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+Project Gutenberg's A Study in Tinguian Folk-Lore, by Fay-Cooper Cole
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+Title: A Study in Tinguian Folk-Lore
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+Author: Fay-Cooper Cole
+
+Release Date: December, 2004 [EBook #7017]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A STUDY IN TINGUIAN FOLK-LORE ***
+
+
+
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+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman, Charles Franks
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
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+
+A STUDY IN TINGUIAN FOLK-LORE
+
+By
+
+FAY-COOPER COLE
+
+
+
+Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
+Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University
+
+Chicago
+
+1915
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A STUDY IN TINGUIAN FOLK-LORE
+
+This paper is based on a collection of Philippine folk-tales recently
+published by the Field Museum of Natural History. [1] The material
+appearing in that publication was gathered by the writer during a
+stay of sixteen months with the Tinguian, a powerful pagan tribe
+inhabiting the mountain districts of Abra, Ilocos Sur, and Norte, of
+Northern Luzon. In social organization, government, manner of house
+building, and many other details of material culture this tribe differs
+radically from the neighboring Igorot. Observation has also led me
+to the conclusion that the religious organization and ceremonies of
+this people have reached a higher development than is found among the
+near-by tribes, and that this complexity decreases as we penetrate
+toward the interior or to the south. In the main the folk-tales are
+closely associated with the religious beliefs of the present day,
+and hence it seems unlikely that they will be found, in anything
+approaching their present form, far outside the districts dominated
+by this tribe. Nevertheless, isolated incidents corresponding to those
+of neighboring peoples, or even of distant lands, occur several times.
+
+In the following pages an attempt has been made to bring together the
+culture of this people, as it appears in the myths, and to contrast
+it to present day conditions and beliefs. In this way we may hope to
+gain a clearer insight into their mental life, and to secure a better
+idea of the values they attach to certain of their activities than
+is afforded us by actual observation or by direct inquiry. It is also
+possible that the tales may give us a glimpse of the early conditions
+under which this people developed, of their life and culture before
+the advent of the European.
+
+It should be noted at the outset that no attempt is here made to
+reconstruct an actual historical period. As will appear later, a
+part of the material is evidently very old; later introductions--to
+which approximate dates may be assigned--have assumed places of great
+importance; while the stories doubtless owe much to the creative
+imaginations of successive story tellers.
+
+For the purposes of our study, the tales have been roughly divided
+into three parts. The first, which deals with the mythical period,
+contains thirty-one tales of similar type in which the characters
+are for the most part the same, although the last five tales do not
+properly fit into the cycle, and the concluding story of Indayo is
+evidently a recent account told in the form of the older relations.
+
+In the second division are the ritualistic and explanatory myths,
+the object of which seems to be to account for the origin of or way
+of conducting various ceremonies; for the belief in certain spirits
+and sacred objects; for the existence of the sun, moon, and other
+natural phenomena; for the attainment of fire, food plants, birds
+and domestic animals, as well as of magical jars and beads. Here it
+should be noted that some of the most common and important beliefs
+and ceremonies are, so far as is known, unaccompanied by any tales,
+yet are known to all the population, and are preserved almost without
+change from generation to generation.
+
+Division three contains the ordinary stories with which parents amuse
+their children or with which men and women while away the midday
+hours as they lounge in the field houses, or when they, stop on the
+trail to rest and smoke.
+
+None of the folk-tales are considered as the property of the tellers,
+but only those of the third division are well known to the people in
+general. Those of the first section are seldom heard except during the
+dry season when the people gather around bonfires in various parts of
+the village. To these go the men and women, the latter to spin cotton,
+the former to make fish nets or to repair their tools and weapons. In
+such a gathering there are generally one or more persons who entertain
+their fellows with these tales. Such a person is not paid for his
+services, but the fact that he knows "the stories of the first times"
+makes him a welcome addition to the company and gives him an enviable
+position in the estimation of his fellows.
+
+The purely ritualistic tales, called diams, are learned word by word
+by the mediums, [2] as a part of their training for their positions,
+and are only recited while an animal is being stroked with oil
+preparatory to its being sacrificed, or when some other gift is about
+to be presented to the superior beings. The writer has recorded these
+diams from various mediums in widely separated towns and has found
+them quite uniform in text and content. The explanatory tales were
+likewise secured from the mediums, or from old men and women who
+"know the customs." The stories of the last division are the most
+frequently heard and, as already indicated, are told by all. It is
+evident even to the casual reader that these show much more evidence
+of outside influence than do the others; some, indeed, appear to have
+been recently borrowed from the neighboring christianized Ilocano. [3]
+
+
+TALES OF THE MYTHICAL PERIOD
+
+Reconstruction of the Culture.--In the first division certain actors
+occur with great frequency, while others always take the leading
+parts. These latter appear under a variety of names, two or more
+titles often being used for the same individual in a single tale. To
+avoid confusion a list of the fourteen principal actors and their
+relationships are given in the accompanying table. It will appear that
+there are some conflicts in the use of names, but when it is realized
+that the first twenty-six myths which make up the cycle proper were
+secured from six story tellers coming from four different towns,
+the agreement rather than the disagreement is surprising. As a matter
+of fact there is quite as much variation between the accounts of the
+same narrator as between those gathered from different towns.
+
+
+TABLE OF LEADING CHARACTERS [4]
+
+I. Aponitolau. Son of Pagatipánan [male] and Langa-an [female] [5]
+of Kadalayapan; is the husband of Aponibolinayen. Appears under the
+following names: (a) Ligi, (b) Albaga of Dalaga, (c) Dagdagalisit, (d)
+Ingiwan or Kagkagákag, (e) Ini-init, (f) Ling-giwan, (g) Kadayadawan,
+(h) Wadagan, (i) Awig (?)
+
+II. Aponigawani. Sister of Aponitolau and wife of Aponibalagen.
+
+III. Aponibolinayen. Daughter of Pagbokásan [6] [male] and Ebang
+[female] of Kaodanan. Wife of Aponitolau. Appears as (a) Ayo, (b)
+Dolimáman (?).
+
+IV. Aponibalagen. Brother of Aponibolinayen, and husband of
+Aponigawani; also appears as Awig.
+
+V. Kanag. Son of Aponitolau and Aponibolinayen. Appears as (a)
+Kanag kabagbagowan, (b) Balokanag, (c) Dumanau, (d) Ilwisan, (e)
+also at times is identified with Dumalawi, his brother.
+
+VI. Dapilisan, wife of Kanag.
+
+VII. Dagoláyan. Son of Aponibalagen and Aponigawani. Also appears as
+Dondonyán of Bagonan--the blood clot child.
+
+VIII. Alokotán. An old woman who acts as a medium. Her home is at
+Nagbotobotán, where the rivers empty their waters into the hole at
+the edge of the world.
+
+IX. Gawigawen [male]. A giant who owns the orange trees of Adasin.
+
+X. Giambolan [male]. A ten-headed giant.
+
+XI. Gaygayóma. A star maiden who marries Aponitolau. The daughter of
+Bagbagak [male], a big star,--and Sinag [female], the moon--.
+
+XII. Tabyayen. Son of Aponitolau and Gaygayóma. Half brother of Kanag.
+
+XIII. Kabkabaga-an. A powerful female spirit who falls in love with
+Aponitolau.
+
+XIV. Asibowan. The maiden of Gegenáwan, who is related to the spirit
+Kaboniyan. The mistress of Aponitolau.
+
+In consequence of modern rationalism there is a tendency on the
+part of a considerable number of the Tinguian to consider these
+tales purely as stories and the characters as fictitious, but the
+mass of the people hold them to be true and speak of the actors as
+"the people who lived in the first times." For the present we shall
+take their point of view and shall try to reconstruct the life in
+"the first times" as it appears in the tales.
+
+The principal actors live in Kadalayapan and Kaodanan, [7] towns
+which our chief story teller--when trying to explain the desire of
+Kanag to go down and get fruit--assures us were somewhere in the air,
+above the earth (p. 141). [8] At other times these places are referred
+to as Sudipan--the term by which spirits are supposed to call the
+present earth--while the actors are referred to as Ipogau--the spirit
+name for Tinguian. Whatever its location it was a place much like the
+present home of this people. The sky, the chief abode of spirits and
+celestial bodies, was above the land, and the heroes of the tales
+are pictured as ascending to visit the upper realms. The trees,
+plants, and animals were for the most part those known to-day. The
+ocean appears to have been well known, while mention is made of some
+places in Luzon, such as Dagopan and San Fernando in Pangasinan with
+which the people of to-day are not at all familiar (p. 89, 168).
+
+We learn that each village is situated near to a river or waterway
+by the banks of which shallow wells are dug, and there we find the
+women gathering under the shade of the trees, dipping up water to be
+carried to their homes, washing and combing their hair, and taking
+their baths (p. 48). They seldom go singly, for enemies are apt to
+be near, and unless several are in the company it will be impossible
+to spread the alarm and secure help in case of attack (p. 43).
+
+Leading up from the spring to the village are bamboo poles on which
+the heads of enemies are displayed (p. 43). In cases where the
+warriors have been especially successful these trophies may surround
+the whole settlement (p. 76). About the town is a defensive wall,
+generally of bamboo, but in some cases made up entirely of gigantic
+snakes (p. 43). Within this inclosure are many houses. The bamboo
+floors are raised high above the ground, while the thatching is of
+grass. Ladders lead up to little porches, from which doors open into
+the dwellings. At least part of the houses have a cooking room in
+addition to that used by the family, while structures containing a
+ninth room are several times mentioned (pp. 43, 52, 85).
+
+In one corner of the living room is a box containing blankets, above
+which are pillows and mats used by members of the household and guests;
+an iron caldron lies on the floor, while numerous Chinese jars stand
+about. A hearth, made up of a bed of ashes in which stones are sunk,
+is used for cooking. Above it is a bamboo food hanger, while near by
+stand jars of water and various cooking pots. Food baskets, coconut
+shell cups, and dishes, and a quantity of Chinese plates appear when
+the meal is served, while the use of glass is not unknown. Cups of
+gold, wonderful jars, and plates appear at times, but seem to be so
+rare as to excite comment (pp. 33, 98, 102, 105).
+
+Scattered through the village are numerous small buildings known as
+balaua (p. 43), which are erected for the spirits during the greatest
+of the ceremonies, and still inside the enclosure are the rice drying
+plots and granaries, the latter raised high above the ground so as
+to protect their contents from moisture (pp. 150).
+
+About the town pigs and chickens roam at will, while half-starved
+hunting dogs prowl about below the kitchens and fight for morsels
+which drop from above (p. 99). Carabao are kept and used as food
+(p. 101), but in the cycle proper no mention is made of using them as
+work animals. [9] Game, especially deer and wild chickens, and fish
+are added to the domestic supply of food (p. 80), but the staple
+appears to be mountain rice. Beans, coconuts, oranzes, sugar cane,
+betel-nuts, and tobacco are also cultivated (pp. 33, 107, 121, 138).
+
+Clothing is scanty but nevertheless receives much attention. The
+poorest of the men wear clouts of banana leaf, and the women, when in
+danger of capture, don skirts of bark; but on most occasions we find
+the man wearing a colored cotton clout, above which is a bright belt
+of the same material, while for ceremonies he may add a short coat or
+jacket. A headband, sometimes of gold, keeps his long hair in place,
+and for very special events he may adorn each hair with a golden bead
+(pp. 74, 76, 81)
+
+The cotton skirts of the women reach from the waist to the knees;
+the arms are covered with strands above strands of beads, while
+strings of agate beads surround the neck or help to hold the hair in
+place. To the real hair is often added a switch which appears to be
+valued highly (p. 89). Ornaments of gold adorn the ears, and finger
+rings of the same metal are several times mentioned (pp. 39, 43, 124).
+
+The tales afford us a glimpse of the daily life. In the early morning
+the chilly mountain air drives the people from their mats to the yard,
+where they squat about the fires (p. 132). As it becomes light,
+part of the women begin pounding out the rice from its straw and
+husks (p. 144), while others depart for the springs to secure water
+(p. 101). In planting time husband and wife trudge together to the
+fields, where the man plants the seeds or cuttings, and his wife
+assists by pouring on water (p. 107). In midday, unless it is the busy
+season, the village activities are practically suspended, and we see
+the balaua filled with men, asleep or lounging, while children may be
+playing about with tops or disk-like lipi seeds (p. 139). As it becomes
+cooler, the town again takes on life; in the houses the women weave
+blankets or prepare food, the older women feed the chickens and pigs
+(p. 93), while the workers from the fields, or hunters with their
+dogs and game, add to the general din and excitement (p. 80). When
+night comes on, if it be in the dry season, bonfires spring up in
+different parts of the village, and about them the girls and women
+gather to spin. Here also come the men and boys, to lounge and talk
+(p. 117). A considerable portion of the man's time is taken up in
+preparation for or actual participation in warfare (p. 74). We have
+already seen that the constant danger of enemies makes it advisable
+for the women to go in parties, even to the village spring. One tale
+informs us of a girl who is left alone to guard the rice field and
+is promptly killed by the alzado; [10] another states that "all the
+tattooed Igorot are enemies" (pp. 43, 155, 161).
+
+Revenge for the loss of relations or townspeople is a potent cause
+of hostile raids; old feuds may be revived by taunts; but the chief
+incentive appears to be the desire for renown, to be known as "a man
+who goes to fight in the enemies' towns" (pp. 90, 59).
+
+Warriors sometimes go in parties, sometimes alone, but generally in
+couples (p. 67). At times they lie in ambush and kill young girls
+who go for water, or old men and women who pass their hiding place
+(p. 97). Again they go out boldly, armed with shield, spear, and
+headaxe; they strike their shields as they go and announce their
+presence to the enemy (p. 103). In five of the tales the heroes
+challenge their opponents and then refuse to be the first to use their
+weapons. It is only when their foes have tried in vain to injure them
+that they enter the conflict. In such cases whole towns are wiped out
+of existence and a great number of heads and a quantity of jars and
+other booty is sent back to the towns of the victors (p. 104). Peace
+is restored in one instance by the payment of a number of valuable jars
+(p. 91).
+
+Upon the return of a successful war party, the relatives meet them at
+the gate of the town and compel them to climb the sangap; [11] then
+invitations are sent out to friends and relatives in neighboring towns
+to come and aid in the celebration of the victory (p. 140). When they
+arrive at the entrance of the village they are met by the townspeople,
+who offer them liquor and then conduct them to the houses where they
+feast and dance to the music of gansas (p. 126).  [12] Finally the
+captured heads are stuck on the sagang  [13] and are placed by the
+gate, the spring, and, if sufficient in number, surround the town
+(p. 140). Taking the heads of one's neighbors does not appear to
+be common, yet cases are mentioned where visitors are treacherously
+killed at a dance (pp. 78, 83).
+
+The use of poison [14] is twice mentioned. In one case the victims
+are killed by drinking liquor furnished by the father of the girl
+about whose head they are dancing (pp. 148, 156).
+
+Bamboo spears appear to be used, but we are explicitly told that
+they fought with steel weapons, and there are frequent references to
+head-axes, spears, and knives (pp. 65, 76, 120).
+
+Marriage appears generally to be negotiated by the mother of the youth
+at his suggestion (p. 128). At times both his parents go to the girl's
+home, and after many preliminaries broach the subject of their mission
+(p. 128). The girl's people discuss the proposition, and if they are
+favorable they set a day for the pakálon--a celebration at which the
+price to be paid for the bride is decided upon (p. 49). The parents
+of the groom then return home after having left some small present,
+such as a jar or an agate bead, as a sign of engagement (p. 128). [15]
+The pakálon is held a few days later at the girl's home, and for
+this event her people prepare a quantity of food (p. 72). On the
+agreed day the close friends and relatives of both families will
+assemble. Those who accompany the groom carry jars and pigs, either
+in part payment for the bride, or to serve as food for the company
+(pp. 72, 128). The first hours are spent in bargaining over the
+price the girl should bring, but when this is settled a feast is
+prepared, and then all indulge in dancing the tadek (p. 59). [16]
+When the payment is made a portion is distributed among the girl's
+relatives (pp. 72, 74), but her parents retain the greater part for
+themselves. [17] The groom cannot yet claim his bride, although in
+one case he is allowed to take her immediately after the pakálon by
+making a special payment for the privilege (p. 74). A few nights later
+the groom goes to the girl's home carrying with him an empty jar with
+which he makes the final payment (p. 73). The customary rice ceremony
+[18] follows and he is then entitled to his bride (p. 73). Should the
+house or anything in it break at this time, it foretells misfortune
+for the couple, hence precautions are taken lest such a sign should,
+by accident, be given (p. 60).
+
+In all but two cases mentioned the girl and her husband go to live
+with his people. In the first instance their failure to do so raises a
+protest; in the second, the girl's parents are of much more importance
+than those of the groom, and this may explain their ability to retain
+their daughter (pp. 138, 159).
+
+When the bride reaches her future home, she sits on the bamboo floor
+with her legs stretched out in front of her. The slats which she
+covers are counted and a string of agate beads, equal in length to
+the combined width of the slats, is given to her. She now becomes
+a full member of the family and seems to be under the orders of her
+mother-in-law (p. 60).
+
+The tales give constant sanction for the marriage of near
+relatives. Dumanau, we are told, marries his cousin, [19] while we
+frequently meet with such statements as, "We are relatives and it is
+good for us to be married," or "They saw that they were related and
+that both possessed magical power, so they were married (p. 35)." It
+appears that a man may live with his sweetheart and have children
+by her, yet leave her, and, without reproach, marry another better
+fitted to be his wife (p. 54). He may also accept payment for a wife
+who has deserted him, apparently without loss of prestige (p. 64). No
+objection seems to be raised to a man having two wives so long as
+one of these is an inhabitant of the upper world (p. 111), but we
+find Kanag telling his former sweetheart that he cannot marry her
+since he is now married to another (p. 138). Again, when two women
+lay claim to Aponitolau, as their husband, they undergo a test and
+the loser returns to her former home (p. 94). However, this rule does
+not prevent a man from having several concubines (p., 120). Gawigawen,
+we are told, is accompanied to a pakálon by eighteen young girls who
+are his concubines (p. 59).
+
+Divorce is twice mentioned, but it seems to call out protest only
+from the cast off wife (pp. 63, 149).
+
+Closely associated with the celebration of a marriage seems to be a
+ceremony known as Sayang, during the progress of which a number of
+small structures--the largest known as balaua--are built. Judging by
+their names and descriptions, we are justified in considering them
+"spirit houses" as they are to-day.
+
+The details of the extended Sayang ceremony are nowhere given, but
+so much is made plain:--At its beginning many people pound rice,
+for use in the offerings and for food, and da-eng [20] is danced
+(p. 40). After the Libon [21] invitations are sent out, by means of
+betel-nuts covered with gold, to those whose presence is especially
+desired (p. 62). When the guests arrive at the village spring or
+gate they are offered food or drink, and then while they dance they
+are sprinkled with water or rice, after which all go up to the town
+(p. 41 note 2). A medium who knows the customs and desires of the
+spirits constructs a bamboo mat, which is known as talapitap, and
+on it offers food. To call their attention she frequently strikes
+the ground with the dakidak--split sticks of bamboo and lono [22]
+(p. 40). The guests are not neglected, so far as regards food, for
+feasting and dancing occupy a considerable portion of their time. The
+ceremonial dance da-eng is mentioned, but the tadek  [23] seems to
+be the one in special favor (pp. 41, 59).
+
+One tale tells us that the Sayang was held immediately following a
+head hunt; and another, that Aponitolau went out to get the head of
+an old man before he started this ceremony (pp. 69, 76); however,
+the evidence is by no means conclusive that it is related to warfare.
+
+On page 105 we are told that Kanag's half sister is a medium, and the
+description of her method of summoning the spirits tallies with that
+of to-day. At the Sayang ceremony she is called to perform the Dawak,
+[24] with the assistance of the old woman Alokotán (p. 106). The Dawak
+is also held in order to stop the flow of blood from Aponitolau's
+finger (p. 113). The only other ceremony mentioned is that made in
+order to find a lost switch (p. 91).
+
+Certain well-known customs are strongly brought out in our
+material. The first, and apparently most important, is the necessity
+of offering liquor and food, both to strangers and to guests
+(p. 58). Refusal is so keenly resented that in one instance a couple
+decline to allow their daughter to marry a man whose emissaries
+reject this gift (p. 73). Old quarrels are closed by the tender of
+food or drink, and friendships are cemented by the drinking of basi
+[25] (p. 134). People meeting for the first time, and even friends
+who have been separated for a while, chew betel-nut together and
+tell their names and places of residence. We are repeatedly told
+that it is necessary to chew the nut and make known their names, for
+"we cannot tell our names unless we chew," and "it is bad for us if
+we do not know each other's names when we talk." A certain etiquette
+is followed at this time: old men precede the younger; people of the
+home town, the visitors; and men always are before the women (pp. 45,
+133). The conduct of Awig when he serves liquor to the alzados [26]
+is that of to-day, i.e., the person who serves always drinks before
+passing it to others (p. 156).
+
+Certain other rules of etiquette or restrictions on conduct come out
+in the tales. We learn that it is not considered proper for a man
+to eat with the wife of another during his absence, nor should they
+start the meal before he comes in (p. 52). The master of a dance is
+deeply chagrined and chides his wife severely, because she insists
+on dancing before he has invited all the others to take their turns
+(p. 70). Greediness is reproved in children and Aponitolau causes the
+death of his concubines whose false tales had led him to maltreat his
+wife (p. 116). Unfaithfulness seems to be sufficient justification
+for a man to abandon his wife and kill her admirer (p. 78); but Kanag
+appears as a hero when he refuses to attack his father who has sought
+his life (p. 121).
+
+Of the ceremonies connected with death we learn very little except that
+the women discard their arm beads, the mourners don old clothing, and
+all wail for the dead (pp. 44, 90). Three times we are told that the
+deceased is placed on a tabalang, or raft, on which a live rooster is
+fastened before it is set adrift on the river. In the tales the raft
+and fowl are of gold, but this is surprising even to the old woman
+Alokotán, past whose home in Nagbotobotán all these rafts must go
+(p. 131).
+
+Up to this time in our reconstruction of the life of "the first
+times" we have mentioned nothing impossible or improbable to the
+present day Tinguian, although, as we shall see later, there are some
+striking differences in customs and ideas. We have purposely left the
+description of the people and their practice of magic to the last,
+although their magical practices invade every activity of their lives,
+for it is here that the greatest variations from present conditions
+apparently occur.
+
+These people had intimate relations with some of the lesser spirits,
+especially with the liblibayan, [27] who appear to be little more
+than their servants, with the evil spirits known as banbanáyo,
+[28] and with the alan [29] (p. 123). The alan, just mentioned,
+are to-day considered as deformed spirits who live in the forests:
+"They are as large as people but have wings and can fly; their toes
+are at the back of their feet and their fingers point backwards from
+their wrists." The several references to them in the tales such as
+"you alan girls whose toes on your feet turn out" indicate they were
+so considered in the first times (p. 161). Some of them are addressed
+as "you alan of the springs," and in one instance a man dives down
+into the water where the alan live (p. 148), but in general their
+homes seem to be similar to but much finer than those of the people
+of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan. These spirits appear time after time as
+the foster mothers of the leading characters: Generally they secure
+a drop of menstrual blood, a miscarriage, or the afterbirth, and all
+unknown to the real parents, change them into children and raise them
+(p. 83). These foster children are pictured as living in houses of
+gold situated near springs, the pebbles of which are of Gold or beads;
+[30] the places where the women set the pots while dipping water are
+big plates or dishes, while similar dishes form the stepping stones
+leading up to the house. Articles of gold are found in the dwellings
+and valuable jars are numerous. When the true relationships of these
+children are established they always go to their blood parents,
+carrying with them these riches, which are a source of wonder and
+comment (pp. 43, 64).
+
+The people of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan have many dealings with
+the celestial bodies. The big star Bagbagak appears as the husband
+of Sinag--the moon--and father of the star maiden Gaygayóma, who,
+Aponitolau assures his wife, is a spirit. When this girl comes down
+to steal sugar-cane she takes off her star dress and appears as a
+beautiful maiden; [31] she becomes enamored with Aponitolau and takes
+him to the sky, where he lives with her. They have a child, who later
+marries in Kadalayapan and thereafter stays below. Upon the occasion
+when Aponitolau visits his first wife and fails to return to the sky
+at the appointed time, a great company of stars are sent to fetch him,
+with orders to devour him if he refuses to obey (p. 109, ff.).
+
+In the first tale Aponitolau himself appears as "the sun," "the
+man who makes the sun," as "a round stone which rolls," but when
+it is established that he is the son of a couple in Kadalayapan he
+apparently relinquishes his duties in the sky and goes to live in
+the village of his people. With him goes his wife Aponibolinayen, who
+had been carried above by a vine. While at his post in the heavens,
+Aponitolau is closely associated with the big star, whose duty it is to
+follow him in the sky. Again we are told that Aponitolau is taken up
+by the spirit Kabkabaga-an, whom he marries and by whom he has a son
+(p. 114). In some instances this hero and his son Kanag converse with
+thunder and lightning, which appear at times not unlike human beings
+(p. 100); but in the eighth relation the two kinds of lightning are
+pictured as dogs who guard the town of Dona.
+
+These people enjoy unusual relations with inanimate things, and we
+find them conversing with spears and with jars. [32] In one case the
+latter appear to be pastured like animals, and surround Aponitolau when
+he goes to feed them with lawed [33] leaves and salt (p. 51). Weapons
+weep blood and oil when taken down for the purpose of injuring certain
+persons (p. 43). A nose flute, when played by a youth, tells him of
+his mother's plight (p. 152), while a bamboo Jew's harp summons the
+brothers of its owner (p. 162). Animals and birds are frequently in
+communication with them: The hawk flies away and spreads the news of
+the fight at Adasin [34] (p. 90); at the bidding of Dalonágan a spider
+spins a web about the town (p. 124); and Aponitolau is enabled to
+fulfill the labors assigned him by the ten-headed giant only through
+the aid of spiders, ants, and flies (p. 101). [35] During certain
+dances the water from the river flows over the town and fish come
+up and bite the feet of the dancers (p. 59). Crocodiles are left to
+guard the sister of Aponibalagen, and when they fail to explain their
+negligence they are whipped and sent away by their master (p. 87). A
+great bird is pleased with Aponitolau and carries him away [36] to its
+home, where it forces him to marry a woman it had previously captured
+(p. 92). In one instance an animal gives birth to a human child; a frog
+laps up the spittle of Aponitolau, and as a result becomes pregnant
+[37] and gives birth to a maiden who is taken away by the spirits
+(p. 105). Another account states that the three sons of Aponitolau
+and Aponibolinayen are born as pigs, but later assume human form
+(p. 116). Kanag becomes a snake when he tries to secure the perfume
+of Baliwán, but is restored to human form when he bathes in a magic
+well (p. 137). These and other mysterious happenings, many of which
+are not explained as being due to their own volition, befall them;
+thus Ingiwan, while walking, is confronted by an impassable hill and
+is compelled to cross the ocean, where he finds his future wife, but
+upon his return the hill has vanished (p. 86). In other instances the
+finger rings of people meeting for the first time exchange themselves
+(p. 92). The headband of Ligi flies away without his knowledge and
+alights on the skirt of a girl who is bathing in the river. As a
+result she becomes pregnant, and when the facts become known Ligi is
+recognized as the child's father (p. 144). It seems probable that
+the superior powers are responsible for these occurrences, for in
+at least one instance the great spirit Kaboniyan steals a maiden and
+turns her into a flock of birds, who talk with and assist the owner
+of a rice field (p. 151).
+
+While they thus appear to be to a certain extent under the control
+of the spirits and to be surrounded by animals and inanimate things
+with human intelligence and speech, the people of these "first times"
+possess great power over nature: Time and space are annihilated, for
+at their will daylight comes at once (p. 150), or they are transported
+to a place in an instant (p. 92). At their command people appear:
+Kanag creates betel-nut trees, then cuts the fruit into bits, Which he
+sows on the ground. From these come many people who are his neighbors,
+and one of whom he marries (p. 121). The course of nature is changed:
+A field is planted in an instant; the crops mature in a few days, and
+the grain and fruits take themselves to the store-house (p. 150). A
+strike-a-light turns into a hill which impedes pursuers (p. 75), [38]
+while a belt or head-axe serves as a ferry across a body of water
+(p. 84). A storm is called upon to carry a person or a building to
+a distance (p. 121), and a spring is created by killing an old man
+(p. 60). [39] Prepared food appears at a word; a stick when cooked
+becomes a fish, and though it is repeatedly broken and served it
+always appears ready for service at meal time (p. 33); a small jar
+containing a single grain of rice supplies an abundance of food;
+another jar no larger than a fist furnishes drink for a company and
+still remains a third full; while a single earring fills a pot with
+gold [40] (pp. 47, 119, 123).
+
+Quite as easy as the creation of beings is the causing of sleep or
+death. All the people of a village are put to sleep at the will of a
+single person (p. 145) and Albaga--while still at a distance--causes
+the death of Aponibolinayen (p. 44). At a word of command the spears
+and head-axes of the people of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan go out
+and kill great numbers of the enemy, and the heads and booty take
+themselves in orderly fashion to towns of their new owners (pp. 66,
+75). Many methods of restoring the dead to life are employed; spittle
+is applied to the wounds, or the victim is placed in a magic well,
+but the common method is for the hero "to whip his perfume," [41]
+whereupon the dead follow his commands (pp. 152, 157).
+
+The birth of a child, to a woman of these times, is generally preceded
+by an intense itching between the third and last fingers, and when this
+spot is pricked the child pops out "like popped rice." [42] Its growth
+is always magical, for at each bath its stature increases by a span
+(p. 102). Within a few days the baby is a large child and then begins
+deeds of valor worthy of the most renowned warriors (pp. 95, 96).
+
+The power of assuming animal forms appears to be a common possession,
+and we find the different characters changing themselves into
+fireflies, ants, centipedes, omen birds, and in one case into oil [43]
+(pp. 85, 99).
+
+One of the most peculiar yet constantly used powers of these people
+is their ability to send betel-nuts on various missions. Whenever
+an invitation to a ceremony or celebration is to be extended, nuts
+covered with gold are oiled and sent out. They go to the intended
+guest, state their errand, and, if refused, forthwith proceed to grow
+on his knee, forehead, or pet pig, until pain or pity compels him to
+accept (p. 146). In some cases it appears that the nuts themselves
+possess the magic properties, for we find Aponitolau demanding that
+his conquered foes give him their betel-nuts with magic power (p. 91).
+
+Relationships can be readily ascertained by the chewing of these nuts,
+for when the quids are laid down they are transformed into agate and
+golden beads and lie in such a manner that the associations are fully
+established (pp. 35, 36, 41).
+
+Enough has been mentioned to show how important a part magic and
+magical practices play in the life of this people, but one further
+reference should be made, since it is found in nearly every tale. When
+the marriage price is settled upon, the mother of the groom exercises
+her power and at once fills the spirit house with valuable jars and the
+like; this is repeated until enough are gathered to meet the demands
+of the girl's people (p. 133). Even when the agreed sum has been
+delivered we often find the girl's mother herself practicing magic,
+to secure additional payment, and by raising her elbows or eyebrows
+causing a part of the jars to vanish (pp. 133, 143).
+
+Despite their great gifts we find that these people are not
+all-powerful and that they deem it wise to consult the omens before
+starting on a task or a journey. The gall sack and liver of a pig are
+eagerly examined, [44] while the calls of birds, actions of animals,
+or signs received from the thunder and lightning regulate their
+conduct. In cases where these warnings are disregarded misfortune or
+death always overtakes the individual (pp. 48, 49, 100 ff).
+
+Death comes to them, but apparently is only a temporary state. The
+deceased are often revived by some magical process (p. 152), but if
+not the corpse is placed on a raft and is set adrift on the river. [45]
+The streams and rivers, we are told, all flow past Nagbotobotán before
+they empty into the hole where all streams go. In this place lives the
+old woman Alokotán, who is related to the people of Kadalayapan and
+Kaodanan. Her duty it is to watch for dead relatives, to secure them,
+and make them alive again (p. 132). She is the owner of a magic pool,
+the waters of which revive the dead and renew youth.
+
+Comparison of the Reconstructed Culture with Present Day
+Conditions.--Before passing to a consideration of the tales in the last
+two divisions of our material, it may be well to compare the life and
+beliefs of these "people of the first times" with those of the living
+Tinguian. Kadalayapan and Kaodanan appear, in a vague way, to have been
+located in Abra, for we learn that the Ilocano, Don Carlos, went up the
+river from Baygan (Vigan) [46] to Kadalayapan; that the alzados [47]
+lived near by; while the tattooed Igorot occupied the land to the south
+(pp. 77, 155). The villages were surrounded by defensive walls such as
+were to be found about all Tinguian villages until recent times, and
+which are still to be seen about Abang and other settlements. Within
+the walls were many houses, the descriptions of most of which would
+fit the dwellings of to day. The one thing which seems foreign to
+present conditions is the so-called "ninth room" which receives rather
+frequent mention. There is nothing in the tales referring to buildings
+or house construction which lends support to the contention of those
+who seek to class the Tinguian as a modified sub-group of Igorot. [48]
+The Bontoc type of dwelling with its ground floor sleeping box and
+its elevated one room kitchen and storage room is nowhere mentioned,
+neither is there any indication that in past or present times the
+Tinguian had separate sleeping houses for the unmarried men and boys,
+and for the girls, as do their neighbors to the south.
+
+The other structures, such as the spirit houses, rice drying
+frames, and granaries were similar to those seen to-day in all the
+villages. Likewise the house furnishings, the musical instruments,
+and even the games of the children were such as are to be found at
+present, while our picture of the village life given on page 6 still
+fits nearly any Tinguian settlement in Abra. The animals mentioned
+are all familiar to the present people, but it is worthy of note
+that in the first twenty-six tales, which make up the cycle proper,
+the horse is not mentioned, nor does the carabao appear to be used
+as a work animal. Still more important is the fact that the terraced
+fields and the rice culture accompanying them, which to-day occupy
+a predominant place in the economic life of the people, are nowhere
+mentioned. On the other hand, the langpádan, or mountain rice,
+assumes a place of great importance. References to the cultivation
+of the land all seem to indicate that the "hoe culture," which is
+still practiced to a limited extent, took the place of agriculture.
+
+The clothing, hair dressing, and ornaments, worn by these people,
+agree closely with those of to-day. Beads seems to have been of
+prime importance, but could scarcely have been more prized or more
+used than at present. Unless she be in mourning, the hair and neck
+of each woman are now ornamented with strings of beads, many of them
+of evident antiquity, while strands above strands cover the arms from
+the wrist to the elbow or even reach to the shoulder. [49]
+
+The wealth of a person seems to have been, to a large extent,
+determined by the number of old jars in his possession. As at the
+present time, they formed the basis of settlement for feuds, as payment
+for a bride, and even figured in the marriage ceremony itself. The
+jars, as judged from their names, were evidently of ancient Chinese
+manufacture, and possessed power of speech and motion similar to that
+of human beings; but in a lesser measure the same type of jars have
+similar powers to-day. [50]
+
+The use of gold and jewels seems to have been common in the old times;
+the latter are seldom seen in the district to-day, but the use of bits
+of gold in the various ceremonies is still common, while earrings of
+gold or copper are among the most prized possessions of the women. [51]
+Placer mining is well known to the Igorot of the south, who melt and
+cast the metal into various ornaments. So far as I am aware, this is
+not practiced by the present Tinguian, but may point back to a time
+when the industry was known in this region, or when trade relations
+with the south were much freer than in recent years.
+
+The weapons of the warriors, which we are specifically told were of
+metal, are identical with those seen at the present time, while the
+methods of warfare agree with the accounts still told by the old men
+of their youthful exploits.
+
+A survey of the tales brings out boldly the fact that a headhunt was
+one of the most important events in Tinguian life. To-day stress of
+circumstances has caused the custom to suffer a rapid decline, but
+even now heads are occasionally taken, while most of the old men have
+vivid recollections of the days when they fought "in the towns of their
+enemies." A spirited account of a head celebration seen in the village
+of Lagangilang--from which ten of these tales were collected--will
+be found in the writings of La Gironiere, already referred to. [52]
+It is important to note that this account, as well as those secured
+from many warriors of the present generation, offers some striking
+differences to the procedure in the olden days, particularly as regards
+the disposal of the skulls. The tales tell of the heads being placed
+on the sagang [53] at the spring, at the gate, or about the town,
+after the celebration. Certain of the present villages make use of
+the sagang, but the more common type of head holder is the saloko,
+[54] which still figures in many ceremonies. However, the heads only
+remain in these receptacles until the day set for the festival. They
+are then carried to the centre of the village and there, amid
+great rejoicing, are cut open; the brains are removed and to them
+are added the lobes of the ears and joints of the little fingers,
+and the whole is then placed in the liquor, which is served to the
+dancers. Before the guests depart the skulls are broken into small
+pieces and a fragment is presented to each male guest, who carries
+it home and is thus often reminded of the valor of the takers. [55]
+A study of Tinguian beliefs furnishes an additional religious motive
+for the taking of heads, but with the people of Kadalayapan and
+Kaodanan revenge and the desire for renown were the prime incentives.
+
+Every tale emphasizes the importance of the Sayang ceremony and
+the spirit structure known as balaua. [56] The ceremony is nowhere
+described in full, but the many details which are supplied show that
+it was almost identical with that of to-day. The same is true of the
+Dawak, [57] which we find mentioned on three different occasions, and
+of the ceremony made to aid in locating lost or stolen articles. The
+most noticeable fact, to the person familiar with Tinguian life,
+is that these are the only ceremonies mentioned among the many known
+and practiced at present. More than a score of different rites are
+now well known to this people, and occupy a very considerable portion
+of their time and attention during the first four months of the year.
+
+The failure to make mention of these very important events is
+explained, it seems to me, not by their absence, but by the fact that
+these rites vary in importance and that the privilege of celebrating
+them is hereditary in a family. Should one not entitled to hold
+such a ceremony desire to do so, he must first give, in order, all
+the lesser events, a costly procedure extending over a period of
+several years. The people of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan always appear
+as being closely related to the spirit Kaboniyan, [58] and exceedingly
+powerful. It seems probable that the story teller takes it for granted
+that all of them are entitled to hold the most important ceremony
+known to the Tinguian.
+
+A prominent figure in these rites is the medium, through whom the
+ancient people generally conversed with the spirits, but in exceptional
+cases we found the heroes talking direct with the superior beings;
+however, this gift is not confined to the men of old, for in such
+tales as 55 and 59 people who are believed to have lived recently
+have conversed with the spirits and have even been joined to them
+in marriage.
+
+The procedure in choosing a bride, the engagement, the pakálon, [59]
+and the marriage proper are all those of the present day, but the
+rules governing the marriage of relatives differ radically. As already
+noted, one of the chief qualifications for marriage, among the people
+of the tales, was relationship, and even cousins became husband and
+wife. Such a thing is unthinkable among the Tinguian of to-day; first
+cousins are absolutely barred from marrying, while even the union of
+second cousins would cause a scandal, and it is very doubtful if such a
+wife would be allowed to share in her deceased husband's property. [60]
+
+It appears that only one real [61] wife is recognized as legitimate,
+but that from "the first times" to the present a man might have as
+many concubines as he could secure.
+
+So far as mythology and present day conditions can inform us the bride
+has always gone to the home of her husband and, for a time at least,
+has been subject to the dictations of her mother-in-law, although the
+couple are generally soon established in a home of their own, in the
+town of the groom. There is nothing in Tinguian life or tradition to
+indicate that they have ever had a clan system or a matriarchal form
+of government.
+
+The few references to the procedure immediately after a death indicate
+that, in part, the people of to-day follow the old custom; but here
+again an important departure occurs. We are thrice told that the
+corpse was placed on a little raft called tabalang and set adrift
+on the river; and in one case the afterbirth was treated in the same
+manner. Nothing of the sort is done to-day, nor does it seem at all
+likely that such has been the case in recent generations. The body
+is now buried beneath the house, and certain set rules govern the
+movements of all persons related to the deceased, as well as the
+disposal of the corpse. This procedure is so complex and so uniform
+throughout the whole Tinguian belt that it seems improbable that it
+has grown up, except through a long period of time. At this point
+it is interesting to note that at many ceremonies it is necessary to
+construct a small raft called tal-talababong, or talabong, to place
+offerings in it, and set it adrift on the stream, in order that any
+spirits who have been prevented from attending the ceremony may still
+secure their share. [62]
+
+The festivals, the dances, the observances of the proprieties required
+by good breeding or custom of to-day, follow closely those given in
+the tales. The greatest divergence is in the offering of betel-nuts
+and the telling of names, which occupies such an important place in
+the narratives. The use of betel-nut for chewing is less common among
+the Tinguian people than with most other Philippine tribes, a fact
+which may be accounted for by their constant use of tobacco. However,
+betel-nuts still occupy a most important place in the various
+ceremonies, and many offerings intended for the spirits must be
+accompanied with the prepared nut. In nearly every instance when
+invitations were sent out, for a ceremony, the people of the tales
+intrusted an oiled betel-nut covered with gold with this duty. This
+has its counterpart to-day in the small gifts of gold which are
+often carried to some friend, in another town, whose presence is
+particularly desired. It seems not improbable that the golden colored
+husks of the ripe betel-nuts may have suggested the substitution.
+
+Magic was practiced extensively in "the first time," but it is by
+no means unknown to the people of the present day. They cannot now
+bring a dead person to life, or create human beings out of bits of
+betel-nut; but they can and do cause sickness and death to their foes
+by performing certain rites or directing actions against garments or
+other objects recently in their possession. Even the name of an enemy
+can be applied to an animal or inanimate object and action against
+it be transferred to the owner.
+
+Like the Tinguian, the people of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan are warned
+or encouraged by omens received through the medium of birds, thunder,
+lightning, or the condition of the gall and liver of a slaughtered pig;
+[63] and like them they suffer for failure to heed these warnings,
+or for the infraction of a taboo.
+
+The myths of the first division make it plain that, to the people of
+those times, the sun, moon, and stars were animate--either spirits or
+human beings. In some cases a similar conception was held for thunder
+and lightning, while in others they appear as animals. It will appear
+that such ideas are not foreign to the second division of the tales,
+which represent present day beliefs. Thus, in the mountain village
+of Baay the sky is considered as a male spirit--the husband of the
+earth, and father of sun and moon. Again, in Lagangilang and Abang,
+the thunderbolt is identified as Kadaklan--the most powerful of all
+spirits--who "often eats the ground and releases his wife Agemem."
+
+This brings us to a most interesting question, namely: Are the chief
+actors in our tales to be considered as celestial beings and spirits,
+or as human heroes? We have already made note of the fact that in the
+first tale Aponitolau is identified with Ini-init whom, we are told,
+was "the sun," "the man who makes the sun," "a round stone which
+rolls." In this tale he marries Aponibolinayen, a maiden whose name
+may possibly be construed to mean "the woman in the moon." [64]
+However, we find Aponitolau abandoning his place in the sky and
+going to reside in Kadalayapan. This tale comes from the town of
+Langangilang where, as we have already seen, the celestial beings
+are regarded as spirits. Tale fifteen, coming from the same town,
+shows us this same Aponitolau going up to the sky, where he marries
+the spirit Kabkabaga-an, but as before he returns to his home below. A
+further indication of his celestial character is perhaps afforded us
+in tale fourteen, which was recorded in Patok, a valley town in which
+the sun, moon, and stars are now regarded as "lights" belonging to
+the spirit Kadaklan. Here we find that Aponitolau marries the star
+maid Gaygayóma, who is the daughter of the big star Bagbagak, and
+Sinag--the moon. In this same tale Aponibolinayen appears as the
+first wife of Aponitolau, and it is clear that in the mind of the
+story teller she is not identified with Sinag. Aponitolau appears in
+the other tales without any hint of celestial qualities. Aside from
+her name and the fact that she is once pictured as visiting the sky,
+there is nothing to indicate that his wife Aponibolinayen is to be
+considered as the moon. A careful study of the other characters who
+reside in Kadalayapan and Kaodanan fails to yield any evidence that
+they are considered as celestial beings.
+
+During the Sayang ceremony held in San Juan, a certain man and woman,
+who are then called Iwaginán and Gimbagon, [65] represent the good
+spirits and are defended by the people when evil spirits try to
+dispossess them of their property. This is the only instance I have
+observed in which the names of any of these characters of the tales
+appear in the ceremonies, while a list of more than one hundred and
+fifty spirits known to the Tinguian fails to reveal more.
+
+While in the practice of magic, and in their communication with nature,
+celestial bodies, and spirits, these "people of the first times"
+far excelled the present Tinguian, they had a material culture and
+ceremonial life much like that still found in Abra.
+
+It seems then that these people, about whom the stories cluster, are
+not to be identified as celestial beings or spirits. [66] They appear
+rather as generalized heroes whose life and deeds represent that of
+an earlier period, magnified and extolled by succeeding generations.
+
+
+RITUALISTIC AND EXPLANATORY MYTHS
+
+The second division of the tales now assumes a position of importance
+to us, for in it we find present day ideas and beliefs of the people
+strongly brought out, and are thus in a position to contrast them
+with the tenets of the people in "the first times."
+
+The influence of custom is exceedingly strong among the Tinguian of
+to-day. The fact that the ancestors did so and so is sufficient
+justification for performing any act for which they have no
+definite explanation. Nowhere is this influence greater than in the
+ceremonies. These, which accompany all the important happenings in
+their daily life, are conducted by mediums who are fitted for office
+by long training, and each one of whom is a check on the others if
+they wilfully or through carelessness deviate from the old forms. The
+ritual of these ceremonies is very complex and the reason for doing
+many acts now seems to be entirely lost, yet the one explanation
+"kadaúyan"--custom--is sufficient to satisfy any Tinguian. Other acts,
+as well as the possession of certain things, are explained by myths,
+such as we are considering. It seems certain that we are here dealing
+not with present day beliefs alone, but with at least relatively old
+customs and tales, which while enabling us to understand present day
+conceptions also give us a glimpse into the past.
+
+The myths 32-40, which are known to the people as diams, are now
+inseparable parts of the various ceremonies. Thus, when a pig is to
+be offered in the Sayang ceremony, the medium sits down beside it and
+strokes it with oiled fingers while she "talks to the spirits." The
+translation of her "talk" shows that this is in no sense a prayer
+but is rather an account of how the greatest of the spirits taught
+the Tinguian people to perform this ceremony correctly. Likewise,
+when she offers food in the Dawak  [67] ceremony, she relates how the
+spirit Kaboniyan taught the Tinguian to do this in the same manner
+that he performs it. In the Pala-an [68] diam she relates, in story
+form, the cause of the sickness, but in this case ends with a direct
+invocation to the spirits in Dadáya to "make them well again if you
+please." The balance of the diams, 35-40, are in story form, and
+seem intended more as an explanation to the people as to the causes
+of their troubles than to be directed toward the spirits. However,
+the medium seldom has an audience, and rarely ever a single listener,
+as she recites the diams she has learned verbatim from her instructors
+when preparing for the duties of her office.
+
+Myths 41-54 are of quite a different type. They are generally told
+by the mediums or wise old people, during the ceremonies, but always
+to a crowd of eager listeners. They are not learned word for word, as
+are the diams, but their content is constant and they are thoroughly
+believed.
+
+That they exert a great influence on the beliefs and conduct of
+both old and young is undoubted. The evil which befalls a person who
+molests the guardian stones is thus made known even to the children who
+generally keep at a distance from the grove in which they stand. Again,
+these tales give sharp warning as to what befalls a person who even
+ignorantly breaks the taboos following a death; but at the same time
+advance means of thwarting the wrath of the enraged or evil spirits.
+
+Myths 55 to 62 at first glance to not appear to be explanatory
+at all, but seem rather to be a series of stories dealing with the
+relations between certain persons and the natural spirits or those of
+the dead. However, it is the intent and use rather than the form of
+these stories which has caused them to be included in this division,
+for they give the people authority for certain beliefs and conceptions
+which they hold. Tale 56 gives us a glimpse of the prevalent idea of
+the abode of the dead, where the spirits lead much the same sort of
+life as they did while alive, but we secure quite a different picture
+of this realm from the Baluga  [69] tale, in which the home of the
+deceased is said to be in the ground while the "life" of the dead
+woman is kept in a bamboo cup. This last account was heard in Manabo,
+a town near to the Igorot settlements of the Upit river, and may be
+influenced by the beliefs held in that section. [70]
+
+Certain individuals appear to have intimate dealings with the natural
+spirits, in some instances even being joined to them in marriage. The
+afterbirth child, Sayen, is believed to have lived "not very long
+ago;" yet we find his life and actions quite similar to those of
+the heroes in "the first times," while his foster mother--the alan
+[71]--takes the same part as did the alan of old.
+
+Relations 63 to 74 appear as pure explanatory tales, accounting
+for the existence and appearance of celestial bodies and animals in
+their present state; they also account for the possession of fire and
+of many prized objects, such as jars and agate beads. Incidentally
+many essential traits and old customs come out, such, for instance,
+as those of war and mourning, which appear in connection with the
+origin of the kalau. [72]
+
+With few exceptions the myths of this division correspond to present
+beliefs; the spirits are those known to-day; the towns mentioned are
+now existing or their former locations are well known. They have thus
+the appearance of being of more recent origin than those of the first
+division, yet it is worthy of note that there is little in them which
+seems foreign to or out of keeping with the older tales.
+
+
+FABLES
+
+The last division may be said to be made up of fables, for the story
+tellers without hesitation label them as fictions. The last of these
+appears to be only a worked over incident of myth 56, in which the
+big bird Banog carries the hero to its nest, from which he escapes
+by holding to the wings of the young birds. It is possible that more
+of these fables are likewise incidents in tales prevalent among the
+Tinguian, but not heard by the writer. Whether or no this be true, it
+is certain that most of these stories are well known to the Ilocano
+of the coast and the other Christianized natives throughout the
+archipelago. Comparison with the folk-lore from other regions shows
+that these stories are by no means confined to the Philippines. The
+chief incidents in the narrative of the turtle and the monkey have been
+recorded from the Kenyah of Borneo [73] and from the northern peninsula
+of Celebes; [74] the race between the shell and the carabao is told in
+British North Borneo [75] in regard to the plandok and crab, while it
+is known to European children as the race between the turtle and the
+hare. The threat of the mosquito in 84 is almost identical with that
+recorded by Evans in Borneo; [76] while many incidents in the fable
+of Dogidog [77] are found in the Iban story of Simpang Impang. [78]
+
+When comparing the Tinguian versions of these fables with those of the
+Ilocano, one is impressed with the fact that while the incidents upon
+which they are founded are often identical, the stories themselves
+have frequently been moulded and changed by the tellers, who have
+introduced bits of old customs and beliefs until they reflect, in a
+way, the prevalent ideas of the people. Thus in the story of the magic
+poncho, [79] which is evidently of Spanish introduction, the owner
+is identified as the banbantay--a well-known minor spirit. Again,
+the first part of tale 85 is identical with that of the Ilocano,
+but ends with the parents of the groom preparing the things used in
+the pakálon--a very necessary part of the Tinguian marriage ceremony.
+
+The footnotes have called attention to the many incidents which have
+their parallels in other districts. Reference to these shows that
+a large percentage are found in the islands toward the south. While
+recognizing that similarity of incidents does not necessarily mean
+identity of origin, we must still give full credit to the effects
+of borrowing, even over great distances. The easy communication
+along the coast during the past four hundred years and the contact
+with Spanish and Christianized officials and traders will readily
+explain the likeness of the tales in Division III to those held in
+distant islands, or even in Europe, but, as just noted, these are
+now undergoing change. Doubtless a similar inflow had been taking
+place, although at a slower rate, long before the Spaniards reached
+the Islands, and Tinguian mythology has grown up as the result of
+blending of native tales with those of other areas, the whole being
+worked over and reshaped until it fitted the social setting.
+
+Previous writers--among them Ratzel and Graebner [80]--have sought
+to account for certain resemblances in culture, between Malaysia,
+Polynesia, and America, by historical connection. A part of our
+material--such as that of the blood-clot child (p. 125), [81] the rape
+of the maiden by the vine which carries her to the sky (p. 33), [82]
+the magic flight (p. 75), [83] and magic growth (p. 38) [84]--may seem
+to lend support to such a theory. These similarities are assuredly
+suggestive and interesting, but it appears to the writer that the
+material is too scanty and the folklore of intervening lands too
+little known to justify us in considering them as convincing proof
+of borrowing over such immense distances. [85]
+
+
+
+GENERAL RESULTS
+
+Our study has brought out certain general results. We have seen
+that Tinguian folklore has much in common with that of other tribes
+and lands. While a part of this similarity is doubtless due to
+borrowing--a process which can still be seen at work--a considerable
+portion of the tales is probably of local and fairly recent origin,
+while the balance appears to be very old. These older tales are so
+intimately interwoven with the ceremonies, beliefs, and culture of this
+people that they may safely be considered as having been developed by
+them. They are doubtless much influenced by present day conditions,
+for each story teller must, even unconsciously, read into them some
+of his own experiences and the current beliefs of the tribe. At the
+same time these traditional accounts doubtless exercise a potent
+influence on the thoughts, beliefs, and actions of the people. In
+Tinguian society, where custom still holds undisputed sway, these
+well-known tales of past times must tend to cast into the same mould
+any new facts or experiences which come to them.
+
+We believe that we are justified when we take the viewpoint of
+the Tinguian and consider "the stories of the first times" as
+essentially very old. How old it is impossible to state definitely,
+but a careful analysis of our material justifies us in believing that
+they reflect a time before the people possessed terraced rice fields,
+when domestic work animals were still unknown, and the horse had not
+yet been introduced into their land. That these are not recent events
+is attested by the great part they all now play in the ceremonial
+and economic life. It is evident that outside influences of great
+importance were introduced at a period later than the time when the
+Chinese first began to trade along the coasts of the Philippines for
+the prized jars, which play such an important rôle in the mythology,
+are not to be identified as those of native make but are ancient
+Chinese vessels dating back at least to the fourteenth and perhaps
+even to the tenth century. [86]
+
+It is probable that the glass, porcelain, and agate beads, which
+are second only to the jars in importance, are exceedingly old. Many
+ancient specimens are still in use and are held for as fabulous prices
+as are those found among the interior tribes of Borneo. Nieuwenhuis
+has shown that the manufacture of beads had become a great industry
+in the middle ages, and had extended even to China and Japan, whence
+the products may have spread contemporaneously with the pottery. [87]
+
+We have seen that, for the most part, the life, customs, and beliefs
+which appear in our reconstruction of "the first times" agrees
+closely with present conditions; certain things which seem formerly
+to have been of prime importance--such as the sending of a betel-nut
+covered with gold to invite guests to a festival or ceremony--appear
+to have their echo in present conditions. The betel-nut which played
+such a momentous part in the old times still holds its place in the
+rituals of the many ceremonies, although it is not now much used in
+daily life. The magic of to-day is less powerful than formerly, but is
+still a tremendous force. The communication of the ancient people with
+other members of the animate world, as well as with the inanimate and
+spiritual, and their metamorphosis into animals and the like, offers
+nothing strange or inconsistent to the people of to-day. They even now
+talk to jars, they converse with spirits who come to them through the
+bodies of their mediums, and people only recently deceased are known to
+have had the power of changing themselves, at will, into other forms.
+
+In short, there is no sharp break between the mode of thought of to-day
+and that exhibited in the folklore. It is true that the tales give
+sanction to some things not in agreement with Tinguian usage--such,
+for instance, as the marriage of relatives, or the method of disposing
+of the dead--and it may be that we have here a remembrance of customs
+which long ago fell into disuse.
+
+In a previous paper  [88] the writer showed that there have been many
+migrations into Abra from the north, south, and west. A part of the
+emigrants have become thoroughly amalgamated with the Tinguian people
+and have doubtless introduced some part of their material culture
+and beliefs. This helps us to understand such conflicts as we have
+already noted in regard to the place held by thunder and lightning
+in the spirit world, as to the future abode of the spirits of the
+departed, as well as other discrepancies which the limits of this
+paper have prevented us from discussing.
+
+It is not impossible that those customs of "the first times," which
+are at variance with those of to-day, may represent older ideas which
+have been swamped, or, on the other hand, the memory of the strange
+customs once practiced by the emigrants may have caused them to be
+attributed to the people of the tales.
+
+Finally, we believe that a study of Tinguian mythology has shown us
+that we can gain a real knowledge of the past of a people through
+their folklore; that we can secure an insight into their mental life;
+and can learn something of the valuation they attach to certain of
+their activities and beliefs, which to us may seem at the surface
+trite and trivial.
+
+
+
+ABSTRACTS
+
+
+I
+
+
+1
+
+Two women are gathering greens when a vine wraps around one and
+carries her to the sky. She is placed near to spring, the sands of
+which are rare beads. Small house near by proves to be home of the
+sun. Woman hides until owner goes into sky to shine, then goes to
+house and prepares food. Breaks up fish stick and cooks it. It becomes
+fish. Single grain of rice cooked in pot the size of a "rooster's egg"
+becomes sufficient for her meal. Goes to sleep in house. Sun returns
+and sees house which appears to be burning. Investigates and finds
+appearance of flames comes from beautiful woman. Starts to prepare
+food, but awakens visitor. She vanishes. Each day sun finds food
+cooked for him. Gets big star to take his place in sky; returns home
+unexpectedly and surprises woman. They chew betel-nut together and
+tell their names. The quids turn to agate beads, showing them to be
+related, and thus suitable for marriage. Each night sun catches fish,
+but woman refuses it, and furnishes meat by cooking fish stick.
+
+Woman decides to go with husband on daily journey through sky. When
+in middle of heavens she turns to oil. Husband puts her in a bottle
+and drops it to earth. Bottle falls in woman's own town, where she
+resumes old form and tells false tale of her absence. She becomes
+ill, asks mother to prick her little finger. Mother does so and
+child pops out. Child grows each time it is bathed. Girl refuses to
+divulge name of child's father. Parents decide to celebrate balaua
+and invite all people. Send out oiled betel-nuts covered with gold to
+invite guests. When one refuses, nut begins to grow on his knee or
+prized animal until invitation is accepted. Child is placed by gate
+of town in hopes it will recognize its father. Gives no sign until
+sun appears, then goes to it. Sun appears as round stone. Girl's
+parents are angry because of her choice of a husband and send her
+away without good clothes or ornaments.
+
+Sun, wife and child return home. Sun assumes form of man. They
+celebrate balaua and invite all their relatives. Guests chew betel-nuts
+and the quid of the sun goes to that of Pagbokásan, so it is known
+that the latter is his father. Parents of sun pay marriage price to
+girl's people.
+
+
+
+
+2
+
+Aponibolinayen who is very ill expresses a desire for mangoes
+which belong to Algaba of Dalaga. Her brother dispatches two men
+with presents to secure them. One carries an earring, the other an
+egg. On way egg hatches and soon becomes a rooster which crows. They
+spread a belt on the water and ride across the river. When they bathe,
+the drops of water from their bodies turn to agate beads. Find way
+to Algaba's house by following the row of headbaskets, which reaches
+from the river to his dwelling. Defensive fence around the town is
+made up of boa constrictors, which sleep as they pass. Algaba seizes
+his spear and headaxe intending to kill the visitors, but weapons
+shed tears of oil. He takes other weapons, but they weep tears of
+blood. He then makes friends of the intruders. Learning their mission
+he refuses their gifts, but gets fruit and returns with them to their
+town. On way he uses magic and causes the death of Aponibolinayen. He
+takes her in his arms and restores her to life. While she rests in his
+arms, their rings exchange themselves. They chew betel-nuts and tell
+their names. The quids turn to agate beads and lie in rows. This is
+good sign. They marry and go to Algaba's town. They celebrate Sayang
+and send betel-nuts to invite their relatives. When the guests cross
+the river, the drops of water which run from their bodies are agate
+beads and stones of the river are of gold. Guests all chew betel-nut
+and lay down their quids. By arrangement of quids they learn the true
+parents of Algaba. His brother-in-law wishes to marry his new found
+sister and offers an engagement present. An earring is put in a jar
+and it is at once filled with gold, but Algaba lifts his eyebrows and
+half of the gold vanishes. Another earring is put in jar, and it is
+again full. Marriage price is paid later.
+
+
+3
+
+Aponitolau falls in love with girl he meets at the spring. They
+chew betel-nuts and tell their names. Girl gives false name and
+vanishes. Aponitolau sends his mother to arrange for his marriage
+with the girl. She wears a hat which is like a bird, and it gives
+her a bad sign, but she goes on. She crosses river by using her
+belt as a raft. The girl's parents agree to the match and price
+to be paid. Girl accepts a little jar and agate beads as engagement
+present. When Aponitolau goes to claim bride, he finds he is betrothed
+to wrong girl. His parents celebrate Sayang and invite many people,
+hoping to learn identity of girl at spring. She does not attend,
+but Aponitolau finds her among betel-nuts brought him by the spirit
+helpers. They chew betel-nuts and learn they are related and that
+both possess magical power.
+
+After their marriage Aponitolau goes to his field. There he keeps
+many kinds of jars which act like cattle. He feeds them with lawed
+leaves and salt. While he is gone, the woman to whom he was first
+betrothed kills his new wife. He restores her to life. Takes her and
+her parents to the field to see him feed his jars.
+
+
+4
+
+A bird directs Aponitolau in his search for the maiden Asibowan. Girl
+furnishes him with food by cooking a fish stick. They have a daughter
+who grows one span each time she is bathed. Aponitolau discovers that
+his parents are searching for him, and determines to go home. Asibowan
+refuses to accompany him, but uses magic and transfers him and child
+to his town.
+
+Aponitolau falls in love with girl he sees bathing, and his mother
+goes to consult her parents. She crosses river by using her belt as a
+raft; when she bathes, the drops of water from her body become agate
+beads. The girl's people agree to the marriage and accept payment
+for her.
+
+Aponitolau and his bride celebrate Sayang and send out betel-nuts to
+invite the guests. Asibowan refuses to attend, but a betel-nut grows
+on her pig until, out of pity, she consents.
+
+After the ceremony the brother of the bride turns himself into a
+firefly and follows her new sister-in-law. Later he again assumes
+human form and secures her as his wife.
+
+
+5
+
+The mother of Gawigawen is well received when she goes to seek a
+wife for her son. The girl's mother furnishes fish by breaking and
+cooking the fish stick. A day is set for payment of the marriage
+price. Guests assemble and dance. When bride dances she is so beautiful
+that sunshine vanishes, water from the river comes up into the town
+and fish bite her heels. When she arrives at her husband's home, she
+finds sands and grass of spring are made up of beads, and the walk
+and place to set jars are large plates. Her husband cuts off head of
+an old man and a new spring appears; his blood becomes beads and his
+body a great shade tree. Bride who has not yet seen the face of her
+husband is misled by evil tales of jealous women, and believes him
+to be a monster. During night she turns to oil, slips through floor
+and escapes. In jungle she meets rooster and monkey, who tell her she
+is mistaken and advise her to return home. She continues her way and
+finally reaches ocean. Is carried across by a carabao which at once
+informs its master of the girl's presence.
+
+The master comes and meets girl. They chew betel-nut, and the quids
+turn to agate beads, so they marry.
+
+They make Sayang and send betel-nuts to summon relatives. Nuts grow
+on pet pigs of those who refuse to go.
+
+Guests are carried across river by betel-nuts. During dance Gawigawen
+recognizes his lost wife and seizes her. Is speared to death by the
+new husband, but is later brought back to life. In meantime the alan
+(spirits) inform the parents of the new groom that he is their child
+(from menstrual blood). Parents repay Gawigawen for his lost bride,
+and also make payment to the girl's family.
+
+
+6
+
+The enemies of Aponibolinayen, thinking her without the protection
+of a brother, go to fight her. She glances off their spears with
+her elbows. Her weapons kill all but Ginambo, who agrees to continue
+fight in one month.
+
+Aponigawani has a similar experience with her enemies. A month later
+the two women meet as they go to continue the fight against their
+foes. They chew betel-nut, and quid of Aponibolinayen is covered with
+gold and that of her companion becomes an agate bead. They agree to aid
+each other. Go to fight and are hard pressed by foes. Spirit helpers
+go to summon aid of two men who turn out to be their brothers--were
+miscarriage children who had been raised by the alan. They go to
+aid sisters and kill so many people that pig troughs are floating in
+blood. One puts girls inside belt. They kill all the enemies and send
+their heads and plunder to the girls' homes. Brothers take girls to
+their parents. Father and mother of Aponigawani celebrate balaua and
+summon guests by means of oiled betel-nuts covered with gold. Guests
+chew betel-nut and spittle of children goes to that of parents,
+so relationship is established. Alan explain how they raised the
+miscarriage children. Heads of enemies are placed around the town
+and people dance for one month. Aponibolinayen marries brother of
+Aponigawani, who in turn marries the brother of her friend. Usual
+celebration and payments made. Relatives receive part of price paid
+for brides.
+
+
+7
+
+Aponitolau dons his best garments, takes his headaxe and spear,
+and goes to fight. When he reaches the spring which belongs to the
+ten-headed giant Giambólan, he kills all the girls, who are there
+getting water, and takes their heads. The giant in vain tries to
+injure him. Spear and headaxe of Aponitolau kill the giant and all
+the people of his town and cut off their heads. Heads are sent in
+order to hero's town--giants' heads first, then men's, and finally
+women's. On return journey Aponitolau is followed by enemies. He
+commands his flint and steel to become a high bank which prevents
+his foes from following. Upon his arrival home a great celebration
+is held; people dance, and skulls are placed around the town.
+
+
+8
+
+Aponitolau and his wife decide to celebrate Sayang, but he goes first
+to take the head of old man Ta-odan. He uses magic and arrives at once
+where foe lives. They fight and Ta-odan is beheaded. While Aponitolau
+is gone, an Ilocano comes to town and tries to visit his wife. She at
+first refuses to see him, but when he returns a needle she has dropped
+he puts a love charm on it. She then receives him into house. He
+remains until Aponitolau returns, then leaves so hastily he forgets
+his belt of gold. Woman hides belt in rice granary, but it reveals
+self by shining like fire. Aponitolau is suspicious and determines
+to find owner. As guests arrive for the celebration, he tries belt
+on each until he finds right one. He cuts off his head and it flies
+at once to his wife's breasts and hangs there. She flees with her
+children. They reach town, which is guarded by two kinds of lightning,
+but they are asleep and let them pass. They sleep in the balaua and are
+discovered by the owner of the place, who turns out to be an afterbirth
+brother of the woman. He removes the head of the dead Ilocano from
+her breasts. Betel-nuts are sent to summon their father and mother,
+who are surprised to learn of their afterbirth son. He returns home
+with them. Aponitolau fails to be reconciled to his faithless wife.
+
+
+9
+
+Ayo is hidden by her brother, but meets Dagdagalisit, who is fishing,
+and becomes pregnant. Child pops out between third and fourth fingers
+when Ayo has her hand pricked. Baby objects to first name; so is called
+Kanag. Milk from Ayo's breasts falls on her brother's legs while she is
+lousing him, and he thus learns of the child. He determines to build a
+balaua and invite all people, so he may learn who the father is. Sends
+out oiled betel-nuts to invite the guests and when one refuses to
+attend they grow on him or his pet pig. Dagdagalisit attends wearing
+only a clout of dried banana leaves. Brother of Ayo is enraged at her
+match and sends her and the baby away with her poor husband. When
+they arrive at her new home, Ayo finds her husband a handsome  man
+who lives in a golden house, and whose spring has gravel of gold
+and agates. They summon their relatives to celebrate balaua with
+them. While Ayo's brother is dancing, her husband cuts off his head,
+but he is brought back to life. Ayo's husband pays her parents for her,
+but half the payment vanishes when her mother raises eyebrows. Husband
+again completes payment. They chew betel-nut and the quids of the
+children go to those of their parents. Dagdagalisit's parents learn
+he is a miscarriage child who was cared for by the alan (spirits).
+
+
+10
+
+Aponibalagen uses magic to create a residence in the ocean for his
+sister. Takes her and companions there on backs of crocodiles. Returns
+home.
+
+Ingiwan who is walking is confronted by high bank and is forced to
+cross the ocean. Rides on his headaxe past the sleeping crocodiles
+which guard the maiden. Turns self into firefly and reaches
+girl. Assumes own form and chews betel-nut with her. Omens are good. He
+returns home and soon maiden is troubled with intense itching between
+her last fingers. She has place pricked, and baby boy pops out. Child
+grows one span at each bath. Aponibalagen learns of child when milk
+from sister's breasts falls on him. He takes her home and prepares to
+celebrate balaua. Oiled betel-nuts are sent to summon guests. They
+grow on knees of those who refuse to attend. Ingiwan, poorly clad,
+appears at the ceremony and is recognized by the child but not by its
+mother. Girl's brother, in rage, sends her away with the stranger. He
+assumes own form and proves to be handsome and wealthy. When they
+celebrate balaua, they chew betel-nut and thus learn who are his
+true parents.
+
+
+11
+
+When Aponitolau goes to visit his cousin, he finds him celebrating
+Sayang. He is incensed because no invitation has reached him,
+so sits in shade of tree near the spring instead of going up to
+the village. He finds the switch lost by Aponibolinayen. He is
+induced to attend the ceremony, where he meets with an old enemy,
+and they fight. The hawk sees the struggle and reports the death
+of Aponitolau to his sister. She sends her companions to avenge the
+death and they kill many people before they learn that the hawk was
+mistaken. Aponitolau restores the slain to life. He agrees to fight
+his enemies in two months. Before he goes to battle he summons the old
+men and women, and has them examine a pig's liver and gall. The omens
+are favorable. During the fight he becomes thirsty and his headaxe
+supplies him with water.  He stops the slaughter of his enemies when
+they agree to pay him one hundred valuable jars. The jars and heads
+of the slain take themselves to his home. A celebration is held over
+the heads, and skulls are exhibited around the town.
+
+Aponitolau goes to return the switch of Aponibolinayen. They
+chew betel-nuts and tell their names. Their finger rings exchange
+themselves, while their betel quids turn to agate beads and arrange
+themselves in lines--a sign of relationship. He cooks a stick and
+it becomes a fish. The girl vanishes, but Aponitolau turns himself
+into a firefly and finds her. They remain together one night, then
+he departs. On his way home he is seized by an immense bird which
+carries him to an island guarded by crocodiles. He is forced to marry
+a woman also captured by the bird.
+
+Aponibolinayen gives birth to a child called Kanag. Child is delivered
+when an itching spot on mother's little finger is pricked. Kanag is
+kept in ignorance of father's fate until informed by an old woman
+whom he has angered. He goes in search of his father. By using power
+of the betel-nut he is enabled to cross the water on the backs of
+sleeping crocodiles. He kills gigantic snakes and finally the bird
+which had carried away his father. He takes father and the captive
+woman back home. Both women claim Aponitolau as husband. A test is
+held and Aponibolinayen wins.
+
+
+12
+
+Pregnant woman expresses desire for fruit of bolnay tree. Her husband
+asks what it is she wishes, and she falsely tells him fish roe. He
+uses magic to catch all fish in the river, and selects one with roe,
+releases others. She throws it to the dogs, and tells husband it is
+the liver of a deer she needs. He secures it, but when it likewise is
+fed to the dogs, he changes self into an ant and hides near wife until
+he learns her real wish. He secures the bolnay fruit, but upon his
+return allows his sweethearts to get all but a small piece of it. His
+wife eats the bit left and desires more. She quarrels with husband,
+who in rage drags her to the bolnay tree and places her in a hole. Her
+child Kanag is born when an itching spot between her third and fourth
+fingers is pricked. Child grows with each bath. He agrees to go with
+other boys to fight. Plants a lawed vine which is to keep his mother
+informed as to his condition. Child's father is with war party, but
+does not recognize son. It rains continually so party cannot cook;
+but the spirit helpers of child's mother feed him, and he shares food
+with companions. They plan ambush near enemies' town. Kanag cuts off
+head of a pretty girl; his companions kill an old man and woman. They
+return home  and hold dance around the heads. When Kanag dances, earth
+trembles, coconuts fall, water from river enters the town, and the fish
+lap his feet. His father is jealous and cuts off his head. His mother
+sees lawed vine wilt and knows of son's death. Informs her husband
+he has killed son. She restores Kanag to life and they leave. Husband
+tries to follow, but magic growth of thorns in trail prevents. He is
+finally reconciled to his family and has former sweethearts killed.
+
+
+13
+
+A pregnant woman desires the fruit of an orange tree which belongs
+to the six-headed giant Gawigawen. Her husband asks her what it is
+she desires and she replies falsely; first, that she wishes a certain
+fruit, then fish roe, and finally deer liver. He secures each, taking
+the roe and liver out of the fish and deer without causing their
+death. Each of the articles makes the woman vomit, so her husband
+knows that she is not satisfied. Transforming self into a centipede he
+hides until he learns her real wish. Arms self and starts on perilous
+mission, but first plants lawed vine in house. By condition of vine
+wife is to know of his safety or death.
+
+On way small dog bites him; he is tested by lightning and by thunder,
+and in each case gets a bad sign, but continues journey. Sails over
+ocean on his headaxe. Reaches cliff on which the town of the giant
+is placed, but is unable to scale it. Chief of spiders spins a web
+on which he climbs. Giant promises him the fruit provided he eats
+whole carabao. Chiefs of ants and flies calls their followers and eat
+animal for him. Is allowed to pick fruit, but branches of tree are
+sharp knives on which he is cut. He puts two of oranges on his spear
+and it flies away to his home. He dies and lawed vine at his house
+withers. Giant uses his skin to cover end of drum, puts his hair on
+roof of house and places his head at gate of town. Wife gives birth to
+child, which grows one span each time it is bathed. While still very
+small child angers old woman who tells him of his father's fate. Child
+determines to go in search of father despite mother's protests. On
+journey he meets all the tests put to his father, but always receives
+good signs. Jumps over cliff father had climbed on the spider web. He
+challenges giant to fight and shows valor by refusing to be the first
+to use his weapons. Giant unable to injure him, for he first becomes
+an ant, then vanishes. He throws his spear and it goes through giant,
+while his headaxe cuts off five of adversary's heads. Spares last
+head so it can tell him where to find his father. Collects father's
+body together and restores it to life. Lawed vine at their home
+revives. Father tries to cut off last head of giant, but fails;
+son succeeds easily. They send the headaxes to kill all people in
+town. Slaughter is so great the father swims in blood, but son stands
+on it. Both return home and hold a great celebration over the heads.
+
+The father's spittle is lapped up by a frog which becomes
+pregnant. Frog gives birth to baby girl which is carried away by
+anitos. Girl is taught to make dawak (the duties of a medium). Her
+half brother hears her, changes self into a bird and visits her in
+the sky. Is hidden in a caldron to keep anitos from eating him. Tries
+to persuade sister to return with him. She promises to go when their
+father celebrates balaua. The ceremony is held and girl attends. Is
+so beautiful all young men try to obtain her. They are so persistent
+that brother returns her to sky where she still lives and aids women
+who make dawak.
+
+
+14
+
+Aponitolau and his wife plant sugar cane, and by use of magic cause
+it to grow rapidly. The daughter of the big star sees the cane and
+desires to chew it. She goes with her companions and steals some of
+the cane, which they chew in the field. Aponitolau hides near by
+and sees stars fall into the cane patch. He observes one take off
+her dress and become a beautiful woman. He sits on her garment and
+refuses to give it up until they chew betel-nut together. The star
+girl falls in love with him and compels him to return with her to
+the sky. Five months later she has a child which comes out from space
+between her last two fingers. Aponitolau persuades her to allow him
+to visit the earth. He fails to return at agreed time, and stars are
+sent to fetch him. He returns to the sky, but visits the earth again,
+eight months later. Earth wife bears him a child and they celebrate
+Sayang. Sky child attends and later marries an earth maiden.
+
+
+15
+
+The wife of Aponitolau refuses to comb his hair; so he has another
+woman do it. She, in turn, refuses to cut betel-nut for him to
+chew. While doing it for himself he is cut on his headaxe. The blood
+flows up into the air, and does not cease until he vanishes. Ceremonies
+made  for him are without avail.
+
+Aponitolau finds himself up in the air country. He meets maiden who
+is real cause of his plight. They live together and have a child
+which grows every time it is bathed. Aponitolau takes boy down to
+earth to visit his half brother. While there the tears of the mother
+above fall on her son and hurt him. They celebrate Sayang and the sky
+mother attends. After it is over the half brothers marry earth girls.
+
+
+
+
+
+16
+
+Ayo gives birth to three little pigs. Husband is ashamed, and while
+wife is at the spring he places the animals in a basket and hangs it in
+a tree. Basket is found by old woman, Alokotán, who takes it home. Pigs
+soon turn into boys. When grown they go to court the girls while they
+spin. Ayo hears of their visits and goes where they are. Milk from her
+breasts goes to their mouths and thus proves her to be their mother.
+
+They celebrate balaua. Ayo puts one grain of rice in each of twelve
+jars and they are at once filled with rice. Betel-nuts summon the
+people to attend the ceremony. The old woman Alokotán attends and the
+whole story of the children's birth and change to human form comes out.
+
+
+17
+
+Dumalawi makes love to his father's concubines who openly show
+their preference for the son. The father plans to do away with
+the youth. Gets him drunk and has storm carry him away. Dumalawi
+awakens in center of a large field. He causes betel trees to grow,
+then cuts the nuts into bits and scatters them on the ground. The
+pieces of nut become people who are his neighbors. He falls in love
+with daughter of one of these people and marries her. They celebrate
+Sayang and send out oiled betel-nuts to invite the guests. All
+guests, except Dumalawi's father, are carried across river on the
+back of a crocodile. Animal at first dives and refuses to carry him,
+but finally does so. All drink from a small jar which still remains a
+third full. Parents of Dumalawi pay the usual marriage price for girl,
+but her mother insists on more. Has spider spin web around the town,
+and groom's mother has to cover it with golden beads.
+
+
+18
+
+While two women are bathing, blood from their bodies is carried
+down stream. Two alan secure the drops of blood and place them in
+dishes. Each drop turns into a baby boy. Boys go to fight and kill many
+people at the spring. They challenge a ten-headed giant. He is unable
+to injure them, but their weapons kill him and his neighbors. Heads of
+the victors take themselves to homes of the boys. A storm transports
+the giant's house. Boys trample on town of the enemy and it becomes
+like the ocean. They use magic and reach home in an instant. Hold
+celebration over the heads. Some guests bring beautiful girls hidden
+in their belts. Alan tell history of lads and restore them to their
+people. One of boys falls in love and his parents negotiate match
+for him. The payment for the girl is valuable things sufficient to
+fill balaua eighteen times, and other gifts in her new home.
+
+
+19
+
+Kanag is lead by his hunting dog to a small house in the jungle. Girl
+who lives there hides, but appears on second day. They chew betel-nuts
+and tell their names. The quids turn to agate beads and lie in order,
+showing them to be related and hence suitable for marriage. They
+remain in forest two years and have children. Kanag uses magical power
+and transfers their house to his home town during night. Children
+see sugar cane which they wish to chew. Kanag goes to secure it,
+and while away his mother visits his wife and abuses her. She becomes
+ill and dies. Kanag tries to kill his mother, but fails. Puts body of
+wife on a golden raft, places golden rooster on it and sets afloat
+on the river. Rooster crows and proclaims ownership whenever raft
+passes a village. Old woman Alokotán secures raft before it vanishes
+into the hole where river ends. Revives the girl. Kanag and children
+reach home of Alokotán, and girl is restored to them. They celebrate
+balaua and send betel-nuts covered with gold to invite relatives. When
+guests arrive, they chew betel-nut and learn that Kanag and his wife
+are cousins. Kanag's parents pay marriage price, which is the balaua
+filled nine times with jars. Girl's mother raises eyebrows and half
+of jars vanish. Balaua is again filled. Guests dance and feast. Part
+of marriage price given to guests.
+
+
+20
+
+Kanaa's sweetheart desires the perfume of Baliwán and promises to
+fulfill his desires if he secures it for her. Gives him arm beads
+from left arm in token of her sincerity.
+
+Kanag and a companion set out on mission but are warned, first by a jar
+and later by a frog, not to continue. They disregard the advice and go
+on. They reach the tree on which perfume grows, and Kanag climbs up and
+breaks off a branch. He turns into a great snake, and his companion
+flees. Snake appears to Langa-ayan and proves its identity by the
+arm beads around its neck. She takes it to a magic well, the waters
+of which cause the snake skin to peel off, and the boy is restored
+to his own form. Kanag marries Amau, and when they celebrate balaua
+he returns the bracelet to his former sweetheart. His parents fill
+the balaua nine times with valuable articles, in payment for his bride.
+
+
+
+
+21
+
+Kanag is sent to watch the mountain rice, although it is well
+protected from wild pigs. Thinks parents do not care for him,
+is despondent. Changes self into an omen bird and accompanies his
+father when he goes to fight. Father obeys signs and secures many
+heads from his enemies. He holds a great celebration over the heads,
+but Kanag refuses to attend. Decides to go down to earth to eat
+certain fruits. Parents order their spirit helpers to accompany him
+and dissuade him if possible. They show him a beautiful girl with
+whom he falls in love. He assumes human form and meets her. They
+chew betel-nut and tell their names. Signs are favorable for their
+marriage. His parents agree to fill the balaua nine times with various
+kinds of jars. They do so, but mother of girl raises eyebrows and half
+of jars vanish and have to be replaced. Girl's mother demands that
+golden beads be strung on a spider web which surrounds the town. This
+is done, but web does not break. Girl's mother hangs on thread which
+still holds. She then agrees to the marriage. Guests dance and then
+return home, each carrying some of the jars.
+
+
+22
+
+While Ligi is bathing in river his headband flies away and alights
+on the skirt of a maiden who is bathing further down stream. The girl
+carries the headband home and soon finds herself pregnant. The child
+is born when she has the space between her third and fourth fingers
+pricked. With each bath the child grows a span and soon becomes so
+active that he hinders mother at her work. She decides to put him with
+his father during daytime. Uses magic and causes people of the town to
+sleep while she places child beside father. Ligi awakes and finds child
+and his headband beside him. Child refuses to answer questions. Mother
+secures child at nightfall and repeats acts next day. Child is hidden,
+so she fails to get him. Ligi determines to learn who mother of child
+is; sends out oiled betel-nuts covered with gold to invite all people
+to a Sayang. When summoned, the mother refuses to go until a betel-nut
+grows on her knee and compels her. She goes disguised as a Negrito, but
+is recognized by the child who nurses from her while she is drunk. Ligi
+suspects her, and with a knife cuts off her black skin. Learns she is
+child's mother and marries her. He divorces his wife Aponibolinayen,
+who marries husband of Gimbagonan. The latter poisons her rival,
+but later restores her, when threatened by her husband.
+
+
+
+23
+
+A flock of birds offer to cut rice for Ligi. He agrees, and goes
+home with a headache. Birds use magic so that the rice cutters work
+alone, and the tying bands tie themselves around the bundles. The
+birds each take one grain of rice in payment. They use magic again
+so that bundles of rice take themselves to the town. Ligi invites
+them to a ceremony, and then follows them home. He sees them remove
+their feathers and become one girl. They go back to the celebration,
+where all chew betel-nut. Girl's quid goes to those of her parents,
+from whom she had been stolen by the spirit Kaboniyan. The parents
+of Ligi pay the usual marriage price for the girl.
+
+
+24
+
+When the husband of Dolimáman pricks an itching spot between her third
+and fourth fingers, a baby boy pops out. Child who is called Kanag
+grows each time he is bathed. While his wife is away the father puts
+child on a raft and sets it afloat on the river. Child is rescued
+by old woman Alokotán, who is making a pool in which sick and dead
+are restored to health. Boy plays on nose flute which tells him
+about his mother, but he does not understand. Plays on bunkaka with
+same result. Mother who is searching her child passes by while he is
+playing. Milk from her breasts goes to his mouth, and she recognizes
+him. They stay with old woman despite pleading of husband.
+
+
+25
+
+Awig sends his daughter to watch the mountain rice. She stays in
+a high watch house, but is found by tattooed Igorot, who cut her
+body in two and take her head. Father goes to seek her murderers,
+but first plants a lawed vine in the house; by its condition his wife
+is to know of his safety or death. He climbs high tree and looks in
+all directions. Sees Igorot, who are dancing around the head of his
+daughter. He takes juice from the poison tree and goes to the dance,
+where he is mistaken for a companion. He serves liquor to others and
+poisons them. Takes daughter's head and starts home. Is followed by
+four enemies. Uses magic and causes cogon field to burn, so foes are
+delayed. Repeats this several times and finally escapes. He joins
+head and body of his daughter, and old woman Alokotán puts saliva
+on cuts and revives her. Old woman places four sticks in the ground
+and they become a balaua. Betel-nuts are sent out to invite guests
+and many come. When the girl dances with her lover, the water comes
+up knee deep into the town and they have to stop. She is engaged and
+her lover's parents fill the balaua three times with valuable gifts,
+in payment for her. Half of gifts vanish, when her mother raises her
+eyebrows, and are replaced.
+
+Her husband discovers the scar on her body where Igorot had cut
+her. Takes her to magic well where she bathes. Scars vanish.
+
+
+26
+
+The mother of Dumanágan negotiates marriage for her son with
+Aponibolinayen. Brother of girl puts her in his belt and carries
+her to place where agreement is made. When they reach gate of town,
+young girls offer them cakes, in order to take away bad signs seen on
+road. Boy's parents pay for girl and they marry. She gives birth to son
+named Asbinan. He marries Asigowan, but his jealous concubines cause
+her to cut her finger and she dies. Her body is placed in a tabalang on
+which a rooster sits, and is set afloat on the river. Crowing of the
+cock causes old woman Alokotán to rescue the corpse. She places it in
+her magic well and the girl is again alive and beautiful. She returns
+to her husband as a bird; is caught by him and then resumes own form.
+
+
+27
+
+Baby of four months hears his father tell of his youthful
+exploits. Decides to go on head hunt despite protests of parents. Is
+detained on his trip by young alan girls. Finally reaches Igorot town
+and by means of magic kills all the people and takes their heads. Heads
+take themselves to his home. On way back he plays bamboo jew's harp
+and it summons his brothers to come and see him. They chew betel-nut
+and make sure of relationship. Continuing his journey, he is twice
+lost. Finds an unknown sister hiding among lawed vines. Puts her in
+his belt and carries her home. Upon his arrival a celebration is held
+and the new found brothers and sister, who had been stolen by alan,
+are restored to parents.
+
+
+28
+
+The mother and caretaker of Asbinan try to arrange for him to marry
+Dawinisan, but are refused. Asbinan goes to the girl's home and feigns
+sickness. Is cared for by the girl, who becomes infatuated with him
+and accepts his suit. His parents pay jars and gold--in the shape of
+deer--for her.
+
+
+29
+
+Asbinan refuses to eat until his father secures fish roe. He then
+demands Chinese dishes from the coast town of Vigan. When these are
+supplied, he eats, and then demands the love charm which his father
+used when a young man. He goes to the place where the maidens are
+spinning, and when one offers to give him a light for his pipe,
+he blows smoke in her face. The charm acts and she becomes ill. He
+convinces her people that the only way she can be cured is by marrying
+him. Her parents accept payment for the girl.
+
+
+30
+
+Tolagan decides to visit certain places in Pangasinan. He rides on
+a pinto pony and carries rice cakes as provisions. At the spring in
+Kaodanan he meets a beautiful maiden who warns him to return home,
+because the birds have given him a bad sign. He returns only to find
+that his wife has been stolen by the spirit Kaboniyan. He fails to
+find her, but is comforted by winning a new bride (probably the girl
+of Kaodanan).
+
+
+31
+
+Two girls are adopted by a rich man, who treats them as his daughters,
+except that he does not offer them bracelets or rings. They dress as
+men and go to see a jeweler. Two young men suspect and follow them,
+but they succeed in escaping and return home.
+
+The spirit helpers of the youths take the forms of hawks and finally
+locate the maidens, whom they carry away. The youths plan to marry
+the girls and invite many friends to the celebration. Kanag and
+his companion attend, become enamored with the brides and steal
+them. Upon chewing betel-nuts they learn that they are related,
+so they are married.
+
+
+II
+
+
+32
+
+The Ipogau who are trying to celebrate Sayang make errors. The
+spirit Kadaklan and his wife instruct them to go and watch the Sayang
+at Sayau. They do as bidden and after learning all the details return
+home and perform the ceremony. The chief spirits are pleased and
+cause the lesser spirits to attend the ceremony when summoned by the
+medium. The sick improve.
+
+
+33
+
+The people who are conducting the Dawak ceremony fail to do it
+properly. Kaboniyan (a spirit) goes down and instructs them. After
+that they are able to cure the sick.
+
+
+
+34
+
+The spirits of Dadaya notice that their feather headdresses have
+lost their lustre. They place them on the house of some mortals,
+who at once become ill. The spirit Kaboniyan instructs them to make
+the Pala-an ceremony. They obey, the feathers regain their brightness
+and the people recover.
+
+
+35
+
+The father who is starting for a head-dance agrees to meet his wife
+and baby at sun down. When he reaches the agreed spot, he finds only
+their hats; he looks down and sees them in the ground. He tries in
+vain to get them out. The spirit Kaboniyan instructs him to perform
+the Ibal ceremony. He does so and receives his wife and child.
+
+
+36
+
+The spirit Ináwen, who lives in the sea, sends her servants to spread
+sickness. They kill many people who fail to make the Sangásang
+ceremony. A man is disturbed at night by barking of dogs, goes to
+door and meets a big spirit which has nine heads. Spirit tells him
+how to make the offering in Sangásang. He follows directions and
+spirits carry gift to their mistress. She mistakes the blood of a
+rooster for that of human beings. Is displeased with the taste and
+orders spirits to stop killing.
+
+
+37
+
+The spirit Maganáwan sends his servants to secure the blood of a
+rooster mixed with rice. People see many snakes and birds near gate
+of town. They make the ceremony Sangásang and offer blood and
+rice. The servants of Maganáwan carry the offering to him. He takes
+it in his mouth and spits it out, and in the same way the sickness is
+removed from the mortals.
+
+
+38
+
+The people who are digging holes for house poles get a bad sign from
+the omen bird. They abandon the place and dig again. The deer gives a
+bad sign, then the snake, then different birds. They change locations
+many times, but at last ignore the signs and complete the house. The
+family are continually in trouble and are ill.
+
+The spirit Kaboniyan goes to see the sick persons; he lets his spear
+drop through the house, and then tells them the cause of the trouble
+is that they have failed to make Sangásang. He instructs them what
+to do, and when they obey all become well.
+
+
+
+39
+
+The different parts of the house quarrel and each insists on its
+importance. At last they recognize how necessary each one is for
+the other and cease their wrangling; then the people who live in the
+house are again in good health.
+
+
+40
+
+The great spirit sees the people of Bisau celebrating the Ubaya
+ceremony, and determines to reward them by increasing their worldly
+goods. He appears as a man and rewards them.
+
+
+41
+
+Dayapán, who has been ill for seven years, goes to bathe. The spirit
+Kaboniyan enters her body and instructs her how to perform healing
+ceremonies. He also teaches her how to plant and reap, and she in
+turn teaches the Tinguian. While she is bathing she ties a cock and
+dog by the water side. The dog eats the cock, and thus death comes
+into the world.
+
+
+42
+
+Girl who lacks certain organs is ashamed to marry. She is sent by her
+mother to cause lameness to people who pass. A man who falls victim
+to her magic is only cured when the girl instructs him how to make
+the Bawi ceremony.
+
+
+43
+
+The spirit Kaboniyan instructs a sick man to make offerings at the
+guardian stones. He does as bidden and becomes well. They perform
+ceremonies near the stones when they go to fight or celebrate balaua,
+and sometimes the spirit of the stones appears as a wild rooster, a
+white cock, or a white dog. A man who defiles the stones becomes crazy.
+
+
+44
+
+Man sees a woman walking at night near the guardian stones. She
+refuses to talk and he cuts her in the thigh. She vanishes into the
+stones. Next day it is seen that one of the stones is cut. Man dies.
+
+
+45
+
+The old men of Lagayan see peculiarly shaped stones traveling down the
+river, accompanied by a band of blackbirds. They catch the stones and
+carry them to the gate of the village, where they have since remained
+as guardians.
+
+
+
+46
+
+The spirit Ibwa visits a funeral and is given some of the juices,
+coming from the dead body, to drink. Since then he always tries to eat
+the body of the dead unless prevented. He is accompanied by another
+evil spirit whose embrace causes the living to die.
+
+
+47
+
+A widow leaves the town before the period of mourning for her husband
+is past. The spirit appears first to the daughter-in-law and is fed
+by her, then asks for his wife. He goes to the place where she is
+watching the corn and sleeps with her. She apparently becomes pregnant,
+but fails to be delivered, and dies.
+
+
+48
+
+Two men agree to hunt carabao the following morning. In the night one
+dies, but the other not knowing this leaves the town and goes to the
+appointed place. He meets the spirit of the dead man, and only saves
+his life by running his horse all the way home.
+
+
+49
+
+A man and his wife are living near to their field when the husband
+dies. An evil spirit comes to the door, but is driven away by the
+wife w with a headaxe. Several evil spirits attempt to gain entrance;
+then the chief comes. He breaks down the door; he cuts off the dead
+man's ears and makes the woman chew them with him--like betel-nut. The
+signs are propitious. He changes the woman's two breasts into one,
+in the center of her chest, and takes her home.
+
+
+50
+
+A man, whose brother has just died, goes to hunt. He begins to cut
+up the game when his brother's spirit appears. He feeds it, but food
+comes out of its anus as fast as it eats. He flees and is pursued
+by the spirit until, by chance, he runs among alangtin bushes. The
+spirit dislikes the bush and leaves.
+
+
+51
+
+The people fail to put the banal vine and iron on the grave. An evil
+spirit notices the omission and steals the body.
+
+
+52
+
+A man goes to hunt his carabao in the mountains. He fails to plant
+branches at his head before he sleeps. A spirit expectorates on him,
+and he soon dies.
+
+
+
+53
+
+Two men who have to sleep in the mountains make beds of sobosob
+leaves. In the night they hear the evil spirits come and express
+a desire to get them. Spirits dislike the leaves, so do not molest
+the men.
+
+
+54
+
+Three hunters spend the night in the open. One covers himself with
+a red and yellow striped blanket. In the night two spirits come and
+think he is a little wild pig, and decide to eat him. The hunter
+hears them and exchanges blankets with one of his companions. The
+companion is eaten, and hence the kambaya, or striped blanket, is no
+longer used on the trail.
+
+
+55
+
+The spirit Bayon steals a beautiful girl and carries her to the sky,
+where he changes her breasts into one and marries her. She drops her
+rice pounder to the earth, and thus her people learn of her fate. Both
+she and her husband still attend certain ceremonies.
+
+
+56
+
+A hunter is carried away by a great bird. He is placed in the nest
+with its young and aids in feeding them. When they are large, he
+holds on to them, and jumps safely to the ground. He goes to fight
+against his enemies. While he is gone his wife dies. Upon his return
+he sees her spirit driving a cow and two pigs. He follows her to the
+spirit's town and is hidden in a rice bin. When spirits try to get
+him during the night, he repels them by throwing feathers. Feathers
+become exhausted, and he is forced to return home.
+
+
+57
+
+A man encounters a large being, which, from its odor, he recognizes
+as the spirit of a dead man. He runs to get his friends, and they
+find the spot trampled like a carabao wallow.
+
+
+58
+
+The dead wife of Baluga harvests his rice during the nighttime. He
+hides and captures her. They go together to the spirit town, in the
+ground, and secure her spirit which is kept in a green bamboo cup. As
+they are returning to the ground they are pursued, but Baluga cuts
+the vine on which their pursuers are climbing. When they reach home,
+they hold a great celebration.
+
+
+
+59
+
+An alan takes the afterbirth and causes it to become a real child
+named Sayen. Afterbirth child marries a servant, thinking he has
+married her mistress. Learns he is deceived, and causes death of his
+wife; then kills many people in the town of the girl who has deceived
+him. She gets him to desist, and after he revives some of the slain
+marries him. People of neighboring town are troubled by the komau,
+an evil spirit, who always causes the death of as many people as the
+hunters have secured deer. Sayen kills the komau. He fights with the
+great spirit Kaboniyan. Neither is able to overcome the other, so they
+become friends. They fight together against their enemies. Sayen often
+changes himself into a fish or chicken, and hides after a fight. This
+is observed by people who set a trap and capture him. He is killed.
+
+
+60
+
+A man while in the woods hears the alan near him. He feigns death and
+the spirits weep for him. They put gold and beads on the body. He
+springs up and seizes the offerings. They demand the return of one
+bead; he refuses, and the spirits burn his house.
+
+
+61
+
+Two men who have killed a wild pig desire fire. One goes to house of
+an alan and tries to secure it while the spirit sleeps. She awakes
+and goes with the man to the pig. Man carries liver of the animal back
+to the baby alan. He eats the liver and then throws the child into a
+caldron of hot water. He tells his companion what he has done, and they
+climb a tree near the water. The alan discovers their hiding place by
+seeing their reflection in the water. She climbs up, feet first, but
+they cut the vine on which she is ascending, and she is killed. They
+go to her house and secure a jar of beads and a jar of gold.
+
+
+62
+
+The flat earth is made by the spirit Kadaklan. He also makes the moon
+and sun, which chase each other through the sky. The moon sometimes
+nearly catches the sun, but becomes weary too soon. The stars are
+stones, the lightning a dog.
+
+
+63
+
+A flood covers the land. Fire has no place to go, so enters bamboo,
+stones and iron. It still lives there and can be driven out by those
+who know how.
+
+
+
+64
+
+A man finds his rice field disturbed even though well fenced in. He
+hides and in middle of night sees some big animals fly into it. He
+seizes one and cuts off its wings. The animal turns out to be a mare
+which is pregnant and soon has male offspring. The place where the
+wings once grew are still to be seen on the legs of all horses.
+
+
+65
+
+A lazy man, who is planting corn, constantly leans on his planting
+stick. It becomes a tail and he turns into a monkey.
+
+
+66
+
+A boy is too lazy to strip sugar cane for himself. His mother in anger
+tells him to stick it up his anus. He does so and becomes a monkey.
+
+
+67
+
+A lazy girl pretends she does not know how to spin. Her companions,
+in disgust, tell her to stick the spinning stick up her anus. She
+does so and at once changes into a monkey.
+
+
+68
+
+A war party are unable to cross a swollen river. They wish to become
+birds. Their wish is granted and they are changed to kalau, but they
+are not able to resume the human forms. Those who wore the white
+mourning bands, now have white heads.
+
+
+69
+
+A mother puts a basket over her lazy son. When she raises it a bird
+flies away crying "sigakók" (lazy).
+
+
+70
+
+A young man who owns a rice field gets a new wife. He leaves her to
+harvest the crop. She is discouraged over the prospect and wishes to
+become a bird. Her wish is fulfilled, and she becomes a kakok.
+
+
+71
+
+The dog of Ganoway chases a deer into a cave. The hunter follows
+and in the darkness brushes against shrubs which tinkle. He breaks
+off some branches. Cave opens again on the river bank, and he finds
+his dog and the dead deer at the entrance. He sees that fruits on
+the branches he carries are agate beads. Returns, but fails to find
+more. His townspeople go with him to seek the wonderful tree, but
+part of the cave is closed by the spirit Kaboniyan who owns it.
+
+
+72
+
+The jar Magsawi formerly talked softly, but now is cracked and cannot
+be understood. In the first times the dogs of some hunters chased the
+jar and the men followed, thinking it to be a deer. The jar eluded
+them until a voice from the sky informed the pursuers how it might
+be caught. The blood of a pig was offered, as the voice directed,
+and the jar was captured.
+
+
+73
+
+The sun and moon fight. Sun throws sand in moon's face and makes the
+dark spots which are still visible.
+
+
+74
+
+A man who went with a war party is away so long that he does not
+recognize his daughter when he returns. He embraces her when she meets
+him at the town gate. In shame she changes herself into a coconut tree.
+
+
+75
+
+Two flying snakes once guarded the gap in the mountains by which the
+Abra river reaches the sea. Two brave men attack them with banana
+trunks. Their wings stick in the banana trees and they are easily
+killed. The men are rewarded with gold made in the shape of deer
+and horses.
+
+
+76
+
+A man named Tagápen, of Ilocos Norte, with his wife and child goes up
+the Abra river on a raft. They stop at various towns and Tagápen goes
+up to each while his wife comforts the child. They finally reached
+Patok where they go to live in the balaua. They remain there teaching
+the people many songs.
+
+
+III
+
+
+77
+
+A turtle and a monkey go to plant bananas. The turtle places his in
+the ground, but the monkey hangs his in a tree. Soon the tree of the
+turtle has ripe fruit, but the monkey has none. Turtle asks monkey
+to climb and secure the fruit. Monkey eats all but one banana, then
+sleeps in the tree. Turtle plants sharp shells around the tree and
+then frightens monkey which falls and is killed. Turtle sells his
+flesh to other monkey and then chides them because they eat their
+kind. Monkeys catch turtle and threaten first to cut and then to
+burn him. He deceives them by showing them marks on his body. They
+tie weight to him and throw him into the water. He reappears with a
+fish. Monkeys try to imitate him and are drowned.
+
+
+78
+
+A turtle and lizard go to steal ginger. The lizard talks so loudly
+he attracts the attention of the owner. The turtle hides, but the
+lizard runs and is pursued by the man. The turtle enters the house
+and hides under a coconut shell. When the man sits on the shell the
+turtle calls. He cannot discover source of noise and thinks it comes
+from his testicles. He strikes these with a stone and dies. The turtle
+and the lizard see a bees' nest. The lizard hastens to get it and is
+stung. They see a bird snare and turtle claims it as the necklace of
+his father. Lizard runs to get it but is caught and killed.
+
+
+79
+
+A little bird calls many times for a boy to catch it. He snares it and
+places it in a jar. Lad's grandmother eats the bird. He discovers the
+theft, leaves home and gets a big stone to swallow him. The grandmother
+gets horses to kick the stone, carabao to hook it, and chickens to
+peck it, but without result. When thunder and her friends also fail,
+she goes home without her grandson.
+
+
+80
+
+A frog, which is attached to a hook, lures a fish so that it is caught.
+
+
+81
+
+The five fingers are brothers. The thumb goes to get bamboo. He tries
+to kiss the bamboo and his nose sticks. One by one the others go in
+search of the missing but are captured in the same manner. The little
+finger, which alone remains free, releases the others.
+
+
+82
+
+A carabao and a shell agree to race along the river. The carabao runs
+swiftly, then pauses to call "shell." Another shell replies and the
+carabao continues running. This is repeated many times until at last
+the carabao falls dead.
+
+
+
+
+83
+
+A crab and a shell go to get wood. The crab pulls the rope on his load
+so tightly that he breaks his big legs and dies. The shell finds his
+friend dead and cries until he belches his own body out of the shell
+and he dies.
+
+
+84
+
+A mosquito tells a man he would eat him were it not for his ears.
+
+
+85
+
+A messenger goes to negotiate a marriage. When he arrives he sees the
+people nodding their heads as they suck meat out of shells. He returns
+home without stating his mission, but reports an acceptance. Girl's
+people are surprised when people come for pakálon.
+
+
+86
+
+A man sees people eating bamboo shoots, and is told they are eating
+pagaldanen. He understands them to say aldan--"ladder," so he goes
+home and cooks his bamboo ladder. Is ridiculed by his friends.
+
+
+87
+
+A man with heavily laden horse asks the length of a certain trip. Boy
+replies, "If you go slowly, very soon; if you go fast, all day." The
+man hurries so that coconuts keep falling off the load and have to
+be replaced. It is dark when he arrives.
+
+
+88
+
+A woman eats the fruit belonging to crocodile and throws away the
+rind. Crocodile sees her tooth marks and recognizes the offender. He
+demands that she be given him to eat. Her people agree, but first
+feed him a hot iron. He swallows it and dies.
+
+
+89
+
+A lazy man goes to cut bamboo, and a cat steals his cooked rice. He
+catches the cat in a trap and takes it home. It becomes a fighting
+cock. The man starts for a cock fight, and on the way is joined by a
+crocodile, a deer, a mound of earth and a monkey. The rooster kills
+all the other birds at the fight, then the crocodile wins a diving
+contest, the deer a race, the mound of earth a wrestling match, and
+the monkey excels all in climbing. The man wins much money in wagers
+and buys a good house.
+
+
+
+
+90
+
+A spirit lets a man take his poncho which makes him invisible. He
+goes to his wife who recognizes his voice and thinks him dead. He
+takes off poncho and appears before her.
+
+
+91
+
+A fisherman is seized by a big bird which carries him to its nest. The
+small birds try to eat him, but he seizes one in each hand and jumps
+from the tree. He reaches the ground unhurt and returns home.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+VITA
+
+
+Fay-Cooper Cole
+
+Born Plainwell, Michigan, August 8, 1881. Educated at University of
+Southern California, Northwestern University, Chicago University,
+Berlin University, Columbia University. B.S. Northwestern University,
+1903.
+
+
+Publications:
+
+The Tinguian. Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, No. 4. 1908.
+
+Distribution of the Non-Christian Tribes of Northwestern
+Luzon. Am. Anthro., Vol. II, No. 3. 1909.
+
+The Bagobo of Davao Gulf. Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. VI,
+No. 3. 1911.
+
+Chinese Pottery in the Philippines. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,
+Vol. XII, No. 1. Chicago, 1912.
+
+Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,
+Vol. XII, No. 2. Chicago, 1913.
+
+Traditions of the Tinguian. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIV,
+No. 1. Chicago, 1915.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] Traditions of the Tinguian. (Pub. Field Museum of Natural
+History. Anthro. Series, Vol. No. I. Chicago, 1915.)
+
+[2] Men or women through whom the superior beings talk to
+mortals. During ceremonies the spirits possess their bodies and govern
+their language and actions. When not engaged in their calling, the
+mediums take part in the daily activities of the village.
+
+[3] See page 26.
+
+[4] The initial portion of some of these names is derived from the
+respectful term apo--"sir," and the attributive copulate ni; thus
+the original form of Aponitolau probably was Apo ni Tolau, literally
+"Sir, who is Tolau." However, the storytellers do not now appear to
+divide the names into their component parts, and they frequently
+corrected the writer when he did so, for this reason such names
+appear in the text as single words. Following this explanation it
+is possible that the name Aponibolinayen may be derived from Apo ni
+bolan yan, literally "Sir (mistress) who is place where the moon";
+but bolan generally refers to the space of time between the phases
+of the moon rather than to the moon itself. The proper term for moon
+is sinag, which we have seen is the mother of Gaygayóma--a star,--and
+is clearly differentiated from Aponibolinayen.
+
+[5] [male]--male. [female]--female.
+
+[6] Occasionally the storytellers become confused and give Pagbokásan
+as the father of Aponitolau.
+
+[7] The town of Natpangán is several times mentioned as though it
+was the same as Kaodanan.
+
+[8] The figures in parentheses refer to pages in the volume Traditions
+of the Tinguian, Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIV, No. I. Chicago,
+1915.
+
+[9] The only possible exception to this statement is the mention of a
+carabao sled on p. 150, and of Aponitolau and Aponibolinayen riding
+on a carabao p.51. Traditions of the Tinguian. (Pub. Field Museum,
+vol. xiv, No. I; Chicago, 1915.)
+
+[10] A term applied to any of the wilder head-hunting tribes.
+
+[11] Ladders are placed on each side of the town gate and are inclined
+toward one another until they meet at the top. Returning warriors
+enter the village by climbing up the one and descending the other,
+never through the gate.
+
+[12] Copper gongs.
+
+[13] Sharpened bamboo poles which pass through the foramen magnum.
+
+[14] This poison is placed in the food or drink. The use of poisoned
+darts or arrows seems never to have been known to this people.
+
+[15] A similar custom is found among the Kayan of Borneo. See Hose
+and McDougall, Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 171 (London, 1912).
+
+[16] In this dance a man and a woman enter the circle, each holding a
+cloth. Keeping time to the music, they approach each other with almost
+imperceptible movements of feet and toes, and a bending at the knees,
+meanwhile changing the position of the cloths. This is varied from
+time to time by a few quick, high steps. For fuller description see
+article by author in Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, No. 4,
+1908, p. 208.
+
+[17] The custom was formerly practised by the Ilocano. See Reves,
+Folklore Filipino, p. 126 (Manila, 1899).
+
+[18] See Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, No. 4, 1908,
+pp. 206, ff.
+
+[19] The Tinguian do not have a classificatory system of relationship
+terms. The term kasinsiu is applied alike to the children of mother's
+and father's brothers and sisters.
+
+[20] A sacred dance in which a number of men and women take part. It
+takes place only at night and is accompanied by the singing of the
+participants.
+
+[21] The night preceding the greatest day of the Sayang ceremony.
+
+[22] Runo, a reed.
+
+[23] See p. 8, note 2.
+
+[24] A short ceremony held for the cure of fever and minor ills. It
+also forms a part of the more extensive rites.
+
+[25] A sugar-cane rum.
+
+[26] See p. 7, note 1.
+
+[27] Lesser spirits.
+
+[28] Lesser spirits.
+
+[29] Lesser spirits.
+
+[30] Like ideas occur in the folk-tales of British North Borneo. See
+Evans, Journal Royal Anthro. Inst., Vol. XLIII, 1913, p. 444.
+
+[31] In various guises the same conception is found in Europe, Asia,
+Africa, and Malaysia. See Cox, An Introduction to Folklore, p. 121
+(London, 1904).--In an Igorot tale the owner captures and marries
+the star maiden, who is stealing his rice. Seidenadel, The Language
+of the Bontoc Igorot, p. 491 ff. (Chicago, 1909).
+
+[32] The Dusun of Borneo have tales of talking jars. Evans, Journal
+Royal Anthro. Inst., Vol. XLIII, 1913, pp. 426-427. See also Cole
+and Laufer, Chinese Pottery in the Philippines (Pub. Field Museum of
+Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, No. I, p. 11 ff., 1912).
+
+[33] Piper sp.
+
+[34] Bagobo tales relate that in the beginning plants, animals,
+and rocks could talk with mortals. See Benedict, Journal American
+Folklore, Vol. XXVI, 1913, p. 21.
+
+[35] Tales of animals who assist mortals are found in all lands;
+perhaps the best known to European readers is that of the ants
+which sorted the grain for Cinderella. See also Evans, Jour. Royal
+Anthro. Inst., Vol. XLIII, 1913, p. 467, for Borneo; Tawney's Kathá
+Sarit Ságara, pp. 361 ff., Calcutta, 1880, for India.
+
+[36] Fabulous birds of gigantic size, often known under the Indian term
+garuda, play an important part in the beliefs of the Peninsular Malays.
+
+[37] A similiar incident is cited by Bezemer (Volksdichtung aus
+Indonesien). See also the Bagobo tale of the Kingfisher (Benedict,
+Jour. American Folklore, Vol. XXVI, 1913, p. 53).
+
+[38] The magic flight has been encountered in the most widely separated
+parts of the globe, as, for instance, India and America. See Tawney,
+Kathá Sarit Ságara, pp. 361, 367 ff. and notes, (Calcutta, 1880);
+Waterman, Jour. American Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914, p. 46; Reinhold
+Köhler, Kleinere Schriften, Vol. I, pp. 171, 388.
+
+[39] In the Dayak legend of Limbang, a tree springs from the head
+of a dead giant; its flowers turn to beads; its leaves to cloth;
+the ripe fruit to jars. See H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and
+British North Borneo, Vol. I, p. 372.
+
+[40] Similar incidents are to be found among the Ilocano and Igorot
+in Borneo; in Java and India. See Reyes, Folklore Filipino, p. 34,
+(Manila, 1889); Jenks, The Bontoc Igorot, p. 202, (Manila, 1905);
+Seidenadel, The Language of the Bontoc Igorot. p. 491, 541, ff,
+(Chicago, 1909); Evans, Journal Royal Anthro. Inst., Vol. XLIII,
+1913, p. 462; Ling Roth, Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo,
+Vol. I, p. 319; Tawney, Kathá Sarit Ságara, Vol. II, p. 3, (Calcutta,
+1880); Bezemer, Volksdichtung aus Indonesien, p. 49, (Haag, 1904).
+
+[41] This peculiar expression while frequently used is not fully
+understood by the story tellers who in place of the word "whip"
+occasionally use "make." In one text which describes the Sayang
+ceremony, I find the following sentence, which may help us to
+understand the foregoing: "We go to make perfume at the edge of the
+town, and the things which we take, which are our perfume, are the
+leaves of trees and some others; it is the perfume for the people,
+which we give to them, which we go to break off the trees at the edge
+of the town." Again in tale 20, Kanag breaks the perfume of Baliwán
+off a tree.--The use of sweetly scented oil, in raising the dead,
+is found in Dayak legends. See Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and
+British North Borneo, Vol. I, p. 314.
+
+[42] According to a Jakun legend, the first children were produced
+out of the calves of their mothers' legs. Skeat and Bladgen, Pagan
+Races of the Malay Peninsula, Vol. II, p. 185.--A creation tale from
+Mangaia relates that the boy Rongo came from a boil on his mother's
+arm when it was pressed. Gill, Myths and Songs of the South Pacific,
+p. 10 (London, 1876).
+
+[43] This power of transforming themselves into animals and the like
+is a common possession among the heroes of Dayak and Malay tales. See
+Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, Vol. I,
+p. 312; Perham, Journal Straits Branch R., Asiatic Society, No. 16,
+1886; Wilkinson, Malay Beliefs, pp. 32, 59 (London, 1906).
+
+[44] The present day Tinguian attach much importance to these
+omens. The gall and liver of the slaughtered animal are carefully
+examined. If the fluid in the gall sack is exceedingly bitter, the
+inquirer is certain to be successful; if it is mild he had best defer
+his project. Certain lines and spots found on the liver foretell
+disaster, while a normal organ assures success. See also Hose and
+McDougall, Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 60 ff.
+
+[45] See p. 21, note 1.
+
+[46] The present capital of Ilocos Sur.
+
+[47] See p. 7, note 1.
+
+[48] Barrows, Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol. I, pp. 456
+ff., 1903.
+
+[49] Paul P. de La Gironiere, who visited the Tinguian in the early
+part of the nineteenth century, describes these ornaments as follows:
+"Their heads were ornamented with pearls, coral beads, and pieces
+of gold twisted among their hair; the upper parts of the hands were
+painted blue; wrists adorned with interwoven bracelets, spangled with
+glass beads; these bracelets reached the elbow and formed a kind of
+half-plaited sleeve. La Gironiere, Twenty Years in the Philippines,
+pp. 108 ff.
+
+[50] See Cole and Laufer, Chinese Pottery in the Philippines
+(Pub. Field Museum of Natural History, Vol. XII, No. 1).
+
+[51] This is entirely in agreement with Chinese records. The Islands
+always appeared to the Chinese as an Eldorado desirable for its gold
+and pearls.
+
+[52] See p. 17, note 2.
+
+[53] See p. 7, note 4.
+
+[54] A bamboo pole, about ten feet long, one end of which is slit
+into several strips; these are forced apart and are interwoven with
+other strips, thus forming a sort of basket.
+
+[55] See Cole, Distribution of the Non-Christian Tribes of Northwestern
+Luzon (American Anthropologist, Vol. II, No. 3, 1909, pp. 340, 341).
+
+[56] See p. 9.
+
+[57] See p. 10, note 3.
+
+[58] Among the Ifugao, the lowest of the four layers or strata which
+overhang the earth is known as Kabuniyan. See Beyer, Philippine
+Journal of Science, Vol. VIII, 1913, No. 2, p. 98.
+
+[59] See p. 8.
+
+[60] An Ifugao myth gives sanction to the marriage of brother and
+sister under certain circumstances, although it is prohibited in
+every day life. Beyer, Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. VIII,
+1913, No. 2, pp. 100 ff.
+
+[61] As opposed to the spirit mate of Aponitolau.
+
+[62] According to Ling Roth, the Malanaus of Borneo bury small
+boats near the graves of the deceased, for the use of the departed
+spirits. It was formerly the custom to put jars, weapons, clothes,
+food, and in some cases a female slave aboard a raft, and send it out
+to sea on the ebb tide "in order that the deceased might meet with
+these necessaries in his upward flight." Natives of Sarawak and British
+North Borneo, Vol. I, p. 145, (London, 1896). For notes on the funeral
+boat of the Kayan, see Hose and McDougall, Pagan Tribes of Borneo,
+Vol. II, p. 35.--Among the Kulaman of southern Mindanao an important
+man is sometimes placed in a coffin resembling a small boat, which
+is then fastened on high poles near to the beach. Cole, Wild Tribes
+of Davao District, Mindanao (Pub. Field Museum of Natural History,
+Vol. XII, No. 2, 1913).--The supreme being, Lumawig, of the Bontoc
+Igorot is said to have placed his living wife and children in a log
+coffin; at one end he tied a dog, at the other a cock, and set them
+adrift on the river. See Jenks, The Bontoc Igorot, p. 203, (Manila,
+1905); Seidenadel, The Language of the Bontoc Igorot, p. 502 ff.,
+(Chicago, 1909).
+
+[63] For similar omens observed by the Ifugao of Northern Luzon,
+see Beyer, Origin Myths of the Mountain peoples of the Philippines
+(Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. VIII, 1913, No. 2, p. 103).
+
+[64] Page 3, note 2.
+
+[65] See tale 22.
+
+[66] For a discussion of this class of myths, see Waterman,
+Jour. Am. Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914, p. 13 ff.; Lowie, ibid.,
+Vol. XXI, p. 101 ff., 1908; P. W. Schmidt, Grundlinien einer
+Vergleichung der Religionen und Mythologien der austronesischen Völker,
+(Wien, 1910).
+
+[67] See p. 10, note 3.
+
+[68] The Pala-an is third in importance among Tinguian ceremonies.
+
+[69] Tale 58.
+
+[70] This is offered only as a possible explanation, for little is
+known of the beliefs of this group of Igorot.
+
+[71] See p. 11, note 1.
+
+[72] Tale 68.
+
+[73] Hose and McDougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 148,
+(London, 1912).
+
+[74] Bezemer, Volksdichtung aus Indonesien, p. 304, Haag, 1904. For
+the Tagalog version of this tale see Bayliss, (Jour. Am. Folk-lore,
+Vol. XXI, 1908, p. 46).
+
+[75] Evans, Folk Stories of British North Borneo. (Journal Royal
+Anthropological Institute, Vol. XLIII, 1913, p. 475).
+
+[76] Folk Stories of British North Borneo (Journal Royal
+Anthropological Institute, Vol. XLIII, p. 447, 1913).
+
+[77] Tale No. 89.
+
+[78] Hose and McDougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II,
+pp. 144-146.
+
+[79] Tale 91. The cloak which causes invisibility is found in Grimm's
+tale of the raven. See Grimm's Fairy Tales, Columbus Series, p. 30. In
+a Pampanga tale the possessor of a magic stone becomes invisible when
+squeezes it. See Bayliss, (Jour. Am. Folk-Lore, Vol. XXI, 1908, p. 48).
+
+[80] Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, Book II. Graebner, Methode
+der Ethnologie, Heidelberg, 1911; Die melanesische Bogenkultur und
+ihre Verwandten (Anthropos, Vol. IV, pp. 726, 998, 1909).
+
+[81] See Waterman, Journal American Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914,
+pp. 45-46.
+
+[82] See Waterman, Journal American Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914,
+pp. 45-46.
+
+[83] See Waterman, Journal American Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914,
+pp. 45-46.
+
+[84] Stories of magic growth are frequently found in North America. See
+Kroeber, Gross Ventre Myths and Tales (Anthropological Papers of the
+Am. Mus. of Nat. Hist., Vol. I, p. 82); also Lowie, The Assiniboin
+(ibid., Vol. IV, Pt. 1, p. 136).
+
+[85] Other examples of equally widespread tales are noted by Boas,
+Indianische Sagen, p. 852, (Berlin, 1895); L. Roth, Custom and Myth,
+pp. 87 ff., (New York, 1885); and others. A discussion of the spread of
+similar material will be found in Graebner, Methode der Ethnologie,
+p. 115; Ehrenreich, Mythen und Legenden der südamerikanischen
+Urvölker, pp. 77 ff.; Ehrenreich, Die allgemeine Mythologie und ihre
+ethnologischen Grundlagen, p. 270.
+
+[86] Cole and Laufer, Chinese Pottery in the Philippines (Publication
+Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series, Vol. XII,
+No. 1, Chicago, 1913).
+
+[87] Nieuwenhuis, Kunstperlen und ihre kulturelle Bedeutung
+(Int. Arch. für Ethnographie, Vol. XVI, 1903, pp. 136-154).
+
+[88] Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, No. 4, 1908, pp. 197-211.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Study in Tinguian Folk-Lore, by Fay-Cooper Cole
+
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