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diff --git a/old/vstc10.txt b/old/vstc10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d5eac98 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/vstc10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8303 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation +by Robert Chambers + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation + +Author: Robert Chambers + +Release Date: December, 2004 [EBook #7116] +[This file was first posted on March 11, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, VESTIGES OF CREATION *** + + + + +Transcribed by David Price, email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk, from the +1844 John Churchill edition. + + + + +VESTIGES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CREATION + + + + +THE BODIES OF SPACE, THEIR ARRANGEMENTS AND FORMATION. + + + +It is familiar knowledge that the earth which we inhabit is a globe +of somewhat less than 8000 miles in diameter, being one of a series +of eleven which revolve at different distances around the sun, and +some of which have satellites in like manner revolving around them. +The sun, planets, and satellites, with the less intelligible orbs +termed comets, are comprehensively called the solar system, and if we +take as the uttermost bounds of this system the orbit of Uranus +(though the comets actually have a wider range), we shall find that +it occupies a portion of space not less than three thousand six +hundred millions of miles in extent. The mind fails to form an exact +notion of a portion of space so immense; but some faint idea of it +may be obtained from the fact, that, if the swiftest race-horse ever +known had begun to traverse it, at full speed, at the time of the +birth of Moses, he would only as yet have accomplished half his +journey. + +It has long been concluded amongst astronomers, that the stars, +though they only appear to our eyes as brilliant points, are all to +be considered as suns, representing so many solar systems, each +bearing a general resemblance to our own. The stars have a +brilliancy and apparent magnitude which we may safely presume to be +in proportion to their actual size and the distance at which they are +placed from us. Attempts have been made to ascertain the distance of +some of the stars by calculations founded on parallax, it being +previously understood that, if a parallax of so much as one second, +or the 3600th of a degree, could be ascertained in any one instance, +the distance might be assumed in that instance as not less than +19,200 millions of miles! In the case of the most brilliant star, +Sirius, even this minute parallax could not be found; from which of +course it was to be inferred that the distance of that star is +something beyond the vast distance which has been stated. In some +others, on which the experiment has been tried, no sensible parallax +could be detected; from which the same inference was to be made in +their case. But a sensible parallax of about one second has been +ascertained in the case of the double star, alpha alpha, of the +constellation of the Centaur, {3} and one of the third of that amount +for the double star, 61 Cygni; which gave reason to presume that the +distance of the former might be about twenty thousand millions of +miles, and the latter of much greater amount. If we suppose that +similar intervals exist between all the stars, we shall readily see +that the space occupied by even the comparatively small number +visible to the naked eye, must be vast beyond all powers of +conception. + +The number visible to the eye is about three thousand; but when a +telescope of small power is directed to the heavens, a great number +more come into view, and the number is ever increased in proportion +to the increased power of the instrument. In one place, where they +are more thickly sown than elsewhere, Sir William Herschel reckoned +that fifty thousand passed over a field of view two degrees in +breadth in a single hour. It was first surmised by the ancient +philosopher, Democritus, that the faintly white zone which spans the +sky under the name of the Milky Way, might be only a dense collection +of stars too remote to be distinguished. This conjecture has been +verified by the instruments of modern astronomers, and some +speculations of a most remarkable kind have been formed in connexion +with it. By the joint labours of the two Herschels, the sky has been +"gauged" in all directions by the telescope, so as to ascertain the +conditions of different parts with respect to the frequency of the +stars. The result has been a conviction that, as the planets are +parts of solar systems, so are solar systems parts of what may be +called astral systems--that is, systems composed of a multitude of +stars, bearing a certain relation to each other. The astral system +to which we belong, is conceived to be of an oblong, flattish form, +with a space wholly or comparatively vacant in the centre, while the +extremity in one direction parts into two. The stars are most +thickly sown in the outer parts of this vast ring, and these +constitute the Milky Way. Our sun is believed to be placed in the +southern portion of the ring, near its inner edge, so that we are +presented with many more stars, and see the Milky Way much more +clearly, in that direction, than towards the north, in which line our +eye has to traverse the vacant central space. Nor is this all. Sir +William Herschel, so early as 1783, detected a motion in our solar +system with respect to the stars, and announced that it was tending +towards the star ?, in the constellation Hercules. This has been +generally verified by recent and more exact calculations, {5} which +fix on a point in Hercules, near the star 143 of the 17th hour, +according to Piozzi's catalogue, as that towards which our sun is +proceeding. It is, therefore, receding from the inner edge of the +ring. Motions of this kind, through such vast regions of space, must +be long in producing any change sensible to the inhabitants of our +planet, and it is not easy to grasp their general character; but +grounds have nevertheless been found for supposing that not only our +sun, but the other suns of the system pursue a wavy course round the +ring FROM WEST TO EAST, crossing and recrossing the middle of the +annular circle. "Some stars will depart more, others less, from +either side of the circumference of equilibrium, according to the +places in which they are situated, and according to the direction and +the velocity with which they are put in motion. Our sun is probably +one of those which depart furthest from it, and descend furthest into +the empty space within the ring." {6} According to this view, a time +may come when we shall be much more in the thick of the stars of our +astral system than we are now, and have of course much more brilliant +nocturnal skies; but it may be countless ages before the eyes which +are to see this added resplendence shall exist. + +The evidence of the existence of other astral systems besides our own +is much more decided than might be expected, when we consider that +the nearest of them must needs be placed at a mighty interval beyond +our own. The elder Herschel, directing his wonderful tube towards +the SIDES of our system, where stars are planted most rarely, and +raising the powers of the instrument to the required pitch, was +enabled with awe-struck mind to see suspended in the vast empyrean +astral systems, or, as he called them, firmaments, resembling our +own. Like light cloudlets to a certain power of the telescope, they +resolved themselves, under a greater power, into stars, though these +generally seemed no larger than the finest particles of diamond dust. +The general forms of these systems are various; but one at least has +been detected as bearing a striking resemblance to the supposed form +of our own. The distances are also various, as proved by the +different degrees of telescopic power necessary to bring them into +view. The farthest observed by the astronomer were estimated by him +as thirty-five thousand times more remote than Sirius, supposing its +distance to be about twenty thousand millions of miles. It would +thus appear, that not only does gravitation keep our earth in its +place in the solar system, and the solar system in its place in our +astral system, but it also may be presumed to have the mightier duty +of preserving a local arrangement between that astral system and an +immensity of others, through which the imagination is left to wander +on and on without limit or stay, save that which is given by its +inability to grasp the unbounded. + +The two Herschels have in succession made some other most remarkable +observations on the regions of space. They have found within the +limits of our astral system, and generally in its outer fields, a +great number of objects which, from their foggy appearance, are +called nebulae; some of vast extent and irregular figure, as that in +the sword of Orion, which is visible to the naked eye; others of +shape more defined; others, again, in which small bright nuclei +appear here and there over the surface. Between this last form and +another class of objects, which appear as clusters of nuclei with +nebulous matter around each nucleus, there is but a step in what +appears a chain of related things. Then, again, our astral space +shews what are called nebulous stars,--namely, luminous spherical +objects, bright in the centre and dull towards the extremities. +These appear to be only an advanced condition of the class of objects +above described. Finally, nebulous stars exist in every stage of +concentration, down to that state in which we see only a common star +with a slight BUR around it. It may be presumed that all these are +but stages in a progress, just as if, seeing a child, a boy, a youth, +a middle-aged, and an old man together, we might presume that the +whole were only variations of one being. Are we to suppose that we +have got a glimpse of the process through which a sun goes between +its original condition, as a mass of diffused nebulous matter, and +its full-formed state as a compact body? We shall see how far such +an idea is supported by other things known with regard to the +occupants of space, and the laws of matter. + +A superficial view of the astronomy of the solar system gives us only +the idea of a vast luminous body (the sun) in the centre, and a few +smaller, though various sized bodies, revolving at different +distances around it; some of these, again, having smaller planets +(satellites) revolving around them. There are, however, some general +features of the solar system, which, when a profounder attention +makes us acquainted with them, strike the mind very forcibly. + +It is, in the first place, remarkable, that the planets all move +nearly IN ONE PLANE, corresponding with the centre of the sun's body. +Next, it is not less remarkable that the motion of the sun on its +axis, those of the planets around the sun, and the satellites around +their primaries, {9} and the motions of all on their axes, are IN ONE +DIRECTION--namely, from west to east. Had all these matters been +left to accident, the chances against the uniformity which we find +would have been, though calculable, inconceivably great. Laplace +states them at four millions of millions to one. It is thus +powerfully impressed on us, that the uniformity of the motions, as +well as their general adjustment to one plane, must have been a +consequence of some cause acting throughout the whole system. + +Some of the other relations of the bodies are not less remarkable. +The primary planets shew a progressive increase of bulk and +diminution of density, from the one nearest to the sun to that which +is most distant. With respect to density alone, we find, taking +water as a measure and counting it as one, that Saturn is 13/32, or +less than half; Jupiter, 1 1/24; Mars, 3 2/7; Earth, 4 1/2; Venus, 5 +11/15; Mercury 9 9/10, or about the weight of lead. Then the +distances are curiously relative. It has been found that if we place +the following line of numbers, - + +0 3 6 12 24 48 96 192, + +and add 4 to each, we shall have a series denoting the respective +distances of the planets from the sun. It will stand thus - + +4 7 10 16 28 52 100 196 +Merc. Venus. Earth. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. Uranus. + +It will be observed that the first row of figures goes on from the +second on the left hand in a succession of duplications, or +multiplications by 2. Surely there is here a most surprising proof +of the unity which I am claiming for the solar system. It was +remarked when this curious relation was first detected, that there +was a want of a planet corresponding to 28; the difficulty was +afterwards considered as in a great measure overcome, by the +discovery of four small planets revolving at nearly one mean distance +from the sun, between Mars and Jupiter. The distances bear an +equally interesting mathematical relation to the times of the +revolutions round the sun. It has been found that, with respect to +any two planets, the squares of the times of revolution are to each +other in the same proportion as the cubes of their mean distances,--a +most surprising result, for the discovery of which the world was +indebted to the illustrious Kepler. Sir John Herschel truly +observes--"When we contemplate the constituents of the planetary +system from the point of view which this relation affords us, it is +no longer mere analogy which strikes us, no longer a general +resemblance among them, as individuals independent of each other, and +circulating about the sun, each according to its own peculiar nature, +and connected with it by its own peculiar tie. The resemblance is +now perceived to be a true FAMILY LIKENESS; they are bound up in one +chain--interwoven in one web of mutual relation and harmonious +agreement, subjected to one pervading influence which extends from +the centre to the farthest limits of that great system, of which all +of them, the Earth included, must henceforth be regarded as members." +{12} + +Connecting what has been observed of the series of nebulous stars +with this wonderful relationship seen to exist among the constituents +of our system, and further taking advantage of the light afforded by +the ascertained laws of matter, modern astronomers have suggested the +following hypothesis of the formation of that system. + +Of nebulous matter in its original state we know too little to enable +us to suggest how nuclei should be established in it. But, supposing +that, from a peculiarity in its constitution, nuclei are formed, we +know very well how, by virtue of the law of gravitation, the process +of an aggregation of the neighbouring matter to those nuclei should +proceed, until masses more or less solid should become detached from +the rest. It is a well-known law in physics that, when fluid matter +collects towards or meets in a centre, it establishes a rotatory +motion. See minor results of this law in the whirlwind and the +whirlpool--nay, on so humble a scale as the water sinking through the +aperture of a funnel. It thus becomes certain that when we arrive at +the stage of a nebulous star, we have a rotation on an axis +commenced. + +Now, mechanical philosophy informs us that, the instant a mass begins +to rotate, there is generated a tendency to fling off its outer +portions--in other words, the law of centrifugal force begins to +operate. There are, then, two forces acting in opposition to each +other, the one attracting TO, the other throwing FROM, the centre. +While these remain exactly counterpoised, the mass necessarily +continues entire; but the least excess of the centrifugal over the +attractive force would be attended with the effect of separating the +mass and its outer parts. These outer parts would, then, be left as +a ring round the central body, which ring would continue to revolve +with the velocity possessed by the central mass at the moment of +separation, but not necessarily participating in any changes +afterwards undergone by that body. This is a process which might be +repeated as soon as a new excess arose in the centrifugal over the +attractive forces working in the parent mass. It might, indeed, +continue to be repeated, until the mass attained the ultimate limits +of the condensation which its constitution imposed upon it. From +what cause might arise the periodical occurrence of an excess of the +centrifugal force? If we suppose the agglomeration of a nebulous +mass to be a process attended by refrigeration or cooling, which many +facts render likely, we can easily understand why the outer parts, +hardening under this process, might, by virtue of the greater +solidity thence acquired, begin to present some resistance to the +attractive force. As the solidification proceeded, this resistance +would become greater, though there would still be a tendency to +adhere. Meanwhile, the condensation of the central mass would be +going on, tending to produce a separation from what may now be termed +the SOLIDIFYING CRUST. During the contention between the attractions +of these two bodies, or parts of one body, there would probably be a +ring of attenuation between the mass and its crust. At length, when +the central mass had reached a certain stage in its advance towards +solidification, a separation would take place, and the crust would +become a detached ring. It is clear, of course, that some law +presiding over the refrigeration of heated gaseous bodies would +determine the stages at which rings were thus formed and detached. +We do not know any such law, but what we have seen assures us it is +one observing and reducible to mathematical formulae. + +If these rings consisted of matter nearly uniform throughout, they +would probably continue each in its original form; but there are many +chances against their being uniform in constitution. The unavoidable +effects of irregularity in their constitution would be to cause them +to gather towards centres of superior solidity, by which the annular +form would, of course, be destroyed. The ring would, in short, break +into several masses, the largest of which would be likely to attract +the lesser into itself. The whole mass would then necessarily settle +into a spherical form by virtue of the law of gravitation; in short, +would then become a planet revolving round the sun. Its rotatory +motion would, of course, continue, and satellites might then be +thrown off in turn from its body in exactly the same way as the +primary planets had been thrown off from the sun. The rule, if I can +be allowed so to call it, receives a striking support from what +appear to be its exceptions. While there are many chances against +the matter of the rings being sufficiently equable to remain in the +annular form till they were consolidated, it might nevertheless be +otherwise in some instances; that is to say, the equableness might, +in those instances, be sufficiently great. Such was probably the +case with the two rings around the body of Saturn, which remain a +living picture of the arrangement, if not the condition, in which all +the planetary masses at one time stood. It may also be admitted +that, when a ring broke up, it was possible that the fragments might +spherify separately. Such seems to be the actual history of the ring +between Jupiter and Mars, in whose place we now find four planets +much beneath the smallest of the rest in size, and moving nearly at +the same distance from the sun, though in orbits so elliptical, and +of such different planes, that they keep apart. + +It has been seen that there are mathematical proportions in the +relative distances and revolutions of the planets of our system. It +has also been suggested that the periods in the condensation of the +nebulous mass, at which rings were disengaged, must have depended on +some particular crises in the condition of that mass, in connexion +with the laws of centrifugal force and attraction. M. Compte, of +Paris, has made some approach to the verification of the hypothesis, +by calculating what ought to have been the rotation of the solar mass +at the successive times when its surface extended to the various +planetary orbits. He ascertained that THAT ROTATION CORRESPONDED IN +EVERY CASE WITH THE ACTUAL SIDEREAL REVOLUTION OF THE PLANETS, AND +THAT THE ROTATION OF THE PRIMARY PLANETS IN LIKE MANNER CORRESPONDED +WITH THE ORBITUAL PERIODS OF THE SECONDARIES. The process by which +he arrived at this conclusion is not to be readily comprehended by +the unlearned; but those who are otherwise, allow that it is a +powerful support to the present hypothesis of the formation of the +globes of space. {17} + +The nebular hypothesis, as it has been called, obtains a remarkable +support in what would at first seem to militate against it--the +existence in our firmament of several thousands of solar systems, in +which there are more than one sun. These are called double and +triple stars. Some double stars, upon which careful observations +have been made, are found to have a regular revolutionary motion +round each other in ellipses. This kind of solar system has also +been observed in what appears to be its rudimental state, for there +are examples of nebulous stars containing two and three nuclei in +near association. At a certain point in the confluence of the matter +of these nebulous stars, they would all become involved in a common +revolutionary motion, linked inextricably with each other, though it +might be at sufficient distances to allow of each distinct centre +having afterwards its attendant planets. We have seen that the law +which causes rotation in the single solar masses, is exactly the same +which produces the familiar phenomenon of a small whirlpool or dimple +in the surface of a stream. Such dimples are not always single. +Upon the face of a river where there are various contending currents, +it may often be observed that two or more dimples are formed near +each other with more or less regularity. These fantastic eddies, +which the musing poet will sometimes watch abstractedly for an hour, +little thinking of the law which produces and connects them, are an +illustration of the wonders of binary and ternary solar systems. + +The nebular hypothesis is, indeed, supported by so many ascertained +features of the celestial scenery, and by so many calculations of +exact science, that it is impossible for a candid mind to refrain +from giving it a cordial reception, if not to repose full reliance +upon it, even without seeking for it support of any other kind. Some +other support I trust yet to bring to it; but in the meantime, +assuming its truth, let us see what idea it gives of the constitution +of what we term the universe, of the development of its various +parts, and of its original condition. + +Reverting to a former illustration--if we could suppose a number of +persons of various ages presented to the inspection of an intelligent +being newly introduced into the world, we cannot doubt that he would +soon become convinced that men had once been boys, that boys had once +been infants, and, finally, that all had been brought into the world +in exactly the same circumstances. Precisely thus, seeing in our +astral system many thousands of worlds in all stages of formation, +from the most rudimental to that immediately preceding the present +condition of those we deem perfect, it is unavoidable to conclude +that all the perfect have gone through the various stages which we +see in the rudimental. This leads us at once to the conclusion that +the whole of our firmament was at one time a diffused mass of +nebulous matter, extending through the space which it still occupies. +So also, of course, must have been the other astral systems. Indeed, +we must presume the whole to have been originally in one connected +mass, the astral systems being only the first division into parts, +and solar systems the second. + +The first idea which all this impresses upon us is, that the +formation of bodies in space is STILL AND AT PRESENT IN PROGRESS. We +live at a time when many have been formed, and many are still +forming. Our own solar system is to be regarded as completed, +supposing its perfection to consist in the formation of a series of +planets, for there are mathematical reasons for concluding that +Mercury is the nearest planet to the sun, which can, according to the +laws of the system, exist. But there are other solar systems within +our astral system, which are as yet in a less advanced state, and +even some quantities of nebulous matter which have scarcely begun to +advance towards the stellar form. On the other hand, there are vast +numbers of stars which have all the appearance of being fully formed +systems, if we are to judge from the complete and definite appearance +which they present to our vision through the telescope. We have no +means of judging of the seniority of systems; but it is reasonable to +suppose that, among the many, some are older than ours. There is, +indeed, one piece of evidence for the probability of the comparative +youth of our system, altogether apart from human traditions and the +geognostic appearances of the surface of our planet. This consists +in a thin nebulous matter, which is diffused around the sun to nearly +the orbit of Mercury, of a very oblately spheroidal shape. This +matter, which sometimes appears to our naked eyes, at sunset, in the +form of a cone projecting upwards in the line of the sun's path, and +which bears the name of the Zodiacal Light, has been thought a +residuum or last remnant of the concentrating matter of our system, +and thus may be supposed to indicate the comparative recentness of +the principal events of our cosmogony. Supposing the surmise and +inference to be correct, and they may be held as so far supported by +more familiar evidence, we might with the more confidence speak of +our system as not amongst the elder born of Heaven, but one whose +various phenomena, physical and moral, as yet lay undeveloped, while +myriads of others were fully fashioned and in complete arrangement. +Thus, in the sublime chronology to which we are directing our +inquiries, we first find ourselves called upon to consider the globe +which we inhabit as a child of the sun, elder than Venus and her +younger brother Mercury, but posterior in date of birth to Mars, +Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus; next to regard our whole system as +probably of recent formation in comparison with many of the stars of +our firmament. We must, however, be on our guard against supposing +the earth as a recent globe in our ordinary conceptions of time. +From evidence afterwards to be adduced, it will be seen that it +cannot be presumed to be less than many hundreds of centuries old. +How much older Uranus may be no one can tell, much less how more aged +may be many of the stars of our firmament, or the stars of other +firmaments than ours. + +Another and more important consideration arises from the hypothesis; +namely, as to the means by which the grand process is conducted. The +nebulous matter collects around nuclei by virtue of the law of +attraction. The agglomeration brings into operation another physical +law, by force of which the separate masses of matter are either made +to rotate singly, or, in addition to that single motion, are set into +a coupled revolution in ellipses. Next centrifugal force comes into +play, flinging off portions of the rotating masses, which become +spheres by virtue of the same law of attraction, and are held in +orbits of revolution round the central body by means of a composition +between the centrifugal and gravitating forces. All, we see, is done +by certain laws of matter, so that it becomes a question of extreme +interest, what are such laws? All that can yet be said, in answer, +is, that we see certain natural events proceeding in an invariable +order under certain conditions, and thence infer the existence of +some fundamental arrangement which, for the bringing about of these +events, has a force and certainty of action similar to, but more +precise and unerring than those arrangements which human society +makes for its own benefit, and calls laws. It is remarkable of +physical laws, that we see them operating on every kind of scale as +to magnitude, with the same regularity and perseverance. The tear +that falls from childhood's cheek is globular, through the efficacy +of that same law of mutual attraction of particles which made the sun +and planets round. The rapidity of Mercury is quicker than that of +Saturn, for the same reason that, when we wheel a ball round by a +string and make the string wind up round our fingers, the ball always +flies quicker and quicker as the string is shortened. Two eddies in +a stream, as has been stated, fall into a mutual revolution at the +distance of a couple of inches, through the same cause which makes a +pair of suns link in mutual revolution at the distance of millions of +miles. There is, we might say, a sublime simplicity in this +indifference of the grand regulations to the vastness or minuteness +of the field of their operation. Their being uniform, too, +throughout space, as far as we can scan it, and their being so +unfailing in their tendency to operate, so that only the proper +conditions are presented, afford to our minds matter for the gravest +consideration. Nor should it escape our careful notice that the +regulations on which all the laws of matter operate, are established +on a rigidly accurate mathematical basis. Proportions of numbers and +geometrical figures rest at the bottom of the whole. All these +considerations, when the mind is thoroughly prepared for them, tend +to raise our ideas with respect to the character of physical laws, +even though we do not go a single step further in the investigation. +But it is impossible for an intelligent mind to stop there. We +advance from law to the cause of law, and ask, What is that? Whence +have come all these beautiful regulations? Here science leaves us, +but only to conclude, from other grounds, that there is a First Cause +to which all others are secondary and ministrative, a primitive +almighty will, of which these laws are merely the mandates. That +great Being, who shall say where is his dwelling-place, or what his +history! Man pauses breathless at the contemplation of a subject so +much above his finite faculties, and only can wonder and adore! + + + +CONSTITUENT MATERIALS OF THE EARTH AND OF THE OTHER BODIES OF SPACE. + + + +The nebular hypothesis almost necessarily supposes matter to have +originally formed one mass. We have seen that the same physical laws +preside over the whole. Are we also to presume that the constitution +of the whole was uniform?--that is to say, that the whole consisted +of similar elements. It seems difficult to avoid coming to this +conclusion, at least under the qualification that, possibly, various +bodies, under peculiar circumstances attending their formation, may +contain elements which are wanting, and lack some which are present +in others, or that some may entirely consist of elements in which +others are entirely deficient. + +What are elements? This is a term applied by the chemist to a +certain limited number of substances, (fifty-four or fifty-five are +ascertained,) which, in their combinations, form all the matters of +every kind present in and about our globe. They are called elements, +or simple substances, because it has hitherto been found impossible +to reduce them into others, wherefore they are presumed to be the +primary bases of all matters. It has, indeed, been surmised that +these so-called elements are only modifications of a primordial form +of matter, brought about under certain conditions; but if this should +prove to be the case, it would little affect the view which we are +taking of cosmical arrangements. Analogy would lead us to conclude +that the combinations of the primordial matter, forming our so-called +elements, are as universal or as liable to take place everywhere as +are the laws of gravitation and centrifugal force. We must therefore +presume that the gases, the metals, the earths, and other simple +substances, (besides whatever more of which we have no acquaintance,) +exist or are liable to come into existence under proper conditions, +as well in the astral system, which is thirty-five thousand times +more distant than Sirius, as within the bounds of our own solar +system or our own globe. + +Matter, whether it consist of about fifty-five ingredients, or only +one, is liable to infinite varieties of condition under different +circumstances, or, to speak more philosophically, under different +laws. As a familiar illustration, water, when subjected to a +temperature under 32 degrees Fahrenheit, becomes ice; raise the +temperature to 212 degrees, and it becomes steam, occupying a vast +deal more space than it formerly did. The gases, when subjected to +pressure, become liquids; for example, carbonic acid gas, when +subjected to a weight equal to a column of water 1230 feet high, at a +temperature of 32 degrees, takes this form: the other gases require +various amounts of pressure for this transformation, but all appear +to be liable to it when the pressure proper in each case is +administered. Heat is a power greatly concerned in regulating the +volume and other conditions of matter. A chemist can reckon with +considerable precision what additional amount of heat would be +required to vaporise all the water of our globe; how much more to +disengage the oxygen which is diffused in nearly a proportion of one- +half throughout its solids; and, finally, how much more would be +required to cause the whole to become vaporiform, which we may +consider as equivalent to its being restored to its original nebulous +state. He can calculate with equal certainty what would be the +effect of a considerable diminution of the earth's temperature--what +changes would take place in each of its component substances, and how +much the whole would shrink in bulk. + +The earth and all its various substances have at present a certain +volume in consequence of the temperature which actually exists. +When, then, we find that its matter and that of the associate planets +was at one time diffused throughout the whole space, now +circumscribed by the orbit of Uranus, we cannot doubt, after what we +know of the power of heat, that the nebulous form of matter was +attended by the condition of a very high temperature. The nebulous +matter of space, previously to the formation of stellar and planetary +bodies, must have been a universal Fire Mist, an idea which we can +scarcely comprehend, though the reasons for arriving at it seem +irresistible. The formation of systems out of this matter implies a +change of some kind with regard to the condition of the heat. Had +this power continued to act with its full original repulsive energy, +the process of agglomeration by attraction could not have gone on. +We do not know enough of the laws of heat to enable us to surmise how +the necessary change in this respect was brought about, but we can +trace some of the steps and consequences of the process. Uranus +would be formed at the time when the heat of our system's matter was +at the greatest, Saturn at the next, and so on. Now this tallies +perfectly with the exceeding diffuseness of the matter of those elder +planets, Saturn being not more dense or heavy than the substance +cork. It may be that a sufficiency of heat still remains in those +planets to make up for their distance from the sun, and the +consequent smallness of the heat which they derive from his rays. +And it may equally be, since Mercury is twice the density of the +earth, that its matter exists under a degree of cold for which that +planet's large enjoyment of the sun's rays is no more than a +compensation. Thus there may be upon the whole a nearly equal +experience of heat amongst all these children of the sun. Where, +meanwhile, is the heat once diffused through the system over and +above what remains in the planets? May we not rationally presume it +to have gone to constitute that luminous envelope of the sun, in +which his warmth-giving power is now held to reside? It could not be +destroyed--it cannot be supposed to have gone off into space--it must +have simply been reserved to constitute, at the last, a means of +sustaining the many operations of which the planets were destined to +be the theatre. + +The tendency of the whole of the preceding considerations is to bring +the conviction that our globe is a specimen of all the similarly- +placed bodies of space, as respects its constituent matter and the +physical and chemical laws governing it, with only this +qualification, that there are POSSIBLY shades of variation with +respect to the component materials, and UNDOUBTEDLY with respect to +the conditions under which the laws operate, and consequently the +effects which they produce. Thus, there may be substances here which +are not in some other bodies, and substances here solid may be +elsewhere liquid or vaporiform. We are the more entitled to draw +such conclusions, seeing that there is nothing at all singular or +special in the astronomical situation of the earth. It takes its +place third in a series of planets, which series is only one of +numberless other systems forming one group. It is strikingly--if I +may use such an expression--a member of a democracy. Hence, we +cannot suppose that there is any peculiarity about it which does not +probably attach to multitudes of other bodies--in fact, to all that +are analogous to it in respect of cosmical arrangements. + +It therefore becomes a point of great interest--what are the +materials of this specimen? What is the constitutional character of +this object, which may be said to be a sample, presented to our +immediate observation, of those crowds of worlds which seem to us as +the particles of the desert sand-cloud in number, and to whose +profusion there are no conceivable local limits? + +The solids, liquids, and aeriform fluids of our globe are all, as has +been stated, reducible into fifty-five substances hitherto called +elementary. Six are gases; oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen being the +chief. Forty-two are metals, of which eleven are remarkable as +composing, in combination with oxygen, certain earths, as magnesia, +lime, alumin. The remaining six, including carbon, silicon, sulphur, +have not any general appellation. + +The gas oxygen is considered as by far the most abundant substance in +our globe. It constitutes a fifth part of our atmosphere, a third +part of water, and a large proportion of every kind of rock in the +crust of the earth. Hydrogen, which forms two-thirds of water, and +enters into some mineral substances, is perhaps next. Nitrogen, of +which the atmosphere is four-fifths composed, must be considered as +an abundant substance. The metal silicium, which unites with oxygen +in nearly equal parts to form silica, the basis of nearly a half of +the rocks in the earth's crust, is, of course, an important +ingredient. Aluminium, the metallic basis of alumin, a large +material in many rocks, is another abundant elementary substance. +So, also, is carbon a small ingredient in the atmosphere, but the +chief constituent of animal and vegetable substances, and of all +fossils which ever were in the latter condition, amongst which coal +takes a conspicuous place. The familiarly-known metals, as iron, +tin, lead, silver, gold, are elements of comparatively small +magnitude in that exterior part of the earth's body which we are able +to investigate. + +It is remarkable of the simple substances that they are generally in +some compound form. Thus, oxygen and nitrogen, though in union they +form the aerial envelope of the globe, are never found separate in +nature. Carbon is pure only in the diamond. And the metallic bases +of the earths, though the chemist can disengage them, may well be +supposed unlikely to remain long uncombined, seeing that contact with +moisture makes them burn. Combination and re-combination are +principles largely pervading nature. There are few rocks, for +example, that are not composed of at least two varieties of matter, +each of which is again a compound of elementary substances. What is +still more wonderful with respect to this principle of combination, +all the elementary substances observe certain mathematical +proportions in their unions. One volume of them unites with one, +two, three, or more volumes of another, any extra quantity being sure +to be left over, if such there should be. It is hence supposed that +matter is composed of infinitely minute particles or atoms, each of +which belonging to any one substance, can only (through the operation +of some as yet hidden law) associate with a certain number of the +atoms of any other. There are also strange predilections amongst +substances for each other's company. One will remain combined in +solution with another, till a third is added, when it will abandon +the former and attach itself to the latter. A fourth being added, +the third will perhaps leave the first, and join the new comer. + +Such is an outline of the information which chemistry gives us +regarding the constituent materials of our globe. How infinitely is +the knowledge increased in interest, when we consider the probability +of such being the materials of the whole of the bodies of space, and +the laws under which these everywhere combine, subject only to local +and accidental variations! + +In considering the cosmogenic arrangements of our globe, our +attention is called in a special degree to the moon. + +In the nebular hypothesis, satellites are considered as masses thrown +off from their primaries, exactly as the primaries had previously +been from the sun. The orbit of any satellite is also to be regarded +as marking the bounds of the mass of the primary at the time when +that satellite was thrown off; its speed likewise denotes the +rapidity of the rotatory motion of the primary at that particular +juncture. For example, the outermost of the four satellites of +Jupiter revolves round his body at the distance of 1,180,582 miles, +shewing that the planet was once 3,675,501 miles in circumference, +instead of being, as now, only 89,170 miles in diameter. This large +mass took rather more than sixteen days six hours and a half (the +present revolutionary period of the outermost satellite) to rotate on +its axis. The innermost satellite must have been formed when the +planet was reduced to a circumference of 309,075 miles, and rotated +in about forty-two hours and a half. + +From similar inferences, we find that the mass of the earth, at a +certain point of time after it was thrown off from the sun, was no +less than 482,000 miles in diameter, being sixty times what it has +since shrunk to. At that time, the mass must have taken rather more +than twenty-nine and a half days to rotate, (being the revolutionary +period of the moon,) instead of as now, rather less than twenty-four +hours. + +The time intervening between the formation of the moon and the +earth's diminution to its present size, was probably one of those +vast sums in which astronomy deals so largely, but which the mind +altogether fails to grasp. + +The observations made upon the surface of the moon by telescopes, +tend strongly to support the hypothesis as to all the bodies of space +being composed of similar matters, subject to certain variations. It +does not appear that our satellite is provided with that gaseous +envelope which, on earth, performs so many important functions. +Neither is there any appearance of water upon the surface; yet that +surface is, like that of our globe, marked by inequalities and the +appearance of volcanic operations. These inequalities and volcanic +operations are upon a scale far greater than any which now exist upon +the earth's surface. Although, from the greater force of gravitation +upon its exterior, the mountains, other circumstances being equal, +might have been expected to be much smaller than ours, they are, in +many instances, equal in height to nearly the highest of our Andes. +They are generally of extreme steepness, and sharp of outline, a +peculiarity which might be looked for in a planet deficient in water +and atmosphere, seeing that these are the agents which wear down +ruggedness on the surface of our earth. The volcanic operations are +on a stupendous scale. They are the cause of the bright spots of the +moon, while the want of them is what distinguishes the duller +portions, usually but erroneously called SEAS. In some parts, bright +volcanic matter, besides covering one large patch, radiates out in +long streams, which appear studded with subordinate foci of the same +kind of energy. Other objects of a most remarkable character are +ring mountains, mounts like those of the craters of earthly +volcanoes, surrounded immediately by vast and profound circular pits, +hollowed under the general surface, these again being surrounded by a +circular wall of mountain, rising far above the central one, and in +the inside of which are terraces about the same height as the inner +eminence. The well-known bright spot in the south-east quarter, +called by astronomers Tycho, and which can be readily distinguished +by the naked eye, is one of these ring-mountains. There is one of +200 miles in diameter, with a pit 22,000 feet deep; that is, twice +the height of AEtna. It is remarkable, that the maps given by +Humboldt of a volcanic district in South America, and one +illustrative of the formerly volcanic district of Auvergne, in +France, present features strikingly like many parts of the moon's +surface, as seen through a good glass. + +These characteristics of the moon forbid the idea that it can be at +present a theatre of life like the earth, and almost seem to declare +that it never can become so. But we must not rashly draw any such +conclusions. The moon may be only in an earlier stage of the +progress through which the earth has already gone. The elements +which seem wanting may be only in combinations different in those +which exist here, and may yet be developed as we here find them. +Seas may yet fill the profound hollows of the surface; an atmosphere +may spread over the whole. Should these events take place, +meteorological phenomena, and all the phenomena of organic life, will +commence, and the moon, like the earth, will become a green and +inhabited world. + +It is unavoidably held as a strong proof in favour of any hypothesis, +when all the relative phenomena are in harmony with it. This is +eminently the case with the nebulous hypothesis, for here the +associated facts cannot be explained on any other supposition. We +have seen reason to conclude that the primary condition of matter was +that of a diffused mass, in which the component molecules were +probably kept apart through the efficacy of heat; that portions of +this agglomerated into suns, which threw off planets; that these +planets were at first very much diffused, but gradually contracted by +cooling to their present dimensions. Now, as to our own globe, there +is a remarkable proof of its having been in a fluid state at the time +when it was finally solidifying, in the fact of its being bulged at +the equator, the very form which a soft revolving body takes, and +must inevitably take, under the influence of centrifugal force. This +bulging makes the equatorial exceed the polar diameter as 230 to 229, +which has been demonstrated to be precisely the departure from a +correct sphere which might be predicated from a knowledge of the +amount of the mass and the rate of rotation. There is an almost +equally distinct memorial of the original high temperature of the +materials, in the store of heat which still exists in the interior. +The immediate surface of the earth, be it observed, exhibits only the +temperature which might be expected to be imparted to such materials, +by the heat of the sun. There is a point, very short way down, but +varying in different climes, where all effect from the sun's rays +ceases. Then, however, commences a temperature from an entirely +different cause, one which evidently has its source in the interior +of the earth, and which regularly increases as we descend to greater +and greater depths, the rate of increment being about one degree +Fahrenheit for every sixty feet; and of this high temperature there +are other evidences, in the phenomena of volcanoes and thermal +springs, as well as in what is ascertained with regard to the density +of the entire mass of the earth. This, it will be remembered, is +four and a half times the weight of water; but the actual weight of +the principal solid substances composing the outer crust is as two +and a half times the weight of water; and this, we know, if the globe +were solid and cold, should increase vastly towards the centre, water +acquiring the density of quicksilver at 362 miles below the surface, +and other things in proportion, and these densities becoming much +greater at greater depths; so that the entire mass of a cool globe +should be of a gravity infinitely exceeding four and a half times the +weight of water. The only alternative supposition is, that the +central materials are greatly expanded or diffused by some means; and +by what means could they be so expanded but by heat? Indeed, the +existence of this central heat, a residuum of that which kept all +matter in a vaporiform chaos at first, is amongst the most solid +discoveries of modern science, {42} and the support which it gives to +Herschel's explanation of the formation of worlds is most important. +We shall hereafter see what appear to be traces of an operation of +this heat upon the surface of the earth in very remote times; an +effect, however, which has long passed entirely away. The central +heat has, for ages, reached a fixed point, at which it will probably +remain for ever, as the non-conducting quality of the cool crust +absolutely prevents it from suffering any diminution. + + + +THE EARTH FORMED--ERA OF THE PRIMARY ROCKS. + + + +Although the earth has not been actually penetrated to a greater +depth than three thousand feet, the nature of its substance can, in +many instances, be inferred for the depth of many miles by other +means of observation. We see a mountain composed of a particular +substance, with strata, or beds of other rock, lying against its +sloped sides; we, of course, infer that the substance of the mountain +dips away under the strata which we see lying against it. Suppose +that we walk away from the mountain across the turned up edges of the +stratified rocks, and that for many miles we continue to pass over +other stratified rocks, all disposed in the same way, till by and bye +we come to a place where we begin to cross the opposite edges of the +same beds; after which we pass over these rocks all in reverse order +till we come to another extensive mountain composed of similar +material to the first, and shelving away under the strata in the same +way. We should then infer that the stratified rocks occupied a basin +formed by the rock of these two mountains, and by calculating the +thickness right through these strata, could be able to say to what +depth the rock of the mountain extended below. By such means, the +kind of rock existing many miles below the surface can often be +inferred with considerable confidence. + +The interior of the globe has now been inspected in this way in many +places, and a tolerably distinct notion of its general arrangements +has consequently been arrived at. It appears that the basis rock of +the earth, as it may be called, is of hard texture, and crystalline +in its constitution. Of this rock, granite may be said to be the +type, though it runs into many varieties. Over this, except in the +comparatively few places where it projects above the general level in +mountains, other rocks are disposed in sheets or strata, with the +appearance of having been deposited originally from water; but these +last rocks have nowhere been allowed to rest in their original +arrangement. Uneasy movements from below have broken them up in +great inclined masses, while in many cases there has been projected +through the rents rocky matter more or less resembling the great +inferior crystalline mass. This rocky matter must have been in a +state of fusion from heat at the time of its projection, for it is +often found to have run into and filled up lateral chinks in these +rents. There are even instances where it has been rent again, and a +newer melted matter of the same character sent through the opening. +Finally, in the crust as thus arranged there are, in many places, +chinks containing veins of metal. Thus, there is first a great +inferior mass, composed of crystalline rock, and probably resting +immediately on the fused and expanded matter of the interior: next, +layers or strata of aqueous origin; next, irregular masses of melted +inferior rock that have been sent up volcanically and confusedly at +various times amongst the aqueous rocks, breaking up these into +masses, and tossing them out of their original levels. This is an +outline of the arrangements of the crust of the earth, as far as we +can observe it. It is, at first sight, a most confused scene; but +after some careful observation, we readily detect in it a regularity +and order from which much instruction in the history of our globe is +to be derived. + +The deposition of the aqueous rocks, and the projection of the +volcanic, have unquestionably taken place since the settlement of the +earth in its present form. They are indeed of an order of events +which we see going on, under the agency of more or less intelligible +causes, even down to the present day. We may therefore consider them +generally as comparatively recent transactions. Abstracting them +from the investigations before us, we arrive at the idea of the earth +in its first condition as a globe of its present size--namely, as a +mass, externally at least, consisting of the crystalline kind of +rock, with the waters of the present seas and the present atmosphere +around it, though these were probably in considerably different +conditions, both as to temperature and their constituent materials, +from what they now are. We are thus to presume that that crystalline +texture of rock which we see exemplified in granite is the condition +into which the great bulk of the solids of our earth were +agglomerated directly from the nebulous or vaporiform state. It is a +condition eminently of combination, for such rock is invariably +composed of two or more of four substances--silica, mica, quartz, and +hornblende--which associate in it in the form of grains or crystals, +and which are themselves each composed of a group of the simple or +elementary substances. + +Judging from the results and from still remaining conditions, we must +suppose that the heat retained in the interior of the globe was more +intense, or had greater freedom to act, in some places than in +others. These became the scenes of volcanic operations, and in time +marked their situations by the extrusion of traps and basalts from +below--namely, rocks composed of the crystalline matter fused by +intense heat, and developed on the surface in various conditions, +according to the particular circumstances under which it was sent up; +some, for example, being thrown up under water, and some in the open +air, which conditions are found to have made considerable difference +in its texture and appearance. The great stores of subterranean heat +also served an important purpose in the formation of the aqueous +rocks. These rocks might, according to Sir John Herschel, become +subject to heat in the following manner:- While the surface of a +particular mass of rock forms the bed of the sea, the heat is kept at +a certain distance from that surface by the contact of the water; +philosophically speaking, it radiates away the heat into the sea, and +(to resort to common language) is cooled a good way down. But when +new sediment settles at the bottom of that sea, the heat rises up to +what was formerly the surface; and when a second quantity of sediment +is laid down, it continues to rise through the first of the deposits, +which then becomes subjected to those changes which heat is +calculated to produce. This process is precisely the same as that of +putting additional coats upon our own bodies; when, of course, the +internal heat rises through each coat in succession, and the third +(supposing there is a fourth above it) becomes as warm as perhaps the +first originally was. + +In speaking of sedimentary rocks, we may be said to be anticipating. +It is necessary, first, to shew how such rocks were formed, or how +stratification commenced. + +Geology tells us as plainly as possible, that the original +crystalline mass was not a perfectly smooth ball, with air and water +playing round it. There were vast irregularities in the surface,-- +irregularities trifling, perhaps, compared with the whole bulk of the +globe, but assuredly vast in comparison with any which now exist upon +it. These irregularities might be occasioned by inequalities in the +cooling of the substance, or by accidental and local sluggishness of +the materials, or by local effects of the concentrated internal heat. +From whatever cause they arose, there they were--enormous granitic +mountains, interspersed with seas which sunk to a depth equally +profound, and by which, perhaps, the mountains were wholly or +partially covered. Now, it is a fact of which the very first +principles of geology assure us, that the solids of the globe cannot +for a moment be exposed to water, or to the atmosphere, without +becoming liable to change. They instantly begin to wear down. This +operation, we may be assured, proceeded with as much certainty in the +earliest ages of our earth's history, as it does now, but upon a much +more magnificent scale. There is the clearest evidence that the seas +of those days were not in some instances less than a hundred miles in +depth, however much more. The sub-aqueous mountains must necessarily +have been of at least equal magnitude. The system of disintegration +consequent upon such conditions would be enormous. The matters worn +off, being carried into the neighbouring depths, and there deposited, +became the components of the earliest stratified rocks, the first +series of which is the Gneiss and Mica Slate System, or series, +examples of which are exposed to view in the Highlands of Scotland +and in the West of England. The vast thickness of these beds, in +some instances, is what attests the profoundness of the primeval +oceans in which they were formed; the Pensylvanian grawacke, a member +of the next highest series, is not less than a hundred miles in +direct thickness. We have also evidence that the earliest strata +were formed in the presence of a stronger degree of heat than what +operated in subsequent stages of the world, for the laminae of the +gneiss and of the mica and chlorite schists are contorted in a way +which could only be the result of a very high temperature. It +appears as if the seas in which these deposits were formed, had been +in the troubled state of a caldron of water nearly at boiling heat. +Such a condition would probably add not a little to the +disintegrating power of the ocean. + +The earliest stratified rocks contain no matters which are not to be +found in the primitive granite. They are the same in material, but +only changed into new forms and combinations; hence they have been +called by Mr. Lyell, metamorphic rocks. But how comes it that some +of them are composed almost exclusively of one of the materials of +granite; the mica schists, for example, of mica--the quartz rocks, of +quartz, &c.? For this there are both chemical and mechanical causes. +Suppose that a river has a certain quantity of material to carry +down, it is evident that it will soonest drop the larger particles, +and carry the lightest farthest on. To such a cause is it owing that +some of the materials of the worn-down granite have settled in one +place and some in another. {52} Again, some of these materials must +be presumed to have been in a state of chemical solution in the +primeval seas. It would be, of course, in conformity with chemical +laws, that certain of these materials would be precipitated singly, +or in modified combinations, to the bottom, so as to form rocks by +themselves. + +The rocks hitherto spoken of contain none of those petrified remains +of vegetables and animals which abound so much in subsequently formed +rocks, and tell so wondrous a tale of the past history of our globe. +They simply contain, as has been said, mineral materials derived from +the primitive mass, and which appear to have been formed into strata +in seas of vast depth. The absence from these rocks of all traces of +vegetable and animal life, joined to a consideration of the excessive +temperature which seems to have prevailed in their epoch, has led to +the inference that no plants or animals of any kind then existed. A +few geologists have indeed endeavoured to shew that the absence of +organic remains is no proof of the globe having been then unfruitful +or uninhabited, as the heat to which these rocks have been subjected +at the time of their solidification, might have obliterated any +remains of either plants or animals which were included in them. But +this is only an hypothesis of negation; and it certainly seems very +unlikely that a degree of heat sufficient to obliterate the remains +of plants or animals when dead, would ever allow of their coming into +or continuing in existence. + + + +COMMENCEMENT OF ORGANIC LIFE--SEA PLANTS, CORALS, ETC. + + + +We can scarcely be said to have passed out of these rocks, when we +begin to find new conditions in the earth. It is here to be observed +that the subsequent rocks are formed, in a great measure, of matters +derived from the substance of those which went before, but contain +also beds of limestone, which is to no small extent composed of an +ingredient which has not hitherto appeared. Limestone is a carbonate +of lime, a secondary compound, of which one of the ingredients, +carbonic acid gas, presents the element CARBON, a perfect novelty in +our progress. Whence this substance? The question is the more +interesting, from our knowing that carbon is the main ingredient in +organic things. There is reason to believe that its primeval +condition was that of a gas, confined in the interior of the earth, +and diffused in the atmosphere. The atmosphere still contains about +a two-thousandth part of carbonic acid gas, forming the grand store +from which the substance of each year's crop of herbage and grain is +derived, passing from herbage and grain into animal substance, and +from animals again rendered back to the atmosphere in their expired +breath, so that its amount is never impaired. Knowing this, when we +hear of carbon beginning to appear in the ascending series of rocks, +we are unavoidably led to consider it as marking a time of some +importance in the earth's history, a new era of natural conditions, +one in which organic life has probably played a part. + +It is not easy to suppose that, at this period, carbon was adopted +directly in its gaseous form into rocks; for, if so, why should it +not have been taken into earlier ones also? But we know that plants +take it in, and transform it into substance; and we also know that +there are classes of animals (marine polypes) which are capable of +appropriating it, in connexion with lime, (carbonate of lime,) from +the waters of the ocean, provided it be there in solution; and this +substance do these animals deposit in masses (coral reefs) equal in +extent to many strata. It has even been suggested, on strong grounds +of probability, that a class of limestone beds are simply these reefs +subjected to subsequent heat and pressure. + +The appearance, then, of limestone beds in the early part of the +stratified series, may be presumed to be connected with the fact of +the commencement of organic life upon our planet, and, indeed, a +consequent and a symptom of it. + +It may not be out of place here to remark, that carbon is presumed to +exist largely in the interior of the earth, from the fact of such +considerable quantities of it issuing at this day, in the form of +carbonic acid gas, from fissures and springs. The primeval and +subsequent history of this element is worthy of much attention, and +we shall have to revert to it as a matter greatly concerning our +subject. Delabeche estimates the quantity of carbonic acid gas +locked up in every cubic yard of limestone, at 16,000 cubic feet. +The quantity locked up in coal, in which it forms from 64 to 75 per +cent., must also be enormous. If all this were disengaged in a +gaseous form, the constitution of the atmosphere would undergo a +change, of which the first effect would be the extinction of life in +all land animals. But a large proportion of it must have at one time +been in the atmosphere. The atmosphere would then, of course, be +incapable of supporting life in land animals. It is important, +however, to observe that such an atmosphere would not be inconsistent +with a luxuriant land vegetation; for experiment has proved that +plants will flourish in air containing ONE-TWELFTH of this gas, or +166 times more than the present charge of our atmosphere. The +results which we observe are perfectly consistent with, and may be +said to presuppose an atmosphere highly charged with this gas, from +about the close of the primary non-fossiliferous rocks to the +termination of the carboniferous series, for there we see vast +deposits (coal) containing carbon as a large ingredient, while at the +same time the leaves of the Stone Book present no record of the +contemporaneous existence of land animals. + +The hypothesis of the connexion of the first limestone beds with the +commencement of organic life upon our planet is supported by the +fact, that in these beds we find the first remains of the bodies of +animated creatures. My hypothesis may indeed be unsound; but, +whether or not, it is clear, taking organic remains as upon the whole +a faithful chronicle, that the deposition of these limestone beds was +coeval with the existence of the earliest, or all but the earliest, +living creatures upon earth. + +And what were those creatures? It might well be with a kind of awe +that the uninstructed inquirer would wait for an answer to this +question. But nature is simpler than man's wit would make her, and +behold, the interrogation only brings before us the unpretending +forms of various zoophytes and polypes, together with a few single +and double-valved shell-fish (mollusks), all of them creatures of the +sea. It is rather surprising to find these before any vegetable +forms, considering that vegetables appear to us as forming the +necessary first link in the chain of nutrition; but it is probable +that there were sea plants, and also some simpler forms of animal +life, before this period, although of too slight a substance to leave +any fossil trace of their existence. + +The exact point in the ascending stratified series at which the first +traces of organic life are to be found is not clearly determined. +Dr. M'Culloch states that he found fossil orthocerata (a kind of +shell-fish) so early as the gneiss tract of Loch Eribol, in +Sutherland; but Messrs. Sedgwick and Murchison, on a subsequent +search, could not verify the discovery. It has also been stated, +that the gneiss and mica tract of Bohemia contains some seams of +grawacke, in which are organic remains; but British geologists have +not as yet attached much importance to this statement. We have to +look a little higher in the series for indubitable traces of organic +life. + +Above the gneiss and mica slate system, or group of strata, is the +Clay Slate and Grawacke Slate System; that is to say, it is higher in +the ORDER OF SUPRAPOSITION, though very often it rests immediately on +the primitive granite. The sub-groups of this system are in the +following succession upwards:- 1, hornblende slate; 2, chiastolite +slate; 3, clay slate; 4, Snowdon rocks, (grawacke and conglomerates;) +5, Bala limestone; 6, Plynlymmon rocks, (grawacke and grawacke +slates, with beds of conglomerates.) This system is largely +developed in the west and north of England, and it has been well +examined, partly because some of the slate beds are extensively +quarried for domestic purposes. If we overlook the dubious +statements respecting Sutherland and Bohemia, we have in this +"system" the first appearances of life upon our planet. The animal +remains are chiefly confined to the slate beds, those named from +Bala, in Wales, being the most prolific. Zoophyta, polyparia, +crinoidea, conchifera, and crustacea, {60} are the orders of the +animal kingdom thus found in the earliest of earth's sepulchres. The +ORDERS are distinguished without difficulty, from the general +characters of the creatures whose remains are found; but it is only +in this general character that they bear a general resemblance to any +creatures now existing. When we come to consider specific +characters, we see that a difference exists--that, in short, the +species and even genera are no longer represented upon earth. More +than this, it will be found that the earliest species comparatively +soon gave place to others, and that they are not represented even in +the next higher group of rocks. One important remark has been made, +that a comparatively small variety of species is found in the older +rocks, although of some particular ones the remains are very +abundant; as, for instance, of a species of asaphus, which is found +between the laminae of some of the slate rocks of Wales, and the +corresponding rocks of Normandy and Germany in enormous quantities. + +Ascending to the next group of rocks, we find the traces of life +become more abundant, the number of species extended, and important +additions made in certain vestiges of fuci, or sea-plants, and of +fishes. This group of rocks has been called by English geologists, +the Silurian System, because largely developed at the surface of a +district of western England, formerly occupied by a people whom the +Roman historians call Silures. It is a series of sandstones, +limestones, and beds of shale (hardened mud), which are classed in +the following sub-groups, beginning with the undermost: --1, +Llandillo rocks, (darkish calcareous flagstones;) 2 and 3, two groups +called Caradoc rocks; 4, Wenlock shale; 5, Wenlock limestone; 6, +Lower Ludlow rocks, (shales and limestones;) 7, Aymestry limestone; +8, Upper Ludlow rocks, (shales and limestone, chiefly micaceous.) +From the lowest beds upwards, there are polypiaria, though most +prevalent in the Wenlock limestone; conchifera, a vast number of +genera, but all of the order brachiopoda, (including terebratula, +pentamerus, spirifer, orthis, leptaena;) mollusca, of several orders +and many genera, (including turritella, orthoceras, nautilus, +bellerophon;) crustacea, all of them trilobites, (including +trinucleus, asaphus, calamene.) A little above the Llandillo rocks, +there have been discovered certain convoluted forms, which are now +established as annelids, or sea-worms, a tribe of creatures still +existing, (nereidina and serpulina,) and which may often be found +beneath stones on a sea-beach. One of these, figured by Mr. +Murchison, is furnished with feet in vast numbers all along its body, +like a centipede. The occurrence of annelids is important, on +account of their character and status in the animal kingdom. They +are red-blooded and hermaphrodite, and form a link of connexion +between the annulosa (white-blooded worms) and a humble class of the +vertebrata. {62} The Wenlock limestone is most remarkable amongst +all the rocks of the Silurian system, for organic remains. Many +slabs of it are wholly composed of corals, shells, and trilobites, +held together by shale. It contains many genera of crinoidea and +polypiaria, and it is thought that some beds of it are wholly the +production of the latter creatures, or are, in other words, coral +reefs transformed by heat and pressure into rocks. Remains of +fishes, of a very minute size, have been detected by Mr. Philips in +the Aymestry limestone, being apparently the first examples of +vertebrated animals which breathed upon our planet. In the upper +Ludlow rocks, remains of six genera of fish have been for a longer +period known; they belong to the order of cartilaginous fishes, an +order of mean organization and ferocious habits, of which the shark +and sturgeon are living specimens. "Some were furnished with long +palates, and squat, firmly-based teeth, well adapted for crushing the +strong-cased zoophytes and shells of the period, fragments of which +occur in the foecal remains; some with teeth that, like the fossil +sharks of the later formations, resemble lines of miniature pyramids, +larger and smaller alternating; some with teeth sharp, thin, and so +deeply serrated, that every individual tooth resembles a row of +poniards set up against the walls of an armory; and these last, says +Agassiz, furnished with weapons so murderous, must have been the +pirates of the period. Some had their fins guarded with long spines, +hooked like the beak of an eagle; some with spines of straighter and +more slender form, and ribbed and furrowed longitudinally like +columns; some were shielded by an armour of bony points, and some +thickly covered with glistening scales." {64} + +The traces of fuci in this system are all but sufficient to allow of +a distinction of genera. In some parts of North America, extensive +though thin beds of them have been found. A distinguished French +geologist, M. Brogniart, has shewn that all existing marine plants +are classifiable with regard to the zones of climate; some being +fitted for the torrid zone, some for the temperate, some for the +frigid. And he establishes that the fuci of these early rocks speak +of a torrid climate, although they may be found in what are now +temperate regions; he also states that those of the higher rocks +betoken, as we ascend, a gradually diminishing temperature. + +We thus early begin to find proofs of the general uniformity of +organic life over the surface of the earth, at the time when each +particular system of rocks was formed. Species identical with the +remains in the Wenlock limestone occur in the corresponding class of +rocks in the Eifel, and partially in the Harz, Norway, Russia, and +Brittany. The situations of the remains in Russia are fifteen +hundred miles from the Wenlock beds; but at the distance of between +six and seven thousand from those,--namely, in the vale of +Mississippi, the same species are discovered. Uniformity in animal +life over large geographical areas argues uniformity in the +conditions of animal life; and hence arise some curious inferences. +Species, in the same low class of animals, are now much more limited; +for instance, the Red Sea gives different polypiaria, zoophytes, and +shell-fish, from the Mediterranean. It is the opinion of M. +Brogniart, that the uniformity which existed in the primeval times +can only be attributed to the temperature arising from the internal +heat, which had yet, as he supposes, been sufficiently great to +overpower the ordinary meteorological influences, and spread a +tropical clime all over the globe. + + + +ERA OF THE OLD RED SANDSTONE--FISHES ABUNDANT. + + + +We advance to a new chapter in this marvellous history--the era of +the Old Red Sandstone System. This term has been recently applied to +a series of strata, of enormous thickness in the whole mass, largely +developed in Herefordshire, Shropshire, Worcestershire, and South +Wales; also in the counties of Fife, Forfar, Moray, Cromarty, and +Caithness; and in Russia and North America, if not in many other +parts of the world. The particular strata forming the system are +somewhat different in different countries; but there is a general +character to the extent of these being a mixture of flagstones, marly +rocks, and sandstones, usually of a laminous structure, with +conglomerates. There is also a schist shewing the presence of +bitumen; a remarkable new ingredient, since it is a vegetable +production. In the conglomerates, of great extent and thickness, +which form, in at least one district, the basis or leading feature of +the system, inclosing water-worn fragments of quartz and other rocks, +we have evidence of the seas of that period having been subjected to +a violent and long-continued agitation, probably from volcanic +causes. The upper members of the series bear the appearance of +having been deposited in comparatively tranquil seas. The English +specimens of this system shew a remarkable freedom from those +disturbances which result in the interjection of trap; and they are +thus defective in mineral ores. In some parts of England the old red +sandstone system has been stated as 10,000 feet in thickness. + +In this era, the forms of life which existed in the Silurian are +continued: we have the same orders of marine creatures, zoophyta, +polypiaria, conchifera, crustacea; but to these are added numerous +fishes, some of which are of most extraordinary and surprising forms. +Several of the strata are crowded with remains of fish, shewing that +the seas in which those beds were deposited had swarmed with that +class of inhabitants. The investigation of this system is recent; +but already {68} M. Agassiz has ascertained about twenty genera, and +thrice the number of species. And it is remarkable that the Silurian +fishes are here only represented in genera; the whole of the SPECIES +of that era had already passed away. Even throughout the sub-groups +of the system itself, the species are changed; and these are +phenomena observed throughout all the subsequent systems or +geological eras; apparently arguing that, during the deposition of +all the rocks, a gradual change of physical conditions was constantly +going on. A varying temperature, or even a varying depth of sea, +would at present be attended with similar changes in marine life; and +by analogy we are entitled to assume that such variations in the +ancient seas might be amongst the causes of that constant change of +genera and species in the inhabitants of those seas to which the +organic contents of the rocks bear witness. + +Some of the fossils of this system,--the cephalaspis, coccosteus, +pterichthys, holoptychius--are, in form and structure, entirely +different from any fishes now existing, only the sturgeon family +having any trace of affinity to them in any respect. They seem to +form a sort of connecting link between the crustacea and true fishes. + +The cephalaspis may be considered as making the smallest advance from +the crustacean character; it very much resembles in form the asaphus +of lower formations, having a longish tail-like body inserted within +the cusp of a large crescent-shaped head, somewhat like a saddler's +cutting-knife. The body is covered with strong plates of bone, +enamelled, and the head was protected on the upper side with one +large plate, as with a buckler--hence the name, implying buckler- +head. A range of small fins conveys the idea of its having been as +weak in motion as it is strong in structure. The coccosteus may be +said to mark the next advance to fish creation. The outline of its +body is of the form of a short thick coffin, rounded, covered with +strong bony plates, and terminating in a long tail, which seems to +have been the sole organ of motion. It is very remarkable, that, +while the tail establishes this creature among the vertebrata and the +fishes, its mouth has been opened vertically, like those of the +crustaceans, but which is contrary to the mode of vertebrata +generally. This seems a pretty strong mark of the link character of +the coccosteus between these two great departments of the animal +kingdom. The pterichthys has also strong bony plates over its body, +arranged much like those of a tortoise, and has a long tail; but its +most remarkable feature, and that which has suggested its name, is a +pair of long and narrow wing-like appendages attached to the +shoulders, which the creature is supposed to have erected for its +defence when attacked by an enemy. + +The holoptychius is of a flat oval form, furnished with fins, and +ending in a long tail; the whole body covered with strong plates +which overlap each other, and the head forming only a slight rounded +projection from the general figure. The specimens in the lower beds +are not above the size of a flounder; but in the higher strata, to +judge by the size of the scales or plates which have been found, the +creature attained a comparatively monstrous size. + +The other fishes of the system,--the osteolepis, glyptolepis, +dipterus, &c., are, in general outline, much like fishes still +existing, but their organization has, nevertheless, some striking +peculiarities. They have been entirely covered with bony scales or +plates, enamelled externally; their spines are tipped with bone, and, +as one striking and unvarying feature, the tail is only finned on the +lower side. The internal skeleton, of which no traces have been +preserved, is presumed to have been cartilaginous. They therefore +unite the character of cartilaginous fishes with a character peculiar +to themselves, and in which we see pretty clear vestiges of the pre- +existent crustaceous form. + +With regard to the link character of these animals, some curious +facts are mentioned. It appears that in the imperfect condition of +the vertebral column, and the inferior situation of the mouth in the +pterichthys, coccosteus, &c., there is an analogy to the form of the +dorsal cord and position of the mouth in the embryo of perfect +fishes. The one-sided form of the tail in the osteolepis &c. finds a +similar analogy in the form of the tail in the embryo of the salmon. +It is not premature to remark how broadly these facts seem to hint at +a parity of law affecting the progress of general creation, and the +progress of an individual foetus of one of the more perfect animals. + +It is equally ascertained of the types of being prevalent in the old +red, as of those of the preceding system, that they are uniform in +the corresponding strata of distant parts of the earth; for instance, +Russia and North America. + +In the old red sandstone, the marine plants, of which faint traces +are observable in the Silurians, continue to appear. It would seem +as if less change took place in the vegetation than in the animals of +those early seas; and for this, as Mr. Miller has remarked, it is +easy to imagine reasons. For example, an infusion of lime into the +sea would destroy animal life, but be favourable to vegetation. + +As yet there were no land animals or plants, and for this the +presumable reason is, that no dry land as yet existed. We are not +left to make this inference solely from the absence of land animals +and plants; in the arrangement of the primary (stratified) rocks, we +have further evidence of it. That these rocks were formed in a +generally horizontal position, we are as well assured as that they +were formed at the bottom of seas. But they are always found greatly +inclined in position, tilted up against the slopes of the granitic +masses which are beneath them in geological order, though often +shooting up to a higher point in the atmosphere. No doubt can be +entertained that these granitic masses, forming our principal +mountain ranges, have been protruded from below, or, at least, thrust +much further up, SINCE the deposition of the primary rocks. The +protrusion was what tilted up the primary rocks; and the inference +is, of course, unavoidable, that these mountains have risen chiefly, +at least, since the primary rocks were laid down. It is remarkable +that, while the primary rocks thus incline towards granitic nuclei or +axes, the strata higher in the series rest against these again, +generally at a less inclination, or none at all, shewing that these +strata were laid down after the swelling mountain eminences had, by +their protrusion, tilted up the primary strata. And thus it may be +said an era of local upthrowing of the primitive and (perhaps) +central matter of our planet, is established as happening about the +close of the primary strata, and beginning of the next ensuing +system. It may be called the Era of the Oldest Mountains, or, more +boldly, of the formation of the detached portions of dry land over +the hitherto watery surface of the globe--an important part of the +designs of Providence, for which the time was now apparently come. +It may be remarked, that volcanic disturbances and protrusions of +trap took place throughout the whole period of the deposition of the +primary rocks; but they were upon a comparatively limited scale, and +probably all took place under water. It was only now that the +central granitic masses of the great mountain ranges were thrown up, +carrying up with them broken edges of the primary strata; a process +which seems to have had this difference from the other, that it was +the effect of a more tremendous force exerted at a lower depth in the +earth, and generally acting in lines pervading a considerable portion +of the earth's surface. We shall by-and-by see that the protrusion +of some of the mountain ranges was not completed, or did not stop, at +that period. There is no part of geological science more clear than +that which refers to the ages of mountains. It is as certain that +the Grampian mountains of Scotland are older than the Alps and +Apennines, as it is that civilization had visited Italy, and had +enabled her to subdue the world, while Scotland was the residence of +"roving barbarians." The Pyrenees, Carpathians, and other ranges of +continental Europe, are all younger than the Grampians, or even the +insignificant Mendip Hills of southern England. Stratification tells +this tale as plainly as Livy tells the history of the Roman republic. +It tells us--to use the words of Professor Philips--that at the time +when the Grampians sent streams and detritus to straits where now the +valleys of the Forth and Clyde meet, the greater part of Europe was a +wide ocean. + +The last three systems--called, in England, the Cumbrian, Silurian, +and Devonian, and collectively the palaeozoic rocks, from their +containing the remains of the earliest inhabitants of the globe--are +of vast thickness; in England, not much less than 30,000 feet, or +nearly six miles. In other parts of the world, as we have seen, the +earliest of these systems alone is of much greater depth--arguing an +enormous profundity in the ocean in which they were formed. + + + +SECONDARY ROCKS. ERA OF THE CARBONIFEROUS FORMATION. LAND FORMED. +COMMENCEMENT OF LAND PLANTS. + + + +We now enter upon a new great epoch in the history of our globe. +There was now dry land. As a consequence of this fact, there was +fresh water, for rain, instead of immediately returning to the sea, +as formerly, was now gathered in channels of the earth, and became +springs, rivers, and lakes. There was now a theatre for the +existence of land plants and animals, and it remains to be inquired +if these accordingly were produced. + +The Secondary Rocks, in which our further researches are to be +prosecuted, consist of a great and varied series, resting, generally +unconformably, against flanks of the upturned primary rocks, +sometimes themselves considerably inclined, at others, forming +extensive basin-like beds, nearly horizontal; in many places, much +broken up and shifted by disturbances from below. They have all been +formed out of the materials of the older rocks, by virtue of the +wearing power of air and water, which is still every day carrying +down vast quantities of the elevated matter of the globe into the +sea. But the separate strata are each much more distinct in the +matter of its composition than might be expected. Some are siliceous +or arenaceous (sandstones), composed mainly of fine grains from the +quartz rocks--the most abundant of the primary strata. Others are +argillaceous--clays, shales, &c., chiefly derived, probably, from the +slate beds of the primary series. Others are calcareous, derived +from the early limestone. As a general feature, they are softer and +less crystalline than the primary rocks, as if they had endured less +of both heat and pressure than the senior formation. There are beds +(coal) formed solely of vegetable matter, and some others in which +the main ingredient is particles of iron, (the iron black band.) The +secondary rocks are quite as communicative with regard to their +portion of the earth's history as the primitive were. + +The first, or lowest, group of the secondary rocks is called the +Carboniferous Formation, from the remarkable feature of its numerous +interspersed beds of coal. It commences with the beds of the +MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, which, in some situations, as in Derbyshire and +Ireland, are of great thickness, being alternated with chert (a +siliceous sandstone), sandstones, shales, and beds of coal, generally +of the harder and less bituminous kind (anthracite), the whole being +covered in some places by the millstone grit, a siliceous +conglomerate composed of the detritus of the primary rocks. The +mountain limestone, attaining in England to a depth of eight hundred +yards, greatly exceeds in volume any of the primary limestone beds, +and shews an enormous addition of power to the causes formerly +suggested as having produced this substance. In fact, remains of +corals, crinoidea, and shells, are so abundant in it, as to compose +three-fourths of the mass in some parts. Above the mountain +limestone commence the more conspicuous COAL BEDS, alternating with +sandstones, shales, beds of limestone, and ironstone. Coal is +altogether composed of the matter of a terrestrial vegetation, +transmuted by pressure. Some fresh-water shells have been found in +it, but few of marine origin, and no remains of those zoophytes and +crinoidea so abundant in the mountain limestone and other rocks. +Coal beds exist in Europe, Asia, and America, and have hitherto been +esteemed as the most valuable of mineral productions, from the +important services which the substance renders in manufactures and in +domestic economy. It is to be remarked, that there are some local +variations in the arrangement of coal beds. In France, they rest +immediately on the granite and other primary rocks, the intermediate +strata not having been found at those places. In America, the kind +called anthracite occurs among the slate beds, and this species also +abounds more in the mountain limestone than with us. These last +circumstances only shew that different parts of the earth's surface +did not all witness the same events of a certain fixed series exactly +at the same time. There had been an exhibition of dry land about the +site of America, a little earlier than in Europe. + +Some features of the condition of the earth during the deposition of +the carboniferous group, are made out with a clearness which must +satisfy most minds. First we are told of a time when carbonate of +lime was formed in vast abundance at the bottoms of profound seas, +accompanied by an unusually large population of corals and +encrinites; while in some parts of the earth there were patches of +dry land, covered with a luxuriant vegetation. Next we have a +comparatively brief period of volcanic disturbance, (when the +conglomerate was formed.) Then the causes favourable to the so +abundant production of limestone, and the large population of marine +acrita, decline, and we find the masses of dry land increase in +number and extent, and begin to bear an amount of forest vegetation, +far exceeding that of the most sheltered tropical spots of the +present surface. The climate, even in the latitude of Baffin's Bay, +was torrid, and perhaps the atmosphere contained a larger charge of +carbonic acid gas (the material of vegetation) than it now does. The +forests or thickets of the period, included no species of plants now +known upon earth. They mainly consisted of gigantic shrubs, which +are either not represented by any existing types, or are akin to +kinds which are now only found in small and lowly forms. That these +forests grew upon a Polynesia, or multitude of small islands, is +considered probable, from similar vegetation being now found in such +situations within the tropics. With regard to the circumstances +under which the masses of vegetable matter were transformed into +successive coal strata, geologists are divided. From examples seen +at the present day, at the mouths of such rivers as the Mississippi, +which traverse extensive sylvan regions, and from other circumstances +to be adverted to, it is held likely by some that the vegetable +matter, the rubbish of decayed forests, was carried by rivers into +estuaries, and there accumulated in vast natural rafts, until it sunk +to the bottom, where an overlayer of sand or mud would prepare it for +becoming a stratum of coal. Others conceive that the vegetation +first went into the condition of a peat moss, that a sink in the +level then exposed it to be overrun by the sea, and covered with a +layer of sand or mud; that a subsequent uprise made the mud dry land, +and fitted it to bear a new forest, which afterwards, like its +predecessor, became a bed of peat; that, in short, by repetitions of +this process, the alternate layers of coal, sandstone, and shale, +constituting the carboniferous group, were formed. It is favourable +to this last view that marine fossils are scarcely found in the body +of the coal itself, though abundant in the shale layers above and +below it; also that in several places erect stems of trees are found +with their roots still fixed in the shale beds, and crossing the +sandstone beds at almost right angles, shewing that these, at least, +had not been drifted from their original situations. On the other +hand, it is not easy to admit such repeated risings and sinkings of +surface as would be required, on this hypothesis, to form a series of +coal strata. Perhaps we may most safely rest at present with the +supposition that coal has been formed under both classes of +circumstances, though in the latter only as an exception to the +former. + +Upwards of three hundred species of plants have been ascertained to +exist in the coal formation; but it is not necessary to suppose that +the whole contained in that system are now, or ever will be +distinguished. Experiments shew that some great classes of plants +become decomposed in water in a much less space of time than others, +and it is remarkable that those which decompose soonest, are of the +classes found most rare, or not at all, in the coal strata. It is +consequently to be inferred that there may have been grasses and +mosses at this era, and many species of trees, the remains of which +had lost all trace of organic form before their substance sunk into +the mass of which coal was formed. In speaking, therefore, of the +vegetation of this period, we must bear in mind that it may have +comprehended forms of which we have no memorial. + +Supposing, nevertheless, that, in the main, the ascertained +vegetation of the coal system is that which grew at the time of its +formation, it is interesting to find that the terrestrial botany of +our globe begins with classes of comparatively simple forms and +structure. In the ranks of the vegetable kingdom, the lowest place +is taken by plants of cellular tissue, and which have no flowers, +(cryptogamia,) as lichens, mosses, fungi, ferns, sea-weeds. Above +these stand plants of vascular tissue, and bearing flowers, in which +again there are two great subdivisions; first, plants having one +seed-lobe, (monocotyledons,) and in which the new matter is added +within, (endogenous,) of which the cane and palm are examples; +second, plants having two seed-lobes, (dicotyledons,) and in which +the new matter is added on the outside under the bark, (exogenous,) +of which the pine, elm, oak, and most of the British forest-trees are +examples; these subdivisions also ranking in the order in which they +are here stated. Now it is clear that a predominance of these forms +in succession marked the successive epochs developed by fossil +geology; the simple abounding first, and the complex afterwards. + +Two-thirds of the plants of the carboniferous era are of the cellular +or cryptogamic kind, a proportion which would probably be much +increased if we knew the whole Flora of that era. The ascertained +dicotyledons, or higher-class plants, are comparatively few in this +formation; but it will be found that they constantly increased as the +globe grew older. + +The master-form or type of the era was the fern, or breckan, of which +about one hundred and thirty species have already been ascertained as +entering into the composition of coal. {84a} The fern is a plant +which thrives best in warm, shaded, and moist situations. In +tropical countries, where these conditions abound, there are many +more species than in temperate climes, and some of these are +arborescent, or of a tree-like size and luxuriance. {84b} The ferns +of the coal strata have been of this magnitude, and that without +regard to the parts of the earth where they are found. In the coal +of Baffin's Bay, of Newcastle, and of the torrid zone alike, are the +fossil ferns arborescent, shewing clearly that, in that era, the +present tropical temperature, or one even higher, existed in very +high latitudes. + +In the swamps and ditches of England there grows a plant called the +horse-tail (equisetum), having a succulent, erect, jointed stem, with +slender leaves, and a scaly catkin at the top. A second large +section of the plants of the carboniferous era were of this kind +(equisetaceae), but, like the fern, reaching the magnitudes of trees. +While existing equiseta rarely exceed three feet in height, and the +stems are generally under half an inch in diameter, their kindred, +entombed in the coal beds, seem to have been generally fourteen or +fifteen feet high, with stems from six inches to a foot in thickness. +Arborescent plants of this family, like the arborescent ferns, now +grow only in tropical countries, and their being found in the coal +beds in all latitudes is consequently held as an additional proof, +that at this era a warm climate was extended much farther to the +north than at present. It is to be remarked that plants of this kind +(forming two genera, the most abundant of which is the calamites) are +only represented on the present surface by plants of the same FAMILY: +the SPECIES which flourished at this era gradually lessen in number +as we advance upwards in the series of rocks, and disappear before we +arrive at the tertiary formation. + +The club-moss family (lycopodiaceae) are other plants of the present +surface, usually seen in a lowly and creeping form in temperate +latitudes, but presenting species which rise to a greater magnitude +within the tropics. Many specimens of this family are found in the +coal beds; it is thought they have contributed more to the substance +of the coal than any other family. But, like the ferns and +equisetaceae, they rise to a prodigious magnitude. The lepidodendra +(so the fossil genus is called) have probably been from sixty-five to +eighty feet in height, having at their base a diameter of about three +feet, while their leaves measured twenty inches in length. In the +forests of the coal era, the lepidodendra would enjoy the rank of +firs in our forests, affording shade to the only less stately ferns +and calamites. The internal structure of the stem, and the character +of the seed-vessels, shew them to have been a link between single- +lobed and double-lobed plants, a fact worthy of note, as it favours +the idea that, in vegetable, as well as animal creation, a progress +has been observed, in conformity with advancing conditions. It is +also curious to find a missing link of so much importance in a genus +of plants which has long ceased to have a living place upon earth. + +The other leading plants of the coal era are without representatives +on the present surface, and their characters are in general less +clearly ascertained. Amongst the most remarkable are--the +sigillaria, of which large stems are very abundant, shewing that the +interior has been soft, and the exterior fluted with separate leaves +inserted in vertical rows along the flutings--and the stigmaria, +plants apparently calculated to flourish in marshes or pools, having +a short, thick, fleshy stem, with a dome-shaped top, from which +sprung branches of from twenty to thirty feet long. Amongst +monocotyledons were some palms, (flabellaria and naeggerathia,) +besides a few not distinctly assignable to any class. + +The dicotyledons of the coal are comparatively few, though on the +present surface they are the most numerous sub-class. Besides some +of doubtful affinity, (annularia, asterophyllites, &c.,) there were a +few of the pine family, which seem to have been the highest class of +trees of this era, and are only as yet found in isolated cases, and +in sandstone beds. The first discovered lay in the Craigleith +quarry, near Edinburgh, and consisted of a stem about two feet thick, +and forty-seven feet in length. Others have since been found, both +in the same situation, and at Newcastle. Leaves and fruit being +wanting, an ingenious mode of detecting the nature of these trees was +hit upon by Mr. Witham of Lartington. Taking thin polished cross +slices of the stem, and subjecting them to the microscope, he +detected the structure of the wood to be that of a cone-bearing tree, +by the presence of certain "reticulations" which distinguish that +family, in addition to the usual radiating and concentric lines. +That particular tree was concluded to be an araucaria, a species now +found in Norfolk Island, in the South Sea, and in a few other remote +situations. The coniferae of this era form the dawn of +dicotyledenous trees, of which they may be said to be the simplest +type, and to which, it has already been noticed, the lepidodendra are +a link from the monocotyledons. The concentric rings of the +Craigleith and other coniferae of this era have been mentioned. It +is interesting to find in these a record of the changing seasons of +those early ages, when as yet there were no human beings to observe +time or tide. They are clearly traced; but it is observed that they +are more slightly marked than is the case with their family at the +present day, as if the changes of temperature had been within a +narrower range. + +Such was the vegetation of the carbonigenous era, composed of forms +at the bottom of the botanical scale, flowerless, fruitless, but +luxuriant and abundant beyond what the most favoured spots on earth +can now shew. The rigidity of the leaves of its plants, and the +absence of fleshy fruits and farinaceous seeds, unfitted it to afford +nutriment to animals; and, monotonous in its forms, and destitute of +brilliant colouring, its sward probably unenlivened by any of the +smaller flowering herbs, its shades uncheered by the hum of insects, +or the music of birds, it must have been but a sombre scene to a +human visitant. But neither man nor any other animals were then in +existence to look for such uses or such beauties in this vegetation. +It was serving other and equally important ends, clearing (probably) +the atmosphere of matter noxious to animal life, and storing up +mineral masses which were in long subsequent ages to prove of the +greatest service to the human race, even to the extent of favouring +the progress of its civilization. + +The animal remains of this era are not numerous, in comparison with +those which go before, or those which come after. The mountain +limestone, indeed, deposited at the commencement of it, abounds +unusually in polypiaria and crinoidea; but when we ascend to the +coal-beds themselves, the case is altered, and these marine remains +altogether disappear. We have then only a limited variety of +conchifers and shell mollusks, with fragments of a few species of +fishes, and these are rarely or never found in the coal seams, but in +the shales alternating with them. Some of the fishes are of a +sauroid character, that is, partake of the nature of the lizard, a +genus of the reptilia, a land class of animals, so that we may be +said here to have the first approach to a kind of animals calculated +to breathe the atmosphere. Such is the Megalichthys Hibbertii, found +by Dr. Hibbert Ware, in a limestone bed of fresh-water origin, +underneath the coal at Burdiehouse, near Edinburgh. Others of the +same kind have been found in the coal measures in Yorkshire, and in +the low coal shales at Manchester. This is no more than might be +expected, as collections of fresh water now existed, and it is +presumable that they would be peopled. The chief other fishes of the +coal era are named palaeothrissum, palaeoniscus, diperdus. + +Coal strata are nearly confined to the group termed the carboniferous +formation. Thin beds are not unknown afterwards, but they occur only +as a rare exception. It is therefore thought that the most important +of the conditions which allowed of so abundant a terrestrial +vegetation, had ceased about the time when this formation was closed. +The high temperature was not one of the conditions which terminated, +for there are evidences of it afterwards; but probably the +superabundance of carbonic acid gas supposed to have existed during +this era was expended before its close. There can be little doubt +that the infusion of a large dose of this gas into the atmosphere at +the present day would be attended by precisely the same circumstances +as in the time of the carboniferous formation. Land animal life +would not have a place on earth; vegetation would be enormous; and +coal strata would be formed from the vast accumulations of woody +matter, which would gather in every sea, near the mouths of great +rivers. On the exhaustion of the superabundance of carbonic acid +gas, the coal formation would cease, and the earth might again become +a suitable theatre of being for land animals. + +The termination of the carboniferous formation is marked by symptoms +of volcanic violence, which some geologists have considered to denote +the close of one system of things and the beginning of another. Coal +beds generally lie in basins, as if following the curve of the bottom +of seas. But there is no such basin which is not broken up into +pieces, some of which have been tossed up on edge, others allowed to +sink, causing the ends of strata to be in some instances many yards, +and in a few several hundred feet, removed from the corresponding +ends of neighbouring fragments. These are held to be results of +volcanic movements below, the operation of which is further seen in +numerous upbursts and intrusions of volcanic rock (trap). That these +disturbances took place about the close of the formation, and not +later, is shewn in the fact of the next higher group of strata being +comparatively undisturbed. Other symptoms of this time of violence +are seen in the beds of conglomerate which occur amongst the first +strata above the coal. These, as usual, consist of fragments of the +elder rocks, more or less worn from being tumbled about in agitated +water, and laid down in a mud paste, afterwards hardened. Volcanic +disturbances break up the rocks; the pieces are worn in seas; and a +deposit of conglomerate is the consequence. Of porphyry, there are +some such pieces in the conglomerate of Devonshire, three or four +tons in weight. It is to be admitted for strict truth that, in some +parts of Europe, the carboniferous formation is followed by superior +deposits, without the appearance of such disturbances between their +respective periods; but apparently this case belongs to the class of +exceptions already noticed. {93} That disturbance was general, is +supported by the further and important fact of the destruction of +many forms of organic being previously flourishing, particularly of +the vegetable kingdom. + + + +ERA OF THE NEW RED SANDSTONE. TERRESTRIAL ZOOLOGY COMMENCES WITH +REPTILES. FIRST TRACES OF BIRDS. + + + +The next volume of the rock series refers to an era distinguished by +an event of no less importance than the commencement of land animals. +The New Red Sandstone System is subdivided into groups, some of which +are wanting in some places; they are pretty fully developed in the +north of England, in the following ascending order:- 1. Lower red +sandstone; 2. Magnesian limestone; 3. Red and white sandstones and +conglomerate; 4. Variegated marls. Between the third and fourth +there is, in Germany, another group, called the Muschelkalk, a word +expressing a limestone full of shells. + +The first group, containing the conglomerates already adverted to, +seems to have been produced during the time of disturbance which +occurred so generally after the carbonigenous era. This new era is +distinguished by a paucity of organic remains, as might partly be +expected from the appearances of disturbance, and the red tint of the +rocks, the latter being communicated by a solution of oxide of iron, +a substance unfavourable to animal life. + +The second group is a limestone with an infusion of magnesia. It is +developed less generally than some others, but occurs conspicuously +in England and Germany. Its place, above the red sandstone, shews +the recurrence of circumstances favourable to animal life, and we +accordingly find in it not only zoophytes, conchifera, and a few +tribes of fish, but some faint traces of land plants, and a new and +startling appearance--a reptile of saurian (lizard) character, +analogous to the now existing family called monitors. Remains of +this creature are found in cupriferous (copper-bearing) slate +connected with the mountain limestone, at Mansfield and Glucksbrunn, +in Germany, which may be taken as evidence that dry land existed in +that age near those places. The magnesia limestone is also +remarkable as the last rock in which appears the leptaena, or +producta, a conchifer of numerous species which makes a conspicuous +appearance in all previous seas. It is likewise to be observed, that +the fishes of this age, to the genera of which the names +palaeoniscus, catopterus, platysomus, &c., have been applied, vanish, +and henceforth appear no more. + +The third group, chiefly sandstones, variously coloured according to +the amount and nature of the metallic oxide infused into them, shews +a recurrence of agitation, and a consequent diminution of the amount +of animal life. In the upper part, however, of this group, there are +abundant symptoms of a revival of proper conditions for such life. +There are marl beds, the origin of which substance in decomposed +shells is obvious; and in Germany, though not in England, here occurs +the muschelkalk, containing numerous organic remains, (generally +different from those of the magnesian limestone,) and noted for the +specimens of land animals, which it is the first to present in any +considerable abundance to our notice. + +These animals are of the vertebrate sub-kingdom, but of its lowest +class next after fishes,--namely, reptiles,--a portion of the +terrestrial tribes whose imperfect respiratory system perhaps fitted +them for enduring an atmosphere not yet quite suitable for birds or +mammifers. {97} The specimens found in the muschelkalk are allied to +the crocodile and lizard tribes of the present day, but in the latter +instance are upon a scale of magnitude as much superior to present +forms as the lepidodendron of the coal era was superior to the dwarf +club-mosses of our time. These saurians also combine some +peculiarities of structure of a most extraordinary character. + +The animal to which the name ichthyosaurus has been given, was as +long as a young whale, and it was fitted for living in the water, +though breathing the atmosphere. It had the vertebral column and +general bodily form of a fish, but to that were added the head and +breast-bone of a lizard, and the paddles of the whale tribes. The +beak, moreover, was that of a porpoise, and the teeth were those of a +crocodile. It must have been a most destructive creature to the fish +of those early seas. + +The plesiosaurus was of similar bulk, with a turtle-like body and +paddles, shewing that the sea was its element, but with a long +serpent-like neck, terminating in a saurian head, calculated to reach +prey at a considerable distance. These two animals, of which many +varieties have been discovered, constituting distinct species, are +supposed to have lived in the shallow borders of the seas of this and +subsequent formations, devouring immense quantities of the finny +tribes. It was at first thought that no creatures approaching them +in character now inhabit the earth; but latterly Mr. Darwin has +discovered, in the reptile-peopled Galapagos Islands, in the South +Sea, a marine saurian from three to four feet long. + +The megalosaurus was an enormous lizard--a land creature, also +carnivorous. The pterodactyle was another lizard, but furnished with +wings to pursue its prey in the air, and varying in size between a +cormorant and a snipe. Crocodiles abounded, and some of these were +herbivorous. Such was the iguanodon, a creature of the character of +the iguana of the Ganges, but reaching a hundred feet in length, or +twenty times that of its modern representative. + +There were also numerous tortoises, some of them reaching a great +size; and Professor Owen has found in Warwickshire some remains of an +animal of the batrachian order, {99} to which, from the peculiar form +of the teeth, he has given the name of labyrinthidon. Thus, three of +Cuvier's four orders of reptilia (sauria, chelonia, and batrachia) +are represented in this formation, the serpent order (ophidia) being +alone wanting. + +The variegated marl beds which constitute the uppermost group of the +formation, present two additional genera of huge saurians,--the +phytosaurus and mastodonsaurus. + +It is in the upper beds of the red sandstone that beds of salt first +occur. These are sometimes of such thickness, that the mine from +which the material has been excavated looks like a lofty church. We +see in the present world no circumstances calculated to produce the +formation of a bed of rock salt; yet it is not difficult to +understand how such strata were formed in an age marked by ultra- +tropical heat and frequent volcanic disturbances. An estuary, cut +off by an upthrow of trap, or a change of level, and left to dry up +under the heat of the sun, would quickly become the bed of a dense +layer of rock salt. A second shift of level, or some other volcanic +disturbance, connecting it again with the sea, would expose this +stratum to being covered over with a layer of sand or mud, destined +in time to form the next stratum of rock above it. + +The plants of this era are few and unobtrusive. Equiseta, calamites, +ferns, Voltzia, and a few of the other families found so abundantly +in the preceding formation, here present themselves, but in +diminished size and quantity. + +This seems to be the proper place to advert to certain memorials of a +peculiar and unexpected character respecting these early ages in the +sandstones. So low as the bottom of the carboniferous system, slabs +are found marked over a great extent of surface with that peculiar +corrugation or wrinkling which the receding tide leaves upon a sandy +beach when the sea is but slightly agitated; and not only are these +ripple-marks, as they are called, found on the surfaces, but casts of +them are found on the under sides of slabs lying above. The +phenomena suggests the time when the sand ultimately formed into +these stone slabs, was part of the beach of a sea of the +carbonigenous era; when, left wavy by one tide, it was covered over +with a thin layer of fresh sand by the next, and so on, precisely as +such circumstances might be expected to take place at the present +day. Sandstone surfaces, ripple-marked, are found throughout the +subsequent formations: in those of the new red, at more than one +place in England, they further bear impressions of rain-drops which +have fallen upon them--the rain, of course, of the inconceivably +remote age in which the sandstones were formed. In the Greensill +sandstone, near Shrewsbury, it has even been possible to tell from +what direction the shower came which impressed the sandy surface, the +rims of the marks being somewhat raised on one side, exactly as might +be expected from a slanting shower falling at this day upon one of +our beaches. These facts have the same sort of interest as the +season rings of the Craigleith conifers, as speaking of a parity +between some of the familiar processes of nature in those early ages +and our own. + +In the new red sandstone, impressions still more important in the +inferences to which they tend, have been observed,--namely, the +footmarks of various animals. In a quarry of this formation, at +Corncockle Muir, in Dumfriesshire, where the slabs incline at an +angle of thirty-eight degrees, the vestiges of an animal supposed to +have been a tortoise are distinctly traced up and down the slope, as +if the creature had had occasion to pass backwards and forwards in +that direction only, possibly in its daily visits to the sea. Some +slabs similarly impressed, in the Stourton quarries in Cheshire, are +further marked with a shower of rain which we know must have fallen +AFTERWARDS, for its little hollows are impressed in the footmarks +also, though more slightly than on the rest of the surface, the +comparative hardness of a trodden place having apparently prevented +so deep an impression being made. At Hessberg, in Saxony, the +vestiges of four distinct animals have been traced, one of them a +web-footed animal of small size, considered as a congener of the +crocodile; another, whose footsteps having a resemblance to an +impression of a swelled human hand, has caused it to be named the +cheirotherium. The footsteps of the cheirotherium have been found +also in the Stourton quarries above mentioned. Professor Owen, who +stands at the head of comparative anatomy in the present day, has +expressed his belief that this last animal was the same batrachian of +which he has found fragments in the new red sandstone of +Warwickshire. At Runcorn, near Manchester, and elsewhere, have been +discovered the tracks of an animal which Mr. Owen calls the +rynchosaurus, uniting with the body of a reptile the beak and feet of +a bird, and which clearly had been a LINK between these two classes. + +If geologists shall ultimately give their approbation to the +inferences made from a recent discovery in America, we shall have the +addition of perfect birds, though probably of a low type, to the +animal forms of this era. It is stated to be in quarries of this +rock, in the valley of Connecticut, that footprints have been found, +apparently produced by birds of the order grallae, or waders. "The +footsteps appear in regular succession on the continuous track of an +animal, in the act of walking or running, with the right and left +foot always in their relative places. The distance of the intervals +between each footstep on the same track is occasionally varied, but +to no greater amount than may be explained by the bird having altered +its pace. Many tracks of different individuals and different species +are often found crossing each other, and crowded, like impressions of +feet upon the shores of a muddy stream, where ducks and geese +resort." {103} Some of these prints indicate small animals, but +others denote birds of what would now be an unusually large size. +One animal, having a foot fifteen inches in length, (one-half more +than that of the ostrich,) and a stride of from four to six feet, has +been appropriately entitled, ornithichnites giganteus. + + + +ERA OF THE OOLITE. COMMENCEMENT OF MAMMALIA. + + + +The chronicles of this period consist of a series of beds, mostly +calcareous, taking their general name (Oolite System) from a +conspicuous member of them--the oolite--a limestone composed of an +aggregation of small round grains or spherules, and so called from +its fancied resemblance to a cluster of eggs, or the roe of a fish. +This texture of stone is novel and striking. It is supposed to be of +chemical origin, each spherule being an aggregation of particles +round a central nucleus. The oolite system is largely developed in +England, France, Westphalia, and Northern Italy; it appears in +Northern India and Africa, and patches of it exist in Scotland, and +in the vale of the Mississippi. It may of course be yet discovered +in many other parts of the world. + +The series, as shewn in the neighbourhood of Bath, is (beginning with +the lowest) as follows:- 1. Lias, a set of strata variously composed +of limestone, clay, marl, and shale, clay being predominant; 2. +Lower oolitic formation, including, besides the great oolite bed of +central England, fullers' earth beds, forest marble, and cornbrash; +3. Middle oolitic formation, composed of two sub-groups, the Oxford +clay and coral rag, the latter being a mere layer of the works of the +coral polype; 4. Upper oolitic formation, including what are called +Kimmeridge clay and Portland oolite. In Yorkshire there is an +additional group above the lias, and in Sutherlandshire there is +another group above that again. In the wealds (moorlands) of Kent +and Sussex, there is, in like manner, above the fourth of the Bath +series, another additional group, to which the name of the Wealden +has been given, from its situation, and which, composed of sandstones +and clays, is subdivided into Purbeck beds, Hastings sand, and Weald +clay. + +There are no particular appearances of disturbance between the close +of the new red sandstone and the beginning of the oolite system, as +far as has been observed in England. Yet there is a great change in +the materials of the rocks of the two formations, shewing that while +the bottoms of the seas of the one period had been chiefly +arenaceous, those of the other were chiefly clayey and limy. And +there is an equal difference between the two periods in respect of +both botany and zoology. While the new red sandstone shews +comparatively scanty traces of organic creation, those in the oolite +are extremely abundant, particularly in the department of animals, +and more particularly still of sea mollusca, which, it has been +observed, are always the more conspicuous in proportion to the +predominance of calcareous rocks. It is also remarkable that the +animals of the oolitic system are entirely different in species from +those of the preceding age, and that these species cease before the +next. In this system we likewise find that uniformity over great +space which has been remarked of the Faunas of earlier formations. +"In the equivalent deposits in the Himalaya Mountains, at Fernando +Po, in the region north of the Cape of Good Hope, and in the Run of +Cutch, and other parts of Hindostan, fossils have been discovered, +which, as far as English naturalists who have seen them can +determine, are undistinguishable from certain oolite and lias fossils +of Europe." {108a} + +The dry land of this age presented cycadeae, "a beautiful class of +plants between the palms and conifers, having a tall, straight trunk, +terminating in a magnificent crown of foliage." {108b} There were +tree ferns, but in smaller proportion than in former ages; also +equisetaceae, lilia, and conifers. The vegetation was generally +analogous to that of the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, which seems +to argue a climate (we must remember, a universal climate) between +the tropical and temperate. It was, however, sufficiently luxuriant +in some instances to produce thin seams of coal, for such are found +in the oolite formation of both Yorkshire and Sutherland. The sea, +as for ages before, contained algae, of which, however, only a few +species have been preserved to our day. The lower classes of the +inhabitants of the ocean were unprecedentedly abundant. The +polypiaria were in such abundance as to form whole strata of +themselves. The crinoidea and echinites were also extremely +numerous. Shell mollusks, in hundreds of new species, occupied the +bottoms of the seas of those ages, while of the swimming shell-fish, +ammonites and belemnites, there were also many scores of varieties. +The belemnite here calls for some particular notice. It commences in +the oolite, and terminates in the next formation. It is an +elongated, conical shell, terminating in a point, and having, at the +larger end, a cavity for the residence of the animal, with a series +of air-chambers below. The animal, placed in the upper cavity, could +raise or depress itself in the water at pleasure by a pneumatic +operation upon the entral air tube pervading its shell. Its +tentacula, sent abroad over the summit of the shell, searched the sea +for prey. The creature had an ink-bag, with which it could muddle +the water around it, to protect itself from more powerful animals, +and, strange to say, this has been found so well preserved that an +artist has used it in one instance as a paint, wherewith to delineate +the belemnite itself. + +The crustacea discovered in this formation are less numerous. There +are many fishes, some of which (acrodus, psammodus, &c.,) are +presumed from remains of their palatal bones, to have been of the +gigantic cartilaginous class, now represented by such as the +cestraceon. It has been considered by Professor Owen as worthy of +notice, that, the cestraceon being an inhabitant of the Australian +seas, we have, in both the botany and ichthyology of this period, an +analogy to that continent. The pycnodontes, (thick-toothed,) and +lepidoides, (having thick scales,) are other families described by M. +Agassiz as extensively prevalent. In the shallow waters of the +oolitic formation, the ichthyosaurus, plesiosaurus, and other huge +saurian carnivora of the preceding age, plied, in increased numbers, +their destructive vocation. {110} To them were added new genera, the +cetiosaurus, mososaurus, and some others, all of similar character +and habits. + +Land reptiles abounded, including species of the pterodactyle of the +preceding age--tortoises, trionyces, crocodilians--and the +pliosaurus, a creature which appears to have formed a link between +the plesiosaurus and the crocodile. We know of at least six species +of the flying saurian, the pterodactyle, in this formation. + +Now, for the first time, we find remains of insects, an order of +animals not well calculated for fossil preservation, and which are +therefore amongst the rarest of the animal tribes found in rocks, +though they are the most numerous of all living families. A single +libellula (dragon-fly) was found in the Stonesfield slate, a member +of the lower oolitic group quarried near Oxford; and this was for +several years the only specimen known to exist so early; but now many +species have been found in a corresponding rock at Solenhofen, in +Germany. It is remarkable that the remains of insects are found most +plentifully near the remains of pterodactyles, to which undoubtedly +they served as prey. + +The first glimpse of the highest class of the vertebrate sub-kingdom- +-mammalia--is obtained from the Stonesfield slate, where there has +been found the jaw-bone of a quadruped evidently insectivorous, and +inferred, from peculiarities in the structure of that small fragment, +to have belonged to the marsupial family, (pouched animals). It may +be observed, although no specimens of so high a class of animals as +mammalia are found earlier, such may nevertheless have existed: the +defect may be in our not having found them; but, other things +considered, the probability is that heretofore there were no +mammifers. It is an interesting circumstance that the first +mammifers found should have belonged to the marsupialia, when the +place of that order in the scale of creation is considered. In the +imperfect structure of their brain, deficient in the organs +connecting the two hemispheres--and in the mode of gestation, which +is only in small part uterine--this family is clearly a link between +the oviparous vertebrata (birds, reptiles, and fishes) and the higher +mammifers. This is further established by their possessing a faint +development of two canals passing from near the anus to the external +surface of the viscera, which are fully possessed in reptiles and +fishes, for the purpose of supplying aerated water to the blood +circulating in particular vessels, but which are unneeded by +mammifers. Such rudiments of organs in certain species which do not +require them in any degree, are common in both the animal and +vegetable kingdoms, but are always most conspicuous in families +approaching in character to those classes to which the full organs +are proper. This subject will be more particularly adverted to in +the sequel. + +The highest part of the oolitic formation presents some phenomena of +an unusual and interesting character, which demand special notice. +Immediately above the upper oolitic group in Buckinghamshire, in the +vicinity of Weymouth, and other situations, there is a thin stratum, +usually called by workmen the DIRT-BED, which appears, from +incontestable evidence, to have been a soil, formed, like soils of +the present day, in the course of time, upon a surface which had +previously been the bottom of the sea. The dirt-bed contains exuviae +of tropical trees, accumulated through time, as the forest shed its +honours on the spot where it grew, and became itself decayed. Near +Weymouth there is a piece of this stratum, in which stumps of trees +remain rooted, mostly erect or slightly inclined, and from one to +three feet high; while trunks of the same forest, also silicified, +lie imbedded on the surface of the soil in which they grew. + +Above this bed lie those which have been called the Wealden, from +their full development in the Weald of Sussex; and these as +incontestably argue that the dry land forming the dirt-bed had next +afterwards become the area of brackish estuaries, or lakes partially +connected with the sea; for the Wealden strata contain exuviae of +fresh-water tribes, besides those of the great saurians and chelonia. +The area of this estuary comprehends the whole south-east province of +England. A geologist thus confidently narrates the subsequent +events: "Much calcareous matter was first deposited [in this +estuary], and in it were entombed myriads of shells, apparently +analogous to those of the vivipara. Then came a thick envelope of +sand, sometimes interstratified with mud; and, finally, muddy matter +prevailed. The solid surface beneath the waters would appear to have +suffered a long continued and gradual depression, which was as +gradually filled, or nearly so, with transported matter; in the end, +however, after a depression of several hundred feet, the sea again +entered upon the area, not suddenly or violently--for the Wealden +rocks pass gradually into the superincumbent cretaceous series--but +so quietly, that the mud containing the remains of terrestrial and +fresh-water creatures was tranquilly covered up by sands replete with +marine exuviae." {114} A subsequent depression of the same area, to +the depth of at least three hundred fathoms, is believed to have +taken place, to admit of the deposition of the cretaceous beds lying +above. + +From the scattered way in which remains of the larger terrestrial +animals occur in the Wealden, and the intermixture of pebbles of the +special appearance of those worn in rivers, it is also inferred that +the estuary which once covered the south-east part of England was the +mouth of a river of that far-descending class of which the +Mississippi and Amazon are examples. What part of the earth's +surface presented the dry land through which that and other similar +rivers flowed, no one can tell for certain. It has been surmised, +that the particular one here spoken of may have flowed from a point +not nearer than the site of the present Newfoundland. Professor +Philips has suggested, from the analogy of the mineral composition, +that anciently elevated coal strata may have composed the dry land +from which the sandy matters of these strata were washed. Such a +deposit as the Wealden almost necessarily implies a local, not a +general condition; yet it has been thought that similar strata and +remains exist in the Pays de Bray, near Beauvais. This leads to the +supposition that there may have been, in that age, a series of river- +receiving estuaries along the border of some such great ocean as the +Atlantic, of which that of modern Sussex is only an example. + + + +ERA OF THE CRETACEOUS FORMATION. + + + +The record of this period consists of a series of strata, in which +chalk beds make a conspicuous appearance, and which is therefore +called the cretaceous system or formation. In England, a long +stripe, extending from Yorkshire to Kent, presents the cretaceous +beds upon the surface, generally lying conformably upon the oolite, +and in many instances rising into bold escarpments towards the west. +The celebrated cliffs of Dover are of this formation. It extends +into northern France, and thence north-westward into Germany, whence +it is traced into Scandinavia and Russia. The same system exists in +North America, and probably in other parts of the earth not yet +geologically investigated. Being a marine deposit, it establishes +that seas existed at the time of its formation on the tracts occupied +by it, while some of its organic remains prove that, in the +neighbourhood of those seas, there were tracts of dry land. + +The cretaceous formation in England presents beds chiefly sandy in +the lowest part, chiefly clayey in the middle, and chiefly of chalk +in the upper part, the chalk beds being never absent, which some of +the lower are in several places. In the vale of the Mississippi, +again, the true chalk is wholly, or all but wholly absent. In the +south of England, the lower beds are, (reckoning from the lowest +upwards), 1. Shankland or greensand, "a triple alternation of sands +and sandstones with clay;" 2. Galt, "a stiff blue or black clay, +abounding in shells, which frequently possess a pearly lustre;" 3. +Hard chalk; 4. Chalk with flints; these two last being generally +white, but in some districts red, and in others yellow. The whole +are, in England, about 1200 feet thick, shewing the considerable +depths of the ocean in which the deposits were made. + +Chalk is a carbonate of lime, and the manner of its production in +such vast quantities was long a subject of speculation among +geologists. Some light seemed to be thrown upon the subject a few +years ago, when it was observed, that the detritus of coral reefs in +the present tropical seas gave a powder, undistinguishable, when +dried, from ordinary chalk. It then appeared likely that the chalk +beds were the detritus of the corals which were in the oceans of that +era. Mr. Darwin, who made some curious inquiries on this point, +further suggested, that the matter might have intermediately passed +through the bodies of worms and fish, such as feed on the corals of +the present day, and in whose stomachs he has found impure chalk. +This, however, cannot be a full explanation of the production of +chalk, if we admit some more recent discoveries of Professor +Ehrenberg. That master of microscopic investigation announces, that +chalk is composed partly of "inorganic particles of irregular +elliptical structure and granular slaty disposition," and partly of +shells of inconceivable minuteness, "varying from the one-twelfth to +the two hundred and eighty-eighth part of a line"--a cubic inch of +the substance containing above ten millions of them! The chalk of +the north of Europe contains, he says, a larger proportion of the +inorganic matter; that of the south, a larger proportion of the +organic matter, being in some instances almost entirely composed of +it. He has been able to classify many of these creatures, some of +them being allied to the nautili, nummuli, cyprides, &c. The shells +of some are calcareous, of others siliceous. M. Ehrenberg has +likewise detected microscopic sea-plants in the chalk. + +The distinctive feature of the uppermost chalk beds in England, is +the presence of flint nodules. These are generally disposed in +layers parallel to each other. It was readily presumed by geologists +that these masses were formed by a chemical aggregation of particles +of silica, originally held in solution in the mass of the chalk. But +whence the silica in a substance so different from it? Ehrenberg +suggests that it is composed of the siliceous coverings of a portion +of the microscopic creatures, whose shells he has in other instances +detected in their original condition. It is remarkable that the +chalk WITH flint abounds in the north of Europe; that WITHOUT flints +in the south; while in the northern chalk siliceous animalcules are +wanting, and in the southern present in great quantities. The +conclusion seems but natural, that in the one case the siliceous +exuviae have been left in their original form; in the other dissolved +chemically, and aggregated on the common principle of chemical +affinity into nodules of flint, probably concentrating, in every +instance, upon a piece of decaying organic matter, as has been the +case with the nodules of ironstone in the earlier rocks, and the +spherules of the oolite. + +What is more remarkable, M. Ehrenberg has ascertained that at least +fifty-seven species of the microscopic animals of the chalk, being +infusoria and calcareous-shelled polythalamia, are still found living +in various parts of the earth. These species are the most abundant +in the rock. Singly they are the most unimportant of all animals, +but in the mass, forming as they do such enormous strata over a large +part of the earth's surface, they have an importance greatly +exceeding that of the largest and noblest of the beasts of the field. +Moreover, these species have a peculiar interest, as the only +specific types of that early age which are reproduced in the present +day. Species of sea mollusks, of reptiles, and of mammifers, have +been changed again and again, since the cretaceous era; and it is not +till a long subsequent age that we find the first traces of any other +of even the humblest species which now exist; but here have these +humble infusoria and polythalamia kept their place on earth through +all its revolutions since that time,--are we to say, safe in their +very humility, which might adapt them to a greater variety of +circumstances than most other animals, or are we required to look for +some other explanation of the phenomenon? + +All the ordinary and more observable orders of the inhabitants of the +sea, except the cetacea, have been found in the cretaceous formation- +-zoophytes, radiaria, mollusks, crustacea, (in great variety of +species,) and fishes in smaller variety. In Europe, remains of the +marine saurians have been found; they may be presumed to have become +extinct in that part of the globe before this time, their place and +destructive office being perhaps supplied by cartilaginous fishes, of +which the teeth are found in great quantities. In America, however, +remains of the plesiosaurus have been discovered in this part of the +stratified series. The reptiles, too, so numerous in the two +preceding periods, appear to have now much diminished in numbers. +One, entitled the mosaesaurus, seems to have held an intermediate +place between the monitor and iguana, and to have been about twenty- +five feet long, with a tail calculated to assist it powerfully in +swimming. Crocodiles and turtles existed, and amongst the fishes +were some of a saurian character. + +Fuci abounded in the seas of this era. Confervae are found enclosed +in flints. Of terrestrial vegetation, as of terrestrial animals, the +specimens in the European area are comparatively rare, rendering it +probable that there was no dry land near. The remains are chiefly of +ferns, conifers, and cycadeae, but in the two former cases we have +only cones and leaves. There have been discovered many pieces of +wood, containing holes drilled by the teredo, and thus shewing that +they had been long drifted about in the ocean before being entombed +at the bottom. + +The series in America corresponding to this, entitled the ferruginous +sand formation, presents fossils generally identical with those of +Europe, not excepting the fragments of drilled wood; shewing that, in +this, as in earlier ages, there was a parity of conditions for animal +life over a vast tract of the earth's surface. To European reptiles, +the American formation adds a gigantic one, styled the saurodon, from +the lizard-like character of its teeth. + +We have seen that footsteps of birds are considered to have been +discovered in America, in the new red sandstone. Some similar +isolated phenomena occur in the subsequent formations. Mr. Mantell +discovered some bones of birds, apparently waders, in the Wealden. +The immediate connexion of that set of birds with land, may account, +of course, for their containing a terrestrial organic relic, which +the marine beds above and below did not possess. In the slate of +Glarus, in Switzerland, corresponding to the English galt, in the +chalk formation, the remains of a bird have been found. From a chalk +bed near Maidstone, have likewise been extracted some remains of a +bird, supposed to have been of the long-winged swimmer family, and +equal in size to the albatross. These, it must be owned, are less +strong traces of the birds than we possess of the reptiles and other +tribes; but it must be remembered, that the evidence of fossils, as +to the absence of any class of animals from a certain period of the +earth's history, can never be considered as more than negative. +Animals, of which we find no remains in a particular formation, may, +nevertheless, have lived at the time, and it may have only been from +unfavourable circumstances that their remains have not been preserved +for our inspection. The single circumstance of their being little +liable to be carried down into seas, might be the cause of their non- +appearance in our quarries. There is at the same time a limit to +uncertainty on this point. We see, from what remains have been found +in the whole series, a clear progress throughout, from humble to +superior types of being. Hence we derive a light as to what animals +may have existed at particular times, which is in some measure +independent of the specialties of fossilology. The birds are below +the mammalia in the animal scale; and therefore they may be supposed +to have existed about the time of the new red sandstone and oolite, +although we find but slight traces of them in those formations, and, +it may be said, till a considerably later period. + + + +ERA OF THE TERTIARY FORMATION.--MAMMALIA ABUNDANT. + + + +The chalk-beds are the highest which extend over a considerable +space; but in hollows of these beds, comparatively limited in extent, +there have been formed series of strata--clays, limestones, marls, +alternating--to which the name of the Tertiary Formation has been +applied. London and Paris alike rest on basins of this formation, +and another such basin extends from near Winchester, under +Southampton, and re-appears in the Isle of Wight. There is a patch, +or fragment of the formation in one of the Hebrides. A stripe of it +extends along the east coast of North America, from Massachusetts to +Florida. It is also found in Sicily and Italy, insensibly blended +with formations still in progress. Though comparatively a local +formation, it is not of the less importance as a record of the +condition of the earth during a certain period. As in other +formations, it is marked, in the most distant localities, by identity +of organic remains. + +The hollows filled by the tertiary formation must be considered as +the beds of estuaries left at the conclusion of the cretaceous +period. We have seen that an estuary, either by the drifting up of +its mouth, or a change of level in that quarter, may be supposed to +have become an inland sheet of water, and that, by another change, of +the reverse kind, it may be supposed to have become an estuary again. +Such changes the Paris basin appears to have undergone oftener than +once, for, first, we have there a fresh-water formation of clay and +limestone beds; then, a marine-limestone formation; next, a second +fresh water formation, in which the material of the celebrated +plaster of Paris (gypsum) is included; then, a second marine +formation of sandy and limy beds; and finally, a third series of +fresh-water strata. Such alternations occur in other examples of the +tertiary formation likewise. + +The tertiary beds present all but an entirely new set of animals, and +as we ascend in the series, we find more and more of these identical +with species still existing upon earth, as if we had now reached the +dawn of the present state of the zoology of our planet. By the study +of the shells alone, Mr. Lyell has been enabled to divide the whole +term into four sub-periods, to which he has given names with +reference to the proportions which they respectively present of +surviving species--first, the eocene, (from [Greek], the dawn; +[Greek], recent;) second, the miocene, ([Greek], less;) third, older +pliocene, ([Greek], more;) fourth, newer pliocene. + + +EOCENE SUB-PERIOD. + + +The eocene period presents, in three continental groups, 1238 species +of shells, of which forty-two, or 3.5 per cent, yet flourish. Some +of these are remarkable enough; but they all sink into insignificance +beside the mammalian remains which the lower eocene deposits of the +Paris basin present to us, shewing that the land had now become the +theatre of an extensive creation of the highest class of animals. +Cuvier ascertained about fifty species of these, all of them long +since extinct. A considerable number are pachydermata, {127} of a +character approximating to the South American tapir: the names, +palaeotherium, anthracotherium, anoplotherium, lophiodon, &c., have +been applied to them with a consideration of more or less conspicuous +peculiarities; but a description of the first may give some general +idea of the whole. It was about the size of a horse, but more squat +and clumsy, and with a heavier head, and a lower jaw shorter than the +upper; the feet, also, instead of hooves, presented three large toes, +rounded, and unprovided with claws. These animals were all +herbivorous. Amongst an immense number of others are found many new +reptiles, some of them adapted for fresh water; species of birds +allied to the sea-lark, curlew, quail, buzzard, owl, and pelican; +species allied to the dormouse and squirrel; also the opossum and +racoon; and species allied to the genette, fox, and wolf. + + +MIOCENE SUB-PERIOD. + + +In the miocene sub-period, the shells give eighteen per cent. of +existing species, shewing a considerable advance from the preceding +era, with respect to the inhabitants of the sea. The advance in the +land animals is less marked, but yet considerable. The predominating +forms are still pachydermatous, and the tapir type continues to be +conspicuous. One animal of this kind, called the dinotherium, is +supposed to have been not less than eighteen feet long; it had a +mole-like form of the shoulder-blade, conferring the power of digging +for food, and a couple of tusks turning down from the lower jaw, by +which it could have attached itself, like the walrus, to a shore or +bank, while its body floated in the water. Dr. Buckland considers +this and some similar miocene animals, as adapted for a semi-aquatic +life, in a region where lakes abounded. Besides the tapirs, we have +in this era animals allied to the glutton, the bear, the dog, the +horse, the hog, and lastly, several felinae, (creatures of which the +lion is the type;) all of which are new forms, as far as we know. +There was also an abundance of marine mammalia, seals, dolphins, +lamantins, walruses, and whales, none of which had previously +appeared. + + +PLIOCENE SUB-PERIOD. + + +The shells of the older pliocene give from thirty-five to fifty; +those of the newer, from ninety to ninety-five per cent. of existing +species. The pachydermata of the preceding era now disappear, and +are replaced by others belonging to still existing families-- +elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros--though now extinct as species. +Some of these are startling, from their enormous magnitude. The +great mastodon, whose remains are found in abundance in America, was +a species of elephant, judged, from peculiarities of its teeth, to +have lived on aquatic plants, and reaching the height of twelve feet. +The mammoth was another elephant, but supposed to have survived till +comparatively recent times, as a specimen, in all respects entire, +was found in 1801, preserved in ice, in Siberia. We are more +surprised by finding such gigantic proportions in an animal called +the megatherium, which ranks in an order now assuming much humbler +forms--the edentata--to which the sloth, ant-eater, and armadillo +belong. The megatherium had a skeleton of enormous solidity, with an +armour-clad body, and five toes, terminating in huge claws, wherewith +to grasp the branches, from which, like its existing congener, the +sloth, it derived its food. The megalonyx was a similar animal, only +somewhat less than the preceding. Finally, the pliocene gives us for +the first time, oxen, deer, camels, and other specimens of the +ruminantia. + +Such is an outline of the fauna of the tertiary era, as ascertained +by the illustrious naturalists who first devoted their attention to +it. It will be observed that it brings us up to the felinae, or +carnivora, a considerably elevated point in the animal scale, but +still leaving a blank for the quadrumana (monkeys) and for man, who +collectively form, as will be afterwards seen, the first group in +that scale. It sometimes happens, however, as we have seen, that a +few rare traces of a particular class of animals are in time found in +formations originally thought to be destitute of them, displaying as +it were a dawn of that department of creation. Such seems to be the +case with at least the quadrumana. A jaw-bone and tooth of an animal +of this order, and belonging to the genus macacus, were found in the +London clay, (eocene,) at Kyson, near Woodbridge, in 1839. Another +jaw-bone, containing several teeth, supposed to have belonged to a +species of monkey about three feet high, was discovered about the +same time in a stratum of marl surmounted by compact limestone, in +the department of Gers, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Associated with +this last were remains of not less than thirty mammiferous +quadrupeds, including three species of rhinoceros, a large +anoplotherium, three species of deer, two antelopes, a true dog, a +large cat, an animal like a weasel, a small hare, and a huge species +of the edentata. Both of these places are considerably to the north +of any region now inhabited by the monkey tribes. Fossil remains of +quadrumana have been found in at least two other parts of the earth,- +-namely, the sub-Himalayan hills, near the Sutlej, and in Brazil, +(both in the tertiary strata;) the first being a large species of +semnopithecus, and the second, a still larger animal belonging to the +American group of monkeys, but a new genus, and denominated by its +discoverer, Dr. Lund, protopithecus. The latter would be four feet +in height. + +One remarkable circumstance connected with the tertiary formation +remains to be noticed,--namely, the prevalence of volcanic action at +that era. In Auvergne, in Catalonia, near Venice, and in the +vicinity of Rome and Naples, lavas exactly resembling the produce of +existing volcanoes, are associated and intermixed with the lacustrine +as well as marine tertiaries. The superficies of tertiaries in +England is disturbed by two great swells, forming what are called +anticlinal axes, one of which divides the London from the Hampshire +basin, while the other passes through the Isle of Wight, both +throwing the strata down at violent inclination towards the north, as +if the subterranean disturbing force had WAVED forward in that +direction. The Pyrenees, too, and Alps, have both undergone +elevation since the deposition of the tertiaries; and in Sicily there +are mountains which have risen three thousand feet since the +deposition of some of the most recent of these rocks. The general +effect of these operations was of course to extend the land surface, +and to increase the variety of its features, thus improving the +natural drainage, and generally adapting the earth for the reception +of higher classes of animals. + + + +ERA OF THE SUPERFICIAL FORMATIONS. COMMENCEMENT OF PRESENT SPECIES. + + + +We have now completed our survey of the series of stratified rocks, +and traced in their fossils the progress of organic creation down to +a time which seems not long antecedent to the appearance of man. +There are, nevertheless, monuments of still another era or space of +time which it is all but certain did also precede that event. + +Over the rock formations of all eras, in various parts of the globe, +but confined in general to situations not very elevated, there is a +layer of stiff clay, mostly of a blue colour, mingled with fragments +of rock of all sizes, travel-worn, and otherwise, and to which +geologists give the name of diluvium, as being apparently the produce +of some vast flood, or of the sea thrown into an unusual agitation. +It seems to indicate that, at the time when it was laid down, much of +the present dry land was under the ocean, a supposition which we +shall see supported by other evidence. The included masses of rock +have been carefully inspected in many places, and traced to +particular parent beds at considerable distances. Connected with +these phenomena are certain rock surfaces on the slopes of hills and +elsewhere, which exhibit groovings and scratchings, such as we might +suppose would be produced by a quantity of loose blocks hurried along +over them by a flood. Another associated phenomenon is that called +crag and tail, which exists in many places,--namely, a rocky +mountain, or lesser elevation, presenting on one side the naked rock +in a more or less abrupt form, and on the other a gentle slope; the +sites of Windsor, Edinburgh, and Stirling, with their respective +castles, are specimens of crag and tail. Finally, we may advert to +certain long ridges of clay and gravel which arrest the attention of +travellers on the surface of Sweden and Finland, and which are also +found in the United States, where, indeed, the whole of these +phenomena have been observed over a large surface, as well as in +Europe. It is very remarkable that the direction from which the +diluvial blocks have generally come, the lines of the grooved rock +surfaces, the direction of the crag and tail eminences, and that of +the clay and gravel ridges--phenomena, be it observed, extending over +the northern parts of both Europe and America--are ALL FROM THE NORTH +AND NORTH-WEST TOWARDS THE SOUTH-EAST. We thus acquire the idea of a +powerful current moving in a direction from north-west to south-east, +carrying, besides mud, masses of rock which furrowed the solid +surfaces as they passed along, abrading the north-west faces of many +hills, but leaving the slopes in the opposite direction uninjured, +and in some instances forming long ridges of detritus along the +surface. These are curious considerations, and it has become a +question of much interest, by what means, and under what +circumstances, was such a current produced. One hypothetical answer +has some plausibility about it. From an investigation of the nature +of glaciers, and some observations which seem to indicate that these +have at one time extended to lower levels, and existed in regions +(the Scottish Highlands an example) where there is now no perennial +snow, it has been surmised that there was a time, subsequent to the +tertiary era, when the circumpolar ice extended far into the +temperate zone, and formed a lofty, as well as extensive +accumulation. A change to a higher temperature, producing a sudden +thaw of this mass, might set free such a quantity of water as would +form a large flood, and the southward flow of this deluge, joined to +the direction which it would obtain from the rotatory motion of the +globe, would of course produce that compound or south-easterly +direction which the phenomena require. All of these speculations are +as yet far too deficient in facts to be of much value; and I must +freely own that, for one, I attach little importance to them. All +that we can legitimately infer from the diluvium is, that the +northern parts of Europe and America were then under the sea, and +that a strong current set over them. + +Connected with the diluvium is the history of ossiferous caverns, of +which specimens singly exist at Kirkdale in Yorkshire, Gailenreuth in +Franconia, and other places. They occur in the calcareous strata, as +the great caverns generally do, but have in all instances been +naturally closed up till the recent period of their discovery. The +floors are covered with what appears to be a bed of the diluvial +clay, over which rests a crust of stalagmite, the result of the +droppings from the roof since the time when the clay-bed was laid +down. In the instances above specified, and several others, there +have been found, under the clay bed, assemblages of the bones of +animals, of many various kinds. At Kirkdale, for example, the +remains of twenty-four species were ascertained--namely, pigeon, +lark, raven, duck, and partridge; mouse, water-rat, rabbit, hare, +deer, (three species,) ox, horse, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elephant, +weazel, fox, wolf, bear, tiger, hyena. From many of the bones of the +gentler of these animals being found in a broken state, it is +supposed that the cave was a haunt of hyenas and other predaceous +animals, by which the smaller ones were here consumed. This must +have been at a time antecedent to the submersion which produced the +diluvium, since the bones are covered by a bed of that formation. It +is impossible not to see here a very natural series of incidents. +First, the cave is frequented by wild beasts, who make it a kind of +charnel-house. Then, submerged in the current which has been spoken +of, it receives a clay flooring from the waters containing that +matter in suspension. Finally, raised from the water, but with no +mouth to the open air, it remains unintruded on for a long series of +ages, during which the clay flooring receives a new calcareous +covering, from the droppings of the roof. Dr. Buckland, who examined +and described the Kirkdale cave, was at first of opinion that it +presented a physical evidence of the Noachian deluge; but he +afterwards saw reason to consider its phenomena as of a time far +apart from that event, which rests on evidence of an entirely +different kind. + +Our attention is next drawn to the erratic blocks or boulders, which +in many parts of the earth are thickly strewn over the surface, +particularly in the north of Europe. Some of these blocks are many +tons in weight, yet are clearly ascertained to have belonged +originally to situations at a great distance. Fragments, for +example, of the granite of Shap Fell are found in every direction +around to the distance of fifty miles, one piece being placed high +upon Criffel Mountain, on the opposite side of the Solway estuary; so +also are fragments of the Alps found far up the slopes of the Jura. +There are even blocks on the east coast of England, supposed to have +travelled from Norway. The only rational conjecture which can be +formed as to the transport of such masses from so great a distance, +is one which presumes them to have been carried and dropped by +icebergs, while the space between their original and final sites was +under ocean. Icebergs do even now carry off such masses from the +polar coasts, which, falling when the retaining ice melts, must take +up situations at the bottom of the sea analogous to those in which we +find the erratic blocks of the present day. + +As the diluvium and erratic blocks clearly suppose one last long +submersion of the surface, (LAST, geologically speaking,) there is +another set of appearances which as manifestly shew the steps by +which the land was made afterwards to reappear. These consist of +terraces, which have been detected near, and at some distance inland +from, the coast lines of Scandinavia, Britain, America, and other +regions; being evidently ancient beaches, or platforms, on which the +margin of the sea at one time rested. They have been observed at +different heights above the present sea-level, from twenty to above +twelve hundred feet; and in many places they are seen rising above +each other in succession, to the number of three, four, and even +more. The smooth flatness of these terraces, with generally a slight +inclination towards the sea, the sandy composition of many of them, +and, in some instances, the preservation of marine shells in the +ground, identify them perfectly with existing sea-beaches, +notwithstanding the cuts and scoopings which have every here and +there been effected in them by water-courses. The irresistible +inference from the phenomena is, that the highest was first the coast +line; then an elevation took place, and the second highest became so, +the first being now raised into the air and thrown inland. Then, +upon another elevation, the sea began to form, at its new point of +contact with the land, the third highest beach, and so on down to the +platform nearest to the present sea-beach. Phenomena of this kind +become comparatively familiar to us, when we hear of evidence that +the last sixty feet of the elevation of Sweden, and the last eighty- +five of that of Chili, have taken place since man first dwelt in +those countries; nay, that the elevation of the former country goes +on at this time at the rate of about forty-five inches in a century, +and that a thousand miles of the Chilian coast rose four feet in one +night, under the influence of a powerful earthquake, so lately as +1822. Subterranean forces, of the kind then exemplified in Chili, +supply a ready explanation of the whole phenomena, though some other +operating causes have been suggested. In an inquiry on this point, +it becomes of consequence to learn some particulars respecting the +levels. Taking a particular beach, it is generally observed that the +level continues the same along a considerable number of miles, and +nothing like breaks or hitches has as yet been detected in any case. +A second and a third beach are also observed to be exactly parallel +to the first. These facts would seem to indicate quiet elevating +movements, uniform over a large tract. It must, however, be remarked +that the raised beaches at one part of a coast rarely coincide with +those at another part forty or fifty miles off. We might suppose +this to indicate a limit in that extent of the uniformity of the +elevating cause, but it would be rash to conclude positively that +such is the case. In the present sea, as is well known, there are +different levels at different places, owing to the operation of +peculiar local causes, as currents, evaporation, and the influx of +large rivers into narrow-mouthed estuaries. The differences of level +in the ancient beaches might be occasioned by some such causes. But, +whatever doubt may rest on this minor point, enough has been +ascertained to settle the main one, that we have in these platforms +indubitable monuments of the last rise of the land from the sea, and +the concluding great event of the geological history. + +The idea of such a wide-spread and possibly universal submersion +unavoidably suggests some considerations as to the effect which it +might have upon terrestrial animal life. It seems likely that this +would be, on such an occasion, extensively, if not universally +destroyed. Nor does the idea of its universal destruction seem the +less plausible, when we remark, that none of the species of land +animals heretofore discovered can be detected at a subsequent period. +The whole seem to have been now changed. Some geologists appear much +inclined to think that there was at this time a new development of +terrestrial animal life upon the globe, and M. Agassiz, whose opinion +on such a subject must always be worthy of attention, speaks all but +decidedly for such a conclusion. It must, however, be owned, that +proofs for it are still scanty, beyond the bare fact of a submersion +which appears to have had a very wide range. I must therefore be +content to leave this point, as far as geological evidence is +concerned, for future affirmation. + +There are some other superficial deposits, of less consequence on the +present occasion than the diluvium--namely, lacustrine deposits, or +filled-up lakes; alluvium, or the deposits of rivers beside their +margins; deltas, the deposits made by great ones at their efflux into +the sea; peat mosses; and the vegetable soil. The animal remains +found in these generally testify to a zoology on the verge of that +which still exists, or melting into it, there being included many +species which still exist. In a lacustrine deposit at Market- +Weighton, in the Vale of York, there have been found bones of the +elephant, rhinoceros, bison, wolf, horse, felis, deer, birds, all or +nearly all extinct species; associated with thirteen species of land +and fresh water shells, "exactly identical with types now living in +the vicinity." In similar deposits in North America, are remains of +the mammoth, mastodon, buffalo, and other animals of extinct and +living types. In short, these superficial deposits shew precisely +such remains as might be expected from a time at which the present +system of things (to use a vague but not unexpressive phrase) +obtained, but yet so far remote in chronology as to allow of the +dropping of many species, through familiar causes, in the interval. +Still, however, there is no authentic or satisfactory instance of +human remains being found, except in deposits obviously of very +modern date; a tolerably strong proof that the creation of our own +species is a comparatively recent event, and one posterior (generally +speaking) to all the great natural transactions chronicled by +geology. + + + +GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS RESPECTING THE ORIGIN OF THE ANIMATED TRIBES. + + + +Thus concludes the wondrous chapter of the earth's history which is +told by geology. It takes up our globe at the period when its +original incandescent state had nearly ceased; conducts it through +what we have every reason to believe were vast, or at least very +considerable, spaces of time, in the course of which many superficial +changes took place, and vegetable and animal life was gradually +developed; and drops it just at the point when man was apparently +about to enter on the scene. The compilation of such a history, from +materials of so extraordinary a character, and the powerful nature of +the evidence which these materials afford, are calculated to excite +our admiration, and the result must be allowed to exalt the dignity +of science, as a product of man's industry and his reason. + +If there is any thing more than another impressed on our minds by the +course of the geological history, it is, that the same laws and +conditions of nature now apparent to us have existed throughout the +whole time, though the operation of some of these laws may now be +less conspicuous than in the early ages, from some of the conditions +having come to a settlement and a close. That seas have flowed and +ebbed, and winds disturbed their surfaces, in the time of the +secondary rocks, we have proof on the yet preserved surfaces of the +sands which constituted margins of the seas in those days. Even the +fall of wind-slanted rain is evidenced on the same tablets. The +washing down of detached matter from elevated grounds, which we see +rivers constantly engaged in at the present time, and which is daily +shallowing the seas adjacent to their mouths, only appears to have +proceeded on a greater scale in earlier epochs. The volcanic +subterranean force, which we see belching forth lavas on the sides of +mountains, and throwing up new elevations by land and sea, was only +more powerfully operative in distant ages. To turn to organic +nature, vegetation seems to have proceeded then exactly as now. The +very alternations of the seasons has been read in unmistakable +characters in sections of the trees of those days, precisely as it +might be read in a section of a tree cut down yesterday. The system +of prey amongst animals flourished throughout the whole of the pre- +human period; and the adaptation of all plants and animals to their +respective spheres of existence was as perfect in those early ages as +it is still. + +But, as has been observed, the operation of the laws may be modified +by conditions. At one early age, if there was any dry land at all, +it was perhaps enveloped in an atmosphere unfit for the existence of +terrestrial animals, and which had to go though some changes before +that condition was altered. In the carbonigenous era, dry land seems +to have consisted only of clusters of islands, and the temperature +was much above what now obtains at the same places. Volcanic forces, +and perhaps also the disintegrating power, seem to have been on the +decrease since the first, or we have at least long enjoyed an +exemption from such paroxysms of the former, as appear to have +prevailed at the close of the coal formation in England and +throughout the tertiary era. The surface has also undergone a +gradual progress by which it has become always more and more +variegated, and thereby fitted for the residence of a higher class of +animals. + +In pursuing the progress of the development of both plants and +animals upon the globe, we have seen an advance in both cases, along +the line leading to the higher forms of organization. Amongst +plants, we have first sea-weeds, afterwards land plants; and amongst +these the simpler (cellular and cryptogamic) before the more complex. +In the department of zoology, we see zoophytes, radiata, mollusca, +articulata, existing for ages before there were any higher forms. +The first step forward gives fishes, the humblest class of the +vertebrata; and, moreover, the earliest fishes partake of the +character of the next lowest sub-kingdom, the articulata. Afterwards +come land animals, of which the first are reptiles, universally +allowed to be the type next in advance from fishes, and to be +connected with these by the links of an insensible gradation. From +reptiles we advance to birds, and thence to mammalia, which are +commenced by marsupialia, acknowledgedly low forms in their class. +That there is thus a progress of some kind, the most superficial +glance at the geological history is sufficient to convince us. +Indeed the doctrine of the gradation of animal forms has received a +remarkable support from the discoveries of this science, as several +types formerly wanting to a completion of the series have been found +in a fossil state. {149} + +It is scarcely less evident, from the geological record, that the +progress of organic life has observed some correspondence with the +progress of physical conditions on the surface. We do not know for +certain that the sea, at the time when it supported radiated, +molluscous, and articulated families, was incapable of supporting +fishes; but causes for such a limitation are far from inconceivable. +The huge saurians appear to have been precisely adapted to the low +muddy coasts and sea margins of the time when they flourished. +Marsupials appear at the time when the surface was generally in that +flat, imperfectly variegated state in which we find Australia, the +region where they now live in the greatest abundance, and one which +has no higher native mammalian type. Finally, it was not till the +land and sea had come into their present relations, and the former, +in its principal continents, had acquired the irregularity of surface +necessary for man, that man appeared. We have likewise seen reason +for supposing that land animals could not have lived before the +carbonigenous era, owing to the great charge of carbonic acid gas +presumed to have been contained in the atmosphere down to that time. +The surplus of this having gone, as M. Brogniart suggests, to form +the vegetation, whose ruins became coal, and the air being thus +brought to its present state, land animals immediately appeared. So +also, sea-plants were at first the only specimens of vegetation, +because there appears to have been no place where other plants could +be produced or supported. Land vegetation followed, at first simple, +afterwards complex, probably in conformity with an advance of the +conditions required by the higher class of plants. In short, we see +everywhere throughout the geological history, strong traces of a +parallel advance of the physical conditions and the organic forms. + +In examining the fossils of the lower marine creation, with a +reference to the kind of rock in connexion, with which they are +found, it is observed that some strata are attended by a much greater +abundance of both species and individuals than others. They abound +most in calcareous rocks, which is precisely what might be expected, +since lime is necessary for the formation of the shells of the +mollusks and articulata, and the hard substance of the crinoidea and +corals; next in the carboniferous series; next in the tertiary; next +in the new red sandstone; next in slates; and lastly, least of all, +in the primary rocks. {151} This may have been the case without +regard to the origination of new species, but more probably it was +otherwise; or why, for instance, should the polypiferous zoophyta be +found almost exclusively in the limestones? There are, indeed, +abundant appearances as if, throughout all the changes of the +surface, the various kinds of organic life invariably PRESSED IN, +immediately on the specially suitable conditions arising, so that no +place which could support any form of organic being might be left for +any length of time unoccupied. Nor is it less remarkable how various +species are withdrawn from the earth, when the proper conditions for +their particular existence are changed. The trilobite, of which +fifty species existed during the earlier formations, was extirpated +before the secondary had commenced, and appeared no more. The +ammonite does not appear above the chalk. The species, and even +genera of all the early radiata and mollusks were exchanged for +others long ago. Not one species of any creature which flourished +before the tertiary (Ehrenberg's infusoria excepted) now exists; and +of the mammalia which arose during that series, many forms are +altogether gone, while of others we have now only kindred species. +Thus to find not only frequent additions to the previously existing +forms, but frequent withdrawals of forms which had apparently become +inappropriate--a constant shifting as well as advance--is a fact +calculated very forcibly to arrest attention. + +A candid consideration of all these circumstances can scarcely fail +to introduce into our minds a somewhat different idea of organic +creation from what has hitherto been generally entertained. That God +created animated beings, as well as the terraqueous theatre of their +being, is a fact so powerfully evidenced, and so universally +received, that I at once take it for granted. But in the particulars +of this so highly supported idea, we surely here see cause for some +re-consideration. It may now be inquired,--In what way was the +creation of animated beings effected? The ordinary notion may, I +think, be not unjustly described as this,--that the Almighty author +produced the progenitors of all existing species by some sort of +personal or immediate exertion. But how does this notion comport +with what we have seen of the gradual advance of species, from the +humblest to the highest? How can we suppose an immediate exertion of +this creative power at one time to produce zoophytes, another time to +add a few marine mollusks, another to bring in one or two conchifers, +again to produce crustaceous fishes, again perfect fishes, and so on +to the end? This would surely be to take a very mean view of the +Creative Power--to, in short, anthropomorphize it, or reduce it to +some such character as that borne by the ordinary proceedings of +mankind. And yet this would be unavoidable; for that the organic +creation was thus progressive through a long space of time, rests on +evidence which nothing can overturn or gainsay. Some other idea must +then be come to with regard to THE MODE in which the Divine Author +proceeded in the organic creation. Let us seek in the history of the +earth's formation for a new suggestion on this point. We have seen +powerful evidence, that the construction of this globe and its +associates, and inferentially that of all the other globes of space, +was the result, not of any immediate or personal exertion on the part +of the Deity, but of natural laws which are expressions of his will. +What is to hinder our supposing that the organic creation is also a +result of natural laws, which are in like manner an expression of his +will? More than this, the fact of the cosmical arrangements being an +effect of natural laws is a powerful argument for the organic +arrangements being so likewise, for how can we suppose that the +august Being who brought all these countless worlds into form by the +simple establishment of a natural principle flowing from his mind, +was to interfere personally and specially on every occasion when a +new shell-fish or reptile was to be ushered into existence on ONE of +these worlds? Surely this idea is too ridiculous to be for a moment +entertained. + +It will be objected that the ordinary conceptions of Christian +nations on this subject are directly derived from Scripture, or, at +least, are in conformity with it. If they were clearly and +unequivocally supported by Scripture, it may readily be allowed that +there would be a strong objection to the reception of any opposite +hypothesis. But the fact is, however startling the present +announcement of it may be, that the first chapter of the Mosaic +record is not only not in harmony with the ordinary ideas of mankind +respecting cosmical and organic creation, but is opposed to them, and +only in accordance with the views here taken. When we carefully +peruse it with awakened minds, we find that all the procedure is +represented primarily and pre-eminently as flowing FROM COMMANDS AND +EXPRESSIONS OF WILL, NOT FROM DIRECT ACTS. Let there be light--let +there be a firmament--let the dry land appear--let the earth bring +forth grass, the herb, the tree--let the waters bring forth the +moving creature that hath life--let the earth bring forth the living +creature after his kind--these are the terms in which the principal +acts are described. The additional expressions,--God made the +firmament--God made the beast of the earth, &c., occur subordinately, +and only in a few instances; they do not necessarily convey a +different idea of the mode of creation, and indeed only appear as +alternative phrases, in the usual duplicative manner of Eastern +narrative. Keeping this in view, the words used in a subsequent +place, "God FORMED man in his own image," cannot well be understood +as implying any more than what was implied before,--namely, that man +was produced in consequence of an expression of the Divine will to +that effect. Thus, the scriptural objection quickly vanishes, and +the prevalent ideas about the organic creation appear only as a +mistaken inference from the text, formed at a time when man's +ignorance prevented him from drawing therefrom a just conclusion. At +the same time, I freely own that I do not think it right to adduce +the Mosaic record, either in objection to, or support of any natural +hypothesis, and this for many reasons, but particularly for this, +that there is not the least appearance of an intention in that book +to give philosophically exact views of nature. + +To a reasonable mind the Divine attributes must appear, not +diminished or reduced in any way, by supposing a creation by law, but +infinitely exalted. It is the narrowest of all views of the Deity, +and characteristic of a humble class of intellects, to suppose him +acting constantly in particular ways for particular occasions. It, +for one thing, greatly detracts from his foresight, the most +undeniable of all the attributes of Omnipotence. It lowers him +towards the level of our own humble intellects. Much more worthy of +him it surely is, to suppose that all things have been commissioned +by him from the first, though neither is he absent from a particle of +the current of natural affairs in one sense, seeing that the whole +system is continually supported by his providence. Even in human +affairs, if I may be allowed to adopt a familiar illustration, there +is a constant progress from specific action for particular occasions, +to arrangements which, once established, shall continue to answer for +a great multitude of occasions. Such plans the enlightened readily +form for themselves, and conceive as being adopted by all who have to +attend to a multitude of affairs, while the ignorant suppose every +act of the greatest public functionary to be the result of some +special consideration and care on his part alone. Are we to suppose +the Deity adopting plans which harmonize only with the modes of +procedure of the less enlightened of our race? Those who would +object to the hypothesis of a creation by the intervention of law, do +not perhaps consider how powerful an argument in favour of the +existence of God is lost by rejecting this doctrine. When all is +seen to be the result of law, the idea of an Almighty Author becomes +irresistible, for the creation of a law for an endless series of +phenomena--an act of intelligence above all else that we can +conceive--could have no other imaginable source, and tells, moreover, +as powerfully for a sustaining as for an originating power. On this +point a remark of Dr. Buckland seems applicable: "If the properties +adopted by the elements at the moment of their creation adapted them +beforehand to the infinity of complicated useful purposes which they +have already answered, and may have still farther to answer, under +many dispensations of the material world, such an aboriginal +constitution, so far from superseding an intelligent agent, would +only exalt our conceptions of the consummate skill and power that +could comprehend such an infinity of future uses under future +systems, in the original groundwork of his creation." + +A late writer, in a work embracing a vast amount of miscellaneous +knowledge, but written in a dogmatic style, argues at great length +for the doctrine of more immediate exertions on the part of the Deity +in the works of his creation. One of the most striking of his +illustrations is as follows:- "The coral polypi, united by a common +animal bond, construct a defined form in stone; many kinds construct +many forms. An allotted instinct may permit each polypus to +construct its own cell, but there is no superintending one to direct +the pattern, nor can the workers unite by consultation for such an +end. There is no recipient for an instinct by which the pattern +might be constructed. It is God alone, therefore, who is the +architect; and for this end, consequently, he must dispose of every +new polypus required to continue the pattern, in a new and peculiar +position, which the animal could not have discovered by itself. Yet +more, millions of these blind workers unite their works to form an +island, which is also wrought out according to a constant general +pattern, and of a very peculiar nature, though the separate coral +works are numerously diverse. Still less, then, here is an instinct +possible. The Great Architect himself must execute what he planned, +in each case equally. He uses these little and senseless animals as +hands; but they are hands which himself must direct. He must direct +each one everywhere, and therefore he is ever acting." {159} This is +a most notable example of a dangerous kind of reasoning. It is now +believed that corals have a general life and sensation throughout the +whole mass, residing in the nervous tissue which envelops them; +consequently, there is nothing more wonderful in their determinate +general forms than in those of other animals. + +It may here be remarked that there is in our doctrine that harmony in +all the associated phenomena which generally marks great truths. +First, it agrees, as we have seen, with the idea of planet-creation +by natural law. Secondly, upon this supposition, all that geology +tells us of the succession of species appears natural and +intelligible. Organic life PRESSES IN, as has been remarked, +wherever there was room and encouragement for it, the forms being +always such as suited the circumstances, and in a certain relation to +them, as, for example, where the limestone-forming seas produced an +abundance of corals, crinoidea, and shell-fish. Admitting for a +moment a re-origination of species after a cataclysm, as has been +surmised by some geologists, though the hypothesis is always becoming +less and less tenable, it harmonizes with nothing so well as the idea +of a creation by law. The more solitary commencements of species, +which would have been the most inconceivably paltry exercise for an +immediately creative power, are sufficiently worthy of one operating +by laws. + +It is also to be observed, that the thing to be accounted for is not +merely the origination of organic being upon this little planet, +third of a series which is but one of hundreds of thousands of +series, the whole of which again form but one portion of an +apparently infinite globe-peopled space, where all seems analogous. +We have to suppose, that every one of these numberless globes is +either a theatre of organic being, or in the way of becoming so. +This is a conclusion which every addition to our knowledge makes only +the more irresistible. Is it conceivable, as a fitting mode of +exercise for creative intelligence, that it should be constantly +moving from one sphere to another, to form and plant the various +species which may be required in each situation at particular times? +Is such an idea accordant with our general conception of the dignity, +not to speak of the power, of the Great Author? Yet such is the +notion which we must form, if we adhere to the doctrine of special +exercise. Let us see, on the other hand, how the doctrine of a +creation by law agrees with this expanded view of the organic world. + +Unprepared as most men may be for such an announcement, there can be +no doubt that we are able, in this limited sphere, to form some +satisfactory conclusions as to the plants and animals of those other +spheres which move at such immense distances from us. Suppose that +the first persons of an early nation who made a ship and ventured to +sea in it, observed, as they sailed along, a set of objects which +they had never before seen--namely, a fleet of other ships--would +they not have been justified in supposing that those ships were +occupied, like their own, by human beings possessing hands to row and +steer, eyes to watch the signs of the weather, intelligence to guide +them from one place to another--in short, beings in all respects like +themselves, or only shewing such differences as they knew to be +producible by difference of climate and habits of life. Precisely in +this manner we can speculate on the inhabitants of remote spheres. +We see that matter has originally been diffused in one mass, of which +the spheres are portions. Consequently, inorganic matter must be +presumed to be everywhere the same, although probably with +differences in the proportions of ingredients in different globes, +and also some difference of conditions. Out of a certain number of +the elements of inorganic matter are composed organic bodies, both +vegetable and animal; such must be the rule in Jupiter and in Sirius, +as it is here. We, therefore, are all but certain that herbaceous +and ligneous fibre, that flesh and blood, are the constituents of the +organic beings of all those spheres which are as yet seats of life. +Gravitation we see to be an all-pervading principle: therefore there +must be a relation between the spheres and their respective organic +occupants, by virtue of which they are fixed, as far as necessary, on +the surface. Such a relation, of course, involves details as to the +density and elasticity of structure, as well as size, of the organic +tenants, in proportion to the gravity of the respective planets-- +peculiarities, however, which may quite well consist with the idea of +a universality of general types, to which we are about to come. +Electricity we also see to be universal; if, therefore, it be a +principle concerned in life and in mental action, as science strongly +suggests, life and mental action must everywhere be of one general +character. We come to comparatively a matter of detail, when we +advert to heat and light; yet it is important to consider that these +are universal agents, and that, as they bear marked relations to +organic life and structure on earth, they may be presumed to do so in +other spheres also. The considerations as to light are particularly +interesting, for, on our globe, the structure of one important organ, +almost universally distributed in the animal kingdom, is in direct +and precise relation to it. Where there is light there will be eyes, +and these, in other spheres, will be the same in all respects as the +eyes of tellurian animals, with only such differences as may be +necessary to accord with minor peculiarities of condition and of +situation. It is but a small stretch of the argument to suppose +that, one conspicuous organ of a large portion of our animal kingdom +being thus universal, a parity in all the other organs--species for +species, class for class, kingdom for kingdom--is highly likely, and +that thus the inhabitants of all the other globes of space bear not +only a general, but a particular resemblance to those of our own. + +Assuming that organic beings are thus spread over all space, the idea +of their having all come into existence by the operation of laws +everywhere applicable, is only conformable to that principle, +acknowledged to be so generally visible in the affairs of Providence, +to have all done by the employment of the smallest possible amount of +means. Thus, as one set of laws produced all orbs and their motions +and geognostic arrangements, so one set of laws overspread them all +with life. The whole productive or creative arrangements are +therefore in perfect unity. + + + +PARTICULAR CONSIDERATIONS RESPECTING THE ORIGIN OF THE ANIMATED +TRIBES. + + + +The general likelihood of an organic creation by law having been +shewn, we are next to inquire if science has any facts tending to +bring the assumption more nearly home to nature. Such facts there +certainly are; but it cannot be surprising that they are +comparatively few and scattered, when we consider that the inquiry is +into one of nature's profoundest mysteries, and one which has +hitherto engaged no direct attention in almost any quarter. + +Crystallization is confessedly a phenomenon of inorganic matter; yet +the simplest rustic observer is struck by the resemblance which the +examples of it left upon a window by frost bear to vegetable forms. +In some crystallizations the mimicry is beautiful and complete; for +example, in the well-known one called the Arbor Dianae. An amalgam +of four parts of silver and two of mercury being dissolved in nitric +acid, and water equal to thirty weights of the metals being added, a +small piece of soft amalgam of silver suspended in the solution, +quickly gathers to itself the particles of the silver of the amalgam, +which form upon it a CRYSTALLIZATION PRECISELY RESEMBLING A SHRUB. +The experiment may be varied in a way which serves better to detect +the influence of electricity in such operations, as noted below. +{166} Vegetable figures are also presented in some of the most +ordinary appearances of the electric fluid. In the marks caused by +positive electricity, or which it leaves in its passage, we see the +ramifications of a tree, as well as of its individual leaves; those +of the negative, recal the bulbous or the spreading root, according +as they are clumped or divergent. These phenomena seem to say that +the electric energies have had something to do in determining the +forms of plants. That they are intimately connected with vegetable +life is indubitable, for germination will not proceed in water +charged with negative electricity, while water charged positively +greatly favours it; and a garden sensibly increases in luxuriance, +when a number of conducting rods are made to terminate in branches +over its beds. With regard to the resemblance of the ramifications +of the branches and leaves of plants to the traces of the positive +electricity, and that of the roots to the negative, it is a +circumstance calling for especial remark, that the atmosphere, +particularly its lower strata, is generally charged positively, while +the earth is always charged negatively. The correspondence here is +curious. A plant thus appears as a thing formed on the basis of a +natural electrical operation--the BRUSH realized. We can thus +suppose the various forms of plants as, immediately, the result of a +law in electricity variously affecting them according to their +organic character, or respective germinal constituents. In the +poplar, the brush is unusually vertical, and little divergent; the +reverse in the beech: in the palm, a pencil has proceeded straight +up for a certain distance, radiates there, and turns outwards and +downwards; and so on. We can here see at least traces of secondary +means by which the Almighty Deviser might establish all the vegetable +forms with which the earth is overspread. + +Vegetable and animal bodies are mainly composed of the same four +simple substances or elements--carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and +nitrogen. The first combinations of these in animals are into what +are called proximate principles, as albumen, fibrin, urea, alantoin, +&c., out of which the structure of the animal body is composed. Now +the chemist, by the association of two parts oxygen, four hydrogen, +two carbon, and two nitrogen, can MAKE UREA. Alantoin has also been +produced artificially. Two of the proximate principles being +realizable by human care, the possibility of realizing or forming all +is established. Thus the chemist may be said to have it in his power +to realize the first step in organization. {169a} Indeed, it is +fully acknowledged by Dr. Daubeny, that in the combinations forming +the proximate principles there is no chemical peculiarity. "It is +now certain," he says, "that the same simple laws of composition +pervade the whole creation; and that, if the organic chemist only +takes the requisite precautions to avoid resolving into their +ultimate elements the proximate principles upon which he operates, +the results of his analysis will shew that they are combined +precisely according to the same plan as the elements of mineral +bodies are known to be." {169b} A particular fact is here worthy of +attention. "The conversion of fecula into sugar, as one of the +ordinary processes of vegetable economy, is effected by the +production of a secretion termed diastose, which occasions both the +rupture of the starch vesicles, and the change of their contained gum +into sugar. This diastose may be separately obtained by the chemist, +and it acts as effectually in his laboratory as in the vegetable +organization. He can also imitate its effects by other chemical +agents." {170} The writer quoted below adds, "No reasonable ground +has yet been adduced for supposing that, if we had the power of +bringing together the elements of any organic compound, in their +requisite states and proportions, the result would be any other than +that which is found in the living body." + +It is much to know the elements out of which organic bodies are +composed. It is something more to know their first combinations, and +that these are simply chemical. How these combinations are +associated in the structure of living bodies is the next inquiry, but +it is one to which as yet no satisfactory answer can be given. The +investigation of the minutiae of organic structure by the microscope +is of such recent origin, that its results cannot be expected to be +very clear. Some facts, however, are worthy of attention with regard +to the present inquiry. It is ascertained that the basis of all +vegetable and animal substances consists of nucleated cells; that is, +cells having granules within them. Nutriment is converted into these +before being assimilated by the system. The tissues are formed from +them. The ovum destined to become a new creature, is originally only +a cell with a contained granule. We see it acting this reproductive +part in the simplest manner in the cryptogamic plants. "The parent +cell, arrived at maturity by the exercise of its organic functions, +bursts, and liberates its contained granules. These, at once thrown +upon their own resources, and entirely dependent for their nutrition +on the surrounding elements, develop themselves into new cells, which +repeat the life of their original. Amongst the higher tribes of the +cryptogamia, the reproductive cell does not burst, but the first +cells of the new structure are developed within it, and these +gradually extend, by a similar process of multiplication, into that +primary leaf-like expansion which is the first formed structure in +all plants." {171} HERE THE LITTLE CELL BECOMES DIRECTLY A PLANT, +THE FULL FORMED LIVING BEING. It is also worthy of remark that, in +the sponges, (an animal form,) a gemmule detached from the body of +the parent, and trusting for sustentation only to the fluid into +which it has been cast, becomes, without further process, the new +creature. Further, it has been recently discovered by means of the +microscope, that there is, as far as can be judged, a perfect +resemblance between the ovum of the mammal tribes, during that early +stage when it is passing through the oviduct, and the young of the +infusory animalcules. One of the most remarkable of these, the +volvox globator, has exactly the form of the germ which, after +passing through a long foetal progress, becomes a complete mammifer, +an animal of the highest class. It has even been found that both are +alike provided with those cilia, which, producing a revolving motion, +or its appearance, is partly the cause of the name given to this +animalcule. These resemblances are the more entitled to notice, that +they were made by various observers, distant from each other at the +time. {172} It has likewise been noted that the globules of the +blood are reproduced by the expansion of contained granules; they +are, in short, DISTINCT ORGANISMS MULTIPLIED BY THE SAME FISSIPAROUS +GENERATION. So that all animated nature may be said to be based on +this mode of origin; THE FUNDAMENTAL FORM OF ORGANIC BEING IS A +GLOBULE, HAVING A NEW GLOBULE FORMING WITHIN ITSELF, by which it is +in time discharged, and which is again followed by another and +another, in endless succession. It is of course obvious that, if +these globules could be produced by any process from inorganic +elements, we should be entitled to say that the fact of a transit +from the inorganic into the organic had been witnessed in that +instance; the possibility of the commencement of animated creation by +the ordinary laws of nature might be considered as established. Now +it was given out some years ago by a French physiologist, that +GLOBULES COULD BE PRODUCED IN ALBUMEN BY ELECTRICITY. If, therefore, +these globules be identical with the cells which are now held to be +reproductive, it might be said that the production of albumen by +artificial means is the only step in the process wanting. This has +not yet been effected; but it is known to be only a chemical process, +the mode of which may be any day discovered in the laboratory, and +two compounds perfectly co-ordinate, urea and alantoin, have actually +been produced. + +In such an investigation as the present, it is not unworthy of notice +that the production of shell is a natural operation which can be +precisely imitated artificially. Such an incrustation takes place on +both the outside and inside of the wheel in a bleaching +establishment, in which cotton cloth is rinsed free of the lime +employed in its purification. From the DRESSING employed by the +weaver, the cloth obtains the animal matter, gelatin; this and the +lime form the constituents of the incrustation, exactly as in natural +shell. In the wheel employed at Catrine, in Ayrshire, where the +phenomenon was first observed by the eye of science, it had required +ten years to produce a coating the tenth of an inch in thickness. +This incrustation has all the characters of shell, displaying a +highly polished surface, beautifully iridescent, and, when broken, a +foliated texture. The examination of it has even thrown some light +on the character and mode of formation of natural shell. "The plates +into which the substance is divisible have been formed in succession, +and certain intervals of time have elapsed between their formation; +in general, every two contiguous laminae are separated by a thin +iridescent film, varying from the three to the fifty millionth part +of an inch in thickness, and producing all the various colours of +thin plates which correspond to intermediate thicknesses: between +some of the laminae no such film exists, probably in consequence of +the interval of time between their formation being too short; and +between others the film has been formed of unequal thickness. There +can be no doubt that these iridescent films are formed when the dash- +wheel is at rest during the night, and that when no film exists +between two laminae, an interval too short for its formation, +(arising, perhaps, from the stopping of the work during the day,) has +elapsed during the drying or induration of one lamina and the +deposition of another." {175} From this it has been deduced, by a +patient investigation, that those colours of mother-of-pearl, which +are incommunicable to wax, arise from iridescent films deposited +between the laminae of its structure, and it is hence inferred that +THE ANIMAL, like the wheel, RESTS PERIODICALLY FROM ITS LABOURS IN +FORMING THE NATURAL SUBSTANCE. + +These, it will be owned, are curious and not irrelevant facts; but it +will be asked what actual experience says respecting the origination +of life. Are there, it will be said, any authentic instances of +either plants or animals, of however humble and simple a kind, having +come into existence otherwise than in the ordinary way of generation, +since the time of which geology forms the record? It may be +answered, that the negative of this question could not be by any +means formidable to the doctrine of law-creation, seeing that the +conditions necessary for the operation of the supposed life-creating +laws may not have existed within record to any great extent. On the +other hand, as we see the physical laws of early times still acting +with more or less force, it might not be unreasonable to expect that +we should still see some remnants, or partial and occasional workings +of the life-creating energy amidst a system of things generally +stable and at rest. Are there, then, any such remnants to be traced +in our own day, or during man's existence upon earth? If there be, +it clearly would form a strong evidence in favour of the doctrine, as +what now takes place upon a confined scale and in a comparatively +casual manner may have formerly taken place on a great scale, and as +the proper and eternity-destined means of supplying a vacant globe +with suitable tenants. It will at the same time be observed that, +the earth being now supplied with both kinds of tenants in great +abundance, we only could expect to find the life-originating power at +work in some very special and extraordinary circumstances, and +probably only in the inferior and obscurer departments of the +vegetable and animal kingdoms. + +Perhaps, if the question were asked of ten men of approved reputation +in science, nine out of the number would answer in the negative. +This is because, in a great number of instances where the superficial +observers of former times assumed a non-generative origin for life, +(as in the celebrated case in Virgil's fourth Georgic,) either the +direct contrary has been ascertained, or exhaustive experiments have +left no alternative from the conclusion that ordinary generation did +take place, albeit in a manner which escapes observation. Finding +that an erroneous assumption has been formed in many cases, modern +inquirers have not hesitated to assume that there can be no case in +which generation is not concerned; an assumption not only unwarranted +by, but directly opposed to, the principles of philosophical +investigation. Yet this is truly the point at which the question now +rests in the scientific world. + +I have no wish here to enter largely into a subject so wide and so +full of difficulties; but I may remark, that the explanations usually +suggested where life takes its rise without apparent generative +means, always appear to me to partake much of the fallacy of the +petitio principii. When, for instance, lime is laid down upon a +piece of waste moss ground, and a crop of white clover for which no +seeds were sown is the consequence, the explanation that the seeds +have been dormant there for an unknown time, and were stimulated into +germination when the lime produced the appropriate circumstances, +appears extremely unsatisfactory, especially when we know that (as in +an authentic case under my notice) the spot is many miles from where +clover is cultivated, and that there is nothing for six feet below +but pure peat moss, clover seeds being, moreover, known to be too +heavy to be transported, as many other seeds are, by the winds. +Mushrooms, we know, can be propagated by their seed; but another mode +of raising them, well known to the gardener, is to mix cow and horse +dung together, and thus form a bed in which they are expected to grow +without any seed being planted. It is assumed that the seeds are +carried by the atmosphere, unperceived by us, and, finding here an +appropriate field for germination, germinate accordingly; but this is +only assumption, and though designed to be on the side of a severe +philosophy, in reality makes a pretty large demand on credulity. +There are several persons eminent in science who profess at least to +find great difficulties in accepting the doctrine of invariable +generation. One of these, in the work noted below, {179a} has stated +several considerations arising from analogical reasoning, which +appear to him to throw the balance of evidence in favour of the +aboriginal production of infusoria, {179b} the vegetation called +mould, and the like. One seems to be of great force; namely, that +the animalcules, which are supposed (altogether hypothetically) to be +produced by ova, are afterwards found increasing their numbers, not +by that mode at all, but by division of their bodies. If it be the +nature of these creatures to propagate in this splitting or +fissiparous manner, how could they be communicated to a vegetable +infusion? Another fact of very high importance is presented in the +following terms:- "The nature of the animalcule, or vegetable +production, bears a constant relation to the state of the infusion, +so that, in similar circumstances, the same are always produced +without this being influenced by the atmosphere. There seems to be a +certain PROGRESSIVE ADVANCE IN THE PRODUCTIVE POWERS OF THE INFUSION, +for at the first the animalcules are only of the smaller kinds, or +monades, and afterwards THEY BECOME GRADUALLY LARGER AND MORE +COMPLICATED IN THEIR STRUCTURE; AFTER A TIME, THE PRODUCTION CEASES, +ALTHOUGH THE MATERIALS ARE BY NO MEANS EXHAUSTED. When the quantity +of water is very small, and the organic matter abundant, the +production is usually of a vegetable nature; when there is much +water, animalcules are more frequently produced." It has been shewn +by the opponents of this theory, that when a vegetable infusion is +debarred from the contact of the atmosphere, by being closely sealed +up or covered with a layer of oil, no animalcules are produced; but +it has been said, on the other hand, that the exclusion of the air +may prevent some simple condition necessary for the aboriginal +development of life--and nothing is more likely. Perhaps the +prevailing doctrine is in nothing placed in greater difficulties than +it is with regard to the entozoa, or creatures which live within the +bodies of others. These creatures do, and apparently can, live +nowhere else than in the interior of other living bodies, where they +generally take up their abode in the viscera, but also sometimes in +the chambers of the eye, the interior of the brain, the serous sacs, +and other places having no communication from without. Some are +viviparous, others oviparous. Of the latter it cannot reasonably be +supposed that the ova ever pass through the medium of the air, or +through the blood-vessels, for they are too heavy for the one +transit, and too large for the other. Of the former, it cannot be +conceived how they pass into young animals--certainly not by +communication from the parent, for it has often been found that +entozoa do not appear in certain generations, and some of peculiar +and noted character have only appeared at rare intervals, and in very +extraordinary circumstances. A candid view of the less popular +doctrine, as to the origin of this humble form of life, is taken by a +distinguished living naturalist. "To explain the beginning of these +worms within the human body, on the common doctrine that all created +beings proceed from their likes, or a primordial egg, is so +difficult, that the moderns have been driven to speculate, as our +fathers did, on their spontaneous birth; but they have received the +hypothesis with some modification. Thus it is not from putrefaction +or fermentation that the entozoa are born, for both of these +processes are rather fatal to their existence, but from the +aggregation and fit apposition of matter which is already organized, +or has been thrown from organized surfaces. Their origin in this +manner is not more wonderful or more inexplicable than that of many +of the inferior animals from sections of themselves. * * Particles of +matter fitted by digestion, and their transmission through a living +body, for immediate assimilation with it, or flakes of lymph detached +from surfaces already organized, seem neither to exceed nor fall +below that simplicity of structure which favours this wonderful +development; and the supposition that, like morsels of a planaria, +they may also, when retained in contact with living parts, and in +other favourable circumstances, continue to live and be gradually +changed into creatures of analogous conformation, is surely not so +absurd as to be brought into comparison with the Metamorphoses of +Ovid. * * We think the hypothesis is also supported in some degree by +the fact, that the origin of the entozoa is favoured by all causes +which tend to disturb the equality between the secerning and +absorbent systems." {182} Here particles of organized matter are +suggested as the germinal origin of distinct and fully organized +animals, many of which have a highly developed reproductive system. +How near such particles must be to the inorganic form of matter may +be judged from what has been said within the last few pages. If, +then, this view of the production of entozoa be received, it must be +held as in no small degree favourable to the general doctrine of an +organic creation by law. + +There is another series of facts, akin to the above, and which +deserve not less attention. The pig, in its domestic state, is +subject to the attacks of a hydatid, from which the wild animal is +free; hence the disease called measles in pork. The domestication of +the pig is of course an event subsequent to the origin of man; +indeed, comparatively speaking, a recent event. Whence, then, the +first progenitor of this hydatid? So also there is a tinea which +attacks dressed wool, but never touches it in its unwashed state. A +particular insect disdains all food but chocolate, and the larva of +the OINOPOTA CELLARIS lives nowhere but in wine and beer, all of +these being articles manufactured by man. There is likewise a +creature called the PIMELODES CYCLOPUM, which is only found in +subterranean cavities connected with certain specimens of the +volcanic formation in South America, dating from a time posterior to +the arrangements of the earth for our species. Whence the first +pymelodes cyclopum? Will it, to a geologist, appear irrational to +suppose that, just as the pterodactyle was added in the era of the +new red sandstone, when the earth had become suited for such a +creature, so may these creatures have been added when media suitable +for their existence arose, and that such phenomena may take place any +day, the only cause for their taking place seldom being the rarity of +the rise of new physical conditions on a globe which seems to have +already undergone the principal part of its destined mutations? + +Between such isolated facts and the greater changes which attended +various geological eras, it is not easy to see any difference, +besides simply that of the scale on which the respective phenomena +took place, as the throwing off of one copy from an engraved plate is +exactly the same process as that by which a thousand are thrown off. +Nothing is more easy to conceive than that to Creative Providence, +the numbers of such phenomena, the time when, and the circumstances +under which they take place, are indifferent matters. The Eternal +One has arranged for everything beforehand, and trusted all to the +operation of the laws of his appointment, himself being ever present +in all things. We can even conceive that man, in his many doings +upon the surface of the earth, may occasionally, without his being +aware of it, or otherwise, act as an instrument in preparing the +association of conditions under which the creative laws work; and +perhaps some instances of his having acted as such an instrument have +actually occurred in our own time. + +I allude, of course, to the experiments conducted a few years ago by +Mr. Crosse, which seemed to result in the production of a heretofore +unknown species of insect in considerable numbers. Various causes +have prevented these experiments and their results from receiving +candid treatment, but they may perhaps be yet found to have opened up +a new and most interesting chapter of nature's mysteries. Mr. Crosse +was pursuing some experiments in crystallization, causing a powerful +voltaic battery to operate upon a saturated solution of silicate of +potash, when the insects unexpectedly made their appearance. He +afterwards tried nitrate of copper, which is a deadly poison, and +from that fluid also did live insects emerge. Discouraged by the +reception of his experiments, Mr. Crosse soon discontinued them; but +they were some years after pursued by Mr. Weekes, of Sandwich, with +precisely the same results. This gentleman, besides trying the first +of the above substances, employed ferro-cyanet of potash, on account +of its containing a larger proportion of carbon, the principal +element of organic bodies; and from this substance the insects were +produced IN INCREASED NUMBERS. A few weeks sufficed for this +experiment, with the powerful battery of Mr. Crosse; but the first +attempts of Mr. Weekes required about eleven months, a ground of +presumption in itself that the electricity was chiefly concerned in +the phenomenon. The changes undergone by the fluid operated upon, +were in both cases remarkable, and nearly alike. In Mr. Weekes' +apparatus, the silicate of potash became first turbid, then of a +milky appearance; round the negative wire of the battery, dipped into +the fluid, there gathered a quantity of GELATINOUS MATTER, a part of +the process of considerable importance, considering that gelatin is +one of the proximate principles, or first compounds, of which animal +bodies are formed. From this matter Mr. Weekes observed one of the +insects in the very act of emerging, immediately after which, it +ascended to the surface of the fluid, and sought concealment in an +obscure corner of the apparatus. The insects produced by both +experimentalists seem to have been the same, a species of acarus, +minute and semi-transparent, and furnished with long bristles, which +can only be seen by the aid of the microscope. It is worthy of +remark, that some of these insects, soon after their existence had +commenced, were found to be likely to extend their species. They +were sometimes observed to go back to the fluid to feed, and +occasionally they devoured each other. {187} + +The reception of novelties in science must ever be regulated very +much by the amount of kindred or relative phenomena which the public +mind already possesses and acknowledges, to which the new can be +assimilated. A novelty, however true, if there be no received truths +with which it can be shewn in harmonious relation, has little chance +of a favourable hearing. In fact, as has been often observed, there +is a measure of incredulity from our ignorance as well as from our +knowledge, and if the most distinguished philosopher three hundred +years ago had ventured to develop any striking new fact which only +could harmonize with the as yet unknown Copernican solar system, we +cannot doubt that it would have been universally scoffed at in the +scientific world, such as it then was, or at the best interpreted in +a thousand wrong ways in conformity with ideas already familiar. The +experiments above described, finding a public mind which had never +discovered a fact or conceived an idea at all analogous, were of +course ungraciously received. It was held to be impious, even to +surmise that animals could have been formed through any +instrumentality of an apparatus devised by human skill. The more +likely account of the phenomena was said to be, that the insects were +only developed from ova, resting either in the fluid, or in the +wooden frame on which the experiments took place. On these +objections the following remarks may be made. The supposition of +impiety arises from an entire misconception of what is implied by an +aboriginal creation of insects. The experimentalist could never be +considered as the author of the existence of these creatures, except +by the most unreasoning ignorance. The utmost that can be claimed +for, or imputed to him is that he arranged the natural conditions +under which the true creative energy--that of the Divine Author of +all things--was pleased to work in that instance. On the hypothesis +here brought forward, the acarus Crossii was a type of being ordained +from the beginning, and destined to be realized under certain +physical conditions. When a human hand brought these conditions into +the proper arrangement, it did an act akin to hundreds of familiar +ones which we execute every day, and which are followed by natural +results; but it did nothing more. The production of the insect, if +it did take place as assumed, was as clearly an act of the Almighty +himself, as if he had fashioned it with hands. For the presumption +that an act of aboriginal creation did take place, there is this to +be said, that, in Mr. Weekes's experiment, every care that ingenuity +could devise was taken to exclude the possibility of a development of +the insects from ova. The wood of the frame was baked in a powerful +heat; a bell-shaped glass covered the apparatus, and from this the +atmosphere was excluded by the constantly rising fumes from the +liquid, for the emission of which there was an aperture so arranged +at the top of the glass, that only these fumes could pass. The water +was distilled, and the substance of the silicate had been subjected +to white heat. Thus every source of fallacy seemed to be shut up. +In such circumstances, a candid mind, which sees nothing either +impious or unphilosophical in the idea of a new creation, will be +disposed to think that there is less difficulty in believing in such +a creation having actually taken place, than in believing that, in +two instances, separated in place and time, exactly the same insects +should have chanced to arise from concealed ova, and these a species +heretofore unknown. + + + +HYPOTHESIS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL KINGDOMS. + + + +It has been already intimated, as a general fact, that there is an +obvious gradation amongst the families of both the vegetable and +animal kingdoms, from the simple lichen and animalcule respectively +up to the highest order of dicotyledonous trees and the mammalia. +Confining our attention, in the meantime, to the animal kingdom--it +does not appear that this gradation passes along one line, on which +every form of animal life can be, as it were, strung; there may be +branching or double lines at some places; or the whole may be in a +circle composed of minor circles, as has been recently suggested. +But still it is incontestable that there are general appearances of a +scale beginning with the simple and advancing to the complicated. +The animal kingdom was divided by Cuvier into four sub-kingdoms, or +divisions, and these exhibit an unequivocal gradation in the order in +which they are here enumerated:- Radiata, (polypes, &c.;) mollusca, +(pulpy animals;) articulata, (jointed animals;) vertebrata, (animals +with internal skeleton.) The gradation can, in like manner, be +clearly traced in the CLASSES into which the sub-kingdoms are +subdivided, as, for instance, when we take those of the vertebrata in +this order--reptiles, fishes, birds, mammals. + +While the external forms of all these various animals are so +different, it is very remarkable that the whole are, after all, +variations of a fundamental plan, which can be traced as a basis +throughout the whole, the variations being merely modifications of +that plan to suit the particular conditions in which each particular +animal has been designed to live. Starting from the primeval germ, +which, as we have seen, is the representative of a particular order +of full-grown animals, we find all others to be merely advances from +that type, with the extension of endowments and modification of forms +which are required in each particular case; each form, also, +retaining a strong affinity to that which precedes it, and tending to +impress its own features on that which succeeds. This unity of +structure, as it is called, becomes the more remarkable, when we +observe that the organs, while preserving a resemblance, are often +put to different uses. For example: the ribs become, in the +serpent, organs of locomotion, and the snout is extended, in the +elephant, into a prehensile instrument. + +It is equally remarkable that analogous purposes are served in +different animals by organs essentially different. Thus, the +mammalia breathe by lungs; the fishes, by gills. These are not +modifications of one organ, but distinct organs. In mammifers, the +gills exist and act at an early stage of the foetal state, but +afterwards go back and appear no more; while the lungs are developed. +In fishes, again, the gills only are fully developed; while the lung +structure either makes no advance at all, or only appears in the +rudimentary form of an air-bladder. So, also, the baleen of the +whale and the teeth of the land mammalia are different organs. The +whale, in embryo, shews the rudiments of teeth; but these, not being +wanted, are not developed, and the baleen is brought forward instead. +The land animals, we may also be sure, have the rudiments of baleen +in their organization. In many instances, a particular structure is +found advanced to a certain point in a particular set of animals, +(for instance, feet in the serpent tribe,) although it is not there +required in any degree; but the peculiarity, being carried a little +farther forward, is perhaps useful in the next set of animals in the +scale. Such are called rudimentary organs. With this class of +phenomena are to be ranked the useless mammae of the male human +being, and the unrequired process of bone in the male opossum, which +is needed in the female for supporting her pouch. Such curious +features are most conspicuous in animals which form links between +various classes. + +As formerly stated, the marsupials, standing at the bottom of the +mammalia, shew their affinity to the oviparous vertebrata, by the +rudiments of two canals passing from near the anus to the external +surfaces of the viscera, which are fully developed in fishes, being +required by them for the respiration of aerated waters, but which are +not needed by the atmosphere-breathing marsupials. We have also the +peculiar form of the sternum and rib-bones of the lizards REPRESENTED +in the mammalia in certain white cartilaginous lines traceable among +their abdominal muscles. The struphionidae (birds of the ostrich +type) form a link between birds and mammalia, and in them we find the +wings imperfectly or not at all developed, a diaphragm and urinary +sac, (organs wanting in other birds,) and feathers approaching the +nature of hair. Again, the ornithorynchus belongs to a class at the +bottom of the mammalia, and approximating to birds, and in it behold +the bill and web-feet of that order! + +For further illustration, it is obvious that, various as may be the +lengths of the upper part of the vertebral column in the mammalia, it +always consists of the same parts. The giraffe has in its tall neck +the same number of bones with the pig, which scarcely appears to have +a neck at all. {195} Man, again, has no tail; but the notion of a +much-ridiculed philosopher of the last century is not altogether, as +it happens, without foundation, for the bones of a caudal extremity +exist in an undeveloped state in the os coccygis of the human +subject. The limbs of all the vertebrate animals are, in like +manner, on one plan, however various they may appear. In the hind- +leg of a horse, for example, the angle called the hock is the same +part which in us forms the heel; and the horse, and all other +quadrupeds, with almost the solitary exception of the bear, walk, in +reality, upon what answers to the toes of a human being. In this and +many other quadrupeds the fore part of the extremities is shrunk up +in a hoof, as the tail of the human being is shrunk up in the bony +mass at the bottom of the back. The bat, on the other hand, has +these parts largely developed. The membrane, commonly called its +wing, is framed chiefly upon bones answering precisely to those of +the human hand; its extinct congener, the pterodactyle, had the same +membrane extended upon the fore-finger only, which in that animal was +prolonged to an extraordinary extent. In the paddles of the whale +and other animals of its order, we see the same bones as in the more +highly developed extremities of the land mammifers; and even the +serpent tribes, which present no external appearance of such +extremities, possess them in reality, but in an undeveloped or +rudimental state. + +The same law of development presides over the vegetable kingdom. +Amongst phanerogamous plants, a certain number of organs appear to be +always present, either in a developed or rudimentary state; and those +which are rudimentary can be developed by cultivation. The flowers +which bear stamens on one stalk and pistils on another, can be caused +to produce both, or to become perfect flowers, by having a +sufficiency of nourishment supplied to them. So also, where a +special function is required for particular circumstances, nature has +provided for it, not by a new organ, but by a modification of a +common one, which she has effected in development. Thus, for +instance, some plants destined to live in arid situations, require to +have a store of water which they may slowly absorb. The need is +arranged for by a cup-like expansion round the stalk, in which water +remains after a shower. Now the pitcher, as this is called, is not a +new organ, but simply a metamorphose of a leaf. + +These facts clearly shew how all the various organic forms of our +world are bound up in one--how a fundamental unity pervades and +embraces them all, collecting them, from the humblest lichen up to +the highest mammifer, in one system, the whole creation of which must +have depended upon one law or decree of the Almighty, though it did +not all come forth at one time. After what we have seen, the idea of +a separate exertion for each must appear totally inadmissible. The +single fact of abortive or rudimentary organs condemns it; for these, +on such a supposition, could be regarded in no other light than as +blemishes or blunders--the thing of all others most irreconcilable +with that idea of Almighty Perfection which a general view of nature +so irresistibly conveys. On the other hand, when the organic +creation is admitted to have been effected by a general law, we see +nothing in these abortive parts but harmless peculiarities of +development, and interesting evidences of the manner in which the +Divine Author has been pleased to work. + +We have yet to advert to the most interesting class of facts +connected with the laws of organic development. It is only in recent +times that physiologists have observed that each animal passes, in +the course of its germinal history, through a series of changes +resembling the PERMANENT FORMS of the various orders of animals +inferior to it in the scale. Thus, for instance, an insect, standing +at the head of the articulated animals, is, in the larva state, a +true annelid, or worm, the annelida being the lowest in the same +class. The embryo of a crab resembles the perfect animal of the +inferior order myriapoda, and passes through all the forms of +transition which characterize the intermediate tribes of crustacea. +The frog, for some time after its birth, is a fish with external +gills, and other organs fitting it for an aquatic life, all of which +are changed as it advances to maturity, and becomes a land animal. +The mammifer only passes through still more stages, according to its +higher place in the scale. Nor is man himself exempt from this law. +His first form is that which is permanent in the animalcule. His +organization gradually passes through conditions generally resembling +a fish, a reptile, a bird, and the lower mammalia, before it attains +its specific maturity. At one of the last stages of his foetal +career, he exhibits an intermaxillary bone, which is characteristic +of the perfect ape; this is suppressed, and he may then be said to +take leave of the simial type, and become a true human creature. +Even, as we shall see, the varieties of his race are represented in +the progressive development of an individual of the highest, before +we see the adult Caucasian, the highest point yet attained in the +animal scale. + +To come to particular points of the organization. The brain of man, +which exceeds that of all other animals in complexity of organization +and fulness of development, is, at one early period, only "a simple +fold of nervous matter, with difficulty distinguishable into three +parts, while a little tail-like prolongation towards the hinder +parts, and which had been the first to appear, is the only +representation of a spinal marrow. Now, in this state it perfectly +resembles the brain of an adult fish, thus assuming in transitu the +form that in the fish is permanent. In a short time, however, the +structure is become more complex, the parts more distinct, the spinal +marrow better marked; it is now the brain of a reptile. The change +continues; by a singular motion, certain parts (corpora quadragemina) +which had hitherto appeared on the upper surface, now pass towards +the lower; the former is their permanent situation in fishes and +reptiles, the latter in birds and mammalia. This is another advance +in the scale, but more remains yet to be done. The complication of +the organ increases; cavities termed ventricles are formed, which do +not exist in fishes, reptiles, or birds; curiously organized parts, +such as the corpora striata, are added; it is now the brain of the +mammalia. Its last and final change alone seems wanting, that which +shall render it the brain of MAN." {201} And this change in time +takes place. + +So also with the heart. This organ, in the mammalia, consists of +four cavities, but in the reptiles of only three, and in fishes of +two only, while in the articulated animals it is merely a prolonged +tube. Now in the mammal foetus, at a certain early stage, the organ +has the form of a prolonged tube; and a human being may be said to +have then the heart of an insect. Subsequently it is shortened and +widened, and becomes divided by a contraction into two parts, a +ventricle and an auricle; it is now the heart of a fish. A +subdivision of the auricle afterwards makes a triple-chambered form, +as in the heart of the reptile tribes; lastly, the ventricle being +also subdivided, it becomes a full mammal heart. + +Another illustration here presents itself with the force of the most +powerful and interesting analogy. Some of the earliest fishes of our +globe, those of the Old Red Sandstone, present, as we have seen, +certain peculiarities, as the one-sided tail and an inferior position +of the mouth. No fishes of the present day, in a mature state, are +so characterized; but some, at a certain stage of their existence, +have such peculiarities. It occurred to a geologist to inquire if +the fish which existed before the Old Red Sandstone had any +peculiarities assimilating them to the foetal condition of existing +fish, and particularly if they were small. The first which occur +before the time of the Old Red Sandstone, are those described by Mr. +Murchison, as belonging to the Upper Ludlow Rocks; THEY ARE ALL +RATHER SMALL. Still older are those detected by Mr. Philips, in the +Aymestry Limestone, being the most ancient of the class which have as +yet been discovered; THESE ARE SO EXTREMELY MINUTE AS ONLY TO BE +DISTINGUISHABLE BY THE MICROSCOPE. Here we apparently have very +clear demonstrations of a parity, or rather identity, of laws +presiding over the development of the animated tribes on the face of +the earth, and that of the individual in embryo. + +The tendency of all these illustrations is to make us look to +DEVELOPMENT as the principle which has been immediately concerned in +the peopling of this globe, a process extending over a vast space of +time, but which is nevertheless connected in character with the +briefer process by which an individual being is evoked from a simple +germ. What mystery is there here--and how shall I proceed to +enunciate the conception which I have ventured to form of what may +prove to be its proper solution! It is an idea by no means +calculated to impress by its greatness, or to puzzle by its +profoundness. It is an idea more marked by simplicity than perhaps +any other of those which have explained the great secrets of nature. +But in this lies, perhaps, one of its strongest claims to the faith +of mankind. + +The whole train of animated beings, from the simplest and oldest up +to the highest and most recent, are, then, to be regarded as a series +of ADVANCES OF THE PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT, which have depended upon +external physical circumstances, to which the resulting animals are +appropriate. I contemplate the whole phenomena as having been in the +first place arranged in the counsels of Divine Wisdom, to take place, +not only upon this sphere, but upon all the others in space, under +necessary modifications, and as being carried on, from first to last, +here and elsewhere, under immediate favour of the creative will or +energy. {204} The nucleated vesicle, the fundamental form of all +organization, we must regard as the meeting-point between the +inorganic and the organic--the end of the mineral and beginning of +the vegetable and animal kingdoms, which thence start in different +directions, but in perfect parallelism and analogy. We have already +seen that this nucleated vesicle is itself a type of mature and +independent being in the infusory animalcules, as well as the +starting point of the foetal progress of every higher individual in +creation, both animal and vegetable. We have seen that it is a form +of being which electric agency will produce--though not perhaps usher +into full life--in albumen, one of those compound elements of animal +bodies, of which another (urea) has been made by artificial means. +Remembering these things, we are drawn on to the supposition, that +the first step in the creation of life upon this planet was A +CHEMICO-ELECTRIC OPERATION, BY WHICH SIMPLE GERMINAL VESICLES WERE +PRODUCED. This is so much, but what were the next steps? Let a +common vegetable infusion help us to an answer. There, as we have +seen, simple forms are produced at first, but afterwards they become +more complicated, until at length the life-producing powers of the +infusion are exhausted. Are we to presume that, in this case, the +simple engender the complicated? Undoubtedly, this would not be more +wonderful as a natural process than one which we never think of +wondering at, because familiar to us--namely, that in the gestation +of the mammals, the animalcule-like ovum of a few days is the parent, +in a sense, of the chick-like form of a few weeks, and that in all +the subsequent stages--fish, reptile, &c.--the one may, with scarcely +a metaphor, be said to be the progenitor of the other. I suggest, +then, as an hypothesis already countenanced by much that is +ascertained, and likely to be further sanctioned by much that remains +to be known, that the first step was AN ADVANCE UNDER FAVOUR OF +PECULIAR CONDITIONS, FROM THE SIMPLEST FORMS OF BEING, TO THE NEXT +MORE COMPLICATED, AND THIS THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF THE ORDINARY PROCESS +OF GENERATION. + +Unquestionably, what we ordinarily see of nature is calculated to +impress a conviction that each species invariably produces its like. +But I would here call attention to a remarkable illustration of +natural law which has been brought forward by Mr. Babbage, in his +Ninth Bridgewater Treatise. The reader is requested to suppose +himself seated before the calculating machine, and observing it. It +is moved by a weight, and there is a wheel which revolves through a +small angle round its axis, at short intervals, presenting to his eye +successively, a series of numbers engraved on its divided +circumference. + +Let the figures thus seen be the series, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., of +natural numbers, each of which exceeds its immediate antecedent by +unity. + +"Now, reader," says Mr. Babbage, "let me ask you how long you will +have counted before you are firmly convinced that the engine has been +so adjusted, that it will continue, while its motion is maintained, +to produce the same series of natural numbers? Some minds are so +constituted, that, after passing the first hundred terms, they will +be satisfied that they are acquainted with the law. After seeing +five hundred terms few will doubt, and after the fifty thousandth +term the propensity to believe that the succeeding term will be fifty +thousand and one, will be almost irresistible. That term WILL be +fifty thousand and one; and the same regular succession will +continue; the five millionth and the fifty millionth term will still +appear in their expected order, and one unbroken chain of natural +numbers will pass before your eyes, from ONE up to ONE HUNDRED +MILLION. + +"True to the vast induction which has been made, the next succeeding +term will be one hundred million and one; but the next number +presented by the rim of the wheel, instead of being one hundred +million and two, is one hundred million TEN THOUSAND and two. The +whole series from the commencement being thus, - + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +. +. . +. . . +99,999,999 +100,000,000 +regularly as far as 100,000,001 +100,010,002 the law changes. +100,030,003 +100,060,004 +100,100,005 +100,150,006 +100,210,007 +100,280,008 +. . . +. . . +. . . + +"The law which seemed at first to govern this series failed at the +hundred million and second term. This term is larger than we +expected by 10,000. The next term is larger than was anticipated by +30,000, and the excess of each term above what we had expected forms +the following table:- + +10,000 +30,000 +60,000 +100,000 +150,000 +. . . +. . . + +being, in fact, the series of TRIANGULAR NUMBERS, {208} each +multiplied by 10,000. + +"If we now continue to observe the numbers presented by the wheel, we +shall find, that for a hundred, or even for a thousand terms, they +continue to follow the new law relating to the triangular numbers; +but after watching them for 2761 terms, we find that this law fails +in the case of the 2762d term. + +"If we continue to observe, we shall discover another law then coming +into action, which also is dependent, but in a different manner, on +triangular numbers. This will continue through about 1430 terms, +when a new law is again introduced which extends over about 950 +terms, and this, too, like all its predecessors, fails, and gives +place to other laws, which appear at different intervals. + +"Now it must be observed that THE LAW THAT EACH NUMBER PRESENTED BY +THE ENGINE IS GREATER BY UNITY THAN THE PRECEDING NUMBER, which law +the observer had deduced from an induction of a hundred million +instances, WAS NOT THE TRUE LAW THAT REGULATED ITS ACTION, and that +the occurrence of the number 100,010,002 at the 100,000,002nd term +was AS NECESSARY A CONSEQUENCE OF THE ORIGINAL ADJUSTMENT, AND MIGHT +HAVE BEEN AS FULLY FOREKNOWN AT THE COMMENCEMENT, AS WAS THE REGULAR +SUCCESSION OF ANY ONE OF THE INTERMEDIATE NUMBERS TO ITS IMMEDIATE +ANTECEDENT. The same remark applies to the next apparent deviation +from the new law, which was founded on an induction of 2761 terms, +and also to the succeeding law, with this limitation only--that, +whilst their consecutive introduction at various definite intervals, +is a necessary consequence of the mechanical structure of the engine, +our knowledge of analysis does not enable us to predict the periods +themselves at which the more distant laws will be introduced." + +It is not difficult to apply the philosophy of this passage to the +question under consideration. It must be borne in mind that the +gestation of a single organism is the work of but a few days, weeks, +or months; but the gestation (so to speak) of a whole creation is a +matter probably involving enormous spaces of time. Suppose that an +ephemeron, hovering over a pool for its one April day of life, were +capable of observing the fry of the frog in the water below. In its +aged afternoon, having seen no change upon them for such a long time, +it would be little qualified to conceive that the external branchiae +of these creatures were to decay, and be replaced by internal lungs, +that feet were to be developed, the tail erased, and the animal then +to become a denizen of the land. Precisely such may be our +difficulty in conceiving that any of the species which people our +earth is capable of advancing by generation to a higher type of +being. During the whole time which we call the historical era, the +limits of species have been, to ordinary observation, rigidly adhered +to. But the historical era is, we know, only a small portion of the +entire age of our globe. We do not know what may have happened +during the ages which preceded its commencement, as we do not know +what may happen in ages yet in the distant future. All, therefore, +that we can properly infer from the apparently invariable production +of like by like is, that such is the ordinary procedure of nature in +the time immediately passing before our eyes. Mr. Babbage's +illustration powerfully suggests that this ordinary procedure may be +subordinate to a higher law which only PERMITS it for a time, and in +proper season interrupts and changes it. We shall soon see some +philosophical evidence for this very conclusion. + +It has been seen that, in the reproduction of the higher animals, the +new being passes through stages in which it is successively fish-like +and reptile-like. But the resemblance is not to the adult fish or +the adult reptile, but to the fish and reptile at a certain point in +their foetal progress; this holds true with regard to the vascular, +nervous, and other systems alike. It may be illustrated by a simple +diagram. The foetus of all the four classes may be supposed to +advance in an identical condition to the point A. + + + M + | + | B + |/ +D + R + |/ +C + F + |/ +A + + | + | + + +The fish there diverges and passes along a line apart, and peculiar +to A itself, to its mature state at F. The reptile, bird, and +mammal, go on together to C, where the reptile diverges in like +manner, and advances by itself to R. The bird diverges at D, and +goes on to B. The mammal then goes forward in a straight line to the +highest point of organization at M. This diagram shews only the main +ramifications; but the reader must suppose minor ones, representing +the subordinate differences of orders, tribes, families, genera, &c., +if he wishes to extend his views to the whole varieties of being in +the animal kingdom. Limiting ourselves at present to the outline +afforded by this diagram, it is apparent that the only thing required +for an advance from one type to another in the generative process is +that, for example, the fish embryo should not diverge at A, but go on +to C before it diverges, in which case the progeny will be, not a +fish, but a reptile. To protract the STRAIGHTFORWARD PART OF THE +GESTATION OVER A SMALL SPACE--and from species to species the space +would be small indeed--is all that is necessary. + +This might be done by the force of certain external conditions +operating upon the parturient system. The nature of these conditions +we can only conjecture, for their operation, which in the geological +eras was so powerful, has in its main strength been long interrupted, +and is now perhaps only allowed to work in some of the lowest +departments of the organic world, or under extraordinary casualties +in some of the higher, and to these points the attention of science +has as yet been little directed. But though this knowledge were +never to be clearly attained, it need not much affect the present +argument, provided it be satisfactorily shewn that there must be some +such influence within the range of natural things. + +To this conclusion it must be greatly conducive that the law of +organic development is still daily seen at work to certain effects, +only somewhat short of a transition from species to species. Sex we +have seen to be a matter of development. There is an instance, in a +humble department of the animal world, of arrangements being made by +the animals themselves for adjusting this law to the production of a +particular sex. Amongst bees, as amongst several other insect +tribes, there is in each community but one true female, the queen +bee, the workers being false females or neuters; that is to say, sex +is carried on in them to a point where it is attended by sterility. +The preparatory states of the queen bee occupy sixteen days; those of +the neuters, twenty; and those of males, twenty-four. Now it is a +fact, settled by innumerable observations and experiments, that the +bees can so modify a worker in the larva state, that, when it emerges +from the pupa, it is found to be a queen or true female. For this +purpose they enlarge its cell, make a pyramidal hollow to allow of +its assuming a vertical instead of a horizontal position, keep it +warmer than other larvae are kept, and feed it with a peculiar kind +of food. From these simple circumstances, leading to a shortening of +the embryotic condition, results a creature different in form, and +also in dispositions, from what would have otherwise been produced. +Some of the organs possessed by the worker are here altogether +wanting. We have a creature "destined to enjoy love, to burn with +jealousy and anger, to be incited to vengeance, and to pass her time +without labour," instead of one "zealous for the good of the +community, a defender of the public rights, enjoying an immunity from +the stimulus of sexual appetite and the pains of parturition; +laborious, industrious, patient, ingenious, skilful; incessantly +engaged in the nurture of the young, in collecting honey and pollen, +in elaborating wax, in constructing cells and the like!--paying the +most respectful and assiduous attention to objects which, had its +ovaries been developed, it would have hated and pursued with the most +vindictive fury till it had destroyed them!" {215} All these changes +may be produced by a mere modification of the embryotic progress, +which it is within the power of the adult animals to effect. But it +is important to observe that this modification is different from +working a direct change upon the embryo. It is not the different +food which effects a metamorphosis. All that is done is merely to +accelerate the period of the insect's perfection. By the +arrangements made and the food given, the embryo becomes sooner fit +for being ushered forth in its imago or perfect state. Development +may be said to be thus arrested at a particular stage--that early one +at which the female sex is complete. In the other circumstances, it +is allowed to go on four days longer, and a stage is then reached +between the two sexes, which in this species is designed to be the +perfect condition of a large portion of the community. Four days +more make it a perfect male. It is at the same time to be observed +that there is, from the period of oviposition, a destined distinction +between the sexes of the young bees. The queen lays the whole of the +eggs which are designed to become workers, before she begins to lay +those which become males. But probably the condition of her +reproductive system governs the matter of sex, for it is remarked +that when her impregnation is delayed beyond the twenty-eighth day of +her entire existence, she lays only eggs which become males. + +We have here, it will be admitted, a most remarkable illustration of +the principle of development, although in an operation limited to the +production of sex only. Let it not be said that the phenomena +concerned in the generation of bees may be very different from those +concerned in the reproduction of the higher animals. There is a +unity throughout nature which makes the one case an instructive +reflection of the other. + +We shall now see an instance of development operating within the +production of what approaches to the character of variety of species. +It is fully established that a human family, tribe, or nation, is +liable, in the course of generations, to be either advanced from a +mean form to a higher one, or degraded from a higher to a lower, by +the influence of the physical conditions in which it lives. The +coarse features, and other structural peculiarities of the negro race +only continue while these people live amidst the circumstances +usually associated with barbarism. In a more temperate clime, and +higher social state, the face and figure become greatly refined. The +few African nations which possess any civilization also exhibit forms +approaching the European; and when the same people in the United +States of America have enjoyed a within-door life for several +generations, they assimilate to the whites amongst whom they live. +On the other hand, there are authentic instances of a people +originally well-formed and good-looking, being brought, by imperfect +diet and a variety of physical hardships, to a meaner form. It is +remarkable that prominence of the jaws, a recession and diminution of +the cranium, and an elongation and attenuation of the limbs, are +peculiarities always produced by these miserable conditions, for they +indicate an unequivocal retrogression towards the type of the lower +animals. Thus we see nature alike willing to go back and to go +forward. Both effects are simply the result of the operation of the +law of development in the generative system. Give good conditions, +it advances; bad ones, it recedes. Now, perhaps, it is only because +there is no longer a possibility, in the higher types of being, of +giving sufficiently favourable conditions to carry on species to +species, that we see the operation of the law so far limited. + +Let us trace this law also in the production of certain classes of +monstrosities. A human foetus is often left with one of the most +important parts of its frame imperfectly developed: the heart, for +instance, goes no farther than the three-chambered form, so that it +is the heart of a reptile. There are even instances of this organ +being left in the two-chambered or fish form. Such defects are the +result of nothing more than a failure of the power of development in +the system of the mother, occasioned by weak health or misery. Here +we have apparently a realization of the converse of those conditions +which carry on species to species, so far, at least, as one organ is +concerned. Seeing a complete specific retrogression in this one +point, how easy it is to imagine an access of favourable conditions +sufficient to reverse the phenomenon, and make a fish mother develop +a reptile heart, or a reptile mother develop a mammal one. It is no +great boldness to surmise that a super-adequacy in the measure of +this under-adequacy (and the one thing seems as natural an occurrence +as the other) would suffice in a goose to give its progeny the body +of a rat, and produce the ornithorynchus, or might give the progeny +of an ornithorynchus the mouth and feet of a true rodent, and thus +complete at two stages the passage from the aves to the mammalia. + +Perhaps even the transition from species to species does still take +place in some of the obscurer fields of creation, or under +extraordinary casualties, though science professes to have no such +facts on record. It is here to be remarked, that such facts might +often happen, and yet no record be taken of them, for so strong is +the prepossession for the doctrine of invariable like-production, +that such circumstances, on occurring, would be almost sure to be +explained away on some other supposition, or, if presented, would be +disbelieved and neglected. Science, therefore, has no such facts, +for the very same reason that some small sects are said to have no +discreditable members--namely, that they do not receive such persons, +and extrude all who begin to verge upon the character. There are, +nevertheless, some facts which have chanced to be reported without +any reference to this hypothesis, and which it seems extremely +difficult to explain satisfactorily upon any other. One of these has +already been mentioned--a progression in the forms of the animalcules +in a vegetable infusion from the simpler to the more complicated, a +sort of microcosm, representing the whole history of the progress of +animal creation as displayed by geology. Another is given in the +history of the Acarus Crossii, which may be only the ultimate stage +of a series of similar transformations effected by electric agency in +the solution subjected to it. There is, however, one direct case of +a translation of species, which has been presented with a respectable +amount of authority. {221} It appears that, whenever oats sown at +the usual time are kept cropped down during summer and autumn, and +allowed to remain over the winter, a thin crop of rye is the harvest +presented at the close of the ensuing summer. This experiment has +been tried repeatedly, with but one result; invariably the secale +cereale is the crop reaped where the avena sativa, a recognised +different species, was sown. Now it will not satisfy a strict +inquirer to be told that the seeds of the rye were latent in the +ground and only superseded the dead product of the oats; for if any +such fact were in the case, why should the usurping grain be always +rye? Perhaps those curious facts which have been stated with regard +to forests of one kind of trees, when burnt down, being succeeded +(without planting) by other kinds, may yet be found most explicable, +as this is, upon the hypothesis of a progression of species which +takes place under certain favouring conditions, now apparently of +comparatively rare occurrence. The case of the oats is the more +valuable, as bearing upon the suggestion as to a protraction of the +gestation at a particular part of its course. Here, the generative +process is, by the simple mode of cropping down, kept up for a whole +year beyond its usual term. The type is thus allowed to advance, and +what was oats becomes rye. + +The idea, then, which I form of the progress of organic life upon the +globe--and the hypothesis is applicable to all similar theatres of +vital being--is, THAT THE SIMPLEST AND MOST PRIMITIVE TYPE, UNDER A +LAW TO WHICH THAT OF LIKE-PRODUCTION IS SUBORDINATE, GAVE BIRTH TO +THE TYPE NEXT ABOVE IT, THAT THIS AGAIN PRODUCED THE NEXT HIGHER, AND +SO ON TO THE VERY HIGHEST, the stages of advance being in all cases +very small--namely, from one species only to another; so that the +phenomenon has always been of a simple and modest character. Whether +the whole of any species was at once translated forward, or only a +few parents were employed to give birth to the new type, must remain +undetermined; but, supposing that the former was the case, we must +presume that the moves along the line or lines were simultaneous, so +that the place vacated by one species was immediately taken by the +next in succession, and so on back to the first, for the supply of +which the formation of a new germinal vesicle out of inorganic matter +was alone necessary. Thus, the production of new forms, as shewn in +the pages of the geological record, has never been anything more than +a new stage of progress in gestation, an event as simply natural, and +attended as little by any circumstances of a wonderful or startling +kind, as the silent advance of an ordinary mother from one week to +another of her pregnancy. Yet, be it remembered, the whole phenomena +are, in another point of view, wonders of the highest kind, for in +each of them we have to trace the effect of an Almighty Will which +had arranged the whole in such harmony with external physical +circumstances, that both were developed in parallel steps--and +probably this development upon our planet is but a sample of what has +taken place, through the same cause, in all the other countless +theatres of being which are suspended in space. + +This may be the proper place at which to introduce the preceding +illustrations in a form calculated to bring them more forcibly before +the mind of the reader. The following table was suggested to me, in +consequence of seeing the scale of animated nature presented in Dr. +Fletcher's Rudiments of Physiology. Taking that scale as its basis, +it shews the wonderful parity observed in the progress of creation, +as presented to our observation in the succession of fossils, and +also in the foetal progress of one of the principal human organs. +{224} This scale, it may be remarked, was not made up with a view to +support such an hypothesis as the present, nor with any apparent +regard to the history of fossils, but merely to express the +appearance of advancement in the orders of the Cuvierian system, +assuming, as the criterion of that advancement, "an increase in the +number and extent of the manifestations of life, or of the relations +which an organized being bears to the external world." Excepting in +the relative situation of the annelida and a few of the mammal +orders, the parity is perfect; nor may even these small discrepancies +appear when the order of fossils shall have been further +investigated, or a more correct scale shall have been formed. +Meanwhile, it is a wonderful evidence in favour of our hypothesis, +that a scale formed so arbitrarily should coincide to such a nearness +with our present knowledge of the succession of animal forms upon +earth, and also that both of these series should harmonize so well +with the view given by modern physiologists of the embryotic progress +of one of the organs of the highest order of animals. + + +TABLE {226} + +Table shows: scale of animal kingdom (the numbers indicate orders); +order of animals in; ascending series of rocks; foetal human brain +resembles, in + +(The numbers indicate orders) + +Rocks: 1. Gneiss and Mica Slate system +Foetal: 1st month, that of an avertebrated animal; + +Scale: RADIATA (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) +Order: Zoophyta, Polypiaria +Rocks: 2. Clay Slate and Grawacke system +Foetal: 1st month, that of an avertebrated animal; + +Scale: MOLLUSCA (6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) +Order: Conchifera, Double-shelled Mollusks +Rocks: 3. Silurian system +Foetal: 1st month, that of an avertebrated animal; + +Scale: ARTICULATA Annelida (12, 13, 14) +Rocks: 3. Silurian system +Foetal: 1st month, that of an avertebrated animal; + +Scale: ARTICULATA Crustacea (15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20) +Order: Crustacea, Annelida, Crustaceous Fishes +Rocks: 3. Silurian system +Foetal: 1st month, that of an avertebrated animal; + +Scale: ARTICULATA Arachnida & Insecta (21-31) +Order: Crustaceous Fishes +Rocks: 4. Old Red Sandstone +Foetal: 1st month, that of an avertebrated animal; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Pisces (32, 33, 34, 35, 36) +Order: True Fishes +Rocks: 5. Carboniferous formation +Foetal: 2nd month, that of a fish; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Reptilia (37, 38, 39, 40) +Order: Piscine Saurians (ichthyosaurus, &c.), Pterodactyles, +Crocodiles, Tortoises, Batrachians +Rocks: 6. New Red Sandstone +Foetal: 3rd month, that of a turtle; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Aves (41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46) +Order: Birds +Rocks: 6. New Red Sandstone +Foetal: 4th month, that of a bird; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 47 Cetacea +Order: (Bone of a marsupial animal) +Rocks: 7. Oolite + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 48 Ruminantia +Order: (Bone of a marsupial animal) +Rocks: 8. Cretaceous formation + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 49 Pachydermata +Order: Pachydermata (tapirs, horses, &c.) +Rocks: 9. Lower Eocene + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 50 Edentata +Order: Pachydermata (tapirs, horses, &c.) +Rocks: 9. Lower Eocene + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 51 Rodentia +Order: Rodentia (dormouse, squirrel, &c.) +Rocks: 9. Lower Eocene +Foetal: 5th month, that of a rodent; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 52 Marsupialia +Order: Marsupialia (racoon, opossum, &c.) +Rocks: 9. Lower Eocene +Foetal: 6th month, that of a ruminant; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 53 Amphibia +Order: Marsupialia (racoon, opossum, &c.) +Rocks: 9. Lower Eocene +Foetal: 6th month, that of a ruminant; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 54 Digitigrada +Order: Digitigrada (genette, fox, wolf, &c.) +Rocks: 10. Miocene +Foetal: 7th month, that of a digitigrade animal; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 55 Plantigrada +Order: Plantigrada (bear) +Rocks: 10. Miocene + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 55 Plantigrada +Order: Cetacea (lamantins, seals, whales) +Rocks: 10. Miocene + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 56 Insectivora +Order: Edentata (sloths, &c.) +Rocks: 11. Pliocene + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 56 Insectivora +Order: Ruminantia (oxen, deer, &c.) +Rocks: 11. Pliocene + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 57 Cheiroptera +Rocks: 11. Pliocene + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 58 Quadrumana +Order: Quadrumana (monkeys) +Rocks: 11. Pliocene +Foetal: 8th month, that of the quadrumana; + +Scale: VERTEBRATA Mammalia: 59 Bimana +Order: Bimana (man) +Rocks: 12. Superficial deposits +Foetal: 9th month, attains full human character; + + +The reader has seen physical conditions several times referred to, as +to be presumed to have in some way governed the progress of the +development of the zoological circle. This language may seem vague, +and, it may be asked,--can any particular physical condition be +adduced as likely to have affected development? To this it may be +answered, that air and light are probably amongst the principal +agencies of this kind which operated in educing the various forms of +being. Light is found to be essential to the development of the +individual embryo. When tadpoles were placed in a perforated box, +and that box sunk in the Seine, light being the only condition thus +abstracted, they grew to a great size in their original form, but did +not pass through the usual metamorphose which brings them to their +mature state as frogs. The proteus, an animal of the frog kind, +inhabiting the subterraneous waters of Carniola, and which never +acquires perfect lungs so as to become a land animal, is presumed to +be an example of arrested development, from the same cause. When, in +connexion with these facts, we learn that human mothers living in +dark and close cells under ground,--that is to say, with an +inadequate provision of air and light,--are found to produce an +unusual proportion of defective children, {229} we can appreciate the +important effects of both these physical conditions in ordinary +reproduction. Now there is nothing to forbid the supposition that +the earth has been at different stages of its career under different +conditions, as to both air and light. On the contrary, we have seen +reason for supposing that the proportion of carbonic acid gas (the +element fatal to animal life) was larger at the time of the +carboniferous formation than it afterwards became. We have also seen +that astronomers regard the zodiacal light as a residuum of matter +enveloping the sun, and which was probably at one time denser than it +is now. Here we have the indications of causes for a progress in the +purification of the atmosphere and in the diffusion of light during +the earlier ages of the earth's history, with which the progress of +organic life may have been conformable. An accession to the +proportion of oxygen, and the effulgence of the central luminary, may +have been the immediate prompting cause of all those advances from +species to species which we have seen, upon other grounds, to be +necessarily supposed as having taken place. And causes of the like +nature may well be supposed to operate on other spheres of being, as +well as on this. I do not indeed present these ideas as furnishing +the true explanation of the progress of organic creation; they are +merely thrown out as hints towards the formation of a just +hypothesis, the completion of which is only to be looked for when +some considerable advances shall have been made in the amount and +character of our stock of knowledge. + +Early in this century, M. Lamarck, a naturalist of the highest +character, suggested an hypothesis of organic progress which +deservedly incurred much ridicule, although it contained a glimmer of +the truth. He surmised, and endeavoured, with a great deal of +ingenuity, to prove, that one being advanced in the course of +generations to another, in consequence merely of its experience of +wants calling for the exercise of its faculties in a particular +direction, by which exercise new developments of organs took place, +ending in variations sufficient to constitute a new species. Thus he +thought that a bird would be driven by necessity to seek its food in +the water, and that, in its efforts to swim, the outstretching of its +claws would lead to the expansion of the intermediate membranes, and +it would thus become web-footed. Now it is possible that wants and +the exercise of faculties have entered in some manner into the +production of the phenomena which we have been considering; but +certainly not in the way suggested by Lamarck, whose whole notion is +obviously so inadequate to account for the rise of the organic +kingdoms, that we only can place it with pity among the follies of +the wise. Had the laws of organic development been known in his +time, his theory might have been of a more imposing kind. It is upon +these that the present hypothesis is mainly founded. I take existing +natural means, and shew them to have been capable of producing all +the existing organisms, with the simple and easily conceivable aid of +a higher generative law, which we perhaps still see operating upon a +limited scale. I also go beyond the French philosopher to a very +important point, the original Divine conception of all the forms of +being which these natural laws were only instruments in working out +and realizing. The actuality of such a conception I hold to be +strikingly demonstrated by the discoveries of Macleay, Vigors, and +Swainson, with respect to the affinities and analogies of animal (and +by implication vegetable) organisms. {232} Such a regularity in the +STRUCTURE, as we may call it, of the CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS, as is +shewn in their systems, is totally irreconcilable with the idea of +form going on to form merely as needs and wishes in the animals +themselves dictated. Had such been the case, all would have been +irregular, as things arbitrary necessarily are. But, lo, the whole +plan of being is as symmetrical as the plan of a house, or the laying +out of an old-fashioned garden! This must needs have been devised +and arranged for beforehand. And what a preconception or forethought +have we here! Let us only for a moment consider how various are the +external physical conditions in which animals live--climate, soil, +temperature, land, water, air--the peculiarities of food, and the +various ways in which it is to be sought; the peculiar circumstances +in which the business of reproduction and the care-taking of the +young are to be attended to--all these required to be taken into +account, and thousands of animals were to be formed suitable in +organization and mental character for the concerns they were to have +with these various conditions and circumstances--here a tooth fitted +for crushing nuts; there a claw fitted to serve as a hook for +suspension; here to repress teeth and develop a bony net-work +instead; there to arrange for a bronchial apparatus, to last only for +a certain brief time; and all these animals were to be schemed out, +each as a part of a great range, which was on the whole to be rigidly +regular: let us, I say, only consider these things, and we shall see +that the decreeing of laws to bring the whole about was an act +involving such a degree of wisdom and device as we only can +attribute, adoringly, to the one Eternal and Unchangeable. It may be +asked, how does this reflection comport with that timid philosophy +which would have us to draw back from the investigation of God's +works, lest the knowledge of them should make us undervalue his +greatness and forget his paternal character? Does it not rather +appear that our ideas of the Deity can only be worthy of him in the +ratio in which we advance in a knowledge of his works and ways; and +that the acquisition of this knowledge is consequently an available +means of our growing in a genuine reverence for him! + +But the idea that any of the lower animals have been concerned in any +way with the origin of man--is not this degrading? Degrading is a +term, expressive of a notion of the human mind, and the human mind is +liable to prejudices which prevent its notions from being invariably +correct. Were we acquainted for the first time with the +circumstances attending the production of an individual of our race, +we might equally think them degrading, and be eager to deny them, and +exclude them from the admitted truths of nature. Knowing this fact +familiarly and beyond contradiction, a healthy and natural mind finds +no difficulty in regarding it complacently. Creative Providence has +been pleased to order that it should be so, and it must therefore be +submitted to. Now the idea as to the progress of organic creation, +if we become satisfied of its truth, ought to be received precisely +in this spirit. It has pleased Providence to arrange that one +species should give birth to another, until the second highest gave +birth to man, who is the very highest: be it so, it is our part to +admire and to submit. The very faintest notion of there being +anything ridiculous or degrading in the theory--how absurd does it +appear, when we remember that every individual amongst us actually +passes through the characters of the insect, the fish, and reptile, +(to speak nothing of others,) before he is permitted to breathe the +breath of life! But such notions are mere emanations of false pride +and ignorant prejudice. He who conceives them little reflects that +they, in reality, involve the principle of a contempt for the works +and ways of God. For it may be asked, if He, as appears, has chosen +to employ inferior organisms as a generative medium for the +production of higher ones, even including ourselves, what right have +we, his humble creatures, to find fault? There is, also, in this +prejudice, an element of unkindliness towards the lower animals, +which is utterly out of place. These creatures are all of them part +products of the Almighty Conception, as well as ourselves. All of +them display wondrous evidences of his wisdom and benevolence. All +of them have had assigned to them by their Great Father a part in the +drama of the organic world, as well as ourselves. Why should they be +held in such contempt? Let us regard them in a proper spirit, as +parts of the grand plan, instead of contemplating them in the light +of frivolous prejudices, and we shall be altogether at a loss to see +how there should be any degradation in the idea of our race having +been genealogically connected with them. + + + +MACLEAY SYSTEM OF ANIMATED NATURE. THIS SYSTEM CONSIDERED IN +CONNEXION WITH THE PROGRESS OF ORGANIC CREATION, AND AS INDICATING +THE NATURAL STATUS OF MAN. + + + +It is now high time to advert to the system formed by the animated +tribes, both with a view to the possible illustration of the +preceding argument, and for the light which it throws upon that +general system of nature which it is the more comprehensive object of +this book to ascertain. + +The vegetable and animal kingdoms are arranged upon a scale, starting +from simply organized forms, and going on to the more complex, each +of these forms being but slightly different from those next to it on +both sides. The lowest and most slightly developed forms in the two +kingdoms are so closely connected, that it is impossible to say where +vegetable ends and animal begins. United at what may be called their +bases, they start away in different directions, but not altogether to +lose sight of each other. On the contrary, they maintain a strict +analogy throughout the whole of their subsequent courses, sub-kingdom +for sub-kingdom, class for class; shewing a beautiful, though as yet +obscure relation between the two grand forms of being, and +consequently a unity in the laws which brought them both into +existence. So complete does this analogy appear, even in the present +imperfect state of science, that I fully expect in a few years to see +the animal and vegetable kingdoms duly ranked up against each other +in a system of parallels, which will admit of our assigning to each +species in the former the particular shrub or tree corresponding to +it in the latter, all marked by unmistakable analogies of the most +interesting kind. + +It is as yet but a few years since a system of subordinate analogies +not less remarkable began to be speculated upon as within the range +of the animal kingdom. Probably it also exists in the vegetable +kingdom; but to this point no direct attention has been given; so we +are left to infer that such is the case from theoretical +considerations only. We are indebted for what we know of these +beautiful analogies to three naturalists--Macleay, Vigors, and +Swainson, whose labours tempt us to dismiss in a great measure the +artificial classifications hitherto used, and make an entirely new +conspectus of the animal kingdom, not to speak of the corresponding +reform which will be required in our systems of botany also. + +The Macleay system, as it may be called in honour of its principal +author, announces that, whether we take the whole animal kingdom, or +any definite division of it, we shall find that we are examining a +group of beings which is capable of being arranged along a series of +close affinities, IN A CIRCULAR FORM,--that is to say, starting from +any one portion of the group, when it is properly arranged, we can +proceed from one to another by minute gradations, till at length, +having run through the whole, we return to the point whence we set +out. All natural groups of animals are, therefore, in the language +of Mr. Macleay, CIRCULAR; and the possibility of throwing any +supposed group into a circular arrangement is held as a decisive test +of its being a real or natural one. It is of course to be understood +that each circle is composed of a set of inferior circles: for +example, a set of TRIBE circles composes an ORDER; a set of ORDER +circles, again, forms a CLASS; and so on. Of each group, the +component circles are INVARIABLY FIVE IN NUMBER: thus, in the animal +kingdom, there are five sub-kingdoms,--the vertebrata, annulosa, +{239a} radiata, acrita, {239b} mollusca. Take, again, one of these +sub-kingdoms, the vertebrata, and we find it composed of five +classes,--the mammalia, reptilia, pisces, amphibia, and aves, each of +the other sub-kingdoms being similarly divisible. Take the mammalia, +and it is in like manner found to be composed of five orders,--the +cheirotheria, {239c} ferae, cetacea, glires, ungulata. Even in this +numerical uniformity, which goes down to the lowest ramifications of +the system, there would be something very remarkable, as arguing a +definite and preconceived arrangement; but this is only the least +curious part of the Macleay theory. + +We shall best understand the wonderfully complex system of analogies +developed by that theory, if we start from the part of the kingdom in +which they were first traced,--namely, the class aves, or birds. +This gives for its five orders,--incessores, (perching birds,) +raptores, (birds of prey,) natatores, (swimming birds,) grallatores, +(waders,) rasores, (scrapers.) In these orders our naturalists +discerned distinct organic characters, of different degrees of +perfectness, the first being the most perfect with regard to the +general character of the class, and therefore the best representative +of that class; whence it was called the TYPICAL order. The second +was found to be inferior, or rather to have a less perfect balance of +qualities; hence it was designated the SUB-TYPICAL. In this are +comprehended the chief noxious and destructive animals of the circle +to which it belongs. The other three groups were called aberrant, as +exhibiting a much wider departure from the typical standard, although +the last of the three is observed to make a certain recovery, and +join on to the typical group, so as to complete the circle. The +first of the aberrant groups (natatores) is remarkable for making the +water the theatre of its existence, and the birds composing it are in +general of comparatively large bulk. The second (grallatores) are +long-limbed and long-billed, that they may wade and pick up their +subsistence in the shallows and marshes in which they chiefly live. +The third (rasores) are distinguished by strong feet, for walking or +running on the ground, and for scraping in it for their food; also by +wings designed to scarcely raise them off the earth and, farther, by +a general domesticity of character and usefulness to man. + +Now the most remarkable circumstance is, that these organic +characters, habits, and moral properties, were found to be traceable +more or less distinctly in the corresponding portions of every other +group, even of those belonging to distant subdivisions of the animal +kingdom, as, for instance, the insects. The incessores (typical +order of aves) being reduced to its constituent circles or tribes, it +was found that these strictly represented the five orders. In the +conirostres are the perfections which belong to the incessores as an +order, with the conspicuous external feature of a comparatively small +notch in their bills; in the dentirostres, the notch is strong and +toothlike, (hence the name of the tribe) assimilating them to the +raptores; the fissirostres come into analogy with the natatores in +the slight development of their feet and their great powers of +flight; the tenuirostres have the small mouths and long soft bills of +the grallatores. Finally, the scansores resemble the rasores in +their superior intelligence and docility, and in their having strong +limbs and a bill entire at the tip. This parity of qualities becomes +clearer when placed in a tabular form:- + + +Orders of Birds. Characters. Tribes of Incessores. + +Incessores --Most perfect of their circle; Conirostres. + notch of bill small +Raptores --Notch of bill like a tooth Dentirostres. +Natatores --Slightly developed feet; Fissirostres. + strong flight +Grallatores--Small mouths; long soft bills Tenuirostres. +Rasores --Strong feet, short wings; Scansores. + docile and domestic + + +Some comprehensive terms are much wanted to describe these five +characters, so curiously repeated throughout the whole of the animal, +and probably also the vegetable kingdom. Meanwhile, Mr. Swainson +calls them typical, sub-typical, natatorial, suctorial, {242} and +rasorial. Some of his illustrations of the principle are exceedingly +interesting. He shews that the leading animal of a typical circle +usually has a combination of properties concentrated in itself, +without any of these preponderating remarkably over others. The sub- +typical circles, he says, "do not comprise the largest individuals in +bulk, but always those which are the most powerfully armed, either +for inflicting injury on their own class, for exciting terror, +producing injury, or creating annoyance to man. Their dispositions +are often sanguinary, since the forms most conspicuous among them +live by rapine, and subsist on the blood of other animals. They are, +in short, symbolically types of EVIL." This symbolical character is +most conspicuous about the centre of the series of gradations:- + + +Kingdom . . . Annulosa. +Sub-kingdom . . . Reptilia. +Class (Mammalia) . . . Ferae. +(Aves) . . . Raptores. + + +In the annulosa it is not distinct, although we must also remember +that insects do produce enormous ravages and annoyance in many parts +of the earth. In the reptilia it is more distinct, since to this +class belong the ophidia, (serpents,) an order peculiarly noxious. +It comes to a kind of climax in the ferae and raptores, which fulfil +the function of butchers among land animals. As we descend through +tribes, families, genera, species, it becomes fainter and fainter, +but never altogether vanishes. In the dentirostres, for instance, we +have in a subdued form the hooked bill and predaceous character of +the raptores; to this tribe belongs the family of the shrikes, so +deadly to all the lesser field birds. In the genus bos, we have, in +the sub-typical group, the bison, "wild, revengeful, and shewing an +innate detestation of man." In equus, we have, in the same +situation, the zebra, which actually shews the stripes of the tiger, +and is as remarkable for its wildness as its congeners, the horse and +ass, are for their docility and usefulness. To quote again from Mr. +Swainson, "the singular threatening aspect which the caterpillars of +the sphinx moth assume on being disturbed, is a remarkable +modification of the terrific or evil nature which is impressed in one +form or another, palpable or remote, upon all sub-typical groups; for +this division of the lepidopterous order is precisely of this +denomination. In the pre-eminent type of this order of insects, the +butterflies, (papilionides,) our associations little prepare us for +expecting any trace of the evil principle; but here, too, there is a +sub-typical division. These," says our naturalist, "are +distinguished by their caterpillars being armed with formidable +spines or prickles, which in general are possessed of some highly +acrimonious or poisonous quality, capable of injuring those who touch +them. It is only," continues Mr. Swainson, "when extensive +researches bring to light a uniformity of results, that we can +venture to believe they are so universal as to deserve being ranked +as primary laws. Thus, when a celebrated entomologist denounced as +impure the black and lurid beetles forming the saprophagous +petalocera of Mr. Macleay, a tribe living only upon putrid vegetable +matter, and hiding themselves in their disgusting food, or in dark +hollows of the earth, neither of these celebrated men suspected the +absolute fact, elicited from our analogies of this group, that this +very tribe constituted the sub-typical group of one of the primary +divisions of coleopterous insects: nor had they any suspicion that, +by the filthy habits and repulsive forms of these beetles, nature had +intended that they should be types or emblems of hundreds of other +groups, distinguished by peculiarities equally indicative of evil. +On the other hand, the thalerophagous petalocera, forming the typical +group of the same division, present us with all the perfections and +habits belonging to their kind. These families of beetles live only +upon fresh vegetables; they are diurnal, and sport in the glare of +day, pure in their food, elegant in their shapes, and beautiful in +their colours." {246} + +The third type, (first of the three aberrant,) called by Mr. +Swainson, the natatorial, or aquatic, are chiefly remarkable for +their bulk, the disproportionate size of the head, and the absence, +or slight development of the feet. They partake of the predaceous +and destructive character of the adjoining sub-typical group, and the +means of their predacity are generally found in the mouth alone. In +the primary division of the animal kingdom, we find the type in the +radiata, not one of which lives out of water. In the vertebrata, it +is in the fishes. In both of these, feet are totally wanting. +Descending to the class mammalia, we have this type in the cetacea, +which present a comparatively slight development of limbs. In the +aves, as we have seen, the type is presented in the natatores, whose +name has been adopted as an appropriate term for all the +corresponding groups. An enumeration of some other examples of the +natatorial type, as the cephalopoda (instanced in the cuttle-fish) in +the mollusca; the crustacea (crabs, &c.) in the annulosa; the owls +(which often duck for fish) in the raptores; the ichthyosaurus, +plesiosaurus, &c., among reptilia, will serve to bring the general +character, and its pervasion of the whole animal world, forcibly +before the mind of the reader. + +The next type is that of meanest and most imperfect organization, the +lower termination of all groups, as the typical is the upper. It is +called by Mr. Swainson the suctorial, from a very generally prevalent +peculiarity, that of drawing sustenance by suction. The acrita, or +polypes, among the sub-kingdoms; the intestina, among the annulosa; +the tortoises, among the reptilia; the armadillo and scaly ant-eater, +pig, mouse, jerboa, and kangaroo, among quadrupeds; the waders and +tenuirostres, among birds; the coleoptera, (bug, louse, flea, &c.) +among insects; the gastrobranchus, among fishes; are examples which +will illustrate the special characters of this type. These are +smallness, particularly in the head and mouth, feebleness, and want +of offensive protection, defect of organs of mastication, +considerable powers of swift movement, and (often) a parasitic mode +of living; while of negative qualities, there are, besides, +indisposition to domestication, and an unsuitableness to serve as +human food. + +The rasorial type comprehends most of the animals which become +domesticated and useful to man, as, first, the fowls which give a +name to the type, the ungulata, and more particularly the ruminantia, +among quadrupeds, and the dog among the ferae. Gentleness, +familiarity with man, and a peculiar approach to human intelligence, +are the leading mental characteristics of animals of this type. +Amongst external characters, we generally find power of limbs and +feet for locomotion on land, (to which the rasorial type is +confined,) abundant tail and ornaments for the head, whether in the +form of tufts, crests, horns, or bony excrescences. In the animal +kingdom, the mollusca are the rasorial type, which, however, only +shews itself there in their soft and sluggish character, and their +being very generally edible. In the ptilota, or winged insects, the +hymenopterous are the rasorial type, and it is not therefore +surprising to find amongst them the ants and bees, "the most social, +intelligent, and in the latter case, most useful to man, of all the +annulose animals." + +As yet the speculations on representation are imperfect, in +consequence of the novelty of the doctrine, and the defective state +of our knowledge of animated nature. It has, however, been so fully +proved in the aves, and traced so clearly in other parts of the +animal kingdom, and as a general feature of that part of nature, that +hardly a doubt can exist of its being universally applicable. Even +in the lowly forms of the acrita, (polypes,) the suctorial type of +the animal kingdom, representation has been discerned, and with some +remarkable results as to the history of our world. The acrita were +the first forms of animal life upon earth, the starting point of that +great branch of organization. Now, this sub-kingdom consists, like +the rest, of five groups, (classes,) and these are respectively +representations of the acrita itself, and the other four sub- +kingdoms, which had not come into existence when the acrita were +formed. The polypi vaginati, in the crustaceous covering of the +living mass, and their more or less articulated structure, represent +the annulosa. In the radiated forms of the rotifera, and the simple +structure of the polypi rudes, we are reminded of the radiata. The +mollusca are typified in the soft, mucous, sluggish intestina. And, +finally, in the fleshy living mass which surrounds the bony and +hollow axis of the polypi natantes, we have a sketch of the +vertebrata. The acrita thus appear as a prophecy of the higher +events of animal development. They shew that the nobler orders of +being, including man himself, were contemplated from the first, and +came into existence by virtue of a law, the operation of which had +commenced ages before their forms were realized. + +The system of representation is therefore to be regarded as A +POWERFUL ADDITIONAL PROOF OF THE HYPOTHESIS OF ORGANIC PROGRESS BY +VIRTUE OF LAW. It establishes the unity of animated nature and the +definite character of its entire constitution. It enables us to see +how, under the flowing robes of nature, where all looks arbitrary and +accidental, there is an artificiality of the most rigid kind. The +natural, we now perceive, sinks into and merges in a Higher +Artificial. To adopt a comparison more apt than dignified, we may be +said to be placed here as insects are in a garden of the old style. +Our first unassisted view is limited, and we perceive only the +irregularities of the minute surface, and single shrubs which appear +arbitrarily scattered. But our view at length extending and becoming +more comprehensive, we begin to see parterres balancing each other, +trees, statues, and arbours placed symmetrically, and that the whole +is an assemblage of parts mutually reflective. It can scarcely be +necessary to point to the inference hence arising with regard to the +origination of nature in some Power, of which man's mind is a faint +and humble representation. The insects of the garden, supposing them +to be invested with reasoning power, and aware how artificial are +their own works, might of course very reasonably conclude that, being +in its totality an artificial object, the garden was the work of some +maker or artificer. And so also must we conclude, when we attain a +knowledge of the artificiality which is at the basis of nature, that +nature is wholly the production of a Being resembling, but infinitely +greater than ourselves. + +Organic beings are, then, bound together in development, and in a +system of both affinities and analogies. Now, it will be asked, does +this agree with what we know of the geographical distribution of +organic beings, and of the history of organic progress as delineated +by geology? Let us first advert to the geographical question. + +Plants, as is well known, require various kinds of soil, forms of +geographical surface, climate, and other conditions, for their +existence. And it is everywhere found that, however isolated a +particular spot may be with regard to these conditions,--as a +mountain top in a torrid country, the marsh round a salt spring far +inland, or an island placed far apart in the ocean,--appropriate +plants have there taken up their abode. But the torrid zone divides +the two temperate regions from each other by the space of more than +forty-six degrees, and the torrid and temperate zones together form a +much broader line of division between the two arctic regions. The +Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the Persian Gulf, also divide the +various portions of continent in the torrid and temperate zones from +each other. Australia is also divided by a broad sea from the +continent of Asia. Thus there are various portions of the earth +separated from each other in such a way as to preclude anything like +a general communication of the seeds of their respective plants +towards each other. Hence arises an interesting question--Are the +plants of the various isolated regions which enjoy a parity of +climate and other conditions, identical or the reverse? The answer +is--that in such regions the vegetation bears a general resemblance, +but the SPECIES are nearly all different, and there is even, in a +considerable measure, a diversity of families. + +The general facts have been thus stated: in the arctic and antarctic +regions, and in those parts of lower latitudes, which, from their +elevation, possess the same cold climate, there is always a similar +or analogous vegetation, but few species are common to the various +situations. In like manner, the intertropical vegetation of Asia, +Africa, and America, are specifically different, though generally +similar. The southern region of America is equally diverse from that +of Africa, a country similar in clime, but separated by a vast extent +of ocean. The vegetation of Australia, another region similarly +placed in respect of clime, is even more peculiar. These facts are +the more remarkable when we discover that, in most instances, the +plants of one region have thriven when transplanted to another of +parallel clime. This would shew that parity of conditions does not +lead to a parity of productions so exact as to include identity of +species, or even genera. Besides the various isolated regions here +enumerated, there are some others indicated by naturalists as +exhibiting a vegetation equally peculiar. Some of these are isolated +by mountains, or the interposition of sandy wastes. For example, the +temperate region of the elder continent is divided about the centre +of Asia, and the east of that line is different from the west. So +also is the same region divided in North America by the Rocky +Mountains. Abyssinia and Nubia constitute another distinct botanical +region. De Candolle enumerates in all twenty well-marked portions of +the earth's surface which are peculiar with respect to vegetation; a +number which would be greatly increased if remote islands and +isolated mountain ranges were to be included. + +When we come to the zoology, we find precisely similar results, +excepting that man (with, perhaps, some of the less conspicuous forms +of being) is universal, and that several tribes, as the bear and dog, +appear to have passed by the land connexion from the arctic regions +of the eastern to those of the western hemisphere. "With these +exceptions," says Dr. Prichard, "and without any others, as far as +zoological researches have yet gone, it may be asserted that no +individual species are common to distant regions. In parallel +climates, analogous species replace each other; sometimes, but not +frequently, the same genus is found in two separate continents; but +the species which are natives of one region are not identical with +corresponding races indigenous in the opposite hemisphere. + +"A similar result arises when we compare the three great +intertropical regions, as well as the extreme spaces of the three +great continents, which advance into the temperate climates of the +southern hemisphere. + +"Thus, the tribes of simiae, (monkeys,) of the dog and cat kinds, of +pachyderms, including elephants, tapirs, rhinoceroses, hogs, of bats, +of saurian and ophidian reptiles, as well of birds and other terrene +animals, are all different in the three great continents. In the +lower departments of the mammiferous family, we find that the bruta, +or edendata, (sloths, armadillos, &c.,) of Africa, are differently +organized from those of America, and these again from the tribes +found in the Malayan archipelago and Terra Australis." {255} + +It does not appear that the diversity between the similar regions of +Africa, Asia, and America, is occasioned in all instances by any +disqualification of these countries to support precisely the same +genera or species. The ox, horse, goat, &c., of the elder continent +have thriven and extended themselves in the new, and many of the +indigenous tribes of America would no doubt flourish in corresponding +climates in Europe, Asia, and Africa. It has, however, been remarked +by naturalists unacquainted with the Macleay system, that the larger +and more powerful animals of their respective orders belong to the +elder continent, and that thus the animals of America, unlike the +features of inanimate nature, appear to be upon a small scale. The +swiftest and most agile animals, and a large proportion of those most +useful to man, are also natives of the elder continent. On the other +hand, the bulk of the edentata, a group remarkable for defects and +meanness of organization, are American. The zoology of America may +be said, upon the whole, to recede from that of Asia, "and perhaps in +a greater degree," adds Dr. Prichard, "from that of Africa." A much +greater recession is, however, observed in both the botany and +zoology of Australia. + +There "we do not find, in the great masses of vegetation, either the +majesty of the virgin forests of America, or the variety and elegance +of those of Asia, or the delicacy and freshness of the woods of our +temperate countries of Europe. The vegetation is generally gloomy +and sad; it has the aspect of our evergreens or heaths; the plants +are for the most part woody; the leaves of nearly all the plants are +linear, lanceolated, small, coriaceous, and spinescent. The grasses, +which elsewhere are generally soft and flexible, participate in the +stiffness of the other vegetables. The greater part of the plants of +New Holland belong to new genera; and those included in the genera +already known are of new species. The natural families which prevail +are those of the heaths, the proteae, compositae, leguminosae, and +myrthoideae; the larger trees all belong to the last family." {257} + +The prevalent animals of Australia are not less peculiar. It is well +known that none above the marsupialia, or pouched animals, are native +to it. The most conspicuous are these marsupials, which exist in +great varieties here, though unknown in the elder continent, and only +found in a few mean forms in America. Next to them are the +monotremata, which are entirely peculiar to this portion of the +earth. Now these are animals at the bottom of the mammiferous class, +adjoining to that of birds, of whose character and organization the +monotremata largely partake, the ornithorynchus presenting the bill +and feet of a duck, producing its young in eggs, and having, like +birds, a clavicle between the two shoulders. The birds of Australia +vary in structure and plumage, but all have some singularity about +them--the swan, for instance, is black. The country abounds in +reptiles, and the prevalent fishes are of the early kinds, having a +cartilaginous structure. + +Altogether, the plants and animals of this minor continent convey the +impression of an early system of things, such as might be displayed +in other parts of the earth about the time of the oolite. In +connexion with this circumstance, it is a fact of some importance, +that the geognostic character of Australia, its vast arid plains, its +little diversified surface and consequent paucity of streams, and the +very slight development of volcanic rock on its surface, seem to +indicate a system of physical conditions, such as we may suppose to +have existed elsewhere in the oolitic era: perhaps we see the chalk +formation preparing there in the vast coral beds frontiering the +coast. Australia thus appears as a portion of the earth which has, +from some unknown causes, been belated in its physical and organic +development. And certainly the greater part of its surface is not +fitted to be an advantageous place of residence for beings above the +marsupialia, and judging from analogy, it may yet be subjected to a +series of changes in the highest degree inconvenient to any human +beings who may have settled upon it. + +The general conclusions regarding the geography of organic nature, +may be thus stated. (1.) There are numerous distinct foci of organic +production throughout the earth. (2.) These have everywhere advanced +in accordance with the local conditions of climate &c., as far as at +least the class and order are concerned, a diversity taking place in +the lower gradations. No physical or geographical reason appearing +for this diversity, we are led to infer that, (3,) it is the result +of minute and inappreciable causes giving the law of organic +development a particular direction in the lower subdivisions of the +two kingdoms. (4.) Development has not gone on to equal results in +the various continents, being most advanced in the eastern continent, +next in the western, and least in Australia, this inequality being +perhaps the result of the comparative antiquity of the various +regions, geologically and geographically. + +It must at the same time be admitted that the line of organic +development has nowhere required for its advance the whole of the +families comprehended in the two kingdoms, seeing that some of these +are confined to one continent, and some to another, without a +conceivable possibility of one having been connected with the other +in the way of ancestry. The two great families of quadrumana, +cebidae and simiadae, are a noted instance, the one being exclusively +American, while the other belongs entirely to the old world. There +are many other cases in which the full circular group can only be +completed by taking subdivisions from various continents. This would +seem to imply that, while the entire system is so remarkable for its +unity, it has nevertheless been produced in lines geographically +detached, these lines perhaps consisting of particular typical groups +placed in an independent succession, or of two or more of these +groups. And for this idea there is, even in the present imperfect +state of our knowledge of animated nature, some countenance in +ascertained facts, the birds of Australia, for example, being chiefly +of the suctorial type, while it may be presumed that the observation +as to the predominance of the useful animals in the Old World, is not +much different from saying that the rasorial type is there peculiarly +abundant. It does not appear that the idea of independent lines, +consisting of particular types, or sets of types, is necessarily +inconsistent with the general hypothesis, as nothing yet ascertained +of the Macleay system forbids their having an independent set of +affinities. On this subject, however, there is as yet much +obscurity, and it must be left to future inquirers to clear it up. + +We must now call to mind that the geographical distribution of plants +and animals was very different in the geological ages from what it is +now. Down to a time not long antecedent to man, the same vegetation +overspread every clime, and a similar uniformity marked the zoology. +This is conceived by M. Brogniart, with great plausibility, to have +been the result of a uniformity of climate, produced by the as yet +unexhausted effect of the internal heat of the earth upon its +surface; whereas climate has since depended chiefly on external +sources of heat, as modified by the various meteorological +influences. However the early uniform climate was produced, certain +it is that, from about the close of the geological epoch, plants and +animals have been dispersed over the globe with a regard to their +particular characters, and specimens of both are found so isolated in +particular situations, as utterly to exclude the idea that they came +thither from any common centre. It may be asked,--Considering that, +in the geological epoch, species are not limited to particular +regions, and that since the close of that epoch, they are very +peculiarly limited, are we to presume the present organisms of the +world to have been created ab initio after that time? To this it may +be answered,--Not necessarily, as it so happens that animals begin to +be much varied, or to appear in a considerable variety of species, +towards the close of the geological history. It may have been that +the multitudes of locally peculiar species only came into being after +the uniform climate had passed away. It may have only been when a +varied climate arose, that the originally few species branched off +into the present extensive variety. + +A question of a very interesting kind will now probably arise in the +reader's mind--WHAT PLACE OR STATUS IS ASSIGNED TO MAN IN THE NEW +NATURAL SYSTEM. Before going into this inquiry, it is necessary to +advert to several particulars of the natural system not yet noticed. + +It is necessary, in particular, to ascertain the grades which exist +in the classification of animals. In the line of the aves, Mr. +Swainson finds these to be nine, the species pica, for example, being +thus indicated:- + + +Kingdom Animalia. +Sub-kingdom Vertebrata. +Class Aves. +Order Incessores. +Tribe Conirostres. +Family Corvidae. +Sub-family Corvinae. +Genus Corvus. +Sub-genus, or species Pica. + + +This brings us down to species, the subdivision where intermarriage +or breeding is usually considered as natural to animals, and where a +resemblance of offspring to parents is generally persevered in. The +dog, for instance, is a species, because all dogs can breed together, +and the progeny partakes of the appearances of the parents. The +human race is held as a species, primarily for the same reasons. +Species, however, is liable to another subdivision, which naturalists +call variety; and variety appears to be subject to exactly the same +system of REPRESENTATION which have been traced in species and higher +denominations. In canis, for instance, the bull-dog and mastiff +represent the ferocious sub-typical group; the waterdog is +natatorial; we see the speed and length of muzzle of the suctorial +group in the greyhound; and the bushy tail and gentle and serviceable +character of the rasorial in the shepherd's dog and spaniel. Even +the striped and spotted skin of the tiger and panther is reproduced +in the more ferocious kind of dogs--an indication of a fundamental +connexion between physical and mental qualities which we have also +seen in the zebra, and which is likewise displayed in the +predominance of a yellow colour in the vultures and owls in common +with the lion and his congeners. + +It is by no means clearly made out that this system of nine +gradations over and above that of variety applies in all departments +of nature. On the contrary, even Mr. Swainson gives series in which +several of them are omitted. It may be that, in some departments of +nature, variation from the class or order has gone down into fewer +shades than in others; or it may be, that many of the variations have +not survived till our era, or have not been as yet detected by +naturalists; in either of which cases there may be a necessity for +shortening the series by the omission of one or two grades, as for +instance TRIBE or SUB-FAMILY. This, however, is much to be +regretted, as it introduces an irregularity into the natural system, +and consequently throws a difficulty and doubt in the way of our +investigating it. With these preliminary remarks, I shall proceed to +inquire what is the natural status of man. + +That man's place is to be looked for in the class mammalia and sub- +kingdom vertebrata admits of no doubt, from his possessing both the +characters on which these divisions are founded. When we descend, +however, below the CLASS, we find no settled views on the subject +amongst naturalists. Mr. Swainson, who alone has given a review of +the animal kingdom on the Macleay system, unfortunately writes on +this subject in a manner which excites a suspicion as to his +judgment. His arrangement of the first or typical order of the +mammalia is therefore to be received with great hesitation. It is as +follows:- + + +Typical Quadrumana Pre-eminently organized for grasping. +Sub-typical Ferae . . . Claws retractile; carnivorous. +Natatorial Cetacea. . Pre-eminently aquatic; feet very short. +Suctorial Glires . . Muzzle lengthened and pointed. +Rasorial Ungulata . Crests and other processes on the head. + + +He then takes the quadrumana, and places it in the following +arrangement:- + + +Typical . . Simiadae . . . (Monkeys of Old World.) +Sub-typical . Cebidae . . . (Monkeys of New World.) +Natatorial . Unknown . +Suctorial . . Vespertilionidae (Bats.) +Rasorial . Lemuridae . . . (Lemurs.) + + +He considers the simiadae as a complete circle, and argues thence +that there is no room in the range of the animal kingdom for man. +Man, he says, is not a constituent part of any circle, for, if he +were, there ought to be other animals on each hand having affinity to +him, whereas there are none, the resemblance of the orangs being one +of mere analogy. Mr. Swainson therefore considers our race as +standing apart, and forming a link between the unintelligent order of +beings and the angels! And this in spite of the glaring fact that, +in our teeth, hands, and other features grounded on by naturalists as +characteristic, we do not differ more from the simiadae than the bats +do from the lemurs--in spite also of that resemblance of analogy to +the orangs which he himself admits, and which, at the least, must be +held to imply a certain relation. He also overlooks that, though +there may be no room for man in the circle of the simiadae, (this, +indeed, is quite true,) there may be in the order, where he actually +leaves a place entirely blank, or only to be filled up, as he +suggests, by mermen! {266} Another argument in his arrangement is, +that it leaves the grades of classification very much abridged, there +being at the most seven instead of nine. But serious argument on a +theory so preposterous may be considered as nearly thrown away. I +shall therefore at once proceed to suggest a new arrangement of this +portion of the animal kingdom, in which man is allowed the place to +which he is zoologically entitled. + +I propose that the typical order of the mammalia should be designated +cheirotheria, from the sole character which is universal amongst +them, their possessing hands, and with a regard to that pre-eminent +qualification for grasping which has been ascribed to them--an +analogy to the perching habit of the typical order of birds, which is +worthy of particular notice. The tribes of the cheirotheria I +arrange as follows:- + + +Typical Bimana. +Sub-typical Simiadae. +Natatorial Vespertilionidae. +Suctorial Lemuridae. +Rasorial Cebidae. + + +Here man is put into the typical place, as the genuine head, not only +of this order, but of the whole animal world. The double affinity +which is requisite is obtained, for here he has the simiadae on one +hand, and the cebidae on the other. The five tribes of the order are +completed, the vespertilionidae being shifted (provisionally) into +the natatorial place, for which their appropriateness is so far +evidenced by the aquatic habits of several of the tribe, and the +lemuridae into the suctorial, to which their length of muzzle and +remarkable saltatory power are highly suitable. At the same time, +the simiadae are degraded from the typical place, to which they have +no sort of pretension, and placed where their mean and mischievous +character seem to require; the cebidae again being assigned that +situation which their comparatively inoffensive dispositions, their +arboreal habits, and their extraordinary development of the tail, +(which with them is like a fifth hand,) render so proper. + +The zoological status thus assigned to the human race is precisely +what might be expected. In order to understand its full value, it is +necessary to observe how the various type peculiarities operate in +fixing the character of the animals ranked in them. It is easy to +conceive that they must be, in some instances, much mixed up with +each other, and consequently obscured. If an animal, for example, is +the suctorial member of a circle of species, forming the natatorial +type of genera, forming a family or sub-family which in its turn is +rasorial, its qualities must evidently be greatly mingled and ill to +define. But, on the other hand, if we take the rapacious or sub- +typical group of birds, and look in it for the tribe which is again +the rapacious or sub-typical group of its order, we may expect to +find the qualities of that group exalted or intensified, and +accordingly made the more conspicuous. Such is really the case with +the vultures, in the rapacious birds, a family remarkable above all +of their order for their carnivorous and foul habits. So, also, if +we take the typical group of the birds, the incessores or perchers, +and look in it for its typical group, the conirostres, and seek there +again for the typical family of that group, the corvidae, we may +expect to find a very marked superiority in organization and +character. Such is really the case. "The crow," says Mr. Swainson, +"unites in itself a greater number of properties than are to be found +individually in any other genus of birds; as if in fact it had taken +from all the other orders a portion of their peculiar qualities, for +the purpose of exhibiting in what manner they could be combined. +From the rapacious birds this "type of types," as the crow has been +justly called, takes the power of soaring in the air, and of seizing +upon living birds, like the hawks, while its habit of devouring +putrid substances, and picking out the eyes of young animals, is +borrowed from the vultures. From the scansorial or climbing order it +takes the faculty of picking the ground, and discovering its food +when hidden from the eye, while the parrot family gives it the taste +for vegetable food, and furnishes it with great cunning, sagacity, +and powers of imitation, even to counterfeiting the human voice. +Next come the order of waders, who impart their quota to the +perfection of the crow by giving it great powers of flight, and +perfect facility in walking, such being among the chief attributes of +the suctorial order. Lastly, the aquatic birds contribute their +portion, by giving this terrestrial bird the power of feeding not +only on fish, which are their peculiar food, but actually of +occasionally catching it. {270} In this wonderful manner do we find +the crow partially invested with the united properties of all other +birds, while in its own order, that of the incessores or perchers, it +stands the pre-eminent type. We cannot also fail to regard it as a +remarkable proof of the superior organization and character of the +corvidae, that they are adapted for all climates, and accordingly +found all over the world. + +Mr. Swainson's description of the zoological status of the crow, +written without the least design of throwing any light upon that of +man, evidently does so in a remarkable degree. It prepares us to +expect in the place among the mammalia, corresponding to that of the +corvidae in the aves, a being or set of beings possessing a +remarkable concentration of qualities from all the other groups of +their order, but in general character as far above the corvidae as a +typical group is above an aberrant one, the mammalia above the aves. +Can any of the simiadae pretend to such a place, narrowly and +imperfectly endowed as these creatures are--a mean reflection +apparently of something higher? Assuredly not, and in this +consideration alone Mr. Swainson's arrangement must fall to the +ground. To fill worthily so lofty a station in the animated families +man alone is competent. In him only is to be found that +concentration of qualities from all the other groups of his order +which has been described as marking the corvidae. That grasping +power, which has been selected as the leading physical quality of his +order, is nowhere so beautifully or so powerfully developed as in his +hand. The intelligence and teachableness of the simiadae rise to a +climax in his pre-eminent mental nature. His sub-analogy to the +ferae is marked by his canine teeth, and the universality of his +rapacity, for where is the department of animated nature which he +does not without scruple sacrifice to his convenience? With +sanguinary, he has also gentle and domesticable dispositions, thus +reflecting the characters of the ungulata, (the rasorial type of the +class,) to which we perhaps see a further analogy in the use which he +makes of the surface of the earth as a source of food. To the +aquatic type his love of maritime adventure very readily assimilates +him; and how far the suctorial is represented in his nature it is +hardly necessary to say. As the corvidae, too, are found in every +part of the earth--almost the only one of the inferior animals which +has been acknowledged as universal--so do we find man. He thrives in +all climates, and with regard to style of living, can adapt himself +to an infinitely greater diversity of circumstances than any other +animated creature. + +Man, then, considered zoologically, and without regard to the +distinct character assigned to him by theology, simply takes his +place as the type of all types of the animal kingdom, the true and +unmistakable head of animated nature upon this earth. It will +readily occur that some more particular investigations into the ranks +of types might throw additional light on man's status, and perhaps +his nature; and such light we may hope to obtain when the philosophy +of zoology shall have been studied as it deserves. Perhaps some such +diagram as the one given on the next page will be found to be an +approximation to the expression of the merely natural or secular +grade of man in comparison with other animals. + + + / / | + / / | + / / | + /| /| | + / | / | | + / | /| | | + /| | / | | | + / | | /| | | | + /| | | / | | | | + / | | | /| | | | | + /| | | | / | | | | | ++-1-2-3--4-+--a-b-c-d----+ {274} + + +Here the upright lines, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, may represent the comparative +height and grade of organization of both the five sub-kingdoms, and +the five classes of each of these; 5 being the vertebrata in the one +case, and the mammalia in the other. The difference between the +height of the line 1 and the line 5 gives an idea of the difference +of being the head type of the aves, (corvidae,) and the head type of +the mammalia, (bimana;) a. b. c. d. 5, again, represent the five +groups of the first order of the mammalia; a, being the organic +structure of the highest simia, and 5, that of man. A set of tangent +lines of this kind may yet prove one of the most satisfactory means +of ascertaining the height and breadth of the psychology of our +species. + +It may be asked,--Is the existing human race the only species +designed to occupy the grade to which it is here referred? Such a +question evidently ought not to be answered rashly; and I shall +therefore confine myself to the admission that, judging by analogy, +we might expect to see several varieties of the being, homo. There +is no other family approaching to this in importance, which presents +but one species. The corvidae, our parallel in aves, consist of +several distinct genera and sub-genera. It is startling to find such +an appearance of imperfection in the circle to which man belongs, and +the ideas which rise in consequence are not less startling. Is our +race but the initial of the grand crowning type? Are there yet to be +species superior to us in organization, purer in feeling, more +powerful in device and act, and who shall take a rule over us! There +is in this nothing improbable on other grounds. The present race, +rude and impulsive as it is, is perhaps the best adapted to the +present state of things in the world; but the external world goes +through slow and gradual changes, which may leave it in time a much +serener field of existence. There may then be occasion for a nobler +type of humanity, which shall complete the zoological circle on this +planet, and realize some of the dreams of the purest spirits of the +present race. + + + +EARLY HISTORY OF MANKIND. + + + +The human race is known to consist of numerous nations, displaying +considerable differences of external form and colour, and speaking in +general different languages. This has been the case since the +commencement of written record. It is also ascertained that the +external peculiarities of particular nations do not rapidly change. +There is rather a tendency to a persistency of type in all lines of +descent, insomuch that a subordinate admixture of various type is +usually obliterated in a few generations. Numerous as the varieties +are, they have all been found classifiable under five leading ones:- +1. The Caucasian or Indo-European, which extends from India into +Europe and Northern Africa; 2. The Mongolian, which occupies +Northern and Eastern Asia; 3. The Malayan, which extends from the +Ultra-Gangetic Peninsula into the numerous islands of the South Sea +and Pacific; 4. The Negro, chiefly confined to Africa; 5. The +aboriginal American. Each of these is distinguished by certain +general features of so marked a kind, as to give rise to a +supposition that they have had distinct or independent origins. Of +these peculiarities, colour is the most conspicuous: the Caucasians +are generally white, the Mongolians yellow, the Negroes black, and +the Americans red. The opposition of two of these in particular, +white and black, is so striking, that of them, at least, it seems +almost necessary to suppose separate origins. Of late years, +however, the whole of this question has been subjected to a rigorous +investigation, and it has been successfully shewn that the human race +might have had one origin, for anything that can be inferred from +external peculiarities. + +It appears from this inquiry, {278} that colour and other +physiological characters are of a more superficial and accidental +nature than was at one time supposed. One fact is at the very first +extremely startling, that there are nations, such as the inhabitants +of Hindostan, known to be one in descent, which nevertheless contain +groups of people of almost all shades of colour, and likewise +discrepant in other of those important features on which much stress +has been laid. Some other facts, which I may state in brief terms, +are scarcely less remarkable. In Africa, there are Negro nations,-- +that is, nations of intensely black complexion, as the Jolofs, +Mandingoes, and Kafirs, whose features and limbs are as elegant as +those of the best European nations. While we have no proof of Negro +races becoming white in the course of generations, the converse may +be held as established, for there are Arab and Jewish families of +ancient settlement in Northern Africa, who have become as black as +the other inhabitants. There are also facts which seem to shew the +possibility of a natural transition by generation from the black to +the white complexion, and from the white to the black. True whites +(apart from Albinoes) are not unfrequently born among the Negroes, +and the tendency to this singularity is transmitted in families. +There is, at least, one authentic instance of a set of perfectly +black children being born to an Arab couple, in whose ancestry no +such blood had intermingled. This occurred in the valley of the +Jordan, where it is remarkable that the Arab population in general +have flatter features, darker skins, and coarser hair, than any other +tribes of the same nation. {280} + +The style of living is ascertained to have a powerful effect in +modifying the human figure in the course of generations, and this +even in its osseous structure. About two hundred years ago, a number +of people were driven by a barbarous policy from the counties of +Antrim and Down, in Ireland, towards the sea-coast, where they have +ever since been settled, but in unusually miserable circumstances, +even for Ireland; and the consequence is, that they exhibit peculiar +features of the most repulsive kind, projecting jaws with large open +mouths, depressed noses, high cheek bones, and bow legs, together +with an extremely diminutive stature. These, with an abnormal +slenderness of the limbs, are the outward marks of a low and +barbarous condition all over the world; it is particularly seen in +the Australian aborigines. On the other hand, the beauty of the +higher ranks in England is very remarkable, being, in the main, as +clearly a result of good external conditions. "Coarse, unwholesome, +and ill-prepared food," says Buffon, "makes the human race +degenerate. All those people who live miserably are ugly and ill- +made. Even in France, the country people are not so beautiful as +those who live in towns; and I have often remarked that in those +villages where the people are richer and better fed than in others, +the men are likewise more handsome, and have better countenances." +He might have added, that elegant and commodious dwellings, cleanly +habits, comfortable clothing, and being exposed to the open air only +as much as health requires, cooperate with food in increasing the +elegance of a race of human beings. + +Subject only to these modifying agencies, there is, as has been said, +a remarkable persistency in national features and forms, insomuch +that a single individual thrown into a family different from himself +is absorbed in it, and all trace of him lost after a few generations. +But while there is such a persistency to ordinary observation, it +would also appear that nature has a power of producing new varieties, +though this is only done rarely. Such novelties of type abound in +the vegetable world, are seen more rarely in the animal circle, and +perhaps are least frequent of occurrence in our own race. There is a +noted instance in the production, on a New England farm, of a variety +of sheep with unusually short legs, which was kept up by breeding, on +account of the convenience in that country of having sheep which are +unable to jump over low fences. The starting and main taming a BREED +of cattle, that is, a variety marked by some desirable peculiarity, +are familiar to a large class of persons. It appears only necessary, +when a variety has been thus produced, that a union should take place +between individuals similarly characterized, in order to establish +it. Early in the last century, a man named Lambert, was born in +Suffolk, with semi-horny excrescences of about half an inch long, +thickly growing all over his body. The peculiarity was transmitted +to his children, and was last heard of in a third generation. The +peculiarity of six fingers on the hand and six toes on the feet, +appears in like manner in families which have no record or tradition +of such a peculiarity having affected them at any former period, and +it is then sometimes seen to descend through several generations. It +was Mr. Lawrence's opinion, that a pair, in which both parties were +so distinguished, might be the progenitors of a new variety of the +race who would be thus marked in all future time. It is not easy to +surmise the causes which operate in producing such varieties. +Perhaps they are simply types in nature, POSSIBLE TO BE REALIZED +UNDER CERTAIN APPROPRIATE CONDITIONS, but which conditions are such +as altogether to elude notice. I might cite as examples of such +possible types, the rise of whites amongst the Negroes, the +occurrence of the family of black children in the valley of the +Jordan, and the comparatively frequent birth of red-haired children +amongst not only the Mongolian and Malayan families, but amongst the +Negroes. We are ignorant of the laws of variety-production; but we +see it going on as a principle in nature, and it is obviously +favourable to the supposition that all the great families of men are +of one stock. + +The tendency of the modern study of the languages of nations is to +the same point. The last fifty years have seen this study elevated +to the character of a science, and the light which it throws upon the +history of mankind is of a most remarkable nature. + +Following a natural analogy, philologists have thrown the earth's +languages into a kind of classification: a number bearing a +considerable resemblance to each other, and in general geographically +near, are styled a GROUP or SUB-FAMILY; several groups, again, are +associated as a FAMILY, with regard to more general features of +resemblance. Six families are spoken of. + +The Indo-European family nearly coincides in geographical limits with +those which have been assigned to that variety of mankind which +generally shews a fair complexion, called the Caucasian variety. It +may be said to commence in India, and thence to stretch through +Persia into Europe, the whole of which it occupies, excepting +Hungary, the Basque provinces of Spain, and Finland. Its sub- +families are the Sanskrit, or ancient language of India, the Persian, +the Slavonic, Celtic, Gothic, and Pelasgian. The Slavonic includes +the modern languages of Russia and Poland. Under the Gothic, are (1) +the Scandinavian tongues, the Norske, Swedish, and Danish; and (2) +the Teutonic, to which belong the modern German, the Dutch, and our +own Anglo-Saxon. I give the name of Pelasgian to the group scattered +along the north shores of the Mediterranean, the Greek and Latin, +including the modifications of the latter under the names of Italian, +Spanish, &c. The Celtic was from two to three thousand years ago, +the speech of a considerable tribe dwelling in Western Europe; but +these have since been driven before superior nations into a few +corners, and are now only to be found in the highlands of Scotland, +Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and certain parts of France. The Gaelic of +Scotland, Erse of Ireland, and the Welsh, are the only living +branches of this sub-family of languages. + +The resemblances amongst languages are of two kinds,--identity of +words, and identity of grammatical forms; the latter being now +generally considered as the most important towards the argument. +When we inquire into the first kind of affinity among the languages +of the Indo-European family, we are surprised at the great number of +common terms which exist amongst them, and these referring to such +primary ideas, as to leave no doubt of their having all been derived +from a common source. Colonel Vans Kennedy presents nine hundred +words common to the Sanskrit and other languages of the same family. +In the Sanskrit and Persian, we find several which require no sort of +translation to an English reader, as pader, mader, sunu, dokhter, +brader, mand, vidhava; likewise asthi, a bone, (Greek, ostoun;) +denta, a tooth, (Latin, dens, dentis;) eyeumen, the eye; brouwa, the +eye-brow, (German, braue;) nasa, the nose; karu, the hand, (Gr. +cheir;) genu, the knee, (Lat. genu;) ped, the foot, (Lat. pes, +pedis;) hrti, the heart; jecur, the liver, (Lat. jecur;) stara, a +star; gela, cold, (Lat. gelu, ice;) aghni, fire, (Lat. ignis;) dhara, +the earth, (Lat. terra, Gaelic, tir;) arrivi, a river; nau, a ship, +(Gr. naus, Lat. navis;) ghau, a cow; sarpam, a serpent. + +The inferences from these verbal coincidences were confirmed in a +striking manner when Bopp and others investigated the grammatical +structure of this family of languages. Dr. Wiseman pronounces that +the great philologist just named, "by a minute and sagacious analysis +of the Sanskrit verb, compared with the conjugational system of the +other members of this family, left no doubt of their intimate and +positive affinity." It was now discovered that the peculiar +terminations or inflections by which persons are expressed throughout +the verbs of nearly the whole of these languages, have their +foundations in pronouns; the pronoun was simply placed at the end, +and thus became an inflexion. "By an analysis of the Sanskrit +pronouns, the elements of those existing in all the other languages +were cleared of their anomalies; the verb substantive, which in Latin +is composed of fragments referable to two distinct roots, here found +both existing in regular form; the Greek conjugations, with all their +complicated machinery of middle voice, augments, and reduplications, +were here found and illustrated in a variety of ways, which a few +years ago would have appeared chimerical. Even our own language may +sometimes receive light from the study of distant members of our +family. Where, for instance, are we to seek for the root of our +comparative BETTER? Certainly not in its positive, good, nor in the +Teutonic dialects in which the same anomaly exists. But in the +Persian we have precisely the same comparative, BEHTER, with exactly +the same signification, regularly formed from its positive beh, +good." {287} + +The second great family is the Syro-Phoenician, comprising the +Hebrew, Syro-Chaldaic, Arabic, and Gheez or Abyssinian, being +localized principally in the countries to the west and south of the +Mediterranean. Beyond them, again, is the African family, which, as +far as research has gone, seems to be in like manner marked by common +features, both verbal and grammatical. The fourth is the Polynesian +family, extending from Madagascar on the west through all the Indian +Archipelago, besides taking in the Malayan dialect from the continent +of India, and comprehending Australia and the islands of the western +portion of the Pacific. This family, however, bears such an affinity +to that next to be described, that Dr. Leyden and some others do not +give it a distinct place as a family of languages. + +The fifth family is the Chinese, embracing a large part of China, and +most of the regions of Central and Northern Asia. The leading +features of the Chinese are, its consisting altogether of +monosyllables, and being destitute of all grammatical forms, except +certain arrangements and accentuations, which vary the sense of +particular words. It is also deficient in some of the consonants +most conspicuous in other languages, b, d, r, v, and z; so that this +people can scarcely pronounce our speech in such a way as to be +intelligible: for example, the word Christus they call Kuliss-ut-oo- +suh. The Chinese, strange to say, though they early attained to a +remarkable degree of civilization, and have preceded the Europeans in +many of the most important inventions, have a language which +resembles that of children, or deaf and dumb people. The sentence of +short, simple, unconnected words, in which an infant amongst us +attempts to express some of its wants and its ideas--the equally +broken and difficult terms which the deaf and dumb express by signs, +as the following passage of the Lord's Prayer: --"Our Father, heaven +in, wish your name respect, wish your soul's kingdom providence +arrive, wish your will do heaven earth equality," &c.--these are like +the discourse of the refined people of the so-called Celestial +Empire. An attempt was made by the Abbe Sicard to teach the deaf and +dumb grammatical signs; but they persisted in restricting themselves +to the simple signs of ideas, leaving the structure undetermined by +any but the natural order of connexion. Such is exactly the +condition of the Chinese language. + +Crossing the Pacific, we come to the last great family in the +languages of the aboriginal Americans, which have all of them +features in common, proving them to constitute a group by themselves, +without any regard to the very different degrees of civilization +which these nations had attained at the time of the discovery. The +common resemblance is in the grammatical structure as well as in +words, and the grammatical structure of this family is of a very +peculiar and complicated kind. The general character in this respect +has caused the term Polysynthetic to be applied to the American +languages. A long many-syllabled word is used by the rude Algonquins +and Delawares to express a whole sentence: for example, a woman of +the latter nation, playing with a little dog or cat, would perhaps be +heard saying, "kuligatschis," meaning, "give me your pretty little +paw;" the word, on examination, is found to be made up in this +manner: k, the second personal pronoun; uli, part of the word wulet, +pretty; gat, part of the word wichgat, signifying a leg or paw; +schis, conveying the idea of littleness. In the same tongue, a youth +is called pilape, a word compounded from the first part of pilsit, +innocent, and the latter part of lenape, a man. Thus, it will be +observed, a number of parts of words are taken and thrown together, +by a process which has been happily termed agglutination, so as to +form one word, conveying a complicated idea. There is also an +elaborate system of inflection; in nouns, for instance, there is one +kind of inflection to express the presence or absence of vitality, +and another to express number. The genius of the language has been +described as accumulative: it "tends rather to add syllables or +letters, making farther distinctions in objects already before the +mind, than to introduce new words." {291} Yet it has also been shewn +very distinctly, that these languages are based in words of one +syllable, like those of the Chinese and Polynesian families; all the +primary ideas are thus expressed: the elaborate system of inflection +and agglutination is shewn to be simply a farther development of the +language-forming principle, as it may be called--or the Chinese +system may be described as an arrestment of this principle at a +particular early point. It has been fully shewn, that between the +structure of the American and other families, sufficient affinities +exist to make a common origin or early connexion extremely likely. +The verbal affinities are also very considerable. Humboldt says, "In +eighty-three American languages examined by Messrs. Barton and Vater, +one hundred and seventy words have been found, the roots of which +appear to be the same; and it is easy to perceive that this analogy +is not accidental, since it does not rest merely upon imitative +harmony, or on that conformity of organs which produces almost a +perfect identity in the first sounds articulated by children. Of +these one hundred and seventy words which have this connexion, three- +fifths resemble the Manchou, the Tongouse, the Mongal, and the +Samoyed; and two-fifths, the Celtic and Tchoud, the Biscayan, the +Coptic, and Congo languages. These words have been found by +comparing the whole of the American languages with the whole of those +of the Old World; for hitherto we are acquainted with no American +idiom which seems to have an exclusive correspondence with any of the +Asiatic, African, or European tongues." {293} Humboldt and others +considered these words as brought into America by recent immigrants; +an idea resting on no proof, and which seems at once refuted by the +common words being chiefly those which represent primary ideas; +besides, we now know, what was not formerly perceived or admitted, +that there are great affinities of structure also. I may here refer +to a curious mathematical calculation by Dr. Thomas Young, to the +effect, that if three words coincide in two different languages, it +is ten to one they must be derived in both cases from some parent +language, or introduced in some other manner. "Six words would give +more," he says, "than seventeen hundred to one, and eight near +100,000, so that in these cases the evidence would be little short of +absolute certainty." He instances the following words to shew a +connexion between the ancient Egyptian and the Biscayan:- + + + BISCAYAN EGYPTIAN. +New Beria Beri. +A dog Ora Whor. +Little Gutchi Kudchi. +Bread Ognia Oik. +A wolf Otgsa Ounsh. +Seven Shashpi Shashf. + + +Now, as there are, according to Humboldt, one hundred and seventy +words in common between the languages of the new and old continents, +and many of these are expressive of the most primitive ideas, there +is, by Dr. Young's calculation, overpowering proof of the original +connexion of the American and other human families. + +This completes the slight outline which I have been able to give, of +the evidence for the various races of men being descended from one +stock. It cannot be considered as conclusive, and there are many +eminent persons who deem the opposite idea the more probable; but I +must say that, without the least regard to any other kind of +evidence, that which physiology and philology present seems to me +decidedly favourable to the idea of a single origin. + +Assuming that the human race is ONE, we are next called upon to +inquire in what part of the earth it may most probably be supposed to +have originated. One obvious mode of approximating to a solution of +this question is to trace backward the lines in which the principal +tribes appear to have migrated, and to see if these converge nearly +to a point. It is very remarkable that the lines do converge, and +are concentrated about the region of Hindostan. The language, +religion, modes of reckoning time, and some other peculiar ideas of +the Americans, are now believed to refer their origin to North- +Eastern Asia. Trace them farther back in the same direction, and we +come to the north of India. The history of the Celts and Teutones +represents them as coming from the east, the one after the other, +successive waves of a tide of population flowing towards the north- +west of Europe: this line being also traced back, rests finally at +the same place. So does the line of Iranian population, which has +peopled the east and south shores of the Mediterranean, Syria, +Arabia, and Egypt. The Malay variety, again, rests its limit in one +direction on the borders of India. Standing on that point, it is +easy to see how the human family, originating there, might spread out +in different directions, passing into varieties of aspect and of +language as they spread, the Malay variety proceeding towards the +Oceanic region, the Mongolians to the east and north, and sending off +the red men as a sub-variety, the European population going off to +the north-westward, and the Syrian, Arabian, and Egyptian, towards +the countries which they are known to have so long occupied. The +Negro alone is here unaccounted for; and of that race it may fairly +be said, that it is the one most likely to have had an independent +origin, seeing that it is a type so peculiar in an inveterate black +colour, and so mean in development. But it is not necessary to +presume such an origin for it, as much good argument might be +employed to shew that it is only a deteriorated offshoot of the +general stock. Our view of the probable original seat of man agrees +with the ancient traditions of the race. There is one among the +Hindoos which places the cradle of the human family in Thibet; +another makes Ceylon the residence of the first man. Our view is +also in harmony with the hypothesis detailed in the chapter before +the last. According to that theory, we should expect man to have +originated where the highest species of the quadrumana are to be +found. Now these are unquestionably found in the Indian Archipelago. + +After all, it may be regarded as still an open question, whether +mankind is of one or many origins. The first human generation may +have consisted of many pairs, though situated at one place, and these +may have been considerably different from each other in external +characters. And we are equally bound to admit, though this does not +as yet seem to have occurred to any other speculator, that there may +have been different lines and sources of origination, geographically +apart, but which all resulted uniformly in the production of a being, +one in species, although variously marked. + +It has of late years been a favourite notion with many, that the +human race was at first in a highly civilized state, and that +barbarism was a second condition. This idea probably took its origin +in a wish to support certain interpretations of the Mosaic record, +and it has never yet been propounded by any writer who seemed to have +a due sense of the value of science in this class of investigations. +The principal argument for it is, that we see many examples of +nations falling away from civilization into barbarism, while in some +regions of the earth, the history of which we do not clearly know, +there are remains of works of art far superior to any which the +present unenlightened inhabitants could have produced. It is to be +readily admitted that such decadences are common; but do they +necessarily prove that there has been anything like a regular and +constant decline into the present state, from a state more generally +refined? May not these be only instances of local failures and +suppressions of the principle of civilization, where it had begun to +take root amongst a people generally barbarous? It is, at least, as +legitimate to draw this inference from the facts which are known. +But it is also alleged that we know of no such thing as civilization +being ever self-originated. It is always seen to be imparted from +one people to another. Hence, of course, we must infer that +civilization at the first could only have been of supernatural +origin. This argument appears to be founded on false premises, for +civilization does sometimes rise in a manner clearly independent +amongst a horde of people generally barbarous. A striking instance +is described in the laborious work of Mr. Catlin on the North- +American tribes. Far placed among those which inhabit the vast +region of the north-west, and quite beyond the reach of any influence +from the whites, he found a small tribe living in a fortified +village, where they cultivated the arts of manufacture, realized +comforts and luxuries, and had attained to a remarkable refinement of +manners, insomuch as to be generally called the polite and friendly +Mandans. They were also more than usually elegant in their persons, +and of every variety of complexion between that of their compatriots +and a pure white. Up to the time of Mr. Catlin's visit, these people +had been able to defend themselves and their possessions against the +roving bands which surrounded them on all sides; but, soon after, +they were attacked by small-pox, which cut them all off except a +small party, whom their enemies rushed in upon and destroyed to a +man. What is this but a repetition on a small scale of phenomena +with which ancient history familiarizes us--a nation rising in arts +and elegances amidst barbarous neighbours, but at length overpowered +by the rude majority, leaving only a Tadmor or a Luxor as a monument +of itself to beautify the waste? What can we suppose the nation +which built Palenque and Copan to have been but only a Mandan tribe, +which chanced to have made its way farther along the path of +civilization and the arts, before the barbarians broke in upon it? +The flame essayed to rise in many parts of the earth; but there were +always considerable chances against it, and down it accordingly went, +times without number; but there was always a vitality in it, +nevertheless, and a tendency to progress, and at length it seems to +have attained a strength against which the powers of barbarism can +never more prevail. The state of our knowledge of uncivilized +nations is very apt to make us fall into error on this subject. They +are generally supposed to be all at one point in barbarism, which is +far from being the case, for in the midst of every great region of +uncivilized men, such as North America, there are nations partially +refined. The Jolofs, Mandingoes, and Kafirs, are African examples, +where a natural and independent origin for the improvement which +exists is as unavoidably to be presumed as in the case of the +Mandans. + +The most conclusive argument against the original civilization of +mankind is to be found in the fact that we do not now see +civilization existing anywhere except in certain conditions +altogether different from any we can suppose' to have existed at the +commencement of our race. To have civilization, it is necessary that +a people should be numerous and closely placed; that they should be +fixed in their habitations, and safe from violent external and +internal disturbance; that a considerable number of them should be +exempt from the necessity of drudging for immediate subsistence. +Feeling themselves at ease about the first necessities of their +nature, including self-preservation, and daily subjected to that +intellectual excitement which society produces, men begin to manifest +what is called civilization; but never in rude and shelterless +circumstances, or when widely scattered. Even men who have been +civilized, when transferred to a wide wilderness, where each has to +work hard and isolatedly for the first requisites of life, soon shew +a retrogression to barbarism: witness the plains of Australia, as +well as the backwoods of Canada and the prairies of Texas. Fixity of +residence and thickening of population are perhaps the prime +requisites for civilization, and hence it will be found that all +civilizations as yet known have taken place in regions physically +limited. That of Egypt arose in a narrow valley hemmed in by deserts +on both sides. That of Greece took its rise in a small peninsula +bounded on the only land side by mountains. Etruria and Rome were +naturally limited regions. Civilizations have taken place at both +the eastern and western extremities of the elder continent--China and +Japan, on the one hand; Germany, Holland, Britain, France, on the +other--while the great unmarked tract between contains nations +decidedly less advanced. Why is this, but because the sea, in both +cases, has imposed limits to further migration, and caused the +population to settle and condense--the conditions most necessary for +social improvement. {302} Even the simple case of the Mandans +affords an illustration of this principle, for Mr. Catlin expressly, +though without the least regard to theory, attributes their +improvement to the fact of their being a small tribe, obliged, by +fear of their more numerous enemies, to SETTLE IN A PERMANENT +VILLAGE, so fortified as to ensure their preservation. "By this +means," says he, "they have advanced farther in the arts of +manufacture, and have supplied their lodges more abundantly with the +comforts and even luxuries of life than any Indian nation I know of. +The consequence of this," he adds, "is that the tribe have taken many +steps ahead of other tribes in MANNERS AND REFINEMENTS." These +conditions can only be regarded as natural laws affecting +civilization, and it might not be difficult, taking them into +account, to predict of any newly settled country its social destiny. +An island like Van Dieman's land might fairly be expected to go on +more rapidly to good manners and sound institutions than a wide +region like Australia. The United States might be expected to make +no great way in civilization till they be fully peopled to the +Pacific; and it might not be unreasonable to expect that, when that +even has occurred, the greatest civilizations of that vast territory +will be found in the peninsula of California and the narrow stripe of +country beyond the Rocky Mountains. This, however, is a digression. +To return: it is also necessary for a civilization that at least a +portion of the community should be placed above mean and engrossing +toils. Man's mind becomes subdued, like the dyer's hand, to that it +works in. In rude and difficult circumstances we unavoidably become +rude, because then only the inferior and harsher faculties of our +nature are called into existence. When, on the contrary, there is +leisure and abundance, the self-seeking and self-preserving instincts +are allowed to rest, the gentler and more generous sentiments are +evoked, and man becomes that courteous and chivalric being which he +is found to be amongst the upper classes of almost all civilized +countries. These, then, may be said to be the chief natural laws +concerned in the moral phenomenon of civilization. If I am right in +so considering them, it will of course be readily admitted that the +earliest families of the human race, although they might be simple +and innocent, could not have been in anything like a civilized state, +seeing that the conditions necessary for that state could not have +then existed. Let us only for a moment consider some of the things +requisite for their being civilized,--namely, a set of elegant homes +ready furnished for their reception, fields ready cultivated to yield +them food without labour, stores of luxurious appliances of all +kinds, a complete social enginery for the securing of life and +property,--and we shall turn from the whole conceit as one worthy +only of the philosophers of Utopia. + +Yet, as has been remarked, the earliest families might be simple and +innocent, while at the same time unskilled and ignorant, and obliged +to live merely upon such substances as they could readily procure. +The traditions of all nations refer to such a state as that in which +mankind were at first: perhaps it is not so much a tradition as an +idea which the human mind naturally inclines to form respecting the +fathers of the race; but nothing that we see of mankind absolutely +forbids our entertaining this idea, while there are some +considerations rather favourable to it. A few families, in a state +of nature, living near each other, in a country supplying the means +of livelihood abundantly, are generally simple and innocent; their +instinctive and perceptive faculties are also apt to be very active, +although the higher intellect may be dormant. If we therefore +presume India to have been the cradle of our race, they might at +first exemplify a sort of golden age; but it could not be of long +continuance. The very first movements from the primal seat would be +attended with degradation, nor could there be any tendency to true +civilization till groups had settled and thickened in particular +seats physically limited. + +The probability may now be assumed that the human race sprung from +one stock, which was at first in a state of simplicity, if not +barbarism. As yet we have not seen very distinctly how the various +branches of the family, as they parted off, and took up separate +ground, became marked by external features so peculiar. Why are the +Africans black, and generally marked by coarse features and ungainly +forms? Why are the Mongolians generally yellow, the Americans red, +the Caucasians white? Why the flat features of the Chinese, the +small stature of the Laps, the soft round forms of the English, the +lank features of their descendants, the Americans? All of these +phenomena appear, in a word, to be explicable on the ground of +DEVELOPMENT. We have already seen that various leading animal forms +represent stages in the embryotic progress of the highest--the human +being. Our brain goes through the various stages of a fish's, a +reptile's, and a mammifer's brain, and finally becomes human. There +is more than this, for, after completing the animal transformations, +it passes through the characters in which it appears, in the Negro, +Malay, American, and Mongolian nations, and finally is Caucasian. +The face partakes of these alterations. "One of the earliest points +in which ossification commences is the lower jaw. This bone is +consequently sooner completed than the other bones of the head, and +acquires a predominance, which, as is well known, it never loses in +the Negro. During the soft pliant state of the bones of the skull, +the oblong form which they naturally assume, approaches nearly the +permanent shape of the Americans. At birth, the flattened face, and +broad smooth forehead of the infant, the position of the eyes rather +towards the side of the head, and the widened space between, +represent the Mongolian form; while it is only as the child advances +to maturity, that the oval face, the arched forehead, and the marked +features of the true Caucasian, become perfectly developed." {307a} +THE LEADING CHARACTERS, IN SHORT, OF THE VARIOUS RACES OF MANKIND, +ARE SIMPLY REPRESENTATIONS OF PARTICULAR STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF +THE HIGHEST OR CAUCASIAN TYPE. The Negro exhibits permanently the +imperfect brain, projecting lower jaw, and slender bent limbs, of a +Caucasian child, some considerable time before the period of its +birth. The aboriginal American represents the same child nearer +birth. The Mongolian is an arrested infant newly born. And so +forth. All this is as respects form; {307b} but whence colour? This +might be supposed to have depended on climatal agencies only; but it +has been shewn by overpowering evidence to be independent of these. +In further considering the matter, we are met by the very remarkable +fact that colour is deepest in the least perfectly developed type, +next in the Malay, next in the American, next in the Mongolian, the +very order in which the degrees of development are ranged. MAY NOT +COLOUR, THEN, DEPEND UPON DEVELOPMENT ALSO? We do not, indeed, see +that a Caucasian foetus at the stage which the African represents is +anything like black; neither is a Caucasian child yellow, like the +Mongolian. There may, nevertheless, be a character of skin at a +certain stage of development which is predisposed to a particular +colour when it is presented as the envelope of a mature being. +Development being arrested at so immature a stage in the case of the +Negro, the skin may take on the colour as an unavoidable consequence +of its imperfect organization. It is favourable to this view, that +Negro infants are not deeply black at first, but only acquire the +full colour tint after exposure for some time to the atmosphere. +Another consideration in its favour is that there is a likelihood of +peculiarities of form and colour, since they are so coincident, +depending on one set of phenomena. If it be admitted as true, there +can be no difficulty in accounting for all the varieties of mankind. +They are simply the result of so many advances and retrogressions in +the developing power of the human mothers, these advances and +retrogressions being, as we have formerly seen, the immediate effect +of external conditions in nutrition, hardship, &c., {309} and also, +perhaps, to some extent, of the suitableness and unsuitableness of +marriages, for it is found that parents too nearly related tend to +produce offspring of the Mongolian type,--that is, persons who in +maturity still are a kind of children. According to this view, the +greater part of the human race must be considered as having lapsed or +declined from the original type. In the Caucasian or Indo-European +family alone has the primitive organization been improved upon. The +Mongolian, Malay, American, and Negro, comprehending perhaps five- +sixths of mankind, are degenerate. Strange that the great plan +should admit of failures and aberrations of such portentous +magnitude! But pause and reflect; take time into consideration: the +past history of mankind may be, to what is to come, but as a day. +Look at the progress even now making over the barbaric parts of the +earth by the best examples of the Caucasian type, promising not only +to fill up the waste places, but to supersede the imperfect nations +already existing. Who can tell what progress may be made, even in a +single century, towards reversing the proportions of the perfect and +imperfect types? and who can tell but that the time during which the +mean types have lasted, long as it appears, may yet be thrown +entirely into the shade by the time during which the best types will +remain predominant? + +We have seen that the traces of a common origin in all languages +afford a ground of presumption for the unity of the human race. They +establish a still stronger probability that mankind had not yet begun +to disperse before they were possessed of a means of communicating +their ideas by conventional sounds--in short, speech. This is a gift +so peculiar to man, and in itself so remarkable, that there is a +great inclination to surmise a miraculous origin for it, although +there is no proper ground, or even support, for such an idea in +Scripture, while it is clearly opposed to everything else that we +know with regard to the providential arrangements for the creation of +our race. Here, as in many other cases, a little observation of +nature might have saved much vain discussion. The real character of +language itself has not been thoroughly understood. Language, in its +most comprehensive sense, is the communication of ideas by whatever +means. Ideas can be communicated by looks, gestures, and signs of +various other kinds, as well as by speech. The inferior animals +possess some of those means of communicating ideas, and they have +likewise a silent and unobservable mode of their own, the nature of +which is a complete mystery to us, though we are assured of its +reality by its effects. Now, as the inferior animals were all in +being before man, there was language upon earth long ere the history +of our race commenced. The only additional fact in the history of +language, which was produced by our creation, was the rise of a new +mode of expression--namely, that by SOUND-SIGNS produced by the vocal +organs. In other words, speech was the only novelty in this respect +attending the creation of the human race. No doubt it was an +addition of great importance, for, in comparison with it, the other +natural modes of communicating ideas sink into insignificance. +Still, the main and fundamental phenomenon, language, as the +communication of ideas, was no new gift of the Creator to man; and in +speech itself, when we judge of it as a natural fact, we see only a +result of some of those superior endowments of which so many others +have fallen to our lot through the medium of an improved or advanced +organization. + +The first and most obvious natural endowment concerned in speech is +that peculiar organization of the larynx, trachea, and mouth, which +enables us to produce the various sounds required in the case. Man +started at first with this organization ready for use, a constitution +of the atmosphere adapted for the sounds which that organization was +calculated to produce, and, lastly, but not leastly, as will +afterwards be more particularly shewn, a mental power within, +prompting to, and giving directions for, the expression of ideas. +Such an arrangement of mutually adapted things was as likely to +produce sounds as an Eolian harp placed in a draught is to produce +tones. It was unavoidable that human beings so organized, and in +such a relation to external nature, should utter sounds, and also +come to attach to these conventional meanings, thus forming the +elements of spoken language. The great difficulty which has been +felt was to account for man going in this respect beyond the inferior +animals. There could have been no such difficulty if speculators in +this class of subjects had looked into physiology for an account of +the superior vocal organization of man, and had they possessed a true +science of mind to shew man possessing a faculty for the expression +of ideas which is only rudimental in the lower animals. Another +difficulty has been in the consideration that, if men were at first +utterly untutored and barbarous, they could scarcely be in a +condition to form or employ language--an instrument which it requires +the fullest powers of thought to analyse and speculate upon. But +this difficulty also vanishes upon reflection--for, in the first +place, we are not bound to suppose the fathers of our race early +attaining to great proficiency in language, and, in the second, +language itself seems to be amongst the things least difficult to be +acquired, if we can form any judgment from what we see in children, +most of whom have, by three years of age, while their information and +judgment are still as nothing, mastered and familiarized themselves +with a quantity of words, infinitely exceeding in proportion what +they acquire in the course of any subsequent similar portion of time. + +Discussions as to which parts of speech were first formed, and the +processes by which grammatical structure and inflections took their +rise, appear in a great measure needless, after the matter has been +placed in this light. The mental powers could readily connect +particular arbitrary sounds with particular ideas, whether those +ideas were nouns, verbs, or interjections. As the words of all +languages can be traced back into roots which are monosyllables, we +may presume these sounds to have all been monosyllabic accordingly. +The clustering of two or more together to express a compound idea, +and the formation of inflections by additional syllables expressive +of pronouns and such prepositions as of, by, and to, are processes +which would or might occur as matters of course, being simple results +of a mental power called into action, and partly directed, by +external necessities. This power, however, as we find it in very +different degrees of endowment in individuals, so would it be in +different degrees of endowment in nations, or branches of the human +family. Hence we find the formation of words and the process of +their composition and grammatical arrangement, in very different +stages of development in different races. The Chinese have a +language composed of a limited number of monosyllables, which they +multiply in use by mere variations of accent, and which they have +never yet attained the power of clustering or inflecting; the +language of this immense nation--the third part of the human race-- +may be said to be in the condition of infancy. The aboriginal +Americans, so inferior in civilization, have, on the other hand, a +language of the most elaborately composite kind, perhaps even +exceeding, in this respect, the languages of the most refined +European nations. These are but a few out of many facts tending to +shew that language is in a great measure independent of civilization, +as far as its advance and development are concerned. Do they not +also help to prove that cultivated intellect is not necessary for the +origination of language? + +Facts daily presented to our observation afford equally simple +reasons for the almost infinite diversification of language. It is +invariably found that, wherever society is at once dense and refined, +language tends to be uniform throughout the whole population, and to +undergo few changes in the course of time. Wherever, on the +contrary, we have a scattered and barbarous people, we have great +diversities, and comparatively rapid alterations of language. +Insomuch that, while English, French, and German are each spoken with +little variation by many millions, there are islands in the Indian +archipelago, probably not inhabited by one million, but in which +there are hundreds of languages, as diverse as are English, French, +and German. It is easy to see how this should be. There are +peculiarities in the vocal organization of every person, tending to +produce peculiarities of pronunciation; for example, it has been +stated that each child in a family of six gave the monosyllable, fly, +in a different manner, (eye, fy, ly, &c.) until, when the organs were +more advanced, correct example induced the proper pronunciation of +this and similar words. Such departures from orthoepy are only to be +checked by the power of such example; but this is a power not always +present, or not always of sufficient strength. The able and self- +devoted Robert Moffat, in his work on South Africa, states, without +the least regard to hypothesis, that amongst the people of the towns +of that great region, "the purity and harmony of language is kept up +by their pitchos or public meetings, by their festivals and +ceremonies, as well as by their songs and their constant intercourse. +With the isolated villages of the desert it is far otherwise. They +have no such meetings; they are compelled to traverse the wilds, +often to a great distance from their native village. On such +occasions, fathers and mothers, and all who can bear a burden, often +set out for weeks at a time, and leave their children to the care of +two or three infirm old people. The infant progeny, some of whom are +beginning to lisp, while others can just master a whole sentence, and +those still farther advanced, romping and playing together, the +children of nature, through the live-long day, BECOME HABITUATED TO A +LANGUAGE OF THEIR OWN. The more voluble condescend to the less +precocious, and thus, from this infant Babel, proceeds a dialect +composed of a host of mongrel words and phrases, joined together +without rule, and IN THE COURSE OF A GENERATION THE ENTIRE CHARACTER +OF THE LANGUAGE IS CHANGED." {317} I have been told, that in like +manner the children of the Manchester factory workers, left for a +great part of the day, in large assemblages, under the care of +perhaps a single elderly person, and spending the time in amusements, +are found to make a great deal of new language. I have seen children +in other circumstances amuse themselves by concocting and throwing +into the family circulation entirely new words; and I believe I am +running little risk of contradiction when I say that there is +scarcely a family, even amongst the middle classes of this country, +who have not some peculiarities of pronunciation and syntax, which +have originated amongst themselves, it is hardly possible to say how. +All these things being considered, it is easy to understand how +mankind have come at length to possess between three and four +thousand languages, all different at least as much as French, German, +and English, though, as has been shewn, the traces of a common origin +are observable in them all. + +What has been said on the question whether mankind were originally +barbarous or civilized, will have prepared the reader for +understanding how the arts and sciences, and the rudiments of +civilization itself, took their rise amongst men. The only source of +fallacious views on this subject is the so frequent observation of +arts, sciences, and social modes, forms, and ideas, being not +indigenous where we see them now flourishing, but known to have been +derived elsewhere: thus Rome borrowed from Greece, Greece from +Egypt, and Egypt itself, lost in the mists of historic antiquity, is +now supposed to have obtained the light of knowledge from some still +earlier scene of intellectual culture. This has caused to many a +great difficulty in supposing a natural or spontaneous origin for +civilization and the attendant arts. But, in the first place, +several stages of derivation are no conclusive argument against there +having been an originality at some earlier stage. In the second, +such observers have not looked far enough, for, if they had, they +could have seen various instances of civilizations which it is +impossible, with any plausibility, to trace back to a common origin +with others; such are those of China and America. They would also +have seen civilization springing up, as it were, like oases amongst +the arid plains of barbarism, as in the case of the Mandans. A still +more attentive study of the subject would have shewn, amongst living +men, the very psychological procedure on which the origination of +civilization and the arts and sciences depended. + +These things, like language, are simply the effects of the +spontaneous working of certain mental faculties, each in relation to +the things of the external world on which it was intended by creative +Providence to be exercised. The monkeys themselves, without +instruction from any quarter, learn to use sticks in fighting, and +some build houses--an act which cannot in their case be considered as +one of instinct, but of intelligence. Such being the case, there is +no necessary difficulty in supposing how man, with his superior +mental organization, (a brain five times heavier,) was able, in his +primitive state, without instruction, to turn many things in nature +to his use, and commence, in short, the circle of the domestic arts. +He appears, in the most unfavourable circumstances, to be able to +provide himself with some sort of dwelling, to make weapons, and to +practise some simple kind of cookery. But, granting, it will be +said, that he can go thus far, how does he ever proceed farther +unprompted, seeing that many nations remain fixed for ever at this +point, and seem unable to take one step in advance? It is perfectly +true that there is such a fixation in many nations; but, on the other +hand, all nations are not alike in mental organization, and another +point has been established, that only when some favourable +circumstances have settled a people in one place, do arts and social +arrangements get leave to flourish. If we were to limit our view to +humbly endowed nations, or the common class of minds in those called +civilized, we should see absolutely no conceivable power for the +origination of new ideas and devices. But let us look at the +inventive class of minds which stand out amongst their fellows--the +men who, with little prompting or none, conceive new ideas in +science, arts, morals--and we can be at no loss to understand how and +whence have arisen the elements of that civilization which history +traces from country to country throughout the course of centuries. +See a Pascal, reproducing the Alexandrian's problems at fifteen; a +Ferguson, making clocks from the suggestions of his own brain, while +tending cattle on a Morayshire heath; a boy Lawrence, in an inn on +the Bath road, producing, without a master, drawings which the +educated could not but admire; or look at Solon and Confucius, +devising sage laws, and breathing the accents of all but divine +wisdom, for their barbarous fellow-countrymen, three thousand years +ago--and the whole mystery is solved at once. Amongst the +arrangements of Providence is one for the production of original, +inventive, and aspiring minds, which, when circumstances are not +decidedly unfavourable, strike out new ideas for the benefit of their +fellow-creatures, or put upon them a lasting impress of their own +superior sentiments. Nations, improved by these means, become in +turn foci for the diffusion of light over the adjacent regions of +barbarism--their very passions helping to this end, for nothing can +be more clear than that ambitious aggression has led to the +civilization of many countries. Such is the process which seems to +form the destined means for bringing mankind from the darkness of +barbarism to the day of knowledge and mechanical and social +improvement. Even the noble art of letters is but, as Dr. Adam +Fergusson has remarked, "a natural produce of the human mind, which +will rise spontaneously, wherever men are happily placed;" original +alike amongst the ancient Egyptians and the dimly monumented +Toltecans of Yucatan. "Banish," says Dr. Gall, "music, poetry, +painting, sculpture, architecture, all the arts and sciences, and let +your Homers, Raphaels, Michael Angelos, Glucks, and Canovas, be +forgotten, yet let men of genius of every description spring up, and +poetry, music, painting, architecture, sculpture, and all the arts +and sciences will again shine out in all their glory. Twice within +the records of history has the human race traversed the great circle +of its entire destiny, and twice has the rudeness of barbarism been +followed by a higher degree of refinement. It is a great mistake to +suppose one people to have proceeded from another on account of their +conformity of manners, customs, and arts. The swallow of Paris +builds its nest like the swallow of Vienna, but does it thence follow +that the former sprung from the latter? With the same causes we have +the same effects; with the same organization we have the +manifestation of the same powers." + + + +MENTAL CONSTITUTION OF ANIMALS. + + + +It has been one of the most agreeable tasks of modern science to +trace the wonderfully exact adaptations of the organization of +animals to the physical circumstances amidst which they are destined +to live. From the mandibles of insects to the hand of man, all is +seen to be in the most harmonious relation to the things of the +outward world, thus clearly proving that DESIGN presided in the +creation of the whole--design again implying a designer, another word +for a CREATOR. + +It would be tiresome to present in this place even a selection of the +proofs which have been adduced on this point. The Natural Theology +of Paley, and the Bridgewater Treatises, place the subject in so +clear a light, that the general postulate may be taken for granted. +The physical constitution of animals is, then, to be regarded as in +the nicest congruity and adaptation to the external world. + +Less clear ideas have hitherto been entertained on the mental +constitution of animals. The very nature of this constitution is not +as yet generally known or held as ascertained. There is, indeed, a +notion of old standing, that the mind is in some way connected with +the brain; but the metaphysicians insist that it is, in reality, +known only by its acts or effects, and they accordingly present the +subject in a form which is unlike any other kind of science, for it +does not so much as pretend to have nature for its basis. There is a +general disinclination to regard mind in connexion with organization, +from a fear that this must needs interfere with the cherished +religious doctrine of the spirit of man, and lower him to the level +of the brutes. A distinction is therefore drawn between our mental +manifestations and those of the lower animals, the latter being +comprehended under the term instinct, while ours are collectively +described as mind, mind being again a received synonyme with soul, +the immortal part of man. There is here a strange system of +confusion and error, which it is most imprudent to regard as +essential to religion, since candid investigations of nature tend to +shew its untenableness. There is, in reality, nothing to prevent our +regarding man as specially endowed with an immortal spirit, at the +same time that his ordinary mental manifestations are looked upon as +simple phenomena resulting from organization, those of the lower +animals being phenomena absolutely the same in character, though +developed within much narrower limits. {326} + +What has chiefly tended to take mind, in the eyes of learned and +unlearned, out of the range of nature, is its apparently irregular +and wayward character. How different the manifestations in different +beings! how unstable in all!--at one time so calm, at another so wild +and impulsive! It seemed impossible that anything so subtle and +aberrant could be part of a system, the main features of which are +regularity and precision. But the irregularity of mental phenomena +is only in appearance. When we give up the individual, and take the +mass, we find as much uniformity of result as in any other class of +natural phenomena. The irregularity is exactly of the same kind as +that of the weather. No man can say what may be the weather of to- +morrow; but the quantity of rain which falls in any particular place +in any five years, is precisely the same as the quantity which falls +in any other five years at the same place. Thus, while it is +absolutely impossible to predict of any one Frenchman that during +next year he will commit a crime, it is quite certain that about one +in every six hundred and fifty of the French people will do so, +because in past years the proportion has generally been about that +amount, the tendencies to crime in relation to the temptations being +everywhere invariable over a sufficiently wide range of time. So +also, the number of persons taken in charge by the police in London +for being drunk and disorderly on the streets, is, week by week, a +nearly uniform quantity, shewing that the inclination to drink to +excess is always in the mass about the same, regard being had to the +existing temptations or stimulations to this vice. Even mistakes and +oversights are of regular recurrence, for it is found in the post- +offices of large cities, that the number of letters put in without +addresses is year by year the same. Statistics has made out an +equally distinct regularity in a wide range, with regard to many +other things concerning the mind, and the doctrine founded upon it +has lately produced a scheme which may well strike the ignorant with +surprise. It was proposed to establish in London a society for +ensuring the integrity of clerks, secretaries, collectors, and all +such functionaries as are usually obliged to find security for money +passing through their hands in the course of business. A gentleman +of the highest character as an actuary spoke of the plan in the +following terms:- "If a thousand bankers' clerks were to club +together to indemnify their securities, by the payment of one pound a +year each, and if each had given security for 500l., it is obvious +that two in each year might become defaulters to that amount, four to +half the amount, and so on, without rendering the guarantee fund +insolvent. If it be tolerably well ascertained that the instances of +dishonesty (yearly) among such persons amount to one in five hundred, +this club would continue to exist, subject to being in debt in a bad +year, to an amount which it would be able to discharge in good ones. +The only question necessary to be asked previous to the formation of +such a club would be,--may it not be feared that the motive to resist +dishonesty would be lessened by the existence of the club, or that +ready-made rogues, by belonging to it, might find the means of +obtaining situations which they would otherwise have been kept out of +by the impossibility of obtaining security among those who know them? +Suppose this be sufficiently answered by saying, that none but those +who could bring satisfactory testimony to their previous good +character should be allowed to join the club; that persons who may +now hope that a deficiency on their parts will be made up and hushed +up by the relative or friend who is security, will know very well +that the club will have no motive to decline a prosecution, or to +keep the secret, and so on. It then only remains to ask, whether the +sum demanded for the guarantee is sufficient?" {331} The +philosophical principle on which the scheme proceeds, seems to be +simply this, that, amongst a given (large) number of persons of good +character, there will be, within a year or other considerable space +of time, a determinate number of instances in which moral principle +and the terror of the consequences of guilt will be overcome by +temptations of a determinate kind and amount, and thus occasion a +certain periodical amount of loss which the association must make up. + +This statistical regularity in moral affairs fully establishes their +being under the presidency of law. Man is now seen to be an enigma +only as an individual; in the mass he is a mathematical problem. It +is hardly necessary to say, much less to argue, that mental action, +being proved to be under law, passes at once into the category of +natural things. Its old metaphysical character vanishes in a moment, +and the distinction usually taken between physical and moral is +annulled, as only an error in terms. This view agrees with what all +observation teaches, that mental phenomena flow directly from the +brain. They are seen to be dependent on naturally constituted and +naturally conditioned organs, and thus obedient, like all other +organic phenomena, to law. And how wondrous must the constitution of +this apparatus be, which gives us consciousness of thought and of +affection, which makes us familiar with the numberless things of +earth, and enables us to rise in conception and communion to the +councils of God himself! It is matter which forms the medium or +instrument--a little mass which, decomposed, is but so much common +dust; yet in its living constitution, designed, formed, and sustained +by Almighty Wisdom, how admirable its character! how reflective of +the unutterable depths of that Power by which it was so formed, and +is so sustained! + +In the mundane economy, mental action takes its place as a means of +providing for the independent existence and the various relations of +animals, each species being furnished according to its special +necessities and the demands of its various relations. The nervous +system--the more comprehensive term for its organic apparatus--is +variously developed in different classes and species, and also in +different individuals, the volume or mass bearing a general relation +to the amount of power. In the mollusca and crustacea we see simply +a ganglionic cord pervading the extent of the body, and sending out +lateral filaments. In the vertebrata, we find a brain with a spinal +cord, and branching lines of nervous tissue. {333} But here, as in +the general structure of animals, the great principle of unity is +observed. The brain of the vertebrata is merely an expansion of one +of the ganglions of the nervous cord of the mollusca and crustacea. +Or the corresponding ganglion of the mollusca and crustacea may be +regarded as the rudiment of a brain; the superior organ thus +appearing as only a farther development of the inferior. There are +many facts which tend to prove that the action of this apparatus is +of an electric nature, a modification of that surprising agent, which +takes magnetism, heat, and light, as other subordinate forms, and of +whose general scope in this great system of things we are only +beginning to have a right conception. It has been found that simple +electricity, artificially produced, and sent along the nerves of a +dead body, excites muscular action. The brain of a newly-killed +animal being taken out, and replaced by a substance which produces +electric action, the operation of digestion, which had been +interrupted by the death of the animal, was resumed, shewing the +absolute identity of the brain with a galvanic battery. Nor is this +a very startling idea, when we reflect that electricity is almost as +metaphysical as ever mind was supposed to be. It is a thing +perfectly intangible, weightless. Metal may be magnetized, or heated +to seven hundred of Fahrenheit, without becoming the hundredth part +of a grain heavier. And yet electricity is a real thing, an actual +existence in nature, as witness the effects of heat and light in +vegetation--the power of the galvanic current to re-assemble the +particles of copper from a solution, and make them again into a solid +plate--the rending force of the thunderbolt as it strikes the oak; +see also how both heat and light observe the angle of incidence in +reflection, as exactly as does the grossest stone thrown obliquely +against a wall. So mental action may be imponderable, intangible, +and yet a real existence, and ruled by the Eternal through his laws. +{335} + +Common observation shews a great general superiority of the human +mind over that of the inferior animals. Man's mind is almost +infinite in device; it ranges over all the world; it forms the most +wonderful combinations; it seeks back into the past, and stretches +forward into the future; while the animals generally appear to have a +narrow range of thought and action. But so also has an infant but a +limited range, and yet it is mind which works there, as well as in +the most accomplished adults. The difference between mind in the +lower animals and in man is a difference in degree only; it is not a +specific difference. All who have studied animals by actual +observation, and even those who have given a candid attention to the +subject in books, must attain more or less clear convictions of this +truth, notwithstanding all the obscurity which prejudice may have +engendered. We see animals capable of affection, jealousy, envy; we +see them quarrel, and conduct quarrels, in the very manner pursued by +the more impulsive of our own race. We see them liable to flattery, +inflated with pride, and dejected by shame. We see them as tender to +their young as human parents are, and as faithful to a trust as the +most conscientious of human servants. The horse is startled by +marvellous objects, as a man is. The dog and many others shew +tenacious memory. The dog also proves himself possessed of +imagination, by the act of dreaming. Horses, finding themselves in +want of a shoe, have of their own accord gone to a farrier's shop +where they were shod before. Cats, closed up in rooms, will +endeavour to obtain their liberation by pulling a latch or ringing a +bell. It has several times been observed that in a field of cattle, +when one or two were mischievous, and persisted long in annoying or +tyrannizing over the rest, the herd, to all appearance, consulted, +and then, making a united effort, drove the troublers off the ground. +The members of a rookery have also been observed to take turns in +supplying the needs of a family reduced to orphanhood. All of these +are acts of reason, in no respect different from similar acts of men. +Moreover, although there is no heritage of accumulated knowledge +amongst the lower animals, as there is amongst us, they are in some +degree susceptible of those modifications of natural character, and +capable of those accomplishments, which we call education. The +taming and domestication of animals, and the changes thus produced +upon their nature in the course of generations, are results identical +with civilization amongst ourselves; and the quiet, servile steer is +probably as unlike the original wild cattle of this country, as the +English gentleman of the present day is unlike the rude baron of the +age of King John. Between a young, unbroken horse, and a trained +one, there is, again, all the difference which exists between a wild +youth reared at his own discretion in the country, and the same +person when he has been toned down by long exposure to the influences +of refined society. On the accomplishments acquired by animals it +were superfluous to enter at any length; but I may advert to the dogs +of M. Leonard, as remarkable examples of what the animal intellect +may be trained to. When four pieces of card are laid down before +them, each having a number pronounced ONCE in connexion with it, they +will, after a re-arrangement of the pieces, select any one named by +its number. They also play at dominoes, and with so much skill as to +triumph over biped opponents, whining if the adversary place a wrong +piece, or if they themselves be deficient in a right one. Of +extensive combinations of thought we have no reason to believe that +any animal is capable--and yet most of us must feel the force of +Walter Scott's remark, that there was scarcely anything which he +would not believe of a dog. There is a curious result of education +in certain animals, namely, that habits to which they have been +trained in some instances become hereditary. For example, the +accomplishment of pointing at game, although a pure result of +education, appears in the young pups brought up apart from their +parents and kind. The peculiar leap of the Irish horse, acquired in +the course of traversing a boggy country, is continued in the progeny +brought up in England. This hereditariness of specific habits +suggests a relation to that form of psychological demonstration +usually called instinct; but instinct is only another term for mind, +or is mind in a peculiar stage of development; and though the fact +were otherwise, it could not affect the postulate, that +demonstrations such as have been enumerated are mainly intellectual +demonstrations, not to be distinguished as such from those of human +beings. + +More than this, the lower animals manifested mental phenomena long +before man existed. While as yet there was no brain capable of +working out a mathematical problem, the economy of the six-sided +figure was exemplified by the instinct of the bee. Ere human +musician had whistled or piped, the owl hooted in B flat, the cuckoo +had her song of a falling third, and the chirp of the cricket was in +B. The dog and the elephant prefigured the sagacity of the human +mind. The love of a human mother for her babe was anticipated by +nearly every humbler mammal, the carnaria not excepted. The peacock +strutted, the turkey blustered, and the cock fought for victory, just +as human beings afterwards did, and still do. Our faculty of +imitation, on which so much of our amusement depends, was exercised +by the mocking-bird; and the whole tribe of monkeys must have walked +about the pre-human world, playing off those tricks in which we see +the comicality and mischief-making of our character so curiously +exaggerated. + +The unity and simplicity which characterize nature give great +antecedent probability to what observation seems about to establish, +that, as the brain of the vertebrata generally is just an advanced +condition of a particular ganglion in the mollusca and crustacea, so +are the brains of the higher and more intelligent mammalia only +farther developments of the brains of the inferior orders of the same +class. Or, to the same purpose, it may be said, that each species +has certain superior developments, according to its needs, while +others are in a rudimental or repressed state. This will more +clearly appear after some inquiry has been made into the various +powers comprehended under the term mind. + +One of the first and simplest functions of mind is to give +consciousness--consciousness of our identity and of our existence. +This, apparently, is independent of the SENSES, which are simply +media, and, as Locke has shewn, the only media, through which ideas +respecting the external world reach the brain. The access of such +ideas to the brain is the act to which the metaphysicians have given +the name of perception. Gall, however, has shewn, by induction from +a vast number of actual cases, that there is a part of the brain +devoted to perception, and that even this is subdivided into portions +which are respectively dedicated to the reception of different sets +of ideas, as those of form, size, colour, weight, objects in their +totality, events in their progress or occurrence, time, musical +sounds, &c. The system of mind invented by this philosopher--the +only one founded upon nature, or which even pretends to or admits of +that necessary basis--shews a portion of the brain acting as a +faculty of comic ideas, another of imitation, another of wonder, one +for discriminating or observing differences, and another in which +resides the power of tracing effects to causes. There are also parts +of the brain for the sentimental part of our nature, or the +affections, at the head of which stand the moral feelings of +benevolence, conscientiousness, and veneration. Through these, man +stands in relation to himself, his fellow-men, the external world, +and his God; and through these comes most of the happiness of man's +life, as well as that which he derives from the contemplation of the +world to come, and the cultivation of his relation to it, (pure +religion.) The other sentiments may be briefly enumerated, their +names being sufficient in general to denote their functions-- +firmness, hope, cautiousness, self-esteem, love of approbation, +secretiveness, marvellousness, constructiveness, imitation, +combativeness, destructiveness, concentrativeness, adhesiveness, love +of the opposite sex, love of offspring, alimentiveness, and love of +life. Through these faculties, man is connected with the external +world, and supplied with active impulses to maintain his place in it +as an individual and as a species. There is also a faculty, +(language) for expressing, by whatever means, (signs, gestures, +looks, conventional terms in speech,) the ideas which arise in the +mind. There is a particular state of each of these faculties, when +the ideas of objects once formed by it are revived or reproduced, a +process which seems to be intimately allied with some of the +phenomena of the new science of photography, when images impressed by +reflection of the sun's rays upon sensitive paper are, after a +temporary obliteration, resuscitated on the sheet being exposed to +the fumes of mercury. Such are the phenomena of memory, that +handmaid of intellect, without which there could be no accumulation +of mental capital, but an universal and continual infancy. +Conception and imagination appear to be only intensities, so to +speak, of the state of brain in which memory is produced. On their +promptness and power depend most of the exertions which distinguish +the man of arts and letters, and even in no small measure the +cultivator of science. + +The faculties above described--the actual elements of the mental +constitution--are seen in mature man in an indefinite potentiality +and range of action. It is different with the lower animals. They +are there comparatively definite in their power and restricted in +their application. The reader is familiar with what are called +instincts in some of the humbler species, that is, an uniform and +unprompted tendency towards certain particular acts, as the building +of cells by the bee, the storing of provisions by that insect and +several others, and the construction of nests for a coming progeny by +birds. This quality is nothing more than a mode of operation +peculiar to the faculties in a humble state of endowment, or early +stage of development. The cell formation of the bee, the house- +building of ants and beavers, the web-spinning of spiders, are but +primitive exercises of constructiveness, the faculty which, +indefinite with us, leads to the arts of the weaver, upholsterer, +architect, and mechanist, and makes us often work delightedly where +our labours are in vain, or nearly so. The storing of provisions by +the ants is an exercise of acquisitiveness,--the faculty which with +us makes rich men and misers. A vast number of curious devices, by +which insects provide for the protection and subsistence of their +young, whom they are perhaps never to see, are most probably a +peculiar restricted effort of philoprogenitiveness. The common +source of this class of acts, and of common mental operations, is +shewn very convincingly by the melting of the one set into the other. +Thus, for example, the bee and bird will make modifications in the +ordinary form of their cells and nests when necessity compels them. +Thus, the alimentiveness of such animals as the dog, usually definite +with regard to quantity and quality, can be pampered or educated up +to a kind of epicurism, that is, an indefiniteness of object and +action. The same faculty acts limitedly in ourselves at first, +dictating the special act of sucking; afterwards it acquires +indefiniteness. Such is the real nature of the distinction between +what are called instincts and reason, upon which so many volumes have +been written without profit to the world. All faculties are +instinctive, that is, dependent on internal and inherent impulses. +This term is therefore not specially applicable to either of the +recognised modes of the operation of the faculties. We only, in the +one case, see the faculty in an immature and slightly developed +state; in the other, in its most advanced condition. In the one case +it is DEFINITE, in the other INDEFINITE, in its range of action. +These terms would perhaps be the most suitable for expressing the +distinction. + +In the humblest forms of being we can trace scarcely anything besides +a definite action in a few of the faculties. Generally speaking, as +we ascend in the scale, we see more and more of the faculties in +exercise, and these tending more to the indefinite mode of +manifestation. And for this there is the obvious reason in +providence, that the lowest animals have all of them a very limited +sphere of existence, born only to perform a few functions, and enjoy +a brief term of life, and then give way to another generation, so +that they do not need much mental guidance. At higher points in the +scale, the sphere of existence is considerably extended, and the +mental operations are less definite accordingly. The horse, dog, and +a few other rasorial types, noted for their serviceableness to our +race, have the indefinite powers in no small endowment. Man, again, +shews very little of the definite mode of operation, and that little +chiefly in childhood, or in barbarism or idiocy. Destined for a wide +field of action, and to be applicable to infinitely varied +contingencies, he has all the faculties developed to a high pitch of +indefiniteness, that he may be ready to act well in all imaginable +cases. His commission, it may be said, gives large discretionary +powers, while that of the inferior animals is limited to a few +precise directions. But when the human brain is congenitally +imperfect or diseased, or when it is in the state of infancy, we see +in it an approach towards the character of the brains of some of the +inferior animals. Dr. G. J. Davey states that he has frequently +witnessed, among his patients at the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, +indications of a particular abnormal cerebration which forcibly +reminded him of the specific healthy characteristics of animals lower +in the scale of organization; {346} and every one must have observed +how often the actions of children, especially in their moments of +play, and where their selfish feelings are concerned, bear a +resemblance to those of certain familiar animals. {347} Behold, +then, the wonderful unity of the whole system. The grades of mind, +like the forms of being, are mere stages of development. In the +humbler forms, but a few of the mental faculties are traceable, just +as we see in them but a few of the lineaments of universal structure. +In man the system has arrived at its highest condition. The few +gleams of reason, then, which we see in the lower animals, are +precisely analogous to such a development of the fore-arm as we find +in the paddle of the whale. Causality, comparison, and other of the +nobler faculties, are in them RUDIMENTAL. + +Bound up as we thus are by an identity in the character of our mental +organization with the lower animals, we are yet, it will be observed, +strikingly distinguished from them by this great advance in +development. We have faculties in full force and activity which the +animals either possess not at all, or in so low and obscure a form as +to be equivalent to non-existence. Now these parts of mind are those +which connect us with the things that are not of this world. We have +veneration, prompting us to the worship of the Deity, which the +animals lack. We have hope, to carry us on in thought beyond the +bounds of time. We have reason, to enable us to inquire into the +character of the Great Father, and the relation of us, his humble +creatures, towards him. We have conscientiousness and benevolence, +by which we can in a faint and humble measure imitate, in our +conduct, that which he exemplifies in the whole of his wondrous +doings. Beyond this, mental science does not carry us in support of +religion: the rest depends on evidence of a different kind. But it +is surely much that we thus discover in nature a provision for things +so important. The existence of faculties having a regard to such +things is a good evidence that such things exist. The face of God is +reflected in the organization of man, as a little pool reflects the +glorious sun. + +The affective or sentimental faculties are all of them liable to +operate whenever appropriate objects or stimuli are presented, and +this they do as irresistibly and unerringly as the tree sucks up +moisture which it requires, with only this exception, that one +faculty often interferes with the action of another, and operates +instead by force of superior inherent strength or temporary activity. +For example, alimentiveness may be in powerful operation with regard +to its appropriate object, producing a keen appetite, and yet it may +not act, in consequence of the more powerful operation of +cautiousness, warning against evil consequences likely to ensue from +the desired indulgence. This liability to flit from under the +control of one feeling to the control of another, constitutes what is +recognised as free will in man, being nothing more than a vicissitude +in the supremacy of the faculties over each other. + +It is a common mistake to suppose that the individuals of our own +species are all of them formed with similar faculties--similar in +power and tendency--and that education and the influence of +circumstances produce all the differences which we observe. There is +not, in the old systems of mental philosophy, any doctrine more +opposite to the truth than this. It is refuted at once by the great +differences of intellectual tendency and moral disposition to be +observed amongst a group of young children who have been all brought +up in circumstances perfectly identical--even in twins, who have +never been but in one place, under the charge of one nurse, attended +to alike in all respects. The mental characters of individuals are +inherently various, as the forms of their persons and the features of +their faces are; and education and circumstances, though their +influence is not to be despised, are incapable of entirely altering +these characters, where they are strongly developed. That the +original characters of mind are dependent on the volume of particular +parts of the brain and the general quality of that viscus, is proved +by induction from an extensive range of observations, the force of +which must have been long since universally acknowledged but for the +unpreparedness of mankind to admit a functional connexion between +mind and body. The different mental characters of individuals may be +presumed from analogy to depend on the same law of development which +we have seen determining forms of being and the mental characters of +particular species. This we may conceive as carrying forward the +intellectual powers and moral dispositions of some to a high pitch, +repressing those of others at a moderate amount, and thus producing +all the varieties which we see in our fellow-creatures. Thus a +Cuvier and a Newton are but expansions of a clown, and the person +emphatically called the wicked man, is one whose highest moral +feelings are rudimental. Such differences are not confined to our +species; they are only less strongly marked in many of the inferior +animals. There are clever dogs and wicked horses, as well as clever +men and wicked men, and education sharpens the talents, and in some +degree regulates the dispositions of animals, as it does our own. +Here I may advert to a very interesting analogy between the mental +characters of the types in the quinary system of zoology and the +characters of individual men. We have seen that the pre-eminent type +is usually endowed with an harmonious assemblage of the mental +qualities belonging to the whole group, while the sub-typical +inclines to ferocity, the rasorial to gentleness, and so on. Now, +amongst individuals, some appear to be almost exclusively of the sub- +typical, and others of the rasorial characters, while to a limited +number is given the finely assorted assemblage of qualities which +places them on a parallel with the typical. To this may be +attributed the universality which marks all the very highest brains, +such as those of Shakespeare and Scott, men of whom it has been +remarked that they must have possessed within themselves not only the +poet, but the warrior, the statesman, and the philosopher; and who, +moreover, appear to have had the mild and manly, the moral and the +forcible parts of our nature, in the most perfect balance. + +There is, nevertheless, a general adaptation of the mental +constitution of man to the circumstances in which he lives, as there +is between all the parts of nature to each other. The goods of the +physical world are only to be realized by ingenuity and industrious +exertion; behold, accordingly, an intellect full of device, and a +fabric of the faculties which would go to pieces or destroy itself if +it were not kept in constant occupation. Nature presents to us much +that is sublime and beautiful: behold faculties which delight in +contemplating these properties of hers, and in rising upon them, as +upon wings, to the presence of the Eternal. It is also a world of +difficulties and perils, and see how a large portion of our species +are endowed with vigorous powers which take a pleasure in meeting and +overcoming difficulty and danger. Even that principle on which our +faculties are constituted--a wide range of freedom in which to act +for all various occasions--necessitates a resentful faculty, by which +individuals may protect themselves from the undue and capricious +exercise of each other's faculties, and thus preserve their +individual rights. So also there is cautiousness, to give us a +tendency to provide against the evils by which we may be assailed; +and secretiveness, to enable us to conceal whatever, being divulged, +would be offensive to others or injurious to ourselves,--a function +which obviously has a certain legitimate range of action, however +liable to be abused. The constitution of the mind generally points +to a state of intimate relation of individuals towards society, +towards the external world, and towards things above this world. No +individual being is integral or independent; he is only part of an +extensive piece of social mechanism. The inferior mind, full of rude +energy and unregulated impulse, does not more require a superior +nature to act as its master and its mentor, than does the superior +nature require to be surrounded by such rough elements on which to +exercise its high endowments as a ruling and tutelary power. This +relation of each to each produces a vast portion of the active +business of life. It is easy to see that, if we were all alike in +our moral tendencies, and all placed on a medium of perfect +moderation in this respect, the world would be a scene of everlasting +dulness and apathy. It requires the variety of individual +constitution to give moral life to the scene. + +The indefiniteness of the potentiality of the human faculties, and +the complexity which thus attends their relations, lead unavoidably +to occasional error. If we consider for a moment that there are not +less than thirty such faculties, that they are each given in +different proportions to different persons, that each is at the same +time endowed with a wide discretion as to the force and frequency of +its action, and that our neighbours, the world, and our connexions +with something beyond it, are all exercising an ever-varying +influence over us, we cannot be surprised at the irregularities +attending human conduct. It is simply the penalty paid for the +superior endowment. It is here that the imperfection of our nature +resides. Causality and conscientiousness are, it is true, guides +over all; but even these are only faculties of the same indeterminate +constitution as the rest, and partake accordingly of the same +inequality of action. Man is therefore a piece of mechanism, which +never can act so as to satisfy his own ideas of what he might be--for +he can imagine a state of moral perfection, (as he can imagine a +globe formed of diamonds, pearls, and rubies,) though his +constitution forbids him to realize it. There ever will, in the best +disposed and most disciplined minds, be occasional discrepancies +between the amount of temptation and the power summoned for +regulation or resistance, or between the stimulus and the mobility of +the faculty; and hence those errors, and shortcomings, and excesses, +without end, with which the good are constantly finding cause to +charge themselves. There is at the same time even here a possibility +of improvement. In infancy, the impulses are all of them irregular; +a child is cruel, cunning, and false, under the slightest temptation, +but in time learns to control these inclinations, and to be +habitually humane, frank, and truthful. So is human society, in its +earliest stages, sanguinary, aggressive, and deceitful, but in time +becomes just, faithful, and benevolent. To such improvements there +is a natural tendency which will operate in all fair circumstances, +though it is not to be expected that irregular and undue impulses +will ever be altogether banished from the system. + +It may still be a puzzle to many, how beings should be born into the +world whose organization is such that they unavoidably, even in a +civilized country, become malefactors. Does God, it may be asked, +make criminals? Does he fashion certain beings with a predestination +to evil? He does not do so; and yet the criminal type of brain, as +it is called, comes into existence in accordance with laws which the +Deity has established. It is not, however, as the result of the +first or general intention of those laws, but as an exception from +their ordinary and proper action. The production of those evilly +disposed beings is in this manner. The moral character of the +progeny depends in a general way, (as does the physical character +also,) upon conditions of the parents,--both general conditions, and +conditions at the particular time of the commencement of the +existence of the new being, and likewise external conditions +affecting the foetus through the mother. Now the amount of these +conditions is indefinite. The faculties of the parents, as far as +these are concerned, may have oscillated for the time towards the +extreme of tensibility in one direction. The influences upon the +foetus may have also been of an extreme and unusual kind. Let us +suppose that the conditions upon the whole have been favourable for +the development, not of the higher, but of the lower sentiments, and +of the propensities of the new being, the result will necessarily be +a mean type of brain. Here, it will be observed, God no more decreed +an immoral being, than he decreed an immoral paroxysm of the +sentiments. Our perplexity is in considering the ill-disposed being +by himself. He is only a part of a series of phenomena, traceable to +a principle good in the main, but which admits of evil as an +exception. We have seen that it is for wise ends that God leaves our +moral faculties to an indefinite range of action; the general good +results of this arrangement are obvious; but exceptions of evil are +inseparable from such a system, and this is one of them. To come to +particular illustration--when a people are oppressed, or kept in a +state of slavery, they invariably contract habits of lying, for the +purpose of deceiving and outwitting their superiors, falsehood being +a refuge of the weak under difficulties. What is a habit in parents +becomes an inherent quality in children. We are not, therefore, to +be surprised when a traveller tells us that black children in the +West Indies appear to lie by instinct, and never answer a white +person truly even in the simplest matter. Here we have secretiveness +roused in a people to a state of constant and exalted exercise; an +over tendency of the nervous energy in that direction is the +consequence, and a new organic condition is established. This tells +upon the progeny, which comes into the world with secretiveness +excessive in volume and activity. All other evil characteristics may +be readily conceived as being implanted in a new generation in the +same way. And sometimes not one, but several generations, may be +concerned in bringing up the result to a pitch which produces crime. +It is, however, to be observed, that the general tendency of things +is to a limitation, not the extension of such abnormally constituted +beings. The criminal brain finds itself in a social scene where all +is against it. It may struggle on for a time, but the medium and +superior natures are never long at a loss in getting the better of +it. The disposal of such beings will always depend much on the moral +state of a community, the degree in which just views prevail with +regard to human nature, and the feelings which accident may have +caused to predominate at a particular time. Where the mass was +little enlightened or refined, and terrors for life or property were +highly excited, malefactors have ever been treated severely. But +when order is generally triumphant, and reason allowed sway, men +begin to see the true case of criminals--namely, that while one large +department are victims of erroneous social conditions, another are +brought to error by tendencies which they are only unfortunate in +having inherited from nature. Criminal jurisprudence then addresses +itself less to the direct punishment than to the reformation and +care-taking of those liable to its attention. And such a treatment +of criminals, it may be farther remarked, so that it stop short of +affording any encouragement to crime, (a point which experience will +determine,) is evidently no more than justice, seeing how +accidentally all forms of the moral constitution are distributed, and +how thoroughly mutual obligation shines throughout the whole frame of +society--the strong to help the weak, the good to redeem and restrain +the bad. + +The sum of all we have seen of the psychical constitution of man is, +that its Almighty Author has destined it, like everything else, to be +developed from inherent qualities, and to have a mode of action +depending solely on its own organization. Thus the whole is complete +on one principle. The masses of space are formed by law; law makes +them in due time theatres of existence for plants and animals; +sensation, disposition, intellect, are all in like manner developed +and sustained in action by law. It is most interesting to observe +into how small a field the whole of the mysteries of nature thus +ultimately resolve themselves. The inorganic has one final +comprehensive law, GRAVITATION. The organic, the other great +department of mundane things, rests in like manner on one law, and +that is,--DEVELOPMENT. Nor may even these be after all twain, but +only branches of one still more comprehensive law, the expression of +that unity which man's wit can scarcely separate from Deity itself. + + + +PURPOSE AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE ANIMATED CREATION. + + + +We have now to inquire how this view of the constitution and origin +of nature bears upon the condition of man upon the earth, and his +relation to supra-mundane things. + +That enjoyment is the proper attendant of animal existence is pressed +upon us by all that we see and all we experience. Everywhere we +perceive in the lower creatures, in their ordinary condition, +symptoms of enjoyment. Their whole being is a system of needs, the +supplying of which is gratification, and of faculties, the exercise +of which is pleasurable. When we consult our own sensations, we find +that, even in a sense of a healthy performance of all the functions +of the animal economy, God has furnished us with an innocent and very +high enjoyment. The mere quiet consciousness of a healthy play of +the mental functions--a mind at ease with itself and all around it-- +is in like manner extremely agreeable. This negative class of +enjoyments, it may be remarked, is likely to be even more extensively +experienced by the lower animals than by man, at least in the +proportion of their absolute endowments, as their mental and bodily +functions are much less liable to derangement than ours. To find the +world constituted on this principle is only what in reason we would +expect. We cannot conceive that so vast a system could have been +created for a contrary purpose. No averagely constituted human being +would, in his own limited sphere of action, think of producing a +similar system upon an opposite principle. But to form so vast a +range of being, and to make being everywhere a source of +gratification, is conformable to our ideas of a Creator in whom we +are constantly discovering traits of a nature, of which our own is +but a faint and far-cast shadow at the best. + +It appears at first difficult to reconcile with this idea the many +miseries which we see all sentient beings, ourselves included, +occasionally enduring. How, the sage has asked in every age, should +a Being so transcendently kind, have allowed of so large an admixture +of evil in the condition of his creatures? Do we not at length find +an answer to a certain extent satisfactory, in the view which has now +been given of the constitution of nature? We there see the Deity +operating in the most august of his works by fixed laws, an +arrangement which, it is clear, only admits of the main and primary +results being good, but disregards exceptions. Now the mechanical +laws are so definite in their purposes, that no exceptions ever take +place in that department; if there is a certain quantity of nebulous +matter to be agglomerated and divided and set in motion as a +planetary system, it will be so with hair's-breadth accuracy, and +cannot be otherwise. But the laws presiding over meteorology, life, +and mind, are necessarily less definite, as they have to produce a +great variety of mutually related results. Left to act independently +of each other, each according to its separate commission, and each +with a wide range of potentiality to be modified by associated +conditions, they can only have effects generally beneficial: often +there must be an interference of one law with another, often a law +will chance to operate in excess, or upon a wrong object, and thus +evil will be produced. Thus, winds are generally useful in many +ways, and the sea is useful as a means of communication between one +country and another; but the natural laws which produce winds are of +indefinite range of action, and sometimes are unusually concentrated +in space or in time, so as to produce storms and hurricanes, by which +much damage is done; the sea may be by these causes violently +agitated, so that many barks and many lives perish. Here, it is +evident, the evil is only exceptive. Suppose, again, that a boy, in +the course of the lively sports proper to his age, suffers a fall +which injures his spine, and renders him a cripple for life. Two +things have been concerned in the case: first, the love of violent +exercise, and second, the law of gravitation. Both of these things +are good in the main. In the rash enterprises and rough sports in +which boys engage, they prepare their bodies and minds for the hard +tasks of life. By gravitation, all moveable things, our own bodies +included, are kept stable on the surface of the earth. But when it +chances that the playful boy loses his hold (we shall say) of the +branch of a tree, and has no solid support immediately below, the law +of gravitation unrelentingly pulls him to the ground, and thus he is +hurt. Now it was not a primary object of gravitation to injure boys; +but gravitation could not but operate in the circumstances, its +nature being to be universal and invariable. The evil is, therefore, +only a casual exception from something in the main good. + +The same explanation applies to even the most conspicuous of the +evils which afflict society. War, it may be said, and said truly, is +a tremendous example of evil, in the misery, hardship, waste of human +life, and mis-spending of human energies, which it occasions. But +what is it that produces war? Certain tendencies of human nature, as +keen assertion of a supposed right, resentment of supposed injury, +acquisitiveness, desire of admiration, combativeness, or mere love of +excitement. All of these are tendencies which are every day, in a +legitimate extent of action, producing great and indispensable +benefits to us. Man would be a tame, indolent, unserviceable being +without them, and his fate would be starvation. War, then, huge evil +though it be, is, after all, but the exceptive case, a casual +misdirection of properties and powers essentially good. God has +given us the tendencies for a benevolent purpose. He has only not +laid down any absolute obstruction to our misuse of them. That were +an arrangement of a kind which he has nowhere made. But he has +established many laws in our nature which tend to lessen the +frequency and destructiveness of these abuses. Our reason comes to +see that war is purely an evil, even to the conqueror. Benevolence +interposes to make its ravages less mischievous to human comfort, and +less destructive to human life. Men begin to find that their more +active powers can be exercised with equal gratification on legitimate +objects; for example, in overcoming the natural difficulties of their +path through life, or in a generous spirit of emulation in a line of +duty beneficial to themselves and their fellow-creatures. Thus, war +at length shrinks into a comparatively narrow compass, though there +certainly is no reason to suppose that it will be at any early +period, if ever, altogether dispensed with, while man's constitution +remains as it is. In considering an evil of this kind, we must not +limit our view to our own or any past time. Placed upon the earth +with faculties prepared to act, but inexperienced, and with the more +active propensities necessarily in great force to suit the condition +of the globe, man was apt to misuse his powers much in this way at +first, compared with what he is likely to do when he advances into a +condition of civilization. In the scheme of providence, thousands of +years of frequent warfare, all the so-called glories which fill +history, may be only an exception to the general rule. + +The sex passion in like manner leads to great evils; but the evils +are only an exception from the vast mass of good connected with this +affection. Providence has seen it necessary to make very ample +provision for the preservation and utmost possible extension of all +species. The aim seems to be to diffuse existence as widely as +possible, to fill up every vacant piece of space with some sentient +being to be a vehicle of enjoyment. Hence this passion is conferred +in great force. But the relation between the number of beings, and +the means of supporting them, is only on the footing of general law. +There may be occasional discrepancies between the laws operating for +the multiplication of individuals, and the laws operating to supply +them with the means of subsistence, and evils will be endured in +consequence, even in our own highly favoured species. But against +all these evils, and against those numberless vexations which have +arisen in all ages from the attachment of the sexes, place the vast +amount of happiness which is derived from this source--the basis of +the whole circle of the domestic affections, the sweetening principle +of life, the prompter of all our most generous feelings, and even of +our most virtuous resolves--and every ill that can be traced to it is +but as dust in the balance. And here, also, we must be on our guard +against judging from what we see in the world at a particular era. +As reason and the higher sentiments of man's nature increase in +force, this passion is put under better regulation, so as to lessen +many of the evils connected with it. The civilized man is more able +to give it due control; his attachments are less the result of +impulse; he studies more the weal of his partner and offspring. +There are even some of the resentful feelings connected in early +society with love, such as hatred of successful rivalry, and +jealousy, which almost disappear in an advanced stage of +civilization. The evils springing, in our own species at least, from +this passion, may therefore be an exception mainly peculiar to a +particular term of the world's progress, and which may be expected to +decrease greatly in amount. + +With respect, again, to disease, so prolific a cause of suffering to +man, the human constitution is merely a complicated but regular +process in electro-chemistry, which goes on well, and is a source of +continual gratification, so long as nothing occurs to interfere with +it injuriously, but which is liable every moment to be deranged by +various external agencies, when it becomes a source of pain, and, if +the injury be severe, ceases to be capable of retaining life. It may +be readily admitted that the evils experienced in this way are very +great; but, after all, such experiences are no more than occasional, +and not necessarily frequent--exceptions from a general rule of which +the direct action is to confer happiness. The human constitution +might have been made of a more hardy character; but we always see +hardiness and insensibility go together, and it may be of course +presumed that we only could have purchased this immunity from +suffering at the expense of a large portion of that delicacy in which +lie some of our most agreeable sensations. Or man's faculties might +have been restricted to definiteness of action, as is greatly the +case with those of the lower animals, and thus we should have been +equally safe from the aberrations which lead to disease; but in that +event we should have been incapable of acting to so many different +purposes as we are, and of the many high enjoyments which the varied +action of our faculties places in our power: we should not, in +short, have been human beings, but merely on a level with the +inferior animals. Thus, it appears, that the very fineness of man's +constitution, that which places him in such a high relation to the +mundane economy, and makes him the vehicle of so many exquisitely +delightful sensations--it is this which makes him liable to the +sufferings of disease. It might be said, on the other hand, that the +noxiousness of the agencies producing disease might have been +diminished or extinguished; but the probability is, that this could +not have been done without such a derangement of the whole economy of +nature as would have been attended with more serious evils. For +example--a large class of diseases are the result of effluvia from +decaying organic matter. This kind of matter is known to be +extremely useful, when mixed with earth, in favouring the process of +vegetation. Supposing the noxiousness to the human constitution done +away with, might we not also lose that important quality which tends +so largely to increase the food raised from the ground? Perhaps (as +has been suggested) the noxiousness is even a matter of special +design, to induce us to put away decaying organic substances into the +earth, where they are calculated to be so useful. Now man has reason +to enable him to see that such substances are beneficial under one +arrangement, and noxious in the other. He is, as it were, commanded +to take the right method in dealing with it. In point of fact, men +do not always take this method, but allow accumulations of noxious +matter to gather close about their dwellings, where they generate +fevers and agues. But their doing so may be regarded as only a +temporary exception from the operation of mental laws, the general +tendency of which is to make men adopt the proper measures. And +these measures will probably be in time universally adopted, so that +one extensive class of diseases will be altogether or nearly +abolished. + +Another large class of diseases spring from mismanagement of our +personal economy. Eating to excess, eating and drinking what is +noxious, disregard to that cleanliness which is necessary for the +right action of the functions of the skin, want of fresh air for the +supply of the lungs, undue, excessive, and irregular indulgence of +the mental affections, are all of them recognised modes of creating +that derangement of the system in which disease consists. Here also +it may be said that a limitation of the mental faculties to definite +manifestations (vulgo, instincts) might have enabled us to avoid many +of these errors; but here again we are met by the consideration that, +if we had been so endowed, we should have been only as the lower +animals are, wanting that transcendently higher character of +sensation and power, by which our enjoyments are made so much +greater. In making the desire of food, for example, with us an +indefinite mental manifestation, instead of the definite one, which +it is amongst the lower animals, the Creator has given us a means of +deriving far greater gratifications from food (consistently with +health) than the lower animals appear to be capable of. He has also +given us reason to act as a guiding and controlling power over this +and other propensities, so that they may be prevented from becoming +causes of malady. We can see that excess is injurious, and are thus +prompted to moderation. We can see that all the things which we feel +inclined to take are not healthful, and are thus exhorted to avoid +what are pernicious. We can also see that a cleanly skin and a +constant supply of pure air are necessary to the proper performance +of some of the most important of the organic functions, and thus are +stimulated to frequent ablution, and to a right ventilation of our +parlours and sleeping apartments. And so on with the other causes of +disease. Reason may not operate very powerfully to these purposes in +an early state of society, and prodigious evils may therefore have +been endured from disease in past ages; but these are not necessarily +to be endured always. As civilization advances, reason acquires a +greater ascendancy; the causes of the evils are seen and avoided; and +disease shrinks into a comparatively narrow compass. The experience +of our own country places this in a striking light. In the middle +ages, when large towns had no police regulations, society was every +now and then scourged by pestilence. The third of the people of +Europe are said to have been carried off by one epidemic. Even in +London the annual mortality has greatly sunk within a century. The +improvement in human life, which has taken place since the +construction of the Northampton tables by Dr. Price, is equally +remarkable. Modern tables still shew a prodigious mortality among +the young in all civilized countries--evidently a result of some +prevalent error in the usual modes of rearing them. But to remedy +this evil there is the sagacity of the human mind, and the sense to +adopt any reformed plans which may be shewn to be necessary. By a +change in the management of an orphan institution in London, during +the last fifty years, an immense reduction in the mortality took +place. We may of course hope to see measures devised and adopted for +producing a similar improvement of infant life throughout the world +at large. + +In this part of our subject, the most difficult point certainly lies +in those occurrences of disease where the afflicted individual has +been in no degree concerned in bringing the visitation upon himself. +Daily experience shews us infectious disease arising in a place where +the natural laws in respect of cleanliness are neglected, and then +spreading into regions where there is no blame of this kind. We then +see the innocent suffering equally with those who may be called the +guilty. Nay, the benevolent physician who comes to succour the +miserable beings whose error may have caused the mischief, is +sometimes seen to fall a victim to it, while many of his patients +recover. We are also only too familiar with the transmission of +diseases from erring parents to innocent children, who, accordingly +suffer, and perhaps die prematurely, as it were for the sins of +others. After all, however painful such cases may be in +contemplation, they cannot be regarded in any other light than as +exceptions from arrangements, the general working of which is +beneficial. + +With regard to the innocence of the suffering parties, there is one +important consideration which is pressed upon us from many quarters, +namely--that moral conditions have not the least concern in the +working of these simply physical laws. These laws proceed with an +entire independence of all such conditions, and desirably so, for +otherwise there could be no certain dependence placed upon them. +Thus it may happen that two persons ascending a piece of scaffolding, +the one a virtuous, the other a vicious man, the former, being the +less cautious of the two, ventures upon an insecure place, falls, and +is killed, while the other, choosing a better footing, remains +uninjured. It is not in what we can conceive of the nature of +things, that there should be a special exemption from the ordinary +laws of matter, to save this virtuous man. So it might be that, of +two physicians, attending fever cases, in a mean part of a large +city, the one, an excellent citizen, may stand in such a position +with respect to the beds of the patients as to catch the infection, +of which he dies in a few days, while the other, a bad husband and +father, and who, unlike the other, only attends such cases with +selfish ends, takes care to be as much as possible out of the stream +of infection, and accordingly escapes. In both of these cases man's +sense of good and evil--his faculty of conscientiousness--would +incline him to destine the vicious man to destruction and save the +virtuous. But the Great Ruler of Nature does not act on such +principles. He has established laws for the operation of inanimate +matter, which are quite unswerving, so that when we know them, we +have only to act in a certain way with respect to them, in order to +obtain all the benefits and avoid all the evils connected with them. +He has likewise established moral laws in our nature, which are +equally unswerving, (allowing for their wider range of action,) and +from obedience to which unfailing good is to be derived. But the two +sets of laws are independent of each other. Obedience to each gives +only its own proper advantage, not the advantage proper to the other. +Hence it is that virtue forms no protection against the evils +connected with the physical laws, while, on the other hand, a man +skilled in and attentive to these, but unrighteous and disregardful +of his neighbour, is in like manner not protected by his attention to +physical circumstances from the proper consequences of neglect or +breach of the moral laws. + +Thus it is that the innocence of the party suffering for the faults +of a parent, or of any other person or set of persons, is evidently a +consideration quite apart from that suffering. + +It is clear, moreover, from the whole scope of the natural laws, that +the individual, as far as the present sphere of being is concerned, +is to the Author of Nature a consideration of inferior moment. +Everywhere we see the arrangements for the species perfect; the +individual is left, as it were, to take his chance amidst the melee +of the various laws affecting him. If he be found inferiorly +endowed, or ill befalls him, there was at least no partiality against +him. The system has the fairness of a lottery, in which every one +has the like chance of drawing the prize. + +Yet it is also to be observed that few evils are altogether unmixed. +God, contemplating apparently the unbending action of his great laws, +has established others which appear to be designed to have a +compensating, a repairing, and a consoling effect. Suppose, for +instance, that, from a defect in the power of development in a +mother, her offspring is ushered into the world destitute of some of +the most useful members, or blind, or deaf, or of imperfect +intellect, there is ever to be found in the parents and other +relatives, and in the surrounding public, a sympathy with the +sufferer, which tends to make up for the deficiency, so that he is in +the long run not much a loser. Indeed, the benevolence implanted in +our nature seems to be an arrangement having for one of its principal +objects to cause us, by sympathy and active aid, to remedy the evils +unavoidably suffered by our fellow-creatures in the course of the +operation of the other natural laws. And even in the sufferer +himself, it is often found that a defect in one point is made up for +by an extra power in another. The blind come to have a sense of +touch much more acute than those who see. Persons born without hands +have been known to acquire a power of using their feet for a number +of the principal offices usually served by that member. I need +hardly say how remarkably fatuity is compensated by the more than +usual regard paid to the children born with it by their parents, and +the zeal which others usually feel to protect and succour such +persons. In short, we never see evil of any kind take place where +there is not some remedy or compensating principle ready to interfere +for its alleviation. And there can be no doubt that in this manner +suffering of all kinds is very much relieved. + +We may, then, regard the globes of space as theatres designed for the +residence of animated sentient beings, placed there with this as +their first and most obvious purpose--namely, to be sensible of +enjoyments from the exercise of their faculties in relation to +external things. The faculties of the various species are very +different, but the happiness of each depends on the harmony there may +be between its particular faculties and its particular circumstances. +For instance, place the small-brained sheep or ox in a good pasture, +and it fully enjoys this harmony of relation; but man, having many +more faculties, cannot be thus contented. Besides having a +sufficiency of food and bodily comfort, he must have entertainment +for his intellect, whatever be its grade, objects for the domestic +and social affections, objects for the sentiments. He is also a +progressive being, and what pleases him to-day may not please him to- +morrow; but, in each case he demands a sphere of appropriate +conditions in order to be happy. By virtue of his superior +organization, his enjoyments are much higher and more varied than +those of any of the lower animals; but the very complexity of +circumstances affecting him renders it at the same time unavoidable, +that his nature should be often inharmoniously placed and +disagreeably affected, and that he should therefore be unhappy. +Still unhappiness amongst mankind is the exception from the rule of +their condition, and an exception which is capable of almost infinite +diminution, by virtue of the improving reason of man, and the +experience which he acquires in working out the problems of society. + +To secure the immediate means of happiness it would seem to be +necessary for men first to study with all care the constitution of +nature, and, secondly, to accommodate themselves to that +constitution, so as to obtain all the realizable advantages from +acting conformably to it, and to avoid all likely evils from +disregarding it. It will be of no use to sit down and expect that +things are to operate of their own accord, or through the direction +of a partial deity, for our benefit; equally so were it to expose +ourselves to palpable dangers, under the notion that we shall, for +some reason, have a dispensation or exemption from them: we must +endeavour so to place ourselves, and so to act, that the arrangements +which Providence has made impartially for all may be in our favour, +and not against us; such are the only means by which we can obtain +good and avoid evil here below. And, in doing this, it is especially +necessary that care be taken to avoid interfering with the like +efforts of other men, beyond what may have been agreed upon by the +mass as necessary for the general good. Such interferences, tending +in any way to injure the body, property, or peace of a neighbour, or +to the injury of society in general, tend very much to reflect evil +upon ourselves, through the re-action which they produce in the +feelings of our neighbour and of society, and also the offence which +they give to our own conscientiousness and benevolence. On the other +hand, when we endeavour to promote the efforts of our fellow- +creatures to attain happiness, we produce a re-action of the contrary +kind, the tendency of which is towards our own benefit. The one +course of action tends to the injury, the other to the benefit of +ourselves and others. By the one course the general design of the +Creator towards his creatures is thwarted; by the other it is +favoured. And thus we can readily see the most substantial grounds +for regarding all moral emotions and doings as divine in their +nature, and as a means of rising to and communing with God. +Obedience is not selfishness, which it would otherwise be--it is +worship. The merest barbarians have a glimmering sense of this +philosophy, and it continually shines out more and more clearly in +the public mind, as a nation advances in intelligence. Nor are +individuals alone concerned here. The same rule applies as between +one great body or class of men and another, and also between nations. +Thus if one set of men keep others in the condition of slaves--this +being a gross injustice to the subjected party, the mental +manifestations of that party to the masters will be such as to mar +the comfort of their lives; the minds of the masters themselves will +be degraded by the association with beings so degraded; and thus, +with some immediate or apparent benefit from keeping slaves, there +will be in a far greater degree an experience of evil. So also, if +one portion of a nation, engaged in a particular department of +industry, grasp at some advantages injurious to the other sections of +the people, the first effect will be an injury to those other +portions of the nation, and the second a re-active injury to the +injurers, making their guilt their punishment. And so when one +nation commits an aggression upon the property or rights of another, +or even pursues towards it a sordid or ungracious policy, the effects +are sure to be redoubled evil from the offended party. All of these +things are under laws which make the effects, on a large range, +absolutely certain; and an individual, a party, a people, can no more +act unjustly with safety, than I could with safety place my leg in +the track of a coming wain, or attempt to fast thirty days. We have +been constituted on the principle of only being able to realize +happiness for ourselves when our fellow-creatures are also happy; we +must therefore both do to others only as we would have others to do +to us, and endeavour to promote their happiness as well as our own, +in order to find ourselves truly comfortable in this field of +existence. These are words which God speaks to us as truly through +his works, as if we heard them uttered in his own voice from heaven. + +It will occur to every one, that the system here unfolded does not +imply the most perfect conceivable love or regard on the part of the +Deity towards his creatures. Constituted as we are, feeling how vain +our efforts often are to attain happiness or avoid calamity, and +knowing that much evil does unavoidably befall us from no fault of +ours, we are apt to feel that this is a dreary view of the Divine +economy; and before we have looked farther, we might be tempted to +say, Far rather let us cling to the idea, so long received, that the +Deity acts continually for special occasions, and gives such +directions to the fate of each individual as he thinks meet; so that, +when sorrow comes to us, we shall have at least the consolation of +believing that it is imposed by a Father who loves us, and who seeks +by these means to accomplish our ultimate good. Now, in the first +place, if this be an untrue notion of the Deity and his ways, it can +be of no real benefit to us; and, in the second, it is proper to +inquire if there be necessarily in the doctrine of natural law any +peculiarity calculated materially to affect our hitherto supposed +relation to the Deity. It may be that while we are committed to take +our chance in a natural system of undeviating operation, and are left +with apparent ruthlessness to endure the consequences of every +collision into which we knowingly or unknowingly come with each law +of the system, there is a system of Mercy and Grace behind the screen +of nature, which is to make up for all casualties endured here, and +the very largeness of which is what makes these casualties a matter +of indifference to God. For the existence of such a system, the +actual constitution of nature is itself an argument. The reasoning +may proceed thus: The system of nature assures us that benevolence +is a leading principle in the divine mind. But that system is at the +same time deficient in a means of making this benevolence of +invariable operation. To reconcile this to the recognised character +of the Deity, it is necessary to suppose that the present system is +but a part of a whole, a stage in a Great Progress, and that the +Redress is in reserve. Another argument here occurs--the economy of +nature, beautifully arranged and vast in its extent as it is, does +not satisfy even man's idea of what might be; he feels that, if this +multiplicity of theatres for the exemplification of such phenomena as +we see on earth were to go on for ever unchanged, it would not be +worthy of the Being capable of creating it. An endless monotony of +human generations, with their humble thinkings and doings, seems an +object beneath that august Being. But the mundane economy might be +very well as a portion of some greater phenomenon, the rest of which +was yet to be evolved. It therefore appears that our system, though +it may at first appear at issue with other doctrines in esteem +amongst mankind, tends to come into harmony with them, and even to +give them support. I would say, in conclusion, that, even where the +two above arguments may fail of effect, there may yet be a faith +derived from this view of nature sufficient to sustain us under all +sense of the imperfect happiness, the calamities, the woes, and pains +of this sphere of being. For let us but fully and truly consider +what a system is here laid open to view, and we cannot well doubt +that we are in the hands of One who is both able and willing to do us +the most entire justice. And in this faith we may well rest at ease, +even though life should have been to us but a protracted disease, or +though every hope we had built on the secular materials within our +reach were felt to be melting from our grasp. Thinking of all the +contingencies of this world as to be in time melted into or lost in +the greater system, to which the present is only subsidiary, let us +wait the end with patience, and be of good cheer. + + + +NOTE CONCLUSORY. + + + +Thus ends a book, composed in solitude, and almost without the +cognizance of a single human being, for the sole purpose (or as +nearly so as may be) of improving the knowledge of mankind, and +through that medium their happiness. For reasons which need not be +specified, the author's name is retained in its original obscurity, +and, in all probability, will never be generally known. I do not +expect that any word of praise which the work may elicit shall ever +be responded to by me; or that any word of censure shall ever be +parried or deprecated. It goes forth to take its chance of instant +oblivion, or of a long and active course of usefulness in the world. +Neither contingency can be of any importance to me, beyond the regret +or the satisfaction which may be imparted by my sense of a lost or a +realized benefit to my fellow-creatures. The book, as far as I am +aware, is the first attempt to connect the natural sciences into a +history of creation. The idea is a bold one, and there are many +circumstances of time and place to render its boldness more than +usually conspicuous. But I believe my doctrines to be in the main +true; I believe all truth to be valuable, and its dissemination a +blessing. At the same time, I hold myself duly sensible of the +common liability to error, but am certain that no error in this line +has the least chance of being allowed to injure the public mind. +Therefore I publish. My views, if correct, will most assuredly +stand, and may sooner or later prove beneficial; if otherwise, they +will as surely pass out of notice without doing any harm. + +My sincere desire in the composition of the book was to give the true +view of the history of nature, with as little disturbance as possible +to existing beliefs, whether philosophical or religious. I have made +little reference to any doctrines of the latter kind which may be +thought inconsistent with mine, because to do so would have been to +enter upon questions for the settlement of which our knowledge is not +yet ripe. Let the reconciliation of whatever is true in my views +with whatever is true in other systems come about in the fulness of +calm and careful inquiry. I cannot but here remind the reader of +what Dr. Wiseman has shewn so strikingly in his lectures, how +different new philosophic doctrines are apt to appear after we have +become somewhat familiar with them. Geology at first seems +inconsistent with the authority of the Mosaic record. A storm of +unreasoning indignation rises against its teachers. In time, its +truths, being found quite irresistible, are admitted, and mankind +continue to regard the Scriptures with the same respect as before. +So also with several other sciences. Now the only objection that can +be made on such ground to this book, is, that it brings forward some +new hypotheses, at first sight, like geology, not in perfect harmony +with that record, and arranges all the rest into a system which +partakes of the same character. But may not the sacred text, on a +liberal interpretation, or with the benefit of new light reflected +from nature, or derived from learning, be shewn to be as much in +harmony with the novelties of this volume as it has been with geology +and natural philosophy? What is there in the laws of organic +creation more startling to the candid theologian than in the +Copernican system or the natural formation of strata? And if the +whole series of facts is true, why should we shrink from inferences +legitimately flowing from it? Is it not a wiser course, since +reconciliation has come in so many instances, still to hope for it, +still to go on with our new truths, trusting that they also will in +time be found harmonious with all others? Thus we avoid the damage +which the very appearance of an opposition to natural truth is +calculated to inflict on any system presumed to require such support. +Thus we give, as is meet, a respectful reception to what is revealed +through the medium of nature, at the same time that we fully reserve +our reverence for all we have been accustomed to hold sacred, not one +tittle of which it may ultimately be found necessary to alter. + + + +Footnotes: + +{3} By Mr. Henderson, Professor of Astronomy in the Edinburgh +University, and Lieutenant Meadows. + +{5} Made by M. Argelander, late director of the Observatory at Abo. + +{6} Professor Mossotti, on the Constitution of the Sidereal System, +of which the Sun forms a part.--London, Edinburgh, and Dublin +Philosophical Magazine, February, 1843. + +{9} The orbitual revolutions of the satellites of Uranus have not as +yet been clearly scanned. It has been thought that their path is +retrograde compared with the rest. Perhaps this may be owing to a +bouleversement of the primary, for the inclination of its equator to +the ecliptic is admitted to be unusually high; but the subject is +altogether so obscure, that nothing can be founded on it. + +{12} Astronomy, Lardner's Cyclopaedia. + +{17} M. Compte combined Huygens's theorems for the measure of +centrifugal force with the law of gravitation, and thus formed a +simple fundamental equation between the duration of the rotation of +what he calls the producing star, and the distance of the star +produced. The constants of this equation were the radius of the +central star, and the intensity of gravity at its surface, which is a +direct consequence of its mass. It leads directly to the third law +of Kepler, which thus becomes susceptible of being conceived a priori +in a cosmogonical point of view. M. Compte first applied it to the +moon, and found, to his great delight, that the periodic time of that +satellite agrees within an hour or two with the duration which the +revolution of the earth ought to have had at the time when the lunar +distance formed the limit of the earth's atmosphere. He found the +coincidence less exact, but still very striking in every other case. +In those of the planets he obtained for the duration of the +corresponding solar rotations a value always a little less than their +actual periodic times. "It is remarkable," says he, "that this +difference, though increasing as the planet is more distant, +preserves very nearly the same relation to the corresponding periodic +time, of which it commonly forms the forty-fifth part,"--shewing, we +may suppose, that only some small elements of the question had been +overlooked by the calculator. The defect changes to an excess in the +different systems of the satellites, where it is proportionally +greater than in the planets, and unequal in the different systems. +"From the whole of these comparisons," says he, "I deduced the +following general result: --Supposing the mathematical limit of the +solar atmosphere successively extended to the regions where the +different planets are now found, the duration of the sun's rotation +was, at each of these epochs, sensibly equal to that of the actual +sidereal revolution of the corresponding planet; and the same is true +for each planetary atmosphere in relation to the different +satellites."--Cours de Philosophie Positif. + +{42} The researches on this subject were conducted chiefly by the +late Baron Fourier, perpetual secretary to the Academy of Sciences of +Paris. See his Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur. 1822. + +{52} Delabeche's Geological Researches. + +{60} In the Cumbrian limestone occur "calamoporae, lithodendra, +cyathophylla, and orbicula."--Philips. The asaphus and trinucleus +(crustacea) have been found respectively in the slate rocks of Wales, +and the limestone beds of the grawacke group in Bohemia. That +fragments of crinoidea, though of no determinate species, occur in +this system, we have the authority of Mr. Murchison.--Silurian +System, p. 710. + +{62} Such as amphioxus and myxene. + +{64} Miller's "New Walks in an Old Field." + +{68} June, 1842. + +{84a} The principal families are named sphenopteris, neuropteris, +and pecopteris. + +{84b} A specimen from Bengal, in the staircase of the British +Museum, is forty-five feet high. + +{93} "Some of the most considerable dislocations of the border of +the coal fields of Coalbrookdale and Dudley happened after the +deposition of a part of the new red sandstone; but it is certain that +those of Somersetshire and Gloucestershire were completed before the +date of that rock."--Philips. + +{97} The immediate effects of the slow respiration of the reptilia +are, a low temperature in their bodies, and a slow consumption of +food. Requiring little oxygen, they could have existed in an +atmosphere containing a less proportion of that gas to carbonic acid +gas than what now obtains. + +{99} The order to which frogs and toads belong. + +{103} Dr. Buckland, quoting an article by Professor Hitchcock, in +the American Journal of Science and Arts, 1836. + +{108a} Murchison's Silurian System, p. 583. + +{108b} Buckland. + +{110} In some instances, these fossils are found with the contents +of the stomach faithfully preserved, and even with pieces of the +external skin. The pellets ejected by them (coprolites) are found in +vast numbers, each generally enclosed in a nodule of ironstone, and +sometimes shewing remains of the fishes which had formed their food. + +{114} De la Beche's Geological Researches, p. 344. + +{127} Thick-skinned animals. This term has been given by Cuvier to +an order in which the hog, elephant, horse, and rhinoceros are +included. + +{149} Intervals in the series were numerous in the department of the +pachydermata; many of these gaps are now filled up from the extinct +genera found in the tertiary formation. + +{151} See paper by Professor Edward Forbes, read to the British +Association, 1839. + +{159} Macculloch on the Attributes of the Deity, iii. 569. + +{166} "A glass tube is to be bent into a syphon, and placed with the +curve downwards, and in the bend is to be placed a small portion of +mercury, not sufficient to close the connexion between the two legs; +a solution of nitrate of silver is then to be introduced until it +rises in both limbs of the tube. The precipitation of the mercury, +in the form of an Arbor Dianae, will then take place, slowly, only +when the syphon is placed in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic +meridian; but if it be placed in a plane coinciding with the magnetic +meridian, the action is rapid, and the crystallization particularly +beautiful, taking place principally in that branch of the syphon +towards the north. If the syphon be placed in a plane perpendicular +to the magnetic meridian, and a strong magnet brought near it, the +precipitation will commence in a short time, and be most copious in +the branch of the syphon nearest to the south pole of the magnet." + +{169a} Fatty matter has also been formed in the laboratory. The +process consisted in passing a mixture of carbonic acid, pure +hydrogen, and carburetted hydrogen, in the proportion of one measure +of the first, twenty of the second, and ten of the third, through a +red-hot tube. + +{169b} Supplement to the Atomic Theory. + +{170} Carpenter on Life; Todd's Cyclopaedia of Physiology. + +{171} Carpenter's Report on the results obtained by the Microscope +in the Study of Anatomy and Physiology, 1843. + +{172} See Dr. Martin Barry on Fissiparous Generation; Jameson's +Journal, Oct. 1843. Appearances precisely similar have been detected +in the germs of the crustacea. + +{175} Mr. Leonard Horner and Sir David Brewster, on a substance +resembling shell.--Philosophical Transactions, 1836. + +{179a} Dr. Allen Thomson, in the article Generation, in Todd's +Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology. + +{179b} The term aboriginal is here suggested, as more correct than +spontaneous, the one hitherto generally used. + +{182} Article "Zoophytes," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 7th edition. + +{187} See a pamphlet circulated by Mr. Weekes, in 1842. + +{195} Daubenton established the rule, that all the viviparous +quadrupeds have seven vertebrae in the neck. + +{201} Lord's Popular Physiology. It is to Tiedemann that we chiefly +owe these curious observations; but ground was first broken in this +branch of physiological science by Dr. John Hunter. + +{204} When I formed this idea, I was not aware of one which seems +faintly to foreshadow it--namely, Socrates's doctrine, afterwards +dilated on by Plato, that "previous to the existence of the world, +and beyond its present limits, there existed certain archetypes, the +embodiment (if we may use such a word) of general ideas; and that +these archetypes were models, in imitation of which all particular +beings were created." + +{208} The numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, &c. are formed by adding +the successive terms of the series of natural numbers thus: + +1=1 +1+2=3 +1+2+3=6 +l+2+3+4=10, &c. They are called triangular numbers, because a number +of points corresponding to any term can always be placed in the form +of a triangle; for instance - + +. +1 +. +.. +3 +. +.. +... +6 +. +.. +... +.... +10 + +{215} Kirby and Spence. + +{221} See an article by Dr. Weissenborn, in the New Series of +"Magazine of Natural History," vol. i. p. 574. + +{224} "It is a fact of the highest interest and moment that as the +brain of every tribe of animals appears to pass, during its +development, in succession through the types of all those below it, +so the brain of man passes through the types of those of every tribe +in the creation. It represents, accordingly, before the second month +of utero-gestation, that of an avertebrated animal; at the second +month, that of an osseous fish; at the third, that of a turtle; at +the fourth, that of a bird; at the fifth, that of one of the +rodentia; at the sixth, that of one of the ruminantia; at the +seventh, that of one of the digitigrada; at the eighth, that of one +of the quadrumana; till at length, at the ninth, it compasses the +brain of Man! It is hardly necessary to say, that all this is only +an approximation to the truth; since neither is the brain of all +osseous fishes, of all turtles, of all birds, nor of all the species +of any one of the above order of mammals, by any means precisely the +same, nor does the brain of the human foetus at any time precisely +resemble, perhaps, that of any individual whatever among the lower +animals. Nevertheless, it may be said to represent, at each of the +above-mentioned periods, the aggregate, as it were, of the brains of +each of the tribes stated; consisting as it does, about the second +month, chiefly of the mesial parts of the cerebellum, the corpora +quadrigemina, thalami optici, rudiments of the hemispheres of the +cerebrum and corpora striata; and receiving in succession, at the +third, the rudiments of the lobes of the cerebrum; at the fourth, +those of the fornix, corpus callosum, and septum lucidum; at the +fifth, the tubor annulare, and so forth; the posterior lobes of the +cerebrum increasing from before to behind, so as to cover the thalami +optici about the fourth month, the corpora quadrigemina about the +sixth, and the cerebellum about the seventh. This, then, is another +example of an increase in the complexity of an organ succeeding its +centralization; as if Nature, having first piled up her materials in +one spot, delighted afterwards to employ her abundance, not so much +in enlarging old parts as in forming new ones upon the old +foundations, and thus adding to the complexity of a fabric, the +rudimental structure of which is in all animals equally simple."-- +Fletcher's Rudiments of Physiology. + +{226} [Gutenberg note: the table in the book is very wide. Since +it won't fit within the normal Gutenberg margins, and cannot be +reproduced typographically, the rows of the table have been broken +out as follows.] + +{229} Some poor people having taken up their abode in the cells +under the fortifications of Lisle, the proportion of defective +infants produced by them became so great, that it was deemed +necessary to issue an order commanding these cells to be shut up. + +{232} These affinities and analogies are explained in the next +chapter. + +{239a} Corresponding to the articulata of Cuvier. + +{239b} A new sub-kingdom, made out of part of the radiata of Cuvier. + +{239c} This is a newly applied term, the reasons for which will be +explained in the sequel. + +{242} This is preferred to grallatorial, as more comprehensively +descriptive. There is the same need for a substitute for rasorial, +which is only applicable to birds. + +{246} Distribution and Classification of Animals, p. 248. + +{255} Researches, 4th edition, i. 95. + +{257} Prichard. + +{266} Mr. Swainson's arguments about the entireness of the circle +simiadae are only too rigid, for fossil geology has since added new +genera to this group and the cebidae, and there may be still farther +additions. + +{270} See Wilson's American Ornithology; article, Fishing Crow. + +{274} [Gutenberg note: in the diagram the triangles extending from +the 1,2,3,4 and the a,b,c,d meet at the same point--the line from the +1,2,3,4 being at around 45 degrees and the line from the a,b,c,d +being at around 60 degrees. It isn't possible to reproduce this +using normal characters. Despite what the text says there is no line +labelled 5 in the diagram.--DP] + +{278} See Dr. Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of +Man. + +{280} Buckingham's Travels among the Arabs. This fact is the more +valuable to the argument, as having been set down with no regard to +any kind of hypothesis. + +{287} Wiseman's Lectures on the Connexion between Science and +Revealed Religion, i. 44. The Celtic has been established as a +member or group of the Indo-European family, by the work of Dr. +Prichard, on the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations. "First," says +Dr. Wiseman, "he has examined the lexical resemblances, and shewn +that the primary and most simple words are the same in both, as well +as the numerals and elementary verbal roots. Then follows a minute +analysis of the verb, directed to shew its analogies with other +languages, and they are such as manifest no casual coincidence, but +an internal structure radically the same. The verb substantive, +which is minutely analysed, presents more striking analogies to the +Persian verb than perhaps any other language of the family. But +Celtic is not thus become a mere member of this confederacy, but has +brought to it most important aid; for, from it alone can be +satisfactorily explained some of the conjugational endings in the +other languages. For instance, the third person plural of the Latin, +Persian, Greek, and Sanscrit ends in nt, nd, [Greek], [Greek], nti, +or nt. Now, supposing, with most grammarians, that the inflexions +arose from the pronouns of the respective persons, it is only in +Celtic that we find a pronoun that can explain this termination; for +there, too, the same person ends in nt, and thus corresponds exactly, +as do the others, with its pronoun, hwynt, or ynt." + +{291} Schoolcraft. + +{293} Views of the Cordilleras. + +{302} The problem of Chinese civilization, such as it is--so +puzzling when we consider that they are only, as will be presently +seen, the child race of mankind--is solved when we look to +geographical position producing fixity of residence and density of +population. + +{307a} Lord's Popular Physiology, explaining observations by M. +Serres. + +{307b} Conformably to this view, the beard, that peculiar attribute +of maturity, is scanty in the Mongolian, and scarcely exists in the +Americans and Negroes. + +{309} Of this we have perhaps an illustration in the peculiarities +which distinguish the Arabs residing in the valley of the Jordan. +They have flatter features, darker skins, and coarser hair than other +tribes of their nation; and we have seen one instance of a thoroughly +Negro family being born to an ordinary couple. It may be presumed +that the conditions of the life of these people tend to arrest +development. We thus see how an offshoot of the human family +migrating at an early period into Africa, might in time, from +subjection to similar influences, become Negroes. + +{317} Missionary Scenes and Labours in South Africa. + +{326} "Is not God the first cause of matter as well as of mind? Do +not the first attributes of matter lie as inscrutable in the bosom of +God--of its first author--as those of mind? Has not even matter +confessedly received from God the power of experiencing, in +consequence of impressions from the earlier modifications of matter, +certain consciousnesses called sensations of the same? Is not, +therefore, the wonder of matter also receiving the consciousnesses of +other matter called ideas of the mind a wonder more flowing out of +and in analogy with all former wonders, than would be, on the +contrary, the wonder of this faculty of the mind not flowing out of +any faculties of matter? Is it not a wonder which, so far from +destroying our hopes of immortality, can establish that doctrine on a +train of inferences and inductions more firmly established and more +connected with each other than the former belief can be, as soon as +we have proved that matter is not perishable, but is only liable to +successive combinations and decombinations. + +"Can we look farther back one way into the first origin of matter +than we can look forward the other way into the last developments of +mind? Can we say that God has not in matter itself laid the seeds of +every faculty of mind, rather than that he has made the first +principle of mind entirely distinct from that of matter? Cannot the +first cause of all we see and know have FRAUGHT MATTER ITSELF, FROM +ITS VERY BEGINNING, WITH ALL THE ATTRIBUTES NECESSARY TO DEVELOP INTO +MIND, as well as he can have from the first made the attributes of +mind wholly different from those of matter, only in order afterwards, +by an imperceptible and incomprehensible link, to join the two +together? + +" * * [The decombination of the matter on which mind rests] is this a +reason why mind must be annihilated? Is the temporary reverting of +the mind, and of the sense out of which that mind developes, to their +original component elements, a reason for thinking that they cannot +again at another later period, and in another higher globe, be again +recombined, and with more splendour than before? * * The New +Testament does not after death here promise us a soul hereafter +unconnected with matter, and which has no connexion with our present +mind--a soul independent of time and space. That is a fanciful idea, +not founded on its expressions, when taken in their just and real +meaning. On the contrary, it promises us a mind like the present, +founded on time and space; since it is, like the present, to hold a +certain situation in time, and a certain locality in space. But it +promises a mind situated in portions of time and of space different +from the present; a mind composed of elements of matter more +extended, more perfect, and more glorious: a mind which, formed of +materials supplied by different globes, is consequently able to see +farther into the past, and to think farther into the future, than any +mind here existing: a mind which, freed from the partial and uneven +combination incidental to it on this globe, will be exempt from the +changes for evil to which, on the present globe, mind as well as +matter is liable, and will only thenceforth experience the changes +for the better which matter, more justly poised, will alone continue +to experience: a mind which, no longer fearing the death, the total +decomposition, to which it is subject on this globe, will thenceforth +continue last and immortal."--HOPE, on the Origin and Prospects of +Man, 1831. + +{331} Dublin Review, Aug. 1840. The Guarantee Society has since +been established, and is likely to become a useful and prosperous +institution. + +{333} The ray, which is considered the lowest in the scale of +fishes, or next to the crustaceans, gives the first faint +representation of a brain in certain scanty and medullary masses, +which appear as merely composed of enlarged origins of the nerves. + +{335} If mental action is electric, the proverbial quickness of +thought--that is, the quickness of the transmission of sensation and +will--may be presumed to have been brought to an exact measurement. +The speed of light has long been known to be about 192,000 miles per +second, and the experiments of Wheatstone have shewn that the +electric agent travels (if I may so speak) at the same rate, thus +shewing a likelihood that one law rules the movements of all the +"imponderable bodies." Mental action may accordingly be presumed to +have a rapidity equal to one hundred and ninety-two thousand miles in +the second--a rate evidently far beyond what is necessary to make the +design and execution of any of our ordinary muscular movements +apparently identical in point of time, which they are. + +{346} Phrenological Journal, xv. 338. + +{347} A pampered lap-dog, living where there is another of its own +species, will hide any nice morsel which it cannot eat, under a rug, +or in some other by-place, designing to enjoy it afterwards. 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