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diff --git a/old/69989-0.txt b/old/69989-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 979d206..0000000 --- a/old/69989-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10098 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Handicraft for boys, by A. Frederick -Collins - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Handicraft for boys - -Author: A. Frederick Collins - -Release Date: February 8, 2023 [eBook #69989] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HANDICRAFT FOR BOYS *** - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Text printed in italics and bold face in the source document has - been transcribed _between underscores_ and _between equal signs= - respectively. Small capitals have been transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. - Text ~between tildes~ represents letter-like shapes rather than - characters. Text +between plus signs+ was printed in the specific - font mentioned, or in a sans-serif font. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - -HANDICRAFT FOR BOYS - - -[Illustration: A MODEL ENGINE CONSTRUCTED FROM DIAGRAMS SHOWN IN THIS -BOOK] - - - - - HANDICRAFT - FOR BOYS - - BY - A. FREDERICK COLLINS - - INVENTOR OF THE WIRELESS TELEPHONE - - _Author of “Inventing for Boys,” “The - Boys’ Book of Submarines,” etc._ - - _WITH 185 ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS_ - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK - FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY - PUBLISHERS - - - _Copyright, 1918, by_ - FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY - - _All rights reserved_ - - - TO - MY NEPHEW AND NIECE - CLARENCE AND MAY ZEITLER - - - - -A WORD TO THE BOY - - -Your life, if you live it like the average boy, is split up into four -parts and these are (1) eating, (2) sleeping, (3) working and (4) -playing. - -Now I haven’t a word to say about the first three phases of your -existence for you will attend pretty well to the eating and sleeping -ends, and your elders will quite likely see to it that you get enough -work to do in and out of school. - -But when it comes to playing I want to edge in, for this is a very -important and often a sadly neglected part of your daily routine. There -are three kinds of playing, namely (a) where your mind only is engaged -as for instance at dominoes, checkers or chess, (b) where your body is -chiefly in action as in gymnastics and outdoor games, and (c) where -your mind and body are doing something more or less constructive. - -This book which I have written for you deals with playing of the latter -kind and while I don’t want you to get so interested in any of the -various arts and crafts described to the extent of using all your spare -hours doing it, still it is a great mistake not to have a hobby such -as jig-sawing, printing, die-sinking or the like. There is something -tremendously fascinating about visualizing things in your brain and -then fashioning them with your hands and you ought to do it. - -Different from other kinds of playing the by-products of these arts and -crafts last a long time after your efforts have been spent upon them -and it is a source of great pleasure to look at them once in a while -and know that you made them with your own hands. - -Not only is there the fun of planning and doing the things I have -described, but you will at the same time pick up a lot of information -and, what is of far more value, your brain and eyes and hands will -learn to work together like a dynamo direct connected to an engine, and -then you can depend on them to serve you well whenever the occasion may -arise. - - A. FREDERICK COLLINS. - - “The Antlers,” - Congers, N. Y. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. CARPENTRY WORK AND CABINET MAKING 1 - - THE TOOLS YOU NEED -- THE KINDS OF TOOLS -- SOME HINTS ON - USING TOOLS - - How to Hold a Hammer -- How to Use a Saw -- How to Use - a Plane -- How to Use Chisels and Gouges -- How to Use - a Brace and Bit -- How to Use a Rule -- How to Use a - Marking Gauge -- How to Use Hand Screws and Clamps -- - How to Use a Nail Set -- How to Use a Gimlet -- How to - Drive Nails and Screws -- How to Make a Glue-Pot -- How - to Make Good Glue and How to Use It - - HOW TO SHARPEN YOUR TOOLS - - About Sharpening Saws -- About Sharpening Chisels and - Plane Bits -- About Sharpening Auger Bits - - HOW TO TAKE CARE OF YOUR TOOLS -- REMOVING RUST FROM - TOOLS -- TO ETCH YOUR NAME ON TOOLS -- KINDS OF WOOD TO - USE - - Pine; Cedar; Mahogany; Oak; Birch; Walnut - - HOW TO MAKE JOINTS - - Edge Joints -- Corner Joints - - ABOUT WORKING DRAWINGS -- THINGS FOR YOU TO MAKE - - How to Make a Work Bench -- How to Make a Tool Chest - - - II. SCROLL SAWING, WOOD TURNING, WOOD CARVING, ETC. 24 - - ALL ABOUT SCROLL SAWING - - SCROLL SAWING OUTFITS -- A CHEAP SCROLL SAWING OUTFIT - - How to Use the Scroll Saw - - A FEW OTHER HELPFUL THINGS - - A Hand Saw-Table -- Files for Scroll Work -- A Twist - Drill Stock -- A Pair of Pliers -- A Small Hammer -- - Scroll Saw Blades - - HOW TO TRACE A DESIGN ON WOOD -- DESIGNS FOR SCROLL - SAWING -- FOOT-POWER SCROLL SAWS - - The Cricket Scroll Saw -- The Lester Scroll saw -- - The Fleetwood Scroll Saw - - HOW A FOOT-POWER SCROLL SAW WORKS -- HOW TO SAW ON A - FOOT-POWER SCROLL SAW -- FANCY WOODS FOR SCROLL SAW - OUTFITS -- TABLE OF SCROLL SAW WOODS -- TRIMMINGS FOR - BOXES, ETC. - - TURNING IN WOOD - - GET A LATHE FIRST - - How a Lathe is Made - - THE CHEAPEST LATHE YOU CAN BUY - - Attachments for the Companion Lathe - - TURNING TOOLS FOR WOOD -- HOW TO TURN WOOD - - THE ART OF WOOD CARVING - - YOUR SET OF CARVING TOOLS -- THE BEST WOODS FOR CARVING - -- KINDS OF WOOD CARVING - - Chip Carving -- Panel Carving -- Carving in Solid - Wood - - PYROGRAPHY, OR WOOD BURNING - - THE NECESSARY TOOLS - - How to Make an Etching Tool -- How to Make an Alcohol - Lamp -- A Better Outfit -- About the Designs -- How - to Burn in the Designs - - COLORING AND STAINING WOOD - - Where to Buy Stains -- Ebony Stain -- Fumed Oak - - - III. METALS AND METAL WORKING 56 - - YOUR KIT OF TOOLS -- THE VARIOUS KINDS OF TOOLS -- SOME - HINTS ON USING THE TOOLS - - About Sharpening Tools - - METALS AND THEIR USES - - Iron - Wrought Iron - Steel - Tin - Zinc - Lead - Copper - Aluminum - - A FEW USEFUL ALLOYS - - Brass Type-Metal Pewter - - HOW TO DO METAL WORK -- FIRST SKETCH YOUR IDEAS -- - SHEET METAL WORK - - Cutting and Sawing -- Making Seams and Joints - - HOW TO SOLDER METALS - - Fluxes Solders - - BOLTS AND RIVETS -- BENDING SHEET METAL -- FINISHING UP - METALS -- COLORING METALS - - Bluing Steel -- Bluing Brass -- Giving Brass a Green - Color -- Giving Brass a Dull Look -- Frosting Brass - Articles -- Lacquering Brass and Copper -- How to - Make the Lacquer - - - IV. VENETIAN IRON, REPOUSSÉ, PIERCED BRASS AND PEWTER WORK 76 - - VENETIAN BENT IRON WORK - - THE TOOLS YOU MUST HAVE -- THE MATERIALS YOU NEED -- - WHAT TO DO FIRST - - Making a Simple Design - - HOW TO MAKE A TOASTER -- HOW TO MAKE AN EGG BOILER -- - HOW TO MAKE A VENETIAN PLATE HOLDER - - A Dead Black Finish for Iron Work - - DOING REPOUSSÉ WORK - - TOOLS NEEDED FOR REPOUSSÉ WORK -- HOW TO PREPARE THE - WORK -- TRACING THE DESIGN -- BOSSING THE WORK -- HOW - TO MAKE A FLAT CANDLESTICK -- HOW TO MAKE A PHOTO FRAME - - Cleaning and Polishing Metal Work -- Finishing, - Coloring and Lacquering Metals - - PIERCED METAL WORK - - THE OUTFIT TO DO IT WITH -- HOW TO DO THE WORK - - CASTING AND WORKING PEWTER - - SOMETHING ABOUT PEWTER -- HOW TO MAKE PEWTER -- ABOUT - WORKING PEWTER -- HOW TO CAST PEWTER -- THE PATTERNS - NECESSARY -- MAKING THE MOLD -- FINISHING THE WARE - - ENGRAVING ON METAL - - THE TOOLS THAT ARE USED -- HOW TO ENGRAVE ON METAL - - - V. DRAWING SIMPLY EXPLAINED 103 - - FREE-HAND DRAWING - - TALENT VERSUS PRACTICE -- PICTURES FOR YOU TO DRAW -- - SIMPLE LINE SKETCHES -- SKETCHING SIMPLE OUTLINE - FIGURES -- THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE -- HOW - TO DRAW FACES -- SKETCHING STILL LIFE OBJECTS -- - DRAWING IN PERSPECTIVE - - The Vanishing Point - - HOW TO SHADE A DRAWING - - WORKING DRAWINGS - - DRAWING TOOLS YOU SHOULD HAVE -- SIMPLE WORKING - DRAWINGS - - Making Plain Drawings -- Isometric Perspective - Drawings - - SOME SIMPLE AIDS TO DRAWING - - HOW TO DRAW A CIRCLE -- HOW TO DRAW A SPIRAL -- HOW TO - DRAW AN ELLIPSE -- HOW TO MAKE AND USE A PANTAGRAPH -- - HOW TO MAKE A REFLECTING DRAWING BOARD -- HOW TO MAKE - TRACINGS -- TO MAKE LASTING IMPRESSIONS -- THE ANCIENT - AND HONORED ART OF CUTTING SILHOUETTES -- TRANSFER - PICTURES OF DECALCOMANIA - - How to Transfer the Pictures - - - VI. SOME KINKS IN PHOTOGRAPHY 131 - - HOW TO MAKE BLUE PRINTS - - The Materials Required - - ANOTHER KIND OF CONTACT PRINTING - - To Tone and Fix the Pictures -- Receipt for a - Combined Toning and Fixing Solution - - THE SIMPLEST KIND OF A CAMERA -- HOW TO DEVELOP A DRY - PLATE - - How to Make the Developer -- How to Make a Fixing - Bath - - A GOOD AND CHEAP CAMERA -- HOW TO MAKE AN ENLARGING - APPARATUS -- HOW TO MAKE AN ENLARGEMENT - - A Developer for Bromide Paper - - HOW TO MAKE A REFLECTOSCOPE - - How to Use the Reflectoscope - - HOW TO MAKE A MAGIC LANTERN - - How to Work the Lantern - - HOW TO MAKE LANTERN SLIDES -- HOW TO MAKE RADIUM - PHOTOGRAPHS - - TRICK PHOTOGRAPHY - - SPIRIT PHOTOGRAPHS -- ONE WAY TO CATCH BIG FISH -- - TAKING CARICATURE PHOTOGRAPHS - - - VII. PRINTING AND ITS ALLIED ARTS 157 - - KINDS OF PRINTING PRESSES -- THE PARTS OF A SELF-INKING - PRESS -- HOW THE PRESS WORKS -- SIZES AND PRICES OF - PRESSES -- THE OUTFIT YOU NEED - - Outfit for a 3 × 5 Press -- Outfit for a 5 × 8 Press - -- Outfit for an 8 × 10 Press - - ABOUT TYPE AND TYPE SETTING - - Relative Number of Type Letters -- Styles of Type -- - The Parts of a Type -- The Sizes of Type -- Table of - Type Sizes -- Your Type Cases -- Setting the Type - - MAKING READY -- PRINTING THE JOB -- HOW TO CLEAN TYPE - -- ABOUT DISTRIBUTING TYPE -- THE INK AND ROLLERS -- - PRINTING IN COLORS -- PRINTING IN GOLD -- AND FINALLY - YOUR STOCK SUPPLY - - THE ART OF PAPER MAKING - - WHAT PAPER IS -- HOW TO MAKE PAPER - - Making the Pulp -- The Molds You Need -- Laying the - Paper - - SIZING AND FINISHING - - HOW TO BIND BOOKS - - Making the Cover -- Sewing the Book -- Putting on the - title - - - VIII. RUBBER STAMPS, DIE SINKING, BURNING BRANDS AND STENCILS 183 - - RUBBER STAMPS - - HOW TO MAKE RUBBER STAMPS - - The Materials Needed - - MAKING THE MOLD -- VULCANIZING THE RUBBER -- MOUNTING - THE RUBBER -- HOW TO USE A RUBBER STAMP - - How to Make an Ink Pad - - HOW TO MAKE RUBBER STAMP INK -- HOW TO MAKE A COPYGRAPH - PAD -- HOW TO COPY A LETTER -- HOW TO MAKE HECTOGRAPH - INKS - - DIE SINKING - - HOW TO MAKE BADGES, NAME PLATES, ETC. -- HOW TO SINK - THE LETTERS -- FINISHING UP THE BADGE - - BURNING BRANDS - - HOW TO MAKE A BURNING BRAND - - How to Use the Burning Brand - - STENCILS - - HOW TO CUT STENCILS - - Cutting Paper Stencils -- Cutting Brass Stencils -- - How to Use Practical Stencils -- How to Make Stencil - Ink -- How to Use Decorative Stencils -- Mixing - Colors for Stenciling Borders - - - IX. THE ART OF WORKING GLASS 202 - - WHAT GLASS IS -- HOW TO CUT GLASS -- HOW TO USE A GLASS - CUTTER -- HOW TO FINISH OFF GLASS EDGES -- HOW TO DRILL - HOLES IN GLASS -- A COUPLE OF WAYS TO CUT GLASS TUBING - -- HOW TO CUT GLASS DISKS -- HOW TO BEND GLASS TUBING - - What a Bunsen Burner Is - - HOW TO BLOW GLASS -- TO ROUND THE ENDS OF TUBES -- TO - BORDER THE ENDS OF TUBES -- TO SEAL ONE END OF A TUBE - -- TO MAKE A GLASS NOZZLE -- TO MAKE A HOLE IN A TUBE - -- TO JOIN TWO TUBES OF THE SAME SIZE -- TO JOIN A TUBE - TO THE SIDE OF ANOTHER TUBE -- TO BLOW A BULB ON THE - END OF A TUBE - - How to Make a Blowpipe -- How to Blow a Bulb - - HOW TO ETCH GLASS - - The Sand Blast Process -- How to Make Ground Glass -- - The Acid Process - - HOW TO CEMENT GLASS -- A SIMPLE WAY TO FROST GLASS - - SUBSTITUTES FOR GLASS - - Mica - Gelatine - - HOW TO SILVER A MIRROR - - - X. TOYS FOR THE KIDDIES 227 - - HOW TO MAKE A POLICEMAN’S PUZZLE -- HOW TO MAKE AN - AUTOMOBILE TRUCK -- HOW TO MAKE A SWELL COASTER -- HOW - TO MAKE A NIFTY WHEELBARROW -- HOW TO MAKE A HIGH-LOW - SWING -- HOW TO MAKE A STICK HORSE -- HOW TO MAKE A - PONY AND CART -- HOW TO MAKE A LIFE-LIKE GOOSE -- HOW - TO MAKE A DANCING SAMBO -- HOW TO MAKE A WIRELESS PUP - - - XI. HOME MADE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 252 - - THE MUSICAL COINS - - How to Make Them -- How to Play Them - - THE MUSICAL TOMATO CANS - - How to Make Them -- To Play the Musical Tomato Cans - - THE MUSICAL GLASSES - - How to Make Them -- How to Play the Glasses - - THE TUBULAR HARP - - How to Make It -- How to Play the Harp - - THE MUSICAL PUSH PIPE - - How to Make It -- How to Play the Push Pipe - - THE CURIOUS XYLOPHONE - - How to Make It -- How to Play the Xylophone - - THE PECULIAR TUBAPHONE - - How to Make It -- How to Play the Tubaphone - - THE CATHEDRAL CHIMES - - How to Make Them -- How to Play the Cathedral Chimes - - THE AEOLIAN HARP - - How to Make It -- How the Wind Plays It - - AN EGYPTIAN FIDDLE - - How to Make It -- How to Make the Bow - - - XII. SOME EVENING ENTERTAINMENTS 274 - - CARTOONS WHILE YOU WAIT - - Drawing the Cartoons - - THIRTY MINUTES OF CHEMISTRY -- THE MYSTIC GLASS OF MILK - -- THE MAGIC FOUNTAIN -- THE VICIOUS SOAP BUBBLES -- - THE UNCANNY WHEEL -- GIVING A TRAVELOGUE -- AN - ELECTRICAL SOIRÉE -- DEMONSTRATING ELECTRICITY WITHOUT - APPARATUS - - The Electrified Papers -- How to Electrify a Person - -- How Like Repels Like - - MAKING EXPERIMENTS WITH APPARATUS - - The Induction, or Spark Coil -- Demonstrating - Wireless Telegraphy - - READING PALMS FOR FUN - - How to Read Palms - - A TALK ON THE STEAM ENGINE - - Making the Model Engine - - HOW THE ENGINE WORKS - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - A Model Engine, Showing the Principal Working Parts _Frontispiece_ - - Some Useful Wood Working Tools 3 - - A Few More Common Wood Working Tools 5 - - A Clamp Often Comes in Handy 7 - - How Edge Joints Are Made 17 - - How Corner Joints Are Made 19 - - An Easily Made Work Bench 20 - - A Wood Vise for Your Work Bench 21 - - A Carpenter’s Tool Chest 22 - - The Tray for Your Tool Chest 23 - - A Simple and Cheap Sawing Outfit 25 - - The Right Way to Use a Hand Scroll Saw 27 - - A Hand Scroll Saw Table 28 - - Some Necessary Scroll Sawing Tools 29 - - Mechanical Masterpieces Made With a Scroll Saw 31 - - The Cheapest Foot-power Scroll Saw Made 32 - - The Lester Scroll Saw with Turning Lathe Attachment 33 - - The Fleetwood Scroll Saw 34 - - The Chief Parts of a Turning Lathe 37 - - The Cheapest Wood Turning Lathe Made 39 - - A Set of Wood Turning Tools 41 - - Putting the Rough Wood in the Lathe 42 - - The Right Way to Hold a Wood Working Tool 42 - - Sizing the Turned Work 43 - - Kinds and Sweeps of Carving Tools 45 - - Markers for Stamping in Backgrounds 46 - - Schemes for Holding Work When Carving 46 - - Kinds of Carving 48 - - A Carved Watch Case Holder 49 - - The Tool Used for Pyrography 52 - - An Outfit that Burns Benzine Vapor 53 - - How the Tool is Heated 54 - - Burning in the Design 54 - - The Chief Metal Working Tools 58 - - Some Other Metal Working Tools 59 - - How Metal Seams and Joints are Made 70 - - Materials You Need for Venetian Iron Work 77 - - A Useful Bent Iron Toaster 79 - - How to Make an Egg Boiler 80 - - An Artistic Venetian Plate Holder 81 - - A Sconce for a Candle 83 - - How to Hold a Repoussé Hammer 84 - - A Punch and Punch Designs for Repoussé Work 85 - - How to Hold a Repoussé Punch 85 - - A Repoussé Candlestick 87 - - A Repoussé Photo Frame 89 - - The Tools You Need for Pierced Brass Work 90 - - A Pierced Brass Candle Shade 91 - - A Pierced Brass Toast Sign 93 - - Iron Ladle for Melting Pewter 95 - - How a Pewter Casting is Made 96 - - Home Made Pewter Ware 98 - - Tools for Engraving on Metal 99 - - How to Hold a Graver 100 - - An Engraving on a Sheet of Copper 101 - - A Simple Line Drawing of a Man and a Horse 104 - - A Simple Outline Drawing of a Boxer and a Race Horse 105 - - The Proportions of the Human Body 106 - - A Full View of the Face 107 - - A Profile View of the Face 108 - - The Vanishing Points of a Perspective Drawing 109 - - How to Find the Vanishing Point 110 - - The Vanishing Points Put to Use 111 - - The Drawing Tools You Need 112 - - The T Square and Triangle on the Drawing Board 114 - - The Plan Drawing for a Box 115 - - The Box Drawn in Isometric Perspective 116 - - How the Lines for Isometric Drawings are Made 117 - - A Sheet of Isometric Drawing Paper 118 - - The Proportions of an Isometric Ellipse 119 - - How to Draw a Circle with a Thread 120 - - How to Draw a Spiral with a Thread 121 - - How to Draw an Ellipse with a Thread 122 - - How a Pantagraph is Made and Used 122 - - How a Reflecting Drawing Board is Made and Used 123 - - A Lasting Carbon (Soot) Impression of Your Hand 125 - - Silhouettes of Your Great-Grand-pa and Great-Grand-ma (When They - Were Young) 127 - - A Photo Printing Frame 131 - - An Easily Made Pin-hole Camera 135 - - The Pin-hole Camera Complete with Cloth and Rubber Bands 137 - - Two Cheap and Good Cameras 139 - - A Home-made Enlarging Apparatus 141 - - A Home-made Enlarging Apparatus 143 - - A Home-made Enlarging Apparatus 144 - - A Cheaply Made Reflectoscope 145 - - A Cross Section Top View of the Reflectoscope 146 - - The Reflectoscope Ready for Use 147 - - The Parts of a Home-made Magic Lantern 149 - - The Magic Lantern Ready for Use 150 - - A Photograph of a Coin Made with Radium 152 - - One Way to Catch a Cod 155 - - How Caricatures are Made 156 - - A Model Self-inking Printing Press 159 - - An Outfit for a Model Press 162 - - The Parts of a Type 165 - - How the Type Cases are Arranged 167 - - The Upper Case 168 - - The Lower Case 168 - - How to Hold a Composing Stick 169 - - Putting a Stick of Type in the Chase 170 - - Tools for Locking Up a Chase 171 - - A Frame for Paper Making 177 - - How to Cut Boards and Cloth for Book Binding 179 - - Sewing on the Muslin Flap 180 - - The Bound Book Complete 181 - - The Matrix Frame, Chase and Boards for Making Rubber Stamps 184 - - The Type in the Chase. Plaster of Paris Impression in the Matrix - Frame 186 - - The Matrix with the Rubber Gum in Place Ready to Vulcanize 187 - - The Rubber Stamp Ready to Use 188 - - Pulling an Impression from the Copygraph 191 - - First Steps in Making a Badge 192 - - The Badge on a Flat-iron in a Vise. Sinking in the Letters 193 - - Steel Letters and Figures for Die Sinking 194 - - Last Steps in Making a Badge 195 - - A Burning Brand of Iron or Copper 197 - - Stencil Letters and Stencils 199 - - Glass Cutters 204 - - The Right Way to Hold a Diamond Point Glass Cutter 205 - - How to Cut a Pane of Glass 205 - - A Cutter for Glass Tubes 207 - - A Circular Glass Cutter 208 - - Kinds of Bunsen Burners 210 - - Bordering the End of a Tube 211 - - Sealing Off the End of a Tube 212 - - How to Make a Hole in a Tube 212 - - Welding Two Tubes Together. Making a T Tube 213 - - A Regular Blow-Pipe 214 - - Cross Section of a Home-made Blow-pipe 215 - - The Glass Blowing Arrangement Ready to Use 216 - - A Regular Foot Bellows 217 - - First Steps in Blowing a Glass Bulb 218 - - Making a Thick Ring of Glass 218 - - Last Step in Blowing a Glass Bulb 219 - - Part of the Apparatus for Sand Blast Etching 220 - - Sand Blast Apparatus Put Together Ready for Etching 221 - - Etching Glass with Acid 223 - - A Policeman’s Puzzle, or Now Will You Be Good 228 - - Plans for the Automobile Truck 229 - - The Automobile Truck Ready to Run 230 - - Plans for a Swell Coaster 231 - - The Coaster Ready to Ride On 232 - - Plans for the Nifty Wheelbarrow. The Barrow Ready to Wheel 234 - - Plans for the High-low Swing 236 - - The Swing Ready to Swing Low, Swing High 237 - - Ride a Stick Horse to Banbury Cross 238 - - Plans for a Pony and Cart. The Pony and Cart When Done 240 - - How the Life-like Goose is Made 241 - - Goosie, Goosie Gander, Where Shall I Wander 242 - - The Dancing Sambo 243 - - The Mechanism of the Dancing Sambo 244 - - The Wireless Pup, the Slot in the Floor of the Dog House 245 - - The Back End of the Dog House 246 - - The Spanker with Electric Solenoid Control 247 - - Cross Section Side View of the Wireless Pup Ready for Action 248 - - The Front End View of the Wireless Pup House 249 - - When You Call the Wireless Pup or Clap Your Hands He Comes Out of - His Dog House in a Hurry 250 - - The Musical Coin 253 - - How to Hold the Musical Coin to Spin It 254 - - The Chopin Tomato Can 255 - - The Musical Glasses 257 - - The Harp of a Thousand Thrills 258 - - How to Play the Harp 259 - - Parts of a Musical Push Pipe 261 - - How the Push Pipe is Played 263 - - A Xylophone. The Bars are Made of Wood 264 - - A Tubaphone. The Bars are Made of Metal Tubes 265 - - The Cathedral Chimes 266 - - The Harp of Aeolus 268 - - Plans for an Egyptian Fiddle 271 - - How the Bow is Made 272 - - How the Fiddle is Played 273 - - How an Easel is Made 276 - - First Principles of Cartooning 278 - - Three Simple Cartoons that You Can Do 279 - - The Oracle of Amor, or Are You in Love? 280 - - The Mystic Fountain 282 - - Making Hydrogen Chloride Gas 283 - - The Vicious Soap Bubbles 285 - - The Uncanny Wheel 287 - - The Electrified Papers 291 - - A Simple Wireless Demonstration Set 294 - - Cross Section of the Coherer Showing Its Construction 295 - - The Parts of the Hand Named According to Science 296 - - The Parts of the Hand Named According to Palmistry 298 - - Working Drawings for the Demonstration Steam Engine. Cross Section - Side View of the Engine 302 - - End View of the Engine. The Crank Shaft. The Rocker Arm 304 - - Top View of the Engine 306 - - The Steam Engine Ready to Demonstrate 309 - - - - -HANDICRAFT FOR BOYS - - - - -CHAPTER I - -CARPENTRY WORK AND CABINET MAKING - - -Did you ever think about what you’d do if you were shipwrecked on a -tropical island like Robinson Crusoe? - -Well, if you had a good, strong pocket-knife with you it wouldn’t be -so terribly bad and in a few months’ time you’d have fashioned all the -things you’d need to furnish a three-room palmetto bungalow. - -To be sure your furniture wouldn’t be very highly finished but it would -be awfully artistic and while in a civilized community it might be -looked upon as a rare exhibit of savage workmanship, it would serve you -nobly and well in your island home. - -But you don’t have to be marooned on a lonely isle or limited to the -use of a jack-knife to show your prowess as a worker in wood. All you -need to do is to get some out of the way room where there is plenty of -light for a workshop and buy a few _good_ tools to work with and you’ll -take as keen a pleasure in making useful things with your own hands as -Robinson Crusoe did. - - -=The Tools You Need.=--It is a great mistake to go out and buy a cheap -chest of tools of whatever size for while there is always a large -number of tools in it they are usually of a very poor quality. - -If you can afford to buy a chest of good tools and will get them of a -regular tool supply house you can then buy a chest of tools safely. Now -to make any ordinary piece of woodwork you don’t need many tools but -each one should be the very best, for therein half the pleasure lies. - - -=The Kind of Tools.=--The tools used for _cabinet making_, as the -finer kinds of joinery are called, are exactly the same as those used -for carpentry though they are usually kept a little sharper and there -should be a few more of them. - -All the tools you will need at first are shown in Figs. 1 and 2 and -these are (1) a cast-steel, adze-eye, bell-faced _hammer_[1] weighing -about 9 ounces, which is a regular carpenter’s hammer. (2) A _mallet_, -made of hickory, with a 2¹⁄₂ inch face and try to get one in which the -handle goes clear through the head and is wedged in. - - [1] The Ohio Tool Company makes good hammers. - -(3) Four saws,[2] namely (a) a 16 inch _crosscut saw_--usually called -a _handsaw_--which is used for sawing off boards across the grain, (b) -a 20 inch _rip-saw_, for sawing with the grain so that a board can be -sawed lengthwise, (c) a _back saw_ or _miter saw_ as it is sometimes -called; it is about 12 inches long and has about 20 teeth to the inch -so that it makes a very fine and smooth cut. (d) A _compass saw_; it -has a narrow, tapering blade about 10 inches long and is used to cut -out holes in boards, and to cut _disks_, or wheels of wood. The blade -of a _keyhole saw_ is thinner and narrower than a compass saw and, -hence, smaller holes and shorter curves can be cut with it than with a -compass saw. - - [2] Disston saws are the kind to get. - -[Illustration: - - _THE WAY TO SAW A BOARD_ - - _A CARPENTER’S HAMMER AND HOW TO HOLD IT_ - - _SAWING OFF A STRIP WITH A BACK SAW AND MITER BOX_ - - _WHERE A COMPASS SAW COMES IN HANDY_ - - _HOW TO HOLD A SMOOTHING PLANE_ - - _A FIRMER CHISEL IN USE_ - -FIG. 1. SOME USEFUL WOOD WORKING TOOLS] - -(4) A _miter box_ (pronounced mi′-ter) is a little trough of wood -formed of a bottom with two sides screwed to it but without a top or -ends. The sides of the box have saw-cuts in them, or _kerfs_ as they -are called, at angles of 45 and 90 degrees so that strips of wood, -molding and the like can be sawed accurately across, or _mitered_, to -make a corner joint. - -(5) Three planes[3] and these are (a) a _block plane_ for small light -work; (b) a _smoothing plane_ which is a little longer and has a handle -and is _set fine_, that is the _bit_, or blade is finely adjusted for -finishing work; and (c) a _jack-plane_, which is a large plane used for -planing off rough surfaces. - - [3] I like Stanley planes the best. - -(6) Three chisels,[4] or _firmer chisels_ as they are called. These are -regular flat, bevel-edged carpenter’s chisels and the blades should be -¹⁄₈, ¹⁄₄, and ¹⁄₂ inch wide, respectively. - - [4] Buck Brothers are noted for their chisels. - -(7) Three gouges,[5] or _firmer gouges_, to give them their full name. -These gouges are simply chisels with curved cutting edges so that a -rounded groove can be cut in a board. Get them with blades having ¹⁄₄, -³⁄₈ and ¹⁄₂ inch regular _sweep_, as the curve of the cutting edge is -called. - - [5] Buck Brothers’ gouges are also good. - -[Illustration: - - _BORING A HOLE WITH A BRACE AND BIT_ - - _THE SCREW DRIVER AND HOW TO USE IT_ - - _HOW THE TRY SQUARE IS USED_ - - _A NAIL SET AND HOW TO HOLD IT_ - - _USING A MARKING GAUGE_ - - _THE RIGHT WAY TO SHARPEN A CHISEL_ - -FIG. 2. A FEW MORE COMMON WOOD WORKING TOOLS] - -(8) A _brace_ and five _auger bits_.[6] A brace and bit, as you know, -is a tool to _bore_ holes in wood with. You ought to have five bits and -get them ¹⁄₄, ⁵⁄₁₆, ³⁄₈, ⁷⁄₁₆ and ¹⁄₂ an inch in diameter. - - [6] When you buy auger bits get the genuine Russel Jennings. - -(9) A _maple_ or a _boxwood rule_; this should be a regular, 2-foot, -four fold carpenter’s rule. (10) A _marking gauge_; the _bar_ of the -gauge is graduated in 16ths of an inch and the _adjustable_ head of one -good enough to work with is fitted with a brass thumb screw. - -(11) An iron bound _try-square_ with a 6, or better, a 9-inch blade. -This is used not only to make measurements with but to _try_ whether a -thing is _square_ or not, hence its name. - -(12) Two _screw drivers_, one for small and the other for large screws. -(13) Two _double cut gimlets_, one ¹⁄₈ and the other ³⁄₁₆ inch in -diameter; these are useful for making holes for starting screws and the -like. - -(14) Four _hand screws_, or _clamps_ as they are more often called; -these are made of wood and are used to clamp two or more pieces of wood -together when they are being bored or after they are glued. The jaws -should be about 7 inches long and they should open at least 4 inches -wide. They only cost a quarter apiece. - -(15) A _nail set_; this is a steel punch for driving the head of a -nail below the surface of the wood without denting it. - -(16) A _Washita oil-stone_ is the right kind to sharpen wood-working -tools on; a stone ¹⁄₂ or ³⁄₄ inch thick, 2 inches wide and 4 or 5 -inches long will be large enough and you should make a box with a cover -to keep it in and so protect it from the dust. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2M. A CLAMP OFTEN COMES IN HANDY] - -(17) A sewing machine _oil can_ filled with sewing machine oil, or any -other good, light lubricating oil, is needed for sharpening your tools. - -(18) A small can of Le Page’s _liquid glue_, or if you want to make -your own glue then get a _glue-pot_ and _brush_. You can buy a ¹⁄₂ pint -can of liquid glue for a quarter or less, or you can buy a cast iron, -water-jacketed glue pot which holds a pint for about 40 cents. Get a -small round _bristle brush_ for a glue brush. - - -=Some Hints on Using Tools.=--Since I have used tools ever since I was -old enough to hold a hammer I can easily tell you just how you should -handle them but to become a skilled workman you must be willing to do -the rest and that is to practice. - - -_How to Hold a Hammer._--When you use a hammer, grasp the handle a -couple of inches from the free end and hold it so that it will swing -freely and easily in your hand and keep your hand and wrist above the -level of the nail or whatever it is you are pounding; this takes the -jar off of your arm and makes the work of using it surer and less -tiresome. Never use a hammer on wood-work of any kind. - -When you use a mallet as for driving chisels hold it rather close to -its head, and need I tell you never to use a wooden mallet to drive -nails with. - - -_How to Use a Saw._--Hold the wood to be sawed with your left hand--I -am taking it for granted that you are righthanded; put all of the -fingers of your right hand through the hole in the handle of the saw -with your thumb on the other side and grip the handle firmly. - -To start the saw put it on the mark where you want to saw the board and -rest your thumb against the side of it to guide and steady it. Stand so -that your eye will look down the back of the saw and don’t hold it too -straight but at an angle of 45 degrees, that is half way between the -horizontal and the vertical. Of course this does not apply to a back -saw or a keyhole saw. - - -_How to Use a Plane._--Since a smooth plane has no handle lay your -right hand over the tail of it and rest your left hand on the nose of -it. Make short, quick strokes, pressing down on the plane as it goes -forward and letting up on it a little as you draw it back. - -A jack-plane has a handle on it something like a saw-handle and it is -held like a saw with your right hand. If there is no knob on the nose -of it hold it by laying your left hand across it. When using a jack -plane give it a long stroke with even pressure and you will take off -the same thickness of shaving all the way along. - - -_How to Use Chisels and Gouges._--To hold a chisel properly when -cutting a groove grip it a couple of inches below the top of the handle -with your left hand. Hold it with the beveled edge down from you and at -a slight angle from the horizontal when making grooves, and at a slight -angle from the vertical when cutting a mortise. Gouges are used in the -same way as chisels. - - -_How to Use a Brace and Bit._--Set the sharp pointed end of the bit on -the exact spot which is to be the center of the hole you are to bore. -Hold the top handle of the brace with your left hand and the crank -handle with your right hand. Have the top of the brace and the bit in a -line with your eye and after you start to bore _sight_ the bit on both -sides of the hole you are boring to see that it is _plumb_--that is -straight up and down. - - -_How to Use a Rule._--A carpenter’s rule is two feet long and divided -into inches which are sub-divided again into 8ths and 16ths of an inch. -In making measurements for joinery use the rule accurately or you will -have misfits. - - -_How to Use a Marking Gauge._--This is a useful device to mark off one -or more parallel lines on a board when one edge of it is straight. - -The head slides on a wooden bar near one end of which is a steel -point. The bar is _graduated_, that is, it is spaced off in inches and -fractions of an inch like a rule and this makes it easy to set the head -at any distance from the steel point. - -When you have set the gauge hold the head against the edge of the board -you want to mark, press the steel point against the _surface_ and draw -the gauge along with both hands when the point will scratch a line. - - -_How to Use Hand Screws or Clamps._--Put the pieces of wood that are to -be held together between the jaws of the clamp and screw each screw up -a little at a time so that the jaws are kept even, that is parallel. - - -_How to Use a Nail Set._--A _finishing nail_, that is, a nail having a -head only a shade larger than the shank, is used for the finer kinds -of woodwork. After you have driven in a nail until its head is within, -say, ¹⁄₈ inch of the surface put the small, hollow end of your nail -set on it, hold them together with your thumb and forefinger and drive -it in by hitting the nail set with your hammer. After the head is sunk -below the surface of the wood fill in the hole with a _wood filler_[7] -when neither the nail nor the hole can be seen. - - [7] To make a wood-filler, melt 1 ounce of white resin and 1 ounce of - yellow wax in a pan and add enough _ochre_, which can be had in any - color, to give it the color of the wood you are using. Stir it well - and fill the dent while hot. This filler sticks well to the wood and - when dry is very hard. - - -_How to Use a Gimlet._--After you have started a hole with a gimlet -give it a complete turn and then half a turn back each time, for by so -doing it will be far less liable to split the wood. Moisten the point -of the gimlet and it will go in easier. - - -_How to Drive Nails and Screws._--Put a little common brown soap on the -ends of nails and screws before you drive them in and you will find -that it greatly lessens the friction. - - -_How to Make a Glue-Pot._--In these days of preparedness it is easier -to buy ready made glue than it is to make it yourself; moreover it is -just about as cheap, nearly as good and certainly far less trouble. - -If you insist on making your own glue though, you must, first of all, -have a glue-pot of the right kind to make it in. As I have already -mentioned a glue-pot is made of two pots one inside the other. The -outside pot is half filled with water and the inside one contains the -glue. - -You can improvise a glue-pot by using a tomato can for the outside pot -and a pepper or mustard can for the inside pot. While it won’t look -quite as shop-like as the kind you buy it will work just as well. - - -_How to Make Good Glue and How to Use It._--To make good glue, put -some small pieces of genuine Peter Cooper or imported French Coignet -glue into the inside glue pot in enough water to cover it. The outer -pot is set on a fire and the water in it is brought to a boil. Stir the -glue until it is all melted, when it should be about as thick as sewing -machine oil. Skim off the scum that forms when the glue is boiling. - -In using home-made glue have it very hot, for the hotter it is the -stronger the joint it will make; further put it on both surfaces of the -wood to be glued together very thinly as this also tends to make it -stick tighter. - - -=How to Sharpen Your Tools.=--You must have sharp tools if you expect -to do a job like a carpenter or a cabinet maker. - - -_About Sharpening Saws._--This is done by filing the teeth with a _hand -saw taper file_ and the saw must be held in a _saw-vise_, that is a -vise with long jaws which keep the saw from vibrating. - -When the saw is filed the teeth must be _set_, which means that one -tooth is bent one way a trifle and the next one to it is bent the other -way and this is done with a tool called a _saw set_. - -You ought to learn to file your own saws but it would be just as well, -or a little better, to let a man who makes a business of filing saws do -this job for you at first. Keep your saws oiled when not in use. - - -_About Sharpening Chisels and Plane Bits._--To sharpen a chisel or -a plane bit put a few drops of oil on your Washita oil stone; hold -the beveled edge of the tool on it and toward you, and see to it that -it rests flat on the stone or you will make it rounding and the edge -uneven. - -When you get it at exactly the right angle grasp it firmly with both -hands and then move it on the stone, forth and back, pressing down on -it pretty hard as it moves away from you, and easing up on it as you -draw it toward you. - -When a chisel or a plane-bit gets a nick in it it must be ground out on -a grind stone; if you haven’t one get a carpenter to do it for you, and -when you get it back _hone_ it, that is, sharpen it on your oil stone -as before. - -Get a Washita _slip stone_ for the touching up gouges and instead of -rubbing the edge of the gouge on the stone you rub the stone on the -gouge. Never try to grind a woodworking tool on an emery wheel. - - -_About Sharpening Auger Bits._--An ordinary auger-bit seldom needs -sharpening but when it does the _cutter_ of it must be sharpened on the -inside. A very fine file can be used for this purpose and then hone it -with a slip of an oil stone. - - -=How to Take Care of Your Tools.=--If your workshop is nice and dry you -don’t need to put your tools away in a chest or a cabinet after you get -through using them each time. - -But if you use them only once in awhile it is a good plan to wipe them -off with a piece of cheese-cloth moistened with oil and then lock them -up where neither the baby can get them nor the hired girl from across -the street can borrow them. - - -=Removing Rust from Tools.=--Should any of your tools show signs of -rusting you can get the rust off by rubbing some sweet oil on the -rusted part; let it stand a couple of days and then rub it with very -finely powdered unslacked lime. - - -=To Etch Your Name on Tools.=--Clean the saw, or whatever tool you want -to _etch_ your name on, with a hot solution made by dissolving some -_sodium carbonate_, commonly called _soda_, in water and be careful not -to touch the cleaned surface with your fingers. - -Next cover the cleaned surface with a thin layer of melted wax or -paraffin and when it is cold scratch your name clear through it with a -darning needle or some other sharp pointed tool so that the steel is -exposed and the acid solution can act on it. - -Put ¹⁄₂ an ounce of water into a glass stoppered bottle and add ¹⁄₂ an -ounce of _nitric acid_.[8] Shake the solution well to mix it, dip a -splint of wood into it and touch the scratched in letters with it until -the acid covers the exposed parts of the steel. - - [8] Nitric acid is a _poison_ and you must so label the bottle - containing it. Do not pour the water into the acid as it will splash - about. Be careful not to get it on your clothes, but if you should, - brush some ammonia over it as this will neutralize it and stop its - action. - -Let the acid solution stay on for a half or an hour and then wash it -off with hot water, scrape off the paraffin and you will find your name -etched on the steel exactly as you marked it. - - -=Kinds of Wood to Use.=--There are many kinds of woods and each one -has its special use in the arts and crafts. For carpentry and cabinet -making you will probably not use more than half-a-dozen woods and these -are, (1) _pine_; (2) _cedar_; (3) _mahogany_; (4) _oak_; (5) _birch_ -and (6) _walnut_. - - -_Pine._--This is a good wood for making things in general. There are -two kinds of pine and these are (a) _white pine_ and (b) _yellow pine_. - -White pine is very soft, light and straight grained and it is a -pleasure to use it even if it is only to sit on a fence and whittle -it with a pocket knife. (I wish I could do it again.) You can make -benches, boxes, toys and a hundred and one other things out of it but -it is too soft for furniture and cabinet work. - -Yellow, or Georgia pine has a fine yellow color, and a beautiful grain -and together they are very showy. It is harder than white pine and -while it can be used where the latter cannot, it is not nearly as easy -to work. - - -_Cedar._--This fragrant wood belongs to the pine family and it is -nearly as soft as pine. There are two kinds of cedar and these are (a) -_red cedar_ and (b) _white cedar_. - -Red cedar is the kind you want to get to make things of; it has a -pastel red color and a fragrant odor and it is this latter property -that makes it a good wood for wardrobe chests, for moths do not like -it. Next to white pine it is about the easiest wood to work and it is -especially nice for making all small articles, such as glove boxes, -handkerchief boxes and the like. - - -_Mahogany._--Also and likewise there are two kinds of mahogany and -these are (a) _Honduras mahogany_ and (b) _Spanish mahogany_. - -Honduras mahogany is the kind that cigar boxes are made of and it is -much softer and lighter in both weight and color than Spanish mahogany. -You can make all manner of nice things of the better grades of Honduras -mahogany and, curiously enough, it stays glued better than any other -wood. It is nearly as easy to work as pine and it takes a fine polish. - -Spanish mahogany is like Honduras mahogany in name only. It is a fine, -close-grained dark-red-brown or yellow-brown colored wood, takes a very -high polish and makes the finest kind of furniture. - - -_Oak._--This is a strong, beautiful wood and is useful in making all -kinds of furniture the design of which should be plain. - -It is not an easy wood to work and tools when used on it soon lose -their cutting edges. But after you have made a piece of furniture you -can depend on it that it will last to the end of time, nearly. - - -_Birch._--This wood belongs to the oak family but different from oak -it is quite easy to work. It is light in color, fine grained, so tough -and elastic it cannot be easily broken, and it takes a fine polish. For -these reasons it makes nice furniture and it is a very good wood for -turning. - -It is from the bark of the birch that the Indians made their canoes, -but this is a story of the long ago and we must stick to the present. - - -_Walnut._--This is a good old English wood; it is the finest kind of -wood that can be used for ornamental furniture, gun stocks and wherever -else a beautiful color and a showy grain are wanted. It is easier to -work than oak and is a fine wood for carving. - - -=How to Make Joints.=--The word _joint_ in woodworking means the place -where two or more pieces of wood are fitted together, and hence the -words _joiner_ and _joinery_ in woodworking parlance. - -[Illustration: - - A· _THE SQUARE OR BUTT JOINT_ - - B· _THE PLAIN LAP JOINT_ - - C· _THE BEVELED LAP JOINT_ - - D· _THE REBATED JOINT_ - - E· _THE TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT_ - -FIG. 3. HOW EDGE JOINTS ARE MADE] - -There are two chief kinds of joints and these are, (1) where two flat -surfaces are fixed to each other, and (2) where the edges of two boards -meet to form a corner. Though there are many ways to make both kinds of -joints I shall only tell you about half-a-dozen which you will find the -most useful for your needs. - - -_Edge Joints._--There are three easy ways to make flat, or edge joints -and these are (a) the _square_, or _butt joint_; (b) the _lap-joint_ -and (c) the _matched joint_, all of which are shown in Fig. 3. - -In the square joint the edges of the boards are simply _butted_ -together and nailed, screwed or glued. This joint is very weak unless -the abutting ends are fastened to something else. - -In the simplest form of lap-joint the edge of one board is laid on top -of the other board and these are nailed or otherwise fastened together. -A neater lap joint is made by cutting away half of the edge of each -end of the boards so that when they are fitted and fixed together the -surfaces of the boards at the joints are even and smooth. - -A better joint than the lap-joint is made by planing a _tongue_ on the -edge of one board and a groove in the other. To do this easily, neatly -and quickly you need a _rabbet plane_ and as this is quite a costly -tool, you can get along very well without it by using the lap-joints. - - -_Corner Joints._--There are five corner joints which you should know -about and these are (a) the _butt_, or _square joint_; (b) the _lap_, -or _rebated joint_; (c) the _mitered corner pieced joint_; (d) the -_common dove-tail box joint_, and (e) the _regular dove-tail joint_, -pictures of all of which are shown in Fig. 4. - -Now when you can saw a board off straight, plane it true and make a -good joint you will have small trouble in making anything in wood that -you want to make. - -[Illustration: - - A· _THE BUTT OR SQUARE JOINT_ - - B· _THE REBATED JOINT_ - - C· _THE MITERED CORNER PIECE JOINT_ - - D· _THE SIMPLE BOX DOVETAIL_ - - E· _A BETTER FORM OF DOVETAIL_ - -FIG. 4. HOW CORNER JOINTS ARE MADE] - - -=About Working Drawings.=--When most boys--to say nothing of the -majority of men--start to make something they simply knit their -eyebrows (not high-brows) and think out how it will look in the -_concrete_--that is when it is all done and ready to use. - -Then they go ahead and begin to saw up the lumber and put the pieces -together. The result is that when the object is finished it looks very -different from the thing they so proudly pictured in their mind’s eye. -Now the right way to build what you want and have it look as it ought -to is to make a _working drawing_ of it. - -To do this draw a picture of it to a _scale_, of say 1 inch to the -foot; that is, if it is to be 4 feet long draw it 4 inches long. The -drawings I have made of the work-bench and the tool box which follow -will show you how to make simple working drawings and the last part of -Chapter III explains it all in detail, so read it carefully. - - -=Things for You to Make.=--When you have your workshop ready, your -tools at hand, the foregoing ideas of woods in your mind and know about -simple working drawings you can go ahead and make things and your first -job will probably be to make a bench. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. AN EASILY MADE WORK BENCH] - - -_How to Make a Work Bench._--Go to a lumber yard or a planing mill -and get one 2 × 2 _scantling_ 12 feet long for the legs, and two 2 × -2 scantlings for the cross bars and the side bars; the middle cross -bar can be any kind of a thick piece of wood. If you can’t get 2 × 2 -scantlings get 2 × 4’s and have whichever size you get planed smooth on -all sides. - -At the same time get three boards 1 or 2 inches thick, 10 inches wide -and 6 feet long for the top of the bench and two boards 1 inch thick, -10 inches wide and 4 feet long for the tool board. Saw the scantlings -up so that you will have four pieces for the legs 2 feet 9 inches long; -four cross-bars 2 feet 6 inches long, and two side bars 3 feet 6 inches -long. - -Build up the frame of the bench first as shown in Fig. 5; then nail, or -better, screw a cross-bar to the middle of the 6 foot boards, lay them -on top of the frame and nail or screw them to the end cross bars. When -you have the bench thus far along put on the _vise_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. A WOOD VISE FOR YOUR WORK BENCH] - -A wood-worker’s vise as shown at A and B in Fig. 6 can be bought for -$3.50 on up to about $9.00. The jaws are about 4 inches wide and 12 -inches long and they open nearly 12 inches. All you have to do to fix -it to your bench is to screw the rear jaw to the front left hand edge -of the top of the bench as shown in Fig. 5. - -The tool board is not an absolute necessity but it is a great -convenience. To make it saw off two boards 4 feet long, nail -them together with a couple of strips of wood--these are called -_cleats_--and round off one end as shown in Fig. 5. Screw the tool -board to the back of the bench and you are all ready to make things in -wood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7A. A CARPENTER’S TOOL CHEST] - - -_How to Make a Tool Chest._--Either birch or chestnut are good woods -to make your tool chest of. Make the box, that is the lower part of -the chest, and the lid for it of ³⁄₄ inch thick stuff; have the box -9 inches high, 12 inches wide and 30 inches long and have the lid -3 inches high, 12 inches wide and 30 inches long. Screw the boards -together as nails will not hold tight enough. See A Fig. 7. - -Screw a strip of wood inside the chest for the tray to rest on; put two -or three hinges on the box and lid and be particular how you do it or -the lid will not fit evenly on the chest. Fasten a _staple_ on front of -the box in the middle near the top and a _hasp_ on the cover so that -you can put on a padlock, or better you can put on a regular chest lock -which is handier and makes a neater looking job. To keep the lid from -falling back when you open it, screw a piece of chain about 8 inches -long to it and the box and this will serve as a check. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7B. THE TRAY FOR YOUR TOOL CHEST] - -Finally make a tray of ¹⁄₂ or ⁵⁄₈ inch thick wood as shown at B in Fig. -7. Make the ends 6 inches high and 6 inches long and saw out the handle -grips with your keyhole saw. Make the sides and partitions 4¹⁄₂ inches -high and 28¹⁄₂ inches long, screw them together and put on the bottom. -By making the tray narrower than the chest you can slide it back and -forth and so get such tools out of the bottom as you may need without -lifting the tray each time you do so. - - -_Note._--You can buy any tool I have described in this chapter of any -hardware dealer or tool supply company in your town or if one is not at -hand Hammacher, Schlemmer and Company, corner of Fourth Avenue and 13th -Street, New York City, will supply you with just what you want. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -SCROLL SAWING, WOOD TURNING, WOOD CARVING, ETC. - - -As you may have observed, it takes a pretty good sized room for a shop -and quite a lot of tools to do carpenter work and cabinet making. - -Now if you find it hard to get these things don’t be discouraged -because there are other kinds of woodwork that take neither a whole -room nor a chest of tools, and the chief ones of these are (1) _scroll -sawing_; (2) _wood turning_; (3) _wood carving_ and (4) _pyrography_. - -Not only are the pursuits of these trades pleasant but they are -profitable because whether the art objects you make are useful or not -the work trains your mind, your eyes and your hands at one and the same -time and when you get these three factors working harmoniously together -you have achieved something that will be valuable to you as long as you -live. - - -All About Scroll Sawing - -Scroll sawing, fret sawing and jig sawing all mean precisely the same -thing and that is sawing interlaced and ornamental designs out of wood, -or _fretwork_ as it is called. - -With a scroll saw frame costing 50 cents and a few thin boards you can -saw out the most exquisite patterns and make the most dainty articles -imaginable. There is more pleasure, of course, in using a regular foot -power scroll saw, but you can do just as good work with a hand frame -and though it takes a little longer you’ll enjoy it immensely. - - -=Scroll Sawing Outfits.=--A scroll saw is a very simple piece of -apparatus and it consists of a fine saw fixed in a frame, or otherwise -supported, so that it can be moved up and down, and it is narrow enough -to turn sharp curves. - -Now scroll saws, as I shall call them, are of three kinds and these are -(1) those worked by hand; (2) those run by foot-power, and (3) those -operated by other kinds of power. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8. A SIMPLE AND CHEAP SCROLL SAWING OUTFIT] - - -=A Cheap Scroll Sawing Outfit.=--The simplest and cheapest scroll -sawing outfit consists of (a) a _scroll saw frame_; (b) a dozen _saw -blades_, and (c) an _awl_, all of which are shown in Fig. 8. If it -is your idea to saw out brackets and other fancy knickknacks you -ought to have a sheet of (d) _impression paper_,[9] (e) some _sheet -designs_,[10] and (f) some _fancy wood_. - - [9] This is ordinary carbon paper such as is used for typewriting. - - [10] See Fancy Woods for Scroll Sawing in this chapter. - -The scroll saw frame is a bent iron or steel bar, usually -nickel-plated, which forms a frame about 5 inches wide and 12 inches -long. A handle is fitted to one end and a clamp to each end so that the -saw blade can be held tight in the frame. - - -_How to Use the Scroll Saw._--The first thing to do is to put a saw -blade in the frame and be sure to have the points of the teeth _down_, -that is toward the handle. - -Next mark the design you intend to saw out on a thin piece of wood[11] -planed nice and smooth on both sides, hold it flat on the edge of the -table with your left hand, grip the saw handle with your right hand and -hold it so that the saw blade is vertical as shown in Fig. 9. - - [11] Both can be bought of L. H. Wild, 171 Avenue A, New York City. - -You are ready now to begin to saw out the design; set the sawblade on -the line, jig the saw frame up and down and be careful to give it even -and smooth strokes. You will be surprised to find how easily it works. -When you are sawing turn the wood and not the saw frame--the latter -can be turned a little sometimes to advantage--and hold it so that -the back of the frame is always toward you and the blade should move -forward but very slightly. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9. THE RIGHT WAY TO USE A HAND SCROLL SAW] - -When you want to saw a piece out of the inside of the board, take your -awl and make a hole in it by giving it a twisting motion to prevent -it from splitting the wood. Now unscrew one of the clamps of your saw -frame and put the free end of the saw through the hole, clamp it in the -frame and start to saw again. - - -=A Few Other Helpful Things.=--A _Hand Saw-Table_.--You can saw out -your designs much more easily and neatly if you use a hand saw table as -shown in Fig. 10. This is a board about 4 × 6 inches on the sides with -a V sawed out of one end and a clamp screwed to the bottom of it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10. A HAND SCROLL SAW TABLE] - -This makes the end of the board project out from the table it is -clamped to, raises the wood you are sawing from the surface of it and -gives you a firm grip on it. You can easily make a saw table or you can -buy one for 50 cents.[12] - - [12] The Millers Falls Company, Millers Falls, Mass., makes them and - nearly all tool companies sell them. - - -_Files for Scroll Work._--To do a really neat job at scroll sawing you -should have a set of scroll saw files. These files are long and thin -and are made round, oval, knife edge, half round and three cornered as -shown at A in Fig. 11. - - -_A Twist Drill Stock._--A twist drill stock and a drill, see B, Fig. -11, is far better for making holes in wood than an awl and as they only -cost 50 cents you should have one. You can make a hole in a ¹⁄₈ inch -thick board in the ¹⁄₁₀₀th part of a minute. - - -_A Pair of Pliers._--A pair of flat-nose, side cutting pliers is a very -useful tool which will go a long way toward making your scroll sawing -efforts a success. A pair is shown at C in Fig. 11. - - -_A Small Hammer._--And finally get a small hammer to drive brads with -as pictured at D. - - -_Scroll Saw Blades._--There are two kinds made and these are known as -(1) _Star saw blades_ and (2) _German saw blades_. - -[Illustration: - - _SCROLL SAWYER’S FILES_ - - _A TWIST DRILL STOCK_ - - _FLAT NOSE, SIDE CUTTING PLIERS_ - - _A SMALL HAMMER_ - - _SAW BLADES (HALF SIZE)_ - - _THE TEETH OF A SAW ARE PLACED WIDE APART TO CUT CLEAN_ - -FIG. 11. SOME NECESSARY SCROLL SAWING TOOLS] - -As one is as good as the other by all means buy Star blades. The sizes -from 1 to 10 are shown at E in Fig. 11, but three smaller and two -larger sizes are made. The smaller sizes cost 10 cents a dozen and the -larger sizes 15 cents a dozen. The spacing of the teeth on the blade is -shown at F. - - -=How to Trace a Design on Wood.=--You can draw your own designs or buy -them printed ready to use. In either case you must transfer the design -to the surface of the wood you are going to saw. - -To do this lay a sheet of _carbon paper_ as typists call it, or -_impression paper_ as jig sawyers call it, with the prepared side next -to the wood; lay the design sheet on top of it; and fasten the corners -of the sheets to the wood with glue, or, better, with _thumb tacks_.[13] - - [13] Thumb tacks are short, flat headed tacks used by draughtsmen. - -Now take a sharp, hard lead pencil or a piece of pointed bone and trace -the outline of the design. When you have it all done you will find that -the design is plainly marked in black lines on the wood--that is except -where you forgot to trace it. - - -=Designs for Scroll Sawing.=--Designs in great variety can be bought -of H. L. Wild, Publisher, 171 Avenue A, New York City. Besides glove -boxes, handkerchief boxes, bird cages, clock cases, thread and thimble -stands, photo frames and a thousand and one other pretty and useful -articles you can get patterns for doll furniture, alphabets and -mechanical designs like the horizontal engine shown at A in Fig. 12 and -the fire engine shown at B. - - -=Foot-Power Scroll Saws.=--There are several makes of foot-power scroll -saws on the market and the prices of these range from $4.50 to $25. - - -_The Cricket Scroll Saw._--This is the cheapest foot-power scroll saw -that you can buy and is the one that sells for $4.50. It has a _table_ -that tilts which permits you to saw your work on a _bevel_--that is on -a slant--so that you can _inlay_ it with some other kind of wood or -metal. - -[Illustration: - - =A=--_A HORIZONTAL STEAM ENGINE_ - - =B=--_A FIRE ENGINE_ - -FIG. 12. MECHANICAL MASTERPIECES MADE WITH A SCROLL SAW] - -This little machine weighs 17 pounds and is 33 inches high; it is made -of lighter castings than the machines which follow but it will do just -about as good work as the higher priced ones. Fig. 13 shows what it -looks like. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13. THE CHEAPEST FOOT-POWER SCROLL SAW MADE] - - -_The Lester Scroll Saw._--This is a well made saw, has a cast iron -frame and the _arms_ of the saw frame and the _pitman_--that is, the -rod which connects the crank wheel with the frame--are of ash. - -The Lester has several very handy attachments and these are (a) an -_automatic dust blower_, which blows the sawdust away from the line -you are sawing on; (b) an _adjustable lever saw clamp_ with a hinged -jaw which prevents the saw blades from breaking; and (c) a _drilling -attachment_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14. THE LESTER SCROLL SAW WITH TURNING LATHE -ATTACHMENT] - -This saw, which is shown in Fig. 14, costs $10.00, is 35 inches high -and weighs in the neighborhood of 30 pounds. The lathe attachment costs -$2.00 extra. - - -_The Fleetwood Scroll Saw._--This is the best and consequently the -most expensive foot power scroll saw made. It has a swing of nearly -16 inches. It is fitted with a tilting table, a vertical drill and a -blowing attachment. A scroll saw of this kind with a plain stand can be -bought for $21.00, or one with a fancy stand, see Fig. 15, can be had -for $25.00. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE FLEETWOOD SCROLL SAW] - - -=How a Foot-Power Scroll Saw Works.=--If you will look again at Figs. -13 and 14 you will see that the scroll saws shown have saw frames very -like a hand saw frame. The lower part of the frame is connected with a -crank on the end of a spindle, which has a small grooved wheel fixed -to it, by a pitman or rod and the treadle is connected with the large -drive wheel by another pitman; finally the drive wheel is belted to the -small grooved wheel. - -Now when you work the treadle with your foot it produces a -_reciprocating motion_ and this is changed by the pitman into _rotary -motion_ which it imparts to the drive wheel. Since the grooved, or -driven, wheel is smaller than the drive wheel it revolves faster and -this gives the pitman connected with it a very rapid rotary motion on -one end but as it is pivoted to the frame which in turn is pivoted at -the rear end it is changed into an up and down or reciprocating motion -exactly like the treadle but many times faster. - -The Fleetwood works a little differently, in that instead of a frame -the pitman is connected with a metal block that slides in a guide. The -lower end of the saw is fastened to the upper end of this sliding block -and the top of the saw blade is fixed to the end of a long, curved -spring whose elasticity tends to make it fly up. - -This action keeps the saw blade always taut and pulls it up except -when the pitman pulls the block down and the saw with it. This is the -principle on which large power jig saws used in shops are worked. - - -=How to Saw on a Foot-Power Scroll Saw.=--Lay the board you are going -to saw flat on the table of the machine and put your finger tips of -both hands on top of the board; when possible keep one hand on one side -of the saw and the other hand on the opposite side of it. - -Press down hard enough on the work to keep it on the table against the -up strokes of the saw; as the top of the table is polished it is easy -to slide the work around and keep the saw on the line. Run the saw at -an even speed and do not feed the wood against the blade too fast. - - -TABLE OF SCROLL SAW WOODS - - _Price per foot_ - _planed to a thickness of_ - _Name_ _¹⁄₁₆ to ¹⁄₈ in._ _³⁄₁₆ in._ _¹⁄₄ in._ - Poplar, or White Wood or Bass $0.07 $0.08 $0.09 - Spanish Cedar .10 .12 .14 - White Maple .10 .12 .15 - Sycamore .11 .13 .15 - Hazel Wood .11 .13 .15 - Oak or White Ash .11 .13 .15 - White Holly .12 .14 .16 - Black Walnut .14 .16 .18 - Bird’s Eye Maple .14 .16 .18 - Mahogany .14 .16 .18 - Cocobola .20 .25 .30 - Amaranth .20 .25 .30 - Rosewood .25 .30 .40 - Satin Wood .30 .35 .40 - Tulip .50 .60 .75 - Real Ebony .50 .50 .50 - -These woods can be bought of H. L. Wild, 171 Avenue A, New York City, -or of J. Gabriel and Company, 672 Grand Street, Brooklyn, N. Y. - - -=Fancy Woods for Scroll Saw Work.=--Fancy woods that are planed on -both sides for scroll sawing can be bought in thicknesses of ¹⁄₁₆, ¹⁄₈, -³⁄₁₆ and ¹⁄₄ inch. Wood that is ¹⁄₈ inch thick is the best to use for -all ordinary work. - -The foregoing list gives the name, thickness and price of the chief -common and fancy woods that are good for scroll sawing. - - -=Trimmings for Boxes, Etc.=--Brass hinges, knobs, screws, drawer pulls, -box hooks, French screws and wire nails, that is brads, catches, metal -legs, small locks, escutcheons, turned moldings, etc., can be bought of -the above dealers who specialize in scroll sawyer’s materials. - - -Turning in Wood - -And now we come to another and highly fascinating kind of wood-work and -this is to spin a stick of wood in a lathe and shape it with a chisel -or gouge, or _wood turning_ as it is called. - -While the outfit you need to turn wood with costs more than for scroll -sawing you will never forget the pleasure of rounding up of a bit of -wood into a shapely form, no, not if you were to live a thousand years. - - -=Get a Lathe First.=--It is far better to buy a lathe than to try to -make one, that is if you expect to turn anything on it, for in the -first place it is hard to get the things to make one with and in the -second you can buy one for very little money. - - -_How a Lathe is Made._--A wood turning lathe consists of four -principal parts, and these are (1) the _headstock_; (2) the _rest_; (3) -the _tailstock_; (4) the _bed_ and (5) the _stand_, the first three -parts of which are shown in Fig. 16. - -[Illustration: - - _SPUR_ - - _HEAD STOCK_ - - _REST_ - - _TAIL STOCK_ - -FIG. 16. THE CHIEF PARTS OF A TURNING LATHE] - -The head stock is fixed to the bed of the stand; it is formed of a -_cone pulley_ mounted on a spindle in a frame. A _spur center_ is -screwed to the spindle and this holds the wood tightly in place while -it is being turned. The rest, which is adjustable, is used to lay your -turning tool on and so keep it in position. A long and short rest -usually go with the better lathes. - -The tailstock has two adjustments, the first of which allows it to be -slipped back and forth on the bed and clamped at any point which gives -a rough adjustment, and the second is a spindle which is threaded on -one end and has a _taper center_, that is a sharp point on the other -end. This allows the piece of wood which is to be turned to be set -between the spur center of the headstock and the taper center of the -tailstock. - -These parts rest on the bed of the lathe and this in turn is mounted -on a stand. The stand is fitted with a drive wheel and this is driven -by a treadle with which it is connected by a pitman exactly like a -foot-power scroll saw. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17. THE CHEAPEST WOOD TURNING LATHE MADE] - - -=The Cheapest Lathe You Can Buy.=--The cheapest lathe you buy is called -the _Companion_; it is made by the Millers Falls Company, Millers -Falls, N. Y., and it costs $10.50. It has a long and a short rest, -three turning tools and a 2 inch face plate and spur center. When you -get it uncrate it, set it up, oil it well and you are ready to do some -turning. The lathe is shown complete in Fig. 17. - - -_Attachments for the Companion Lathe._--This lathe is fitted with a 4 -inch emery wheel without extra charge. A very useful attachment is a -circular saw 3 inches in diameter and a saw table 6 × 7 inches with a -straight edge guide; it costs $1.25 extra. A scroll saw attachment that -can be clamped on the lathe bed may be bought for $3.00 extra. Both of -these attachments are shown in Fig. 17. Of course better and larger -lathes can be had for more money. - - -=Turning Tools for Wood.=--The tools used for turning wood[14] are -simply chisels and gouges. The chisels are made with four kinds of -points, namely, (1) _skew point_; (2) _round point_; (3) _square -point_, and (4) _spear point_, and these are shown in Fig. 18. These -chisels can be bought in all sizes from ¹⁄₄ inch to 1 inch wide. - - [14] Buck Bros.’ turning tools for wood are counted best. - -Gouges also come in sizes from ¹⁄₄ inch up to 1 inch, and a _parting -tool_, which is used to cut off a turned piece and which is simply a V -shaped chisel, can be had in ¹⁄₂, ⁵⁄₈ and ³⁄₄ inch sizes. These turning -tools are also shown in Fig. 18. You can buy them fitted with applewood -handles and sharpened ready for use for about 50 cents apiece. You -can buy them of hardware dealers or of Hammacher, Schlemmer and Co., -Fourth Ave. and 13th Street, New York. - -[Illustration: - - _SKEW POINT_ - - _ROUND POINT_ - - _SQUARE POINT_ - - _SPEAR POINT_ - - _THE GOUGE_ - - _THE PARTING TOOL_ - -FIG. 18. A SET OF WOOD TURNING TOOLS] - - -=How to Turn Wood.=--Before you can turn out a really good job on a -lathe you must practice awhile. A good thing to try your hand on is to -make some tool handles. The size of these will, of course, depend on -what you intend to use them for. - -Take a stick of wood, round or square, it doesn’t in the least matter, -a couple of inches longer and a trifle larger than the largest diameter -that the handle is to be and drive one end against the spurs of the -face plate as shown in Fig. 19. - -This done screw up the feed of the tailstock until the back-center is -forced into the end of the wood about ¹⁄₈ of an inch; clamp the rest -so that it comes to within ¹⁄₄ an inch of the wood you are going to -turn and you are ready for work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19. PUTTING THE ROUGH WOOD IN THE LATHE] - -Now put your foot on the treadle and work it up and down; very soon -the speed of the drive wheel will carry it round smoothly and it will -deliver considerable power to the pulley of the headstock. If the drive -wheel is 5 times as large as the pulley and you treadle the drive wheel -100 times every minute, the stick of wood which you want to turn will -revolve 500 times a minute. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20. THE RIGHT WAY TO HOLD A WOOD WORKING TOOL] - -When you have the wood rotating at about this speed grip the handle of -it firmly with your right hand, lay the back of the chisel on the rest -and press down on the blade with your left hand as shown in Fig. 20. Of -course the top edge of the wood is turning toward you. - -Whatever you do when you are roughing down a stick of wood don’t try to -take off too large a cut. Go at it very gently with the point of your -chisel and as it begins to cut you can swing the tool around so that -the whole width of the blade is cutting. - - -_Gouges_ are used in the same way as chisels and with them you can turn -out hollow parts. A _parting tool_ is used for cutting off the ends of -the wood after you have finished turning it. - -[Illustration: - - _SIZING WITH A PAIR OF CALIPERS_ - - _A REGULAR SIZING TOOL_ - -FIG. 21. SIZING THE TURNED WORK] - -When you want to turn a piece of wood down to a given size you can do -so by testing it with a pair of calipers, as shown in Fig. 21, or -you can size it with a regular sizing tool. To size the work measure -off the distance between the points of the calipers with a rule for -whatever thickness you want the turned part; then as you turn the wood -you can try it from time to time until the wood will just slip through -between the points. - - -The Art of Wood Carving - -Carving is by all odds the hardest of all woodworking processes to -learn and yet there are some simple forms of it that are at once easy -to do and pretty to look at. While carving is an art in itself it can -be used with fine effect in combination with some kinds of scroll sawed -and turned work. - - -=Your Set of Carving Tools.=--To begin with you can get along very -well with a set of six carving tools. A set of this number is made up -of a ³⁄₈ inch, a ¹⁄₄ inch, a ¹⁄₂ inch and a ⁵⁄₁₆ inch _straight shank_ -carving tools and two of these are _chisels_ and four are _gouges_, so -you see that they are just about the same as carpenters’ and turners’ -chisels and gouges. Such a set of tools costs about $3.00. - -A better set contains a dozen carving tools and this includes the above -tools as well as a couple of _bent fluting gouges_, with ¹⁄₈ and ¹⁄₄ -inch _sweeps_, a couple of _front bent tools_, a _straight parting -tool_, and a _veining tool_, all of which is shown at A in Fig. 22; the -sweeps, as the curved cutting edges are called, are shown at B. - -The _tangs_ of these tools, that is the sharp ends which fit into the -handles, have shoulders on them to prevent the handles from creeping -and splitting. The best carving tools on the market are those made by -S. J. Addis of London, and you can’t go wrong if you buy them. - -[Illustration: - - =A= - _STRAIGHT CHISEL_ - _SHORT BEND GOUGE_ - _SKEW CHISEL_ - _STRAIGHT PARTING TOOL_ - _STRAIGHT GOUGE_ - _LONG BEND GOUGE_ - _FLUTING GOUGE_ - _FRONT BEND GOUGE_ - _VEINING TOOL_ - _BENT FILE_ - - =B= - _SWEEPS OF WOOD CARVING TOOLS_ - - =C= - _CARVER’S MALLET_ - -FIG. 22. KINDS AND SWEEPS OF CARVING TOOLS] - -Carving tools as they come from the makers are sharpened but not -_honed_, that is the tools are ground sharp, but the _inside bevel_ -of the tools must be rubbed up with an oil stone slip and most wood -carvers like to do this themselves. - -When you buy a set of carving tools you also want to get a carver’s -mallet made of _lignum-vitæ_[15] with a face 2¹⁄₂ inches in diameter -and, as you will see in Fig. 22, its shape is quite different from -the ordinary kinds. Also get a _Washita oil stone_, and an _Arkansas -carving tool slip_, which is a small wedge-shaped oil-stone. - - [15] _Lignum-vitæ_ is a greenish-brown wood and is very hard and - heavy. It grows in tropical America. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23. MARKERS FOR STAMPING IN BACKGROUNDS] - -Two or more _markers_, which are stamps made of tool steel, are very -useful for stamping in background work. A number of different designs -are shown in Fig. 23 and they cost about a quarter apiece. - -[Illustration: - - _A SNIB_ - - _A HAND CLAMP_ - - _A CARVER’S VISE_ - -FIG. 24. SCHEMES FOR HOLDING WORK WHEN CARVING] - -To hold the work while you are carving it you can make two or more -_snibs_ as shown at A in Fig. 24. These little clamps are sawed out -pieces of wood with an ordinary wood screw through the thick end, and -when you want to carve a flat piece of work clip it with a couple of -snibs and screw the latter to your bench. A better scheme is to use a -couple of hand screws as shown at B. For carving in relief you will -need a wood-carver’s vise as shown at C. - - -=The Best Woods for Carving.=--A wood that is suitable for carving must -be tough, even grained and free from knots. For a beginner, and I guess -you are one, _yellow pine_ is a good wood to practice on as it is soft -and easy to work but you must be careful not to splinter it along the -grain. - -Oak is much tougher but it is a fine wood for carving and you will not -need to take the care to prevent splintering as with pine. Black walnut -and mahogany are beautiful woods and are nice to carve, while for finer -work apple, pear, sycamore and California redwood are largely used. - - -=Kinds of Wood Carving.=--There are three kinds of wood carving in -general and these are (1) _chip_, or surface carving, (2) _panel_ or -relief carving, and (3) _figure_ carving, as shown in Fig. 25. - -When you cut your initials in the top of your desk at school you made a -primitive attempt at what is called chip carving. Most likely you got -the birch for it but it was only the savage instinct for decorative art -that was trying to find expression in you, and so it’s not your fault. -(But don’t do it again.) Any kind of carving on a flat surface is -called chip carving, and some of it is very beautiful. It is shown at -A. - -[Illustration: - - =A=--_PLAIN PANEL_ - - =B=--_FANCY PANEL_ - - =C=--_FIGURE CARVING_ - -FIG. 25. KINDS OF CARVING] - -Panel carving is done on flat pieces of wood also but the design is -made by cutting out or _sinking_ the ground, as shown at B. Sometimes -when it is desirable to make some part stand out in relief above the -surface it is carved out of a separate piece of wood and _planted on_, -that is glued on. - -To carve a lily of the valley or a deer’s head out of a solid block of -wood is not as easy as the other kinds of carving, but if you have a -natural aptitude for using tools and an eye for art you can succeed as -well as the next one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25D. A CARVED WATCH CASE HOLDER] - - -_Chip Carving._--You will need only three tools for chip carving and -these are (1) a ¹⁄₄ inch chisel; (2) a parting tool and (3) a veining -tool. - -The first thing is to get the design you want to carve on the board. -To do this you can either draw the design directly on the board, or, -better, lay a sheet of impression paper on the board and then the -design you want to transfer on top of it and trace it with a lead -pencil. - -Screw the board to your bench with two or more snibs and you are ready -for work. Carve out the heavier lines with the parting tool and the -lighter lines with the veining tool. Use the chisel to cut the corners -sharp and make the lines clean and even. In chip carving _grounds_ are -never put in. - - -_Panel Carving._--In this kind of carving leaves, berries, scrolls and -the like are carved out of the surface of the board and as the ground -is sunk these objects stand out in relief. - -Begin by drawing, or transferring, the pattern to the board as before; -then cut it out with gouges and chisels as shown at A and finally use -the veining tool for the radiating lines. The head can be carved out of -a separate piece of wood glued to the ground, or _planted_ on as it is -called. The work can be oiled and polished but never varnish it. It is -shown finished at C. - -To make a watch case holder like the one shown at D saw out a piece of -walnut, or other wood, ¹⁄₄ inch thick and draw on the design. - -Carve the cross and lower part of the case by chipping it; carve the -leaves in relief and put in the veins with the veining tool. Now saw -out another piece for the pocket 1 inch thick and carve out the front -and the back to the shape shown at D so that it is only ¹⁄₈ inch thick -when finished and glue it to the other part when you will have a watch -case holder of the vintage of 1875. - - -_Carving in Solid Wood._--This ranges all the way from carving simple -leaves as shown at D to the human form divine. - -To carve out leaves on a flat surface draw the design as before and -carve them out with your gouge to look as much like real leaves as you -can and to give them the final touch of beauty cut the veins in with -your veining tool. - -For carving out heads, as for example the one shown at C, mark the -shape of the object which you intend to carve on the sides of the block -as it would look if you cut it down through the middle. Now screw up -the block in your vise and cut away the sides with your chisels and -gouges, using the mallet to do it with. All you want to do at first is -to get the rough shape of the figure. - -When you have done this you can go ahead and finish up the work with -your chisels and gouges. To give the carving a life-like appearance do -not use files or sandpaper on it and do not varnish or polish it. - - -Pyrography, or Wood Burning - -This is a simple and pleasing art and one that is easy to practice. It -gets its didactic name from the Greek word _pyro_, which means fire, -and _graph_, to write, that is writing with fire, only in pyrography -you draw with fire instead. - - -=The Necessary Tools.=--The chief tool you need is called an _etching_ -tool. This is formed of a piece of iron, copper or platinum with a -curved point which is heated in a flame until it is red or white hot. -When it is hot you press the curved point against the wood upon which -you have drawn the design and it burns the lines into it. - -[Illustration: - - _=A=--THE ETCHING TOOL_ - - _=B=--COMPLETE WITH HANDLE_ - -FIG. 26. THE TOOL USED FOR PYROGRAPHY] - - -_How to Make an Etching Tool._--Get a piece of copper rod ¹⁄₄ inch in -diameter and 3 inches long; file one end down to a point to the shape -shown at A and B in Fig. 26 and put a file handle on the other end. - - -_How to Make an Alcohol Lamp._--The etching tool must be heated in -either an alcohol or a Bunsen flame. You can make an alcohol lamp of -an ink bottle that will serve the purpose very well. Make a hole in -the cork about ¹⁄₄ inch in diameter and make a tin tube 1 inch long -that will fit it snugly. Braid a wick of string and put it through the -tin-tube; fill the bottle with alcohol and your lamp is done. If you -can get gas you can use a Bunsen burner[16] which makes a hotter flame -and is less trouble. - - [16] Can be bought of the L. E. Knott Apparatus Company, Boston, Mass. - - -_A Better Outfit._--A good outfit which has a platinum pointed tool -and burns alcohol vapor, see C, can be bought for $3.00 and more.[17] -If you have gas in your house you can buy a tool which uses it for 50 -cents or less. - - [17] Everything needed for pyrography can be had of the Frost and - Adams Co., Cornhill, Boston. - -[Illustration: - - _=C=--AN OUTFIT THAT BURNS ALCOHOL VAPOR_ - -FIG. 26C. AN OUTFIT THAT BURNS BENZINE VAPOR] - - -_About the Designs._--If you are good at drawing you can make your own -designs, but if not you can buy them ready to use. Draw your designs -on soft white pine or basswood with a soft lead pencil having a blunt -point. Photo frames, plaques, tie racks, collar boxes and things which -you can saw out on your scroll saw are greatly improved by burning. - - -_How to Burn in the Design._--Heat the tool until it is red-hot, or if -it is platinum until it is white hot as shown at D. Hold the tool as -shown at E and without using too much pressure draw and push the point -along the lines until they are burnt in evenly. - -When you have burnt in the design burn in the background by making a -lot of closely spaced lines; then burn in more parallel lines across -the first set. This produces a cross-hatched effect which at a distance -makes the design stand out in bold relief. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26D. HOW THE TOOL IS HEATED] - -[Illustration: - - _=E=_ - -FIG. 26E. BURNING IN THE DESIGN] - -When you have become a little expert you can shade the design but don’t -try it until you can burn the lines in evenly. - - -=Coloring and Staining Wood.=--Stains and dyes of all colors can be -bought of the Devoe and Reynolds Company, 101 Fulton Street, New York. - - -_Ebony Stain._--Brush the wood with a saturated solution of -_ferrous-sulphate_ and it will make it inky black. When used on white -holly, or any other close grained wood, it gives it a real ebony look. -Put the solution on with a soft brush. After the ebony stain has been -used the wood should be polished with wax to give it a dull finish. - - -_Fumed Oak._--Oak can be colored a beautiful brown by putting it in a -box with a tight fitting lid in which is a saucer of ammonia; paste -up the cracks around the lid tight and leave it for a couple of days -when it will take on a brown color which is known by the trade name of -_fumed oak_. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -METALS AND METAL WORKING - - -There is something about working metals that makes a tremendously -strong appeal to a fellow and yet it is just as easy to fashion these -elements as it is to shape wood, that is, if you have the right kind of -tools to do it with. - -Then there is another good thing about working metals and that is the -tools you need don’t cost very much and you can soon make enough useful -things to pay for them. - -Metal working, like wood working, can be divided into two classes and -these are (1) the strictly practical, and (2) the purely ornamental, -but you can often combine them in an object which possesses both -utility and artistic merit. - -It is my intention to tell you in this chapter about the tools that -you need to do ordinary metal work, such as sawing, drilling, bending, -filing, etc. As in working wood you ought to have a bench, or a good -strong table will do. - - -=Your Kit of Tools.=--To work metals you will need certain tools -according to the kind of work you intend to do. If you get all of -those I have listed below you will have nearly all the hand tools you -need to do any kind of a job that may come up. The following list is -quite a full one and a kit which includes all of them will cost in the -neighborhood of fifteen dollars. You don’t need to buy all of them at -once, however, but just get a tool at a time as you must have it until -your kit is complete. - - -=The Various Kinds of Tools.=--Metal working tools are tempered harder -than wood working tools and are made of what is known as _tool-steel_. - -For your kit of machinists’ tools get (1) a ball pein hammer which -weighs about 8 ounces--this is a regular machinists’ hammer; (2) a pair -of 4 inch side cutting pliers; (3) a pair of 8 inch tinners’ snips -which makes a 2 inch cut; (4) a jeweler’s adjustable saw frame; (5) a -hack saw frame to hold an 8 inch saw blade; (6) a hand drill stock with -a chuck for holding round shank drills from 0 to ³⁄₁₆ inch in diameter. - -(7) Four Morse twist drills ¹⁄₁₆, ³⁄₃₂, ¹⁄₈ and ³⁄₁₆ inch in diameter; -(8) a 6 inch steel rule, graduated into 8ths, 16ths, 32nds and 64ths of -an inch; (9) a machinist’s steel square with a 2¹⁄₂ inch blade; (10) -a pair of 3 inch spring dividers; (11) a pair of 3 inch inside spring -calipers; (12) a pair of 3 inch outside calipers; (13) a center punch; -(14) a No. 1 set of screw cutting taps and dies, this set contains a -_stock_ or handle and five taps and five dies which cut ⁷⁄₆₄, ⁹⁄₆₄, -⁵⁄₃₂, ³⁄₁₆, and ⁷⁄₃₂ inch in diameter. - -(15) A few files--flat, hand, round and half-round in shape and the -_smooth_ and _second cut_ will be the most useful; (16) several screw -drivers, small and large; (17) a soldering copper that weighs about ¹⁄₂ -a pound; (18) a can of soldering paste, or you can make a soldering -fluid yourself, and (19) an alcohol lamp, which I told you how to make -in the last chapter, or a Bunsen burner if you have a supply of gas, -and (20) a machinist’s vise. All of these tools are shown in Figs. 27 -and 28. - -[Illustration: - - _TINNER’S SNIPS_ - - _SOLDERING COPPER AND ALCOHOL LAMP_ - - _FLAT NOSE SIDE CUTTING PLIERS_ - - _FLAT NOSE PLIERS_ - - _ROUND NOSE PLIERS_ - - _A BENCH LEVEL_ - - _A WIRE GUAGE_ - - _A ROSE COUNTERSINK_ - - _A TAPER REAMER_ - - _OIL CAN AND OIL STONE_ - - _SET OF SCREW CUTTING TAPS AND DIES_ - - _MACHINIST’S VISE_ - -FIG. 27. THE CHIEF METAL WORKING TOOLS] - -[Illustration: - - _JEWELLER’S HAMMER_ - - _BALL PEIN HAMMER_ - - _HAND DRILL STOCK AND DRILL_ - - _SPRING DIVIDERS_ - - _SPRING CALIPERS OUTSIDE_ - - _SPRING CALIPERS INSIDE_ - - _JEWELLER’S ADJUSTABLE SAW FRAME_ - - _HACK SAW_ - - _6″ STEEL RULE_ - - _MACHINIST’S STEEL SQUARE_ - - _CENTER PUNCH_ - - _COLD CHISEL_ - - 1--_SHELL SQUARE TAPER_ - 2--_ROUND OR RAT TAIL_ - 3--_HAND OR FLAT_ - - _KINDS OF FILES_ - -FIG. 28. SOME OTHER METAL WORKING TOOLS] - - -=Some Hints on Using the Tools.=--(1) When you want to rivet something -use the ball pein end of the hammer to pound down the end of the rivet -as this will spread it out in every direction evenly and you can make -it nice and round. (2) Side cutting pliers are useful to hold and bend -bits of metal with and to cut off pieces of wire as well. (3) Tinner’s -snips are simply large powerful shears and you can cut sheet metal up -to ³⁄₃₂ of an inch thick with an ordinary pair. When you cut a sheet of -heavy metal with them let the lower blade and handle rest on your bench -and you can get a better leverage on it. Metals that are thicker than -³⁄₃₂ inch must be sawed. - -(4) While metals can be sawed by using a special saw blade in a scroll -saw frame you should use a jeweler’s saw frame with jeweler’s saws for -metal--I prefer the _Fish Brand_ for fine work. (5) For heavier work -use a machinist’s hack saw; put the piece of metal in a vise and have -the part you want to saw close to the jaws of the vise so that it will -not vibrate; use a little pressure on the outward, or cutting stroke, -and let up on it as you draw the saw back or you will dull the teeth. - -(6) In using twist drills, and these are the only satisfactory kind for -metal work, be mighty careful not to press too hard on the drill stock -and don’t try to crowd the drill into cutting faster than it will cut -at the speed with which it is turning. In drilling iron keep plenty of -oil on the drill point. - -(7) You can measure much more accurately with a steel rule than you can -with a wood rule and whereas measurements in cabinet work down to ¹⁄₁₆ -inch are close enough, for metal work it should not be more than ¹⁄₃₂nd -of an inch, and for machine work make your measurements to ¹⁄₆₄th of an -inch. (8) A small steel square is better in every way for metal work -than a carpenters’ try square but you will find it quite expensive. - -(9) The advantage of spring dividers over the ordinary kind is that you -can set them very accurately and they will stay where you set them. In -scribing a circle with a pair of dividers mark the center with your -center punch first as this will prevent your dividers from slipping. - -(10) Inside calipers are used for measuring the inside diameters of -cylinders and the like, and, conversely (11), outside calipers are used -for measuring the outside of anything that is round. In either case you -measure the distance between the points of your caliper with your rule -to find the diameter of the thing. (12) A center punch is always useful -to make a starting point in metal with, for it can’t be rubbed off or -lost sight of. - -(13) A set of taps and dies to cut screw threads with in metal of -whatever kind is a joy forever. All metal work becomes easy if you have -a set of these screw cutting tools and it is next to impossible to make -things if you haven’t got them. - -When you are cutting threads in a piece of metal with the tap, the hole -in the metal must of course be a trifle smaller than the diameter of -the tap; the tap is put into a handle called a _stock_ and as you cut -the threads in the metal don’t turn the stock continuously around but -give it one complete turn forward and then half-a-turn backward and you -will be less apt to break the tap. - -The same method holds good when you are cutting threads on a rod with -a die; in this case the rod must be a little larger than the hole in -the die. In threading iron use plenty of oil on the tap or die, but for -brass and the softer metals a lubricant is not needed. - -(14) In filing work press down on the outward or cutting stroke and -ease up on the file on the return stroke for the teeth of a file are -set like the teeth of a saw, that is, so that the cut is made on the -out stroke. - -A small file can be held in one hand and the work you are filing in the -other which can be rested on the edge of the bench but heavier work -must be put in a vise and the file held firmly by the handle with one -hand and the end steadied and guided by the fingers of your other hand. - -(15) In putting in a screw always use the largest size screw-driver -whose blade will fit the slot in the head of the screw; this will -prevent the blade of the screw-driver from twisting the edges of the -slot out of shape. - -(16) Before a soldering copper can be used, if it is a new one, it must -be _tinned_, that is the point of it must be coated with solder. To -tin it get a pine board about 1 inch thick, 4 inches wide and 6 inches -long, and put some brown resin and bits of solder on it. - -File off the copper until the point is sharp and it is bright and -smooth; heat the copper and then melt the resin and solder on the board -with it and rub the copper in them on all sides until a film of solder -is formed on it. - -(17) It is cheaper to buy a stick of soldering paste than it is to make -it but you can easily and cheaply make a good _soldering fluid_ by -dissolving a teaspoonful of _zinc chloride_ in an ink bottle full of -clean water. - -In heating the soldering iron keep it near the tip of the flame; if -you use an alcohol lamp don’t have the wick too high and if you use a -Bunsen burner adjust the openings in it until the flame is as nearly -invisible as you can get it. - - -_About Sharpening Tools._--The only metal working tools you will -need to sharpen are the twist drills and these can be sharpened on a -_carborundum oil stone_. Hold the beveled edge of the drill point on -the stone and move it to and fro, being very careful to keep the drill -perfectly straight up and down while you are sharpening it. - - -=Metals and their Uses.=--Like woods each metal has its especial uses -and it will depend largely on what you are going to make as to the kind -of metal you should make it of. - -There are five chief metals and a couple of _alloys_, which are formed -by melting and mixing two or more metals together, which you will find -the most useful and I shall describe these for you in detail. - - -_Iron._--This is the most useful metal we have. When it is pure it has -a silvery color, is very _tenacious_, which means that it is tough; it -is _malleable_, that is it can be hammered without cracking, and it is -_ductile_ in that it can be drawn out into wire without breaking. - -It is hard to get pure iron for nearly all of it contains a small -percent of carbon, silica, phosphorus, sulphur or other elements. -These substances in iron give it different properties. For instance -_cast-iron_ has a large amount of carbon in it; this kind of iron is -good to cast into molds but it cannot be hammered or drawn without -danger of cracking or breaking. - - -_Wrought iron_ has very little carbon or other substances in it and -this makes it easy to work because it can be hammered or drawn. _Steel_ -contains more carbon than wrought iron but it has less carbon than cast -iron; steel can be cast, forged, tempered and hardened by heating it -red hot and then suddenly cooling it. - - -_Tin._--This is a white metal that looks very much like silver, and it -is so malleable that it can be hammered out into very thin sheets and -which you know so well as _tin-foil_. - -It is not found in very many places but the ancients called Britain -the _Tin Islands_ because they got it chiefly from there. What we -ordinarily call _tin_ is really _tin plate_, that is thin sheet iron -coated with tin, and it is used as a covering for other metals because -it does not rust or oxidize in air. - -Tin is largely used in making alloys such as soft solder, type-metal, -pewter, etc. It has a very low melting point. - - -_Zinc._--This is a bluish white metal and though it is sometimes found -in a pure state it is usually found in combination with other elements. - -When it is heated to different temperatures it behaves in various -ways; for instance when it is cold it is quite brittle, but at 100 to -150 degrees _Fahrenheit_,[18] it can be easily rolled into sheets and -rods; curiously though when it is heated to 200 degrees or over it gets -brittle again. - - [18] The _Fahrenheit_ thermometer scale is the one generally used in - this country. Fahrenheit was a German scientist who lived 200 years - ago, and he invented the mercurial thermometer. - -Zinc is easy to cut and when mixed with copper it forms the alloy we -know as brass. - - -_Lead._--This is the softest metal known and it has a bluish-gray -color. It is very heavy and melts at a low temperature. - -Lead was one of the earliest metals known and if you will read the -_Book of Job_ you will find it mentioned there. It has been used -from time immemorial in making water-pipes, utensils, etc., and the -ancient Romans made weights of it. Since it is so soft it can be easily -hammered into any shape or it can be rolled or drawn. - -It is also largely used in forming alloys with other metals, thus -_solder_ is made of 50 parts of lead and 50 parts of tin; _type-metal_ -is made of 80 parts of lead and 20 parts of antimony; and _pewter_ is -made of 25 parts of lead and 75 parts of tin. - - -_Copper._--This metal is found in a pure state in large quantities -around Lake Superior in the United States and in Chili, South America. -It is a fairly hard metal of a reddish color, has a high luster, is -malleable, and ductile. - -Long before iron was known utensils and weapons for the chase and war -were made of copper and copper tools have been found that were made by -the ancients and tempered even as steel is tempered now, but the art -was lost when iron came into use. - -Copper is now largely used in the arts and trades as for the sheathing -and bolts of ships, the conducting parts of electrical apparatus, in -making alloys, such as bronze of which tin is the other metal. Copper -is easily hammered and drawn but it is so tough that it is hard to saw -and drill. - -It does not oxidize in dry air but in moist air it gradually changes -and takes on a layer of _carbonate of copper_ which gives it a very -beautiful and artistic appearance and makes it look as if it was a -thousand years old. - - -_Aluminum._--This metal is found everywhere in nature but as it is -never found free it is only in the last few years that it has been -extracted in large quantities and cheaply enough to bring it into use. - -It has a bright bluish white color nearly like that of tin and is the -lightest common metal known.[19] It does not tarnish either in dry or -moist air; it is malleable and ductile and as easy to work as brass -but it is very hard to solder but there are soldering compounds on -the market by which it can be soldered. Aluminum can be bought[20] in -sheets of any thickness, or in rods or tubes of any size. - - [19] Aluminum when mixed with magnesium makes an alloy called - _magnaleum_ and this is lighter than aluminum alone. - - [20] Sold by the Aluminum Co. of America, 120 Broadway, N. Y. - - -=A Few Useful Alloys.=--When two or more metals are melted together and -mixed they form what is called an alloy. - - -_Brass._--This well known alloy is made by mixing zinc with copper. -There are twenty or more different kinds of brass but common brass is -made of 36 parts of zinc and 64 parts of copper. - -Brass is harder than copper and while it can be hammered and drawn it -is not nearly as malleable or as ductile as copper. It can be sawed, -drilled, threaded and machined easily and is about the best alloy you -can use for making small parts of machines. - - -_Type-metal._--All kinds of metals _shrink_ when they cool after being -run into a mold and so the edges of the castings are never very sharp. - -Now type metal which is an alloy made of 80 parts of lead and 20 -parts of antimony will _expand_ and this is the reason why type is -so beautifully clear and sharp. So if you want to cast little parts -of machines and engines and the like you can do a good job by using -type-metal. As it melts at a low temperature you can melt it in an iron -ladle over the kitchen fire. - - -_Pewter._--This alloy, which is made of 75 parts of tin and 25 parts of -lead, in Colonial days was much used for making all kinds of table-ware -and household utensils and it will come into vogue again I hope. More -will be said about this alloy and how to work it in the next chapter. - - -=How to Do Metal Work.=--Now that you know about tools and the -properties of metals there are a few other little things which, if you -will bear them in mind, will enable you to make nearly anything you -want to. The first has to do with drawing and the others with working -the metals themselves. - - -=First Sketch Your Ideas.=--To start out and try to make an object -which you have in mind without sketching it on paper first so that you -can see just what size to cut and shape it, and how it will look when -you have finished it, is the first step toward being a disappointed boy. - -When you get an _abstract idea_ for a design or a machine that you -want to put in _concrete form_ take a rule and compasses, pencil and -paper and draw it out _to scale_, that is, make a drawing of it and -mark the sizes, or dimensions, of each part just as it should be when -the thing is done. - -By roughly sketching the object, or, better, by making an accurate -working drawing of it before you do anything else you will save time, -patience and materials.[21] - - [21] How to make working drawings is explained in Chapter V. Fuller - directions will be found in _Inventing for Boys_, by the present - author, published by Frederick A. Stokes Company, N. Y. - - -=Sheet Metal Work.=--_Cutting and Sawing._--After having traced or -otherwise marked out the design or shape you want on the sheet of metal -with the sharp point of your center punch or an awl, or _scribed_ it -with your dividers you can cut it out with your snips if the sheet is -thin enough. If it is too thick to be sheared then saw it out with your -jeweler’s or hack saw. - -Should you want to make a hole or an open design of any kind in thin -sheet metal you can easily punch it in with your center punch, or cut -it out with a stencil cutter’s chisel, which is simply a very sharp -cold chisel.[22] But should the metal be too thick to punch or cut in -this way drill a small hole in it and you can then saw out the part -with a jeweler’s saw frame and blade just as you would saw out a piece -of wood with a scroll saw, though you may have to hold the metal in a -vise. - - [22] See Chapter VIII. - - -_Making Seams and Joints._--The next thing to do after having cut out -the different pieces of metal is to put them together. The way you do -this will again depend very largely on the thickness of the metals, but -in any event where the pieces meet, a seam or a joint must be made. - -[Illustration: - - =A=--_LAP SEAM_ - - =B=--_GROOVED SEAM_ - - =C=--_LAP SEAM RIVETED_ - - =D=--_BUTT JOINT BOLTED_ - - =E=--_BOX LAP JOINT_ - - =F=--_BOX GROOVED SEAM_ - - =G=--_BUTT & PIECED JOINT_ - - =H=--_CORNER BUTT JOINT SCREWED_ - - =I=--_CIRCULAR LAP SEAM_ - - =J=--_CIRCULAR FOLDED SEAM_ - - =K=--_CIRCULAR OVERFOLD SEAM_ - -FIG. 29. HOW METAL SEAMS AND JOINTS ARE MADE] - -If the metal is thin the pieces can be lapped and then soldered or -riveted together as shown at A in Fig. 29 or you can make a folded seam -as shown at B. If, however, the metal is thick you can make a lap seam -and either rivet or bolt it together with screws having nuts on them as -shown at C. - -A strong _butt seam_ can be made by _hard soldering_ or _brazing_ the -edges together but it takes a hot flame and considerable skill to do -a good job of this kind. Another way to make a butt seam of two thick -sheets of metal is to lay them with their edges together and then -rivet a strip or plate on both sides of them as shown at D. - -In making corner joints one or both edges of the sheet should be bent -over as pictured at E when they can be soldered, riveted or bolted -together; or a grooved seam can be made as shown at F if the metal is -thin enough. - -If the pieces of metal are say ¹⁄₁₆ inch or more thick you can put a -three cornered piece of metal in the corner and drill and thread it so -that the pieces which form the butt joint can be screwed to it as shown -at G, or if one of the pieces is thick enough you can drill and thread -it and screw the other piece to it as shown at H. - -When putting ends on tubes and cylinders you can make a circular lap -seam as shown at I, or a circular folded seam as at J or a circular -overfolded seam as shown at K. - - -=How to Solder Metals.=--The great secret in soldering metals is to -have them perfectly clean and then if you use the right kind of _flux_ -and the proper solder you will not have any trouble. - - -_Fluxes._--After you have cleaned the surfaces to be soldered you must -use a flux to prevent the metal from oxidizing and to make the solder -stick. Different metals require fluxes of different kinds. - -When soldering bright new tinware use powdered resin for the flux, but -if the parts are old then scrape and clean them well and use a flux of -_zinc chloride_ solution. To make it dissolve 5 cents’ worth of zinc -chloride--which is muriate of zinc--in a small clean inkbottle full of -warm water; or you can make the muriate of zinc by dissolving some zinc -clippings in muriatic acid and to make the soldering fluid add some -water to it. - -This kind of a soldering fluid is a good flux for tin, iron, steel, -brass and copper. It is good for all ordinary work but it must be -washed off from iron or steel as it will rust them very quickly. To -solder copper _sal ammoniac_ can be used. - -The only kind of a flux to solder zinc with is a solution made of 10 -per cent. of muriatic acid and 90 per cent. of water. For lead, pewter -and any alloy with lead in it use tallow, Gallipoli oil or Venice -turpentine. Resin can be used successfully for all metals provided they -are scraped bright and clean before they are soldered. - - -_Solders._--Just as certain metals require given fluxes so also do -these metals need special solders. - -For soldering tinware a fine tinner’s solder made of 1 part of tin and -1 part of lead flows best. For soldering lead use a fine plumber’s -solder which is formed of 1 part of tin and 2 parts of lead. To solder -pewter which melts at a low temperature use a pewterer’s solder which -is composed of 3 parts of lead and 1 part of bismuth. - - -=Bolts and Rivets.=--Where two pieces of metal are to be fixed together -so that they can be taken apart again, machine screws with nuts on -them, or bolts,[23] will be found useful. - - [23] Machine screws and bolts for model work can be bought of Luther - H. Wightman, Boston, Mass. - -A good kind of rivet for small work is known as _tinner’s_ rivets; -they are made of iron and have a length of ⁵⁄₃₂ of a inch. Now a rivet -can either be hammered down so that the point spreads out and forms a -_burr_, or a _washer_, which is called a _burr_, can be slipped down -over it and the end then peined down. Copper-rivets as small as ¹⁄₄ -inch in length can be bought at most hardware stores. - - -=Bending Sheet Metal.=--To bend a metal sheet put it on a wood or metal -form and pound it into shape with a wooden mallet. - -The edges of a piece of sheet metal can be bent either by pounding it -over the sharp corner of an iron bar, or if a very small part is to be -bent use a pair of round or flat nose pliers. A thick piece of sheet -metal can be bent by putting it in your vise and pounding over the edge -with a hammer. - - -=Finishing Up Metals.=--Of course all the rough parts must be smoothed -up with a file; then use emery paper or emery cloth to rub out the -file marks and finally finish off the surface by polishing it with -_crocus_[24] put on with a cloth. - - [24] Crocus is a powder made of iron rust. - - -=Coloring Metals.=--Many things that you make of metal can be greatly -improved in appearance by coloring them. - - -_Bluing Steel._--First polish the articles and clean them by immersing -them in a hot solution of _caustic soda_. Now put the screws, or -whatever it is you want to blue, in an iron pan half full of dry, clean -sand and heat them over a fire. - -Keep moving the articles around with a pair of tweezers until they are -the color you want them and then drop them into clean oil. - - -_Bluing Brass._--Polished pieces of brass can be given a fine color by -putting them in a solution made as follows: - -Stir 1¹⁄₂ drams of _antimony sulphide_,[25] 2 ounces of _calcined soda_ -in ³⁄₄ of a pint of water; to this solution add 2¹⁄₄ drams of _kermes_. -Stir well, filter it and then mix it with 2¹⁄₄ drams of _tartar_, 5¹⁄₂ -drams of _hyposulphite of soda_ dissolved in ³⁄₄ pint of water when it -is ready to use. - - [25] This and all other chemicals can be bought of Eimer and Amend, - Fourth Ave. and 18th Street, New York. - - -_Giving Brass a Green Color._--Make a solution of 2 ounces of _copper -sulphate_, ¹⁄₂ an ounce of _sal ammoniac_ and 25 ounces of water. -Suspend the articles to be greened in the solution and boil it until -you get the color you want. - - -_Giving Brass a Dull Look._--First clean the articles thoroughly; then -mix ¹⁄₄ ounce of _iron rust_ and ¹⁄₄ ounce of _white arsenic_ in 4 -ounces of _muriatic acid_. Use a brush and paint the articles with this -solution until it takes on the proper dull appearance. Then wipe it -off, oil, dry and lacquer it. - - -_Frosting Brass Articles._--Hang the brass articles in a boiling -solution of _caustic potash_, wash them off in clean water and dip them -in _nitric acid_ until the oxide is gone, wash them again and throw -them in sawdust to dry; heat them a little and lacquer while they are -warm. - - -_Lacquering Brass and Copper._--To lacquer a brass or a copper article -dip it in a weak solution of _sulphuric_ acid and water and then wash -it in clean water. Next put the article on a piece of sheet iron and -heat it over a gas jet or in an oven. - -It must not be heated enough to color it but just so that when you -place your moistened finger to it it will sizzle; now put on the -lacquer and this can be done by brushing the article over with a -camel’s hair brush or by dipping the article into the lacquer. - - -_How to Make the Lacquer._--Put 1 ounce of _tumeric powder_, 2 drams of -_annatto_ and 2 drams of _saffron_ into 1 pint of alcohol. - -Let it stand for a week or 10 days and shake it often; pour the -clear liquid into a bottle and put in 3 ounces of yellow shellac; -let it stand for a couple of weeks more; shake it often and pour off -carefully. Then you can put it on. Lacquers can be bought ready made -from Hanson and Van Winkle, Dealers in Electroplating Supplies, Newark, -N. J. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -VENETIAN IRON, REPOUSSÉ, PIERCED BRASS AND PEWTER WORK - - -Venetian Bent Iron Work - -A very pretty and most useful kind of ornamental iron work came into -vogue in Venice, Italy, a long time ago, and as it is easy to do and -you need only a few tools and inexpensive materials to do it with, you -ought to try your hand at it. - -Venetian iron work consists of bending thin, narrow strips of wrought -iron into scrolls and other shapes and then fixing them together with -little iron clamps called _binders_. - -In this way objects such as egg boilers, candlestick _sconces_, -lanterns and brackets to hang them on, photograph frames and helpful -and artistic creations without end can be made. - - -=The Tools You Must Have.=--You will need very few tools for making -Venetian iron work and these are (1) a pair of flat nose 5 inch -pliers;[26] (2) a pair of round nose 5 inch pliers; (3) a box-wood -four-fold, 2-foot rule; (4) a vise; (5) a pair of tinner’s snips and -(6) a small riveting hammer, all of which are shown in Fig. 27. - - [26] This means that the pliers are 5 inches long. - - -=The Materials You Need.=--The work is made of ¹⁄₃₂ inch thick soft -iron strips and this can be bought[27] in four different widths, namely -¹⁄₈, ³⁄₁₆, ¹⁄₄, and ³⁄₈ inch. - - [27] Complete manual training outfits for Venetian bent iron work can - be bought of Hammacher, Schlemmer and Co., Fourth Avenue and 13th - St., New York. - -In general it is the best practice to use the ³⁄₁₆ and ¹⁄₄ inch wide -strips for all designs except the smallest and largest. The strip iron -comes in coils of 50 feet and the prices range from 16 cents to 25 -cents a coil. - -[Illustration: - - _BINDERS_ - - _COIL OF WROUGHT IRON STRIP_ - - _LEAD WIRE FOR MEASURING_ - -FIG. 30. MATERIALS YOU NEED FOR VENETIAN IRON WORK] - -Then you will need a package of _binders_--these are merely bits of -strip iron cut off and bent as shown in Fig. 30, they come in four -widths and cost about 10 cents a hundred. Also get a couple of 3 foot -pieces of lead wire for with these you can quickly form the scrolls -and circles you intend to make of iron, then straighten them out and -accurately measure off the length of iron you need. They cost 5 cents -a strip. - - -=What to Do First.=--_Making a Simple Design._--The first thing to do -after you get your tools and materials together is to draw on a sheet -of paper the object you are to make of bent iron. - - -=How to Make a Toaster.=--This is a good piece of work to start with -because it is formed chiefly of straight lines. Draw a plan of it as -shown in Fig. 31, full size and then measure the frame and the inside -strips--you will observe that there are two of the latter--and find out -exactly how long each strip should be. - -Now measure and cut off three strips of iron and allow an extra inch -for lapping the long strip that forms the frame. This done mark off the -points where the strips are to be bent and use your flat nose pliers to -bend the sharp corners and your round nose pliers to bend the curved -parts of the frame. - -Lap the ends of the strip forming the frame on the side ¹⁄₂ an inch, -fasten the joint by putting a binder on it with your pliers and a light -tap with your hammer will tighten it up. - -Now if you will look again at Fig. 31, you will see that one end of the -right inside strip projects up and beyond the rest of it and this end -sets in the handle of the frame and strengthens it; put a binder on -each place where it is shown in the drawing including the handle. Fix -in the left inside bent strip with binders and put the binders on so -that the rough ends will be inside, file down the rough places, rub -the toaster all over with a piece of fine emery cloth until it is nice -and smooth, rub it with some sweet oil, polish it off with a soft cloth -and then present it to Pietro or Hilda or Wo Nang Fong or whoever it is -that presides over the kitchen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31. A USEFUL BENT IRON TOASTER] - - -=How to Make an Egg Boiler.=--Having made the toaster you are ready to -try your hand at something a little harder and a good design for your -next piece of work is an egg boiler. - -The picture may look a little complicated but as a matter of fact there -is very little to it. There are only three parts to the egg boiler and -these are (a) the egg holders; (b) the legs, and (c) the handle. Each -of the four egg holders is formed of a ring or strip of iron just -large enough so that an egg will slip through it; lap the ends and put -on a binder to hold the joint tight. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32. HOW MAKE AN EGG BOILER] - -Mark, cut off and bend the ends of two strips over ¹⁄₂ an inch, for the -half ovals on which the egg rests and then bend the strips to fit the -shape of the egg. This done, loop the ends of each half oval over the -ring and press them down hard with your pliers to hold them in place. -The way an egg holder is made is shown at A in Fig. 32. - -Each leg is a short strip bent over and pressed on to the top of the -ring. It is made rigid by putting a binder on it and to one of the half -ovals as shown at B. To make the handle take a piece of lead wire and -bend it to fit the outline shown at C; then straighten it out and cut -off a strip of iron of the same length. Bend the ends of it over ¹⁄₂ an -inch and shape it up with your round nose pliers. - -Now join the four rings together with binders and loop and press the -ends of the handle on to the rings that are furthest apart as shown at -B. File, rub up and polish the egg boiler and give it to the _chef_ -with your compliments. - - -=How to Make a Venetian Plate Holder.=--To make this plate holder you -will have to add a hand drill, a ¹⁄₈ inch twist drill, and a center -punch--which are described in Chapter III--to your list of tools. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33. AN ARTISTIC VENETIAN PLATE HOLDER] - -The plate holder is of more simple construction than the egg boiler but -as you have emerged from the kitchen into the dining room you will -have to do a very fine job. It consists of four legs as shown in Fig. -33, riveted to a ring. - -Draw the design on paper full size and this will depend on the diameter -of the plate it is to hold. Find the length of the legs with your lead -wire and measure and cut off the strips of iron accordingly. Likewise -find the length of iron strips it will take for the ring and allow 1 -inch or over for the lap joint. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34. A SCONCE FOR A CANDLE] - -Now drill ¹⁄₈ inch holes in each strip you intend to use for the legs, -half way between the top and bottom of it and drill four holes in the -ring at equi-distant points. Bend the strips into the artistic curves -shown, using, of course, your round nose pliers to do it with, and bend -the ring over a round form--a broomstick will do, but a larger form -will work better. - -Finally rivet the legs to the ring and see to it that you make a good -job of it; slip the top of the legs into place over the plate and you -will have a piece of Venetian iron work you can be proud of. - -You can design and make pretty bent iron stands for vases in a manner -very like that used for the plate holder; card racks, photograph -frames, lamp shades, etc., can be made in the same manner; and as you -become more adept at the work you can point and shape up the iron by -heating it in an alcohol lamp, or a Bunsen burner and hammering it. -When you can do this you will be able to make a _sconce_, that is, an -ornamental _mural_[28] bracket for holding a candle as shown in Fig. 34. - - [28] Mural means anything that is supported by or has to do with a - wall. - -Further you can twist and weave the iron strips for the sides and doors -of boxes and book-cases and either line them with silk or put stained -glass back of them. In fact the most beautiful things imaginable can be -wrought from bent iron strips especially when rivets are used to put -the work together. - - -_A Dead Black Finish for Iron Work._--Get 25 cents’ worth of _japan -gold size_ and 10 cents’ worth of _pure drop black ground in -turpentine_ and mix them together. - -If it is too thick thin it with turpentine and put it on with a soft -brush. When dry it will be dead black and neither air nor moisture will -spoil it. - - -Doing Repoussé Work - - -_Repoussé_ (pronounced re-poo′-say) is a French word and means to form -in relief, and _repoussage_ (pronounced re-poo′-sazh) is the word you -want to use when you mean the process of producing designs in relief on -sheet metal by hammering it on the back. - - -=Tools Needed for Repoussé Work.=--Very few tools are needed for this -kind of work but it is important to use the right kind. - -The _repoussé hammer_ is a jeweler’s hammer which has one end, or face -of it flat and the other rounded like a peining hammer; it is shown in -Fig. 35. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35. HOW TO HOLD A REPOUSSÉ HAMMER] - -Then a number of blunt chisels and markers called _repoussé tools_ -as shown at B, Fig. 35, are needed to emboss the design in the sheet -metal. These tools cost about 30 cents apiece and a set of eight or ten -tools will serve you well. For the bolder parts of the work boxwood -punches can be used but steel punches are always used for the finer -work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35B. A PUNCH AND PUNCH DESIGNS FOR REPOUSSÉ WORK] - - -=How to Prepare the Work.=--The kind of metal that is easiest to work -is _cold-rolled sheet copper_[29] No. 32 Brown and Sharp gauge, but -brass, aluminum and pewter can also be hammered. - - [29] Can be bought of Patterson Brothers, Park Row, New York, or of - the Frost and Adams Co., Cornhill, Boston, Mass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35C. HOW TO HOLD A REPOUSSÉ PUNCH] - -To get the work ready fasten the piece of sheet metal to a wooden -block with a cement made as follows: melt 1 pound of Burgundy pitch -in an iron pan, or skillet, and stir in 1 pound of _dental_ plaster of -paris,[30] until they are thoroughly mixed. Then put in a tablespoonful -each of tallow and of resin which will make the cement stick better. - - [30] This is very fine plaster and can be bought of any dentist. - -Take a board 1 inch thick, 10 inches wide and 12 inches long and make -a tray of it by nailing a strip of wood around it so that it is ¹⁄₂ an -inch higher than the surface of the board. Pour the cement while it is -still hot on the board and press the sheet of metal hard down on it; -let it get cold when it will be firmly cemented to it. - - -=Tracing the Design.=--After you have drawn the design on the sheet of -metal either with a pencil or by means of transfer paper you can begin -to _trace_ the design by punching it with the straight and curved edge -chisels. - -To hold a chisel right, grip it between your thumb and index finger, -let your next, or _medius_, finger lie gently on the shank of the tool -and your third, or _annularis_, finger rest on the sheet of metal as -shown at C in Fig. 35. - -The handle of the hammer is long, thin and springy and you hold it by -the end with your index finger laying on it as shown at A in Fig. 35. -Do not strike the tool hard or the punch may go clear through the metal -sheet but instead give it a succession of light, gentle taps at the -rate of about 100 a minute or so and you will make the tracing nice and -even. - - -=Bossing the Work.=--After you have traced the outline of the design -with the chisels hold the plate over an alcohol or a Bunsen flame and -when it is hot enough you can take it off of the cement. - -Then cement it to the block again, but this time put the other side -down. Now use your boxwood or steel punches and hammer the copper, or -other metal, into bold relief or you can matt the ground with any one -of the numerous punches shown at B. - -[Illustration: - - _THE DESIGN ON THE METAL_ - - _THE RING FOR THE CANDLE_ - - _THE CANDLESTICK WHEN DONE_ - -FIG. 36. A REPOUSSÉ CANDLESTICK] - - -=How to Make a Flat Candlestick.=--This is a good piece of work for -you to start with because it is at once simple, artistic and more or -less useful. To make it, cut out a sheet of brass 6¹⁄₂ inches square -and draw a spider and his web and a poor little fly or two making a -bee-line for it as shown at A in Fig. 36. - -Punch the outline with your chisels and raise the bodies of the insects -with your molding tools. The ground can be left flat or you can put it -in with a marker. When you have the bossing done _scallop_ the edges -with your snips and bend them up so that it is 5 inches square. - -For the handle cut a strip of brass ³⁄₄ inch wide and 4³⁄₄ inches long; -raise the middle of it by hammering it in a groove cut in a block of -hard wood; bend it and then rivet it to a corner of the brass sheet. - -To make the ring which holds the candle cut out a strip of brass 1 inch -high and 3 inches long and cut out three tongues as shown at B. Scribe -a circle in a corner of the sheet of brass, cut three slots on it, slip -the tongues through the slots and bend them over. - -Rub the candlestick all over with some _brass polish_ and then cover -the bottom with a piece of green billiard cloth if you can get it, or -any other kind you may have at hand. It is shown complete at C. - - -=How to Make a Photo Frame.=--The front of this frame can be made of -brass, copper or German silver and the back of it can be made of a -sheet of tin or brass. - -You can make the frame round, oblong or square and with a round or an -oval opening in it to suit your fancy. Suppose you make the outside of -it 7 × 9 inches and the oval opening 3¹⁄₂ × 5 inches as shown at A in -Fig. 37. Draw or transfer the design to the surface of the metal and -work it into shape as I have previously described. - -Do not cut the opening or trim the metal sheet to the size you want -them until after you have hammered it as this draws the metal out. -After you have finished the front make a back for it of sheet tin or -brass, 5 inches wide and 6 inches long, and bend over the edge of one -end and both of the side edges ³⁄₈ inch as shown at B. - -Solder the edges to the back of the frame and then solder a _stay_, or -stand on the back of it. This completes the frame and the photograph -can be slipped in it between the front and the back. - -[Illustration: - - _THE HAMMERED FRONT_ - - _THE BACK OF THE FRAME_ - -FIG. 37. A REPOUSSÉ PHOTO FRAME] - - -_Cleaning and Polishing Brass, Copper and German Silver._--To clean any -of these metals mix some powdered _rotten stone_ with some machine oil -and rub them with a pad made of a soft flannel rag. - -To polish wipe off the rotten stone and oil perfectly clean and then -rub the work with a chamois skin dampened with alcohol and on which you -have put some _red rouge_. - - -_Frosting, Coloring and Lacquering Metals._--You will find recipes for -finishing articles in these styles in Chapter III. - - -Pierced Metal Work - -This is by all odds the simplest and easiest of all art metal work and -you won’t need any practice to make a good job; then the tools and -materials cost but very little and the finished work is really pretty. - -[Illustration: - - _THE MALLET_ - - _A TRACING POINT_ - - _THUMB TACK_ - - a _MODELING TOOL_ - - b _MODELING TOOL_ - - _STIPPLING AWLS_ - -FIG. 38A. THE TOOLS YOU NEED FOR PIERCED BRASS WORK] - - -=The Outfit to Do It With.=--_The Tools._--These are very few indeed -and include (1) a pear-shaped mallet for stippling; (2) a tracing -point; (3) a couple of modeling tools; (4) an awl with a tempered -point, and (5) a metal folder, all of which are shown at A in Fig. 38. - -You will also need (a) a sheet of designs; (b) a sheet of carbon, or -impression paper; (c) a dozen or more split shanks to fasten the edges -of the work together; (d) a drawing board about 12 × 18 inches on the -sides of which the sheet metal is tacked while you are working it, and -(e) some thumb tacks for tacking the work to the board. - -[Illustration: - - _A CANDLE SHADE_ - - _THE FINISHED CANDLE SHADE_ - -FIG. 38B. A PIERCED BRASS CANDLE SHADE] - -You will need too, of course, the sheet metal and this can be of brass, -copper or German silver and you can buy sheets of these metals that are -already cut out for candle shades, lanterns, photo-frames and numerous -other articles with the designs marked on them ready to use[31] or you -can buy the sheet metal and the designs separately and then transfer -and cut them out yourself. - - [31] All tools and materials for pierced metal work can be bought of - Frost and Adams, Boston, Mass. - -An outfit for pierced brass work can be bought for as little as 60 -cents and you can buy any number of brass or copper cutouts with the -designs stamped on them for 25 cents each, or of German silver for 50 -cents each. - - -=How to Do the Work.=--The first thing to do is to lay the sheet of -metal with the design on it on your drawing board and fasten it there -with thumb tacks. - -Now with your stippling awl punch little holes about ¹⁄₁₆ inch apart -all along the outline of the design. The background is then _stippled_ -with the awl, that is, dotted all over but not punched through, and the -closer the dots are the prettier it will look. - -Use a small modeling tool to put the veins in the leaves and after you -have done this use a larger modeling tool and shape up the leaves or -whatever the design may be. - -To do this grip the tool in your hand and press it hard on the edge of -the leaf and force it in toward the vein and at the same time ease up -on it. This is all there is to the actual work of piercing brass. - -After you have made the design take some _brass polish_, put it on a -little wad of cheese cloth and rub off the remaining marks and then -polish it with a clean cloth. - -Since the brass or other metal for pierced brass work is very thin you -will have to back it up with thin wood, although candle shades and -other small articles can be used as they are. A design for a candle -shade is shown at B and the finished candlestick at C, while one for -a toast panel that can be hung on the wall with a Venetian bent iron -hanger which I described on page 76 is shown at D. - -[Illustration: - - ’Tis easy enough to be pleasant, - When life goes by with a song; - But the nan worth while, - is the man who will smile, - When everything else goes wrong. - -FIG. 38D. A PIERCED BRASS TOAST SIGN] - - -Casting and Working Pewter - -Since nearly all metals excepting tin and lead have high melting -points, it is hard to melt them unless you have a regular furnace. - - -=Something About Pewter.=--But casting metals is a fascinating process -and you can do it by melting 25 parts of lead and 75 parts of tin -together which forms an alloy called _pewter_. - -This alloy is as old as the hills and for ten or eleven centuries -before the golden age of invention--that is to say the beginning of the -19th century--pewter utensils were used in nearly every home in every -civilized country. - -Then came the invention of cheap processes for making pottery and -glass and those good old hard alloys known as _britannia metal_, which -is formed of tin, copper and antimony, and _German silver_, which is -German all right, for it was first made at Hildburghausen, Germany, but -it is not silver at all for it is formed of nickel, zinc and copper, -went entirely out of use. - -But there is a dignity and a beauty about pewter that none of the other -common metals have and it may be revived one of these days for efforts -are now being made to produce it again in all its former glory. - - -=How to Make Pewter.=--I do not know of any place where you can buy -pewter but you can easily make the alloy yourself. - -You can get the lead in your home town wherever you live at any -plumbing shop but you may not be able to get the tin so easily. You -can, however, get it by sending to the _Conley Tin Foil Company_, 521 -West 25th Street, New York, and at the present time they are quoting -_pig tin_ in blocks at 75 cents a pound. - -When you have the lead and the tin melt the lead in an iron ladle, see -Fig. 39, over the kitchen fire and skim off the _dross_, that is, -the impurities in it that come to the surface, and then put in the -tin. After both are melted stir them well and then pour the alloy thus -formed, which is pewter, in a pan that is oiled with sweet oil, to keep -it from sticking and so make sheets of it of whatever thickness you -want. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39. IRON LADLE FOR MELTING PEWTER] - - -=About Working Pewter.=--Pewter can be worked like any other malleable -metal, only easier because it is softer and more ductile, hence it can -be hammered into any shape. - -It can be cast as you will presently see and it can be soldered -by using a flux of tallow, Gallipoli oil or Venice turpentine and -_pewterer’s solder_, which is made of 1 part of lead, 1 part of -tin and 2 parts of _bismuth_.[32] This solder melts at 203 degrees -_Fahrenheit_, that is at a temperature of 9 degrees less than that at -which water boils. - - [32] Bismuth is a reddish white metal. - - -=How to Cast Pewter.=--The way in which pewter is usually cast is by -making molds of iron and brass and pouring the metal into them. But you -can do a very good job of casting pewter by making and using plaster of -Paris molds. - -In making any kind of castings you need a flask, that is a wooden -frame made in halves, as shown in Fig. 40; the top half of the flask is -called the _cope_ and this must be fitted with pins that set in holes -in the bottom of the frame or _drag_, as it is called. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40. HOW A PEWTER CASTING IS MADE] - -When these pins set in the holes they keep the top and bottom parts of -the flask together so that after the mold is made they can be taken -apart and the pattern removed and then when they are put together again -ready for the metal to be poured they will be exactly even. Make the -top and bottom halves of the flask a couple of inches larger all round -and a couple of inches deeper than the size of the pattern you are -going to cast. - - -=The Patterns Necessary.=--You can saw or turn or carve out of wood -anything you want to cast in pewter, provided it is not too intricate, -and after sandpapering it nice and smooth all over give it a couple of -coats of _shellac varnish_.[33] - - [33] This can be bought already made at paint stores or you can make - it by dissolving some yellow shellac in alcohol. - -If it is your idea to make table-ware of pewter you can use ordinary -china dishes for your patterns, provided they are without handles, but -before making a mold with any kind of a pattern in plaster oil it well -all over with _sweet oil_, using a brush for the purpose, so that it -will not stick and then you can _draw_ it easily. - - -=Making the Mold.=--Lay the drag, that is the lower half of the flask, -on a board or a table; mix dental plaster of Paris with water until it -is about as thick as batter and fill the drag with it. - -Just before the plaster begins to set, that is, harden, take your -pattern, whether it is one you have made or a china dish, oil it and -press it down into the plaster until it is nearly even with the top -edge of the pattern and let it stay there until the plaster is hard, -that is, over night. - -Then brush sweet oil over the top of both the pattern and the hard -plaster which must come about _flush_, that is even, with the top of -the drag. Now put on the cope and fill it with plaster, smooth it off -even with the top edge and let the plaster get hard. - -Your next move is to lift the cope from the drag which you can do -without trouble and then lift the pattern from the drag, using the -point of a knife if it seems inclined to stick. - -Drill a ¹⁄₄ inch hole through the plaster in the cope, fit the cope to -the drag again and then pour in the pewter. When it is cold take the -flask apart, take the casting out gently and don’t spoil it even if -you have to break the mold. - -Where cups, tankards or other hollow vessels are to be cast make a mold -for it just as though it was a solid piece; now pour in the melted -pewter and when it has cooled enough to form a solid layer turn the -mold upside down and let the melted metal run out which will leave it -hollow. If handles are needed cast them separately and solder them on -to the body of the vessel. Some finished pewter ware is shown at C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40C. HOME MADE PEWTER WARE] - - -=Finishing the Ware.=--Plates and the like can be scraped with a steel -scraper and when they are nice and smooth rub them with a rag dipped in -oil and whiting, but do not polish them. - -If you have a turning lathe of any kind you can put your cups and other -round objects in it and turn it up with a _bent inside_ turning tool, -a _flat tool_ and a _round point tool_ such as is used for turning -brass, ivory, etc., and which you can buy for a quarter apiece,[34] and -this will leave the pewter bright and beautiful. - - [34] These tools can be bought of Luther M. Wightman, Milk Street, - Boston, Mass. - - -Engraving on Metal - -Engraving on metal is a beautiful art. The method is simple and the -effect is striking but it requires a good deal of patience and long -practice to do really good work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41. TOOLS FOR ENGRAVING ON METAL - - A. Shapes of gravers. - - B. Handles for gravers.] - - -=The Tools That Are Used.=--Engraving tools, or _gravers_ as they are -called, are made in ten or a dozen shapes but the _knife_, _round_ and -_lozenge_ gravers will be enough to do all ordinary work with. The -different shapes are shown at A in Fig. 41. - -All of the gravers are about the same length, that is 4¹⁄₂ or 5 inches, -and they are fitted with knob shaped handles a third of which has been -cut away as shown at B, so that the graver can be gripped in the palm -of the hand with the flat side against it which keeps the tool in the -right position. The way to hold a graver is shown at C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41C. HOW TO HOLD A GRAVER] - - -=How to Engrave on Metal.=--If the object to be engraved is very small -it should be fixed to a block of wood with the Burgundy pitch compound -above described, but if it is a large object it need not be mounted. - -In either case an _engraving pad_, that is, a round, thick leather -pad filled with sand, is a very great convenience to rest the work on -because it permits the work to be easily turned in any direction and -held at any angle while it is being engraved. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41D. AN ENGRAVING ON A SHEET OF COPPER] - -Rolled sheet copper is a good metal to practice on and you can trace -the design you want to engrave on it by dabbing a thin film of -_engraver’s wax_[35] on the metal surface with your finger and then -sketching the outline with a _bone stylus_, that is a piece of bone -having a sharp point. An example of art engraving is shown at D in Fig. -41. - - [35] You can use _beeswax_ but it is better to make a wax by melting - together 3 parts of _beeswax_, 3 parts of _tallow_, 1 part of _Canada - balsam_ and 1 part of _olive oil_. Or you can buy a small cake of - _Chinese white_, wet your finger, rub it on the white and then dab it - on the metal surface. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -DRAWING SIMPLY EXPLAINED - - -Free-hand Drawing - -A picture made by the hand and eye and without the aid of a rule and -compass is called _free-hand drawing_. - -To be able to do free-hand drawing is one of the nicest accomplishments -you can have for then you can sketch the things you see and want to -remember; and, further, sketches made with a pencil or pen and ink are, -to my way of thinking, just as interesting as photographs provided they -are well done. - - -=Talent versus Practice.=--Some fellows have a natural bent for -sketching and are what you might call born artists, while others seem -to be entirely minus this talent and the only way they can ever learn -to sketch is by following certain rules and then practicing. - -Now the chances are you have a little talent but whether you have or -not if you will follow the simple instructions I have written down in -this chapter you will be surprised to find what really clever pictures -you can draw. - - -=Pictures for You to Draw.=--There are two kinds of free-hand sketches -for you to do and these are (1) of _life models_ and (2) of _still -life_, that is, fruit, flowers, furniture and inanimate objects of all -kinds. - -I shall tell you first how to make simple drawings of living figures -including man and beast and by beginning where your savage ancestor -left off you will be able to at least represent anything your fancy -dictates. - - -=Simple Line Sketches.=--As you will see by looking at A and B in -Fig. 42, the sketches of the man and horse consist of merely straight -lines but you will also observe that A looks like a boxer because the -_action_ is there. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42. A SIMPLE LINE DRAWING OF A MAN AND A HORSE] - -This is because when I sketched it I was careful to note the exact -position of the boxer’s head, arms, legs and body as they appeared -at that given moment. The keynote in sketching a figure in action is -always to draw it, not as you wish or believe it to look but as it -actually is. - -The line sketches A and B only look as like a man landing a right, -and a horse coming down the home stretch as they do because (a) all -the lines are properly _proportioned_, that is, of the right length -when compared with each other, and (b) they are set in the correct -positions. The way to become a good judge of proportion is always to -notice the _relative_ sizes of the things you draw. - - -=Sketching Simple Outline Figures.=--When you can sketch straight line -figures to show men and animals in action you can then draw outlines -around them and so make them much more realistic as shown at A and B in -Fig. 43. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43. SIMPLE OUTLINE DRAWING OF A BOXER AND A RACE -HORSE] - -To do this draw a straight line sketch first and then draw the outline -around it, when you can rub out the straight lines if you want to. -In these outline sketches you will see that only the lines that are -actually needed to give the picture the _contour_, that is, the shape -of the figure, or body, are used. - - -=The Proportions of the Human Figure.=--If you will remember when you -are drawing a picture of the human form that the whole figure from neck -to toe should be 7 times as long as the head; that the body proper, or -_torso_ as it is called, is 4 times as long as the head; that the arms -are as long as the body, and that the legs should be 4 times the length -of the head measured to the inside of the crotch, as you will see if -you will look at A in Fig. 44, you will have it in proportion. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44A. THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY] - - -=How to Draw Faces.=--You can easily draw fairly natural looking faces -if you will rule off a number of squares on a sheet of paper as shown -at B and C in Fig. 44. - -The full view of the head of a human being is shaped like an egg -standing on its small end, and the _profile_ (pronounced pro´-feel) -view, that is the side view of the head, is more nearly square; if in -the latter case the square is divided into two triangles, the face will -be found to nearly fill one of them and the hair the other. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44B. A FULL VIEW OF THE FACE] - -Both of these figures show the right sizes to make the eyes, ears, -nose and mouth, that the eyes are on a line with the _helix_, or upper -border of the ears and that the top of the nose is on a line with the -_lobe_, or lower edge of the ear. It is mighty good practice to sketch -the faces of your friends in this fashion. - - -=Sketching Still Life Objects.=--It is always more or less hard to -sketch inanimate objects with anything like a true portrayal of them -from memory but it is quite easy to do so if you have the object itself -set up before you to pattern after and then draw it as you see it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44C. A PROFILE VIEW OF THE FACE] - -If you can do a creditable drawing in this manner with your eye and -hand alone it is art, but if you use a rule or a pair of dividers -to measure off the proportions and then mark them on your paper, it -degenerates into a purely mechanical process; but you can take your -choice and do it whichever way you want to. - - -=Drawing in Perspective.=--The first thing to know about drawing in -perspective is what _perspective_ means. To do a drawing of an object -or a view on a sheet of paper as it appears to the eye you must draw it -in perspective. - -As an illustration, when you look down a railroad track you will see -that the rails look very far apart at your feet, but in the distance -they seem to come to a point and then vanish; this is quite natural for -nearby objects always look larger than when they are at a distance. - -So too, when you look at the top of a box the edge _a_ will seem -longer than the edge _b_, which is farther away from the eye, and the -lines _c_ and _d_ which form the other edges would meet if they were -projected as shown by the dotted lines at A in Fig. 45, and the same -thing is true for the front and the side of the box. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45A. THE VANISHING POINTS OF A PERSPECTIVE DRAWING] - - -_The Vanishing Point._--So when you draw a box or any other object in -perspective the lines will meet if you draw them out far enough and -then vanish, and hence this is called the _vanishing point_. - -To find the vanishing point of the surface of an object, such as the -top of a box, hold a pencil out in front of yourself at arm’s length -and shut one eye, as shown at B; then tilt the pencil until it follows -the side line that you are going to draw; now open your eye and you -will see that the line of the box that seemed at first to be straight -is really slanting. - -Draw a line on your paper at this slant, or _angle_ as it is called, -and do the same with the other line and draw it, when the two lines -will meet and this is the vanishing point. You can draw in now the -front and back lines of the top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45B. HOW TO FIND THE VANISHING POINT] - -Houses and all other objects should be drawn with vanishing points if -they are to conform to the first principles of art, but for certain -kinds of mechanical drawing art is sacrificed for the sake of showing -the sizes of the object and an abnormal picture results which is called -an _isometric perspective_. - -But houses and all other large objects should be drawn with vanishing -points or they will not look real. A barn drawn in this way is shown at -C, and you will see that the roof looks perfectly natural since the -lines forming it run to vanishing points. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45C. THE VANISHING POINTS PUT TO USE] - - -=How to Shade a Drawing.=--When you do a drawing from an object you -will see that the light falling on certain parts of it seems white, or -_high lights_, as they are called, and on other parts where it does not -fall it is dark. - -To shade your drawing so that it will show the lights and shadows -exactly as the object does, you should study the latter, and put the -_shading_, as it is called, on the former just as nearly like it as -you can. But in shading a drawing there must be no sharp lines to show -where the light leaves off and the shadow begins, but you must make -them merge gradually one into the other, as shown at A in Fig. 45. - - -Working Drawings - -And now we come to drawings of another kind and these are not intended -to please the eye but to work from, hence they are called _working -drawings_. - -When most boys, and many men, want to make anything of wood or metal -they get busy with their tools forthwith and whack it out willy-nilly -and of course a punk job results. - -Now the right way to make an article--unless you are going to crochet a -sweater--is to (1) see it in your mind’s eye, (2) then draw it out on -paper to _scale_, and (3) build it up from the _plan_ as the picture -is called. By working this way you will be able to figure out just how -much material you will need for it; see exactly how the various parts -fit together, and know that it will look just right when it is done. - - -=Drawing Tools You Should Have.=--Drawing instruments, or _drawing -tools_ as they are commonly called, consist for the most part of (1) -one or more pairs of _dividers_; (2) one or more pairs of _compasses_ -with pen and pencil points, and (3) one or more _ruling pens_. One of -each of the above tools will be enough for you to begin with. A cheap -set is shown in Fig. 46. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46. THE DRAWING TOOLS YOU NEED] - -Then you will need (4) a rule, or _scale_ as it is called; (5) -a _protractor_; (6) a T _square_ 20 inches long; (7) a 30 degree -_triangle_ 5 inches long; (8) some _drawing paper_[36] not less than 10 -× 12 inches; (9) a couple of medium hard (HHH) lead pencils,[37] (10) -a good _rubber eraser_;[38] (11) a bottle of Higgins’ _India ink_,[39] -(12) a few _thumb tacks_, and (13) a _drawing board_ about 12 × 17 -inches. And now let’s see what these tools and other things are for and -how they are used. - - [36] Get a 2-ply bristol board with a medium or smooth surface. - - [37] _Koh-i-noor_ or _Venus_ pencils are good ones. - - [38] Get Faber’s red rubber _Van Dyke_. - - [39] This is a prepared India ink but you can make your own by - rubbing up _stick India ink_ with water. - -A pair of dividers is a tool having hinged legs, the free ends of which -are pointed; they are used to take, mark off and subdivide distances. - -The compasses are made like the dividers, but one end has a needle -point and the other is hollow so that either a pencil or a drawing pen -point can be slipped into it; this tool is used to draw curves and -circles, either with a pencil or in ink. - -A ruling pen is formed of two bowed steel blades having a screw -adjustment so that they can be forced together or drawn apart and -so make lines of varying widths. Not only is a ruling pen different -from a writing pen but the ink that is used with it is thicker than -an ordinary writing ink. This pen is used to make straight lines by -running it along the edge of a rule or T square. - -A protractor is a semi-circle of brass or of German silver and it is -divided into 180 _degrees_--since it is half of a circle and there are -360 degrees in a circle. You can buy one for a quarter. - -By placing the edge of your rule in the center of the straight edge of -the protractor and laying it on any one of the lines--they are numbered -from 0 to 180--you will find the number of degrees the edge of the rule -is from the horizontal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47. THE T SQUARE AND TRIANGLE ON THE DRAWING BOARD] - -The T square is laid with the _head_, that is the short thick piece, -against the left hand edge of the drawing board which brings the -_blade_, that is the long thin piece flat on and across the board. The -triangle is placed against the straight edge. The triangle is laid on -the board with one of its edges against the blade of the T square as -shown in Fig. 47. - - -=Simple Working Drawings.=--There are two kinds of working drawings -that will be of use to you and these are, (1) _plan drawings_, and (2) -_isometric_ (pronounced i-so-met´-ric) _drawings_ and you will find -both of these quite easy to do. - - -_Making Plan Drawings._--Suppose now you want to draw the plans of a -box which, let’s imagine, is to be 5 inches high, 6 inches wide and 8 -inches long. The first thing to do is to draw out a view of the bottom, -which also serves as the top since they are alike, and you will have a -rectangle like that shown at A in Fig. 48, and mark the dimensions on -it, that is, the _width_ and the _length_ of the box. This you do by -running a couple of arrows in each direction and marking in the size. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48A. THE PLAN DRAWINGS FOR A BOX] - -Next draw one of the sides as shown at B and this will give you the -_height_ and the _length_ of the box and mark in the sizes, that is 5 -and 8 inches accordingly. Finally draw the end and you will have the -_height_ and _width_ of the box as shown at C and again you mark in the -dimensions. - -It is easy to see now that if you have all three dimensions, namely -_length_, _breadth_ and _thickness_, and that if you make a box in wood -or metal it will look like the picture shown at D which is in isometric -perspective. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48D. THE BOX DRAWN IN ISOMETRIC PERSPECTIVE] - - -_Isometric Perspective Drawings._--The kind of perspective drawings I -told you how to do under the caption of _Drawing in Perspective_ is -true perspective but engineers do drawings which they call _isometric -perspective_, that is, while the object seems to stand out in relief -there are no vanishing points. - -This kind of perspective is purely mechanical and not in the least -artistic but it is a great aid when you intend to make anything, for -you can still draw the lines to scale and see exactly how the finished -object will look. - -To make a drawing of this kind draw a line on a sheet of paper near -the bottom and two 30 degree lines from the ends and a vertical line -through them where they meet as shown at A in Fig. 49. - -Now there are four ways by which you can get the 30 degree lines on -paper and these are (1) to buy _isometric ruled paper_, that is paper -on which the lines are already ruled; you can buy this paper for 15 -cents a quire of any dealer in drawing materials or of Keuffel and -Esser, 127 Fulton Street, New York City. This is the easiest and best -way. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49A. HOW THE LINES FOR ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS ARE MADE] - -(2) Take a sheet of white paper exactly 5¹⁄₈ inches wide and 10 inches -long and draw two diagonal lines from corner to corner so that they -will cross each other, then draw a vertical line through the middle and -a horizontal line near the bottom. The diagonal and horizontal lines -will be 30 degrees apart. - -(3) By laying a 30 degree triangle on your T square and drawing a line -along the 30 degree side of it as shown in Fig. 47; and (4) by laying -off 30 degree lines with a protractor. - -To do this tack a sheet of paper on your drawing board and draw a -horizontal line near the bottom of the paper with your T square; put -your protractor on the horizontal line near one end, lay the edge of -the rule on the center of the protractor and exactly on the 30 degree -scale mark and then draw a line. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49B. A SHEET OF ISOMETRIC DRAWING PAPER] - -Slide the protractor on the opposite side of the board, draw another -30 degree diagonal line so that it will cross the first one and draw a -vertical line down through the middle of the paper. - -Having, now, your sheet of isometric ruled paper you are ready to do -the drawing. Whatever the picture is to be, all you need to do is to -follow the 30 degree lines and the vertical lines and you simply can’t -help getting it in perspective. - -In drawing isometric perspective circles, such as wheels, disks and -the like, they are always shown as _ellipses_, that is, closed oblong -curves. To draw an _isometric ellipse_,[40] make it in the proportion -of ⁵⁄₈ to 1, that is, if it is ⁵⁄₈ inch wide, as we will call its -_minor axis_, then make it 1 inch long, as we will call its _major -axis_, as shown at C in Fig. 49, and you will have one that is near -enough the right shape for your purpose; thus if you want to show a -tube or a pipe, draw it as pictured at C. Now with these few principles -well in mind you can make a working drawing of nearly anything you -please. - - [40] A more complete description of isometric ellipses will be found - in _Inventing for Boys_ by the present author and published by - Frederick A. Stokes Co., of New York. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49C. THE PROPORTIONS OF AN ISOMETRIC ELLIPSE] - - -Some Simple Aids to Drawing - - -=How to Draw a Circle.=--Should you ever want to draw a circle and have -no compasses at hand or should you want to draw a larger circle than -you can with your compasses tie a bit of strong thread to a pin, make a -loop in the string at whatever length you want the _radius_--that is -half of the diameter of the circle--to be. - -This done, drive the pin in at the point where you want the center of -the circle, put the point of a lead pencil in the loop and move it -around the pin, as shown at A in Fig. 50, keeping the thread taut and a -perfect circle, nearly, will result. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50A. HOW TO DRAW A CIRCLE WITH A THREAD] - - -=How to Draw a Spiral.=--Make a loop in one end of a thread as before -and tie the other end tightly to a large pin; wind the thread around -the pin until all of it is on except the loop; push the pin through the -paper on which you want to draw the spiral and into the drawing board -as shown at B. - -Next put the point of the pencil in the loop and move it around the pin -just as you did in making the circle and you will find that you have -drawn a very pretty geometrical spiral which is known as the _spiral -of Archimedes_. It is so called because Archimedes was the first to -explain that it was caused by a point moving with uniform angular speed -and receding from the center at a constant rate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50B. HOW TO DRAW A SPIRAL WITH A THREAD] - - -=How to Draw an Ellipse.=--An ellipse can be drawn in the same way as a -circle, that is, by means of a string; but instead of one pin you will -need two and each pin is driven in at the _foci_ of the ellipse you are -to draw as shown at C. Simply make a loop of the string, slip it over -the pins, put the pencil point in the loop and move it around the pins -when an ellipse will be formed. - - -=How to Make and Use a Pantagraph.=--A pantagraph is a simple -mechanical linkage for enlarging, copying or reducing the size of a -picture. It is shown in Fig. 51. - -To make one of these instruments get four strips of wood about ¹⁄₈ inch -thick, ¹⁄₂ an inch wide, and 18 or 20 inches long. Now drill ¹⁄₁₆ inch -holes ¹⁄₄ inch apart in each stick the whole length of it. In the ends -of three of the sticks make a hole the size of a lead pencil. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50C. HOW TO DRAW AN ELLIPSE WITH A THREAD] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51. HOW A PANTAGRAPH IS MADE AND USED] - -Make two tin tubes each ¹⁄₂ an inch long and fit them into the holes -in the ends of the sticks and push a bit of pencil through each tube; -screw a block of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch thick to your drawing board and -screw one end of another stick to the block and the sticks together -with screw eyes. - -Now tack a sheet of paper under the pencil in the free end of the stick -and a picture under the pencil in the jointed ends of the sticks, then -trace the picture with the latter, and the other pencil will make an -enlargement of the picture. By changing the position of the sticks a -picture can be copied or reduced in the same way. A pantagraph can be -bought for as little as 25 cents or for as much as $125.00.[41] - - [41] A pantagraph can be bought of any dealer in art supplies or - drawing materials. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52. HOW A REFLECTING DRAWING BOARD IS MADE AND USED] - - -=How to Make a Reflecting Drawing Board.=--This is a very simple and -easily made optical apparatus for copying pictures and making drawings -of flat objects. Get a smooth board, or your drawing board will do; -make a wood frame and fit an 8 × 10 sheet of clear glass in it and -screw the frame to the middle of the board as shown in Fig. 52. - -Now all you have to do is to lay a picture or a flat object, such as -a leaf or a butterfly, on one side of the glass and a sheet of paper -on the other side and look into the glass at a sharp slant, or _acute -angle_ would be the better term, and you will see the picture projected -plainly on the paper so that you can easily draw it in with a pencil. - - -=How to Make Tracings.=--A very easy and effective way to copy any -picture already drawn, or even a photograph, _in line_, is to use -_tracing paper_. - -This kind of paper, which you can buy of any dealer in drawing -materials, is quite transparent and very tough. To make a tracing -lay the drawing you want to copy on your drawing board, then lay the -tracing paper on top of it, rough side up, and push a thumb tack into -each corner to hold them together. - -Now trace the outline of the picture with a pencil and then draw in the -lines with _India ink_. If the paper does not take the ink readily rub -the surface of it with a little powdered chalk on a soft rag. You can -make as many duplicate copies as you want by using a _printing frame_ -and _blue paper_ according to the directions given in the next chapter. - - -=To Make Lasting Impressions.=--Here is an easy way to make lasting -impressions of your own and your friends’ finger prints and hands. - -Take a sheet of heavy glazed white paper, say 5 × 7 inches, and hold -it over a kerosene lamp with the chimney removed and the top of the -burner thrown back so that the flame will smoke like a locomotive. Keep -moving the paper about to make the soot, which is simply particles -of nearly pure carbon, cover the surface of the paper as evenly as -possible. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53. A LASTING CARBON (SOOT) IMPRESSION OF YOUR -HAND] - -Lay the smoked paper on a table and then press the palm of your hand -flat down on it; you must be careful not to press your fingers down too -hard or the sharpness of the fine lines will be destroyed. To get a -clear impression of the lines in the hollow of your hand press down on -the back of it with the fingers of your other hand. - -After you have made the _print_, as the impression is called, pour on -some _flint varnish_, which is the kind that photographers use to cover -the films of glass negatives. You can buy it at any photo supply house. - -Pour a teaspoonful on one corner of the paper and let it flow down and -across until the whole surface is evenly covered. As this is a genuine -carbon process the prints cannot fade and they will last as long as the -paper lasts. A print of this kind made by the author 18 years ago is -shown in Fig. 53. - - -=The Ancient and Honored Art of Cutting Silhouettes.=--Since you are of -the younger generation let me tell you just what a _silhouette_ is, and -why. - -It is a profile, or side view, of the head of a person cut out of black -paper and mounted on a white card, or else cut out of white paper with -a piece of black silk back of it so that it looks like a shadow in -miniature of the sitter. - -It was so called after M. de Silhouette, a French Minister of Finance -in 1759; his rigid economy in the conduct of his office caused his name -to be tacked on to everything cheap and as photography had not yet -been discovered and painted portraits were costly, the paper outlines -filled in with black were the cheapest substitute known and hence the -name. - -But as the years rolled by silhouettes became a dignified and honored -art and so when our great grandfather and grandmother wanted to have -their pictures made--not taken--they went to a shears and paste artist -who cut out their silhouettes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54. SILHOUETTES OF YOUR GREAT-GRAND-PA AND -GREAT-GRAND-MA (WHEN THEY WERE YOUNG)] - -While the art of cutting silhouettes is all but a lost one because -photography is so easy and shows all the details, still you can make -them with some black glazed paper and a pair of sharp shears with a -little practice. - -Take a sheet of black glazed paper[42] about 2 inches wide and 3 inches -long and seat your sitter with the side of his or her face turned -toward you. Now with a pair of sharp shears begin to cut the paper, -starting at the chin and going on up the face to the hair, then around -to the back of the head and finally cutting out the collar and bust. - - [42] Glazed paper can be bought at stationery stores or you can get - it from Dennison Mfg. Co., 5th Ave. and 26th St., N. Y. C. - -All the time you are cutting you must keep your artistic eye on the -profile of your sitter and your mechanical eye on your shears and paper -and you will be truly surprised to find how little knack it takes to -get a reasonably faithful likeness. A pair of silhouettes are shown in -Fig. 54. - - -=Transfer Pictures, or Decalcomania.=--Of course you know what transfer -pictures are. There are very few boys indeed who have not bought and -used little 5 cent packages of jim-crow transfer pictures and you will -remember that usually only about half of the picture transferred came -off. But this was because they were made for fun and not for real work. - -Now transfer pictures, or _decalcomania_ (pronounced -de-cal´-co-ma´-ni-a) or _decalcomanie_ as the French call it, from -the Latin _de_ which means down, plus _calquer_, which is Latin for -trace, plus _mania_ which is Greek for madness, are used by hundreds -of thousands by painters and decorators in every line of work. These -pictures are made with skill and care and when used properly will not -break or come off. - -These transfer pictures can be bought in 10,000 different subjects -and cost from 1¹⁄₂ cents to a couple of dollars each. The pictures -include every subject imaginable from simple little flowers to birds -with wonderful plumage and from cupids in groups to world’s fair -buildings; then there are letters and monograms and beautiful crests -and coats-of-arms in gold and brilliant colors. - -When you get ready to do decalcomanie write to Palm, Fechteler and -Company, 67 Fifth Avenue, New York, or to their western branch at 54 -West Lake Street, Chicago, Ills., for a price-list and this will give -you a description, the height and length of each picture, the number of -pictures on a sheet and the price per sheet. - - -_How to Transfer the Pictures._--The regular pictures can be -transferred to wood, metal, painted surfaces, etc., but instead of -soaking them in water alone as you used to with the toy pictures you -give the face of them a very thin coat of a good, quick drying, rubbing -varnish which you can get at a paint store, or better, use a transfer -varnish which you can buy of the above company for 35 cents for a ¹⁄₂ -pint can. - -After you have applied the varnish to the face of the picture let it -dry until it is very _tacky_; now put the face of the transfer down on -the surface, wet it with water on a sponge and roll it down hard with a -felt roller. - -In a couple of minutes wet the paper again thoroughly with water and -peel it off; roll it down at once with a wet felt roller and tap it off -with a piece of chamois skin. After the design or picture has dried for -20 minutes or so, the varnish around it can be removed by dampening it -with dilute turpentine, ammonia or, better, with a _detergent_ made of -equal parts of turpentine and crude oil and _immediately_ rubbing it -away lightly and quickly with a dry, soft rag. - -After the picture has been transferred as above, it should be given one -or more protecting coats of varnish the next day. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -SOME KINKS IN PHOTOGRAPHY - - -Since the slogan _you press the button and we’ll do the rest_ has -come to be so well known everybody makes photographs. But there are a -number of kinks in and side issues of photography that are amusing, -instructive or useful and which if you do not already know about will -prove of service to you. - - -=How to Make Blue Prints.=--This is the very simplest and one of the -most useful kinds of photography. You need but very little material to -make the pictures with and the little you need will cost less than a -dollar. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55. A PHOTO PRINTING FRAME] - - -_The Materials Required._--Buy, or you can make, (1) a 5 × 7 _printing -frame_ as shown in Fig. 55 and get a sheet of clear glass to fit it, -and (2) a couple of dozen sheets of 5 × 7 _blue-paper_[43] which you -can buy at any photographic supply house. - - [43] You can make blue print paper by dissolving _ammonium ferric - citrate_ in warm water and coating the surface of the paper with it - by floating it on top of the solution. - -Now take one of the drawings you have made on tracing paper or on -tracing cloth with India ink as I described in the last chapter and -lay it with its inked surface on the glass; lay on this a sheet of -blue-paper with its _sensitized_ side on the tracing paper or cloth; -put the back of the printing frame on top of the blue-paper, press the -springs into place and set the frame in the sunlight. - -Every few minutes open a _half_ of the hinged back of the printing -frame and take a look at the blue paper to see if the printing is far -enough along. When the lines of the drawing show plainly on it take the -_print_ out of the frame and _wash_ it, as it is called, by letting -water run on it or by putting it through several changes of water. - -When it is well washed hang it up on a line by a corner to dry and -you will have a good, clear print with white lines on a blue ground. -In this way by using a negative that you have made with a camera, -especially if it is a marine view, you can get some very pretty and -artistic pictures. - - -=Another Kind of Contact Printing.=--If you like nature you can use -the above process of contact printing to fine advantage. Instead of -blue paper it is better to use what is known as _solio_ paper[44] or -_silver paper_.[45] - - [44] Solio paper is coated first with gelatin and then with silver. - - [45] Silver paper is coated first with albumen and then with silver. - -To make a _contact_ silver print first put a finely veined leaf, the -filmy wing of a butterfly, a piece of delicate lace or any other thin, -_translucent_ object on the glass in the printing frame, lay a sheet of -solio, or silver paper over it, then put the back in the frame and fix -the springs. - -Set the frame so that the sunlight will fall full on the glass side -of it. From time to time open half of the hinged back and see how the -print is coming on; make the print a couple of shades darker than you -want it when finished, but be careful not to overexpose it for silver -paper prints much quicker than blue paper. - - -_To Tone and Fix the Picture._--To _tone_ a silver print means to -change its color and give it more brilliancy and this is done by -putting it in a chemical solution made of _chloride of gold, or toning -bath_ as it is called. - -To _fix_ a print means to treat it so that the light will no longer act -upon it and this is done with a solution of _hyposulphite of soda_ or -just _hypo_ as it is called for short. - -The easiest way to tone and fix your silver prints is to buy a bottle -of _solio toning solution_[46] which is a combined toning and fixing -bath. Take the print from the frame and do not wash it but put it into -a tray in which you have mixed _2 ounces of solio toning solution_ and -_4 ounces of cold water_. - - [46] It can be bought at any store where photographic materials are - sold or you can make it yourself from the formula given on this page. - -When the print takes on the proper color put it into another tray -containing a solution made of _1 ounce of salt_ and _32 ounces of -water_; let it stay in this bath for 5 minutes to stop the toning. Now -put the print into another tray and wash it in 16 changes of water or -in running water for an hour. If you make a half or a dozen prints at -once you can tone and fix them at the same time. - - -_Recipe for a Combined Toning and Fixing Solution._--To make a combined -toning and fixing bath mix up two solutions, called stock solutions, as -follows: - - -_Stock Solution A._--Dissolve in 20 ounces of cold water 2 ounces -of _hypo_, 1¹⁄₂ ounces of _alum in crystals_ and ¹⁄₂ an ounce of -_granulated sugar_. Then dissolve ¹⁄₂ an ounce of _borax_ in 2 ounces -of hot water and mix it with the hypo solution; let it stand over night -and then pour off the clear liquid. - - -_Stock Solution B._--Dissolve ³⁄₄ of a grain of _pure chloride of gold_ -and 32 grains of _acetate of lead_ in 4 ounces of water. - -Now when you want to tone a picture or half a dozen 4 × 5 prints, take -4 ounces of the stock solution A and ¹⁄₂ an ounce of the stock solution -B and pour them into a tray and tone them as I have previously -described. - - -=The Simplest Kind of a Camera.=--When you can buy a real camera for -two or three dollars it seems of little use to make one, so just -consider the camera I shall describe as a scientific curiosity rather -than an apparatus of utility. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56. AN EASILY MADE PIN-HOLE CAMERA - - A. Cross section showing the notched strips. - - B. The way the shutter works.] - -To make a _pin-hole camera_, so called because a pin hole takes the -place of a lens, form a box of pasteboard or of thin wood 4 inches -square and 8 inches long; cut a hole ³⁄₈ of an inch in diameter in -one end for the pin hole. Fit a strip of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch thick and 4 -inches long, having notches cut into it to a depth of ¹⁄₈ inch, to the -sides of the box as shown at A in Fig. 56. These notched strips are to -hold a _sensitized dry plate_.[47] Next make a _shutter_, that is, a -little device to open and close the pin-hole; it is simply a bit of -sheet brass 2¹⁄₂ inches long, ¹⁄₄ inch wide at one end and ¹⁄₂ an inch -wide at the other end as shown at B. Drill a hole ¹⁄₈ inch in diameter -in the center of the strip of brass and pivot this to the front of the -box so that it is on a horizontal line with the center of the hole. - - [47] A _dry plate_ is a sheet of glass coated on one side with - gelatin and bromide of silver which makes it sensitive to light. - -Now to make the pin-hole, and certainly no pin-hole was ever more -important than this one. Glue a thick piece of nice smooth tinfoil over -the hole on the inside of the box and with a fairly good-sized pin, or -better a needle, prick a smooth hole in the center of it. - -You are ready now to take a picture and to do so slip a sheet of -_ground glass_[48] into the grooves in the camera up close and then -farther back until you can see the picture plain. This done take the -camera into your _dark-room_,[49] and _load_ a dry plate into it, -put the cover on the box and fasten a black cloth over it with a -rubber-band as shown at C in Fig. 56. - - [48] You will find directions for making it in Chapter IX. - - [49] A _dark room_ must be used because a ray of any kind of light - except _red_ will spoil a dry plate the instant it strikes it. A - red-lamp can be bought for a quarter or you can make one and either - use a sheet of red glass or red dark-room paper. - -Go out and point your camera at the object you want to photograph, be -it a landscape, a seascape or a scapegoat, press down on the lever for -a second, let go of it when it will drop back and cover the pin-hole -again and the _exposure_ is made. - - -=How to Develop a Dry Plate.=--Next take your camera into your -dark-room and _develop_ the plate, that is, immerse it in a chemical -solution called a _developer_ to bring the picture out on it. To do -this you must get a tray and put the exposed dry-plate in it, film side -up, and pour the _developer_ over it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56C. THE PIN-HOLE CAMERA COMPLETE WITH CLOTH AND -RUBBER BAND] - -Rock the tray after you have poured the developer over the plate -to keep the solution flowing forth and back evenly over it all the -time. When you see the image very plainly take the plate out of the -developer, wash it in clean water and then lay it with the film side up -in a tray containing the _fixing bath_. - -Let the _negative_--when the plate is exposed and developed it is -called a negative--remain in the fixing bath until all the white parts, -that is, the free silver which was not affected by the light, have -disappeared and then let a gentle stream of water run on it for an hour -or wash it in 16 changes of clean water. Stand it in a _negative rack_ -over night to dry and then you can make prints from it. - - -_How to Make the Developer._--You can make a good, tried and true -developer in two solutions as follows: - - -_Pyro Solution, A._--Take 1 ounce of _pyrogallic acid_, called _pyro_ -for short, dissolve it in 28 ounces of water and then add 20 minims of -_sulphuric_ acid. - - -_Soda Solution, B._--Dissolve 2 ounces of _desiccated_[50] _carbonate -of soda_ and 3 ounces of _sulphite of soda_ in 28 ounces of water. - - [50] _Desiccate_ means thoroughly dry. - -When you want to develop a plate mix ¹⁄₂ an ounce of the _pyro -solution_ and ¹⁄₂ an ounce of the _soda solution_ with 4 ounces of -water and to do this you need a _graduated glass_. - - -_How to Make a Fixing Bath._--To make a good fixing bath for dry plates -dissolve 1 ounce of hypo, 60 grains of _sulphite of soda_ in crystals -and ¹⁄₄ ounce of _borax_ in 20 ounces of water. A developer can only be -used for one or two plates but you can fix 50 plates in the same fixing -bath. - - -=A Good and Cheap Camera.=--To take real pictures you want a real -camera. Now there are many kinds of hand cameras but there is only one -size that I am going to try to interest you in and that is one which -will make pictures 3¹⁄₂ × 4¹⁄₂ inches. - -With a camera of this size you can take nicely proportioned little -pictures to give to your friends, to keep in your album, to make -enlargements of and to make _lantern slides_ of by direct contact -printing and this will save you a lot of trouble. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57. TWO CHEAP AND GOOD CAMERAS - - A. A Brownie box kodak. - - B. A folding kodak.] - -The cheapest 3¹⁄₄ × 4¹⁄₄ camera you can buy is a No. 3 _Brownie box -kodak_,[51] see A Fig. 57, which costs about $3.00. A _folding_ No. -3 Brownie camera, shown at B, will serve your needs much better and -this one will cost you in the neighborhood of $5.50, or you can buy a -_Graflex camera_[52] for $75.00 if father is rich and mother doesn’t -care. - - [51] These cameras can be bought most anywhere or you can send to the - Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N. Y. - - [52] With this kind of a camera you can see the object you are - photographing up to the very instant you snap the shutter. - -Every good camera has what is called a _rectilinear lens_, that is, a -compound lens formed of two _achromatic_ lenses, which means that each -acromatic lens is made up again of two lenses one of which is of _crown -glass_ and the other is of _flint glass_, and these two latter lenses -are cemented together with _Canada balsam_.[53] - - [53] This is a clear gum that is obtained from a tree called the - _Canada balsam_. - -Now whereas a common _convex_ lens will produce all the colors of -the rainbow around its edges when a ray of light passes through -it, an acromatic lens lets through only the white light and while -a single convex lens makes the straight lines of a building curved -in the picture, an acromatic lens keeps all the lines straight, or -_rectilinear_, and hence its name. - -These little cameras are filled with mechanical _snap shutters_ and -they use _roll films_, that is the _sensitive silver_ and _gelatine -emulsion_ is spread on a thin celluloid film instead of on glass -plates. These roll films come on spools in lengths of ¹⁄₂ and 1 dozen -each and they can be loaded into the camera in daylight. The same kind -of developing and fixing solutions are used for films that are used for -dry-plates. - - -=How to Make an Enlarging Apparatus.=--To make an enlarged picture of a -small negative take out the back of your camera and get two perfectly -clear sheets of glass to fit the opening. - -Make a box of ¹⁄₄ inch thick wood, 6 inches wide, 6 inches long and 7 -inches high and have the top of it separate so that it can be lifted -off and put on the box. In the middle of the top near one edge cut a -hole 1¹⁄₄ inches in diameter and put an electric light socket--to which -a cord and plug is fixed--in it as far as it will go and then screw in -a _nitrogen_ 100 watt electric lamp[54] which gives about 75 candle -power, as shown at A in Fig. 58. - - [54] The Delco Light Co., 52 Park Place, New York, sells these lamps - and all other electrical supplies. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58A. A HOME-MADE ENLARGING APPARATUS - - The lamp set in the top of the illuminating box.] - -Cut a hole out of the front board 3¹⁄₂ x 4¹⁄₂ inches and fasten a sheet -of _ground glass_[55] or, better, of _opal glass_[56] over the opening. -Get a sheet of bright tin 6 inches wide and 10 inches long, bend it -into a semi-circle and set it in the box so that it will reflect the -light from the lamp in front of it through the ground glass screen as -shown at B. - - [55] Ground glass can be bought at a glazier’s or you can make it as - explained in Chapter IX. - - [56] Opal glass. - -Next make a stand for holding the _bromide paper_[57] which is to be -used for the enlargement. About the easiest way to do this is to take -a 1 inch thick board 6 inches wide and saw off a piece 12 inches long. -Fasten your drawing board to it with a couple of angle blocks as shown -at D, and you are ready to make an enlargement. - - [57] Bromide paper is a paper sensitized with a compound of silver - and bromine. - - -=How to Make an Enlargement.=--When you have the apparatus ready set -the camera and the _illuminator_, as the box with the light in it is -called, on another table. Put the negative between two plain sheets -of glass and then fasten them to the camera with a couple of large -rubber bands; set the illuminator with the ground-glass screen close up -against the negative in the back of the camera, as shown at C. - -Now set the drawing board stand about 4 feet away from the lens of the -camera to make an 8 × 10 enlargement. Open the shutter, turn on the -light and _focus_ the camera, that is, move the stand to and from the -camera until the enlarged picture is sharp. When you get it so, close -the shutter and cover up the cracks where the light leaks through with -a dark cloth. - -Make the room perfectly dark except for your dark-room light and then -put a sheet of bromide paper on the drawing board with thumb tacks. -Open the shutter of the lens and expose the paper to the light passing -through the negative and then close it again. The bromide paper is -developed and fixed just like a dry plate when your enlargement is done. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58B. A HOME-MADE ENLARGING APPARATUS - - B. The illuminator showing the tin reflector in it. - - C. The camera. - - D. The stand for holding the bromide paper.] - -In handling bromide paper you must be almost as careful as you are with -dry plates or films. Before making a picture it is a good scheme to -test the length of time to expose the paper. To do this take a sheet of -bromide paper and cut it into strips 1 inch wide and 10 inches long; -fasten a strip at a time diagonally across the board and expose the -first one for say 5 minutes and then develop it, when you can usually -tell about how long the exposure should be. - - -_A Developer for Bromide Paper._--A good stock solution developer -for bromide paper, velox paper, films and dry plates can be made by -adding these chemicals to 25 ounces of hot water in the order named -and stirring in each one until it is dissolved; _elon_ ¹⁄₈ ounce; -_desiccated sulphite of soda_ 1⁷⁄₈ ounces; _hydrochinon_ ¹⁄₂ ounce; -_desiccated carbonate of soda_ 5¹⁄₄ ounces; _potassium bromide_ 30 -grains and wood alcohol 3 ounces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58C. A HOME-MADE ENLARGING APPARATUS - - E. Cross section top view of the enlarging apparatus.] - -This developer will keep for a long time if the bottle containing it -is kept full, otherwise the air will act on it. To develop six 8 × 10 -bromide prints use 1 ounce of the stock solution and 6 ounces of water. - -To fix bromide prints keep them moving in a bath made by dissolving -8 ounces of hypo in 2 quarts of water and then adding ¹⁄₄ ounce of -_metabisulphite of potassium_ and ¹⁄₄ ounce of _powdered alum_. Let -the prints remain in this bath for about 10 minutes and then wash them -thoroughly. - - -=How to Make a Reflectoscope.=--A _reflectoscope_ is a kind of magic -lantern but instead of using transparent glass slides you can use any -picture or _opaque_ object such as the works of a watch, your hand, -etc, and throw an image of it on the screen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59 A CHEAPLY MADE REFLECTOSCOPE - - A. The projector. - - B. The illuminator.] - -If you have a folding camera[58] you can convert it into a dandy -reflectoscope, so get busy with your tools. Make a box--it is really -two boxes fastened together--of the peculiar shape shown in Fig. 59, -and it can be of wood or of metal as you wish. - - [58] A box camera can not be used because its focus is fixed. - -First make the larger box, which we will call the _projector_, and this -should be 4¹⁄₂ inches long, 5 inches wide and 5 inches high[59]--and -leave the front, back and one side off. To the top and bottom fasten -on two wood cleats ¹⁄₂ an inch square and 5 inches long to fix the -projector to the camera with. This box is shown at A in Fig. 59. - - [59] It must fit the back of your camera. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59C. A CROSS SECTION TOP VIEW OF THE REFLECTOSCOPE] - -This done, make another box for the _illuminator_ 3 inches wide, 3 -inches long on one side, and 4³⁄₄ inches long on the other side, and 5 -inches high. Bend a piece of bright tin for the reflector and set this -in the back as shown at B. - -Cut a 1¹⁄₄ inch hole through the top for an electric lamp as described -in the directions for making an enlarging lantern; the top should be -tight fitting but so made that it can be taken off and put on at your -pleasure. - -Now glue, screw, solder or otherwise fix the two boxes together and -the reflecting part of the apparatus is done. To complete it fasten -the back of your camera to the cleats on the top and bottom of the box -with strong rubber bands as shown at C, which is a top view of the -reflectoscope. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59D. THE REFLECTOSCOPE READY FOR USE] - - -_To Use the Reflectoscope._--Tack a white sheet to the wall and set -the reflectoscope at a distance of about 10 feet from it with the lens -pointing toward it, of course. - -Next turn on the light in the box and turn off all the lights in the -room and make it as dark as you can. Hold a picture of any kind against -the opening in the back of the projector box and then focus the camera -until the picture on the screen is as sharp as you can get it. - -The way the reflectoscope works is like this: the picture is projected -upon the screen in virtue of the fact that the direct light from the -lamp, as well as that portion of it which is reflected back by the -tin, is thrown against the surface of the picture or object held in -the opening; from this the light is reflected through the lens which -enlarges it and projects it on the screen. - - -=How to Make a Magic Lantern.=--To make a magic lantern out of a camera -is just as easy as it is to make a reflectoscope but you will have -to buy a _condensing lens_[60] and this will cost 50 cents to $1.00, -according to size. - - [60] The L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., Boston, Mass., sells a 2 inch - condensing lens for 50 cents; a 3 inch one for 75 cents, and a 4¹⁄₂ - inch one for $1.10. - -For this lantern you can use either a box or a bellows camera, though -the latter is better because the picture can be focused. Whichever you -use make a base of a 1 inch thick board, 5¹⁄₂ inches wide and 14 inches -long and nail or screw two strips of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch wide, ³⁄₄ inch -high and 8 inches long along the edges on one side as shown at A in -Fig. 60. - -If your camera is of the box kind set it in between the strips on the -base on the front end, but if it is of the bellows type then you will -have to make a shelf for it as shown at B to hold the camera in place -as shown at C. - -Next make an illuminator as described above in the text _How to Make -an Enlarging Apparatus_, but instead of covering the front with ground -glass make a board to fit it and cut a hole in it the exact size of -the condensing lens. This lens is a _plano_ or a double convex lens as -shown at D and while it should be 4¹⁄₂ inches in diameter to get all -of the picture on the screen you can use a lens as small as 2 inches -though all of the picture will not show. - -[Illustration: - - _THE BASE OF THE LANTERN_ - - _THE FRAME TO HOLD A POCKET FOLDING CAMERA_ - - _HOW THE CAMERA IS FIXED TO THE FRAME_ - - _PLANO CONVEX - DOUBLE CONVEX - CONDENSING LENSES_ - - _ONE OF THE LANTERN SLIDE HOLDERS_ - - _FRONT BOARD ILLUMINATOR_ - -FIG. 60. THE PARTS OF A HOME-MADE MAGIC LANTERN] - -Cut out six clips of sheet brass ³⁄₁₆ inch wide and ¹⁄₂ an inch long -and punch a hole in the end of each piece. Screw three of these clips -to each side of the board at equi-distant points around the hole so -that the end of each one projects over the edge of the hole ¹⁄₈ inch. -Now put the lens in the hole and adjust the ends of the clips so that -they will hold the lens in place as shown at E. - -The next and last thing to do is to cut two strips of tin or brass 1 -inch wide and 3 inches long and bend each one over the long way as -shown at F; punch three holes near the lower edge of each one and screw -one of them above and one below the condensing lens on the board 3¹⁄₄ -inches apart as shown at E. These bent strips form the holder for the -lantern slides. The magic lantern complete is shown at G. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60G. THE MAGIC LANTERN READY FOR USE] - - -_How to Work the Lantern._--Tack a bed-sheet up on the wall; turn on -the light in the illuminator and turn off all the lights in the room; -slip a lantern slide upside down in the holder and then push the rear -end of the camera--having first taken out the back--close up to the -lantern slide holder. - -If you are using a box camera move the whole lantern back until the -picture is as large as you want it and it is still bright enough. If it -is a pocket folding camera you can focus it and get a picture with much -better definition. - - -=How to Make Lantern Slides.=--A lantern slide is a sheet of glass -with a transparent picture on it. A standard lantern slide is 3¹⁄₄ × -4¹⁄₄ inches and one of this size can be used in any full sized magic -lantern or _stereopticon_.[61] - - [61] A _stereopticon_ is really two magic lanterns, but the word is - now often used to mean a high-grade magic lantern. - -To make lantern slides by _direct contact_ printing is not a hard thing -to do at all, and all the equipment you need to make them besides the -chemicals is a printing frame. Put a sheet of clean glass in it and lay -your negative on it with the film side up. - -Now lay the _lantern slide plate_[62] with the film side _down_ on the -negative just as though you were going to make a print, but you must -make it in your dark room, using a white light to expose it of course, -for it is just as sensitive as a dry plate or a film. When you expose -it hold the printing frame about 12 inches away from the light. - - [62] Lantern slide plates can be bought at any photographic supply - house. - -A lantern slide plate is developed, fixed and washed exactly like a dry -plate but to get the best results you should use the kind of developer -called for in the directions that come with the plates. - -When you have the lantern slide made, place a sheet of clear glass of -the same size--called the _cover-glass_--on the film side of it and -bind the edges with _passepartout binding_, that is a strip of paper -gummed on one side. It is then ready for use. - - -=How to Make Radium Photographs.=--You can make radium photographs, -or _skiagraphs_ as they are called, with any one of a number of -_radioactive_ substances and at a very small outlay. - -The four most important radioactive substances, if we except _radium_ -itself, are _black uranium oxide_, _pitchblende_, _thorium nitrate_ and -_uranium nitrate_. You can buy any one of these substances in a glass -stoppered bottle for $1.00 or the set of four for $3.50.[63] - - [63] The L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., Boston, carries these radioactive - substances in stock. - -While the _radioactivity_ of these substances is low it is sufficient -to make a shadow-picture--and this is all that an X-ray picture is--of -a coin or other small object if it is laid on top of a dry plate sealed -in a black paper envelope, which is opaque to the light. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61. A PHOTOGRAPH OF A COIN MADE WITH RADIUM] - -That is, the coin is laid on the envelope containing the dry plate, -and the bottle with the radioactive substance in it is laid on top of -the coin. Let them remain undisturbed in this way for a couple of days -and you will find on developing the plate a very good _radiograph_, or -shadow picture of the coin as shown in Fig. 61. - - -Trick Photography - - -=Spirit Photographs.=--When photography was young Sir John Herschel, -the great astronomer, got up what he called _magic photographs_ and -these have been worked under the name of _spirit photographs_ by half -of the _mediums_ in the business. - -The idea is to show the victim of superstition his future wife or her -future husband. To this end the medium shows a piece of perfectly blank -paper about an inch square. She--sometimes it’s a he--then dips the bit -of paper into a saucer of what seems to be ordinary, common every day -water and with much dignity and mysticism presses it to the forehead of -the aforesaid ninny who would fain know what the partner of his, or her -joys and sorrows will look like. (What’s the use when they will know so -well afterward?) - -Be that as it may, when the medium removes the bit of paper from the -simpleton’s forehead a photograph has really and truly appeared on it -and--there you are! (Fifty cents, please.) - -Now the trick is done like this and you can have some fun repeating -it. Print some photos postage-stamp size of boys and girls on ordinary -silver paper and fix them in hypo dissolved in water but don’t tone -them; wash them well and then soak them in a _saturated solution_[64] -of _bichloride of mercury_ which will bleach out the picture and leave -the paper perfectly white again; this done dry the paper and put it -away until you want to use it. - - [64] A saturated solution of bichloride of mercury is one in which - all of the mercury has been dissolved in the water that it will - dissolve at its present temperature and pressure. - -When you do, make a strong solution of hypo, soak the picture in it for -a minute or two, press it to your subject’s forehead and the picture -will appear. - - -=One Way to Catch Big Fish.=--Of course you know that when an object -very near the camera is photographed it will look proportionately -larger than when it is photographed a little way off from it. It is -simply a case of exaggerated perspective. - -Hence the camera is an apparatus very well adapted for _camouflage_ as -the French call _faking_. You can easily try it out by having a friend -lean back in a chair and put his feet on the table. (If the table is -of highly polished mahogany request him kindly to take off his spurs -first.) - -Stand your camera in front of him so that his feet will be nearest the -lens and then take his picture. The result is that he will be about all -boots and very little head. - -Another and deeper dyed trick is to photograph a fellow--choose one who -is noted for his whaling yarns--with a fish dangling at the end of a -pole and line as shown at A in Fig. 62. This will make the fish loom up -as big as the cod in a _Scott’s Emulsion_ ad., and the boy will be the -size of the lone fisherman as shown at B. It will be some time before -the scales will drop from the eyes of the person who is sizing up the -picture. - -You want to use a _small stop_ in your lens when you make a picture of -this kind so that the definition will be as sharp in the foreground as -it is in the background. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62. ONE WAY TO CATCH A COD - - A. How it is done. - - B. How it looks when done.] - - -=Taking Caricature Photographs.=--The word _caricature_ (pronounced -care´-i-ca-ture) means a portrait in which some part of it is distorted -so that it produces a comical effect. - -Now there are a lot of ways to make photographic caricatures but one -of the best is to use what is called a _special foreground_. This -foreground is a sheet of cardboard or a piece of muslin stretched on a -frame about 1¹⁄₂ feet wide and 2¹⁄₂ feet long. - -Draw on the cardboard or muslin any kind of a funny little body such as -an anemic fellow in a bathing suit, or a lank athlete rowing in a tub, -or a gilded youth riding a donkey; and finally cut out a place around -his collar for the neck of the sitter. Seat your subject and have him -hold the foreground as shown at C in Fig. 62 so that his head comes -just above the collar of the picture and then take a photograph of him. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62C. HOW CARICATURES ARE MADE] - -If now the background--that is the ground back of the sitter--and the -foreground--namely the one painted on the cardboard--are of the same -shade you can trim the print so that it will look exactly as if your -friend was in the Orient on his way to Mecca. (If you will keep this -picture for 20 years the fellow who sat for it will gladly pay you a -hundred dollars for it.) - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -PRINTING AND ITS ALLIED ARTS - - -If there ever was a boy who did not want a printing press I have yet to -meet him. Ever since the day when Gutenburg[65] invented movable types, -and that was some 500 years ago, every boy--and not a few men--have -wanted to set a few stickfuls of type and run off some impressions on a -press, and many thousands of them have gratified that highly civilized -ambition. - - [65] Johanne Gutenburg was a German printer. He invented movable - types about the year of 1450. - -But you fellows of to-day have all the best of it, for you can buy -a printing outfit complete for $1.50 on up to anything you want to -pay for it. After all is said and done though, you can get more real -enjoyment out of a small self-inking press than you can out of a larger -one. Not only is there a lot of fun in printing cards, etc., for -yourself but there is money in it too, if you go about it the right -way, but that is another story.[66] - - [66] To make money out of job-printing on a small scale read _Money - Making for Boys_ by the present author and published by Dodd, Mead - and Co., New York City. - - -=Kinds of Printing Presses.=--There are two kinds of printing presses -made and these are (1) _hand inked_ presses, and (2) _self-inking_ -presses. - -You can make a printing press out of wood but to do a good job you must -have a press built of iron and properly _machined_, that is finished -up, for to do good printing a good outfit is needed to begin with. - -Small hand inked and self-inking presses are sold in the toy -departments of nearly all stores at prices ranging from $1.50 to $5.00 -and this will include a font of type. Many of these little presses are -made which use type about half the length of regular type and if you -get a press of this kind you will never know the real joy of printing. - - -=The Parts of a Self-Inking Press.=--The _Excelsior_ is the name of a -small self-inking printing press that has been on the market for 50 -years and it is a good one. The description of it which follows will -fit any other model self-inking press just as well, for they are all -built on the same principle. - -There are seven chief parts to this press and these are (1) the body; -(2) the type bed; (3) the platen; (4) the ink-roller carriage; (5) the -ink table; (6) the chase, and (7) the handle, all of which are shown in -Fig. 63. - -The body of the press serves to support all the other parts. The bed, -as you will see, is really a part of the body casting and the feet of -the type rest against it. For this reason it must be perfectly smooth -and even, and it is planed off, that is machined, to make it so. - -The platen is pivoted to the middle of the body and it swings up to -and parallel with the bed and away from and out at an angle to it. The -card, or sheet of paper to be printed is laid on the platen and is -brought up and into contact with the type which rests on the bed. A -pair of grippers are hinged to the platen to hold the paper in place -while it is being printed but releases it when the platen moves back. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63. A MODEL SELF-INKING PRINTING PRESS] - -The ink-roller carriage is connected by levers to the platen and when -the latter moves to and fro the rollers run over the type to ink it; -the rollers get their ink from the ink table and this is a disk which -revolves and on which the ink is spread; the ink table is made to -revolve a little at a time so that the rollers will pass over every -part of it in every direction and so distribute the ink evenly. - -The type when set is _locked_ in an iron frame called a _chase_ and -this fits on the bed; and finally all the movable parts are coupled to -the handle and when this is moved up and down it makes them perform -their various functions. - - -=How the Press Works.=--Let’s suppose now, that you have the type set -in the chase and the chase is fixed in the press; that you have put -some ink on the ink-table and a card or a sheet of paper on the platen. - -Now when you press down on the handle it moves the platen up, the -grippers hold the card, or sheet of paper to it, the arms pivoted to -the platen pull the ink rollers up and over the type and on to the ink -table which turns through a small _arc_, that is, part of a circle, by -a ratchet so that it keeps a fresh surface exposed to the ink rollers -all the time. - -When the card, or paper makes contact with the type you pull the handle -up; this swings the platen back; the grippers relax their pressure; -the ink-rollers move down over the face of the type; you take out the -printed card or sheet with your left hand and put in a blank one with -your right hand, when you are ready to make another impression. - -It may surprise you to know that any one can print from 500 to 600 -cards an hour and if you are expert you can run off from 1,000 to 2,000 -cards per hour. - - -=Sizes and Prices of Presses.=--The Excelsior press comes in three -sizes and the price depends on the size of the chase. (1) A press -having a chase 3 × 5 inches costs $5.00 and this is large enough to -print cards, labels, envelopes, etc.; (2) a 5 × 8 press costs $18.00 -and this one will do nice jobs up to postal card size; and (3) a 6 -× 10 press costs $25.00 and is large enough to print bill-heads, -letter-heads and circulars, or you can print a little newspaper on it. - - -=The Outfit You Need.=--Your outfit will, of course, depend largely on -the size of press you have. - - -_Outfit for a 3 × 5 Press._--A couple of dollars will buy all the -_fixtures_ you need and these consist of (a) a _font of type_, (b) some -_leads_, (c) a _type case_, (d) an assortment of _furniture_, and (e) a -can of _black ink_. - -A font of type means enough of a kind having the same _face_ and -_body_ and the right amount of each letter to set up an ordinary job. -You will find more about type under the next heading called _Type and -Typesetting_. Leads are thin strips of type metal less than type-high -which are used to separate the lines of type; and a type case is a -shallow wooden tray divided into little compartments called _boxes_ in -which the letters of a font of type are kept apart. - - -_Outfit for a 5 × 8 Press._--The fixtures of a press of this size -include all of those named above and (a) three fonts of type, (b) type -cases for them; (c) a set of _gage pins_, and (d) a pair of _tweezers_, -or a _bodkin_. The gage-pins are pinned into the paper backing on the -platen to keep the card or sheet from slipping and to hold it in its -proper place. The tweezers, or bodkin, which is a large needle, is used -for picking out type from a form when you are correcting it. - - -_Outfit for an 8 × 10 Press._--This outfit should have all the -fixtures of both of those described above and you will need not less -than four fonts of type, while a _composing stick_, which is a little -metal tray to hold the type in as you set it, is a necessity. These -fixtures are shown in Fig. 64. - -[Illustration: - - _PAPER GUAGE_ - - _=A=--WOOD FURNITURE_ - - _=B=--A LEAD_ - - _=D=--A BOUGHT GUAGE PIN_ - - _=E=--REGULAR PRINTER’S TWEEZERS WITH COARSE SERRATED FLAT POINTS_ - - _A BODKIN_ - - _=C=--A COMMON PIN BENT FOR A GUAGE PIN_ - - _A COMPOSING STICK_ - -FIG. 64. AN OUTFIT FOR A MODEL PRESS] - - -=About Type and Setting Type.=--_Relative Number of Type Letters._--In -looking over type catalogues you will see that the fonts are listed -as 4A, or 8A-10A, etc. Now this means that in the 4A font there are 4 -capital A letters and that all of the other letters are in proportion -to the A’s that are likely to be used, thus: - -[Illustration: - - A 4A FONT - A B C D E F G H I J K L M - No. of letters to font 4 2 3 3 5 2 2 3 4 2 2 3 3 - - N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z - No. of letters to font 4 4 3 2 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2] - -With an 8A-10a font there are of course twice as many of each capital -letter as in a 4A font while of the _lower case_ letters, which means -the small ones, there are 10 a’s and the number of the others are in -proportion to their use, thus: - -[Illustration: - - AN 8A-10a FONT - a b c d e f g h i j k l m - No. of letters to font 10 4 6 8 18 4 4 8 10 2 3 8 6 - - n o p q r s t u v w x y z - No. of letters to font 10 10 6 3 10 10 10 6 4 4 2 4 2] - - -_Styles of Type._--For card work you want a plain block letter font -like that shown at A, a script like B, or an old English like that -shown at C. - -For envelopes, bill, letter head and other job work three fonts of -engraved plate style as shown at D, E and F will give good results. - -[Illustration: - - 23A $1.00 - A +THEODORE ROOSEVELT+ +1234567890+ - - 8A 24a $4.50 - B +Miss Alice Verlet+ +123456789+ - - 11A 34a $2.50 - C +Lieut. John Hodder Stuart+ +123456789+ - - 22A $1.00 - D +ENGRAVED CARD STYLE IS PREFERRED+ +52468+ - - 16A $1.05 - E +HANDSOME ENGRAVED EFFECTS+ +123+ - - A16 $1.25 - F +ENGRAVED PLATE STYLE+ +140+] - -For circulars you should have several fonts of different styles of type -as shown at G, H, I, J and K. - -[Illustration: - - 18A 36a $2.90 - G +CLEAR CUT Faces Popular+ +123+ - - 15A $1.95 - H +EXCELSIOR PRESSES+ +12345+ - - A $2.10 - I +GRAINO+ +1+ - - 10A 15a $5.35 - J +GOOD for many places+ +3+ - - 11a 20a $3.00 - K +Good and Clear for poster and circular - printing. A fine addition to any - printing office.+ +12345678+] - -And finally should you intend to print a cook-book, a town directory -or a newspaper you will need a half, or a full font of _12 point plain -pica Roman_, as it is called, and which is shown at L. - -[Illustration: - - L +12 Point No. 1, 25 lbs. $12.00. (Half font, 12¹⁄₂ lbs., $6.50) - PLAIN Pica Roman, a FACE for many uses. Books, circulars and - jobbing. Very clear and easy to read. Cast from nickel metal and - most durable known.+ +£ $ L z 1234567890+] - - -_The Parts of a Type._--Before explaining how to set type, make ready -and print, there are a few little things about letters and about type -which are good to know. - -First let’s take, by way of illustration, the letter +H+ =H=. -Now you will observe that the first +H+ is plain and the second -one is embellished by fine lines at the top and bottom and these -embellishments are called _ser′-ifs_. - -As simple a bit of metal as a type has more parts to it than you can -shake a stick at, but you ought to learn them by heart. Named, these -parts are (a) the _body_ of the type; (b) the _front_; (c) the _back_; -(d) the _face_ or _letter_; (e) the _nicks_; (f) the _feet_; (g) the -_groove_; (h) the _shoulder_; (i) the _bevel_, and (k) the _pin marks_, -and all of these are pointed out in Fig. 65. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65. THE PARTS OF A TYPE] - -It very often happens in _italics_ and script type that a part of a -letter will stand out beyond the body and this little extension is -called the _kern_. The nick in the type is to help the type-setter, -or _compositor_ as he is called, to set the type the right way in the -stick, that is you always set the type with the nicks down and toward -you. - -The pin-mark is made by a sharp instrument which removes it from the -mold. Finally a c e m n o r s u v w x z are called short letters; j -is a long letter in that it takes up the full breadth of the face; -b d f h i l t are _upstroke_, or ascending letters, while g p q are -_downstroke_ or descending letters. - - -_The Sizes of Type._--Type is made in standard sizes and not so very -long ago each size was known by a name. Then a change was made and the -_point system_,[67] as it is called, came into general use. The sizes -under the old and the new systems are given in the following table and -it will enable you to know type sizes both by name and by point. - - [67] This is the standard system of sizes for type bodies. It is so - called because it is measured in decimal points or fractions of an - inch; that is, 1 point is .0138 inch, so that _nonpareil_, as it used - to be called, is now 6 point and bourgeois is 9 point, etc. - -[Illustration: - - TABLE OF TYPE SIZES - - OLD NAMES OF SIZES NEW POINT SIZES - Pearl 5 point - Agate 5¹⁄₂ “ - Nonpareil 6 “ - Minion 7 “ - Brevier 8 “ - Bourgeois 9 “ - Long Primer 10 “ - Small Pica 11 “ - Pica 12 “ - English 14 “ - Great Primer 18 “] - - -_Your Type Cases._--There are two kinds of _type cases_ and these are -made to hold (1) the capital, or _upper case_ letters, and (2) the -small or _lower case_ letters. - -The reason the capitals are called _upper case_ letters is because -the case that holds them is set higher on the _composing stand_ than -the case which holds the small letters; this brings the small letters -nearer to the hand of the compositor and as they are used more than -the _caps_ he can set the type faster. The arrangement of the cases is -shown at A in Fig. 66. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66A. HOW THE TYPE CASES ARE ARRANGED] - -There are several schemes of type-cases but I shall only describe three -of them. The first is a small type case 12¹⁄₂ inches square with 48 -boxes in it and you can buy one for 35 cents. It is good enough for any -one who doesn’t want to go to the bother of learning the regular case. -A plan view of the _lay_ of a regular upper and a lower case is shown -at B and C. You will see that the =e= box in the lower case is larger -than any other and this is because there are more =e=’s used in setting -up a job than any other one letter. And you will also observe that the -letters are distributed and the boxes spaced in a very uneven way, but -this arrangement brings the letters that are used the most into the -easiest places to reach. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66B. THE UPPER CASE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 66C. THE LOWER CASE] - - -_Setting the Type._--Where you have more than one line to set you -should by all means use a _composing stick_ and a small one will cost -you a dollar. It should be held in the left hand as shown in Fig. 67, -that is, with the open side from you and the slide to the left. - -Now read a few lines of your _copy_, pick the first letter from its box -and set it in the _left hand_ corner of the stick with the nick in the -type toward your thumb. Take the next letter from its box and let it -slide into the composing stick against the first letter and so on from -_left_ to _right_ until you have the first word set up. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67. HOW TO HOLD A COMPOSING STICK] - -Now put in a medium sized _space_, which is made just like a type but -only shoulder high and without any letter on it, and begin to set the -next word. If when you get to the end of the line there is a space left -but not enough to start another word, put a thin space between the -words to lengthen out the line, or _justify_ it as it is called. - -When you have set the line put a lead, that is a thin strip of -typemetal which comes to the shoulder of the type, against it and start -a new line and so on until you have the stick half full of type. - -The type must now be taken out of the stick and placed on a smooth -surface, such as a piece of slate or a stone called an _imposing -stone_, and to do this without dropping some or all of the type and -making _pi_ of it, takes practice. To do it like a journeyman, put a -lead at the top and bottom of the type, set the stick on the stone, -grip the top and bottom with your fore fingers and thumbs and the sides -with your other fingers, hold it tight and you can then easily lift it -out and into the chase as shown in Fig. 68. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68. PUTTING A STICK OF TYPE IN THE CHASE] - -A good way for you to do it at first is to wet the type after you have -it set in the composing stick when it will hold together without much -trouble. When you can manage half-a-stick full of type you can then -try a stick full. - - -=Making Ready.=--After you have the type, which is to make up the -_form_, set in the _chase_ on the imposing stone, or table, fill in the -top and bottom spaces with long pieces of wood furniture and the ends -with hollow metal furniture and then _lock up the form_, that is screw -or otherwise fix it in the chase. - -Now there are two kinds of chases used with small presses and these -are (1) _screw_ chases and (2) _plain_ chases. A screw chase has a -couple of screws fitted into the top of it so that after the type and -furniture are in the chase you only need to tighten up the screws to -hold the form in place. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69. TOOLS FOR LOCKING UP A CHASE] - -When a plain chase is used, _quoins_, that is wedges made of wood, as -shown in Fig. 69--you can get a dozen hickory ones for a nickel--must -be set in between the furniture and the chase and these are forced -together with a mallet and a _shooting stick_, so that the type is held -firmly in place. - -The next thing to do is to _plane_ the form, that is, you take a block -of wood one side of which is covered with a piece of felt. Lay this on -the type and tap it gently with the mallet to get all of the type even -on top. You can make a _planer_ or buy one for a quarter ready made. - -This done, fit the chase in the press and put three or four sheets of -paper on the platen by means of the pivoted bands on the edge of the -latter. Ink the type and run off a few impressions; but be careful that -the grippers are set so that they will just catch the _edges_ of the -sheet but will not strike the type form. - -If part of the impression does not come out plain, paste a piece of -paper on the paper backing on the platen and, oppositely, if a part of -the impression is too heavy a bit of the under sheet of paper backing -must be cut away. - -When the impression is even on the platen sheet paste a piece of -cardboard below and another to the left hand side of it so that the -card or the sheet of paper will lay on the platen in exactly the right -place every time you feed it in. - -Instead of cardboard you can use three bent pins to gage the sheet, or, -still better, use regular steel gage pins (see Fig. 64), for these can -be adjusted to a nicety. - - -=Printing the Job.=--All that remains for you to do now is to put about -as much ink as you can get on the point of the blade of a penknife on -the ink table and then roll it out thin and even with a small hand -roller. - -Lay your stock on the table to the right of the press and feed in a -card or a sheet at a time with your right hand and see to it that you -get it in squarely against the gage pins; take away your hand and press -the handle down with your left hand; raise it up, take the printed -sheet out with your left hand, feed in another one and so on until the -job is done. - - -=How to Clean Type.=--As soon as you have printed a job take the chase -from the press and before you unlock the form rub the face of the type -with a rag dipped in benzine, or turpentine and when all the ink and -smut is gone wipe it with a clean rag. - -If the type gets clogged up with ink wash it out with a tooth-brush -dipped in benzine and when the ink on the table and the rollers gets -dirty or does not work well wash it off with benzine also. To do good -printing everything must be immaculately clean. - - -=About Distributing Type.=--After you have cleaned the type, unlock -the form and then take a line o’ type at a time on a lead in your left -hand; pick off two or three letters at once and drop each one into its -respective box. - - -=The Ink and Rollers.=--_The Ink._--While of course you will buy your -ink all ready to use you may like to know how it is made. Here’s a -recipe for a printing ink that is as old as the hills and as good as -gold: _Balsam of capivi_ 4¹⁄₂ ounces; _lampblack_ 1¹⁄₂ ounces; _indigo_ -⁵⁄₈ ounce; _India red_ ³⁄₈ ounce, and _turpentine dry soap_ 1¹⁄₂ -ounces; mix these ingredients well in a _mortar_ with a _pestle_; then -mix the mass with _boiled linseed oil_ to the right thickness. - -When buying ink for job printing get one that is a _quick drier_ and -this costs from 50 cents to $1.50 a pound according to quality. You can -also buy colored inks in red, white, blue, yellow, green, brown and -purple in 4 ounce cans for 60 cents a can. - - -_The Rollers._--While it is cheaper and better to buy ink rollers ready -made, if you want to try your hand at making them yourself get 1 pound -_Peter Cooper’s best glue_; 1 quart _best sugar house syrup_, and 1 -pint of _glycerine_. - -Soak the glue in rain water until it is soft, drain off all the excess -water, put it in a glue pot and set it on a slow fire until it is -melted. Now put in the syrup, boil it for half an hour, stirring it the -while, and skim off the scum that comes to the top. - -About 5 minutes before you take it from the fire add the other things -and then pour the mixture into the mold, which is simply a brass -cylinder of the diameter and length you want the roller. The _stock_, -as the spindle of the roller is called, is set exactly in the middle of -the mold and the composition is poured into it. - - -=Printing in Colors.=--Printing in two or more colors, or _color -printing_, is not only interesting work to do, but profitable, since -you can easily get orders for it. It is a little harder to do a good -job with colored inks than it is with black ink, but if you will use -plain type and good colored ink you will have small trouble in doing a -creditable job. - - -=Printing in Gold.=--When you want to print in gilt instead of in -black you can do it either by printing in black ink first and then -dusting bronze powder over it with a tuft of cotton, or print the job -with _gold size_ which makes the powder stick better. Dust the excess -powder off with a bit of cotton when the letters will stand out in gold -beautifully. - -You can buy a 3 ounce can of gold size for a quarter and bronze powder -can be had in 1 ounce cans in gold, silver, cardinal red and copper. -All of the above materials can be bought of the Kelsey Press Company, -Meriden, Conn., and you ought to send for one of their catalogues. - - -=And Finally Your Stock Supply.=--You will need a supply of both -visiting and business cards; paper for labels, handbills and -newspapers--that is, if you intend to print one--and paper for -bill-heads, statements, letter-heads and envelopes to match them. - -Cards come in all sizes and colors and in any quantity however small; -they are sold under the name of _thin white_, _thin colored_, _heavy -china_, _business bristol_, _fine bristol_, _extra fine bristol_, -_satin enameled_ and _linen finished bristol_. Then there are cards -with gold beveled and lace edges; fancy embossed, with round edges, and -for mourning. - -Paper can be bought that is gummed on one side for labels; linen and -bond papers are used for correspondence; the cheapest kind of white and -colored paper is good enough for handbills but you should use a good -white stock for newspaper work. Before ordering stock of any kind the -best way to do is to send for a full set of samples and then you will -know just what you are buying. - - -The Art of Paper Making - -Of course you know what paper looks like and how it feels, but it is -not so likely that you know what it is and how it is made; but paper -making is an art so old, so wonderful and so useful, that you ought to -make enough to know all about it. - - -=What Paper Is.=--Paper is made by chemical and mechanical processes -from rags, straw or wood into thin sheets. These materials are formed -of fibers made up of what chemists call _cellulose_[68] and this -substance is in turn composed of C₆H₁₀O₅, that is 6 atoms of carbon, 10 -atoms of hydrogen and 5 atoms of oxygen. - - [68] Cellulose forms the ground-work of all vegetable tissues whether - they are the tender shoots of a fern or the hard wood of trees. - - -=How to Make Paper.=--Whatever material you use to make the paper of it -must be converted into a _pulp_ first. Cotton or linen makes the best -paper--this is called rag paper--because these materials are nearly -pure cellulose to begin with. - - -_Making the Pulp._--To make a little paper take about a pound of white -cotton or linen rags and cut them up into little bits; boil them in a -solution of _caustic soda_ for a couple of hours, to get out all the -dirt and grease, and stir them often. - -Next wash out the dirty water that has resulted from boiling them -and then the cotton or linen must be broken up and beaten until the -fibers are separated. You can do this by putting the fabrics into a -chopping bowl, wetting it down with clean water and then using a pair -of chopping knives on them until the fibers are cut fine, and you must -change the water often. In paper mills a _rag engine_, as it is called, -is used to wash and break up the rags. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70. A FRAME FOR PAPER MAKING] - - -_The Molds You Need._--Make half-a-dozen frames of wood ¹⁄₄ inch thick -and ¹⁄₂ an inch wide, and about 5 × 8 inches on the sides; and cover -these with brass wire netting having about 20 wires to the inch as -shown in Fig. 70. School slate frames are good for this purpose. - - -_Laying the Paper._--Now spread a thin layer of pulp on the wire -netting of each frame, or mold, and set them to one side to dry. When -you have all the molds filled and the pulp is dry turn each frame -upside down on a sheet of blotting paper and lay another sheet of -blotting paper over the paper you are making. - -In this way pile up the blotting paper and the paper in the making -and then put them under pressure; this you can do by placing the pile -between two smooth 1 inch thick boards and screwing them together with -a couple of wood clamps.[69] After an hour or so you can take the -clamps from the pile and separate the sheets of paper from the blotting -paper. - - [69] A description of these clamps will be found in Chapter I. - -Next place the paper between sheets of _oil board_,[70] make a pile of -them and screw them up between the wood clamps again good and tight -and leave them there over night; then hang up each sheet of paper by a -corner with a clip and let it dry. - - [70] This is a heavy oiled paper and you can buy it at a painter’s - supply store, or of C. B. Hewitt and Bros., 48 Beekman St., New York - City. - - -=Sizing and Finishing.=--When the sheets are dry take them down and lay -them carefully in a pile for _sizing_. Make the sizing by dissolving -_gelatine_ in hot water until it is about as thick as milk with the -cream in it. - -Pour the sizing into a shallow dish or, better, a photographic tray; -lay each sheet, first one side and then the other, on the sizing and -be careful to wet it evenly all over. Put the sized paper between the -sheets of oil board again, make a pile of them, screw on the wood -clamps, let them stay under pressure for half a day and, finally when -you take them out let them dry slowly and you will have a _hand made -paper_ that you have made with your own hands. - - -How to Bind Books - -If you will look at this book carefully you will conclude that it would -be next to impossible to bind one that would even faintly resemble it. -But while I do not want you to believe that you can do a job that would -anywhere nearly equal it, you can bind a book good enough so that you -will not feel ashamed to let any one see it. - -[Illustration: - - THE BOARDS - - BOARDS GLUED TO CLOTH - - WIDTH OF BOOK - -FIG. 71. HOW TO CUT BOARDS AND CLOTH FOR BOOK BINDING] - - -_Making the Cover._--First mark out with a rule and then cut out two -pieces of pasteboard each of which is just as wide as the book you are -going to bind and ¹⁄₄ inch longer as shown at A in Fig. 71. - -Lay these boards on a piece of muslin or calico, or you can buy regular -book-binder’s cloth for the purpose[71] and cut it 2 inches wider than -the length of the boards and three times as long as the width of one -of them as shown at B. - - [71] For book binders’ materials of all kinds send to Thomas Garner - and Co., 181 William Street, New York. For book binders’ leather - materials address Du Pont Febrikoid Co., Equitable Bldg., New York. - -Coat these boards on one side with a good glue laid on thin and glue -them to the cloth so that they will be separated from each other by a -space ¹⁄₂ an inch wider than the thickness of the book you are binding -as shown at B and C; this done glue the edges of the cloth over on to -the other sides of the boards as shown at D in Fig. 72. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72. SEWING ON THE MUSLIN FLAP] - -While the back is drying take a piece of good muslin and cut it 1¹⁄₂ -inches shorter than the length of the book and within 2 inches as wide -as the width of the back of the book when it is flat open. For instance -suppose the book is 5 inches wide and 1 inch thick which is 11 inches -in all; then you would cut the muslin 9 inches long. The muslin on the -book is shown at E. - - -_Sewing the Book._--The next operation is to sew this piece to the -back of the book; for this work you will need a thin sharp awl, a -hammer, a large darning needle and some strong linen thread--waxed -thread is the best. - -Before doing so, however, take a sheet of good white paper and make a -couple of fly-leaves for the front and back of the book; now punch a -line of holes ¹⁄₈ inch from the back, through the book as shown at F, -then put on the piece of muslin and sew it to the book good and tight, -and be sure the flaps are even. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73. THE BOUND BOOK COMPLETE] - -This done spread some glue on the pasteboard covers, place the back -of the book on the cloth binding between the covers, turn it over on -the front cover and rub the muslin down smooth on it; then do the same -thing with the back. All that remains for you to do now is to turn back -one of the blank pages which you sewed on to the book and glue it on -the cover which will conceal the muslin flap. - -After you have bound the book lay it between a couple of smooth boards -and screw it up tight between the jaws of a pair of wood clamps. Let it -stay there over night and in the morning when you take the wood clamps -off you will have one more book to add to your five foot shelf. - - -_Putting on the Title._--If you have a printing press you can print -the title of the book and the author’s name--don’t forget the author’s -name--on a slip of heavy paper and gild it, or on a piece of cloth and -glue it to the front of the cover as shown in Fig. 73. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -RUBBER STAMPS, DIE SINKING, BURNING BRANDS AND STENCILS - - -Rubber Stamps - -A _rubber stamp_ is type matter molded in rubber which is then mounted -on a block with a handle as shown in Fig. 77. When the stamp is inked -and then pressed on a smooth surface it leaves an impression on it. - -Rubber stamps are useful for marking tags, books, boxes, bundles, etc., -but it is very bad taste to use them for letter-heads and envelopes. - - -=How to Make Rubber Stamps.=--_The Materials Needed._--To make rubber -stamps you will need (1) one or more fonts of type; (2) a composing -stick if you intend setting up more than one line; (3) a frame called -a chase, 4 × 5 inches on the sides made of a strip of wood 1 inch wide -and 1³⁄₁₆ inch high, which is the height of type from its feet to its -shoulder; (4) another frame, called the _matrix frame_, made of a strip -of wood 1 inch wide, ³⁄₈ inch thick and 4 × 5 inches on the sides. -These two frames are shown at A and B in Fig. 74. (5) Two smooth boards -1 inch thick, 6 inches wide and 7 inches long; (6) a tooth-brush; (7) -a couple of pounds of _dental plaster of Paris_, and (8) a ¹⁄₄ pound of -_pure unvulcanized rubber_. - -Dental plaster is finer than the ordinary kind and you can buy all -you will need from your family dentist for 5 or 10 cents a pound. -Unvulcanized rubber for rubber stamps comes in sheets about ³⁄₁₆ inch -thick and is sold under the name of _signature stamp gum_ and you can -buy it for about $1.00 a pound.[72] - - [72] You can buy signature stamp gum of The Goodyear Tire and Rubber - Company, 10 Central Park West, New York City. In ordering of this - firm ask for No. 4093, ³⁄₁₆ inch thick. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74. THE MATRIX FRAME, CHASE AND BOARDS FOR MAKING -RUBBER STAMPS] - -Unvulcanized rubber is crude india-rubber mixed with sulphur and when -this is heated it gets very soft and can be molded by putting it under -pressure; when it gets cold it is not only much stronger than before -but it is very elastic as well. - - -=Making the Mold.=--Since you know how to make pewter castings and how -to set type, making a rubber stamp will be as easy as rolling off a log. - -When you have the type set up that you want to make the rubber stamp -of, put a _lead_[73] on each side of it, oil it all over with sweet -oil and tie a string around it tight. Lay the thick, shoulder high -wood frame over the type matter you have set and see that it is in the -middle of it. - - [73] See the preceding chapter on printing. - -Next mix up a little more than enough plaster with cold water in a bowl -to fill the frame; stir it with a tablespoon and make it about as thick -as sorghum molasses. Pour the plaster all around the type in the frame -and fill up the space between them as high as the face of the type. -Now let the plaster _set_,[74] that is, get hard, which it will do in -a very few minutes. When it is hard enough to hold the type in place -and yet before it gets solid take the tooth-brush, dip it in water and -brush away the plaster until it is exactly even with the frame, and -hence, even with the shoulders of the type as shown in Fig. 75. - - [74] When _calcium sulphate_ is heated it loses its water of - crystallization and forms a powder, which we call plaster of Paris; - the plaster has the power of taking up water and forming a solid - substance, and this process is called _setting_. - -When the plaster has set hard oil the face of the type and the plaster -with sweet oil; now lay the thin frame over the thick frame; mix up -some more plaster with water and make it thin enough so that it will -flow easily into every little space of the type and fill the frame up -with it. - -Let this frame stay on the lower frame over night so that it will get -very hard and you can then lift it off, when a very sharp impression -of the type faces will be formed in it shoulder deep, that is as deep -in the plaster as the face of the type is high. This frame with its -plaster impression is called the _matrix_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75D. THE TYPE IN THE CHASE. E. PLASTER OF PARIS -IMPRESSION IN THE MATRIX FRAME] - - -=Vulcanizing the Rubber.=--Cut a piece of the unvulcanized gum rubber -¹⁄₄ inch wider and longer all round than the impression of the type; -peel the strip of muslin from the strip of rubber gum and lay it on the -matrix. Put one of the boards on top of the rubber and the other on the -bottom of the matrix and screw them together tight with the iron clamps -as shown in Fig. 76. - -Half fill a kettle with water; lay the mold on top of the kettle--but -not in the water--and put both of them in a hot oven for 30 minutes. -When the rubber gum gets hot it softens and the pressure of the screws -forces it into the letters of the matrix and so makes rubber type of -them. The steam from the kettle will keep the wood from charring and -the rubber from burning but has no other action on it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76. THE MATRIX WITH THE RUBBER GUM IN PLACE READY -TO VULCANIZE] - -The heat _vulcanizes_[75] the rubber gum and makes it springy and -stretchy, but if it gets too hot it will become hard and you will -have _hard rubber_ instead. To get just the right degree of heat a -_vulcanizer_,[76] which is simply a little boiler with a thermometer on -top, is used by rubber stamp makers. - - [75] Vulcanizing is the process of heating raw India rubber with - sulphur; the sulphur combines with the rubber to form a new compound. - If a large amount of sulphur is used and great heat is used _hard - rubber_, or _vulcanite_, or _ebonite_ is formed. If a small amount of - sulphur and a low heat are used the elastic rubber that is so common - is formed. - - [76] The S. S. White Dental Mfg. Co., 5 Union Square, New York, sells - them, and unvulcanized rubber as well. - - -=Mounting the Rubber.=--All that you need to do now is to trim off -the edges of the rubber stamp with a pair of shears and mount it on a -smooth block of wood having a handle as shown in Fig. 77. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77. THE RUBBER STAMP READY TO USE] - - -=How to Use a Rubber Stamp.=--A special kind of ink is used for rubber -stamps, as writing ink is too thin and printing ink spoils the rubber. - - -_To Make an Ink Pad._--Cut out two blocks of pine wood each of which is -¹⁄₄ inch thick, 2 inches wide and 3 inches long; cut out four strips of -woolen cloth 2 × 3 inches, lay two of the strips on each block and then -cover the latter by gluing a piece of muslin over it. - -Pour a dozen or 15 drops of _rubber stamp ink_ on each pad and rub the -surfaces of both of them together to distribute the ink evenly. When -not in use keep their inked surfaces together and in a box so that the -dust will not get on them.[77] - - [77] You can buy a good rubber stamp pad for a quarter. Rubber - stamps, pads, and ink can be bought of the Everson and Reed Co., 88 - Chambers St., N. Y. C. - - -=To Make Rubber Stamp Inks.=--_A Black Ink._--Mix 3 parts of -_lampblack_ with 7 parts of _olive oil_. - - -_A Red Ink._--Mix 2 parts of _vermilion_ with 3 parts of _olive oil_. - - -_A Blue Ink._--Mix 3 parts of _aniline blue_ and 6 parts of _oleic -acid_ with 94 parts of _castor oil_. - - -_A Green Ink._--Mix 25 parts of _aniline blue_, 15 parts _aniline lemon -yellow_, 50 parts _oleic acid_ and _castor oil_ 950 parts. - - -=How to Make a Copygraph Pad.=--A _copygraph pad_, or _hectograph_, -as it is often called--from the Greek _hekaton_ which means 100, and -_graph_ to write, hence to write a hundred--is a gelatine pad for -duplicating a letter or a drawing. - -To use a copygraph pad you must write your original letter with an -_aniline_ ink; then you lay it on the pad and rub it down with your -fingers. When you remove the sheet an impression will be left on the -face of the pad and if now you lay a sheet of clean paper on the pad, -rub it and _pull_ it off you will have a copy almost as bright and -clear as the original. In this way as many as 50 or 100 copies of the -original letter can be made. - -To make a copygraph pad put 1 ounce of the best gelatine in enough -water to cover it and let it stand for 24 hours. Put a tablespoonful -of table salt into a cup of water, pour it into the outside can of a -_water jacketed_ pot. Put 6 ounces of glycerine in the inside pot, set -the pot on the stove and heat it good and hot, or to be exact, to about -200 degrees _Fahrenheit_. - -Drain off all the water from the gelatine and put the latter in the -glycerine while it is yet on the fire; stir the mixture slowly every -once in a while in order to prevent bubbles from forming, and skim off -the froth that forms on top of it. When you have a nice smooth mixture -stir in a teaspoonful of oil of cloves to keep it sweet. - -Next make a pan of sheet zinc a little larger than the letter you want -to copy and ¹⁄₂ an inch high, or you can use a tin pie pan if you -merely want to try it out. Set the pan on a level table, fill it with -the hot mixture, let it stand over night and it is ready to use. - - -=How to Copy a Letter.=--You must write your letter with a special -aniline ink, called _hectograph ink_, and use a new steel pen to do it -with. - -While the writing is getting dry take a small clean sponge, wet it with -cold water, squeeze it as dry as you can, wash the face of the gelatine -with it before you try to make an impression or else you will spoil the -pad. - -This done, lay the sheet of paper with the written side down on the pad -and gently rub your fingers over every part of it. Let the paper stay -on the pad for a couple of minutes, then grip a corner of it and pull -it slowly and evenly from the pad as shown in Fig. 78. Now you are -ready to make your copies. - -To do this lay a clean sheet of paper on the pad, rub it as you did the -original, let it remain for a minute and pull it off. Keep on making -copies until you have as many as you want or the impression gets too -faint. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78. PULLING AN IMPRESSION FROM THE COPYGRAPH] - -When you get through pulling copies wash the face of the pad with a -moist sponge and let it dry thoroughly before you make a new copy. - - -=How to Make Hectograph Inks.=--_Black Ink._--Mix 10 parts of _methyl -violet_; 20 parts of _nigrosene_; 30 parts of _glycerine_; 5 parts of -_gum arabic_ and 60 parts of alcohol. Heat it until the anilines are -dissolved and stir until all are thoroughly mixed. - - -_Red Ink._--Mix 10 parts of _fuchsin_, 10 parts of alcohol; 10 parts of -glycerine and 50 parts of water. Heat and stir as before. - - -Die Sinking - - -=How to Make Badges, etc.=--It is fascinating work to sink a name into -a piece of sheet metal with steel dies and yet it is very easy if you -have the tools and you can make some money out of it too, for every boy -wants a badge or a medal. - -[Illustration: - - _SHEET OF GERMAN SILVER OR BRASS WITH SHIELD MARKED ON IT_ - - _THE SHIELD CUT OUT_ - -FIG. 79A, B. FIRST STEPS IN MAKING A BADGE] - -Badges can be made of any kind of sheet metal ¹⁄₆₄ inch thick or more -but _German silver_[78] makes mighty pretty ones for it takes a high -polish and remains bright a long time. To cut out a shield, a star or -any kind of a badge get a ¹⁄₄ and a ¹⁄₂ inch straight cold chisel and -a ¹⁄₄ and a ¹⁄₂ inch curved cold chisel,[79] also a block of hard wood -one side of which must be nice and smooth.[80] - - [78] You can buy German silver in any quantity and thickness of - Patterson Bros., Park Row, N. Y. - - [79] The P. F. Smith Co., 325 West 42nd St., N. Y. C, make these - chisels. - - [80] You can make it so by scraping it with a piece of glass. - -Draw the outline of the badge you intend to make on a sheet of metal; -lay the latter on the block of wood and then cut it out with your -chisels and hammer as shown at A and B in Fig. 79. When you have it cut -out, file off the rough edges. - - -=How to Sink the Letters.=--For this part of the work you will need a -set of ¹⁄₈ inch _steel letters_[81] as shown in Fig. 80 and they will -cost in the neighborhood of $3.00. - - [81] Can be had of Hammacher, Schlemmer and Co., Fourth Ave. and 13th - Street, New York. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79C. THE BADGE ON A FLAT-IRON IN A VISE. D. SINKING -IN THE LETTERS] - -Mark the lines on the badge on which the letters are to be sunk with a -very soft lead pencil, or, better, wax the surface all over by tapping -it with your finger on which you have rubbed some white wax and then -mark the lines with a sharp pointed piece of bone. Otherwise you will -have trouble in getting the lines out. - -Now lay the badge on a perfectly smooth piece of iron--a flat-iron -screwed in a vise, see C, is good. Then take the middle letter of the -name you are going to stamp and hold it with the notched side toward -you and with the _serifs_[82] on the lower edge of the letter exactly -on the middle of the line you have drawn as shown at D. - - [82] See Chapter VII, on Printing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80. STEEL LETTERS AND FIGURES FOR DIE SINKING] - -Hold the steel letter perfectly straight and give it a goodly blow -with the hammer when the die will sink into the metal and leave the -impression of the letter below the surface. Finish stamping the name by -working both ways from the middle letter, for this is the way to get -the name on the badge evenly. - -With a set of steel letters and figures you can also stamp key checks, -jewelers’ checks, baggage checks and name plates and also sink names -on wood, metal, leather, etc. - - -=Finishing Up the Badge.=--The next thing to do is to solder a pin on -the back of the badge as shown at E in Fig. 79. Scrape the back up and -down the middle bright and clean; put a small safety pin on the badge -and hold them together with a pair of tweezers. Then put on a couple of -drops of _soldering fluid_.[83] - - [83] See page 31. - -[Illustration: - - THE BACK WITH PIN SOLDERED ON - - READY TO WEAR - -FIG. 79E, F. LAST STEPS IN MAKING A BADGE] - -Hold the badge with the pin on top of it in the flame of your alcohol -lamp or Bunsen burner and when the soldering fluid begins to sizzle -touch the pin with a piece of wire solder. When the solder runs let it -cool and the pin will be on securely enough for all ordinary purposes. - -Next polish up the badge by rubbing it with powdered _rottenstone_ -mixed with a little machine oil and then finish it off with some -_crocus_. If you have a lathe of any kind get a _felt wheel_[84] and -use the rottenstone and oil on it and then the crocus. - - [84] F. W. Gesswein Co., Inc., 16 John St., sells engravers’, - opticians’, platers’ and polishers’ supplies. - -Heat the stamped surface of the pin just a little and put some _black -enamel_, which you can get at the hardware store, into the letters; rub -off all that sticks to the surface but leave all that is in the sunk -letters. Put it away and let the enamel dry thoroughly when you will -have a regular badge as shown at F. - - -Burning Brands - -A burning brand is useful to mark the handles of tools, boxes or -anything made of wood by burning a name or a design into them. - - -=How to Make a Burning Brand.=--To make a burning brand, say with your -initials on it, make a cardboard box ³⁄₄ inch wide, 1 inch high and 3 -inches long and without a top. - -Mix up some plaster of Paris, fill the box with it and let it set. When -it is perfectly hard and dry tear the cardboard box away from it, and -on the narrow side of it, that is the one that is ³⁄₄ inch wide, mark -out your initials, reversing the letters just as they are on type. - -Take a sharp pocket knife and cut away the plaster from around the -letters to a depth of ³⁄₈ inch, thus leaving the letters standing out -in relief like type letters as shown at A in Fig. 81. Give it a couple -of coats of _shellac varnish_[85] which not only protects the plaster -to a certain extent but prevents it from sticking to the mold. - - [85] You can make this varnish by dissolving yellow gum shellac in - alcohol or you can buy it at a paint store. - -[Illustration: - - _A PLASTER OF PARIS PATTERN FOR A BURNING BRAND_ - - _THE BURNING BRAND COMPLETE_ - -FIG. 81. A BURNING BRAND OF IRON OR COPPER] - -Now take this pattern to a brass foundry and have a brass casting made -of it. When you get it file it up nice and smooth and be careful to -keep the surface of the letters perfectly flat. This done, drill a ³⁄₁₆ -inch hole in the center of the back of the brand to a depth of ¹⁄₂ an -inch and thread it with a ³⁄₁₆ inch tap. - -The next and last thing to do is to get an iron rod ¹⁄₄ inch in -diameter, and 12 inches long, bend a ring on one end, thread the other -end with a ³⁄₁₆ inch die and screw it into the brand, when it will look -like B. - - -_How to Use the Burning Brand._--To use the burning brand put it in a -fire and when it is about red hot, take it out and press it firmly on -the wood you want to mark and your initials will be left on the wood -as long as the wood lasts, nearly. - - -Stencils - -A stencil is a piece of heavy paper or thin sheet of metal in which -letters or a design are cut through with broken lines, and it is used -for marking the letters or design on any smooth surface by daubing a -color on it through the open spaces with a brush or sponge. - -There are two kinds of stencils, namely (1) those used for practical -work and (2) those used for decorative purposes. - - -=How to Cut Stencils.=--You can cut your stencils in either (a) _oil -board_,[86] or (b) in thin _sheet brass_ or _copper_. _Paper stencils_, -as those cut in oil board are called, are much easier to make than -those cut in sheet metal and as they are quite durable they will -probably serve your every need. - - [86] Oil board can be bought of C. B. Hewitt and Bros., 48 Beekman - St., New York. - - -_Cutting Paper Stencils._--All you need to cut paper stencils with is -a sheet of oil board and a pen-knife with a good, sharp-pointed blade. -A stencil alphabet is shown at A in Fig. 82 and by taking a look at it -you will see exactly where the lines must be broken to hold the letters -together. - -First mark out with a pencil the size of the sheet you want the stencil -to be and then draw a line down through the middle to divide it into -equal parts. For every line of letters you want draw a pair of lines -across the oil board and have the space between them whatever you want -the height of the letters to be. - -When you mark in the name or word start with the middle letter and -draw it on the middle line of the board and then draw in the rest of -the letters to the right and to the left; by lettering the oil board -or metal this way you will get the whole name or word exactly in the -middle of the sheet. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82. STENCIL LETTERS AND STENCILS - - A. How stencil letters are cut. - - B. A stencil for marking boxes. - - C. Decorative stencil for wall borders.] - -To cut the stencil lay it on a smooth board and hold your knife just as -you do a pen when you write but with your fingers a little closer to -the point. Start at the top of each line if it is a vertical one, or -on the left hand side if it is horizontal; hold the knife at a slight -angle so that all the lines you cut will slant in toward the center of -the letter and so bevel the paper. In cutting the stencil you can turn -the sheet around to bring the lines into the best position for cutting. - -It does not take much pressure to cut through the board but press down -hard enough on the blade to make the first cut go clear through and -never cut over the same line twice and also make the cuts run right up -sharp into the corners. It takes very small skill to cut stencils but -the chief part of the art lies in drawing the letters or the designs on -the paper or metal. - - -_Cutting Brass Stencils._--To cut sheet metal stencils use -_annealed_[87] sheet metal about No. 25 _Brown and Sharpe gauge_;[88] -mark out the letters or design as for paper stencils and then cut them -with _stencil chisels_. When you have the stencil all cut file the -_burr_ off of the edges of the letters or design with a fine file and -file them at an angle so that all the edges are sharp. A practical -stencil is shown at B. - - [87] Patterson Bros., Park Row, New York, carry sheet brass and - copper in stock for stencils. - - [88] The Brown and Sharpe Wire Gage is also used for measuring the - thickness of sheet metal. - - -_How to Use Practical Stencils._--A short, stubby brush, called a -_stencil brush_ and made especially for the purpose is the best kind -to use to stencil with. Dampen it a little and rub it on a cake of -_stencil ink_;[89] hold the stencil down tight to the surface you are -to mark and then _dab_--not paint--the spaces in it with the brush. - - [89] Nearly every stationery store carries stencil ink and brushes - in stock, or you can get them of Hammacher, Schlemmer and Co., Cor. - Fourth Ave. and 13th Street, N. Y. C. - - -_How to Make Stencil Inks._--Dissolve 4 ounces of shellac and 1 part of -borax in a little boiling water and put in enough logwood to make it -red if this is the color you want it, or blue carmine if you want it to -be blue. Then add enough hot water to make it about as thick as cream. - - -=How to Use Decorative Stencils.=--Art stencils can be used with good -effect for certain kinds of decorative work, but it is especially -adapted for putting borders on kalsomined walls. You can cut these -stencils, see C in Fig. 82, after your own design or you can buy them -already cut.[90] - - [90] Write to the Frost and Adams Co., Cornhill, Boston, Mass., for - a catalogue of their _Art Cut Stencils_. Also to Sears, Roebuck and - Co., Chicago, Ills., for a list of their decorative stencils. - - -_Mixing Colors for Stenciling Borders._--To make the colors for -decorative stencils stir a very little _moresco stenciling color_[91] -with some hot water; be careful not to use too much color or the effect -on the kalsomined or frescoed wall will be too contrasting. Beautiful -colors in half-a-dozen tints can be had for this work. - - [91] Made by Benjamin H. Moore and Son’s Co., 180 William St., N. Y., - and sold by paint dealers generally. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE ART OF WORKING GLASS - - -One of the most fascinating of the mechanical arts is working in glass. -One reason for this is because it is a substance so beautiful, so hard -and so fragile that it seems to the ordinary observer to be beyond the -pale of tools. - -_Au contraire_, as the French say it, glass is easily worked if you -mix a little skill with the right kind of tools and it gives me much -pleasure to tell you how to do it. Further, the tools you need are few -and the material is inexpensive. - - -=What Glass Is.=--Before getting down to the processes by which glass -can be worked it is a good scheme to know about the substance itself. - -_Hieroglyphic_[92] inscriptions on the Egyptian monuments show that -the art of working glass was practiced 4,000 years ago or before the -_Hebrew exodus_.[93] Now glass is a chemical compound, the chief -substance of which is sand. - - [92] The early Egyptians carved the history of their arts on stone in - a sign language called _hieroglyphics_ from the Greek _hieros_ which - means sacred, and _glypho_ which means to carve. - - [93] The departure of the Israelites from Egypt under the guidance of - Moses. - -_Common glass_ is made by melting _sand_, _lime_ and _soda_ together. -Sand is formed of a chemical element called _silica_; lime is _calcium -carbonate_ and soda is _sodium carbonate_ and there you have three -chemical elements which when they are melted together make common -window glass. - -Glass which contains lime is called _crown glass_ and it is this kind -which is used in making one of a pair of _achromatic_[94] lenses. -_Flint glass_ which is the kind of glass used in making the other one -of a pair of achromatic lenses contains lead instead of lime. - - [94] An achromatic lens is one that is free from color. - -Flint, or lead, glass melts more easily than crown, or common, glass -and this is a good pointer for you to remember when you are getting -glass for your glass blowing experiments. _Bohemian glass_, which is -largely used for chemical apparatus, is made of sand, lime and potash. - -Colored glass is made by putting small quantities of various substances -into the melted glass. Thus _oxide of cobalt_[95] gives a blue color; -_oxide of chromium_, or _cupric oxide_ a green; one of the _copper -oxides_ gives it a red color, _uranium_[96] a yellow, etc. - - [95] Cobalt is a metal and is usually found along with nickel. - - [96] Uranium is also a metal. - - -=How to Cut Glass.=--About the simplest and most useful process for you -to know is how to cut glass. - -To cut window glass you need (1) a _glass cutter_; (2) a drawing board -and (3) a T square. There are two kinds of glass cutters on the market -and these are (a) _steel cutters_ and (b) _diamond cutters_. - -The first kind has a little steel wheel in the end, as shown at A -in Fig. 83. You can buy one for a quarter and it will serve all your -needs very well. If money is no object you can buy a glass cutter with -a diamond point such as glaziers use for about $4.00. This kind of a -glass cutter has a chip of genuine diamond in a _swivel_ end and it is -a pleasure to cut glass with one of them. It is shown at B. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83. GLASS CUTTERS - - A. A steel wheel glass cutter. - - B. A diamond point glass cutter.] - - -=How to Use a Glass Cutter.=--“There are tricks in all trades but -ours,” said the carpenter as he drove in a screw with a hammer, and so -if you will dip the steel wheel cutter into some kerosene before each -cut is made you will be surprised to find how easily it cuts. - -To use a diamond cutter, hold it just as you would hold a pencil and -grip the three sided part with your thumb, index and middle fingers, as -shown at C. Then place the cutter against the straight edge of your T -square, press it down firmly on the glass and draw it along evenly. - -To make the right kind of a cut hold the diamond at a sharp angle, that -is, very slanting, and raise it slowly until a smooth, sound and clear -cut is made. Don’t hold it straight up and down or you will surely -spoil it, and never never cut twice over the same line. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83C. THE RIGHT WAY TO HOLD A DIAMOND POINT GLASS -CUTTER] - -It takes more skill to use a diamond cutter the right way than to use a -steel cutter, but a little practice will make you proficient. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84. HOW TO CUT A PANE OF GLASS] - -When you want to cut a sheet of glass lay it on your drawing board with -the blade of the T square on it and the head of it against the edge -of the glass as shown in Fig. 84; hold it tight and then make a good, -clean cut. You can then easily break the sheet of glass along the cut -if there is enough glass on each side of the cut to get a firm hold on. -If not put it into one of the notches on the shank of the glass cutter -and you can then easily break it off. - - -=How to Finish Off Glass Edges.=--When you cut a sheet of glass the -edge left by the cutter will be slightly rough. To smooth it up and -round off the corners rub it on a _whetstone_, that is any kind of a -coarse stone on which you have poured a little water. A better way is -to grind it on a grindstone if you have one. - - -=How to Drill Holes in Glass.=--To drill a hole through a sheet of -glass make a layer of putty ¹⁄₂ an inch thick and as large as the sheet -you are going to drill and lay the glass on it. - -The idea of using the bed of putty is to allow the glass to bend a -little should you press down on the drill too hard. Take a _Morse twist -drill_ and, if you know how, grind it on a grindstone to a sharper -point than it has when you get it; the next best thing to do is to -sharpen it on your oilstone. - -The best kind of a drill stock to use is an _archimedian_, or a -_reciprocating_ one, as shown at B in Fig. 11, on page 29, for then -the pressure on the glass is even in every direction. Set the drill on -the glass at the point where the hole is to be made; hold it with the -fingers of your left hand to keep it from slipping and _lubricate_ it -well with turpentine. - -Work the drill at a fairly high speed and do not put too much pressure -on the drill stock or you will surely break the glass. - -You will find it quite hard to drill a hole less than ¹⁄₁₆ inch in -diameter through ordinary glass because the drills will break and when -you drill a hole over ¹⁄₈ inch in diameter you will find it a slow -job because of its size, but you can drill a hole up to ¹⁄₄ inch in -diameter if you go slow and are careful. - - -=A Couple of Ways to Cut Glass Tubing.=--_The First Way._--A simple way -to cut, or rather break off a piece of glass tube evenly is to make a -cut all round the tube with a _three-cornered_ file[97] and you can -break it off at the line without trouble. - - [97] The right name of a three cornered file is a _three square file_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85. A CUTTER FOR GLASS TUBES] - - -_The Second Way._--An easy and sure way to cut glass tubing off smooth -is to use a _gauge glass cutter_;[98] this is a V steel rod with a -_seat_ on one end and a steel cutting wheel on the other. The arm of -the rod holding the wheel is marked off in fractions of an inch like a -rule and a _stop_ with a set screw in it slides on this rod as shown in -Fig. 85. - - [98] You can buy one of these tools of Hammacher, Schlemmer and Co., - Fourth Ave. and 13th St., New York. - -To use the cutter set the stop on the rod at the length you want to cut -the tube; then put the rod with the cutter on it in the tube and with -the seat outside; press the V rods together tight and turn it and the -tube in opposite directions when it will make a good cut and you can -break the tube in two easily. - - -=How to Cut Glass Disks.=--By sawing out a round board, laying it flat -on a sheet of glass and running your glass cutter around the edge of -the pattern you can cut out an approximately round disk of glass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86. A CIRCULAR GLASS CUTTER] - -But to cut out a perfectly round disk you must have a _circular glass -cutter_[98a] as shown in Fig. 86. It has an adjustable cutter head -mounted on a square rod so that the head can be turned on it. The rod -is mounted on a hardwood base so that it can revolve around the latter. - - [98a] You can buy one of these tools of Hammacher, Schlemmer and Co., - Fourth Ave. and 13th St., New York. - -After the cutter head is set on the rod for the size of the circle you -intend to cut hold it down on the glass by the thumb-piece. The cutter -head is then moved round in a circle and a clean cut is made after -which the edge of the disk can be smoothed up. - -This circular glass cutter, which is called the _Little Beauty_, will -cut a circle 20 inches in diameter and costs about 50 cents. If you are -making a frictional electric machine this is the tool you need to cut -the glass plates with. - - -=How to Bend Glass Tubing.=--It is useful to know how to bend a piece -of glass tubing, especially if you are interested in chemistry and want -to set up some apparatus--in fact you should know how before you ever -start to experiment. - -There are just two things you need to bend glass tubes with and these -are (1) a _Bunsen burner_[99] and (2) the _glass tubing_, both of which -you can buy of Eimer and Amend, Fourth Avenue, Cor. 18th Street, New -York. - - [99] Complete instructions for making a Bunsen burner will be found - in _The Magic of Science_ by the present author and published by - Fleming H. Revell Co., New York. - - -_What a Bunsen Burner Is._--This is a burner in which a jet of ordinary -illuminating gas is mixed with air, the amount being regulated by a -ring which opens and closes the air holes in the burner. - -A Bunsen burner makes a very hot flame because the gas in the tube -moves faster than in an ordinary burner and the oxygen in the air aids -the gas to burn. A plain Bunsen burner is shown at A, in Fig. 87. If -you have no gas in your house you can use an _alcohol lamp_[100] which -you can either buy or make for yourself. - - [100] How to make an alcohol lamp out of an ink-bottle is explained - in _The Magic of Science_. - - -_Bending the Glass Tube._--To bend a piece of glass tube you should -have a _fish tail jet_ set in the end of the Bunsen burner to give a -wide flame like an illuminating burner as shown at B. Hold the tube -over the flame of the burner, or alcohol lamp until it is heated red -hot all along the place you want to bend it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87. KINDS OF BUNSEN BURNERS] - -Now turn the tube in the flame with your fingers until it is heated -evenly all around and becomes soft; take it from the flame and quickly -but gently bend it as you will which you can do very easily. With very -little practice you will be able to make a good smooth bend just where -you want it. - - -=How to Blow Glass= - - -=To Round the Ends of a Tube.=--When you cut a tube either with a file -or a glass cutter the edge of the end will be sharp but not smooth. All -you have to do to round it is to heat it in the flame until it begins -to melt, when the glass will run and make a smooth edge. - - -=To Border the Ends of a Tube.=--To _border_ a tube means to spread the -edge out a little all around so that a cork can be put in easier or a -liquid poured out better. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88. BORDERING THE END OF A TUBE] - -Take a piece of charcoal and shave it down with your knife to form a -cone the size you want the border to be. Heat the end of the tube by -turning it in the flame until it is quite soft and then push in the -charcoal cone, as shown in Fig. 88. - - -=To Seal Off the End of a Tube.=--To close one end of a tube, or _seal -it off_ as it is called, heat it in a fish-tail burner just as I -explained for bending glass. - -When the glass begins to get soft pull the two ends of the tube apart -until the walls of the tube are drawn together as shown at A in Fig. -89. Cut a nick in the thin solid part with a file and break it off. If -you want a closed end as shown at B heat the end of the tube you have -sealed off and press it down on a piece of iron. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89. SEALING OFF THE END OF A TUBE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 90. HOW TO MAKE A HOLE IN A TUBE] - - -=To Make a Glass Nozzle.=--In setting up chemical apparatus it very -often happens that a glass nozzle is needed. To make a nozzle seal off -a piece of glass tube as described above and by nicking it with a file -you can have the hole in the end of the tube any size you want it. - - -=To Make a Hole in a Tube.=--To make a hole of any size in a tube, or -_piercing_ it, as it is called, you ought to have a sharp pointed flame -and a _blow-pipe_, which is described farther on. - -Cork up one end of the tube, heat the point, see A in Fig. 90, where -you want the hole and then stick the other end in your mouth and blow -gentle puffs in it until a little bulb is formed. When the bulb is cold -take a file and gently crack the thin glass and trim it away; now heat -the tube around the edge of the hole again until the glass begins to -run when a round smooth hole will be produced as shown at B. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91A. WELDING TWO TUBES TOGETHER. B. MAKING A =~T~= -TUBE] - - -=To Join Two Tubes of the Same Size.=--Put a cork into one end of one -of the tubes and hold the other end in the flame as well as one end of -the other tube as shown at A in Fig. 91. - -Let the ends of the tubes get hot enough to melt but not thicken; now -press the melted ends together hard enough to make them stick together -but not hard enough to make them form a thick ring. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92A. A REGULAR BLOW-PIPE] - -To make a good job you should now use a pointed flame and heat the -juncture all around red hot and blow into the open end of the tube to -spread the glass a trifle. While you are blowing keep turning the glass -in the flame to make the joint nice and smooth. - - -=To Join One Tube to the Side of Another One.=--First make a hole in -the side of the tube in the manner already described and then cork up -both ends; heat the tube around the hole and one end of the other tube -as shown at B, in Fig. 91. When they are soft press them together hard -enough to make a good joint. - -It is a good scheme to wrap cotton around the joint while it is still -hot to _anneal_ the glass, which means to make it less brittle by -letting it get cold slowly. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92B. CROSS SECTION OF A HOME MADE BLOW-PIPE] - - -=To Blow a Bulb on the End of a Tube.=--_How to Make a Blow-Pipe._--For -blowing bulbs on tubes, for flasks and the like, you need a regular -glassblower’s _blow-pipe_ in order to get a hotter flame than a Bunsen -burner gives. - -You can buy a blow-pipe as shown at A in Fig. 92 for $1.50,[101] or you -can easily make one as follows: get a brass tube ³⁄₄ inch in diameter -and 10 inches long and drill a ¹⁄₂ inch hole in it 3 inches from one -end; fit another pipe of the same size and length at an angle of about -30 degrees to the first one; put a _stopcock_ in the latter pipe and -solder it to the first pipe over the hole as shown at B in Fig. 92. - - [101] Blowpipes and bellows can be bought of Hammacher, Schlemmer and - Co., Fourth Ave. and 13th St., New York. - -Next take a glass tube ¹⁄₄ inch in diameter and 14 inches long and make -a bend in it 3 inches from one end. Make a hole through a cork and push -it over the glass tube; slip the tube into the brass pipe and force the -cork into the end of the latter tight enough to hold the glass tube -exactly in the middle of it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92C. THE GLASS BLOWING ARRANGEMENT READY TO USE] - -Connect the lower end of the glass tube with a rubber tube about 3 -inches long to a brass tube of the same size and 8 inches long and fit -a stopcock into this pipe. This completes the burner but you want to -set the lower ends of the two tubes into and through the top of your -table so that the stopcocks are above it and the lower ends of the -tubes project below the table. - -Next connect the large brass tube with a gas jet or other source of -illuminating gas and the small brass tube with a _foot blower_ or other -source of compressed air as shown at C. The blower can be an ordinary -_molders’ bellows_ which you can buy for about $1.50, or you can make -a pair, or you can buy a regular blowpipe bellows as shown at D, which -are very much better, for about $8.00. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92D. A REGULAR FOOT BELLOWS] - -By adjusting the mouth of the glass tube--which is the air tube--that -is, drawing it in and out of the mouth of the brass tube which is the -gas tube, and by regulating the amount of air and gas, a _pointed_ -flame or a _brush_ flame, that is, a flame of large size, can be had at -the mouth of the blowpipe according to the work you are doing. - - -_How to Blow a Bulb._--Take a good piece of glass tube about ³⁄₄ inch -in diameter and 15 inches long; draw one end out long and thin for -about 3 inches as shown at A in Fig. 93. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93. FIRST STEPS IN BLOWING A GLASS BULB - - A. Drawing out the tube. - - B. Forming glass rings on the tube.] - -Then heat a small part of the tube in a large, or brush flame, turn the -glass in the flame all the time until it is soft and then press on both -ends to make the glass thicker at this point. Do the same thing above -the ring thus formed, and so on until you have several rings of glass -as shown at B, which are thick enough to make the sized bulb you want. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93C. MAKING A THICK RING OF GLASS] - -Next heat the narrower parts marked _a a a a_ and blow gently and press -gradually on the ends to make the thick rings melt and flow together -into one large ring of thick glass as shown at C; and in doing so be -mighty careful that the walls do not cave in. - -Now melt and seal off the tail and heat the whole bulb in as large a -flame as you can get and at the same time turn the tube till the rings -run together. At this instant take it from the flame and, still turning -it, blow into it with a few little quick blasts until you get the size -and shape you want as shown at D. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93D. LAST STEP IN BLOWING A GLASS BULB] - - -=How to Etch Glass.=--There are two ways to etch glass and these are -(1) with a _sand blast_ and (2) with _acid_. - - -_The Sand Blast Process._--The process which follows is a simplified -form of the regular sand-blast way of doing it, and with it you can -easily make a ground glass surface or etch a stencilled name or a -design on a sheet of glass. - -All you need is (1) a box with a tight fitting lid 5 inches wide, 5 -inches high and 10 inches long as shown at A in Fig. 94. Cut a hole in -one end, say 4¹⁄₂ × 4¹⁄₂ inches, thus leaving a margin of wood ¹⁄₂ an -inch wide all around; (2) a pound of rather coarse emery, and (3) a -pound of shot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94A. PARTS OF THE APPARATUS FOR SAND BLAST ETCHING] - -Clean the surface of the glass you are going to etch with warm water -with a little soda in it, wash it off and rub it dry. Next cut a -stencil with your name on it or you can make a geometrical design by -folding a sheet of paper and cutting it out with a pair of shears. Coat -the glass with a thin layer of mucilage, lay the stencil on it and rub -it down flat. Rub the mucilage off clean in the cut out parts with a -slightly moist sponge and be sure to get it all off too. - -Now cut out a piece of cloth the size of the end of the box and cut a -hole in it the exact size of the hole in the box. Lay this on the end -of the box with the hole in it, lay the glass over it and fix them all -together tight with rubber bands as shown at B in Fig. 94, or tie it up -with string. The cloth cut-out between the box and glass will prevent -the emery from sifting through. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94B. SAND BLAST APPARATUS PUT TOGETHER READY FOR -ETCHING] - -Put the shot and emery in the box, fasten the lid on tight and then -shake it hard up and down so that the emery and shot will strike the -surface of the glass with as much force as possible. Keep this up for -15 minutes or half an hour when the glass will be etched deep enough. - -When you open the box you will find that the particles of emery have -been embedded in the lead shot and each of the latter has become a -cutting tool. This process of etching can be used for metals as well as -for glass. - - -_How to Make Ground Glass._--To make _ground glass_ go about it as -above described but in this case no stencil is needed. - - -_The Acid Process._--_Hydrofluoric acid_ is made by treating -_fluor-spar_[102] with _sulphuric acid_. The acid which is thus formed -acts on glass by eating into it and for this reason it must be kept in -either rubber, lead or platinum bottles upon which it has no effect. -In etching large surfaces the acid is not put on the glass directly; -because it eats so smoothly the effect is not striking enough; instead -the following process is used which leaves a rough surface more nearly -like that of the sand blast. - - [102] Fluor-spar is _calcium fluoride_; you can buy it of Eimer - and Amend, 4th Ave. and 18th St., New York, or of the L. E. Knott - Apparatus Co., Boston, Mass. - -Make a lead dish the size of the glass you want to etch and with the -sides an inch high. Put about an ounce of powdered fluor-spar into the -dish and pour enough concentrated sulphuric acid on it to make a thick -paste. - -Coat the surface of the glass with paraffin, or beeswax and rosin, -and then with a steel _scriber_, or other pointed instrument scratch -on your name or the design you intend to etch, clear through to the -glass. Lay the glass with the waxed side down on the dish containing -the fluor-spar mixture, as shown at A in Fig. 95, and let it stand over -night. The vapor formed by generating hydrofluoric acid in this way -attacks the _silica_, that is the sand, of the glass with which it has -a great tendency to unite, and thus the glass disintegrates or is eaten -away. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95. ETCHING GLASS WITH ACID - - A. Etching a sheet of glass with fluor-spar. - - B. Etching a thermometer tube with hydrofluoric acid.] - -The next morning when you take off the glass, scrape off the wax and -you will find the name or design etched on it. - -To etch the graduations on thermometers, burettes, etc., coat them -with wax and scratch the lines and figures on them just as described -above--but in this case you can put the hydrofluoric acid on direct as -shown at B, using a splinter of wood for the purpose. - - -=How to Cement Glass.=--To cement glass clean the edges or surfaces to -be fixed together with hot water in which you have put a little soda; -dry well with a clean cloth and then be careful not to let your fingers -touch the cleaned parts. - -Brush over the edges or surfaces of the glass with the cement made -according to the directions which follow and press and bind the parts -together as tightly as possible. - -To make the cement dissolve 2 ounces of the best _gum arabic_ in some -hot water and then add 1¹⁄₂ ounces of pulverized starch and ¹⁄₂ ounce -of sugar and stir until they are dissolved. Heat the mixture in a pot -or a tin can which sets in a larger pot or tin of water--or _water -bath_ as it is called. - -When the starch gets clear take it from the fire, put in a few drops -of oil of cloves to keep the cement sweet and let it get cold, when it -should be about as thick as cream. - - -=A Simple Way to Frost Glass.=--Make a _saturated solution_ of _alum -water_, which means to dissolve as much alum in hot water as possible. - -Lay the glass on a perfectly level table and pour on as much of the -alum water as you can without its running off and let it cool slowly, -when the alum will cover the glass with fine crystals. This is a good -substitute for ground glass. - -A cheap frosting for windows can be made by dissolving Epsom salts in -hot water and then mixing it with a clear solution of gum arabic. - - -=Substitutes for Glass.=--There are a number of substances that can be -used instead of glass. In some cases a substitute is better than glass -but generally they are used because they are cheaper. - - -_Mica._--This mineral, which is also but wrongly called _isinglass_, -is found in Farther India; it is a silicate and can be split into thin -sheets; in color it ranges from colorless to a jet black and from the -transparent to the translucent. It is useful in many ways because it is -fireproof. - - -_Gelatine._--Gelatine is obtained from the skins, hoofs and horns -of animals. _Isinglass_ is a nearly pure gelatine and is a white, -tough, partly transparent substance which is obtained chiefly from the -air-bladders of fish. - -To make sheets of either gelatine, or isinglass, dissolve some of the -finest glue, or isinglass--the latter is the best--in enough hot water -so that it will form a flexible solid sheet when it is cold. - -While it is still hot strain it through a piece of cheese cloth; -this done, grease a clean sheet of glass and build up the edges with -some putty; warm the glass and pour on the gelatine to a thickness -of ¹⁄₈ inch. Now lay another greased and hot sheet of glass on top -of the gelatine and let it stay there until it is cold. The sheets -of gelatine can be given any color by adding a little aniline to the -gelatine while it is hot. - - -=How to Silver a Mirror.=--While it is much cheaper to buy a mirror -than it is to make one still there are times when it is useful to know -how to make one. - -As you know, a mirror is a sheet of clear glass free from air bubbles -and upon the back of which is a film of silver. The silver bath is made -by mixing a weak solution of _silver nitrate with ammonium hydroxide_ -until the solution is clear and then adding a little _caustic potash_ -to it. This done, put in a few more drops of ammonia and finally a very -little _glycerine_. - -Now float the glass on this mixture when the surface will soon be -coated with silver. When the film is thick enough take the glass from -the bath, wash the film of silver on the back of it with clean, cold -water, dry and varnish it and your mirror is done. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -TOYS FOR THE KIDDIES - - -If there is as much pleasure in giving as there is in receiving you can -get twice as much pleasure out of making toys with your own hands and -giving them to your little brothers and sisters--if you have any, and -if you haven’t, then I’m truly sorry for you. - -Since you know how to use wood and metal working tools it will be easy -for you to make any and all of these toys I have described in this -chapter and some of them are quite useful too. And when you are making -them let the little folks watch you for this will please them greatly -and make them doubly happy. - -Now some grown-ups don’t know it but however small a kiddie is he or -she likes to play with things that look like those the older folks work -with. Of course all toys cannot be of this kind for some of them are -made to be funny and others are made to be lifelike, but these are the -three chief kinds of toys. - - -=How to Make a Policeman’s Puzzle.=--Get two strips of wood ¹⁄₄ inch -thick, ¹⁄₂ an inch wide and 11 inches long and cut handles on one end -of each strip. Saw with your scroll saw out of ¹⁄₈ inch thick wood, two -policemen 6 inches high and also one Baxter Street clothier of Semitic -persuasion, 3 inches high as shown in Fig. 96. - -Pivot the leg near the foot of each policeman to the ends of both of -the strips by driving a couple of _brads_ through and into them and -then nail the Israelite fast to the top strip with a couple of brads. -Now when you pull the strips apart one of the long arms of the law will -crack Ikey on the cranium and when the strips are pushed together again -the other minion of authority will bounce his club on the place where -his brains ought to be. A little red and blue water color will add to -the realism of the toy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96. A POLICEMAN’S PUZZLE, OR NOW WILL YOU BE GOOD] - - -=How to Make an Automobile Truck.=--This little toy will bring a lot of -unalloyed joy to any tiny, weentie fellow and it’s easy to make, too. - -Cut out a board for the bottom ³⁄₄ inch thick, 4¹⁄₂ inches wide and 14 -inches long; trim down one end of it so that it is 2 inches wide in -front as shown at A Fig. 97. Bore a ¹⁄₄ inch hole 2³⁄₄ inches from the -front end. - -Saw off a block of wood 1 inch square and 2¹⁄₂ inches long--this is to -brace the seat with--and glue this block across the body 6¹⁄₂ inches -from the back as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 97. Make a seat of a -board ¹⁄₄ inch thick, 1¹⁄₂ inches wide and 3¹⁄₂ inches long and glue or -nail it to the block. - -[Illustration: - - _C--THE HOOD_ - - _B--SIDE VIEW_ - - _TOP VIEW_ - -FIG. 97. PLANS FOR THE AUTOMOBILE TRUCK] - -To make the body or box, cut out two strips of wood ¹⁄₄ inch thick and -make one 2 inches wide and the other 2¹⁄₂ inches wide and 4¹⁄₂ inches -long for the front and back, and two strips of wood 2 inches wide and -6³⁄₄ inches long for the sides. Nail one of the short strips on the -bottom close up to the seat and the blocks of wood it rests on and nail -the side strips on the bottom. - -Next round off the lower edge of the short board that is left; set it -in between the ends of the sideboards and drive a brad through each of -the sideboards and into the tail-board near the bottom; this brings the -tail-board so that it can be closed up or let down as the side view at -B shows. - -Saw off two ³⁄₄ inch square blocks and have both of them just a shade -over 4¹⁄₂ inches long and these are for the axles. Nail one fast near -the rear of the bottom 2 inches from the back end, and nail the other -one fast to the front of the bottom 1 inch from the end. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97D. THE AUTOMOBILE TRUCK READY TO RUN] - -Make a hood out of a block of wood 1³⁄₄ inches wide and long and 2 -inches high and bevel off the top as shown at C; nail this to the -bottom in front as shown in the top and side views. For the steering -wheel saw out a wheel ¹⁄₄ inch thick and 1¹⁄₂ inches in diameter. - -The last thing to do is to saw out four wheels ¹⁄₄ inch thick and 2³⁄₄ -inches in diameter; drill a ¹⁄₈ inch hole in the exact center of each -wheel and screw it on the end of the axle with a 1 inch long, round -head, wood screw. Paint the automobile a bright red when it will look -like D and run like a fire engine. - - -=How to Make a Swell Coaster.=--This is a practical toy that every -little tot will like immensely. It is just as simple as the automobile -but it must be made very much stronger. - -[Illustration: - - _=A=--TOP VIEW_ - - _=D=--STEERING HANDLE_ - - _=C=--SIDE VIEW_ - - _=B=--AXLE SUPPORT_ - -FIG. 98. PLANS FOR A SWELL COASTER] - -Get a board, hardwood is the best, ⁷⁄₈ or 1 inch thick, 5³⁄₄ inches -wide and 14 inches long and saw it out so that one end is 2¹⁄₂ inches -wide as shown at A in Fig. 98; bore a hole 1 inch in diameter in the -front end and ³⁄₁₆ inch holes across the back at the places marked with -circles. - -Next make the rear axle support and for this saw out of a 1 inch thick -board a piece 4 inches wide and 7 inches long and saw out of one end -of it a piece 2 inches square. Take your brace and bit and bore a ¹⁄₄ -inch hole through the hangers as shown at B. - -Screw this support to the seat across it 1¹⁄₂ inches from the rear end. -Brace the support by screwing an angle brace, as shown in the side view -C, to it and the seat. This done make the steering handle, and for it -you want to use a stick of hardwood 1 inch thick, 2 inches wide and -15 inches long; saw a piece out of one end 1¹⁄₈ inches wide and 2¹⁄₂ -inches deep for the axle support for the front wheel; saw the other end -down until it is 1 inch wide and 6 inches deep. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98E. THE COASTER READY TO RIDE ON] - -Round off this smaller end for the handle, as shown at D, and bore a -¹⁄₂ inch hole close to the end for the handle bar. Slip the rounded end -through the hole in the front part of the seat, drive a nail through -it just above the seat and glue in a piece of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch in -diameter and 6 inches long, for the handle bar. - -Saw out three wheels each of which is 4 inches in diameter, bore a ¹⁄₄ -inch hole in the center of each one. Set one of the wheels between the -hangers of the steering handle, slip a bolt through them and screw on a -nut. - -Push a bolt through each of the other wheels and through a hanger of -the axle support and screw on a nut, when the coaster is ready to run, -as shown at E. A coat of bright paint will make it more attractive but -it won’t run any better. - - -=How to Make a Nifty Wheelbarrow.=--This is a cute wheelbarrow and will -tickle any little _choptie_ ’most half to death and you can make it in -no time. - -Get two sticks of wood ³⁄₄ inch square and 24 inches long and round off -one end of each one about 3 inches down for the handle. Next bore ¹⁄₂ -inch holes half way through in the other ends of the sticks 4 inches -back for the axle; bore two more ¹⁄₂ inch holes 6¹⁄₄ inches back of the -first two, and finally 5³⁄₄ inches back of the last ones bore two more -¹⁄₂ inch holes, as shown at A in Fig. 99. - -This done cut off four sticks ¹⁄₂ an inch in diameter--or ³⁄₄ inch -square ones will do--and make one of them 4¹⁄₂ inches long; the next -one 6³⁄₈ inches long, the third 8 inches long, and the last one 10¹⁄₂ -inches long. - -Out of a board 1 inch thick saw a wheel 5 inches in diameter and bore -a hole in its center ¹⁄₂ an inch in diameter. Smear some glue on the -middle of the shortest stick and slip the wheel on it so that it is -exactly in the middle. - -Make the body, that is the box, of the barrow of wood ¹⁄₄ inch thick -and have it 4¹⁄₄ inches wide at one end, 6¹⁄₄ inches wide at the other -end, 5 inches high and 7 inches long. Through the middle, but a little -toward the back and near the upper edge, bore two holes a shade larger -than ¹⁄₂ an inch in diameter and slip the third longest stick through -the holes in the body; drive a brad through the stick on each side of -the body to keep the latter from slipping from side to side, but it -must swing easily on the stick. - -[Illustration: - - _=A=--TOP VIEW OF WHEELBARROW_ - - _=B=--SIDE VIEW_ - - _=C=--WHEELBARROW COMPLETE_ - -FIG. 99. A, B. PLANS FOR THE NIFTY WHEELBARROW, C. THE BARROW READY TO -WHEEL] - -You are now ready to _assemble_ the wheelbarrow and if you intend to -paint it you must do so before you put it together. To assemble it -smear glue on the ends of all the cross-sticks, except the one with the -wheel on it for this one must revolve, and drive on the handles, being -careful that the axle of the wheel does not bind. A side view of the -wheel barrow is shown at B. - -When it is done, see C, you will see that however high or low the -handle-bars are held the body always sets level and if it is a good -idea for a toy why wouldn’t it be a good idea for a full grown -wheelbarrow? - - -=How to Make a High-Low Swing.=--Here is a peace promoter and a -queller of disturbances wherever there are very little kiddies around. -It is an indoor swing that can be hung from the top of a door-case. -Further, though it may look a little complicated in the drawing, it is -simplicity itself. - -First take the seat and for this, as for all of the wood for the swing, -use ¹⁄₂ inch thick stuff. Cut out two side bars 1 inch wide and 13 -inches long and drill a ³⁄₈ inch hole in the end of each one. Across -these bars nail four cross bars 2 inches wide and 14 inches long as -shown at A in Fig. 100. - -Next make the sides of the swing and from each of these saw off two -strips 1 inch wide and 13 inches long as shown at B. Bore a hole in -each end of both sticks to match the holes in the side bars of the seat -and then bore two ¹⁄₂ inch holes in both sticks and have each hole 2¹⁄₂ -inches from the end. - -Saw off two strips of wood ¹⁄₂ inch thick and 1 inch wide for each -side, cut down and round the ends, smear glue on them and drive them -into the cross-sticks. The backs of the swing, as you will see at C, -are made exactly like the sides except that they are 14 inches long, -and finally a single bar 1 inch thick and wide and 14 inches long with -a ¹⁄₂ inch hole in each end goes across the front of the swing to keep -the little fellow from falling out. - -[Illustration: - - _=A=--THE SEAT_ - - _=B=--THE SIDES_ - - _=C=--FRONT BAR_ - -FIG. 100. PLANS FOR THE HIGH-LOW SWING] - -Now get two pieces of good ³⁄₈ inch thick manila rope about 10 feet -long; double each piece in the middle and pass one end through the -hole in the front bar, thence through two holes in the side-strips and -finally through the hole in the cross-bar of the seat and then knot it. - -This done pass the other end through the holes in the cross-strips of -the back, then through the holes in the cross-strips of the side and -last of all through the cross-bars of the seat. Fix the other piece of -rope the same way and swing is done, as shown at D. - -[Illustration: FIG. 100D. THE SWING READY TO SWING LOW, SWING HIGH] - -All you have to do now is to loop the top of the ropes over a couple of -hooks screwed into the top of the door-case, put the little tot in and -give him or her a swing. - - -=How to Make a Stick Horse.=--This is a great improvement over riding -a broomstick because it doesn’t take so much imagination to change it -into a runaway horse. - -Saw out of a board 5 inches square the head of a fiery steed as shown -at A in Fig. 101 and paint it a dapple-gray, with a mane on its neck to -look like a real pony. Make a rein of webbing and then nail the head on -a stick ³⁄₄ or 1 inch square and 3 feet long for the rider to straddle. - -[Illustration: - - THE HEAD OF THE HORSE - - THE STICK HORSE COMPLETE - -FIG. 101. RIDE A STICK HORSE TO BANBURY CROSS] - -Make an axle of a stick 1 inch square and 4 inches long; whittle the -ends down until they are ¹⁄₂ an inch in diameter and nail the axle to -the free end of the long stick. Saw out a pair of wheels of ³⁄₄ inch -thick stuff, 4 inches in diameter and bore a ¹⁄₂ inch hole through -their centers. - -Slip a wheel over each end of the axle and drive a thin nail through -each end to prevent the wheels from coming off, and it will be fit and -ready to ride as shown at B. - - -=How to Make a Pony and Cart.=--If this little pony and cart are to be -played with in the house you can make it the size marked in Fig. 102 -but if it is to be used out-of-doors then you should make it twice the -size. - -Get a nice smooth board ¹⁄₂ an inch thick, draw on it a horse, at least -as good as the one shown in the picture, and then saw it out. Paint it -any color but red or green, for ponies, even in little picture books, -are never of these colors. - -Make a frame 1⁵⁄₈ inches wide and 4 inches long by nailing two strips -of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch square with a block of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch square and -1 inch long between them. This leaves an opening ¹⁄₂ an inch wide and -1³⁄₄ inches long as shown at A. Saw out of a piece of ³⁄₈ inch thick -wood a wheel 1 inch in diameter and drill a ¹⁄₁₆ inch hole through its -center. Set the wheel in the opening and drive a wire nail through the -frame and the center of the wheel for it to run on. This done nail, -glue or screw the horse to it as shown at B. - -Make the cart next, see C, which is simply a box made of ¹⁄₄ or ³⁄₈ -inch stuff, 3 inches high, 4 inches wide and 6 inches long. Nail a -strip of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch square and 4¹⁄₈ inches long on the bottom and -in the middle of it. Saw out a pair of wheels 2⁵⁄₈ inches in diameter -and screw them to the ends of the strip of wood so that they can turn -freely. - -Next make the shafts; these are formed of two strips of wood ¹⁄₄ inch -thick and about 5¹⁄₂ inches long. Nail the ends of these to the front -end of the cart in the middle and at a distance apart so that the horse -will just slip in between them. - -[Illustration: - - _COMPLETE_ - - _FRAME FOR THE WHEEL_ - - _PONY_ - - _CART_ - -FIG. 102 A, B. PLANS FOR A PONY AND CART. C, D. THE PONY AND CART WHEN -DONE] - -Glue, or otherwise fasten the shafts to the horse, as shown at D, and -you can then show your little brother how to play with it, but don’t -break it before you give him a chance to play with it too. The finished -pony and cart will then look like the picture. - - -=How to Make a Life-like Goose.=--Nearly all geese, including goslings, -are lifelike unless they are being made ready for the pot but this -gray-goose is lifelike in that her head moves out from and back toward -her body when she is drawn over the floor by a string. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103. HOW THE LIFE-LIKE GOOSE IS MADE - - A. The size of the board for the body. - - B. The size of the board for the head and neck. - - C. The crank shaft which makes the goose life-like.] - -Get two pieces of thin wood ¹⁄₄ inch thick, 3¹⁄₂ inches wide and 6 -inches long; draw the outline of a goose’s body on one of them, as -shown at A in Fig. 103, and then fasten them together with a couple -of brads. Saw them out and drill a ¹⁄₁₆ inch hole through them in the -center of the circle which is the wheel; also drill, or bore, three -¹⁄₄ inch holes at the points near the edge of the body as shown by the -larger circles. - -On a board ¹⁄₄ inch thick, 2³⁄₈ inches wide and 5¹⁄₄ inches long draw -out the head and the neck of a goose, as shown at B, saw it out and -drill a ¹⁄₁₆ inch hole near the end of its neck. Now paint the bird’s -body and the _anterior_ part of its _anatomy_--by which I mean its head -and neck. Saw out two wooden wheels 2 inches in diameter and drill a -¹⁄₁₆ hole in the center of each one. - -Cut off a piece of iron wire ¹⁄₁₆ inch thick, slip it through the hole -in the goose’s neck and bend the wire on both sides of it to form a -crankshaft as shown at C. The next move is to put each end of the wire -through the small hole in the body, then force a wheel on each end of -the wire tight and bend up what is left of the latter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103C. GOOSIE, GOOSIE GANDER, WHERE SHALL I WANDER] - -Make three pins of wood ¹⁄₄ inch in diameter and ⁷⁄₈ inch long; smear -some glue on the ends and drive them gently through the holes; these -pins will keep the boards which form the body the right distance apart -and the pins in front also act as a guide for the goose’s head. When -finished it will look like C. Now when a string is tied to the front -part of the goose’s body and your little sister (or you) pulls it over -the floor, the goose will run its head to and fro and forth and back in -a most real and life-like fashion. - - -=How to Make a Dancing Sambo.=--Here is a chance for you to get in your -fine work with your scroll saw and to do a bit of wood carving at the -same time if you want to. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104A. THE DANCING SAMBO] - -Saw out, or carve out, or both, the head and body of a black rascal -named Sambo, and make them of a single piece of wood; saw out a pair of -arms and legs but make each one of the latter in two parts and joint -them at the knees as shown at A in Fig. 104. - -Fasten the arms and legs to the body with pins so that they will swing -freely. The figure should be about 6 inches high and painted in 3 or 4 -bright colors. When you have it done fix the end of a wire ¹⁄₁₆ inch in -diameter and 5 inches long, firmly into the back of Sambo’s body. - -Make a box 3 inches wide, 3 inches high and 6 inches long; bore or cut -a hole ³⁄₄ inch in diameter in one end; turn it upside down and drill -a ¹⁄₁₆ hole through the middle of the top and drill a ¹⁄₁₆ inch hole -through both sides 2 inches back from the large hole in it as shown at -B. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104B. THE MECHANISM OF THE DANCING SAMBO] - -Cut off a strip of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch square and as long as the box is -wide, drill a ¹⁄₁₆ inch hole through it and glue it inside the box so -that the hole in the strip and the one in the top of the box will be in -a line. - -Now cut off a strip of hardwood ¹⁄₄ inch thick and 3¹⁄₂ inches long -for the lever and drill a ¹⁄₁₆ inch hole through it 2 inches from one -end; slip the lever through the hole in the end of the box with its end -under the cross-bar; pivot the lever by running a wire through the hole -in it and the sides of the box as shown at B. - -Slip the wire which is fixed to Sambo through the hole in the top of -the box and on down through the hole in the cross-bar so that its free -end rests on the end of the lever. This is all there is to the working -mechanism of Sambo. - -By working the end of the lever with your fingers as though you were -sending a telegraph message, as shown at A, the small time Ethiopian -will execute all sorts of fancy dance steps and cut up antics that will -keep the children, and the grown-ups too, in great good humor for a -long time. - -By working the lever cleverly you can give the darkey distinctive -characteristics that not even a member of his own race ever possessed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105A. THE WIRELESS PUP. THE SLOT IN THE FLOOR OF -THE DOG HOUSE] - - -=How to Make a Wireless Pup.=--This is a most remarkable bull-pup for -he will jump out of the kennel when you or any one else calls him, when -you clap your hands or on any other occasion when a loud noise is made. - -Always make a dog-house for a pup before you catch him so that when he -gets home he’ll know he’s there. Use smooth ¹⁄₂ inch thick pine boards -for the house and cut out a piece 7 inches wide and 8 inches long for -the floor. Cut a slot clear through the board 1³⁄₄ inches from one end -and parallel with the edge of the back and have it ¹⁄₂ an inch wide and -1¹⁄₄ inches long; then on each end of the slot cut a groove ¹⁄₂ an inch -long and ¹⁄₄ inch deep as shown at A in Fig. 105. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105B. THE BACK END OF THE DOG HOUSE] - -Cut out two pieces for the sides of the house 4 inches wide and 8 -inches long and screw them to the floor. Now bevel off the top edges of -the sides with a plane to allow for the slope of the roof but before -you put it on you must install the wireless apparatus that makes the -pup jump out of the dog-house. Make a back out of a board 7 inches -square as shown at B. - -This apparatus consists of five chief parts and these are (1) a -_spanker_; (2) a _solenoid_; (3) a stiff piece of _clock-spring_; (4) a -_telephone transmitter_ and (5) two or three cells of _dry battery_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105C. THE SPANKER WITH ELECTRIC SOLENOID CONTROL] - -The spanker, so called because it spanks the pup out of his kennel, -is shown at C; it is simply a strip of wood ¹⁄₈ inch thick, 1 inch -wide and 3¹⁄₂ inches long. Tack, or otherwise fix, a piece of tin to -one side of it to form an electrical contact; cut a ³⁄₈ inch hole in -the middle of it and then drive a brad in each edge near one end. The -spanker sets in the slot in the floor and the brads rest in the grooves -and serve as pivots. - -A solenoid is merely an electromagnet with a loose iron core in it. -Make a cardboard spool 1¹⁄₄ inches long and 1¹⁄₂ inches in diameter and -have the hole in it ⁷⁄₁₆ inch in diameter; wind it full of No. 20 or 22 -double _cotton covered magnet wire_ and your solenoid is done. An iron -bolt ³⁄₈ inch in diameter and 1¹⁄₄ inches long makes a good plunger, as -the loose iron core is called. Slip it through the hole in the spanker -and screw the solenoid to the inside of the back of the house as shown -in the cross section drawing at D. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105D. CROSS SECTION SIDE VIEW OF THE WIRELESS PUP -READY FOR ACTION] - -Make a _contact plate_ of a strip of tin or sheet brass and screw this -to the floor back of the spanker so that when the plunger is drawn into -the solenoid and the spanker is back as far as it will go the plate -will come in contact with the tin on the spanker. Put a _stop_ in -front of the spanker to prevent the latter from falling too far forward. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105E. THE FRONT END VIEW OF THE WIRELESS PUP HOUSE] - -Next get a strong, stiff piece of clock-spring, punch two holes in -one end and screw it to the back of the house near the top, with the -free end of the spring pressing out the spanker. Fasten by means of -hangers, or otherwise, an ordinary telephone transmitter to the roof of -the house as shown at D. Now make the front of the house and cut 4 × 5 -opening in it for the pup to get in and out, and a hole 1¹⁄₂ inches in -diameter, as shown at E, so that when you put the front on, the hole -will be directly over the mouthpiece of the transmitter. - -Before putting on the front connect up the apparatus as shown at D, -that is, connect one of the wires of the transmitter to the contact -plate; join the other wire of the transmitter to the battery; lead one -of the wires of the solenoid to the tin on the spanker. When these -connections are made the _circuit_ will be complete if a battery is -connected in and the spanker is pushed back. Now put on the front of -the house and then make the pup. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105F. WHEN YOU CALL THE WIRELESS PUP OR CLAP YOUR -HANDS HE COMES OUT OF HIS DOG HOUSE IN A HURRY] - -Saw the body of the pup and his legs out of separate pieces of wood and -glue them together. He should be 2³⁄₄ inches high and 5 inches long -when done and he must slide easily on the floor. See F, Fig. 105. - -The action of the wireless pup is like this: You push the pup into the -house and back against the spanker as far as he will go; this presses -the spring back and at the same time makes connection with the contact -plate which closes the circuit. - -The current from the battery then flows through the solenoid and -transmitter and this magnetizes the iron plunger core and holds the -spanker back against the force of the spring. - -If now you call loudly, or clap your hands, the _carbon granules_ in -the transmitter will vibrate and this will suddenly weaken the current, -and, hence, the magnetism of the solenoid. The instant the magnetic -pull of the solenoid is weaker than the spring the latter will force -the spanker against the posterior end of the pup’s anatomy and boost -him out of his kennel. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -HOME MADE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS - - -There is music in everything if you only know how to get it out without -cracking it. When a small boy beats a pie-pan with a stick, or drums on -a wooden fence he is making music, only the neighbors won’t believe it. - -This is because he sets up the same note in succession and after a -while the constant repetition of this single note gets on a grown-up’s -nerves, especially if he is writing a book; hence he thinks the sounds -are _noise_ but it is really _music_ of a _bombastic[103] order_. - - [103] The gong, drum, bell, and cymbals all set up sound by - concussion and these are called _bombastic_ instruments. - -By this I mean that what we call _noise_ is sound set up by uneven _air -waves_[104] in time and volume while _music_ is made by a tone, or -tones, of even air waves. Any musical instrument that produces sound by -shock, or _concussion_ as it is called, is said to be bombastic. - - [104] For the theory of air waves and sound see _The Magic of - Science_ by the present author, published by Fleming H. Revell and - Co., New York. - -When a bombastic instrument is played alone the sounds set up by it -are not very sweet or musical but if you will use a set of eight -of them, or _octave_ as it is called, and _tune_ them so that the -_pitch_--which is the number of air waves that are produced and heard -in a second of time--of each one is a note higher than the one before -it and then make first one and the other _vibrate_ you will produce -pleasing tones, and by combining these tones properly you will have a -resemblance of what we call music. - - -=The Musical Coins.=--_How to Make Them._--A simple and very pleasing -way to show that there is music even in cold brass is to take a piece -of sheet brass, or, better, sheet steel, about ¹⁄₁₆ inch thick and -_scribe_ on it with a pair of compasses eight circles whose diameters -range from 2 inches to 3 inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106A. THE MUSICAL COIN] - -Saw them out and file them down so that each one will ring out a _whole -number_, as it is called in physics; that is, if the largest and -deepest toned coin, or disk, makes 250 vibrations a second, the next -one must make 500 vibrations a second, the next 750 and so on until the -smallest and highest pitched coin will make 2000 vibrations a second. - -When each coin rings out its whole number, or nearly so, you will have -what is known as a _harmonic series_. Now saw notches in the edges of -each one as shown at A in Fig. 106 and then file them until the tone of -each one is just right. - - -_How to Play Them._--To play a tune with the musical coins spin them on -the top of a table--a marble top table is the best--and as each coin -_dies down_[105] and its edge strikes progressively against the surface -of the table it will ring out in a clear, loud tone. - - [105] If you will look closely at the spinning coin you will see that - when it spins fast at first the _axis_ about which it rotates is its - diameter and that the coin stands upright. As the coin commences to - _die down_ the axis about which it spins gradually begins to shift - from the diameter to the center of the coin until finally at the - finish the coin is spinning directly about its center. This motion is - the same as the processional motion of the earth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106B. HOW TO HOLD THE MUSICAL COIN TO SPIN IT] - -The coins should be laid in a row on the table and whatever note you -want to ring out pick up the coin which will produce it, hold it as -shown at B, and give it a little spin. You can soon learn to spin them -with either hand and keep two or more of them going at the same time, -when you will have that agreeable combination of tones that is known in -music as _harmony_. - -The musical coins are easy to learn to play and at a little distance -off they look like real coins and are a very pleasing novelty. - - -=The Musical Tomato Cans.=--_How to Make Them._--The musical tomato -cans make a bombastic instrument--very bombastic I should say. Be that -as it may, get eight tomato cans, soak the labels off carefully and -keep them. Next melt off the tops of the cans and paste the labels on -them again. Set each can on a piece of felt as shown in Fig. 107. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107. THE CHOPIN TOMATO CAN] - -Now by pouring water in the cans you can tune them so that each one -will send forth a whole number note and all of them together will give -the notes in the regular order of an octave. You do not need to put any -water in the first can but use this one for the _fundamental_ note, -that is the note on which the _chord_ is formed. - -Make a couple of _mallets_, as the sticks to beat the cans with are -called, of a pair of sticks about as thick as a lead-pencil and twice -as long and glue a wooden ball ⁵⁄₈ inch in diameter on one end of each -one. - - -_To Play the Tomato Cans._--When you have tuned the cans set them in -a row on a piece of felt, or a couple of thicknesses of thick woolen -cloth will do, and with a mallet in each hand tap them softly. - -While some folks who have no ear for _melody_, _harmony_ and -_dissonance_[106] may say that both the instrument and the performer -ought to be _canned_ still the instrument is a great one to play -Chopin’s[107] funeral dirge[108] on. Undertakers are crazy about the -musical tomato cans. - - [106] These are the three chief factors that make up the various - combinations of tones which we call music. - - [107] Chopin (pronounced Sho′-pan) was a Polish musical composer. - - [108] A _dirge_ is a tune expressing grief and mourning. - - -=The Musical Glasses.=--_How to Make Them._--Different from the tomato -cans, the musical glasses make about the sweetest music ever heard. To -make a set get eight very thin glass goblets and mount them on a board -12 inches wide and 2 feet long. An easy way to do this is to fasten the -foot of each goblet down with a couple of thin strips of tin or brass -placed across it and screwing the ends of these to the board as shown -in Fig. 108. - -To tune the glasses pour water in them until each has exactly the right -pitch and together they form an octave. When you have learned to play -simple tunes on an octave of musical glasses you can build up the set -to 22 glasses or three octaves, which will give you enough notes to -play almost any of the popular airs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 108. THE MUSICAL GLASSES] - - -_How to Play the Glasses._--Before starting in to play moisten the rims -of the glasses and rub your fingers with water in which you have put -some vinegar, or better, a little _acetic acid_,[109] until they feel -quite rough. - - [109] This is the acid contained in vinegar that gives it its value. - -Now when you lay the tips of your fingers flat on the rim of a glass -and rub them around it, the friction between the skin of your roughened -fingers and the edge of the glass will set the latter into vibration -and a wonderfully sweet tone will be sent out. By varying the pressure -of your fingers on the glasses you can produce a very beautiful -_tremolo_ effect. - -It is a good scheme to put a few drops of acetic acid into each goblet -so that just as quickly as the volume of sound begins to fall off you -can dip your finger tips into whatever glass they are nearest to and so -increase the friction between them and the glass. - -If you can play a set of musical glasses well your services will be in -demand for all kinds of entertainments. - - -=The Tubular Harp.=--_How to Make It._--This easily made instrument -gives out tones very much like those of the musical glasses but they -are much deeper and louder. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109 A, B. THE HARP OF A THOUSAND THRILLS] - -To make this harp you will need 12 feet of ¹⁄₂ inch _bell-metal_[110] -tube--brass tube will do but it is not as good--and cut it into eight -pieces; saw off the first tube 2 feet long and cut off each of the -other pieces ¹⁄₂ an inch shorter than the one before it. Cylindrical -sticks of wood can also be used for the tubes. - - [110] Brass and bell metal tubing can be bought of the U. T. - Hungerford Brass & Copper Co., 89 Lafayette St., New York. - -Get two strips of wood 1 inch square and 3 feet long and screw them -together as shown at A in Fig. 109 with a couple of thumb screws; this -done bore eight ¹⁄₂ inch holes in the sticks every 4 inches apart and -smooth them out with a half-round file. - -Glue a strip of cloth on the side of each strip that is bored out, set -each tube with the middle in the groove so that they grow shorter in -steps and screw the strips together tight with the thumb screws to hold -the tubes in securely as shown at B. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109C. HOW TO PLAY THE HARP] - -To tune the tubes saw off and file off the end of each tube until it -gives forth the proper note. When you have tuned them make a stand to -hold the instrument and this can be of either wood, or metal tubing if -you want the harp to look nice and you don’t care about the expense. -The harp is shown complete at C. - - -_How to Play the Harp._--When you have made the stand get a pair of old -gloves and cut off the fingers; powder some rosin and rub it well into -the palms of the gloves. - -This done, put on the gloves, grip the top of the tube and draw your -hand slowly down toward the sounding board, as shown at C, and a -beautiful tone will be emitted. Not only does the tube vibrate to -make the sound but as it is hollow it acts as a _resonator_, that -is, the sound will set up _sympathetic_ vibrations in the tube which -will reënforce the simple vibrations of the tube both in strength and -quality. - -By waving your finger over the top of the tube while you are playing -it with the other hand a tremolo effect can be produced that is very -beautiful and if you are versatile you can make it sound almost like a -human voice. - - -=The Musical Push Pipe.=--_How to Make It._--This musical instrument -is an organ pipe but it is played like a _slide trombone_, that is by -pushing in and pulling out a slide that fits inside of it. - -Spruce is the best wood to make the organ pipe of but you can use any -other kind you have at hand. Saw off four strips of wood ¹⁄₄ inch thick -and 16 inches long and have two of them 3 inches wide and the other two -2¹⁄₂ inches wide, as shown in Fig. 110. Saw off one of the 3 inch wide -boards so that it will be 12¹⁄₄ inches long and plane down one end to -a sharp edge as shown at B. - -Take another board ¹⁄₂ an inch thick and make it 2¹⁄₂ inches high and 3 -inches wide as shown at D. Cut out a board for the end ¹⁄₄ inch thick, -2¹⁄₂ inches wide and 2¹⁄₂ inches long and bore a ¹⁄₂ inch hole in it as -shown at E. - -[Illustration: - - _THE PUSH_ - - _THE PIPE_ - - _BACK BOARD_ - - _TOP FRONT BOARD_ - - _LOWER FRONT BOARD_ - - _LIP_ - - _SIDE BOARDS_ - - _END_ - - _MOUTH PIECE_ - -FIG. 110. PARTS OF A MUSICAL PUSH PIPE] - -As you supply this pipe with air by blowing in it, take a common thread -spool and trim down one end of it as shown at F so that you can get it -into your mouth; then glue the large end over the hole in the bottom -board. Next glue the sides together to form a square tube and make and -glue into the lower end a three-cornered piece of wood 2 inches wide, -3 inches high and 2¹⁄₈ inches thick as shown at G. This will bring one -of its sharp edges just under and very close to the sharp edge of the -short side of the pipe. - -Glue the thick piece of wood shown at D to the lower end of the pipe so -that it leaves a ¹⁄₄ inch space between its top edge and the sharp edge -of the short side of the pipe. Finally glue the mouthpiece in the lower -end of the tube and this part of the push pipe is done. - -If now you will place your hand over the open top of the pipe and blow -through the mouthpiece, a soft note like that of a steamboat whistle -will issue from it. To play a tune on the pipe it must have a range of -an octave but if it will sound an octave and a half you can play many -of the popular airs on it. - -To do this fit the organ pipe with a _movable stop_, or _push_, which -slides in and out of the pipe. Make this push of two strips of ¹⁄₈ inch -thick wood, 2¹⁄₂ inches wide and 12 inches long; screw one end of each -of these boards to a block of wood the size of the top of the organ -pipe and screw a knob--the head of a clothespin will do--on it in the -center for a handle. The stop, or slide, will of course be open on two -sides and must slip snugly but easily in the pipe. - - -_To Play the Push Pipe._--If now you will blow through the mouthpiece -and slide the stop in and out various tones and semi-tones will be -produced. It takes very little practice to learn just where to stop -the slide to make a given note--that is if you are at all apt in -playing musical instruments. A push pipe[111] is just the thing for a -black-face musical act. - - [111] A push pipe can be bought for $4.00 of the L. E. Knott - Apparatus Co., Boston, Mass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 110J. HOW THE PUSH PIPE IS PLAYED] - - -=The Curious Xylophone.=--_How to Make It._--This instrument, which is -pronounced _zil-o-fon´_, is cheap to make or buy[112] and is easy to -learn to play. - - [112] Can be bought of any dealer in musical instruments or of the L. - E. Knott Co., Boston. - -To make one cut off fifteen bars of a stick of maple ¹⁄₂ an inch thick, -⁷⁄₈ inch wide and make the longest one 5 inches. To get the right -lengths of all the others you will have to saw them off a little at a -time and try them out for tone, because any variation in thickness will -make a difference in the length of them. Hence the above rule-of-thumb -method for determining the sizes of them. - -Drill a ¹⁄₁₆ inch hole through both ends of each bar and string them -on a wire to keep them in place. Make two rolls of straw ³⁄₄ inch in -diameter and 20 inches long; fix the ends of these rolls on a board as -shown in Fig. 111 and lay the maple bars on them when they are ready to -be played on. - - -_How to Play the Xylophone._--The xylophone is played with a pair of -hammers. To make the latter cut off two sticks ¹⁄₄ inch in diameter and -8 inches long; get or turn two wooden balls 1 inch in diameter; bore a -¹⁄₄ inch hole in each one and glue in one of the sticks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111. A XYLOPHONE. THE BARS ARE MADE OF WOOD] - -Take a hammer in each hand and hold it loosely; stand over the -xylophone so that the sticks of the hammers are parallel with and about -6 inches above the bars of the xylophone and with the ball ends in the -middle of the bar it is over. Now pound the bars for dear life and the -faster the tune the more musical it will sound. For this reason pieces -like the _Circus Life Gallop_ are especially adapted for the xylophone. - - -=The Peculiar Tubaphone.=--_How to Make It._--By using brass tubes, or -better, tubes made of bell metal, you can have a xylophone of another -order. Use tubing ³⁄₄ inch in diameter and have the first one 5 inches -long for the fundamental. - -Keep on sawing them off and filing them down until you have them all -done and all in tune. Make a wooden frame of ¹⁄₂ inch stuff and have -the bottom 2 inches wide at one end, 4 inches wide at the other end and -17 inches long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112. A TUBAPHONE. THE BARS ARE MADE OF METAL TUBES] - -Saw off two strips of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch thick, 1 inch wide and 17 inches -long. Bore fifteen ³⁄₄ inch holes 1 inch apart measured from their -centers in them; glue a strip of felt or thick cloth to the wood in -each one and slip the tubes in the felt lined holes as shown in Fig. -112. - - -_How to Play the Tubaphone._--To play this peculiar instrument use a -couple of felt covered mallets; these can be made by winding a little -ball of string around one end of each stick which should be about ¹⁄₄ -inch in diameter and 8 inches long, and then covering it with felt. -Beat the tubes with the felt mallets in exactly the same way you do -when you play the xylophone. - - -=The Cathedral Chimes.=--_How to Make Them._--This is one of the -easiest musical instruments to make and the music produced by it is -impressive in its tone and depth. - -To make it saw off a board, ³⁄₄ or ⁷⁄₈ inch thick, about 12 inches wide -and 22 inches long and screw a block 1 inch square to each corner for -it to rest on. Get eight _binding posts_[113] of the size shown at A in -Fig. 113; drill eight ¹⁄₈ inch holes in the board, 4 in a row with the -holes 5 inches apart and have the rows also 5 inches apart, and then -screw a binding post into each hole. - - [113] These can be bought of the Manhattan Electrical Supply Co., - Park Place, New York City. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113. THE CATHEDRAL CHIMES - - A. A full sized binding post. - - B. The chimes on the sounding board.] - -Make eight spirals of No. 14 spring brass, steel or, better, -_phosphor-bronze_[114] wire; you can do this by cutting off eight -pieces of the wire each of which is 20 inches long. Draw a spiral on -a sheet of paper as described in Chapter V so that the inside turn of -wire is about ³⁄₄ inch in diameter, the outside turn about 3¹⁄₂ inches -in diameter and each turn of wire will be separated from the other by a -space of ¹⁄₄ inch as shown at B. - - [114] Get it of the U. T. Hungerford Brass and Copper Co., Hungerford - Building, New York. - -With your round nose pliers bend each length of wire like the pattern -you drew on the paper. When you have made the spirals screw the inside -end of each wire in the binding post and your cathedral chimes are done -all except the tuning of them. - -Let the first spiral of the upper left hand side give the fundamental -tone and tune the others to it by cutting off the free ends of the -wires until they are all tuned in unison. Make a couple of wood mallets -and cover the ends with leather or rawhide. - - -_How to Play the Cathedral Chimes._--Strike the inside turn of wire up -close to the end that is fastened to the binding post, and a tone will -issue from the spiral that is long, deep and loud, for the wire with -its free end forms a very perfect vibrating body. - - -=The Æolian Harp.=--_How to Make It._--This harp is of very ancient -origin and it gets its name from _Æolus_ who, in classic mythology, was -the father of the winds, and very appropriately is it named, too, for -it is the wind that plays it. - -Make a box of ¹⁄₂ inch thick wood, 2 inches deep, 5 inches wide and 3 -feet long; use clear pine, or deal will do, for the sides of it but -the ends should be of beech to hold the _tuning pins_ and the _hitch -pins_. Cut a _sound hole_ 3 inches in diameter near both ends of the -board which is to be used for the top; then glue the box together and -screw up the ends with your wood clamps to hold it together tight while -it is drying. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114. THE HARP OF AEOLUS] - -When it is thoroughly dry, drill a dozen ¹⁄₄ inch peg holes ³⁄₄ inch -deep in one end, six in a row as shown at A in Fig. 114. Make a dozen -pegs to fit the holes and these should have _wings_ on them as shown -at B like violin pegs. Each peg should be about 1¹⁄₂ inches long and -each one should have a ¹⁄₃₂ inch hole drilled near the top of the shank -for the end of the string to pass through. The hitch pins can be brass -brads driven into the other end of the box and in a line with the -holes, all of which is shown at A. - -Make two _bridges_ of hard wood ¹⁄₈ inch thick; have each one 1 inch -high and 5 inches wide and with 12 notches cut in one side. Now get -a dozen catgut strings of different thicknesses and put them on the -sounding board; to do this twist a loop on the end of each one; thread -the other end through the hole in the peg and tighten it up a little. - -When you have all of the strings in place set a bridge under each end -and then tune the strings in unison, but don’t stretch the strings on -very tight or the wind won’t make them vibrate. This done, cut out -another ¹⁄₂ inch thick pine board and glue a block ¹⁄₂ inch square and -1¹⁄₂ inches long to each corner and set it on top of the harp. The -purpose of this cover is to make the wind blow with as much force as -possible over the strings. - - -_How the Wind Plays It._--To the end that old Æolus may play the harp -to the best of his ability set it on the sill of an open window so that -the wind strikes the strings at a slant. Pull the window down on the -harp in order to make all of the wind pass between the cover and the -strings. - -When the wind blows softly beautiful tones will be emitted and when -the wind blows hard discords will be produced but as the wind subsides -exquisite harmonies will again prevail. - - -=An Egyptian Fiddle.=--_How to Make It._--The early Egyptians invented -the fiddle, or _rebab_ as they called it, but they did not play it with -a bow. Later in _medieval_ times, that is in about the 9th century, -this fiddle came to be called a _rebec_ and it was then played with a -bow. I’ll bet though that the fiddle I shall tell you how to make and -play sounds better than any Egyptian rebab ever made--though it is not -exactly a _Stradivarius_.[115] - - [115] The priceless fiddles made by the famous old violin maker - Antonio Stradivari of Cremona, Italy, in the early part of the 17th - century. - -To make a fiddle of this kind--it only has one string and only one is -needed by a master violinist--make a sounding box of ¹⁄₈ or ³⁄₁₆ inch -thick wood except the ends which should be of ³⁄₈ inch thick stuff; -this box should be 4 inches high, 6 inches wide at one end, 8 inches -wide at the other end and 12 inches long. Cut a hole 6 inches in -diameter in the center of the board which you are going to use for the -_sounding board_, and then glue all of the pieces together using wood -clamps to hold them tight. - -For the neck take a stick of wood 1¹⁄₂ inches wide, 2¹⁄₂ inches thick -and 15 inches long; cut it down until one end is 1 inch thick and cut -a piece out of this end ³⁄₄ inch wide and 1 inch deep; bore a conical -hole through this end and fit in a peg. Next saw out the other end 2 -inches deep for a length of 3 inches back and glue and screw this end -of the neck to the narrow end of the box. The shape of the neck with -the peg in it and the way it is fixed to the sounding box is clearly -shown in the top view A and the side view B in Fig. 115. - -Cut out a _bridge_ of a piece of hard wood ¹⁄₈ inch thick, 1 inch high -and 1¹⁄₂ inches long as shown at C; and, finally, make a _tail-piece_ -of a bit of hard wood ¹⁄₈ inch thick ¹⁄₂ an inch wide at one end, 1 -inch wide at the other end and 2 inches long. Drill a hole in each end -and whittle or plane the large end to a sharp edge. - -In the middle of the large end of the sounding box bore a ¹⁄₄ inch hole -and glue in a hard wood peg for a _hitch-pin_. Fasten the tail-piece -to the hitch-pin with a piece of catgut string. Slip the end of an A -violin string through the hole in the sharp end of the tail-piece; -knot it to keep it from pulling through, and bring the other end up -and thread it through the hole in the peg in the neck. Finally put the -bridge under the string and tighten it up. Tune it to the treble, or G -_clef_, if you know enough about music to do it, or if not tune it so -that it gives a pleasing tone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115. PLANS FOR AN EGYPTIAN FIDDLE] - - -_How to Make the Bow._--The best kind of wood to make a violin bow of -is Brazilian lance-wood or of snake-wood, but for this one stringed -fiddle of yours you can use a piece of beech. - -Take a strip of wood ¹⁄₂ an inch thick, 1 inch wide and 24 inches long -and saw it out as shown at D; then round up the stick and sandpaper -it smooth. Cut out two blocks to fit the ends, or _frogs_ as they are -called: drill a hole in each one and screw it to the bow but not very -tight. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115D. HOW THE BOW IS MADE] - -Now comes the hard part and that is putting on the hairs; get 50 or 60 -white horsehairs about 2 feet long; I do not advise pulling them out of -_Dobbin’s_ tail but rather to buy a bunch of them from Sears, Roebuck, -and Co., Chicago, Ill., for 10 or 20 cents. - -Having got them somehow put one end of each one under one of the blocks -and when you have them all even and close together screw the block down -tight; this done fasten the other ends of the hairs under the opposite -block, and when you have them all drawn taut screw down the block and -put a little glue on the places where they go under the blocks. - -If you will look at a horsehair through a microscope you will see that -it seems very like the scroll saw blade I told you about in the second -chapter, that is, it has a lot of fine teeth on it and all of them run -the same way. By rights then half of the hairs ought to be put on the -bow with the teeth running in one direction and the other half with the -teeth running in the other direction so that the friction of the hairs -is the same on the string on the up and the down strokes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115E. HOW THE FIDDLE IS PLAYED] - -Do not use much rosin on the bow but rosin it often. You can buy a -piece of regular violin bow rosin for 5 cents but the kind that gives -the best results is the genuine _Bernardel_ imported from France and -which costs about a quarter. It bites hard on the string and makes a -large volume of sound. The way the fiddle is played is shown at E. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -SOME EVENING ENTERTAINMENTS - - -There is a feature of home life that the heads of too many families -overlook and that is getting together and having an evening of -entertainment which the youngest as well as the oldest member can enjoy. - -This is not at all a hard thing to do but as it takes time to get the -_props_ together to give it with--which neither your father or mother -can well spare even if they had the inclination--it is up to you as the -boy of the family to see that it is done. - -It is a noble plan to give a _divertisement_, or _soirée_[116] -(pronounced _swa´re_) as the old time magicians used to call it, once -every month and you will find after you have given the first one that -all of your folks will look forward to the coming of the next one with -interest and with pleasure. - - [116] This is a French word and it means an evening social gathering. - -Moreover, you should let them know what the next divertisement is to -be a couple of weeks before it comes off and then let all hands join -in and talk about it whenever the spirit moves them. Naturally since -you know all about it and they don’t know anything about it, questions -will be in order and you are the one who will have to answer them; -and don’t try to make a secret of anything you have done or are going -to do unless it is magic or some allied subject of mystery. After the -divertisement is over it will furnish food for conversation for a long -time to come. - -Now while I have used the words _entertainment_ and _divertisement_, -both of which mean about the same thing and that is amusement, and -while you should always strive to make your talks as light and -recreational as you can you do not need to stick to frothy subjects -altogether but instead you should alternate them with scientific -demonstrations. In this way you will not only please and develop good -fellowship in the family, but you will instruct the members of it at -the same time. - -Finally, don’t make your divertisements too long. Better by all means -make each one only 15 or 20 minutes long and have everybody in high -good humor and saying that it was all too short, than to give them an -hour and have everybody gappy and bored half-to-death. - - -=Cartoons While You Wait.=--This is a good feature to start off your -season’s divertisements with. Make a substantial _easel_ on which to -set a large drawing board as shown in Fig. 116, or you can fasten the -paper to a wall with thumb tacks if you live in a home and not in a -residence. - -Get a dozen sheets of good white print paper--you can buy a quire (24 -sheets) 24 × 36 inches for 25 cents--and tack ¹⁄₂ a dozen sheets to -your drawing board or the wall. Also buy a stick of black _marking -crayon_,[117] which is better than chalk or charcoal for it makes a -heavy black line that will not smut, blur or rub off. - - [117] You can buy a marking crayon at a hardware or stationery store. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116. HOW AN EASEL IS MADE] - - -_Drawing the Cartoons._--Start in with your crayon in hand and explain -that what you propose to do is to show the principles upon which -free-hand drawing is based. Then make a simple line drawing of the -boxer reaching for the _maxillary_ of his invisible opponent as shown -in Fig. 42, over in the chapter called _Drawing Simply Explained_, and -then draw the horse galloping home on the three-quarter stretch. - -Next draw around these simple line figures, which are really the -skeletons of the man and beast, the outlines as shown in Fig. 43. If -you are not expert in free hand drawing you can trace these figures -on the paper in faint lines with a lead-pencil before you begin your -performance, and then all you have to do is to mark over the lines with -the crayon. - -After you have made these drawings and explained all about them tear -off the sheet and on the clean one draw the outline of a man as shown -in Fig. 44 and mark on the proportions of the human body. Have your -next sheet ruled off into squares with the lines 2 inches apart; draw -in the face and at the same time explain that this makes it easy for -any one to get the features in proportion. - -Now comes the grand _finale_[118] (pronounced _fi-na´-le_) and that is -your _cartoons_.[119] You should practice drawing these and also have -some _patter_[120] about each one so that when you do them for the -family audience your tongue will be as clever as your fingers. You can -begin by explaining how the expressions of one’s face--that is the way -the features look when the mind is at rest or is excited--can all be -represented by a few very simple lines. - - [118] The last part of an exhibition and it is generally the climax - of it. - - [119] A cartoon is usually a caricature of a person or thing done in - sketchy style. The word comes from the French _carton_, which means - pasteboard. - - [120] Witty or amusing talk to help along the act. - -Draw eight circles 5 or 6 inches in diameter in a double row on the -paper with your marking crayon as shown at A in Fig. 117. Now you say -first that _sleep_ can be represented by four straight horizontal lines -and you draw them as shown in the first circle. Next draw four vertical -lines in the second circle and before you can say _awake_ your little -audience will see it and laugh its approval. - -[Illustration: - - _FAST ASLEEP_ - - _WIDE AWAKE_ - - _SOME JOY_ - - _MORE SORROW_ - - _QUITE MODEST_ - - _MUCH DISDAIN_ - - _SOMEWHAT SURPRISED_ - - _A LITTLE ANGRY_ - - =_A_= - -FIG. 117A. FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CARTOONING] - - -_Joy_ is represented by four little _arcs_, or curved lines with the -ends of each pointing up, which you draw in the third circle, while -_sorrow_ is, of course, shown by four curved lines the ends of which -point down as in the fourth circle, since the emotion of sorrow is the -opposite to that of joy. - -Show how _modesty_ is depicted by drawing four little angles in -the fifth circle with the _vertex_, or point of each one at the -bottom, while _disdain_, which is the _reciprocal_ of modesty, can -be illustrated in the sixth circle by reversing the positions of the -angles and having their _vertices_ at the top. - -To portray _surprise_ all you have to do is to draw four little -circles inside the seventh large circle and you will have caught the -expression. Finally in the eighth circle draw two slanting lines for -the eyes, a vertical line for the nose and an angle with the ends of -the lines pointed down and you will have a very good representation of -_anger_, (or maybe it’s a Chinaman.) - -[Illustration: - - _BY DE LIGHT OF DE SILVERY MOON_ - - _PAT AND HIS POIPE_ - - _HE HAS JUST HEARD A JOKE_ - - _=B=_ - - _=C=_ - - _=D=_ - -FIG. 117 B, C, D. THREE SIMPLE CARTOONS THAT YOU CAN DO] - - * * * * * - -Now without my telling you how to draw the cartoons shown at B C and -D in Fig. 117, draw each one of them half a dozen times on a sheet of -paper with your marking crayon and when you get before your audience -you will be able to do them like a lightning crayon artist. - - -=Thirty Minutes of Chemistry.=--Here are some very pretty and easily -made experiments in chemistry and as you perform them you can give -the explanation I have written about each one which will serve as the -_patter_. - - -=The Mystic Glass of Milk.=--_The Effect._--You show a glass of -perfectly clean water and blow through it with a glass tube, clay pipe -or a straw when it becomes to all intents, though not to all purposes, -milk of the cow variety. See Fig. 118. - -[Illustration: - - _BEFORE BLOWING THROUGH STRAW_ - - _AFTER BLOWING THROUGH STRAW_ - -FIG. 118. THE ORACLE OF AMOR, OR ARE YOU IN LOVE?] - - -_The Cause._--To perform this chemical trick get 50 grams of good -_quicklime_ and powder it in a pint milk bottle. Let it stand for 24 -hours and shake it every once in a while. Let it stand another 24 -hours and then pour off the clear solution, which is called _lime -water_[121] and this is the common name of _mystic milk_. - - [121] You can buy it in a drug store all ready to use. - - -_The Chemical Action._--In the first place the lime in the water is -_calcium hydroxide_ and when you blow through the lime water the -_carbon dioxide_ in your breath acts on the _calcium hydroxide_ and -forms a white _insoluble_ powder commonly known as _limestone_. - -Since the calcium carbonate does not dissolve in the water it remains -suspended in the solution and this gives it an _opalescent_ hue that -doth verily look like the _lactic fluid_ which is white but woe unto -the milkman who sells it as such. - - -_For the Fun of the Thing._--By pretending you can tell which boys and -which girls are in love hand around several glasses of ordinary water -and as many of clear lime water. You must see to it, of course, that -those whom you want to make believe are in love are given the lime -water; then have everybody blow and it is a sure sign that those who -change the water into milk are in love. - - -=The Magic Fountain.=--_The Effect._--You show an empty bottle, or -Florence flask, and then push a cork with two holes in it into the -mouth of the bottle. Next push a glass tube having a nozzle on one end -through one of the holes in the cork until the nozzle nearly touches -the bottom of the bottle. - -Through the other hole in the cork push a _medicine dropper_, or -fountain pen filler. The end of the long tube projects down into a -bowl containing water which you have colored blue[122] either with -indigo or with _copper sulphate_ or you can make a beautiful violet by -dissolving in it a little _potassium permanganate_. The arrangement of -the apparatus is shown at A in Fig. 119. - - [122] Any kind of colored water will do for this experiment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119A. THE MYSTIC FOUNTAIN] - -Now when you squeeze the bulb of the medicine dropper the colored water -rushes up the tube and squirts out of the nozzle into a pretty fountain -until the flask is nearly full. - - -_The Cause._--Instead of the bottle being empty as it looks to be, you -have previously filled it with _hydrogen chloride gas_ of which 500 -volumes will dissolve in 1 volume of water. - -The medicine dropper is filled with water and when you squeezed it a -few drops of water is forced into the bottle and dissolves a large -part of the gas that is in it. This leaves a _vacuum_ when, of course, -the atmospheric pressure on the colored water in the bowl forces it up -through the nozzle to fill the vacuum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119B. MAKING HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS] - -This water dissolves the rest of the gas in the flask and more water is -forced up until the bottle is nearly full of it, all of which produces -a very mysterious and at the same time a mighty pretty effect. - - -_How to Make Hydrogen Chloride Gas._--To make this gas take another -bottle and fit a two hole stopper into it; in one hole put a funnel and -in the other an L tube as shown at B 119. - -In the bottom of the bottle put ¹⁄₃ of a cup of common table salt; -put a straight tube down into the Florence flask you want to fill and -connect this tube and the L tube with a piece of rubber tube as is also -shown at B. - -The apparatus set up, pour sulphuric acid down the funnel, a very -little at a time until the salt is all gone and then fit the cork with -the long nozzle tube and the medicine dropper in it, into the mouth of -the bottle filled with the hydrogen chloride gas. - - -=The Vicious Soap Bubbles.=--_The Effect._--Show a dish of soap-suds -and then blow bubbles with the apparatus described below. - -When the bubbles take on a size of about 3 inches in diameter shake -them off and they will rise slowly and gracefully in the air. Before -they get out of reach touch them with a long lighted taper and they -will explode viciously with a sharp report like that made by a revolver. - - -_The Cause._--The bubbles are filled with a mixture of hydrogen gas and -oxygen gas and when these two gases are _simply mixed_ they form a very -explosive compound which is called _detonating gas_. - -When the flame is brought close enough to the bubble it fires the gases -in it, and they explode and _combine chemically_ to form _water_. The -apparatus necessary to do this experiment with is shown in Fig. 120. - -It consists of (1) a hydrogen gas generator and (2) an oxygen gas -generator. - -The hydrogen bottle or flask is fitted with a two hole stopper through -which runs a glass funnel and an L tube just as described in the -fountain experiment and shown at B in Fig. 119. Connected to the L tube -is a length of rubber tubing into the other end of which another L tube -is fitted. - -The oxygen bottle or flask is fitted with a single hole stopper which -has an L tube running through it as shown at B in Fig. 119. Connected -to the L tube is fixed another length of rubber tubing and in the free -end of this is fixed another and shorter L tube. Now place the two -short L tubes side by side and cement them together with sealing wax. -A long length of rubber tube is forced on over the ends of the double -tube and, finally, a clay pipe is fitted into the free end of the -rubber tube, all of which is shown in Fig. 120. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120. THE VICIOUS SOAP BUBBLES] - -Set the bottles or flasks as far apart as possible and in the hydrogen -bottle put a handful of _granulated zinc_. Dilute _hydrochloric -acid_[123] is poured down the funnel on the zinc when _hydrogen_ will -be set free, or _generated_ as it is called. - - [123] If you want to buy dilute hydrochloric acid ask for _normal - hydrochloric_ acid. - -Put a small handful of a mixture of 2 parts of _potassium chlorate_ and -1 part of _manganese dioxide_, finely powdered, in the oxygen bottle -and then set a Bunsen burner under it when it will give off _oxygen_. -When the two gases leave the short L tubes they mix in the long rubber -tube and by the time they reach the clay pipe you will have detonating -gas all right. - - -_Caution._--Do not bring a flame anywhere near the apparatus and as a -further precaution wrap a thick towel around the hydrogen flask. - -The bubbles that are blown rise in the air because both the hydrogen -and the oxygen are lighter than the air. - - -=The Uncanny Wheel.=--_The Effect._--A pitcher is shown full of -emptiness and then a cardboard wheel, 4 inches in diameter, with -buckets, or cones 1 inch high and ³⁄₄ inch across glued to the rim and -which is mounted on a wire so that it can be revolved, is passed for -examination. - -Placing the wheel on the table you hold the empty pitcher above it and -pour out _nothing_ on it when the wheel will turn round just as though -you were pouring water on it. It is indeed uncanny. The idea is shown -at A in Fig. 121. - - -_The Cause._--But it is all canny enough when you know how it is done. -While the pitcher is apparently empty you have, forsooth, previously -filled it with a gas called _carbon dioxide_. This gas is 1¹⁄₂ times as -heavy as air. - -The cardboard wheel does not move in the air because the latter pushes -on all parts of it equally. When, however, you pour the carbon dioxide -gas on it from the pitcher, since it (the gas) is heavier than the air -it fills the little buckets and makes them heavier just as surely as if -you poured water on them; and hence the wheel revolves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 121. THE UNCANNY WHEEL] - - -_How to Make Carbon Dioxide Gas._--Take a perfectly dry bottle or flask -of the kind shown in the _fountain experiment_; fit it with a single -hole stopper and push a glass tube through it until it nearly touches -the bottom as pictured at B. - -Set the bottle at a slant and put a mixture in it of equal amounts of -_powdered copper oxide_ (that is _cupric oxide_) and _wood charcoal_. -Heat this mixture over a Bunsen burner until it glows and for a few -minutes longer; the bottle will then be full of the carbon dioxide gas. - -Pour it into a glass pitcher and put a sheet of glass over it to -keep the air away from it until you are ready to perform the uncanny -experiment. - - -=Giving a Travelogue.=--A travelogue is simply a talk on travel, or on -a country, illustrated with pictures of some kind. - -To be able to give a travel talk does not mean necessarily that you -must have traveled or been in the country you are going to tell about -but if you have done neither, it does mean that you must read up on it. - -To do this get several good books on whatever country you intend to -talk on, read them carefully, and then outline a route just as though -you had gone over it yourself, but this must of course conform to the -pictures you can get. - -Now there are four methods you can follow to show a series of pictures -and you can make your choice according to the amount of money you want -to invest in it. - -(1) The first and least expensive way is to cut a dozen or twenty -pictures out of magazines, arrange them according to your route and -build up your talk around them. As you describe each place pass the -pictures, which should be mounted on cardboard, in turn to each person -present. - -(2) A better way is to get a set of stereographs of the trip or the -country you are to talk on and a _stereoscope_[124] and pass the -picture showing the view and the instrument to each person present. - - [124] A stereoscope and the stereograms can be bought from Underwood - and Underwood, 417 Fifth Ave., New York, or Sears, Roebuck and Co., - Chicago, Ill. - -Each _stereograph_, as the picture is called, is formed of two pictures -of the same scene made from slightly different viewpoints and when the -observer looks through the lenses at them they blend into one image -when the scene stands out wonderfully clear and apparently in three -dimensions. The only drawback of the stereoscope as an aid to a travel -talk is that only one person can look at a picture at a time. - -(3) A far better plan than either of the above schemes is to make a -_reflectoscope_[125] as described in the chapter called _Some Kinks in -Photography_. You can show any kind of a picture in a reflectoscope if -it is not larger than 3×5 inches but picture postcards are especially -good to use for a travelogue or a talk of any kind and they show up -nicely when thrown on a screen with a reflectoscope. - - [125] You can buy one of the Bausch and Lomb Optical Company, - Rochester, New York, and you can get post-card views for it of the - Post-Card Store, 946 Broadway, New York. - -(4) Finally either make, or better, if you can afford it, buy, a magic -lantern[126] that will take the regular full size lantern slides, -namely, 3¹⁄₄ × 4¹⁄₄ inches square. Sets of lantern slides[127] for -travelogues or talks on any subject can be rented cheaply and in these -days of cheap electricity you can throw a picture on the screen so big -and bright and real that your offering is bound to be a success. - - [126] For magic lanterns and slides address the Charles Beseler Co., - 131 East 23rd Street, New York. - - [127] Sets of lantern slides can be rented of the Charles Beseler - Co., 131 East 23rd Street, New York City. - - -=An Electrical Soirée.=--Experiments in electricity are always -interesting to all however young or old, for of all the powers that -have been harnessed by man it is the least tangible and yet the effects -produced by it are the most spectacular. - -Now there are some very extraordinary effects that you can show with -_static electricity_[128] which do not require apparatus of any kind -as you will presently see, but if you will make or buy a ¹⁄₂ inch -_induction coil_[129] you can perform a series of classic experiments -that will create a profound and lasting impression on all who see them. - - [128] Many experiments with static electricity will be found in - _The Book of Electricity_ by the present author and published by D. - Appleton and Co. - - [129] Complete instructions for making an induction coil will also be - found in _The Book of Electricity_. - - -=Demonstrating Electricity Without Apparatus.=--Did you ever rub a cat -in a dark room in the winter and see the sparks fly? Well this is one -way to make electricity without apparatus though you need a cat[130] to -do it with. - - [130] A cat is not apparatus but only a kitten _growed_ up. - - -_The Electrified Papers._--But you can make a lot of electricity -by simply rubbing a newspaper if you know how to rub it and it is -perfectly dry.[131] - - [131] Winter is the best time to do experiments in static electricity. - -[Illustration: - - _=A=--ELECTRIFYING A STRIP OF NEWSPAPER_ - - _=B=--ELECTRIC ATTRACTION_ - -FIG. 122. THE ELECTRIFIED PAPER] - -Tear off a strip of newspaper, lay it flat on a table and rub it with -your _finger nails_ as shown at A in Fig. 122. When you try to take -the paper from the table you will find that it sticks to it quite -tenaciously. This is because you have _positively_ electrified the -paper when you rubbed it and the surface of the table under it is -_negatively_ electrified by _induction_.[132] Now since positive and -negative electricity attract each other, the paper and the table are -pulled together. - - [132] The theory of induction is simply explained in _The Book of - Electricity_ by the present author. - - -_How to Electrify a Person._[133]--This is an experiment that will make -your gathering giggle just as school girls giggle when they have their -tintypes taken--that is without any real reason except that the idea -strikes their mental funny bones. - - [133] Since the paper is _positively_ electrified the person must be - _negatively_ electrified. - -To perform this experiment electrify a strip of newspaper as above -and then hold it close to some one’s face; instantly there will be a -_mutual attraction_ between them and the paper will be drawn to and -stick to his or her cheek. Put an electrified paper on the cheek of -each person present as shown at B and tell them they belong to the same -club. This will get a laugh but it will not lessen their interest in -the experiment in the least. - - -_How Like Repels Like._--Electrify two strips of newspaper this time -and hold them together by the ends. Instantly the free ends of the -papers will fly apart for like _signs_ of electricity repel each other. - -That is, since both strips of paper are _positively electrified_ and -hence are of like signs, they repel each other. If they were negatively -electrified they would repel each other just the same. In either case -it shows that there is a force acting across the space between the two -strips of paper. - - -=Making Experiments With Apparatus.=--With a dry battery of two -or three cells, an electric bell, a common steel magnet and an -electromagnet, all of which you can easily make or buy[134] for a -dollar or so, you can provide entertainment enough for ¹⁄₂ an hour’s -demonstration, and food for thought to last a year. - - [134] The L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., Boston, Mass., and The Manhattan - Electric Co., Park Row, New York, sell all these things. - - -_The Induction, or Spark Coil._--An induction coil is an apparatus for -changing a _direct low pressure_, but _large quantity_ current from -a battery into an _alternating high pressure_ but _small quantity_ -current, which is called _high tension_, or _high potential_, -electricity. - -With an induction coil you can make any number of wonderful experiments -such as miniature streaks of lightning, lighting up Geissler tubes, -which produce brilliant and beautiful colors showing the electric -discharge in gases, etc., etc. By fixing these tubes to a small -electric motor[135] so that they can be revolved while the high tension -current is passing through them, the effects are further heightened. - - [135] A small electric motor can be bought for $1.00 of any dealer in - electrical supplies or of the Manhattan Electrical Supply Co., Park - Row, New York. - - -_Demonstrating Wireless Telegraphy._--All you have to do to make your -induction coil into a _wireless transmitter_, that is, the sending -apparatus, is to put a couple of brass balls on the points of the -_spark-gap_, fasten a wire to one of them and the other end to a nail -in the wall near the ceiling and then connect the other one with a wire -which ends in a small sheet of brass or copper that rests on the floor -as shown at A in Fig. 123. - -To make a receiver that will tap out the signals you send on your -transmitter, you will need (a) a _coherer_, (b) a _relay_, (c) an -_electric bell_ and (d) a _dry cell_. You can make the coherer but the -other three pieces of the apparatus you had better buy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123. A SIMPLE WIRELESS DEMONSTRATION SET] - -For the coherer cut off a piece of brass rod ¹⁄₈ inch in diameter and -1¹⁄₄ inches long, file the ends off even and slip them through the -holes in the binding post. Put a pinch of nickel and silver _filings_ -into a piece of glass tubing about an inch long and push the ends of -the rod into the tube with the filings between them. - -Screw the rods into a couple of binding posts set 2 inches apart on a -block as shown at B and your coherer is done. - -Connect up the coherer, relay, tapper and dry cell on a board as shown -in the wiring diagram at C; fasten a wire to one of the rods of the -coherer and to a nail near the ceiling; fix a wire to the other coherer -rod and to a small sheet of brass or copper which rests on the floor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123B. CROSS SECTION OF THE COHERER SHOWING ITS -CONSTRUCTION] - -Now when you press the key or button of the sender, which is on one -side of the room, the bell of the receiver, which is on the opposite -side of the room, will ring out a signal. The fact that there are no -wires connecting the sender with the receiver will create much wonder. - -The theory of wireless telegraphy is rather deep but you will find it -simply explained in my _Book of Wireless_ published by D. Appleton and -Co., New York City. - - -=Reading Palms for Fun.=--Many years ago when P. T. Barnum was -exhibiting a sacred white elephant, which was nothing more nor less -than a small Indian elephant covered with whitewash, and the good folks -were breaking their necks to pay their hard-earned coin to see it, the -great showman remarked that “the American people love to be humbugged.” -And they do. Now _palmistry_ is a kind of mild humbuggery on a small -scale and for an evening of fun and _bunkum-squint_ you can’t find -anything to beat it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124A. THE PARTS OF THE HAND NAMED ACCORDING TO -SCIENCE] - -First of all there are three words that are constantly used in the art -which you must know how to pronounce correctly or you will surely show -your ignorance. The first is _palm_, pronounced _pom_; the second is -_palmist_, pronounced _pol´-mist_, and the third is _palmistry_, which -is pronounced _pol´-mis-try_; now be sure to say them right. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124B. THE PARTS OF THE HAND NAMED ACCORDING TO -PALMISTRY] - -While nearly every one believes in palmistry there is nothing in it -in-so-far as it is possible to read a person’s character or to divine -one’s future by means of it; but there are some things you can tell -from the hand you are reading and these are if its owner is or is not -in good health and whether the brain that goes with it is mechanically -inclined or is of an artistic temperament. - -Further you can gather--not from the hand but from the face, stature, -carriage, and mannerisms of the boy or girl or the man or woman -whose hand you are supposed to be reading--a good deal about his or -her temper and temperament and also about her or his foibles and -peculiarities. In fact the palmistry of the palmists is simply a study -in deduction, very much _a la_ Sherlock Holmes, of the person as a -whole, and it is by no means limited to an investigation of the hand -alone. - - -_How to Read Palms._--There are two things which you should learn -before you begin to read palms and these are (1) the names of the -different _parts_ of the hand, and (2) the _lines_ and _mounts_ of the -hand. - -The names given and the corresponding parts of the human hand are shown -at A in Fig. 124; these are the scientific names and you will add very -greatly to your stock of knowledge to get them down by heart. - -The names, of the _lines_ and the _mounts_ of the hand are given and -shown at B and these are the terms that are used by palmists. You will -observe that the eminences are called _mounts_ and these are named -after the planets of the solar system, for the ancients supposed that -they were inter-related. To _get by_ as a palmist it goes without -saying that you must have these all down _pat_. - -To find out what kind of health the subject is in, grip the -_hypothenar eminence_, which is the side of the hand opposite the -_pollux_, or thumb, between your thumb and fingers and squeeze it a -little; if it is perfectly firm and the palm has a good healthy color -you are quite sure that its owner is in good health, but if the flesh -is soft and is not elastic and if the palm is pale and bloodless you -will be quite right in saying that the subject’s health is not good, -nay worse, it is even bad, and you will not offend your subject by so -saying. - -The length of the life line is supposed to determine how long the -subject who owns it will live but even if you find one broken off short -never tell the person that he or she will live only a short time. -Indeed to be a successful palmist tell every one whose hand you read -that she or he will live to be anywhere from 80 to 108, and you’ll be -on the safe side. - -The line of the heart, according to palmistry, indicates the affections -and passions of a person. Always tell a fellow that he is a great -lover and that he is constant, but you can say to a girl that she is -_capricious_, which means about the same thing as being fickle, and -both the man and the maid will be highly pleased. The line of _Saturn_ -is the line of disposition and you must always make the subject just -as sweet and angelic as possible unless you want her to break up the -_séance_[136] then and there and hold a _wake_ to prove you’re right. - - [136] A sitting given by a medium or a palmist is called a _séance_ - (pronounced _say´ance_). - -_Apollo_, as the line of fortune is called, is a good one to talk at -length on; you can tell every subject that he or she has had _bad -luck_, but that fortune will follow; that he or she will marry a pretty -girl, or a handsome man as the case may be, live in New York if already -living in the country and the other way about--for everybody wants -to live anywhere except the place he is in--and don’t forget to say -“you’ll live happily ever after.” - -Since folks will foolishly believe in palmistry don’t try to convince -them to the contrary, but while there is nothing in it, when you play -palmist tell them only the nice, pleasant things and you will then be -doing them a real service. - -Just two more pointers on the ignoble art of palmistry and these are -(1) read the palms of each one present right out loud before the -whole gathering, and (2) be mighty careful that the single girls and -married ladies do not _switch_ rings and so lead you into the trap of -thinking that the former are enjoying a state of connubial felicity -(whatever state[137] that may be) and that the latter are living in a -territory[138] of single blessedness. - - [137] Probably Utah. - - [138] Most likely Arizona. - - -=A Talk on the Steam Engine.=--For your final evening entertainment -give a thumb-nail lecture on steam and the steam-engine. - -You will find every one is interested in steam because it is one of the -great _prime movers_ but there are very few people indeed who have any -idea of how a steam engine works. - -If you will do exactly as I tell you, you can talk on and demonstrate -the principles of a steam engine so that, whatever the age of your -listeners, they will know, when you are through, exactly how and why a -steam engine runs and develops power. - - -_Making the Model Engine._--The engine I shall tell you how to build is -not a model that runs by steam,[139] but one made almost entirely of -wood and the purpose of it is not actually to produce power but to show -exactly how it works. - - [139] How to build model steam engines and all other kinds is - explained in my new book _Engine Building for Boys_, published by - Small, Maynard and Co., Boston, Mass. - -To the end that this may be done the _cylinder_ and _steam chest_ are -split-down the middle lengthwise so that the inside of them can be -clearly seen and the movements and functions of the piston and the -slide valve in these parts will be clear. - -Make the cylinder first and the easiest way to do it is to saw out two -disks of wood for the _cylinder heads_ of ³⁄₄ inch thick stuff, 4¹⁄₂ -inches in diameter and bore a ⁹⁄₁₆ inch hole through the center of one -of them for the piston to slide through, as shown at A, C and F in Fig. -125. Turn, or whittle out a piece of wood for the _stuffing box_,[140] -1 inch in diameter and ¹⁄₂ inch long, and bore a ⁹⁄₁₆ inch hole through -the center of it and glue it to the center of the cylinder head so that -the holes are exactly in a line as shown at A and F. - - [140] A stuffing box on a real steam engine is to keep the steam in - the cylinder and steam chest from leaking past the piston rod and the - slide valve rod. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125A. WORKING DRAWINGS FOR THE DEMONSTRATION STEAM -ENGINE. CROSS SECTION SIDE VIEW OF THE ENGINE] - -Next saw out two rings of ¹⁄₄ inch thick wood, make the outside 4¹⁄₂ -inches in diameter and the inside 3 inches in diameter, see C, and glue -one of the rings to each end of the cylinder heads. Now cut out of a -sheet of thin cardboard, or better of tin, a piece 5³⁄₄ inches wide -and 6 inches long; cut two holes ¹⁄₂ an inch in diameter and have the -center of each hole ¹⁄₂ an inch from one of the long edges and ⁷⁄₈ inch -from each of the short edges as shown at D. - -The next thing on the list is the _piston_ and the _piston rod_. For -the piston, saw out a disk of wood 3 inches in diameter and bore a ¹⁄₂ -inch hole through it in the center. The piston rod is simply a piece of -wood ¹⁄₂ an inch in diameter and 12 inches long; cut a slot in one end -¹⁄₈ inch wide and ¹⁄₂ an inch deep and bore a ¹⁄₁₆ inch hole through it -as shown at C. Put the piston inside of the cylinder, slip the piston -rod through the hole in the cylinder head, smear some glue on the end -of it and fit it into the hole in the piston. - -The steam chest is next in order; for it use ³⁄₁₆ inch thick wood and -saw out four pieces 2 inches square; two of these pieces are for the -heads of the steam chest, as shown at A and B, and in the center of one -of them drill a ³⁄₈ inch hole for the slide valve rod to go through. -Turn, or whittle out, a piece of wood for the stuffing box ¹⁄₂ an inch -in diameter and ¹⁄₂ inch long, bore a ³⁄₈ inch hole through the center -of it and glue it to the center of the steam chest head that has the -hole in it as shown at A, C and F. - -Saw two holes 1¹⁄₂ inches square out of the other two 2 inch square -blocks and glue these to the steam chest heads. Now make a trough -of ¹⁄₄ inch thick wood, or of cardboard or tin, 1¹⁄₂ inches square, -outside measurement, and 2³⁄₄ inches long; this is for the sides of the -steam chest; as shown at A and F. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125B. END VIEW OF THE ENGINE. D. THE CRANK SHAFT. -E. THE ROCKER ARM] - -Bore a ¹⁄₂ inch hole in the center of the top of the trough; this hole -is for the _intake port_, that is the opening through which the steam -flows from the boiler into the steam chest. Bore three ¹⁄₂ inch holes -in a line in the middle of the bottom of the trough as is also shown at -A and F. The two holes nearest the ends are the ports to let the steam -into and out of the opposite ends of the cylinder, and the central -hole, or port, is the exhaust port C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125C. TOP VIEW OF THE ENGINE] - -Next make the _slide-valve_; use ¹⁄₈ inch thick wood and make it ³⁄₄ -inch high, 1 inch wide, and 1¹⁄₂ inch long on top and 2 inches long on -the bottom; the bottom, as you will observe at A and E, is cut out so -that it will cover one of the cylinder ports and the exhaust port at -the same time and you need put only one side on it. - -The slide valve rod is a piece of wood ¹⁄₄ inch in diameter and 11¹⁄₂ -inches long. Whittle or plane one end flat and drill a ¹⁄₈ inch hole -through it. This done, set the slide valve in the steam chest; slip the -slide valve rod through the head and glue it to the slide valve. - -Now make four tubes or pipes of cardboard or tin ¹⁄₂ an inch in -diameter, and have two of them 1¹⁄₄ inches long and the other two 3 -inches long; when you have formed all of them cut a strip ¹⁄₂ inch wide -out of each one lengthwise; the purpose of which is to show that they -are hollow. - -When you have the tubes done glue, or otherwise fix, one of the short -ones into the intake port of the steam chest and the other short one -into the middle, or exhaust port in the bottom of the steam chest; then -glue, or fix the two long tubes into the end holes, or ports, of the -steam chest and the holes in the cylinders. - -Saw out a _guide block_ for the piston rod to slide through, 2 inches -wide, 3 inches high, 3 inches long on top and 5 inches long on the -bottom as shown at A and C, and bore a ³⁄₈ inch hole through the middle -of the top of it lengthwise so that the center of the hole will be -exactly 2¹⁄₄ inches from the base line. - -Likewise saw out a guide block for the slide valve rod and make it 1 -inch wide, 2 inches long and 3¹⁄₄ inches high and drill a ³⁄₈ inch hole -through the middle of the top of it lengthwise so that the center of -the hole will be exactly 2¹⁄₄ inches from the back board to which it is -fixed. - -Next cut out a _rocker arm_ of a ¹⁄₄ inch thick piece of wood and -have it ³⁄₈ inch wide at one end, ³⁄₄ inch wide at the other end and -7 inches long; drill a ¹⁄₈ inch hole in each end and a 1¹⁄₈ hole 1¹⁄₂ -inches from the large end; pivot the small end to the end of the slide -valve rod with a machine screw having a nut on the end of it. - -Cut out an _eccentric rod_ ¹⁄₄ inch thick, ³⁄₈ inch wide and 8¹⁄₂ -inches long, and drill a ¹⁄₈ inch hole at each end so that their -centers will be exactly 8 inches apart: pivot one end of this rod to -the second hole in the rocker arm with a machine screw as before. Saw -out a pivot block 1 inch square and drill a ¹⁄₈ inch hole through the -center of it and pivot the lower end of the rocker arm to it with a -screw. - -Make a connecting rod, to couple the piston rod to the crankshaft with, -³⁄₈ inch thick, ¹⁄₂ an inch wide at one end, ³⁄₄ inch wide at the other -end and 9 inches long; whittle or plane down the small end so that it -will fit easily into the slot in the end of the piston rod and drill -a ¹⁄₈ inch hole in each end so that their centers are precisely 8¹⁄₂ -inches apart. - -The crankshaft can be made of a piece of ¹⁄₈ inch thick wire 13 inches -long which must be bent to the exact shape shown at D; before it is -thus bent, however, slip the wire through the hole in the end of the -eccentric rod and then bend the crank on it. - -Saw out a flywheel of ¹⁄₂ inch thick wood, 8 inches in diameter, drill -a ¹⁄₈ inch hole through its center and force it on over the wire -forming the crankshaft; then slip the end of the connecting rod on the -other end of the crankshaft wire and bend it to form a crank. - -The front end of the crankshaft must be supported by a _pillow block_ -just as it is in a real engine, but the rear end is held in place by -a board screwed to the back of the base. This block is ¹⁄₂ an inch -thick, 1 inch wide at the top, 2 inches wide at the bottom and 3 inches -high; drill a ¹⁄₈ inch hole in the top of it exactly 2¹⁄₄ inches from -the base line and slip this over the end of the crankshaft next to the -connecting rod. - -The last thing to be done is to make a base to mount the parts of the -engine on; this is a sort of a shelf and it is built up of a board ³⁄₄ -inch thick, 6 inches wide and 31 inches long for the base. Saw a slot -in it ³⁄₄ inch wide and 9 inches long in one corner, 2 inches from one -end and ¹⁄₂ an inch from the side; this is for the fly-wheel to set in. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125F. THE STEAM ENGINE READY TO DEMONSTRATE] - -Screw a back to it ¹⁄₂ an inch thick, 10 inches wide and 3 inches long; -this must be perfectly rigid and if necessary you can brace it with -angle blocks. Finally glue four legs 1 inch square and 2¹⁄₂ inches long -on the corners of the base-board. - -To put the engine together, or assemble it as it is called, screw the -cylinder to the base-board, then glue or screw the piston rod guide -block to the base; the slide valve rod guide block to the back board, -and the pivot block for the rocker arm to the base-board. - -Drill a ¹⁄₈ inch hole in the back board 2¹⁄₄ inches up from the -base-board exactly 16¹⁄₂ inches from the front cylinder head; put one -end of the crankshaft in the hole and slip the other end of it into the -pillow block; see that all is in a line and that the flywheel clears -the sides of the slot in the base-board. Then it is all done and will -look like F. - - -=How the Engine Works.=--Now if you will turn the flywheel around with -your hand, or better, belt a small electric motor to it, you will see -exactly how the slide valve opens first one port in the cylinder and -then the other and that when the port is open which gives a clear path -for the steam to flow from the steam chest to the cylinder, the other -port is connected to the exhaust pipe, when the used steam passes into -the open air. - -When you know all about it you are then ready to give your last evening -divertisement and for the time being to say _Good-by_. - - -THE END - - - - -INDEX - - - Acid etching on glass, 222 - - Aeolian harp, 267 - - Alcohol lamp, 52, 60, 209 - How to make an, 52 - - Alloys: - Brass, 67 - Pewter, 66, 68, 93 - Solders, 66, 72 - Type metal, 66, 68 - Useful, 67 - - Aluminum, 67 - - Arkansas carving tool slip, 46 - - Art of working glass, 202 - - Auger bits, carpenter’s 6, 13 - - Automobile truck, to make an, 228 - - - Badges, how to make, 192-196 - - Barnum, P. T., 295 - - Bellows for blow pipe, 217 - - Bench, how to make a carpenter’s, 20. - - Bent iron work, Venetian. _See_ Venetian bent iron work - - Bismuth, 95 - - Blow pipe for glass blowing, 214 - - Blue prints, how to make, 131 - - Bluing steel, 74 - Brass, 74 - - Bohemian glass, 203 - - Bolts and rivets, 72 - - Bookbinding, 179-181 - - “Book of Electricity,” 290 - - “Book of Wireless,” 295 - - Brace and bits, carpenter’s, 6, 9 - - Brass, 67 - How to blue, 74 - To color, 74 - To dull, 74 - To frost, 75 - Stencils, 198-200 - - Bromide photo paper, 142 - - Bunsen burner, 60, 209 - - Burning brand, how to make a, 196 - - - Cabinet making, 1-23 - - Calipers, spring, 57, 62 - - Cameras, 135-140 - - Camouflage photographs, 154 - - Candle shade, pierced brass, 91 - - Candlestick, how to make a repoussé, 87 - - Carbon dioxide gas, how to make, 287 - - Carbon impressions, 123 - - Carborundum oil stone, 63 - - Cards for printing, 175 - - Caricature photographs, 155 - - Carpenter’s tools: - Brace and auger bits, 6, 9 - Chisels, 4, 9 - Gimlets, 6, 11 - Gouges, 4, 9 - Hammer, 2, 8 - How to sharpen, 12, 13 - How to use, 8-12 - Liquid glue, 7, 11 - Mallet, 2 - Miter box, 4 - Nail set, 6, 10 - Oil can, 7 - Planes, 4, 9 - Rule, 6, 10 - Saws, 2, 8 - Screw drivers, 6 - Screws, 6, 10, 11 - To etch your name on, 14 - To remove rust from, 14 - Try-square, 6 - Washita oil-stone, 7 - - Carpenter’s work bench, how to make a, 20 - Tool chest, 22 - - Carpentry work, 1-23 - Woods for, 15-17 - - Cartoons, 275-278 - - Carver’s washita oil stone, 46 - - Carving tool slip, 46 - - Carving wood, 24, 44-51 - - Casting pewter, 93, 97 - - Cathedral chimes, 268 - - Cellulose, 176 - - Cement for glass, 224 - - Center punch, machinist’s, 57, 61 - - Chase, putting type in use, 170 - - Chemistry, 280 - - Chest, how to make a tool, 22 - - Chimes, Cathedral, 265 - - Chip carving, 47 - - Chisels, 4, 9 - - Circle, how to draw a, 119 - - Clamps, carpenter’s, 6; - wood carver’s, 46 - - Cleaning metals, 89 - - Coaster, to make a, 231 - - Coins, musical, 253 - - Coherer, to make a, 294 - - Colored glass, 203 - - Coloring metals, 73, 74, 81; - wood, 54 - - Colors, printing in, 174; - stencil, 201 - - Companion wood turning lathe, 37 - - Compasses for drawing, 112 - - Composing stand, 167; - stick, 162-169 - - Contact printing, photo, 132 - - Copper, 66 - - Copygraph, how to make and use, 189-191 - - Cricket scroll saw, 30 - - Cutting pliers, 57, 60 - - - Dancing Sambo, to make a, 243 - - Dark room, 136 - - Dead black for iron, a, 81 - - Decalcomania, 128 - - Decorative stencils, 199-201 - - Design, how to burn in a, 53 - - Design on wood, how to trace a, 29 - - Designs for scroll sawing, 30 - For Venetian bent iron work, 96 - - Developer for dry plates, 137 - for bromide paper, 143 - - Diamond glass cutters, 203 - - Die sinking, 192, 193 - - Dies, screw cutting taps and, 57, 62 - - Dividers: - Spring, 57, 61 - For drawing, 112 - - Disston saws, 2 - - Drawing: - Free-hand, 103 - Life models, 104 - Still life, 104, 107 - Human figure, 105-108 - Perspective, 108 - How to find vanishing point, 109-111 - How to shade, 111 - Isometric perspective ellipse, 118 - Circle, 119 - Spiral, 120 - Plain ellipse, 121 - With a pantagraph, 121 - Cartoons, 275 - - Drawings: - For carpentry work, 19 - For metal work, 68 - Working, 111 - Isometric perspective, 116 - Tracings of, 124 - - Drawing board, 113 - Reflecting, 123 - - Drawing paper, 113 - - Drawing tools, 112, 113 - - Drill attachment for scroll saw, 33 - - Drill stock, 57, 60 - Twist, 28 - - Drills, Morse twist, 57, 61 - - Dry plates, 136, 137 - For lantern slides, 151 - - - Easel, how to make an, 276 - - Ebony stain for wood, 55 - - Egg boiler, Venetian iron, 79 - - Egyptian rebec, 269 - - Electrical evening, an, 290 - - Electrical experiments, 292 - - Electricity: - Demonstrating without apparatus, 290 - Static, 291 - Induction or spark coil, 292 - - Electrified papers, 290 - - Electrify a person, how to, 292 - - Ellipse, how to draw an, 118, 121 - - Engraver’s wax, 101 - - Engraving on metal, 99 - - Engraving tools, 99 - - Engine building for boys, 301 - - Enlarging apparatus, photo, 140 - - Entertainments, 274 - Cartoons, 276 - Chemistry, 280 - Travelogue, 287 - Electricity, 290 - Wireless telegraphy, 293 - Palmistry, 295 - Steam engine, 300 - - Etching glass, 219, 222 - - Etching tool, how to make an, 52 - - Etching your name on tools, 14 - - Excelsior printing presses, 158 - - Experiments in chemistry, 280 - In electricity, 290 - - - Fahrenheit thermometer scale, 65 - - Fiddle, an Egyptian, 269 - - Files: for scroll sawyers, 28 - For machinists, 57, 62 - - Figure carving, 51 - - Finger and hand prints, 125 - - Fixing bath, how to make a, 134 - - Flint glass, 203 - - Fluxes, for soldering, 71 - - Fret sawing, _See_ Scroll sawing - - Fumed oak, 55 - - - Gimlets, carpenter’s, 6, 11 - - Glass: - Art of working, 202-226 - How made, 202 - How to cut, 203 - To drill holes in, 206 - Blow pipe for, 214, 215 - Bellows for, 217 - How to etch, 219, 222 - To make ground, 222 - To cement, 224 - To frost, 224 - Substitutes for, 225 - To silver, 226 - - Glass bulb, how to blow a, 215 - - Glass cutters, 203, 204, 208 - - Glass disks, how to cut, 208 - - Glass edges, to finish off, 206 - - Glass nozzle, how to make, 212 - - Glass tubing, how to cut, 207 - To bend, 209 - To round the ends of, 211 - To seal, 211 - To pierce, 213 - To join, 213 - - Glasses, musical, 253 - - Glue, how to make and use, 11 - - Glue pot, how to make a, 11 - - Gold, printing in, 175 - - Goodyear Rubber Co., 183 - - Goose, to make a life-like, 241 - - Gouges, carpenter’s, 4 - - Graflex camera, 140 - - Gravers, 99 - - Ground glass, to make, 222 - - Gutenburg, Johanne, 157 - - - Hack saw, 57, 60 - - Hammers, carpenter’s, 2, 8 - Scroll sawyers, 29 - Machinist’s, 57, 60 - - Hand, parts of the human, 298 - - Hand and finger prints, 125 - - Hand inlaid printing presses, 157 - - Hand made paper, 176 - - Hand saws, carpenter’s, 2 - - Hand screws, carpenter’s, 6, 10 - - Hand scroll saw table, 27 - - Hardware for scroll sawyers, 37 - - Harp, the tubular, 258 - - Hectograph, _See_ Copygraph - - Hershel, Sir John, 153 - - Horse, how to make a stick, 237 - - Hieroglyphics, 202 - - Hydrogen chloride gas, how to make, 283 - - - Imposing stone, 120 - - Ink: - India, 113 - Printing, 173 - For rubber stamp, 189 - For copygraph, 191 - For stencils, 200 - - Ink rollers, 173 - - Ink pads for rubber stamps, 188 - - “Inventing for Boys,” 119 - - Iron: - Wrought, 64 - Steel, 64 - How to color a dead black, 81 - - Iron work, Venetian bent, _See_ Venetian bent iron work - - Isometric perspective drawings, 116 - Ellipses, 118 - - Isometric ruled paper, 116 - - - Jeweler’s saw frame, 57 - Saws, 60 - - Jig sawing, _See_ Scroll sawing - - Job printing, 172 - - Joining, _See_ Carpentry - - Joints, edge and corner, wood, 17 - Metal, 70 - - Justifying, 169 - - - Kodaks, 139 - - - Lacquer, how to make and use, 75 - - Lantern slides, 139, 150, 151 - - Lathe for wood turners, 37 - - Lead, 65, 93 - - Lead glass, 203 - - Lead pencils for drawing, 113 - - Lenses, photo, 140 - - Lignum vitae mallets, 46 - - - Magic fountain, 281 - - Magic lantern, how to make and operate, 148-150 - - Magic photographs, 153 - - Magic of science, 209 - - Mallet, carpenter’s, 2 - - Machinist’s tools, _See_ Metal working tools - - Markers for wood carvers, 46 - - Marking gauge, carpenter’s, 6, 10 - - Metal, engraving, 99 - - Metals: - Their uses, 64 - How to solder, 71 - Iron, 64 - Tin, 64 - Lead, 65 - Zinc, 65 - Copper, 66 - Type-metal, 66, 68 - Brass, 67 - Aluminum, 67 - Pewter, 68, 94 - Bismuth, 95 - - Metal work: - Tools for, 57-63 - Drawing plans for, 68 - Sheet, 69 - Seams and joints, 70 - Bolts and rivets for, 72 - Solders for, 72 - Bending, 73 - Coloring, 73-83 - Cleaning and polishing, 89 - Pierced, 90 - - Miter box, 4 - - Molds: - For casting pewter, 97 - For paper making, 177 - For rubber stamps, 185 - - “Money Making for Boys,” 157 - - Moresco stencil color, 201 - - Morse twist drills, 57, 61 - - Mounting rubber stamps, 188 - - Musical instruments, home-made: - Coins, 253, 254 - Tomato cans, 254-256 - Glasses, 256, 257 - Tubular harp, 258-260 - Push pipe, 260-262 - Xylophone, 263, 264 - Tubaphone, 264, 265 - Cathedral chimes, 265-267 - Aeolian harp, 267-269 - Egyptian fiddle, 269-273 - - Mystic glass of milk, 280 - - - Nail set, carpenter’s, 6, 10 - - Nails and screws, how to drive, 11 - - Nitrogen lamps, 141 - - - Oil can, carpenter’s, 7 - - Oil stone, carpenter’s, 7 - Machinist’s, 63 - - - Palmistry for fun, 295-297 - - Panel carving, 50 - - Pantagraph, to make and use a, 121 - - Paper: - Blue print, 132 - Photographic, 133, 142 - For job printing, 175 - - Paper making, 176-179 - - Paper stencils, 198 - - Patter, 277 - - Pattern making, 95 - - Perspective, _see_ Drawing - - Pewter, 66 - How to make, 94 - To work, 95 - To cast, 95 - Solder for, 95 - Patterns for, 95 - To make a mold for, 97 - - Pewter ware, finishing, 98 - - Photo frame, a repoussé, 88 - - Photography: - Blue prints, 131 - Contact printing, 132 - Silver prints, 133 - Papers, 133 - Fixing bath, 133 - Toning solution, 134 - Dark room, 136 - Developer, 137 - Dry plates, 137 - Cameras, 138-140 - Lenses, 140 - Enlargements, 140-144 - Radium, 151 - Skiagraphs, 151 - Trick, 153 - Camouflage, 154 - Caricature, 155 - - Pierced metal work, 90-93 - - Planes, carpenter’s, 4, 9, 12 - - Plaster of Paris, 184 - - Plate holder, a Venetian iron, 81 - - Pliers for scroll sawyers, 28 - - Policeman’s puzzle, to make a, 227 - - Polishing metal work, 89 - German silver, 195 - - Pony and cart, to make a, 239 - - Post card store, 289 - - Press, _See_ Printing press - - Printing: - Kinds of presses, 157 - Outfit needed, 161 - Composing stick, 162, 169 - Composing stand, 167 - Imposing stone, 169 - Chase for press, 169 - Making ready, 172 - Ink, 173 - Ink rollers, 174 - In colors, 174 - In gold, 175 - Stock supply, 175 - _See also_ Type - - Printing presses: - Kinds, 157, 158 - Sizes and prices, 160 - How worked, 160 - - Prints, photo, 133 - - Protractors for drawing, 113 - - Pulp for paper, 176 - - Push pipe, musical, 260 - - Pyrography, 51-53 - - - Radioactive substances, 152 - - Radiographs, 152 - - Radium photographs, 151 - - Rag engine, 177 - - Reflecting drawing board, 123 - - Reflectoscope, 145-147 - - Repoussé work, 84-88 - - Rivets and bolts, 72 - - Robinson Crusoe, 1 - - Rosin for fiddle bows, 273 - - Rubber stamps: - How to make and use, 183-188 - Ink pads, 188 - Inks, 189 - - Rule, carpenter’s, 6, 10 - - Ruling pens for drawing, 112 - - Russel Jennings’ auger bits, 6 - - Rust on tools, removing, 14 - - - Sand blast process, 219 - - Saw: - Carpenter’s, 2, 8, 12 - Disston, 2 - Hack, 57 - Jeweler’s, 57, 60 - - Sconce, a Venetian iron, 82 - - Screw cutting taps and dies, 57, 62 - - Screw drivers: - Carpenter’s, 6 - Machinist’s, 60, 63 - - Screws, how to drive, 11 - - Scroll sawing, 24-37 - Designs for, 29, 30 - Woods to use, 36 - - Scroll saws: - Hand, 25 - Foot-power, 30-35 - Cricket, 30 - Lester, 32 - Fleetwood, 33 - - Scroll sawyer’s tools, 27-29 - Designs, 30 - Hardware, 37 - - Seams in metal work, 70 - - Self-inking printing presses, 158 - - Sharpening tools, 63 - - Shellac varnish, 96, 197 - - Shears, tinner’s, 57, 60 - - Sheet metal work, _See_ Metal work, 70 - - Silhouettes, 126 - - Silvering glass, 226 - - Silver prints, photo, 133 - - Sketching, _see_ Drawing - - Skiagraphs, 151 - - Snibs for wood carvers, 46 - - Soap bubbles, vicious, 284 - - Soirée, a, 274 - - Solder, 60, 66, 72 - - Soldering metals, 71 - - Spark coil, 292 - - Spirit photographs, 153 - - Spinning coins, Virgil’s theory of, 254 - - Spiral, how to draw a, 120 - - Staining wood, 54, 55 - - Stanley planes, 4 - - Steam engine, 300-310 - - Steel, 64 - How to blue, 74 - Letters and figures, 193 - Glass cutters, 203 - - Steel rule, machinist’s, 57, 61 - - Steel square, machinist’s, 57, 61 - - Stencils, 198-201 - - Stencil inks, how to make, 200, 201 - - Stereoscope, 289 - - Stereographs, 289 - - Stereopticon, 151 - - Stradivari, Antonio, 270 - - Swing, to make a, 235 - - - Taps and dies, screw cutting, 57, 62 - - Thermometer scale, Fahrenheit, 65 - - Theory of spinning coins, 254 - - Thumb tacks, 113 - - Tin, 65 - - Tin-foil, 65 - - Turner’s snips, 57, 60, 63 - - Toaster, a Venetian iron, 78 - - Tomato cans, musical, 255 - - Toning photo prints, 133, 134 - - Tool chest, how to make a, 22 - - Tools: - Carpenter’s, _see_ Carpenter’s tools - Woodworking, 2 - Wood turning, 40 - Metal working, 57-63 - Venetian bent iron work, 76 - Repoussé work, 84 - Engraving, 99 - Drawing, 112 - - Toys, how to make: - Policeman’s puzzle, 227 - Automobile truck, 228 - Wheelbarrow, 231 - Coaster, 231 - Swing, 235 - Stick horse, 237 - Pony and cart, 239 - Goose, 241 - Dancing Sambo, 243 - Wireless pup, 245 - - Tracings, how to make, 124 - - Transfer pictures, 128 - - Travelogue, giving a, 287 - - Triangle for drawing, 113 - - Trick photography, 153 - - Try square, carpenter’s, 6 - - T square for drawing, 113 - - T tube, how to make, 213 - - Tubaphone, the peculiar, 264 - - Turning lathe, scroll saw, 33 - - Turning wood, 24, 37, 41-43 - - Turning tools for wood, 40 - - Type: - Styles of, 163-166 - Cases, 167 - How to set, 169 - How to distribute, 173 - How to clean, 173 - _See also_ Printing - - Type form, how to lock up, 171 - - Type-metal, 66 - - - Uncanny wheel, 286 - - - Venetian bent iron work, 76-84 - Toaster, 78 - Egg boiler, 79 - Plate holder, 81 - - Vulcanizing rubber, 186, 187 - - Vise, carpenter’s, 21 - Wood carver’s, 46 - Machinist’s, 60 - - - Washita oil-stone for carpenters, 7 - For carvers, 46 - - Washita slip stone, 13 - - Watch holder, how to carve a, 48 - - Wheelbarrow, to make a nifty, 233 - - Wireless pup, to make a, 245 - - Wireless set, to make a, 293 - - Wireless telegraphy, demonstrating, 293 - - Wood: - How to turn, 41 - Coloring and staining, 54, 55 - - Wood burning, 24 - _See also_ Pyrography - - Wood carver’s tools, 44-46 - - Wood carving, 24, 44-51 - - Wood filler, how to make, 11 - - Wood turning, 24, 37 - Lathe for, 37-40 - Tools, 40, 41 - - Woods: - For carpentry, 15 - For scroll sawing, 36 - For carving, 47 - - Woodworking joints, 17 - - Woodworking tools, _See_ Carpenter’s tools - - Work bench, how to make a, 20 - - Working drawings: - For carpentry, 18 - How to make plan, 115 - Isometric perspective, 116 - _See also_ Drawings - - - Xylophone, curious, 263 - - - Zinc, 65 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Depending on the hard- and software used and their settings not all - elements may display as intended. - - Unusual, archaic and inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been - retained. The inconsistent numbering of illustrations has not been - standardised. The (minor) differences in wording between the Table of - Contents, List of Illustrations and Index compared to the text have - not been standardised, except as mentioned under Changes below - - Page 20, ... the last part of Chapter III: Chapter III deals with - other subjects; possibly the reference should be to Chapter V. - - Page 26, Footnote [10]: The section Designs for Scroll Sawing - may be found on page 30, the footnote anchor as printed in the - source document should probably have been printed after item (f). - - Page 53, Fig. 26C: Benzine and alcohol are as printed in the source - document. - - Page 157 and Index, Johanne Gutenburg: as printed in the source - document. - - Page 163, item F: A16 is possibly an error for 16A. - - Page 164, item H: the number of As was illegible in the source - document; item J: 11a 20a is possibly an error for 11A 20a. - - Page 180, Du Pont Febrikoid Co.: probably an error for Du Pont - Fabrikoid Co. - - Page 207 and 208, footnotes [98] and [98a]: the source document has - two anchors for this footnote. For this text the second instance has - been renamed 98a, the footnote has been repeated. - - Page 260, The harp is shown complete at C: Figure 109c does not show - the complete instrument, and there does not appear to be another - figure that does. - - Page 276, Fig. 116: Presumably the dimensions provided are in feet - rather than inches. - - - Changes made - - Illustrations, tables and footnotes have been moved out of text - paragraphs. The footnotes in the source document were not numbered - consistently, they have been renumbered for this text. - - Several obvious minor errors in typography and punctuation have been - corrected silently. - - Some of the wider elements have been split to fit the available width. - - Page 3, illustration: items B and C interchanged. - - Page 14: Removing Dust from Tools changed to Removing Rust from Tools. - - Page 46: ... as you will see in Fig. 21 ... changed to ... as you - will see in Fig. 22 .... - - Page 57: ... a ball pein hammer which weights ... changed to ... a - ball pein hammer which weighs .... - - Page 84: repousage changed to repoussage. - - Page 164, item L: reference letter L inserted cf. other references. - - Page 179, Fig. 71: item B, PPASTEBOARD changed to PASTEBOARD; item C, - NNCH chamged to INCH (probably the number is missing). - - Page 193: ... on a sheet of meal; ... changed to ... on a sheet of - metal; .... - - Page 211: section heading =How to blow glass= inserted cf. Table - of Contents. - - Page 222: fluorspar and flour-spar changed to fluor-spar as elsewhere. - - Page 240, illustration: Fig. 109 changed to Fig. 102; caption: c. the - pony and cart when done changed to c, d. the pony and cart when done. - - Page 246, Fig. 105C: reference letter D changed to B. - - Page 277: ... the grand finalé ... changed to ... the grand finale - .... - - Page 281: ... already to use ... changed to ... all ready to use .... - - Page 289: Busch and Lomb Optical Company changed to Bausch and Lomb - Optical Company. - - Index: some words have been corrected to reflect the spelling used in - the main text. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HANDICRAFT FOR BOYS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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