Chen -to move his car to the next street and wait for further news. -Go quickly. (<i>Lee Fuh bows to go</i>) Come back. Tell him—tell -him—not to be anxious. (<i>Lee Fuh bows smilingly and -goes by the right-hand door</i>)</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Goes to the desk and opens the drawer; -looks at its contents without taking it out. Then looks at her -watch</i>) Father ought to be back now; it is almost twelve. -(<i>Mr. Tien, a man of about fifty, enters by the right-hand -door</i>)</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Quickly closes the drawer and rises to -meet him</i>) Oh, father, you are back! Mother was—(hesitates) -mother has something to say to you,—something -very important.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—What’s that? Tell me first what it is.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span></p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Mother will tell you. (<i>Runs to the -dining-room door and calls</i>) Mother, mother, father is -back.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—What’s in this now? (<i>Sits down in the -armchair. Mrs. Tien enters</i>) Ah-may told me that you have -something very important to say to me.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Yes, something very important. Now -don’t contradict me. (<i>Sitting down by the table</i>) It is -about Mr. Chen’s proposal to marry Ah-may.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Yes, I have been thinking about it too.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Good, we all ought to be thinking about -it. It is the greatest event in her life. I was simply overawed -at the idea of its importance. It is true that Ah-may -has known this young man for some years during their stay -in Japan. But we don’t know him. How can we be sure -of his character? He is wealthy, but many wealthy young -men are simply awful. He is well-educated, but I have -heard many returned students abandon their wives.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—What are you driving at?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—My point is this. We should not trust -our own poor judgments. At least I can’t, I dare not trust -myself in this matter. So I went yesterday to the Temple of -the Goddess of Mercy.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—What! Have you forgotten what you -promised me?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I can’t help it. I did it merely for the -sake of our daughter.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Pooh, pooh! Go on.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I went there and asked for a Divine -Stick. It says that this match is undesirable. Let me show -you the poem on the Stick. (<i>Going to the desk</i>)</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Pooh, pooh! I don’t want to see it. I’ll -have nothing of this stuff! If you don’t trust yourself, how -can you trust such an important matter to wooden images -and clay idols?</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Cheering up</i>) I know father doesn’t -believe in all this. (<i>Going to him</i>) Thank you, father. -We should trust our own judgment, should we not?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span></p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—But it isn’t the Goddess alone that -says no.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Who else then?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I still had my doubts, so I sent for the -best fortune-teller in this city.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Ahem! You have broken another promise -to me.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—I know it, but you see this is the greatest -event in Ah-may’s life, and I want to clear up every little -doubt in my mind.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—But, for heaven’s sake, why did you create -the doubt by going to the Goddess? Why didn’t you come -to me?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Don’t be blasphemous. Well, the fortune-teller -said exactly the same thing as the Goddess of -Mercy. Wasn’t that wonderful?</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Oh, come. Don’t be foolish. You have no -confidence in your own eyes, so you go and put complete -confidence in those who have no eyes at all!</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—I quite agree with you, father. I knew -you would be on our side.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—(<i>To her daughter</i>) How dare you talk -in that manner about your own marriage? “Our” side? -Whose side is “our” side? For shame! You all conspire -against me! (<i>Putting her face into her handkerchief and -sobbing</i>) Have I no right to decide my own daughter’s -greatest event in life?</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Just because this is our daughter’s greatest -event in life, we must go about it in a sane and intelligent -manner. We must not be deceived by wooden images and -clay idols,—and blind fortune-tellers. Am I not right, -Ah-may?</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—You are quite right, father. I knew you -would not believe in all this.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Now, let us talk seriously. (<i>To Mrs. Tien</i>) -Don’t cry. No more childish superstitions! (<i>To Miss Tien</i>) -Sit down and we’ll have a serious talk. (<i>She seats herself -on the sofa. A pause</i>)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span></p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Ah-may, I don’t want you to marry Mr. -Chen.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Greatly agitated</i>) Oh, father, you don’t -mean it!</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Yes, I do mean it. This union is impossible. -I am sorry.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Have you found anything against him?</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—No, I like him very much. I could not -possibly choose a better son-in-law. So much the more I -am sorry.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Puzzled and grieved</i>) And you don’t -believe in the gods and fortune-tellers?</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Oh, no.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN AND MISS TIEN—(<i>At the same time</i>) -What is it then?</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—(<i>To Miss Tien</i>) My child, you have been -abroad for so long that you have forgotten our own custom -and etiquette. You have even forgotten the law of our -ancestors.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—What is the law of our ancestors that -forbids our marriage?</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Let me show you. (<i>Goes out by the -dining-room door</i>)</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—What could it be? But I am glad that -he is opposed to this union.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Reflecting, then suddenly showing determination</i>) -I know what to do.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—(<i>Enters with a set of big folio volumes</i>) -Here is our genealogy. (<i>Turning over the leaves</i>) Look -at this long line of our ancestors and see if there has been -any marriage between the Chens (陈) and the Tiens (田).</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Why couldn’t there be any marriage between -the two families?</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Because it is the custom of the country to -forbid intermarriage between persons bearing the same -family name.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—But our family is Tien and Mr. Chen’s -family name is Chen: we are not of the same family name.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span></p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Yes, we are of the same family name. -About two thousand five hundred years ago, these two -words, Tien and Chen, were pronounced in the same way, -and our family name was sometimes written in the form of -Chen and sometimes in the form of Tien. As the ages -passed by, these two words came to be pronounced quite -differently, and the two branches of our family had all the -appearances of a separate origin. But the philologists -know it, and our family records show that the two families -have sprung from one and the same stock. The law of both -the Chen family and the Tien family forbids intermarriage -between them.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Does this prohibition apply to persons -whose relationship dates back two thousand five hundred -years?</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Unfortunately it does.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—Oh, father, surely you don’t believe in -the reasonableness of such a custom.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—I don’t, but society does and the old scholars -do. A story was told of a peasant woman of the Tien -family who married a Mr. Chen by mistake. But after her -death, she was not allowed to occupy a seat in the ancestral -temple until her name was changed into Shen (申) by prolonging -the middle stroke of the word Tien (田).</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—I am willing to prolong the middle stroke -of my family name, if that is the only objection.</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—You are willing, but I am not. I don’t -want to be criticized by the old scholars of our clan on your -account.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Sobbing</i>) But we are <i>not</i> of the same -family!</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Our genealogy says we <i>are</i>, and the old -scholars say we <i>are</i>. I have consulted a number of scholars -on this point, and they all oppose this union. You see, in a -matter of such importance, although one must not be deceived -by the wooden gods and blind fortune-tellers, one -must respect the opinion of old scholars. And then, your -young man is from a very wealthy family. I don’t want<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span> -people to think that I sold my daughter to a rich man at the -cost of sacrificing my family name.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>In despair</i>) Oh, oh! Father! You have -destroyed the idols of superstition, but you bow to the idols -of tradition!</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—You are angry with me? Well, I don’t -blame you. I understand your feelings. (<i>Lee Fuh enters</i>)</p> - -<p>LEE FUH—Dinner is ready. (<i>All rise except Miss -Tien</i>)</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—Let us talk it over after dinner. Come, -I am hungry. (<i>Goes into the dining room</i>)</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—(<i>Going to her daughter</i>) Don’t cry now. -We all wish for your best. Compose yourself and come to -dinner.</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—I don’t want dinner.</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Don’t be obstinate. We’ll wait for you. -(<i>Goes into the dining room. Lee Fuh closes the door after -her</i>)</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Looks up and sees Lee Fuh standing</i>) -Is Mr. Chen still waiting in his car?</p> - -<p>LEE FUH—(<i>In a low voice</i>) Yes, here is a note for -you. (<i>Hands her a note</i>)</p> - -<p>MISS TIEN—(<i>Reads</i>) “This concerns us alone. Decide -for yourself.” (<i>Repeating the last sentence</i>) “Decide -for yourself.” Yes. I must decide for myself. I must! -(<i>To Lee Fuh</i>) Tell father and mother not to wait for me. -I’ll join them after dinner. (<i>Lee Fuh bows knowingly and -retires. Miss Tien rises and puts on the cloak which she had -taken off when she first entered. Goes to the desk and writes -a note which she leaves under the flower vase; then she -hurries out by the right-hand door. A pause</i>)</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—(<i>From within</i>) Ah-may, you must come -and have dinner with us. (<i>Enters</i>) Where are you? -Ah-may!</p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—(<i>From within</i>) Leave her alone for a -while: she is angry with us. (<i>Enters</i>) Where is she?</p> - -<p>MRS. TIEN—Where is she? She has gone with her -cloak on.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span></p> - -<p>MR. TIEN—(<i>Seeing the note under the vase, takes it -and reads</i>) “This is the greatest event in my life. I must -decide for myself. I am gone with Mr. Chen in his car. -Good-by!”</p> - -<p>(<i>Mrs. Tien sinks into the armchair. Mr. Tien rushes to -the door and then hesitates. Curtain.</i>)</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header5.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_SIX">CHAPTER SIX<br> -<span class="smcap">External Aspects of the Chinese Theater</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-f.jpg" width="200" height="225" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Foreigners in general regard the Chinese -theater as noisy, dirty, and dull, and -therefore as a most unattractive spot; -yet the Chinese must think differently -about it, for the houses are always -crowded. When still at a great distance from the -theater one can hear a horrible racket of drums, -cymbals, and screeching string instruments. On -entering the building one is struck by the lack in -the Chinese of the sense of how to make things attractive, -for, just as one enters a Chinese restaurant -through a dirty kitchen, so one often enters a theater -through the laundry; four or five men are seen in -the “foyer” bending over steaming tubs, washing -towels, essentials in a Chinese theater the use of -which the spectator is soon to learn. On entering -one finds the house—which, by the way, is arranged -like a beer garden with the spectators seated at little -tables—packed to the last seat. But the usher says<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span> -nothing about S. R. O.; he leads you somewhere and -as the other spectators seem to telescope you are -asked to sit down either at a table or on a bench -which has before it a board to hold the teapot and -watermelon seeds that arrive the minute you have -taken your seat.</p> - -<p>As you settle down and look about, you find yourself -in the usual kindly, dirty, ill-smelling, smoking, -talking, shouting, eating crowd that one finds everywhere -in China. Everybody is glad to give the newcomer -information or a match; the inimitable, gentle -Peking old men with their pairs of walnuts in their -right hands which they roll around to keep their -fingers supple for writing Chinese characters, drink -tea, and smoke pewter water pipes, smiling the carefree -smile that old age has graven on their faces. -Waiters are continually walking around, jostling -the spectators and shouting the merits of their tobacco, -candy, fruit or what not, and depositing teapots -and steaming dishes of food wherever they are -wanted. The most spectacular thing is the manner -in which the towels arrive. One waiter throws them -to the other in tightly wrapped bundles, the pitcher -standing near the entrance and the catcher near the -stage or wherever people need to wipe their hands -and faces. In hurling these bundles they show an -unfailing aim and in catching they never miss. Even -though one of these soggy masses of steaming cloth -seems headed straight for your face, you need not -dodge, for without fail a waiter’s hand will always<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> -be stretched out to catch it and all that the drama -lover will ever suffer is to have a fine mist sprinkled -over his face. Needless to say for this he neither expects -nor receives any sympathy—not even a passing -notice. A great many soldiers—about whom -the Chinese says the worst thing he can think of, -that they are “rough”—are admitted free, not -because the manager is exceedingly patriotic, but -because he thinks that discretion is better than having -the door kicked in. In the gallery are seated the -women, also eating, drinking, smoking and chattering. -How much attention does this audience pay to -the play? About as much as we do to the music in -a restaurant. They don’t come for a few hours’ -excitement, they come to pass the day that hangs -heavy on their hands. As one French returned student -put it, “In Europe one works during the day -and amuses oneself at night; in China one amuses -oneself during the day and sleeps at night.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp84" id="illus09" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus09.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">A TYPICAL PEKING AUDIENCE WITH THE INEVITABLE TEAPOTS</p> - <p class="caption">From Jacovleff, “Le Théâtre Chinois”</p> -</div> - -<p>The returned student finds the Chinese theater -very little to his taste, but yet he goes because -Chinese social life is so dull that there is nothing -better to do. Comforts in our sense are lacking absolutely -in these theaters. You sit on stools without -backs, your feet rest on stone slabs when the thermometer -is hovering about zero and the cold wind -is blowing down on Peking from Mongolia; there -is absolutely no effort at heating or ventilation—it -is Chinese animal heat that keeps the spectators -comfortable and in a frame of mind to enjoy the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> -performance. Yet these discomforts are felt only -by those used to Western standards of life, for nine -out of ten who leave the theater after the last villain -has been duly punished go to houses that are likewise -unheated and have no light, no agreeable company, -and of course no play to charm the soul away -from reality.</p> - -<p>Peking is the real center of Chinese drama, the -city that sets the style for the rest of the country -so far as native drama is concerned. Innovations of -Occidental nature generally have their origin in -Shanghai and are adopted later on in Peking; such -imitations of Western institutions are, for example, -the amusement arcades called in both cities “The -New World”; boxes in the theaters in which men -and women sit together; and, of course, motion pictures, -at first imported from Europe and America, -but in recent years manufactured by Chinese firms -in China. But as regards the native theater, Shanghai -learns from Peking. The language of the theater, -in general, is the Peking dialect spoken by actors -all over China. Famous actors from Peking regularly -visit Shanghai. It is only in Peking and the -treaty ports that regular theaters exist. The vast -majority of the four hundred million also have their -plays, but they are dependent for them on traveling -companies, that set up their mat-shed theaters -wherever the citizens are willing to pay them for -acting. Thus the political capital Peking is also the -leading city for Chinese drama.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span></p> - -<p>The eight hundred thousand residents of Peking -have, according to Mr. Gamble’s recently published -social survey, twenty-two regular theaters and eight -mat-shed theaters; that is, portable buildings covered -with matting. Furthermore, there are some -nine restaurants, provincial halls, and temples where -theatrical performances are regularly given. It -is customary to mark all big weddings, funerals, -banquets, charity events, and other festivities by -theatricals for which the services of professionals -are engaged or in which the many eager amateurs -are given opportunities to appear in public. Most of -the large buildings,—temples, guildhalls, palaces, -etc.—are equipped with the simple projecting -stages, either inside a large hall or out of doors in -a courtyard. If you happen to live near a restaurant -or a temple you will be able to speak feelingly of the -love of the Chinese for theatricals!</p> - -<p>The business organization of the Chinese theater -is the same as that which obtained in Elizabethan -playhouses. Our theater owner-manager of to-day -who selects a play, determines the manner in which -it is to be staged and played, and then engages actors -to do what he pays them for—this enemy of real -art and <i>bête noire</i> of the theater uplifters can be -found neither in Elizabethan England nor in the -Chinese theater. In staging and acting the company -of players has entire freedom in China, just as it -had in London. The theater-owner (quite like the -“housekeeper” of Shakespeare’s day) engages a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> -troupe to play in his theater, but he never dreams -of interfering with the actor’s art. The Chinese -call him the “behind-the-curtain” while the actors -are the “before-the-curtain.” The former receives -thirty per cent. of the income, while seventy per -cent, goes to the manager of the company, who then -pays the salaries of his actors. Some of these -troupes or actors’ clubs are of a rather democratic -nature, because all the actors belong to their guild. -The actors’ guild has its special temple just outside -the Hata Gate, for the actors are religious folk—much -as are the members of most guilds in China.</p> - -<p>In this temple the actors worship three deities, or -rather deified men. The first of these is Kuan Yu -(Yo Fei), the god of war, during his lifetime a -great fighter against the Chin Tartars in the course -of the twelfth century. There is a well-known play -that sets forth the high qualities of this hero. -Though he had been dismissed by the emperor as -the result of a court intrigue, yet he refused to join -the rebels, no matter how tempting the offers they -made him, but remained loyal to his emperor. His -mother was so pleased at this that she tattooed on -his back: “He repays the state with loyalty and integrity.” -Later on the emperor reinstated him in -his high honors and placed his mother’s inscription -on the banner of the army.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - -<p>The second deity is the T’ang Dynasty emperor -mentioned in the first chapter as the traditional<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> -founder of the theater, T’ang Ming Huang. In his -“Pear Garden” school for actors he is said himself -to have acted the rôle of the clown. It is for this -reason that the clown enjoys special privileges; for -example, he is the first one to receive the attention -of the make-up artist, while other actors must wait -until the clown has had his turn; and he may sit on -any actor’s box in the greenroom. It is the clown, -furthermore, who burns the incense before the idols -found in every theater on the rear wall just opposite -the stage and in the dressing room. Such a little -religious ceremony is carried out before and after -every performance to ward off bad luck. Another -feature of the theater that impresses us as being -typically Chinese is found in the boards placed at -the rear of the stage and on the two supporting -columns on which are found inscriptions, generally -in gilt characters, setting forth the high moral purpose -of the stage. In comparing these mottoes with -what is being presented on the stage one is often -reminded of the saying of the Reverend Arthur -Smith, that no one <i>knows</i> so well as the Chinese -what is fitting and proper.</p> - -<p>The third deity is Lin Ming-ju, generally pictured -as a little boy. This noble youth was a pupil in the -“Pear Garden”, and all who were friendly to him -made rapid progress in their art. Hence they realized -gradually that he was a god. Like other well-known -gods he afterwards disappeared in a sudden -and miraculous manner. Because the second part<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span> -of this god’s name is the word for dream, actors -never speak of their dreams in the morning.</p> - -<p>But religion does not mean to the actors merely -the burning of incense or the making of an annual -pilgrimage to Miao Feng Shan, two days’ journey -from Peking. There is a definite tradition that an -actor must show filial piety. Whenever he undertakes -something out of the ordinary, such as perhaps -accepting a contract to act in Shanghai, he must -first ask his mother’s permission. I asked repeatedly -about this custom, and learned not a reason for -it, but simply the fact that if an actor did not ask -his mother’s permission he would be laughed at. -Often it is the mother who makes the contract and -receives most of the money. Of a certain rising -actor it is said that his mother never allows him to -act unless he is to receive twenty dollars for each -performance.</p> - -<p>In the fairly democratic China of the imperial -times the son of the poorest man could rise to the -position of viceroy of a province by virtue of passing -a brilliant literary examination—and if we are -to believe Chinese playwrights he often did. However, -the actor, together with the son of the prostitute, -and one or two other despised classes, was -debarred from these examinations. Of course, with -the discontinuance of the examinations in 1907 and -the establishment of the republic in 1912, these disqualifications -dropped away. Socially the position -of the actor is improving rapidly nowadays. For<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> -example, in July, 1922, the son of a high official of -Shantung Province married the actress Li Feng-yün. -Far from being ashamed of her profession, -she acted several plays on her wedding day as part -of the festivities of the occasion. However, she -abandoned her professional career on becoming the -wife of this wealthy man. The fact that she was -the first wife was the remarkable thing to the -Chinese who spoke to me of the event; for that an -actress becomes the concubine of a rich official is -almost an everyday occurrence in Peking. Progress -along such lines is not a unique or surprising thing -in China; to mention but one example, coeducation -has come into being since 1919, almost overnight, so -to speak, with surprisingly little opposition. Actresses -were forbidden on Chinese stages during the -days of the Manchu Dynasty, but since 1912 their -number has increased rapidly so that they are appearing -now on eleven stages in Peking. Only in -the foreign concessions of such treaty ports as -Tientsin and Shanghai do men and women appear -together on the stage, however; in Peking, Chinese -prudery still forbids this.</p> - -<p>There is a current notion that Chinese plays last -a week or a lunar month, but as a matter of fact -about a dozen plays, or separate acts taken from -different plays, are given in one performance. -Toward the end of the afternoon’s or evening’s -entertainment the spectator may observe that some -long strips of red paper covered with Chinese characters<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> -in black ink are removed from the two side -railings of the balcony and others substituted in -their place. In this manner the program of the following -day is announced. The performances generally -last from noon to about six and from seven -in the evening until midnight. The best plays with -the stars are reserved until the last, while dull, long -plays with inferior actors generally begin the program. -These poor actors are often retained merely -for charity’s sake; often, too, famous actors give -benefits for their less fortunate colleagues. In -Shanghai actors get monthly contracts; but in Peking -the minor actors are hired by the day, and some -of them must play in several theaters in one afternoon -in order to eke out a meager living at about -twenty coppers a day.</p> - -<p>Men of this type, of course, are hardly more -than “supers.” Regular actors on the average earn -about one dollar a day, while some of a higher -grade receive five dollars to ten dollars. To receive -twenty-five dollars for a regular performance a -man must be quite prominent in the theatrical world. -A few stars, like Mei Lan-fang and Yang Hsiao-lo, -receive one hundred dollars for each regular performance, -and considerably more when they act at -banquets or on other special occasions.</p> - -<p>The charges in the theaters depend on the type of -theater and even more on the actors. Theaters -where women or boys appear as actors are lower in -price. There is no ticket or money demanded as one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> -enters the theater, but the price is collected by the -usher when he seats the spectator. In the ordinary -theater one can sit at a comfortable table for forty -cents or in a box for a dollar and a half. There are -two large theaters in Peking built in Occidental style -with receding stages, in which the prices are somewhat -higher: eighty cents for a first-class seat and -nine dollars for a box seating eight persons. When -a star is playing, these prices are augmented somewhat. -The poorer classes can enjoy theatrical performances -for five coppers by going to the mat-shed -theaters. The average seating capacity of -a Peking theater is about a thousand, and the average -attendance is very near this figure, if not -above it.</p> - -<p>The course of an actor’s training is an extremely -hard one. For seven years he is instructed in singing -and acrobatics, and then he begins to play in -some of the boys’ theaters, institutions connected -with the training schools for actors. During the -longest part of his apprenticeship he receives no -wages, he has long hours, menial tasks, and severe -taskmasters. Actresses are trained by special private -teachers and their courses have not yet become so -uniform as have those for the men. The police have -very strict regulations to prevent actresses from -becoming prostitutes, but according to Mr. Gamble, -in some theaters women from the licensed quarter -appear, make engagements after giving their acts, -and do some other soliciting. The connection between<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> -the lower-grade theaters and the segregated -district is rather close.</p> - -<p>In order to give an idea of the different kinds of -theaters one encounters in Peking, I can do no -better than to describe several typical entertainments -from my notes stretching over five years. -There is in the Southern City, for example, the Tung -Lo Yuan, a fine specimen of the old-style Chinese -theater. No women are allowed to visit this theater—not -because of immoralities, but simply because -the place is conservative. The seats run at right -angles to the stage, along tables, showing that people -come to hear the music rather than to observe -the action on the stage. I paid twenty-four coppers -for my seat in the balcony; the usual price in this -theater is eighteen coppers, but because Han Hsi-ch’ang -was going to act, the price was raised on that -particular day. After a series of plays dealing with -murders and robberies, in the course of which the -audience gloated over the shuddering and weeping -of the victims, there came the chief play of the day—a -Yuan Dynasty drama revived in this theater.</p> - -<p>The play deals with a poor woodcutter and his -wife. The hero takes no interest in his humble calling; -in fact, he neglects it for the study of literature. -Since he does not support his wife, she deserts him -for a smith. Finally the husband goes to Peking for -the literary examination and passes with honors. -When the wife learns that her first husband is to -become a mandarin she is filled with joy; she sits<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> -down at a table, falls asleep, and has a wonderful -dream. The dream is portrayed just as it would be -in our moving pictures; a conventional symbol, a -short pause in the action and the tapping of the -drum, indicates to the audience that there is going -to be a dream, and then the dream action continues -in the same way in which the rest of the play had -gone on. A number of men—recalling the Wise -Men of the East—enter, bringing all manner of -silk robes, headdresses, and other rich gifts for the -lady. In her dream the faithless wife sees all this; -she tries on her robes, shows them off to the neighbors, -and glories in her riches. Then she returns to -her sleeping position at the table and awakens to -find that all had been a dream. In the fourth act the -husband returns, dressed in embroidered robes, a -prosperous mandarin. He pours a cup of water on -the ground, saying that he will take his wife back -provided she can gather up the water again. From -this play comes the proverbial expression, “Water -once spilled cannot be gathered up again”, which -means, of course, that a wife who has been unfaithful -cannot be taken back by the husband.</p> - -<p>According to the custom of Chinese theaters only -one act was presented; it was the third act, the -dream, that I saw. The too-severe strain on the -chief actor who must sing very long arias is generally -given as the reason why plays are not presented -in their entirety. Sometimes when an entire -play is presented—this is frequently done at guildhalls<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span> -and other private theatricals—three or four -actors in turn play the leading rôle. The actor portrayed -exceedingly well the wife’s emotions of joy, -surprise, and pride. He wore a black dress, because -this is the conventional color for the poor, although -it was made of fine silk instead of the cotton which -is actually worn by the masses. In the old-style -Chinese music (called <i>kuan-ch’ang</i>) the flute is the -leading instrument and the strains are melodious -and sweet, not at all offensive to the foreigner’s ear -as is a great deal of the modern music.</p> - -<p>One evening I was the guest of Mr. Chang Ziang-ling, -the present Chinese Consul-General in New -York, at a performance by Mei Lan-fang in the -so-called First Theater, a large playhouse built in -European style. The usher took us to two good -seats near the stage occupied by two ragamuffins, -and asked the latter to give up their seats to us. Mr. -Chang then paid him two dollars for two seventy-cent -seats and explained that it is a little graft on -the part of the ushers to place vagabonds in good -seats until people who they know will tip them come -to the theater.</p> - -<p>The play again was a Yuan drama called “Snow -in June”; a play discussed in a previous chapter -under the title, “The Sufferings of Tou-E.” Mei -Lan-fang is introducing many innovations into the -manner of producing plays, turning the stage into a -veritable riot of colors selected with exquisite taste. -The rear of the stage is covered by a curtain painted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> -with plum blossoms and chrysanthemums in allusion -to two of the characters of his name. The executioners, -dressed in rich red trousers lined with white, -come on the stage leading in their midst the victim -wearing a long robe of a delicate shade of light blue. -Some of the executioners have their faces painted in -vivid reds and blacks; I find that this adds a great -deal to the spectacle, even though it is the very opposite -of realism. To illustrate the sort of gagging -constantly practiced by Chinese actors I might quote -what the judge says to the prisoner: “What! One -so young as you is accused of having committed a -murder? For this you will be beheaded. Let that -be a lesson to you not to do it again.” Such a feeble -joke in the face of the innocent young victim is, of -course, just as fitting as many calembours in Shakespeare’s -tragedies. After the execution snow falls; -that is, bits of paper are tossed down from above. -All in all the staging of the play is most agreeable -and Mei Lan-fang’s acting is extremely good.</p> - -<p>Quite a different performance can be observed in -one of the “new” theaters, a blight which has come -to Peking via Shanghai. One evening I went to the -one in the “New World”, a four-story concrete -building, an amusement palace offering for the -single admission fee of thirty cents, old-style plays, -“new” drama, story-tellers, singsong girls, moving -pictures, performances by acrobats, jugglers, and -sword-swallowers, restaurants both for foreign and -Chinese food, tea room, billiard tables, and bowling<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> -alleys, convex and concave mirrors, and penny slotmachines -showing pictures of various sorts. (“A -number of these pictures were of rather coarse nature,” -observes Mr. Sidney Gamble in his “Peking, -A Social Survey”, “but none of them could be called -immoral.”) My goal was the “new” theater, -namely plays staged in what the Chinese fondly believe -to be the manner of the Occidental theaters. -Before a very crowded auditorium a play was being -performed by actors dressed in European style, or -perhaps better, the style of the mail-order-house -type of clothing. The play was in spoken Chinese, -and no music accompanied the action. Only in the -intermissions between the rather short scenes the -band from the Boys’ Industrial School, sitting in -a corner in the rear of the hall, played “John -Brown’s Body” and other appropriate dirges.</p> - -<p>The play dealt with a woman who had lured men -into her house in order to have them robbed there -by her accomplices. This woman was dressed in a -red silk waist and a lavender skirt; she no doubt -seemed very Western to the audience, because she -wore a corset and allowed the contour of her body -to show instead of being bound so as to look -flat-chested like the Chinese women. The part, however, -was acted by a man who spoke in a high falsetto. -There was a great deal of love-making of a -kind unknown to the Chinese stage—the men kissed -the woman’s hand and even put their arms about -her. At times the vampire left the stage for a short<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> -time with one of the victims, in a significant manner. -Most applause was accorded the actor who played -the ruffian, when he strode “toughly” across the -stage with his coat collar turned up and his cap -pulled down over his eyes. By way of giving a good -imitation of the manners of Europeans the actors, -when speaking to the lady, consistently took off -their coats, held them on their arms, and displayed -brand-new red suspenders! The scenery was changed -with every act and showed crude imitations of our -painted interiors or street scenes with lamp posts. -The play was endless and the action extremely slow. -This heart-breaking imitation of our worst melodramas -is, I am glad to say, not making the rapid -progress it has made in India, where it has driven -out completely the native drama, at least in Calcutta -and Bombay.</p> - -<p>As I have stated above, the Chinese stage lacks -scenery almost altogether. Practically the only ornate—and -to a certain extent the most realistic—part -of the Chinese theater is found in the costumes. -In regard to the dress of the actors, historical truth, -as has been stated, is observed to a certain extent. -The magistrates, the courtiers, the yamen-runners, -the merchants, the doctors, the students, the priests, -the monks and nuns, the matchmakers, and similar -characters appear in appropriate costumes, but -usually much more elaborate than they would be in -real life. In the troupe of Mei Lan-fang, Peking’s -most famous actor, the men carrying banners in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span> -processions are dressed in silk of the same color as -the cotton gowns which these ragamuffins wear in -the streets of Chinese cities. Honorable personages -appear in silk robes in solid colors: purple, yellow, -orange, or red. In the dress of common soldiers -the spectator finds the styles of the various periods -followed with historical accuracy, but the dress of -great warriors is fanciful and highly ornamented. -These peacocks of the Chinese stage with their -feather headdress, their painted faces, and their -richly embroidered gowns studded with little mirrors, -are the most colorful sights in the theater. -Such warriors wear shoes with thick soles, thus adding -about three or four inches to their natural height, -a touch recalling the <i>soccus</i> of the classical theater. -The peculiarly slit-eyed expression of the warrior -is achieved by binding a strip of silk tightly about -the head, pulling up the eyebrows.</p> - -<p>A conception of the immense popularity on the -Chinese stage of the warrior performing acrobatics -signifying tremendous battles can be gained from -the Chinese classification of plays. One of the two -main divisions is the <i>wu-hsi</i> or fighting play, involving -very little plot and almost continuous acrobatics -or “fighting.” The other main division is the -<i>wen-hsi</i> or civil play, which is practically the same -thing we mean by the term drama. In general, the -two kinds of plays alternate in the course of the -performances so that each division makes up about -fifty per cent. of the plays presented. Westerners<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span> -are frequently surprised that the Chinese do not -make the division into comedy and tragedy, but it -may be well to recall that even with us this differentiation -is a floating conception. Practically all the -divisions mentioned in “Hamlet” could be matched -on the Chinese stage; historical, comical, tragical, -pastoral, and so on. The Chinese have farces called -<i>nao-hsi</i> (noise plays) and <i>fen-hsi</i> (painted, make-up -plays), both full of comical and burlesque elements. -The only difference between them is, an old Peking -resident has observed, that the latter excel the -former in obscenity.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus10" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus10.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS</p> - <p class="caption">1—<i>Shou.</i> 2—<i>Ti-tze.</i> 3—<i>Peng-ku.</i> - 4—<i>Hu-ch’in.</i> 5—<i>Ch’a.</i> 6—<i>La-pa.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>A cross division of the above classification is -found in the distinction drawn between plays according -to the style of music employed; <i>kuan-ch’ü</i>, -<i>er-huang</i>, <i>hsi-p’i</i>, and <i>pan-tzu</i>. Among them only -the first mentioned has an appeal to literary men, -while the other three are considered fit for the -mob only. The <i>kuan-ch’ü</i> music is a real Chinese -product descended from the classical plays of the -Yuan Dynasty. It flourished during the Ming -Dynasty, but during the Ch’ing rule it fell into desuetude -until at the time of the late Dowager Empress -it had entirely passed out of fashion. In the -last decades there have been made fairly successful -efforts to revive it, especially on the part of Mei -Lan-fang. The chief instrument in this style of -music is the flute. <i>Er-huang</i> and <i>hsi-p’i</i> are very -similar. Both styles came to Peking from the province<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span> -of Hupeh at the beginning of the Ch’ing -Dynasty, and in both the <i>hu-ch’in</i>, a string instrument -with a sounding-box played by a bow, gives the -characteristic touch to the music. These two styles, -together with the <i>pan-tzu</i>, are considered rather -vulgar music, especially the <i>pan-tzu</i>. This latter -style came to Peking from the province of Shansi, -where the barbarian Mongol blood predominates in -the population over the purer Chinese strain. The -<i>hu-ch’in</i> is also played in <i>pan-tzu</i>; but the instrument -that gives the name as well as the character to -this style is a wooden board held in one hand by a -member of the orchestra and beaten with the other -to indicate the rhythm. As can be gathered from -this fact, the music is very simple and primitive.</p> - -<p>In addition to the instruments mentioned above -there are various others employed by the orchestra -sitting on the stage. On the whole the instruments -are practically the same for all kinds of music. They -are shown in the accompanying illustrations drawn -for me by a Chinese artist. The <i>hsien-tzu</i> is a sort -of three-stringed banjo, the sounding box of which -is covered with a snake skin. The <i>yüeh-ch’in</i> (moon -guitar) has four strings and a wooden sounding-box. -Other wind instruments in addition to the <i>ti-tzu</i> -(flute) are the <i>shou</i>, resembling somewhat a bagpipe, -and the <i>la-pa</i>, a brass horn used to announce -the entry of great military personages. Instruments -of percussion outnumber those of other varieties. -The <i>ch’iao-pan</i> are two flat boards tied together<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> -with a string, used by the leader of the orchestra to -indicate the time. The <i>t’ang-ku</i> is a brass plate -beaten furiously in battle scenes, as are also the <i>lo</i> -and the <i>ch’a</i> (cymbals). The <i>peng-ku</i> is a drum -made of a solid block of wood which gives piercing, -high notes when beaten in a whirlwind tattoo by -means of two thin sticks. The <i>ku</i> has a leather -drumhead and resembles somewhat our kettledrum. -It should be noted that the size of the orchestra and -the kind of instruments employed vary a great deal. -However, the above may serve to give an approximate -conception of the Chinese theater music. Just -as in much of our own earlier drama, emotional or -poetic passages are sung by the actors on the Peking -stage.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus11" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus11.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS</p> - <p class="caption">1—<i>Hsien-tze.</i> 2—<i>Ku.</i> 3—<i>Yüeh-ch’in.</i> - 4—<i>Chiao-pan</i> or <i>pan-tze</i>. 5—<i>Lo.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Another striking similarity to the European medieval -theater is the fact that the Chinese stage has -its fixed character types. The four most important -among these, called the <i>t’ai chih</i> or pillars of the -stage, are: 1, the <i>cheng-sheng</i>; 2, the <i>wu-sheng</i>; 3, -the <i>ching-i</i>; 4, the <i>hua-tan</i>. Each company must always -have its best actors among these four, because -one of them is sure to be the star in the play.</p> - -<p>The <i>cheng-sheng</i> is an elderly man wearing a long -beard. The great actor T’an Shen-pei, who died -about five years ago, but whose fame lives on in his -many imitators, played this part. It comprises the -rôles of emperors, generals, and also old faithful -servants, the latter generally characters oppressed -by grief. T’an Shen-pei, who became the founder<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> -of a tradition called the <i>t’an-p’ai</i>, was famous for -his skill in acting, his fine singing, and his distinct, -measured pronunciation. Among his most famous -followers are Yü Ssu-yen and T’an Hsiao-sheng, -the latter one of his sons. A related type is the <i>hsiao-sheng</i>, -a youthful civilian or military character, frequently -the young scholar who plays the part of the -lover. The young military hero is called the <i>ch’ü-fei-sheng</i> -(wearing pheasant feathers) and the young -scholar and lover <i>shan-tze-sheng</i> (carrying a fan). -Chu Su-yung is the most famous <i>hsiao-sheng</i> in Peking -at present. He has been nicknamed the “living -Chou Yü”, after a hero from the ancient tale of -“The Three Kingdoms” whom he frequently impersonates -upon the stage. Mei Lan-fang has found -in the handsome Chang Miao-shang a very satisfactory -partner for his romantic plays. This young -man, who acts the part of the ardent lover to perfection, -has the probably unique distinction among -actors of being the product of a Christian missionary -school, the Peking Methodist Academy. The -Chinese criticize the weakness of his voice and say -that his reputation is due only to the fact that he -plays opposite the greatest actor of the present day -in China.</p> - -<p>The <i>wu-sheng</i> is the military hero. To impersonate -this rôle properly an actor must be very skillful -in the art of stage fighting, which means that he -must possess great acrobatic skill. He must understand -how to fence with wooden stage swords or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> -spears, and furthermore how to box. Chinese boxing -has nothing whatever to do with the bloodthirsty -Boxers of 1900, for the latter received their -name through a misunderstanding. It is, on the -other hand, a most inoffensive art, consisting of a -series of poses rapidly and skillfully executed. I believe -that formerly it was a method of fighting, but -that it has become thoroughly conventionalized at -present into a system of posturing and rapid movements.</p> - -<p>For a gorgeous riot of color one might recommend -a play acted by Yang Hsiao-lou, Peking’s most -famous actor of military plays, who is beginning to -command the same salary as Mei Lan-fang. He is -known not only for his ability in fighting, but also -because he can sing well and enunciate very clearly. -The tourist can tell the home folks that he has seen -something if he has watched Yang Hsiao-lou with a -face painted in heavy reds and blues, wearing tall -feathers on his head, dressed in a garment embroidered -in rich colors and studded with little mirrors, -mounted on shoes with very thick soles, strutting -about the stage in martial attitude, and finally engaging -in combat a similarly dressed hero to the end -that both whirl about the stage with lightning speed, -while the orchestra supplies the excitement by means -of a terrific noise which threatens to take the roof -off the building. It makes a truly exciting spectacle -of which even an untrained Westerner can feel the -thrill.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span></p> - -<p>The two types of <i>ching-i</i> and <i>hua-tan</i> are both -young women characters. The difference made between -them is that the former represents an honest -and simple girl generally playing a sad part in which -great emphasis is placed on the singing, while the -<i>hua-tan</i> represents a woman of doubtful reputation -or a maid servant in a comedy part, requiring great -skill in acting. It is one of the merits of Mei Lan-fang -that he acts both types and thus breaks down -one of the stiff rules of the Chinese theater in the -interest of developing it into a freer art. Indeed, -for over ten years he has been the supreme artist in -both types. It is said of him by Peking critics that -he sings as beautifully as a nightingale, that he has -a pretty face, that he dances gracefully, and that his -acting, in the Chinese simile, is like quicksilver which -fills up every crevice and crack of a hole into which -it is poured—that is to say, satisfying to the last -detail. Teh Hing, a man over sixty years old, is another -famous <i>ching-i</i>; however, he scorns to play the -rôle of the <i>hua-tan</i>, the flowery maiden who treads -the primrose path. Still another type in which -Mei Lan-fang appears at times is that of <i>wu-tan</i>, -or warrior maiden, a rôle comparatively rarely -seen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="painting3" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/painting3.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">A DEMI-MONDAINE</p> - <p class="caption">Chinese Character Type</p> -</div> - -<p>For some of the best make-ups and the most natural -action on the Chinese stage one ought to see -men playing the part of <i>lao-tan</i>, or old woman. I -have frequently found it difficult to believe that it -was a man who appeared with the sorrowful, lined<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> -face, the black headdress, tottering along with the -stiff walk engendered by bound feet, leaning on a -tall staff with a carved handle, and all in all giving -a perfect representation of a <i>lao-t’ai-t’ai</i> (old lady). -Very touching bits often appear in plays in which -an old woman in her broken voice bewails the loss of -a son, her only support in life. Among other minor -types are found the <i>lao-sheng</i> (old man), the <i>ta-ching</i> -(male part, either wicked or honest—his -character is indicated by the style of face-painting -he wears), and the <i>er-hua-mien</i> (usually a robber). -In addition to these there are an infinite number -of other possible parts; for example one sees not -infrequently various wild and domestic animals interpreted -in very droll make-ups that recall Shakespeare’s -“Midsummer Night’s Dream.”</p> - -<p>A very important type is the <i>ch’ou</i>, the clown, as -much an institution on the Chinese stage as he was -on that of our Middle Ages. It is very difficult, -Chinese critics say, to become a famous clown. The -part of the clown consists largely of improvisation, -but it is quite risky for him to be as funny as he can. -He is permitted topical allusions, but he must gauge -carefully the mood of the audience. I remember one -quite successful hit. In a certain play a husband returns -after an absence of ten years and finds his -wife and son in good health, but with an added blessing -of Heaven in the shape of a one-year-old boy. -He berates his wife for her infidelity and exclaims, -“Who could have done me such a turn?” At that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span> -moment the clown leaped to the edge of the stage -shouting, “It was he!” and allowed his pointing -finger to sweep slowly across the sleek, blushing -faces of the row of rich merchants in the front -seats.</p> - -<p>It may seem surprising that I speak so glibly of -the “best” actors among the various types, but I -should hasten to state that this is a matter in which -I do not give my own judgment but the result of -popular balloting. A Peking newspaper holds an -annual vote for the best actors among each rubric, -and the judgment of the readers of this journal is -generally accepted among theatergoers. Although -the daily papers are an innovation in Peking, perhaps -less than twenty years old, yet many of them -have their theatrical critics who “puff” actors and -more often actresses for other reasons than for art’s -sake. Press-agenting is far from being an unknown -art in the Middle Kingdom. Much of the writing -is done by students of the National University who -earn a little extra money by this means. The most -picturesque among the Peking critics is a Japanese -called by his Chinese name, T’ing Hua. For the last -twenty years he has devoted himself to the Chinese -theater heart and soul, and shows his devotion by -adopting orphans whom he gives a schooling as -actors. T’ing Hua has over twenty such “sons”, -one of whom is becoming very famous, especially in -the <i>Shun T’ien Shih Pao</i>, the paper for which father -writes. Yet in spite of all touting the vote reflects<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> -the popular feeling, especially as regards Mei Lan-fang -and Yang Hsiao-lou, the most famous interpreters -of the rôles of young girl and military hero -respectively.</p> - -<p>Theaters on a commercial basis are also practically -a new thing in China; that is to say something -that has developed on a large scale only within the -last twenty years. Before that time theatrical performances -were given mostly at temples or harvest -festivals, at the houses of rich men, and, most elaborately, -at the imperial court. As a sign of the times -I should like to quote an item clipped from the -<i>Peking Daily News</i> of June 28, 1922. The article -tells of a meeting of the representatives of Peking’s -five thousand blind men held in a temple. The end -of the paragraph I shall quote verbatim in the English -of the Chinese translator:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Among the business matters discussed was the organization -of a blind man’s association for the purpose of -carrying on their trade effectively. The usual crafts of -the blind men in Peking are singing and fortune telling, -but conditions have gradually changed, whereby theaters -are established everywhere, popular education has paralyzed -superstition, so now their crafts are generally getting -out of date, and thereby need reformation.</p> - -</div> - -<p>But the Peking police force, perhaps the best in -the world, has drawn up full regulations, which are -adequate for preserving order in the playhouses that -have multiplied so rapidly in the capital. Each company -must be registered, must pay a tax of five<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span> -dollars for each performance, must reserve certain -seats for policemen who keep order, must not crowd -extra seats into the aisles, must avoid immoral plays, -must submit all new plays to the police, and must -apprise the police beforehand of every performance -to be held. The ordinance requiring the separation -of the sexes in the theater is an Eastern touch that -is sure to impress Occidentals—who have forgotten -that in Shakespeare’s day also women were confined -to the gallery. Peking police rules demand that the -ushers and tea-venders in the galleries must also be -women and that these galleries must have their -separate exits. The rule that spectators are forbidden -to sit on the stage also recalls Elizabethan -manners. One can read in these police regulations:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>If the program has been changed and the spectators -start a protest by throwing teacups at the actors, these -disturbers of the peace must be arrested and conducted -to the nearest police station.</p> - -</div> - -<p>There is, however, very little disturbance in the -theaters; at least I have never seen the least sign of -a fight or quarrel among the spectators. Actors on -the stage are forbidden to curse and are fined if they -do so. The hours for the performances are fixed -from twelve noon to five in winter and spring, and -from noon to six in summer and fall, while all evening -performances must end at midnight. The latter -are an innovation at Peking and are taxed more -heavily than the regular daytime performances.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span> -There is also a ruling aimed against “claques” which -forbids too boisterous applause.</p> - -<p>On one occasion when I took some New Yorkers -to see Mei Lan-fang in the rôle of “Yang Kuei-fei -on a Spree”, one of my guests exclaimed, “If this -play is permitted, I wonder what kind of plays the -police forbid!” The obliging Chinese police have -supplied me not only with the regulations for -theaters, but also with the list of forbidden plays. -Naturally enough gross immorality realistically presented -is forbidden. There is no question of the -display of nudity; it never occurs and, I believe, -would hold little appeal for a Chinese audience. -Some of the plays forbidden are rather interesting.</p> - -<p>There is the “Shang Ting Chi” (Ruse of the -Nail). A wife killed her husband because she was -in love with another man. The police were unable -to learn the cause of the man’s sudden death, but the -examining magistrate was told by his superior that -he must fathom the mystery or be himself beheaded. -When he went home sorrowfully to tell his wife of -his plight, the latter asked whether he had examined -the part of the head covered with hair. The officer -hastened to investigate the back of the victim’s head -and found that a nail had been driven into it. When -the superior learned of this he ordered the officer’s -wife to be arrested. She confessed that she had -known of the ruse because she had put her former -husband to death by driving a nail into his head and -braiding the queue over the wound. Thereupon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> -both women were put to death. The play is forbidden -lest women learn how to rid themselves of -their husbands!</p> - -<p>Another forbidden play is “Sha Tze Pao”, the -story of a young woman who loved a monk. One -day her young son discovered them <i>in flagranti</i>. -The mother feared that the boy would tell of her -shame and therefore she killed him. His sister -suspected a crime, told the boy’s teacher about it, -and he in turn reported it to the authorities. As a -result, both the woman and the monk were put to -death. The play is based on an actual incident that -happened in the province of Hunan about forty -years ago. The sister, later in life, at one time visited -a theater where this very play was being staged and -received a shock comparable to the one an honest -son of a famous murderer might receive if he went -to visit Madame Tussaud’s Waxworks and suddenly -beheld his own father reënacting his crime in -wax. The Chinese authorities forbid the play because -the killing of the child by the mother is realistically -acted out. The mother’s face is covered -with blood as she cuts the body into many pieces and -places them in a wine vat. It is a curious thing that -on the Chinese stage where fixed conventions leave -so much to the imagination one finds occasionally -the most revolting realism in plays of the “shuddering” -variety. I have seen, for example, the victim -of an assault dragging his entrails across the stage—a -nauseating imitation of the real thing. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span> -Chinese love their “horrors” just as much as our -medieval ancestors did.</p> - -<p>It is a custom on the Chinese stage to play on the -occasion of various seasonal festivals pieces pertaining -to the holiday in question. The best known -of the seasonal plays is perhaps the “Ta Yin Ho” -(Crossing the Milky Way), played on the seventh -day of the seventh month of the Chinese calendar, -that is to say, generally some time during our month -of July. This story is an old legend, varying somewhat -in different versions, related in the quotation -from William Stanton in Chapter One, where Yang -Kuei-fei in the T’ang Dynasty makes allusion to it. -It can be seen on a number of stages in Peking at -the time of this festival, and is staged in an especially -colorful manner by Mei Lan-fang.</p> - -<p>The same actor plays another mythological -fancy on the occasion of the mid-autumn festival, -“Ch’ang-O Pin Yüeh” (Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the -Moon).<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> This custom of seasonal plays shows a very -close connection existing between the popular beliefs -and the theater which recalls in a manner the -medieval mysteries of the Easter and Christmas -seasons. The fact that some of the plays have been -written within recent years only indicates that the -Chinese theater is in no way declining as a typical -Chinese institution, as is, for example, the popular -theater of India. What the visitor sees in the native -theaters of Calcutta or Bombay, as has been stated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> -above, is a diluted imitation of our weakest and -worst melodrama with all its mannerisms. In contrast -to this the Chinese theater of Peking is continuing -as a living popular art, introducing some -external features from our stage, but on the whole -remaining true to its own genius.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header6.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_SEVEN">CHAPTER SEVEN<br> -<span class="smcap">The Conventions</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">To the average Occidental the Chinese -stage appears a very queer institution -with ridiculous customs. This is due -largely to the fact that in the Chinese -make-believe world the conventions -differ from those employed by us on the stages where -we mock life. We accept our own stage conventions -as something so natural that habit permits us to forget -the strangeness of the devices employed. How -many Americans among those who have been under -the spell of the realistic action of “The Bat” have -thought of the fact that the characters were at all -times moving about in rooms with only three walls, -that darkness was symbolized by lights carried by -the actors, that the attic in the country home of the -astute spinster was lighted by footlights, and that -an actor who had been killed appeared a moment -later for a curtain call? And if in a play that has -been pushed approximately to the extreme of realism, -an unsophisticated rustic on his first visit to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> -New York might discover the above-mentioned -ridiculous customs, what might his comments be on -the fact that Mephistopheles sings melodiously in -encouraging Faust to fight for his life, that stage -whispers are heard by every one in the house except -the one person most in need of hearing them, that a -flimsy canvas door can shut out a stout villain, or -that the last words of a dying man reach to the very -highest seat in the top gallery?</p> - -<p>Thus it would seem that any one who laughs at -the conventions of the Chinese stage simply displays -his provincialism. Our forefathers tolerated almost -the identical conventions on the medieval stage, as -I have shown at length in Chapter Nine. Moreover, -it is a very striking fact that there is in many -of our theaters at present an extreme reaction -against a minute and pedantic imitation on the stage -of the realities of everyday life. Because it is felt -that too much attention to external things deadens -the imagination of the spectators, stage managers -of to-day are beginning to prefer once more a conventional -presentation.</p> - -<p>As a Westerner learns to recognize the conventions -of the Chinese stage he quickly becomes used -to them, and soon he is as little disturbed by the -make-believe of the Oriental theater as he had been -before by that of the Occidental. He is then ready -to appreciate the art of the Chinese actor, which -runs the gamut of human emotions quite as fully -as that of the great actors of the West. He must<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> -know, however, that the rug on the floor of the projecting, -curtainless stage is a magic carpet which -carries the actors without change of scenery from -Mongolia to Tibet, from the market place to the -audience hall in the palace, or from the forest to the -prison by the simple device on the actor’s part of -walking once or twice about the stage or of exiting -and reappearing immediately afterward. The stage -has two doors; the one at the spectators’ left is generally -used for entrances and the one at the right -for exits. However, at times the door at the left is -also used for exits, if the actor wishes to indicate -that he is not leaving the house or is otherwise remaining -in the immediate vicinity. The crossing of -a doorsill is presented by raising the feet about eight -inches off the floor in making the steps. To open -or close a door the actor raises both hands and -makes the pantomime of drawing a bolt and moving -a door. Slow steps in which the feet are raised well -off the floor show that the actor is walking up a -stairway. When a general ascends a hill to review -a battle he mounts on a chair or table. If a mountain -is to be crossed, a similar pantomime is performed. -That a man is on horseback is shown by -the fact that he carries a riding whip. When he -mounts he takes the whip and raises one leg in a -movement intended to imitate the action of leaping -into the saddle, and when he dismounts he hands -the whip to an attendant with a similarly appropriate -movement. When the groom leads off the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span> -horse he pulls after him the seemingly refractory -whip. Sometimes these actions attain a touch of -realism, but generally they are—in better taste—confined -to quite conventionalized movements. Frequently -they escape the newcomer entirely.</p> - -<p>A mandarin arriving in a chair walks on the stage -surrounded by four attendants, who make a stooping -movement such as chair-bearers might make by -way of setting down the imaginary palanquin. A -lady traveling in a carriage carries with the aid of -a servant two pieces of canvas about three feet -square, on each of which is painted a wheel; the -squares of cloth are supported on bamboo rods, the -lady holding the rear ends and the servant the front -ends of the rods as they walk across the stage. -When she descends she makes an appropriate movement, -while the servant folds up and carries off the -two painted wheels. Characters who wish to show -that they are riding in a boat indicate this by carrying -oars with which they paddle in the air. If some -one is to enter the boat an oar is stretched out, the -new arrival grips it and takes a long step, as though -he were boarding a vessel. A man committing -suicide by drowning performs a leap as though he -were jumping into a well and then quickly runs off -the stage. Some commit suicide by throwing themselves -down from a wall, indicating this by leaping -off a table or a chair placed on top of a table, at times -falling on their backs in a manner that requires -great acrobatic skill. However, many of the somersaults<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span> -and similar feats performed on the stage are -simply ornamental, with no symbolic significance -whatever.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="illus12" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus12.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">THE ACTRESS KIN FENG-KUI IN A MALE RÔLE</p> - <p class="caption">The long feathers and the headdress mark the warrior, while - the riding-whip signifies that the general is on horseback</p> -</div> - -<p>Stage fighting has been developed in China into -an intricate art with many cut-and-dried conventions -and a minimum of realism. The warriors fly -at one another, but they never hit with their swords -or spears. The art consists simply in making quick -passes at the opponent, whirling about rapidly, -throwing a weapon into the air and catching it -again, or spinning a spear about much as a drum -major does his baton. All the while the orchestra -is playing wild and loud music, the kind that Thomas -Moore’s Mr. Fudge would call the music of the -spears, for every tone seems to go right through -you. As neither of the contestants is wounded or -falls down, the spectator learns the issue of the -battle from the fact that the defeated warrior exits -first, while his victorious opponent makes a sort of -bow to the audience and then struts off with a dignified -step. Sometimes a spear is thrown at a soldier -who catches it and sinks to the ground clutching it -to his breast, denoting that he has been pierced; then -he runs off quickly, a dead man. In stage armies -one man carrying a banner signifies one thousand -men.</p> - -<p>The stage in Peking theaters is lighted by daylight -or by means of huge arc lamps that illumine -the auditorium and the stage alike. Therefore darkness -must be indicated by a conventional symbol,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span> -and the same one is chosen that we have selected in -the West, namely, a lighted (sometimes unlighted) -candle, lamp, or lantern. It is hardly necessary to -recall here that even in our most realistically staged -plays the darkness on the stage is only relative and -never, except for very brief moments, absolute. -The passing of time at night is indicated by the -drummer of the orchestra, who beats the hours on -his kettledrum while otherwise there is silence on -the stage. As the Chinese divide their day into -twelve periods of two hours each, this can be done -more quickly than would be the case if our divisions -of time were used and the entire gesture is fairly -inconspicuous.</p> - -<p>High military officers can be recognized readily -by the four pheasant feathers, sometimes as long as -six feet, which form part of their headdress. The -Chinese call them “back-protecting feathers”, because -they are supposed to ward off the blows of -the enemy swords. In the same way the painted -faces of the warriors can be traced to originally -utilitarian purposes; about a thousand years ago a -famous Chinese warrior whose scholarly face had -a very unmartial appearance painted his face in a -gruesome manner in order to inspire fear in the -hearts of his enemies.</p> - -<p>The manner in which the faces of traditional -heroes of war are painted is an attempt at a conventionalized -reproduction of the facial expression of -these terror-inspiring men as they are described in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span> -the books of history or in novels. Therefore it is -not possible to give a definite color or color scheme -for warriors. But in some other respects there is -a definite custom. A face painted pure white denotes -a wicked person, while no color on the face -means a good character. Pure red designates an -honest and faithful man, gold a heavenly being, and -several colors applied unevenly a robber. The white -nose is the mark of the clown. It is interesting to -note that in Chinese clown has likewise the three -connotations given for the word in Webster’s dictionary: -rustic, ill-bred, and buffoonish.</p> - -<p>Gods and spirits can be recognized by the horsehair -switch they carry whenever they appear and -by the slight tapping of the gong as they enter the -stage. The ghosts of the deceased wear black veils -over their heads, or bundles of strips of paper under -their right ears. Whenever any character from the -world beyond, god or ghost, appears, fireworks are -set off by a stage hand; usually this takes the form -of large flames emitted repeatedly from an oil lamp. -Monks and nuns carry the same horsehair switch, -perhaps because of their “spiritual” lives. A bride -can be recognized by the red veil she wears on her -head. Good officials wear square hats, while wicked -officials wear round ones. The wicked jailer in his -round hat is a frequent figure on the Chinese stage.</p> - -<p>A strong wind is indicated by the waving of flags, -which recalls the fact that the flags used in our -operatic performances are not made of silk as are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span> -ordinary banners, but of stiff material, giving them -the appearance of banners flying in the wind. A -snowstorm is produced by flakes of paper tossed -into the air by a stage hand in full view of the audience. -A sick person is designated by a yellow cloth -which covers his face. When a character has died -his face is covered with a red cloth. The head of a -decapitated person is symbolized by some object -about the size of a human head, wrapped in red -cloth. Sometimes an execution is portrayed by -making a sword thrust at the victim who then runs -off the stage, after which his head is brought on.</p> - -<p>For new or exceptional situations new symbols -must be invented. There is a play called “Chu Fang -Ts’ao” taken from the novel “The Three Kingdoms.” -It is the story of a guest who hears his host -sharpening a butcher knife and, as he fears the -worst, runs off under somewhat amusing circumstances. -However, his host was the very reverse -of a robber; he was in fact slaughtering the fatted -pig in honor of the visitor. The business of slaughtering -the pig is done in the following manner: an -actor with a black cloth thrown over his head and -back walks on the stage in a stooping posture, driven -forward by another actor’s stick and making the -various deviations from the right path by which a -pig in real life exasperates the swineherd. The -actor-pig finally walks up to a chair on which he can -rest his hands in comfort, while the business of -slaughtering is given in pantomime. After this has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span> -been done the cloth is removed and the man, now -neither pig nor actor, walks off the stage erect.</p> - -<p>The above conventions, which have come under -my observation in the course of my attendance in -Chinese theaters, do not by any means exhaust the -list, nor do they represent anything permanent. -Changes are continually occurring. One that I have -been observing is that the long conventionalized -beards no longer hang down from the upper lip, -covering the mouth; probably because this was found -to be inconvenient for purposes of speaking or drinking -tea, and some one hit upon the idea of having -the beard only below the mouth and of painting in -the moustache to match. Incidentally, only good -characters have a moustache, while the villains of -the Chinese stage have no hair on the upper lip. One -ought to note, too, that these conventions are not so -arbitrary as they might seem at first glance, but are -generally founded on some real element in Chinese -life. The yellow dress denoting the emperor, the red -veil marking the bride, and the black costume signifying -the poor man have their basis in everyday -Chinese custom. A mourner on the Chinese stage -appears in white, and the long beards of old men -naturally enough have the same color, both quite as -in real life. The symbols are an imitation of real -life more or less stiffened into conventions. Of -course, the origins of the conventional signs are -sometimes a bit difficult to trace, especially in the -case of ghosts and gods.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span></p> - -<p>From the instances cited above it is plain that the -Chinese theater contains much that from our point -of view tends to “destroy the illusion.” Another -factor in this process is the “property man”—made -known to Americans through “The Yellow -Jacket”—who is ever on the stage in the midst of -all action. When the heroine must kneel before the -judge a coolie in a dirty blue cotton gown rushes -forward to place a pillow on the floor lest the actor’s -costly embroidered gown be soiled. An actor is frequently -handed a cup of tea by another such attendant; -some actors to-day even equip their servants -with thermos bottles for these occasions. A general -preparing for combat by removing his outer coat is -aided in this operation by ordinary stage hands, not -by servants forming part of the <i>dramatis personae</i>. -From all the above it would seem that human nature -does not demand any particular kind of realism on -the stage, but is quite able to adapt itself to any -illusion whatsoever.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_EIGHT">CHAPTER EIGHT<br> -<span class="smcap">Mei Lan-fang—China’s Greatest Actor</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-e.jpg" width="200" height="225" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Every traveler who comes to China hears -of the fame of Mei Lan-fang. He is -told that in his visit to Peking he ought -not to miss the opportunity of seeing -this male actor of female rôles interpret -the gay or tragic events of the lives of coy -Chinese maidens. When the Chinese Government -entertains a distinguished foreign visitor, General -Joffre or Secretary of the Navy Denby, for example, -Mei Lan-fang gives a performance which forms the -<i>pièce de résistance</i> of the Oriental splendors shown -to the visitor by way of hospitality. Americans who -in turn entertain Chinese friends in Peking generally -resort also to a play by this actor. In 1919 a -group of American bankers paid Mei Lan-fang four -thousand dollars (I have the information from the -man who wrote out the check) for half an hour of -acting and singing; it is true that in this case an -especially large price was paid by way of gaining<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span> -that imponderable Oriental asset known as “face”, -because shortly before this a group of Japanese -bankers had tried to impress their Chinese guests by -paying Mei Lan-fang one thousand dollars for -an evening’s entertainment. The common masses -among the Chinese also appreciate this actor, and -a manager who succeeds in inducing Mei Lan-fang -to sign a contract with him is always sure of a -crowded house. For five years I have had the opportunity -of observing Mei Lan-fang’s work and I -have come to the conclusion that he justly deserves -his fame and his popularity.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some who have heard Mei sing in his -falsetto voice and have seen him act a “slow” play, -or opera, if you will, in the conventionalized Chinese -manner, to the accompaniment of a screeching violin -and ear-splitting brass cymbals, feel that they would -have been willing to pay a good sum to be excused -from the performance. There is, to be sure, a long -list of martyrs who with lavish Oriental hospitality -were treated to interminable sessions of Chinese -drama; General Wood, for example, recently suffered -two hours of it. I should like to say that in -my opinion, keenly as I appreciate the Chinese -drama and its interpreter, Mei Lan-fang, I realize -fully that it does not present such a finished product -as is found in our theater. The Chinese have no -great tragedies to place by the side of Shakespeare’s; -they have no profound comedies such as Molière’s; -their plays are never so closely knit as are our “well-made”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span> -plays; while in staging they are centuries -behind us. The Chinese drama is a case of arrested -development; it is childish, medieval, and very trying -to our ears. Yet it is typically Chinese. No other -art is so popular in China as that of the theater, -which presents the old legends of the nation, the -famous novels read by the masses, intrigues such as -occur on every hand, the music of the various provinces, -and the moral ideals of the four hundred millions -in general. In fact, the Chinese consider the -theater fit for the gods; for whenever they wish to -thank their deities or reconcile them, they give theatrical -performances for the pleasure of the gods -and that of the entire village as well. As Mr. R. F. -Johnston remarks in his characteristic manner, designed -to shock the ultra-pious, the taste of the gods -as regards the drama seems to coincide in a remarkable -manner with that of the villagers. Since the -theater is in a manner the mirror of the Chinese -nation, and is also of intrinsic interest to the student -of the drama, it is well worth some attention on -the part of any Westerner at all interested in the -Orient. Furthermore, because Mei Lan-fang is the -most widely known actor, and because he is an extremely -intelligent and progressive artist, it is perhaps -best to approach this exotic drama through -him.</p> - -<p>Since Mei Lan-fang is an actor and his ancestors -were actors before him, he comes from the lowest -class of society. In the otherwise extremely democratic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> -organization of the Chinese empire, where the -poorest boy could rise to wealth and fame by virtue -of passing the literary examination in the capital, -sons of prostitutes, lictors, and actors, as has been -said, were barred from competing for government -posts. This system of examinations was abolished -in 1907, but the social disqualification was felt by -Mei Lan-fang, for he is now just thirty years old. -His youth was tainted also by his being subjected to -unspeakable immoral practices which were openly -tolerated in Peking until the Revolution in 1911. -Quite aside from this, the childhood of an actor is -no bed of roses in a land where the struggle for existence -is so desperate, and ninety per cent. constantly -hover near the starvation line. In the Southern City -of Peking one meets frequently a long line of boys, -with prematurely old faces, ranging from eight to -sixteen years, marching along seriously and apathetically -under the stern eye of a preceptor—the -pupils of an actors’ training school. Or if one takes -the morning canter along the city wall on the smooth -stretch to the south of the Temple of Heaven, one -may see the boys at their interminable lessons, which -begin at sunrise. They must learn to sing in the -shrill, artificial falsetto voice characteristic of the -Chinese theater, under a master whose cruel discipline -would make Dotheboys Hall seem a pleasant -place for week-ends. When there is a sharp wind -blowing Peking dust in a gale, the boys are taken to -sing against the storm in order that their throats<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span> -may become properly hardened. The competition -for a livelihood as actor is deadly. Three boys’ -theaters are training hundreds of boys, while about -two thousand actors are already out of work in -Peking or are being hired by the day with about -twenty coppers’ reward for their long hours of labor. -In such an environment Mei Lan-fang grew up -facing a drab, dismal existence such as the vast majority -of Orientals suffer cheerfully.</p> - -<p>But Mei Lan-fang’s originality and talents -brought him to the highest position in his art. He -had been trained, because of his slender build, girl-like -face, and high voice, to act the type of <i>hua-tan</i>, -the <i>hetaera</i>. This figure appears regularly in Chinese -plays in the rôle of servant girl, lady’s maid, or demi-mondaine. -The method pursued by most tyro actors -is to attempt to approximate down to the minutest -mannerisms the style of the actor at the top of their -special class. Mei Lan-fang, however, decided to -copy nature instead. He introduced into his acting -female traits and foibles observed in the women -about him, and this freshness in his style pleased his -audiences. He was gradually accorded more and -more prominent parts until twelve years ago he was -voted the most popular interpreter of female rôles -in the capital. The actors selected as the best -“lovers”, “warriors”, “old men”, “old women”, -and the various other conventional types can count -their fortunes as made. After he had been chosen -as the most popular actor of female rôles, Mei Lan-fang<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span> -commanded fifty to one hundred dollars for -one regular daily performance, and for private performances -some such amounts as were mentioned -in the first paragraph of this chapter. He organized -his own company, made a triumphal tour through -Japan, and began to fill annual engagements in -Shanghai, the “Paris of China” so-called.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<p>Let us suppose that in wishing to see Mei Lan-fang -you have done as many Pekingese do—sent -your servant to the theater to hold a seat for you. -Your menial has been enjoying an afternoon’s work -by grabbing a good seat in the almost empty theater -at one o’clock and warming it until five-thirty, -at the same time drinking tea, chewing watermelon -seeds, smoking cigarettes, gossiping blandly -with his neighbors, and occasionally watching the -actors on the stage. Now comes the hour for the -star, and you, with many sleek Chinese merchants, -displace coolies whose figures—in blue cotton—shrink -inconspicuously toward the exit. The moment -you sit down a waiter with the inevitable teapot -is at your elbow, depositing on the table before -you a cup containing one grimy thumb. The tea and -watermelon seeds are, as they say in the Moulin -Rouge, “<i>obligatoire</i>”, but you are free to refuse -threescore flies resting on a bar of candy, eggs of -uncertain age whose whites have become black, or -apples just the proper softness with which to pelt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span> -actors. At the tables all around you men are audibly -sipping tea or eating dishes of steaming viands, after -which they wipe face and hands on hot towels which -the waiters are passing. Bundles of towels continually -soaring overhead may remind you of bats under -the rafters, or if you are medically minded you may -exclaim, “Look at them throwing the smallpox -around!”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="illus13" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus13.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">MEI LAN-FANG</p> - <p class="caption">In European Dress</p> - <p class="caption">Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the Moon</p> - <p class="caption">Burying the Blossoms</p> - <p class="caption">A Young Nun Seeks Love</p> -</div> - -<p>The indifferent actors have been on the stage for -hours, impersonating famous emperors of the time -of Attila, cunning counselors as old as Alcuin, or -sages contemporary with Pope Sylvester. One short -play or part of a play after the other—each lasting -about thirty to forty-five minutes—has been going -on without intermission since noon. The fact that -no pause is made between the plays often leads foreigners -to believe that Chinese plays are of serpentine -length, while in reality they are no longer than -the separate numbers of our continuous vaudeville. -The orchestra leader merely beats a few short notes -on a gong and the stage is set for the next play—that -is to say, Chinese drama has no stage settings -whatever. A brightly colored curtain forms the -background of the bare stage; in other words, the -scenery is left to the imagination, as it was in Shakespeare’s -theater.</p> - -<p>When the hour for the star has finally come, a -special fluteplayer takes his seat as leader of the -orchestra and sends out soft, wistful notes that contrast -gratefully with the brass din of the preceding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span> -battle scene. With tense interest Mei Lan-fang is -awaited, for to-day he is to play “A Young Nun -Seeks Love.”</p> - -<p>With light, mincing step he enters in a long nun’s -gown of white silk, over which he wears a white coat -dotted with a diamond pattern in light blue. Long -black tresses and a narrow black belt set off the -delicate shades of the light colors. The exquisite -color combination is enhanced by his soft, clear -voice and the emotional play of his facial expression. -The theme of the forty-minute monodrama is -similar to Browning’s “Fra Lippo Lippi”, a story -which Mei alternately sings and recites to orchestral -accompaniment.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>A pitiful existence is that of the nun with the shaven -head! At night only a lone lantern consorts me to sleep. -Time quickly pursues one to old age, leaving only the -memory of a monotonous youth.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Sent to the convent at a tender age, she finds her -life at sixteen a dull round divided between the burning -of incense and the reading of monotonous -Buddhistic sutras. The abbess has deprived her of -the ornament of her hair and forces her to carry -water from the well at the foot of the hill. On these -excursions she has stolen long looks at a handsome -youth playing outside the city gate, and he seems not -indifferent toward her.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>For the price of a little sympathy I would be willing -to go to the palace of Yen Wang, the god of Hell, to be -ground up in the mortar, cut into bits by the saw, crushed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span> -between the millstones, or to seethe in burning oil. My -love is deep enough to outweigh the punishments of all -devils.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Her childhood at the home of her pious parents -had been an interminable droning of the sacred -syllables, “<i>O mane padme hum, o mane padme -hum</i>”, beating of drums, ringing of bells, blowing -of horns, tinkling of cymbals—all to drive away -the devils. Her heart, hungry for a bit of brightness, -feels cramped in her cell and she decides to -enter the large hall filled with the statues of five -hundred saints and Buddhas. Since the stage is -absolutely bare, Mei at this point goes through the -pantomime of opening a door and closing it again -behind him. After some quaint meditations before -the various ascetic <i>lohans</i> and the figure of the -“laughing Buddha”,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> who seems to say, “Why -waste the precious days of sweet youth?”, the young -nun decides to risk all for the sake of finding love. -In a graceful, rhythmic dance Mei moves off the -stage. The young girl has gone into the “black -world”, as the Buddhist nuns call life outside the -convent walls.</p> - -<p>Another favorite among Mei Lan-fang’s plays is -“Burying the Blossoms.” A young girl, tormented<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span> -by jealousy and doubt of her lover’s good faith, finds -the garden path covered with fallen blossoms. In -these flowers, broken from their stems and lying -crushed on the ground, she sees the image of herself, -a girl whose parents are dead and who is neglected -by every one. She takes pity on the flowers, -and, placing them in a silk bag, buries them under a -tree. As she is shedding tears over the little mound -her lover comes upon her. The explanation that -follows effects a deepening of their love.</p> - -<p>In Professor Giles’ translation (“Chinese Literature”, -page 368) we have the sentiment of the play expressed -(<i>Cf.</i> Moore’s “The Last Rose of Summer”):</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Farewell, dear flowers, forever now,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Thus buried as ’twere best,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">I have not yet divined when I,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">With you shall sink to rest.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">I who can bury flowers like this</div> - <div class="verse indent2">A laughing-stock shall be;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">I cannot say in days to come</div> - <div class="verse indent2">What hands shall bury me.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">See, how when spring begins to fail</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Each opening floweret fades;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">So too there is a time of age</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And death for beauteous maids;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And when the fleeting spring is gone,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And days of beauty o’er,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Flowers fall, and lovely maidens die,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And both are known no more.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>But not only such pale, wistful themes are found -in Mei’s repertoire. The “Three Pulls”<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> is a tragi-comedy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span> -of bourgeois life where Mei presents a delightfully -coquettish wife. This is a four-act play -in which a large company appears in gorgeous costumes -of embroidered silk studded with the little -mirrors characteristic of Chinese stage apparel. -The various characters wear historically correct -dress, the well-known Manchu robes. But as an example -of the extreme incongruities in the mixture -of the Oriental and the Occidental now taking place -in Peking I should like to mention an incident that -occurred when the play was staged for the first time -at the Chen Kwang Theater. This new playhouse -has a large European stage and various other modern -conveniences as yet not fully understood or appreciated -by the Chinese, for I observed that the -petition written by the husband and later flaunted -in court was written on a three-foot strip of toilet -paper!</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp96" id="illus14" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus14.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">BURYING THE BLOSSOMS</p> - <p class="caption">The setting in this amateur production shows more stage - properties than are customary in most Chinese theaters.</p> -</div> - -<p>The very best-beloved of Mei Lan-fang’s plays is -“Yang Kuei-fei Tsui Chou” (Yang Kuei-fei’s -Spree). Yang Kuei-fei, the famous concubine of -the Emperor T’ang Ming-huang, of about 900 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, -as has been stated, lives on in Chinese poetry as a -charming beauty of absolutely bewitching qualities. -In connection with this play one ought to say that -drunkenness is rare in China and is not considered -a vice or a disgrace. On the other hand a genial -spree is looked upon as an exploit. A Chinese gentleman -will tell you “I was roundly drunk last -night”, much as an American might beamingly confide<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> -his triumphs at golf. K’ang Hsi, perhaps the -greatest emperor China ever had, used to urge his -guests to drink heartily, assuring them that if they -drank too deep he would have them taken to their -homes in a dignified manner.</p> - -<p>The plot of the play is a short episode in the imperial -palace. Yang Kuei-fei learns from two -eunuchs that the emperor is supping with a rival -beauty, and in her jealous rage she orders one -bumper of wine after the other. As the wine begins -to take effect, she performs some charming dances -in which other court ladies join, to the end that a -beautiful inebriated ballet is performed. The effect -of the dancers in the ancient Chinese dress, the style -with the long sleeves taken over by the Japanese as -the kimono, is much like a vision of fluttering, multicolored -butterflies. Later Yang Kuei-fei, in a low-comedy -scene, uses her charms first on one and then -on the other of the servants, who prefer to run away -rather than be found in a compromising position -with the favorite concubine. Finally Yang Kuei-fei -leaves the stage alone, singing, “Now lonely I return -to the palace.”</p> - -<p>One specialty of this play is the manner in which -Mei Lan-fang drinks the wine. He grips the cup -with his teeth and bends backward very slowly until -his head touches the ground. Such “stunts” are -fairly frequent in Chinese plays and are used just -as traditionally as some of the byplay in French -masterpieces staged at the Comédie Française. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span> -great T’an had a very famous trick which no actor -has been able to imitate; in the play, “Seeing the -Ancestral Portraits”, he would kick off his shoe in -such a manner that in falling it would always strike -exactly on his head. Mei Lan-fang is not stressing -these acrobatic and other tricks, but is placing the -emphasis on the interpretation of the emotional content -of the scenes.</p> - -<p>A little farce that Mei presents in a droll manner -is the “Ch’ing Shang Lao Shüeh” (Slave Girl Plays -Tricks on the Old Schoolmaster). This play presents -the perennial theme of the impertinent servant. -The make-up of the old scholar in Ming costume is -comical to the last degree. The slave girl receives -instruction, together with her mistress. When -asked to recite she does so with the swaying body -motion commonly found in our urchins when they -“say their piece.” She catches a fly off the teacher’s -face, and in mixing ink, spits in his eye. When he -sets out to beat her, she catches the switch, and as -he pulls, lets go, with the result that teacher falls -back into his chair and rolls over on the floor with -a tremendous crash. After suffering many similar -tricks the pedagogue decides to teach in that house -no longer. As he leaves the room the audience sees -that the slave girl has pinned on his back a picture -of a turtle—than which there is no greater insult -in all the Middle Kingdom!</p> - -<p>This is the only play I have ever seen that makes -fun of a scholar. I consider it a pleasant tribute to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> -the Chinese sense of humor that it allows them to -laugh occasionally, even at the figure of their national -hero. The scholar who by virtue of having -passed the examination in Peking is made magistrate -or even viceroy of a province is the hero of -hundreds of Chinese plays. The examination in the -capital with the attendant change of fortune in the -life of the hero is the <i>deus ex machina</i> of the Chinese -stage. As an example I shall mention another play -of Mei Lan-fang’s, the one he played before Secretary -of the Navy Denby on July 17, 1922. This play -is called “Yü Pei T’ing” (The Pavilion of the Royal -Monument). A poor scholar on his way to Peking -is caught in a heavy storm and seeks shelter in the -pavilion of a royal monument. He finds, however, -that a lady has come before him and taken possession -of the interior of the small building. Since he -is both a scholar and a gentleman, he passes the -night on the outside, where the eaves afford him only -insufficient shelter from the rain. In the morning -the lady thanks him for his consideration, and he -continues on his way. The courtesy of the young -scholar has made so deep an impression on the lady -that she cannot refrain from telling her sister-in-law -about it, who in turn tells the lady’s husband. -The latter thinks that the story is only a disguise -for what he believes to have been the true state of -affairs, namely that his wife has been unfaithful to -him. He therefore divorces his wife and abandons -her to a life of misery and disgrace. The scholar,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> -on the other hand, passes his examination with such -distinction that the emperor grants him an audience, -in the course of which he asks the young man to tell -of the noblest thing he has ever done. The scholar -tells of his night spent out in the rain for the sake -of an unknown lady. The husband happens to be -among the courtiers present, and, upon this corroboration -of his wife’s story, he takes her back into -his home, and all live happy ever afterward!</p> - -<p>The scholar’s quick change of fortune as a theme -in the Chinese theater finds a close rival in the motive -of filial piety. Among Mei Lan-fang’s plays -the latter is best illustrated by the play “Mu Lan”, -the name of a girl who goes to war in place of -her father because the latter is too old to undertake -a heavy campaign. It is characteristically Chinese -that this Joan of Arc does not fight for motives of -patriotism, but out of regard for the comfort of her -aged father. This fascinating play gives Mei an -opportunity of showing in the first part his skill in -portraying a demure young maiden, while in the -second part he can display his address in the -extremely conventionalized art of Chinese stage -fighting.</p> - -<p>All of these and many more characters Mei Lan-fang -is on the stage, but of his real character very -little is known among foreigners in China. It is -known that he has a kindly heart, for every year he -contributes his services to a dramatic entertainment -arranged by American missionaries for the purpose<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span> -of providing shelters for the riksha runners during -the bitter Peking winters. One reads about it in the -papers when he makes his annual pilgrimage to -Miao Feng Shan, a mountain temple three days -distant from Peking, the traditional shrine where -actors worship. But artists eager to paint his portrait -have never been able to secure him as a sitter, -because he is very shy about entering any society -outside his immediate circle. I considered myself -very lucky when after some negotiations I secured -an interview with him in the typical Chinese fashion -through some friends of some friends of his friends. -The house in which I called on Mei was <i>his</i> house; -he keeps two other establishments—one for his -wife and the other for his concubine. For many -years Mei Lan-fang was known as the faithful -husband of one wife, but finally friends prevailed -on him to act in the manner of every Chinese gentleman -who respects himself and to take a concubine -into his domestic circle. Among Mei’s friends I met -a young actor with eloquent scars on his cheeks; he -had been the one who introduced Mei to the concubine -and the scars were the result of some acid -thrown by a brother of the jealous wife. Another -gentleman present was a stocky officer of the Peking -<i>gendarmerie</i>, a useful friend to the actor, because -on several occasions ruffians have attempted to extort -blackmail from him by violence—as they do -with every one in China who has any money. Mei -was the last one to appear, wearing a long white<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> -silk gown, the customary hot-weather dress of the -Chinese gentleman.</p> - -<p>Some of the coyness that gives such a true ring -to his stage presentations of young ladies clings to -Mei off-stage. He seems like a charming, bookish, -slightly effeminate boy of seventeen. In reality he -is thirty, but like so many other Orientals he appears -to Westerners much younger than he is. He is of -the frail, willowy build demanded in a Chinese -beauty, but he is the very opposite of languid, sparkling -with vivacity and full of life. His voice is -high, gentle, and soft; in fact, it sounds very much -like that of one of his heroines on the stage.</p> - -<p>All in all Mei gives the impression of a youthful -scholar rather than of an actor. There is not the -slightest touch of Bohemianism about him. His -favorite avocations are music and drawing; opium -smoking and other fashionable dissipations hold no -charms for him whatever. He is very fond of -Western music, and hopes ultimately to win over his -audiences to an appreciation of the piano and the -violin, which would give him an immensely richer -field for his musical repertoire. He has for a close -friend and daily companion a learned scholar with -whom he makes researches in ancient works dealing -with the drama. Instead of following in the beaten -path he is intent on improving the drama by presenting -ancient plays with a staging historically correct, -and by reviving whatever was vital in the past. -With great pride he showed me his extensive library,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span> -lingering long over a neatly written text of a play -copied by his grandfather, who had been musician -to the great actor T’an.</p> - -<p>To sum up Mei Lan-fang: like most other men -who achieve distinction, he is in love with his work -and devotes himself to it night and day.</p> - -<p>His great merit is that he is bringing good taste -and sensible innovations to the Chinese theater, -which had been stagnant—in a state of arrested development. -The old Empress Dowager, showing her -usual bad taste, had made fashionable in Peking a -Mongolian style of music intended for open-air -theaters on the wind-swept plains, which in a roofed -theater is absolutely ear-splitting. Mei Lan-fang -is returning to traditional Chinese music in which -the soft notes of the flute prevail. Instead of the old -hackneyed themes Mei has staged numerous new -plays based on the famous romantic novel, “The -Dream of the Red Chamber”, as well as many other -plays written especially for him. Into his fanciful -plays of the type of “Midsummer Night’s Dream” -he has woven graceful dances, an absolute innovation -on his part. New and often historically correct -costumes appear in his plays, enlivening the otherwise -rather drab Chinese stage. In contrast to the -Chinese habit of presenting only the favorite acts -of the well-known plays (as though our managers -should stage only the balcony scene from “Romeo -and Juliet”, or the husband-under-the-table scene -from “Tartuffe”), he presents even the older plays<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span> -in their entirety. When he plays in Japan or in the -European theater in Peking, he removes the ill-clothed -orchestra from the stage; but he cannot do -this in the native theaters, where the strong tradition -insists that the musicians must sit on the stage and -destroy the illusion, for the foreigners at least.</p> - -<p>In this ability of his to make innovations and at -the same time to adapt himself to his audiences to a -certain extent, lies the key of Mei Lan-fang’s success. -Even the most hidebound theater devotees -and connoisseurs must recognize the skill of his -acting and the perfection of his enunciation, and -therefore they are willing to accept the foreign elements -which he introduces. Mei Lan-fang’s greatness -lies in the fact that he is able to introduce bold -reforms into the theater without cutting himself off -from the tradition.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header4.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_NINE">CHAPTER NINE<br> -<span class="smcap">Analogies Between East and West</span></h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">I have often met with people who ask: -“Do the Chinese have the division of -plays into tragedies and comedies?” -and when they learn that there is no -such division they feel this to be a great -defect in the Chinese theater. But it might be well -worth recalling that these Greek terms did not originally -have their present-day connotations, and that -their original meanings were perhaps not far removed -from the divisions which the Chinese make -in classifying their plays. Tragedy meant originally -a “goat song”, and philologists are divided -on the question as to whether the name is derived -from the fact that the song was sung by revelers -worshiping Dionysus, who, because of their appearance -and licentious character were called -“goats”, or whether it was sung at the sacrifice of -a goat, or whether a goat was the prize which was -awarded to the successful poet.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> At any rate there<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span> -is no doubt that tragedy was a musical term. The -same is true of comedy, which is the song of the -<i>comus</i>, or band of revelers, who marched along in -procession carrying aloft the phallus and chanting -songs to Dionysus which were called phallic songs. -The scurrilous remarks interlarded in the intervals -between songs by the leader of the <i>comus</i> gave -rise to the form of light entertainment known as -comedy in the theater of to-day. In the Middle Ages -it had the meaning of a poetic work with a happy -ending, for which reason Dante called his long poem -a “comedy”, which later writers made “The Divine -Comedy.” Thus we see the two words have deviated -altogether from their original meanings. We know -very little about Greek music of these earliest days, -but we hear also of Doric music and Phrygian music -employed in the theater. The Doric music was -grave, dignified, and employed the harp as the chief -musical instrument, while the Phrygian mode was -emotional and was accompanied by the flute.</p> - -<p>Now let us look for a moment at the Chinese classification -of styles of drama. We generally hear of -the divisions of <i>kuan-ch’ü</i>, <i>p’i-huang</i> (a telescoping -of <i>hsi-pi</i> and <i>er-huang</i>) and thirdly of <i>pang-tzu</i>. -These are all musical terms. <i>Kuan-ch’ü</i> is accompanied -by the flute, and is said to be the most -literary, the most graceful and soft; also because of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span> -its lack of vulgarity it is caviare to the general. It -is rarely performed nowadays, but was quite popular -in the Ming Dynasty. It was directly descended -from the classical Yuan drama, whose authors were -scholars ousted by the Mongols from their public -offices. This name is derived from a geographical -term, just as are the Greek Doric and Phrygian -modes. The <i>pang-tzu</i> came to Peking from Shansi -during the Ch’ing Dynasty. The chief instrument is -a rude kind of fiddle with a round, flat sounding -box, and the <i>genre</i> is considered to be exciting and -vulgar. The <i>er-huang</i> or <i>hsi-p’i</i> (said to be very -similar) are also styles adopted during the Manchu -Dynasty. They employ as their chief instrument the -well-known <i>hu-ch’in</i>. There is a great similarity -between Greek and Chinese thought, in that both -speak of the good moral effects of music if only -there be the proper harmony; and likewise of the -immoral effects of vulgar, exciting music. I believe -one could find almost exact parallels in the writings -of Plato and of many Chinese authors,<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> even so -modern a one as Tsai Yuan-pei. We modern Europeans -and Americans, on the other hand, seem to -have given up the idea of music as a means for -developing harmonious and moral souls.</p> - -<p>In practice music was employed in the Greek -theater not only by the chorus, but also by the actors -in the midst of the spoken dialogue when a particularly -emotional point was reached. When the passions<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span> -rose to a high pitch the musical accompaniment -commenced and the actor sang; such a passage was, -for example, the recital of the forebodings of Cassandra -in Æschylus’ “Agamemnon”, interrupted -by the Argive elders who form the chorus. Exactly -the same practice obtains in the Chinese theater, as -any one can readily observe in almost any play. -Some scholars have asserted that the whole of a -Greek play was accompanied by music, but it is generally -believed now that only the lyrical passages -were sung, while the iambic dialogue was spoken. -In this similarity of the Greek and the Chinese -theaters we can find an aid in our efforts at reconstructing -the past—perhaps worthy of consideration -by <i>régisseurs</i> who attempt to put on the stage -to-day some of the plays which stirred the imagination -of the Athenians of old. Possibly it may also -be a shock to some who have seen modern representations -in which the actors, as well as the chorus, -employ a solemn and stately, sometimes monotonous -recitative, to learn that the ancients sang or chanted -a great part of their plays; a shock such as we are -likely to receive when we first learn that the ancients -did not employ marble in their architecture in its -austere virginal whiteness only, but that they frequently -colored their buildings. But just as a -traveler coming to China may see beautiful architectural -results achieved by the bold use of color in -architecture, so he may come closer to the real—not -the pseudo-classical—art by reflecting on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span> -effect of musical interruptions in Sophocles’ “Œdipus” -or Euripides’ “Medea.”</p> - -<p>In Greece the theater was an institution which -gave performances at the time of certain religious -festivals, and it was in this sense a folk theater. In -Peking also there are certain plays given always at -particular festivals, and dealing always with the -supernatural, or if you prefer, with religion. On -the first day of the New Year, for example, there is -the “Ch’ing Shih Shan”, a play dealing with the -gods’ conquest of the devils; on the fifth day of -the New Year comes a play in honor of the god -of wealth; on the fifth of the fifth month, a play -describing the overcoming of the five dangerous -poisons; and on the seventh of the seventh month -the “Meeting on the Milky Way.” These plays -persist in spite of the commercialization of the Peking -theaters.</p> - -<p>The student of European literature whose field of -research lies in the reconstruction of the past can -find in China a wonderful source book, for this is a -magic land where for Europeans and Americans the -clock has been set back several centuries. We can -see the Middle Ages enacted before our very eyes, -and get in that way a vivid picture of things as they -were in the Europe of yesterday. In illustration of -this I wish to cite the Chinese theater of to-day, and -to offer the suggestion that the Shakespeare scholar -who has seen the Peking theaters of the present time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span> -has—if one may use the figure—not only the -words, but also the tune, of the Elizabethan drama.</p> - -<p>If I take a tourist to the theater his first remark -often is that this is just like the Shakespearean -theater. And it is indeed not surprising that it -should be so, for China to-day is at about the same -stage of culture as England was at the beginning -of the seventeenth century. There is a court where -royal splendor can be seen; the deposed emperor -still receives in the Forbidden City the faithful -Manchus, who come in gorgeous raiment and with -fastidious regard for court etiquette to offer their -congratulations on the occasion of his birthday.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> The -ordinary man of means dresses not in the stereotyped -manner of our present-day civilization, but -follows his taste in the selection of rich purple, wine-colored, -or other shades of silk. Sedan chairs are -still used as a common means of transportation. -Torture is still practiced, and the heads of executed -criminals are hung up in the streets in case of a -revolution or other great excitement. The servants -are typical Dromios in their submissiveness and -occasional impertinence. The streets are frequently -still the narrow and filthy lanes of medieval times. -Most important, there are few factories, and manufacture -is done by leisurely home industry. Much -of this is passing with the coming of industry, the -automobile and the tram car, the Europeanized<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span> -tailor and the moving-picture machine; yet much -that is picturesque in Peking continues to flourish, -and the theater with its huge community of actors -is one of the most conservative elements.</p> - -<p>To begin with, the Chinese and the Elizabethan -theaters are almost identical in structure, and for -much the same reasons. The origin of the sixteenth-century -theater in London is to be found in the innyard -in which a platform had been erected for the -performance; and when James Burbage in 1576 -built the “Theater” outside the jurisdiction of the -City Fathers of London he erected what was practically -an innyard without the inn. There was a platform -stage projecting into the yard, where the rabble -could find standing room, and a gallery in which the -wealthier patrons could be seated. The origin of the -Chinese theater building, such as it is found in Peking, -is very similar. Performances were first given -in the courtyards of temples or of the houses of rich -men. A platform was erected at one end. The spectators -stood in the courtyard or sat at tables. The -latter was particularly the case when theaters were -held in the private courtyards of princes or other -rich men. For centuries theatricals in China were -either religious or private, and public theaters which -any one may attend for the payment of an admission -fee are a fairly recent institution, but when they -were built they were constructed on the model of the -temple or palace theaters, with a projecting roofed -stage at one end, the cheaper seats on the ground<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span> -floor and the more expensive ones in the gallery. -The Chinese audiences have been trained to regard -the stage as anywhere and not as a particular place; -it is unlocalized, as in Shakespeare’s time. The roof -on the stage serves the same purposes as in Elizabethan -times; it is a protection for the actors against -rain, and a “heaven” from which deities may be -lowered.</p> - -<p>In distinction to our modern theater in which we -present a series of pictures within a frame called the -proscenium, which we cover with a curtain while the -pictures are being shifted, both the Elizabethan and -the Chinese stage have neither a proscenium nor, in -general, a curtain. In both the stages is an unframed -rostrum thrust bodily forth into the auditorium, -surrounded on three sides, if not on four, -by spectators. In short it is not a picture stage, but -a platform stage. On such a stage there can be, of -course, no question of artistic lighting effects; the -plays are performed either by daylight, as they were -in Shakespeare’s day, or by the light of huge arc -lamps that illuminate stage and audience alike. As -the actors cannot present artistic stage pictures to -three sides of the house at the same time, it is not -surprising that, as the English literary historians -tell us, the appeal was more to the ear than to the -eye. That this is equally true in China is seen from -the Peking term for a theatrical performance, <i>t’ing-hsi</i>, -which means a play that is heard. In old Peking -theaters the seats on the ground floor are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span> -arranged at right angles to the stage, along tables on -which are served tea and cakes; recently built theatres, -however, have their seats (with rails for the -inevitable teapots) running parallel to the stage.</p> - -<p>In speaking of the chief characteristics that distinguish -the Elizabethan from other stages Professor -Thorndyke says:<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The fixed and most important principle was the use of -the projecting platform as a sort of neutral, vaguely -localized territory, where almost anything might happen. -The second principle was the use of the inner stage with -its curtains (and to some extent the upper stage) as a -means to denote locality more exactly, to employ properties -more readily, and to indicate changes of scene more -effectively.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="illus15" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus15.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">THE FORTUNE THEATER</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus16" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus16.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">A TYPICAL PEKING THEATER</p> -</div> - -<p>From what has been said it is apparent that in -regard to the first principle the Chinese and the -Shakespearean stage are identical. In regard to the -use of the curtain and the inner stage, scholars are -very much divided as to the manner and frequency -with which they were employed. To quote Professor -Thorndyke once more:<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The total evidence of the stage directions alone indicates -that the arrangement prescribed was in general -use in important theaters, public and private, though -doubtless its adoption was gradual and subject to variation. -We may suppose that the size and visibility of the -inner stage varied in different theaters, and that the extent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> -to which the curtain was used changed from decade to -decade, or playwright to playwright, or manager to -manager, or even according to the state of the weather -and light.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The use of the curtain in Chinese theaters is very -rare; and the curtain itself is by no means like the -curtain to which we are accustomed. When a relatively -elaborate setting is about to be placed on the -stage a curtain about ten feet high by about twenty -feet wide is carried by stage hands to the front of -the stage, and there stretched out to cut off the view -of the audience. The ends of the curtain are each -sewed to a bamboo pole held upright by two coolies. -In this most primitive manner a garden setting or a -heavenly throne is made to appear to the audience -in one burst of glory instead of being carried on -piece by piece, as is the case with most properties -and sceneries. The Chinese playhouse has no inner -and likewise no upper stage. Curtains about beds -or other pieces of furniture are used to “discover” -actors in the same manner as was done on the Elizabethan -stage. But all of these articles are regularly -carried on the stage in full view of the audience. -The size of the two stages seems to be about the -same, except that the Elizabethan was much wider. -The dimensions given for the stage of the Fortune -are forty-three feet wide by twenty-seven and a half -feet deep; while a typical Chinese stage measures -about twenty-five feet in both directions.</p> - -<p>We generally think of the Elizabethan stage as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> -very primitive, and in this respect the Chinese stage -is very much like it, only a bit more so. Both stages -lack curtains, and therefore in both properties are -brought on in full sight of the audience, making -necessary in China the “property men” who furnished -so much amusement in the performances of -“The Yellow Jacket.” Shakespeare however arranged -that at the end of a play, for example in -“Hamlet”, the dead were carried off the stage, -while in Peking convention allows that a victim -of murder arise and walk off, after having gone -through the motion of falling dead. The London -theaters also had (at least such seems to have been -definitely proved by recent writers) a small curtain -at the rear of the stage shutting off a place which -served as cave, shop, tomb, bed, Bathsheba’s bath, -or any other locality that needed to be “discovered.” -In Peking theaters things are much more conventionalized; -a table represents a shop, a blue curtain -with lines painted on it, held up by two stage hands, -makes a city wall, a chair may be a gate or a prison -door, a boat on a lake may be represented simply by -the actors appearing with oars with which they seem -to be rowing. Much is also symbolized; an actor on -the bare stage goes through the motions of opening -and shutting a door and thus shows that he has left -the house. When a curtain is needed to represent a -listener in another room, or a patient in a bed behind -drawn curtains, two vertical bamboo poles with a -horizontal one attached to them from which the curtain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span> -hangs are placed on the stage by the “property -men.” The arrangement is most primitive and -casual; the poles are generally tied to chairs. If the -drawing of the “Swan” showing neither an inner -stage nor a curtain is authentic, a similar portable -curtain may have been the method employed in -Elizabethan times. In Peking this is a rich, figured -fabric, even though not exactly an “Arras.” If a -Chinese Polonius were to conceal himself behind -the arras, it would have been previously brought on -by the “property men” at the beginning of the act -or perhaps even just a few moments before it was -needed. In a Chinese theater the center back of the -stage is a wall hung with a rich piece of tapestry just -as free from doors or recesses as the wall of the -“Swan.” There are doors, however, at both sides -of the rear wall, corresponding to those in the -“Swan” drawing. As the Chinese theater has no -upper stage, men on a city wall, for example, stand -on a table behind the curtain held up by the stage -hands. A general surveying his troops from a mountain -top or a god on his throne in heaven sit on a -chair placed on top of a table.</p> - -<p>In the paucity of the stage properties we find another -parallel. In Albright’s “The Shakespearean -Stage”,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> the properties are listed, and I can say -from my five years’ experience that the same and no -more are found on the Chinese stage; bedroom: a -bed, table, chairs or stools, and lights; a hall: table,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> -chairs, and stools; presence chamber: a throne, and -occasionally tables and chairs; a church: an altar, -and if needed a tomb; prison scenes: usually no -properties are mentioned except fetters and chains; -woods or park: large and small artificial trees, shrubbery, -and benches; shop scenes: a counter and a few -wares. The Chinese theater is often even a bit more -simple; for example, a chair serves as a throne, or a -table with a few decorations as an altar. However, -for certain plays fairly elaborate paper properties -are used, which are brought on and removed in full -sight of the audience. In both theaters the imagination -of the audience is strained a great deal more -than is the case in a Belasco play; and many conventions -that differ from ours, such as bringing on -properties in full sight of the audience, seem just as -natural as it seems to us that a stage room has only -three walls.</p> - -<p>Even though the Elizabethan and the Chinese -stages have no scenery of any kind, yet it is wrong -to imagine that they seem bare, for the color is supplied -in the rich and elaborate robes of the actors. -A Chinese stage filled with actors in court costumes -of yellow, red, black, blue, or purple, with inwoven -designs, fierce warriors with masks or painted faces, -wearing pheasant feathers six feet long, and lovely -maidens in costumes of exquisite pastel shades, -walking or running about on a gaudy Oriental rug -against a background of rich tapestry, form a veritable -riot of color, very similar in its effect, no doubt,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span> -to what was seen on the Elizabethan stage when the -actors appeared in their gowns costing from £80 to -£100 in modern money. They were elaborate creations -of velvet trimmed with gold and silver lace -and embroidery, capped by the “forest of feathers” -that Hamlet mentions as necessary for the equipment -of an actor, with tapestry from Arras as background. -To quote Professor Thorndyke,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> “No -stage cared more for fine clothes than the Elizabethan -or lavished a larger portion of its expenses -on dress.” In both theaters almost no attention is -paid to historical appropriateness of costume. Elizabethan -actors sometimes wore masks also, just as -the Chinese often do.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="illus17" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus17.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">THE ORCHESTRA SEATED IN A CORNER OF THE STAGE</p> - <p class="caption">From Jacovleff, “Le Théâtre Chinois”</p> -</div> - -<p>The stage direction “alarums” for the entry of a -king or other important personage, which may never -have been associated by the reader with anything -definite at all, will be full of meaning to any Westerner -who has heard the Chinese orchestra sound -the <i>Leitmotiv</i> for the entry of a famous general. -The Chinese orchestra sits on the stage in full view -of the audience, while in Shakespeare’s day the upper -stage was the normal place for the “noise.” The -use in the Elizabethan days of the word “noise” -for both music and orchestra establishes another -great similarity between the two theaters. In Shakespeare’s -day the music seems to have been confined -chiefly to the intermissions between the acts and to -occasional songs, while in the Chinese drama almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span> -every emotional part is punctuated by song. It approaches -close to opera in many cases in the number -of lines sung by the actors. One division of Chinese -plays is that into civil and military, and in the latter -the fighting is always accompanied by a terrible din -of brass, drum and string music. This frantic noise -stimulates in the audience the excitement which the -desperate contest in arms is supposed to arouse. As -a fact, these military plays are very popular with the -masses, and they take up fully half the program.</p> - -<p>In the eating, drinking, smoking, hawking, towel-throwing, -spitting, and loud interruptions always -found in the Chinese theater we have another close -parallel to the Elizabethan. It is well known that -hawkers went about before and during the performance -selling ale, tobacco, and various articles of -food. Apples were fought over by young apprentices -and sometimes even used to pelt the actors. -The women in the galleries were offered pipes to -smoke. Young nobles insisted on sitting on the -stage in order that they might display themselves -and their garments, while pages lighted their pipes -for them. The groundlings in the yard were intent -on the broad humor and the fighting in the plays. -The women of the town in the gallery probably also -had other motives for coming besides that of seeing -the play. All of this a Westerner can understand -very much better after he has seen a Chinese theater, -for the conditions are very similar; except that the -Chinese lack of pugnacity makes the spectators perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span> -a little less violent.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> In this connection it is interesting -to compare the methods of applause and -criticism in Shakespeare’s time and in present-day -China. Applause was rendered by clapping—some -writers refer to it as “thundering”—while disapproval -was evinced by hissing, and by even more -violent methods, as may be judged from the verse of -an Elizabethan drama:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">We may be pelted off for aught we know,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With apples, egges, or stones, from thence belowe.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>In China applause is expressed by shouting the -word “<i>hao</i>”, good, and disapproval by no more violent -method generally than by a sarcastic intonation -of the same word! It it difficult for a foreigner to -tell which is meant, especially since applause is rendered -for subtleties of intonation often lost even on -natives. However there is also the word “<i>t’ung</i>”, -which is very rarely used to express disgust with -the performance; but when it is employed the -actors are driven off the stage in utter shame and -confusion. In recent years, however, clapping has -been introduced from the West along with many -other innovations. But in spite of all distractions -one can very often see a Chinese audience sitting -spellbound during the recitation of a particularly -beautiful passage or the presentation of a tragic -scene, as I imagine must have been the case in -Shakespearean England also.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span></p> - -<p>Without the aid of scenery or lighting the acting -must be splendid to hold an audience, and there is -the danger that it become loudly declamatory and -bombastic. Hamlet’s well-known criticisms frequently -apply in Peking, for there are many who -mouth their lines so that the town crier could improve -upon them, who saw the air too much with -their hands, who tear a passion to tatters, who strut -and bellow as though one of nature’s journeymen -had made them, and thus make the judicious grieve. -However, good actors of all times avoid this. Hamlet -tells of a good actor who</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Could force his soul to this conceit</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That from her working all his visage wann’d;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Tears in his eyes, distraction in ’s aspect,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A broken voice, and his whole function suiting</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With form to his conceit! and all for nothing!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">For Hecuba!</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It is similarly impressive to see Mei Lan-fang, -for example, playing Mu Lan, the Chinese Joan of -Arc, presenting in the first part the coy maiden and -loving daughter, and in the second the brave warrior, -or to see him (he is an actor who always interprets -female rôles) portray the emotions of the -daughter who finds her old father in prison but who -dares not make herself known. In most theaters in -Peking the acting is good, so that the foreigner can -often follow the play, even though he does not understand -one word of what the actors are saying. For -vivid portrayal of emotions, facial expression, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span> -delightful byplay, the Chinese actors are wonderful, -just as the scholars conjecture that the English -players must have been in Shakespeare’s day.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="painting4" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/painting4.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">A CLOWN</p> - <p class="caption">Chinese Character Type</p> -</div> - -<p>The Chinese audiences demand the fool, the acrobat, -and the dancer quite as loudly as they were -demanded by the groundling in Shakespeare’s time. -The Chinese clown is very good at improvising, and -provokes the same criticism that Hamlet made, -“And let those that play your clowns speak no more -than is set down for them.” Giles in his “History -of Chinese Literature” writes in this connection, -“As they stand in the classical collections or the -acting editions, Chinese plays are as unobjectionable<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> -as Chinese poems or general literature. On -the stage, however, actors are allowed great license -in gagging, and the direction which their gag takes -is chiefly the reason which keeps respectable women -away from the playhouse.” This recalls that in -Elizabethan days the respectable women who attended -the theater wore masks or made judicious use -of their fans to hide their blushes.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> It is only in the -last few years that the better class of women have -begun to attend the theater in Peking; just as the -mingling of the sexes in the theater was an innovation -in the early seventeenth century in England. -In Peking, as formerly was the case in London, the -women are admitted to the gallery only.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span></p> - -<p>A vital similarity between the two theaters is the -fact that women’s parts are played by men. The -reasons in both cases are moral or Puritanical motives. -The similarity in this case is accidental, for -it was only about George Washington’s time that -women were forbidden to appear upon the stage; -during the Ming Dynasty many princes and officials -had large numbers of actresses in their palaces—a -custom that led to gross abuses and immorality. -Therefore the early Manchu emperors forbade -women to appear as actresses. But things are fast -changing in this respect in China, for in some parts -of the country men and women appear together on -the stage, while in Peking, where this is forbidden -by the police, there exist two theaters in which -women act both male and female rôles. The Chinese -consider the women poor artists, and the connoisseurs -do not patronize these theaters, or if they do -they apologize for it. A Chinese actor who respects -himself will never appear on the same stage with -actresses. That the Elizabethans likewise thought -women incapable of good acting can be seen from -the patronizing tone of Thomas Coryat in which -he tells (1611) of having seen women acting in -Venice “and they performed it with as good a -grace, action, gesture and whatsoever convenient -for a player, as ever I saw any masculine actor.”<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> - -<p>In connection with the subject of impersonation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> -of the other sex, which we see nowadays only in -burlesque or minstrel shows, I should like to quote -some observations made by Goethe<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> in Italy on seeing -a performance of Goldoni’s “La Locandiera” -in which a man acted the part of the heroine, the -pretty innkeeper. Goethe of course grants that the -highest form of art cannot be found in such a representation, -but he says that he would like to speak -a few words in defense of this practice to tell how -one might well derive considerable pleasure from -such a performance. He states that he went to the -theater with prejudice, but once there he became -reconciled to it and even experienced a certain kind -of pleasure never felt by him before. He tried to -analyze this æsthetic sensation and came to the conclusion -it consisted in the enjoyment of the fact that -the actor could not possibly play himself, but had to -put his art of imitation to a far greater test, that of -holding the mirror up to life in a sex not his own. -The spectator enjoys a much more self-conscious -delusion, just as when he sees a young man playing -the part of Rip Van Winkle or King Lear. There is -a more conscious æsthetic pleasure in seeing how -well a young man has studied the actions of a young -girl in order to present a Rosalind, or how perfectly -Mei Lan-fang can copy the dainty dress, actions, and -walk of a Chinese lady. My experience has been -that this is much more pleasant than to see round-cheeked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span> -girls essay the rôles of fearful generals or -cruel husbands in the woman’s theater in Peking.</p> - -<p>It has often been remarked that as a result of the -fact that boy actors played the women’s parts in the -Elizabethan theater we find Shakespeare’s heroines -very frequently masquerading as pages. Julia, -Portia, Nerissa, Jessica, Viola, Rosalind, and Imogen -all appear as handsome youths. An analogous result -in the Chinese theater of to-day is that the -heroines appear in an endless number of cases as -warriors. The Chinese have not only their Mu Lan -(who goes to war in her father’s place because the -latter is old and feeble), but very many other -heroines who invariably defeat men in battle. -Chinese history or legend does not account for this, -but it is due to the fact that the actors who portray -women seek opportunities to display their skill in -fighting. This fighting is a highly conventionalized -art, a combination of dancing and acrobatics performed -to a deafening and exciting music, which, in -regard to its place on the program, can best be compared -to our ballet. Most foreigners in Peking are -kept away from the theater by the fearful noise -made in these “fighting plays”, as they are called, -but if these same people could attend an Elizabethan -theater they would possibly find that the great delight -of the audiences was the “noise” (music), the -clatter and scuffle of the battles, the drums, the -squibs, and the cannon.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span></p> - -<p>There are in Peking three companies of boy -actors, the largest of which has about three hundred -in its theater. These are training schools for actors -in which the boys of eight to sixteen or eighteen -years are given very arduous courses in singing, -acrobatics, stage fighting, and all the other arts that -an actor requires. The competition of these “little -eyases” in Peking might well arouse the ire of some -of the regular actors, as it did Shakespeare’s -(“Hamlet”, II, 2, 362), for in China the life of the -common actor is a hard one, most of them eking out -a meager living at about twenty cents a day.</p> - -<p>The position of the actor in society is very low in -Peking, just as it was in London. A Chinese moralist -might well apply to them the words written in -1759:<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> “Players are masters of vice, teachers of -wantonnesse, spurres to impuritie, the Sonnes of -idlenesse, so longe as they live in this order, loathe -them.” Under the former dynasty the actors and -their sons, together with the sons of prostitutes, -jailers, and lictors, were not eligible for taking the -examinations. Even now they usually intermarry -only among their own number, and they suffer -also from various other discriminations. Most -of them were catamites, until the Republic abolished -this formerly legalized institution. Mei Lan-fang, -an actor who has risen to high perfection in his -art, as well as to great wealth, an artist who -may tour America in the near future, would have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span> -ample reason in the present organization of Chinese -society to reproach Fortune in Shakespeare’s words:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">That did not better for my life provide,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Than public means which public manners breeds,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Thence comes it that my name receives a brand,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And almost thence my nature is subdued</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To what it works in, like the dyer’s hand:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Pity me then and wish I were renewed.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Peoples are alike and differ also in what they consider -to be humorous. It has been said that the first -comedy was the torture of a captive by his enemies. -This sort of performance would nowadays of course -be impossible; yet in most of our comedies we enjoy -heartily the discomfiture of victims of circumstances. -We have not yet become too refined to -enjoy the difficulties of a man whose senses are benumbed -by alcohol, of a bald man, a lame man, yes, -even a deaf man. The condition of a blind man, -however, strikes us as too tragic to figure in a -comedy, and no modern comedian could draw a -laugh from his audience by fooling a tottering old -man bereft of his sight. Yet every one who has seen -“The Merchant of Venice” acted recalls very well -what Launcelot Gobbo does to his blind old father, -and I have seen in Chinese theaters how a blind old -beggar deceived by a clown affords huge amusement -to the audience.</p> - -<p>As I have already stated, Chinese and Elizabethan -audiences are alike also in that they use their imaginations -much more vividly than we do. For them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span> -a draped screen represents a city wall, and the bare -stage any country, a ship, a mountain, any house, -a street, or whatever is needed in the particular -scene acted. Warriors on horseback in the Chinese -theaters carry whips to let the audience know that -they are mounted on chargers, while Macbeth and -Banquo rode on the stage on hobbyhorses—and -were taken seriously. I recall a performance in the -Chinese City in which there suddenly came running -on the stage on all fours a man in a tiger skin, and I -laughed because of droll recollections of Shaw’s -“Androcles and the Lion.” But no one else laughed; -to the Chinese present it was a tiger, just as real a -tiger as the actors on the stage were for the moment -real kings and queens, soldiers and servants. Of -this particular illusion more anon.</p> - -<p>Because there are many similarities in the theaters, -stages, actors, conventions, audiences, and the -psychology of the spectator of Shakespeare’s day -and of present-day Peking, I certainly should be the -last to say that because a thing is so in local theaters, -it must have been identical in London three hundred -years ago. Yet it seems that since human nature is -very much the same everywhere, it would be safer, -if one wished to hazard conjectures as to what was -true in the past, to take a living example of the theater -on the same level of culture, than to look back at -the Elizabethan stage in the light of what has been -accomplished since, and what happens to be the fad -at the present time. This is the day of stage lighting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> -and color effects, of Gordon Craig, Max Reinhardt, -and Bakst, but we should hardly think that -these problems troubled Burbage, who had neither -electric light nor scenery, and who performed his -plays on an uncurtained stage by daylight. Yet -Professor H. T. Stephenson of Indiana University, -for fifteen years a lecturer on Shakespeare, author -of “Shakespeare’s London”, and “The Elizabethan -People”, by profession a specialist in reconstructing -the times of “Merrie England”, discusses seriously -in his very stimulating “Study of Shakespeare” -(page 40) the plight of the stage manager of Shakepearean -days, who could never tell beforehand how -the gaily dressed young nobles sitting on the stage -would fit into his color scheme! He also believes -that changes in the stage setting could not have been -made in full sight of the audience, because “this -would have upset entirely the unity if not the gravity -of the piece.”</p> - -<p>In Peking one can see very remarkable things on -the stage that fail to upset the gravity of any present -except the Westerners, who are used to different -conventions in the theater. Professor Stephenson, -with the results of three hundred years of stage experience -at his hand, believes that the Elizabethans -must have been fools if they could not have thought -of the same useful devices for the theater that he -knows of. To quote (page 47):</p> - -<p>“To my mind the situation suggested by these -facts reduces itself almost to a mathematical problem;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span> -if one of us can easily invent such a staging -for an Elizabethan scene, as any ingenious person -could construct out of what we know they had in -those days, is it unfair to assume that the ingenious -Elizabethans did as well if not better? More likely -better. They were more used than we are to making -a little go a great way.” He even goes on to explain -how one could put up a curtain, simply by the -use of canvas, wire, a few rings, and presto, the -thing is done. A play without the commonplace -scenic devices of the twentieth century is unthinkable -to him.</p> - -<p>Another theorist is Mr. Corbin, in the <i>Century -Magazine</i> for December, 1911. He proves to his -own satisfaction that Burbage and his colleagues -had means for darkening the stage.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> It seems this author -staged “The Winter’s Tale” in New York a few -years ago. In this play a bear has to appear on the -stage, and this part was acted by a man on all fours. -At first the scene was played on a lighted stage, and -all the New Yorkers present laughed at the sight of -the actor in a bearskin. Then they hit upon the device -of darkening the stage, and having the actor-bear -run quickly across. When this was done, no -one’s risibilities were affected. This forms one of -Mr. Corbin’s chief arguments for his assumption -that the Elizabethan stage was darkened; namely,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> -that it would have offended the good taste of the -audience to see in broad daylight in a serious scene, -an actor impersonating a bear. If human nature -can endure this convention in Peking, with the -above-mentioned tiger, why should we assume that -three hundred years ago people felt as we do now, -and base on this the novel theory that stages were -darkened in those days?</p> - -<p>A large measure of the success attained by “The -Yellow Jacket” was due to the fact that the Chinese -stage conventions employed seemed so funny to us -provincial Westerners that they caused a great deal -of happy laughter. But this is really quite as intelligent -as the attitude of the rustic who sought out -Richard III after the performance and offered to -sell him a good horse for less than a kingdom. It is -very strange that even otherwise scholarly men, -like, for example, Victor Albright in “The Shakespearean -Stage”, struggle with all fours against -the possibility that in the theater of the gentle Shakespeare -there might have been committed such desecrations -as setting properties on the stage in full -view of the audience. He approaches the evidence -with blinkers when it seems to contradict his theory. -He says (page 126): “Only the dramatists had not -yet learned to use explicit stage directions.” On -page 143 he tells us that the Elizabethans did not -read stage directions literally. Then on page 106: -“Here in the midst of a street scene is a direction to -set the stage with a table, stand, chairs, stools, etc.,—just<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> -such properties as are used in the next scene, -a counting room. We cannot believe that a manager -would disturb an important scene by setting the -stage for a coming one.” Further, on page 110: -“The placing and replacing of a regular setting in -full view of the audience never was a <i>general custom</i>. -It is contrary to the very nature of the stage,—an -illusive, make-believe world.” In my opinion -it is contrary only to the very nature of a provincial -New Yorker.</p> - -<p>Let me add in passing that William Archer holds -that “in the generality of cases properties were -brought on in full sight of the audience, often in the -middle of the action.”<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> - -<p>Doctor Albright, in “The Shakespearean Stage” -(pages 122<i>ff.</i>) condemns with sarcasm (which -seems well merited) the theory of Brodmeier, who -holds that the entire stage in Shakespeare’s theater -was curtained from view. But I should like to question -whether or not his own judgments would have -been quite the same if he had known the Chinese -stage before he wrote his estimable thesis. A -Chinese actor walks once around the stage in full -view of the audience, and in conformity with the -ruling conventions he has traveled miles, or hundreds -of miles, as the plot requires. Doctor Albright, -arguing backwards from the Restoration -staging, comes to the conclusion that there was in -the Elizabethan theater a regular changing from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span> -inner to outer scenes, and vice versa, and that the -few pieces of furniture which constituted the stage -setting were always carefully shut off from the view -of the audience. He quotes an example with his -comment from a play called “Pinner of Wakefield”, -Act IV, Scenes 3-4. “Jenkins enters a shoemaker’s -shop, and dares the owner to meet him at ‘the -towne’s end.’ The challenge is accepted, and after -a certain amount of stage business, <i>during which -the curtains must have been closed</i> [italics mine], -Jenkins says, ‘Now we are at the towne’s end, what -say you now?’” However, I should add that in his -concluding paragraph Doctor Albright is by no -means dogmatic, but gives this merely as his theory, -stating that there is absolutely no way of proving it.</p> - -<p>With all the striking similarities in the Shakespearean -and the Chinese theater there are of course -also vast differences, especially in the background -of the two. So far as I know there has never existed -in China a manner of staging which could in -any way be compared to the medieval system of -mansions. Likewise the evolution of the platform -stage into the picture-frame stage of the present day -makes it seem that even on the projecting stage the -feeling for the need of the curtain for the sake of -the illusion increased as time went on. I repeat that -I have not the slightest intention of arguing from -certain conventions on the Chinese stage that they -must have been identical in Elizabethan times. My -point is simply that scholars ought not to assert that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span> -certain primitive conventions are “against the nature -of the stage” or “contrary to human nature”, -for this point of view is based on the current conventions -with which the particular writer is acquainted. -I should like to quote the concluding -words of Doctor Albright’s thesis, spoken out of the -depth of his experience of wrestling for years with -the problems we are discussing. He calls an article -by William Archer “one of the most original and -enlightening articles on the Shakespearean stage -that has yet appeared.” He says further about this -writer, “As a learned dramatic critic of to-day, he -approaches the Elizabethan stage with that special -insight and ability which a closet student cannot -hope to have. The stage and the staging have -changed since the days of Shakespeare, but the -mimic world is still the mimic world; and the deeper -the scholar is grounded in the stage of to-day, the -better he is qualified to study the stage of yesterday.” -And, allow me to add, the knowledge of a living -stage at a similar period of culture will likewise -add to his qualifications to study the theater of -the past.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header5.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHRONOLOGICAL_TABLE">CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE</h2> - -</div> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2705-2595</td> - <td>Huang Ti, mythological emperor.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2357-2206</td> - <td>Legendary sages to whose teachings Confucius harked back.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>551</td> - <td>Birth of Confucius.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>255-206</td> - <td>Ch’in Shih Huang Ti, the emperor who burned the books and - built the Great Wall.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td style="padding-left: 0.25em; text-indent: 0;">206 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span><br> - to 221 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td> - <td>Han Dynasty—Recovery of literature—Introduction of Buddhism.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>221-265</td> - <td>The “Three Kingdoms”—Age of romantic chivalry.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>618-906</td> - <td>The T’ang Dynasty—Emperor Ming Huang, traditional founder of - the theater, and his consort Yang Kuei-fei, China’s most famous - beauty. China was at this time the most civilized country in the - world. Li Po and other great lyric poets.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>960-1127</td> - <td>The Sung Dynasty—Development of landscape painting.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1280-1368</td> - <td>The Yuan or Mongol Dynasty—Classical age of Chinese drama. - Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan. Marco Polo.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1368-1644</td> - <td>The Ming Dynasty—Restoration of Chinese rulers—Drama in the - hands of scholars.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1644-1911</td> - <td>The Ch’ing or Manchu Dynasty—Emperors K’ang Hsi and Ch’ien - Lung encourage arts and letters, including the theater.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1912-</td> - <td>The Republic.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header6.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">History of the Drama under the Sung and Yuan Dynasties. -Wang Kuo-wei. Commercial Press. Shanghai, -1915.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>Not translated into any European language.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Théâtre Chinois, ou Choix de Pièces de Théâtre Composées -sous les Empereurs Mongols. Bazin Ainé. -Paris, 1838.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>Four Yuan Dynasty plays translated by a French sinologue -who was for years Professor of Chinese at the École des -Langues Orientales.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Chine Moderne, ou Description Historique, Géographique, -et Littéraire de ce vaste Empire, d’après des -Documents Chinois. Paris, 1853.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>In the second part of this volume M. Bazin gives numerous -discussions of Chinese plays with summaries of their plots. -Very valuable work.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Le Pi-Pa-Ki, ou L’Histoire du Luth. Traduit sur le texte -original par M. Bazin Ainé. Paris, 1841.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>Contains also a very good introduction to this important -Ming drama.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">L’Orphelin de la Chine. Drame en prose et en vers, -accompagné des pièces historiques qui en ont -fourni le sujet, de nouvelles et de poésies chinoises -traduit de chinois par Stanislas Julien. Paris, -1834.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>A complete translation by the famous French sinologue of -the Yuan drama, The Orphan of the Chao Family. Voltaire -made an abridged version by a Jesuit missionary the basis of -his L’Orphelin de la Chine (1755), a stiff and artificial piece, -presenting a Genghis Khan who falls in love in the manner of -a French courtier of the 18th century.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">L’Histoire du Cercle de Craie. Traduit du chinois par -Stanislas Julien. London, 1832.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>Translation of a Yuan drama.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">The Sorrows of Han. Translated by John Francis Davis, -F.R.S. London, 1829.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>A Yuan drama translated by a British sinologue; The Fortunate -Union, a Chinese romance, appears in the same volume.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Le Chagrin dans le Palais de Han. Louis Laloy. Publié -par la Société littéraire de France. Paris, 1921.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>M. Laloy’s version of this Yuan drama attempts to introduce -some modern motivation. In his preface the author expresses -the fear that in working over this Chinese tragedy -“<i>il l’a défigurée en tachant de l’embellir</i>”, and perhaps his -fears were justified.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">La Chine Familière et Galante. Jules Arène. Paris, 1876.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>In this volume by a French consul “<i>qui contient des détails -fort curieux et intéressants sur les chinois, et surtout -sur les chinoises</i>” are printed translations of four realistic -comedies of popular life, “<i>sorte de vaudeville au gros sel, -où, en gestes comme en paroles, la license chinoise se donne -libre carrière</i>.” About ninety pages are devoted to the -theater.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">The Chinese Drama. William Stanton. Kelly and -Walsh. Hongkong, 1899.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>A British colonial official has translated three plays. The -Willow Lute, The Golden-leafed Chrysanthemum, and The -Sacrifice for the Soul of Ho Man Sau. In an introduction -of eighteen pages the author discusses the types and conventions -of the Chinese stage as seen in Hongkong and Canton. -It is interesting to note that in general the southern theater -is identical with that of Peking, but that there are some variations, -particularly in customs and ceremonials.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Catching a Golden Tortoise.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging">Beating the Gold Bough.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>Two Chinese plays translated by Charles Budd, Tung Wen -Kuan Translation Office, Shanghai, 1913. Short and mildly -interesting plays, translated partly for the purpose of aiding -Chinese who wish to learn English.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Chinesische Schattenspiele. Übersetzt von Wilhelm -Grube, herausgegeben und eingeleitet von Berthold -Laufer, Verlag der königlich bayerischen Akademie -der Wissenschaften. München, 1915.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>A huge volume containing in translation the entire repertoire -of a company of shadow players which Berthold Laufer, -Curator of the Field Museum, had bought in Peking in 1901 -and which were translated by the famous German sinologue. -Though these plays are not presented on the stage, but recited -by shadow players to accompany the movements of their -puppets that cast shadows on a screen, yet the plots are the -same as those of the theater. The book thus serves as a -wonderful source for some one wishing to familiarize himself -with Chinese plays. Berthold Laufer has prefaced the -book with a meaty introduction.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Pekinger Volksleben. Wilhelm Grube. Berlin, 1901.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>Sociological studies on popular customs and usages in Peking. -A chapter is devoted to the theater in which numerous -summaries of modern plays are given. The author also deals -with related subjects: acrobats, story-tellers, annual ceremonies -of guilds, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Geschichte der chinesischen Litteratur. Wilhelm Grube. -Leipzig, 1909.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>Several chapters are devoted to the drama. Professor -Grube, in his discussion of Yuan and Ming plays, is using -Bazin’s translations, but in his evaluation of modern plays he -is drawing on his long and intimate experience with the -theater in Peking.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">A History of Chinese literature. Herbert A. Giles. -Heinemann, London.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>This well-known sinologue devotes two chapters to the -drama, but they are not up to the standard of the rest of this -excellent work. Pi-Pa-Chi is the most modern drama he -discusses.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging">Das Theater und Drama der Chinesen. Rudolf von -Gottschall. Breslau, 1887.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>This small volume of 209 pages was written by a minor -German dramatist without first-hand knowledge of China. -The author based his study upon French translations of older -dramas. Yet the book is not lacking in remarks showing a -keen insight into the Chinese character.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">La Littérature Chinoise Contemporaine. Soong Tsung -Faung, <i>Journal de Pékin</i>. Peking, 1919.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>A volume by a professor of literature at the National University, -Peking, in which his critical articles from Peking’s -French paper are reprinted. Forty-seven pages are devoted to -the theater under headings such as the following: “Origin of -the Drama”, “Evolution of the Modern Chinese Theater”, -“Ibsenism in China”, etc. Professor Soong follows to a -certain extent Wang Kuo-wei’s History of the Drama under -the Sung and Ming Dynasties. His thorough knowledge of -the European stage enables him to make very striking comparisons.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Peking, A Social Survey. Sidney Gamble and Stewart J. -Burgess. Doran, 1921.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>The chapter “Recreations” in this interesting and painstaking -survey presents statistics on the number of theaters, -their locations, prices of admission, status of the actor and -actress, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">En Chine, Mœurs et Institutions, Hommes et Faits. -Maurice Courant. Paris, 1901.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>The French diplomat devotes one chapter to the theater. -He writes before the Revolution, but most things connected -with the theater have been changed very little. He reports -one abuse, however, which the Revolution (1912) abolished. -Page 144: “<i>La prostitution féminine reste discrète, car la -femme est toujours tenue à l’écart; mais la prostitution masculine -s’étale au grand jour; il n’est guère de pàrtie de -théâtre où l’amphitryon ne réunisse ses amis d’abord au -restaurant et ne convie quelques jeunes garçons de bonne -mine, richement habillés, sachant causer et ‘rendre le vin plus -agréable’; ils plaisantent et rient avec les convives, les accompagnent -au théâtre et restent avec eux jusqu’à ce que, la fête -finie, chacun rentre chez soi. Naturellement, aux simples -lettrés on ne demande que leur bonne humeur, et ce sont les<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span> -riches qui paient la note; bien de fils de famille se ruinent de -cette façon.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">The Yellow Jacket. A Chinese play done in the Chinese -manner, in three acts, by George C. Hazelton and -Benrimo. Bobbs-Merrill, 1913.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>This play represents a unique example of Chinese influence -producing a worth-while drama on our stage. Will Irwin -was kind enough to write to me concerning its origin:</p> - -<p>“... I can tell you the history of the play. Harry Benrimo, -actor and stage-director, is a native of San Francisco. -He saw much of the Chinese in California. His father was a -contractor, employing Chinese labor and doing business with -Chinese merchants. As a young actor, Benrimo became interested -in the Chinese theaters of San Francisco. That was -the golden age of the Chinese theater in America. The price -of admission made the Jackson Street Company and the -Washington Street Company rich on Chinese standards and -they were able to get some great actors—just as the money -from the Metropolitan Opera drew Caruso from Italy. Ah -Chic, leading tragedian of the Jackson Street Company, was -as great an actor as I ever saw.... Benrimo sketched out a -scenario made not from any one Chinese play, but from a -dozen—situations or bits of business or dialogue which he -remembered from his old days in San Francisco theaters. -Benrimo called into collaboration the late George Hazelton, -playwright. On this scenario they worked out The Yellow -Jacket.... Several Chinese, notably one man—name forgotten—from -the Consulate helped with the rehearsals. -Deliberately the authors took certain liberties with Chinese -drama and psychology in order to make the play effective for -an Occidental audience. Notably, they made the love of man -for woman the main theme. One piece of business, I remember, -caused endless dispute. It is where the happy and united -lovers kiss. That would not happen, of course, with the -Chinese. Benrimo understood that perfectly. But he said -that an Occidental audience would expect it. And he had his -way. I remember that whenever this piece of business occurred -in the rehearsals, the man from the Consulate used to -giggle.</p> - -<p>“Lately I was talking over The Yellow Jacket with Percy -Hammond, dramatic critic. ‘Do you know what made it a -success?’ he said, ‘The Property Man as played by Shaw.’ -Possibly he’s right about that. But the play served its -artistic purpose. It made American audiences understand -something of this extraordinary art. And I’ve no doubt but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span> -that if Hazelton and Benrimo had stuck close to the originals -our audiences wouldn’t have understood half so well.”</p> - -<p>So far as my experience goes, making love the main theme -is not un-Chinese, but The Property Man as played on our -stages is. Possibly Cantonese usage differs in this respect, -but in Peking property men are always on the stage, coolies -dressed in shabby blue cotton, but they are conspicuous only -to the Westerner not used to Chinese conventions. They by -no means have the importance attached to them in The Yellow -Jacket. Compare the chapter, “External Aspects.”</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">The Chinese Drama. R. F. Johnston. Kelly & Walsh, -1921.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>A slender volume that came to be written because the publishing -firm had four paintings of Chinese actors which they -wanted to issue in calendar form with a few words of comment -from the well-known sinologue. Mr. Johnston became -absorbed in the subject and wrote so much and so interestingly -on it that Kelly & Walsh decided to make a book out -of it. The text is much better than the pictures.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Le Théâtre Chinois. Chu Chia-chien. Paris, 1922.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>The chief features of this book are the excellent paintings -and sketches made in Peking theaters by the Russian artist, -Alexandre Jacovleff. An English edition has been published -by Putnam. No other book can give such a vivid notion of -the real appearance as well as the spirit of the Chinese stage -as this volume of inspired drawings. M. Chu Chia-chien, -instructor in the École des Langues Orientales in Paris, writes -well, but too briefly, on the conditions and conventions of the -Chinese stage.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Chinesische Literatur. Eduard Erkes. Hirt, Breslau, -1924.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>A brief, but up-to-the-minute sketch of Chinese literature. -This volume by a University of Leipzig Privatdozent is one -of a series on the literatures of various nations. The book -came to me too late to include what it said on the origin of -the theater in China in the text, and therefore I shall quote -an interesting paragraph here. (The author speaks of the -Pear Garden origin as a myth and says that the Chinese had -a theater as early as other nations):</p> - -<p>“<i>Es hat sich aus den bei festlichen Gelegenheiten aller Art, -bei Krieg und Jagd, bei Opfer und Gelage, inszenierten Tänzen -entwickelt, in denen man vorher im Spiel darstellte, was sich -nachher zutragen sollte, um so auf magische Weise das Geschick<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> -günstig zu lenken, und nachher seiner Freude mimischen -Ausdruck verlieh. Zu diesen Tänzen sang man Wechselgesänge -mit Rede und Gegenrede, wie solche uns anscheinend -aus mehreren Liedern des Schi-king erhalten sind, so dasz -das China der Urzeit auch hierin das Leben anderer primitiver -Völker geführt hat. Aus Südchina sind uns Texte solcher -Dramen religiösen Charakters, wie sie auch K’üh Yüan im -dritten Jahrhundert vor Christo bearbeitete, mehrfach überliefert, -und bereits aus dem Jahre 545 v. Chr. haben wir eine -Notiz nach der bei Tempelfesten, ganz ähnlich wie im alten -Hellas, nach den ernsten Schaustellungen eine Burleske von -den Stallknechten aufgeführt wurde. Das zeigt also, dasz die -dramatische Kunst der Tang-Zeit nicht einen Anfang, sondern -nur eine späte Etappe auf einem langen Wege bedeutet. -Auch die Han-Zeit hatte ihre Singspiele, die bereits mit -einem umfangreichen szenischen Apparat auf geführt wurden -und vielleicht kompliziertere Bühneneinrichtungen voraussetzen -lassen, als sie das heutzutage an Einfachheit unserer -modernsten Schaubühne ebenbürtige—vielleicht für sie vorbildlich -gewordene?—chinesische Theater jetzt bietet.</i>” -Pages 58-59.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging">Altchinesische Liebeskomödien, aus dem chinesischen -Urtexte ausgewählt und übertragen von Hans Rudelsberger. -Kunstverlag von Anton Schroll & Co. Wien, -1923.</p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>Free translations of five comedies of love (among them two -comedies discussed in this book on pages 33 and 96). The -work is a splendid specimen of book-making with five colored -illustrations by the Chinese artist Hua Mei-chai and numerous -woodcuts from the original Chinese editions.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging"><i>Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic -Society.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquote smaller"> - -<p>This very interesting journal, so far as I have been able -to examine the files, contains only two articles on the theater: -Volume XX, “Chinese Theatricals”, and Volume XXI, -“Histrionic Notes.” Neither is very important.</p> - -</div> - -<p>This bibliography is by no means exhaustive. There -are a great many articles not mentioned here, but they are -generally not very instructive. In most cases they are -written by travelers who note the obvious things about -the Chinese theater. Naturally there is also a great deal -of repetition in these writings.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> As I find the Revised Version, with a fuller understanding of -Oriental life, prefers to phrase it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Commercial Press, Shanghai, 1915.—A small volume of about -200 pages. Not translated into a European language.—The same -author has issued a “Dramatical Catalogue”, same publishers, 1917.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Quoted by De Groot, “Religious Systems of China”, vol. VI, -p. 1187.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> The chief reason why theatricals are given at the village temples -to-day is that they are public buildings with convenient stages. Not -only religious but also secular plays are performed, sometimes vulgar -and immoral ones. On the whole the moral standard of the Chinese -stage is very high and must be called a good influence for the largely -illiterate population. The worship at Chinese temples in the course -of the religious festivals has the general character of a carnival with -money changers, booths for eating and drinking, acrobats, magicians, -beggars, gambling devices, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> See Sir William Ridgeway, “The Dramas and Dramatic Dances -of Non-European Races in Special Reference to the Origin of Greek -Tragedy,” Cambridge University Press, 1915.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Professor Porter calls my attention to the fact that Doctor Hu -Shih calls these court jesters “sophists.” They were the ones to make -the shrewdest observations among all courtiers. The suggestion of -the revolutionary element probably accounts for the death sentence.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> <i>La Revue de Genève</i>, January, 1921.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Note by Professor Porter: Mr. Wang develops his argument -very well, using evidence from the odd foreign names of countries, -localities and places. At the period it is known that there was extensive -intercourse between Western countries and China along the -northern and southern caravan routes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Page 257.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> The difficulty in acquiring a reading knowledge of the classical -Chinese (Wen Li) does not consist chiefly in learning to read five -thousand or more ideograms—that is only a minor trouble—but in -the retention in the memory of the texts of the classics to which constant -allusion is made in a manner to confuse utterly the uninitiated. -“The dragon has gone down to the sea” means “the emperor has -died.” Or to translate the idea into English; the Bible says, “The -words of the wise are as goads” (Ecclesiastes xii, II) and Shakespeare -(Hamlet V, I). “There is no ancient gentleman but gardeners”; -therefore the reader would have to know that “goads” stands -for the words of the wise and “ancient gentlemen” for gardeners. -But connoisseurs regard this classical language as the greatest -monument of China, far finer than Sung pottery or the Temple -of Heaven. Said a friend to me one day, picking up a copy of -Omar at the verse:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">O Thou, who man of baser earth didst make,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And didst with Paradise devise the snake,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">For all the sin wherewith the face of man</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Is blackened, man’s forgiveness give and take.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">“Such is this wonderfully rich, poetic Wen Li, while in Pai Hua (the -vernacular) this same thought would cover pages of dull, colorless -prose.” Of course, the spoken language is still as poor a vehicle for -poetic thought as Italian was before Dante, but its advocates hope for -its growth and development.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> “Travels of Marco Polo”, Everyman Edition, Dutton and Company, -page 186.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> The Chinese woman must as a child obey her father, as a wife -her husband, and as a widow her son. The four wifely virtues are: -(1) to honor and serve her mother-in-law; (2) to respect her husband; -(3) to live in peace with her sisters-in-law; and (4) to have -pity on the poor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> See <a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">Bibliography</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> The Chinese name for the instrument is <i>chin</i>. Chinese writers -on music have set down seven conditions under which one should not -play the instrument: when one has just heard the news of a death; -when some one is playing the flute in the vicinity; when one is oppressed -by business cares; when one has not purified his body; when -one is not wearing the ceremonial cap and gown; when one has not -lighted sweet-smelling incense; and when there is not present a friend -who understands music. Chancellor Tsai Yuan-pei, until 1923 the -head of the National University in Peking, was a believer in training in -æsthetics, and considered a proper appreciation of the music of the chin -a most desirable element in the <i>mental equipment</i> of a cultured man.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Giles, “Chinese Literature”, page 155. “A poet should not dot -his i’s. The Chinese reader likes to do that for himself, each according -to his own fancy. Hence such a poem as the following, often -quoted as a model in its own particular line:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“A tortoise I see</div> - <div class="verse indent6">on a lotus-flower resting:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A bird mid the reeds</div> - <div class="verse indent6">and the rushes is nesting;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A light skiff propelled</div> - <div class="verse indent6">by some boatman’s fair daughter,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Whose song dies away</div> - <div class="verse indent6">o’er the fast-flowing water.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> A most readable biography in English has just been published -by the Commercial Press, Shanghai: “Yang Kuei-fei”, by Mrs. Wu -Lien-teh.—In the <i>Mercure de France</i>, beginning August, 1922, there -appeared a fascinating series of articles: “La Passion de Yang Kuei-fei”, -by Soulie, translations of songs by blind Chinese singers woven -into the story of the greatest Chinese tale of love.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> “The Jade Chaplet, A Collection of Songs, Ballads, etc., from -the Chinese.” Trübner and Company, London, 1874.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> The Chinese actually say that the birds imitated her voice in -their notes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> One of the many complaints against Yang Kuei-fei was her fancy -for fresh <i>Li-chihs</i>. She was so fond of these, that she had them, -when in season, brought from the South to Ch’ang An daily, a distance -of three thousand <i>li</i>. This apparently simple fancy was the cause of -immense suffering, distress, and injustice; the messengers carrying -the luxury, presuming on the protection of their mistress, committed -all manner of depredation and violence.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Yang Kuei-fei had intrigued with a noble named An Lu-shan, -who afterwards raised the standard of rebellion, it is said, with the -hope of obtaining possession of her. Be that as it may, the Emperor -assembled a large army, and accompanied by Yang Kuei-fei, went to -meet him. On arriving at a place called Ma-kuei in Sze-chuen, the -Emperor’s troops mutinied, declaring that Yang Kuei-fei was the -cause of the rebellion, and demanding her life, otherwise they would -not fight. The Emperor, having no alternative, was forced to comply. -Some say he ordered her to be strangled, and that this was done by -the soldiers; others again, that she strangled herself—the latter appears -the correct version.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> For similar practices among the Romans, see Sumner, “Folkways”, -page 445.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> See also <a href="#Page_91">pages 91 and 92</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> See Bibliography, book by Arène, for examples.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> See outline, <a href="#Page_105">page 105</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> About a year after the earthquake Tokio’s Imperial Theater was -reopened, and the Japanese honored Mei Lan-fang by engaging him -for this occasion.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> This popular figure, called also “big stomach” or “cloth sack” -Buddha, is laughing in anticipation of the happiness to come. His -image is found in practically all Buddhist temples and frequently -among the <i>bibelots</i> collected by foreigners. In regard to the taste of -collectors, Baron de Staël-Holstein, a Russian scholar versed in -Buddhist lore, remarked to me one day, “The ugliest of all these -figures is the one most sought after by Westerners.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> See <a href="#Page_83">page 83<i>ff.</i></a></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> See Haigh, “The Tragic Drama of the Greeks”, Oxford University -Press; Murray, “Ancient Greek Literature”, Appleton, etc.—So -far as I know no scholar has suggested that the goat did the singing -of the “goat songs.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> See “Sacred Books of the East”, vol. XXVIII, pp. 92-131.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> This has now come to an end. In October, 1924, the deposed -emperor was driven out of his palace by the “Christian” General -Feng Yu-hsiang.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> Thorndyke, “Shakespeare’s Theater”, Macmillan Company, -page 139.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> <i>Ib.</i>, page 87.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Page 76.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, page 394.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> See Taine’s description, Book II, chapter II, in his “History of -English Literature.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Page 261.—According to my friend Ferdinand Lessing, a German -sinologist, Giles has here made a mistake. In Lessing’s words, -Chinese plays contain “<i>faustdicke Zoten</i>.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> “Shakespeare’s England,” II, 308<i>ff.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Quoted from “Shakespeare’s England”, II, 246. See also -Thorndyke’s “Shakespeare’s Theater”, page 372.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Goethe, “Frauenrollen auf dem römischen Theater von Männern -gespielt.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> “Shakespeare’s England”, page 252<i>ff.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> “Shakespeare’s England”, II, 241.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Thorndyke, page 138, refers to this article, but takes no stock -in Mr. Corbin’s arguments. He says that darkness was symbolized -by lighted candles, etc., which is precisely the thing done on the -Chinese stage.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> “Shakespeare’s England”, II, 301.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/header1.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -</div> - -<p class="center">[The names of Chinese dramas are printed in italics]</p> - -<ul> - -<li class="ifrst">Albright, Victor, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Amateurs">Amateurs, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Archer, William, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Autumn in the House of Han.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Sorrows_of_Han"><span class="smcap">Sorrows of Han</span></a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bakst, Leon, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bazin, A. P. L., <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Beating_Husband"><i>Beating the Heartless Husband</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Beating_Nephew"><i>Beating the Nephew and Worshiping at the Grave</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Fan"><i>Blood-Stained Fan, The</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brodmeier, Professor, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Flowers"><i>Burying the Flowers</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Pig"><i>Butchering the Pig</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="Chalk_Circle"><i>Chalk Circle, The</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ch’ang An, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chang Chien, Mr., <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="ChangO"><i>Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the Moon</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104 <i>ff.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ch’ang-O Pin Yüeh.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#ChangO"><span class="smcap">Ch’ang-O’s Flight to the Moon</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ch’ang Shan Tien. <i>See</i> <a href="#Palace"><span class="smcap">Palace of Eternal Life</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chang Yao-shang, actor, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chang Ziang-ling, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chao Chia Ku-er.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Orphan"><span class="smcap">Orphan of the Chao Family</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chao Mei Hsiang.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Intrigues"><span class="smcap">Intrigues of a Lady’s Maid</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chao Tsung, Emperor, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Character_Types">Character Types, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chen Kwang Theater, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ch’i San Hui.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Three_Strange_Meetings"><span class="smcap">Three Strange Meetings</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ch’ien Lung, Emperor, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ch’ing Shang Lao Shüeh.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Slave_Girl"><span class="smcap">Slave Girl Plays Tricks on the Old Schoolmaster</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ch’ing Shih Shan, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chu Fang Tsao.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Pig"><span class="smcap">Butchering the Pig</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chu Sha Chü.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Cinnabar_Spot"><span class="smcap">Cinnabar Spot, A</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chu Su-yün, actor, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chü T’eng Kuan Hua.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Trial_of_Strength"><span class="smcap">Trial of Strength and Viewing the Ancestral Portraits</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chu Yuan-chang. <i>See</i> <a href="#Hung_Wu"><span class="smcap">Hung Wu</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ch’un Yin Hui.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Many_Heroes"><span class="smcap">Meeting of Many Heroes</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Cinnabar_Spot"><i>Cinnabar Spot, A</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Civil Plays, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Classical Language. <i>See</i> <a href="#Wen_Li"><span class="smcap">Wen Li</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Clowns">Clowns, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>. <i>Cf.</i> <a href="#Court_Fools"><span class="smcap">Court Fools</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Commedia">Commedia dell’ Arte, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Confucius, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corbin, John, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coryat, Thomas, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Court Fool, Yu Meng, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span>Yu Sze, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Court_Fools">Court Fools, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. <i>Cf.</i> <a href="#Clowns"><span class="smcap">Clowns</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Craig, Gordon, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Milky_Way"><i>Crossing the Milky Way</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dances, Dramatic, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dottore. <i>See</i> <a href="#Commedia"><span class="smcap">Commedia dell’ Arte</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Red_Chamber">Dream of the Red Chamber, The, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Drunkard"><i>Drunkard</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Duke Lan Lu, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dwarfs, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. <i>Cf.</i> <a href="#Court_Fools"><span class="smcap">Court Fools</span></a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="Elizabethan_Theater">Elizabethan Theater, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194 <i>ff.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Empress Dowager, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fan Kuai, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Feng Yu-hsiang, General, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fools, Court. <i>See</i> <a href="#Court_Fools"><span class="smcap">Court Fools</span></a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gamble, Sidney, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Giles, Herbert, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goodrich, Mrs., <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Greatest Event in Life, The</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119 <i>ff.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Greek_Theater">Greek Theater, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192 <i>ff.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grube, Wilhelm, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Han Hsi-ch’ang, actor, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Han Kung Tsu.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Sorrows_of_Han"><span class="smcap">Sorrows of Han</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Han Lin Academy, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harlequin. <i>See</i> <a href="#Commedia"><span class="smcap">Commedia dell’ Arte</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ho Lan-chi.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Chalk_Circle"><span class="smcap">Chalk Circle, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ho Lang Tan.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Singing_Girl"><span class="smcap">Singing Girl, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ho Yi, Emperor, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hsi Hsiang Chi.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Western_Chamber"><span class="smcap">Western Chamber, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hsien, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hsü Mu Ma Tsao.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Hsus_Mother"><span class="smcap">Hsü’s Mother Curses Tsao Tsao</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Hsus_Mother"><i>Hsü’s Mother Curses Tsao Tsao</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Hu_Shih">Hu Shih, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hung Lou Meng. <i>See</i> <a href="#Red_Chamber"><span class="smcap">Dream of the Red Chamber, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hung Sen, author, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Hung_Wu">Hung Wu, Emperor, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="Intrigues">Intrigue of a Lady’s Maid, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">I-Yin, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jade Palace, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jen Tsung, Emperor, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jesters. <i>See</i> <a href="#Court_Fools"><span class="smcap">Court Fools</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jung Tu-shan, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>K’an Tsien Wu.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Miser"><span class="smcap">Miser, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">K’ang Hsi, Emperor, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kuan Han-ching, dramatist, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kuan Yin, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kublai Khan, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kung Chuan Chi.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Ruse_of_the_Empty_City"><span class="smcap">Ruse of the Empty City</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kung Shang-jen, author, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lao Tze, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Laufer, Berthold, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lessing, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Li Fang-yün, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Li Shou-shan, actor, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Li Yuan Tzu-ti, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Liao Chai. <i>See</i> <a href="#Strange_Stories"><span class="smcap">Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Literary Language. <i>See</i> <a href="#Wen_Li"><span class="smcap">Wen Li</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Liu Ming-ju, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Liu Yen Ming, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span><i>Mask, The</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Many_Heroes"><i>Meeting of Many Heroes, The</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mei Lan-fang, <a href="#CHAPTER_EIGHT">Chapter VIII</a>; <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mencius, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Military Plays, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Ming_Huang">Ming Huang (Yuen Tsung), Emperor, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Miser"><i>Miser, The</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35 <i>ff.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mu Lan</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Music">Music, Types of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191 <i>ff.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Musical Instruments, <a href="#Page_148">148 <i>ff.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>New Mayor, The</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New World, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ngoh Chia Chuan.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Ngoh"><span class="smcap">Ngoh Family Village</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Ngoh"><i>Ngoh Family Village</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="Orphan">Orphan of the Chao Family, The, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="Pai_Hua"><i>Pai Hua</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Palace">Palace of Eternal Life, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pang Ta Poo Ching Lang.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Beating_Husband"><span class="smcap">Beating the Heartless Husband</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pantalone. <i>See</i> <a href="#Commedia"><span class="smcap">Commedia dell’ Arte</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pantomimes, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Pavilion"><i>Pavilion of the Royal Monument</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pear Garden, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pi Pa Chi.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Story_of_a_Lute"><span class="smcap">Story of a Lute</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">P’iao Yu. <i>See</i> <a href="#Amateurs"><span class="smcap">Amateurs</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Plays">Plays, Types of, <a href="#Page_146">146 <i>ff.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Po She Chuan.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Snakes"><span class="smcap">White and Black Snakes, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Porter, Lucius, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Precious_Hairpin">Precious Hairpin, The, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Reinhardt, Max, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ridgeway, Professor William, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Ruse_of_the_Empty_City"><i>Ruse of the Empty City, The</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Ruse_of_the_Nail"><i>Ruse of the Nail, The</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">San Kuo Chi. <i>See</i> <a href="#Three_Kingdoms"><span class="smcap">Three Kingdoms, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>San Yao Hui.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Shaking_Dice"><span class="smcap">Shaking Dice</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scapino. <i>See</i> <a href="#Commedia"><span class="smcap">Commedia dell’ Arte</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Seasonal Plays, <a href="#Page_104">104 <i>ff.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Seeing the Ancestral Portraits.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Trial_of_Strength"><span class="smcap">Trial of Strength</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Shaking_Dice"><i>Shaking Dice</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sha Tze Pao.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Slaying_the_Son"><span class="smcap">Slaying the Son</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Shang Ting Chi.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Ruse_of_the_Nail"><span class="smcap">Ruse of the Nail</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shih Hu. <i>See</i> <a href="#Hu_Shih"><span class="smcap">Hu Shih</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shih Wang-ti, Emperor, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shui Hu Chuan. <i>See</i> <a href="#Story_of_a_River_Bank"><span class="smcap">Story of a River Bank</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Singing_Girl"><i>Singing Girl, The</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Slave_Girl"><i>Slave Girl Plays Tricks on the Old Schoolmaster, The</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Slaying_the_Son"><i>Slaying of the Son</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, Doctor Arthur H., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Snow in June.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Tou-E"><span class="smcap">Sufferings of Tou-E</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soong Tsung-faung, author, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sophists. <i>See</i> <a href="#Court_Fools"><span class="smcap">Court Fools</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sorrowful Korean, The</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Sorrows_of_Han"><i>Sorrows of Han</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spring Willow Dramatic Society, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ssu Pao-pi.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Drunkard"><span class="smcap">Drunkard, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stäel Holstein, Baron de, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stanton, William, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span>Stent, George Carter, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stephenson, Professor H. T., <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Story_of_a_Lute"><i>Story of a Lute.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#CHAPTER_THREE"><span class="smcap">Chapter III</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Story_of_a_River_Bank">Story of the River Bank, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Strange_Stories">Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Suen Lo Ngao, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Tou-E"><i>Sufferings of Tou-E</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Ta Chih Shang Wen.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Beating_Nephew"><span class="smcap">Beating the Nephew</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ta Yin Ho.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Milky_Way"><span class="smcap">Crossing the Milky Way</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tai Yü Chuan Hua.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Flowers"><span class="smcap">Burying the Flowers</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Taine, H., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">T’an Shen-pei, actor, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">T’an Shoo-shan, actor, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>T’ao Hua Shan.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Fan"><span class="smcap">Blood-Stained Fan, The</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Taoism, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Teh Hing, actor, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Theater. <i>See</i> <a href="#Elizabethan_Theater"><span class="smcap">Elizabethan Theater</span></a>; <a href="#Greek_Theater"><span class="smcap">Greek Theater</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thorndyke, Professor A. H., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Three_Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms, The, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Three Pulls.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Three_Strange_Meetings"><span class="smcap">Three Strange Meetings</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Three_Strange_Meetings"><i>Three Strange Meetings</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tiger, The</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">T’ing Hua, critic, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tou-E.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Tou-E"><span class="smcap">Sufferings of Tou-E</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Transmigration of You Hsin</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Trial_of_Strength"><i>Trial of Strength and Viewing the Ancestral Portraits</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tsai Yuan-pei, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tung Lo Yuan, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Types of Character. <i>See</i> <a href="#Character_Types"><span class="smcap">Character Types</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Types of Music. <i>See</i> <a href="#Music"><span class="smcap">Music, Types of</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Types of Plays. <i>See</i> <a href="#Plays"><span class="smcap">Plays, Types of</span></a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vernacular. <i>See</i> <a href="#Pai_Hua"><span class="smcap">Pai Hua</span></a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wang Kuo-wei, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Wen_Li">Wen Li, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Western_Chamber"><i>Western Chamber, The</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Snakes"><i>White and Black Snakes, The</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wu, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wu Lien-teh, Mrs., <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wu Wang, Empress, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yang Kuei-fei, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72 <i>ff.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181 <i>ff.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="YKf"><i>Yang Kuei-fei on a Spree</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Yang Kuei-fei Tsui Chou.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#YKf"><span class="smcap">Yang Kuei-fei on a Spree</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Yang Shiao-lo, actor, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Yellow Jacket, The</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Yi Tsai Hua</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Yo Fei, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Young Nun Seeks Love, A</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Yü Chan Chih.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Precious_Hairpin"><span class="smcap">Precious Hairpin, A</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Yu Meng, Court Fool, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Yü Pei T’ing.</i> <i>See</i> <a href="#Pavilion"><span class="smcap">Pavilion of the Royal Monument</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Yü San-yen, actor, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Yü Sze, Court Fool, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Yuen Tsung. <i>See</i> <a href="#Ming_Huang"><span class="smcap">Ming Huang</span></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Yung Lo, Emperor, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -</ul> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHINESE THEATER ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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