diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/7142.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/7142.txt | 18994 |
1 files changed, 18994 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/7142.txt b/old/7142.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..05bfeec --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7142.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18994 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The History of the Peloponnesian War, by Thucydides + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of the Peloponnesian War + +Author: Thucydides + +Translator: Richard Crawley + +Release Date: December, 2004 [EBook #7142] +Posting Date: May 1, 2009 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PELOPONNESIAN WAR *** + + + + +Produced by Albert Imrie + + + + + + + + +THE HISTORY OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR + +By Thucydides 431 BC + +Translated by Richard Crawley + + + + + With Permission + to + CONNOP THIRLWALL + Historian of Greece + This Translation of the Work of His + Great Predecessor + is Respectfully Inscribed + by --The Translator-- + + + + +CONTENTS + + + BOOK I + + CHAPTER I + The state of Greece from the earliest Times to the + Commencement of the Peloponnesian War + + CHAPTER II + Causes of the War--The Affair of Epidamnus-- + The Affair of Potidaea + + CHAPTER III + Congress of the Peloponnesian Confederacy at + Lacedaemon + + CHAPTER IV + From the End of the Persian to the Beginning of + the Peloponnesian War--The Progress from + Supremacy to Empire + + CHAPTER V + Second Congress at Lacedaemon--Preparations for + War and Diplomatic Skirmishes--Cylon-- + Pausanias--Themistocles + + + BOOK II + + CHAPTER VI + Beginning of the Peloponnesian War--First + Invasion of Attica--Funeral Oration of Pericles + + CHAPTER VII + Second Year of the War--The Plague of Athens-- + Position and Policy of Pericles--Fall of Potidaea + + CHAPTER VIII + Third Year of the War--Investment of Plataea-- + Naval Victories of Phormio--Thracian Irruption + into Macedonia under Sitalces + + + BOOK III + + CHAPTER IX + Fourth and Fifth Years of the War--Revolt of + Mitylene + + CHAPTER X + Fifth Year of the War--Trial and Execution of the + Plataeans--Corcyraean Revolution + + CHAPTER XI + Sixth Year of the War--Campaigns of Demosthenes + in Western Greece--Ruin of Ambracia + + + BOOK IV + + CHAPTER XII + Seventh Year of the War--Occupation of pylos-- + Surrender of the Spartan Army in Sphacteria + + CHAPTER XIII + Seventh and Eighth Years of the War--End of + Corcyraean Revolution--Peace of Gela-- + Capture of Nisaea + + CHAPTER XIV + Eighth and Ninth Years of the War--Invasion of + Boeotia--Fall of Amphipolis--Brilliant Successes + of Brasidas + + + BOOK V + + CHAPTER XV + Tenth Year of the War--Death of Cleon and + Brasidas--Peace of Nicias + + CHAPTER XVI + Feeling against Sparta in Peloponnese--League + of the Mantineans, Eleans, Argives, and + Athenians--Battle of Mantinea and breaking up of + the League + + CHAPTER XVII + Sixteenth Year of the War--The Melian + Conference--Fate of Melos + + + BOOK VI + + CHAPTER XVIII + Seventeenth Year of the War--The Sicilian + Campaign--Affair of the Hermae--Departure of the + Expedition + + CHAPTER XIX + Seventeenth Year of the War--Parties at Syracuse-- + Story of Harmodius and Aristogiton-- + Disgrace of Alcibiades + + CHAPTER XX + Seventeenth and Eighteenth Years of the War-- + Inaction of the Athenian Army--Alcibiades at + Sparta--Investment of Syracuse + + + BOOK VII + + CHAPTER XXI + Eighteenth and Nineteenth Years of the War-- + Arrival of Gylippus at Syracuse--Fortification + of Decelea--Successes of the Syracusans + + CHAPTER XXII + Nineteenth Year of the War--Arrival of + Demosthenes--Defeat of the Athenians at Epipolae-- + Folly and Obstinacy of Nicias + + CHAPTER XXIII + Nineteenth Year of the War--Battles in the Great + Harbour--Retreat and Annihilation of the + Athenian Army + + + BOOK VIII + + CHAPTER XXIV + Nineteenth and Twentieth Years of the War-- + Revolt of Ionia--Intervention of Persia--The + War in Ionia + + CHAPTER XXV + Twentieth and Twenty-first Years of the War-- + Intrigues of Alcibiades--Withdrawal of the + Persian Subsidies--Oligarchical Coup d'Etat + at Athens--Patriotism of the Army at Samos + + CHAPTER XXVI + Twenty first Year of the War--Recall of + Alcibiades to Samos--Revolt of Euboea and + Downfall of the Four Hundred--Battle of Cynossema + + + + + +BOOK I + + + +CHAPTER I + +_The State of Greece from the earliest Times to the Commencement of the +Peloponnesian War_ + +Thucydides, an Athenian, wrote the history of the war between the +Peloponnesians and the Athenians, beginning at the moment that it broke +out, and believing that it would be a great war and more worthy of +relation than any that had preceded it. This belief was not without +its grounds. The preparations of both the combatants were in every +department in the last state of perfection; and he could see the rest of +the Hellenic race taking sides in the quarrel; those who delayed doing +so at once having it in contemplation. Indeed this was the greatest +movement yet known in history, not only of the Hellenes, but of a large +part of the barbarian world--I had almost said of mankind. For though +the events of remote antiquity, and even those that more immediately +preceded the war, could not from lapse of time be clearly ascertained, +yet the evidences which an inquiry carried as far back as was +practicable leads me to trust, all point to the conclusion that there +was nothing on a great scale, either in war or in other matters. + +For instance, it is evident that the country now called Hellas had in +ancient times no settled population; on the contrary, migrations were of +frequent occurrence, the several tribes readily abandoning their homes +under the pressure of superior numbers. Without commerce, without +freedom of communication either by land or sea, cultivating no more +of their territory than the exigencies of life required, destitute of +capital, never planting their land (for they could not tell when an +invader might not come and take it all away, and when he did come +they had no walls to stop him), thinking that the necessities of daily +sustenance could be supplied at one place as well as another, they cared +little for shifting their habitation, and consequently neither built +large cities nor attained to any other form of greatness. The richest +soils were always most subject to this change of masters; such as the +district now called Thessaly, Boeotia, most of the Peloponnese, Arcadia +excepted, and the most fertile parts of the rest of Hellas. The goodness +of the land favoured the aggrandizement of particular individuals, and +thus created faction which proved a fertile source of ruin. It also +invited invasion. Accordingly Attica, from the poverty of its soil +enjoying from a very remote period freedom from faction, never changed +its inhabitants. And here is no inconsiderable exemplification of +my assertion that the migrations were the cause of there being no +correspondent growth in other parts. The most powerful victims of war or +faction from the rest of Hellas took refuge with the Athenians as a +safe retreat; and at an early period, becoming naturalized, swelled the +already large population of the city to such a height that Attica became +at last too small to hold them, and they had to send out colonies to +Ionia. + +There is also another circumstance that contributes not a little to my +conviction of the weakness of ancient times. Before the Trojan war +there is no indication of any common action in Hellas, nor indeed of the +universal prevalence of the name; on the contrary, before the time of +Hellen, son of Deucalion, no such appellation existed, but the country +went by the names of the different tribes, in particular of the +Pelasgian. It was not till Hellen and his sons grew strong in Phthiotis, +and were invited as allies into the other cities, that one by one they +gradually acquired from the connection the name of Hellenes; though a +long time elapsed before that name could fasten itself upon all. The +best proof of this is furnished by Homer. Born long after the Trojan +War, he nowhere calls all of them by that name, nor indeed any of them +except the followers of Achilles from Phthiotis, who were the original +Hellenes: in his poems they are called Danaans, Argives, and Achaeans. +He does not even use the term barbarian, probably because the +Hellenes had not yet been marked off from the rest of the world by one +distinctive appellation. It appears therefore that the several Hellenic +communities, comprising not only those who first acquired the name, +city by city, as they came to understand each other, but also those who +assumed it afterwards as the name of the whole people, were before the +Trojan war prevented by their want of strength and the absence of mutual +intercourse from displaying any collective action. + +Indeed, they could not unite for this expedition till they had gained +increased familiarity with the sea. And the first person known to us by +tradition as having established a navy is Minos. He made himself master +of what is now called the Hellenic sea, and ruled over the Cyclades, +into most of which he sent the first colonies, expelling the Carians +and appointing his own sons governors; and thus did his best to put down +piracy in those waters, a necessary step to secure the revenues for his +own use. + +For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and +islands, as communication by sea became more common, were tempted to +turn pirates, under the conduct of their most powerful men; the motives +being to serve their own cupidity and to support the needy. They +would fall upon a town unprotected by walls, and consisting of a mere +collection of villages, and would plunder it; indeed, this came to be +the main source of their livelihood, no disgrace being yet attached to +such an achievement, but even some glory. An illustration of this +is furnished by the honour with which some of the inhabitants of the +continent still regard a successful marauder, and by the question we +find the old poets everywhere representing the people as asking of +voyagers--"Are they pirates?"--as if those who are asked the question +would have no idea of disclaiming the imputation, or their interrogators +of reproaching them for it. The same rapine prevailed also by land. + +And even at the present day many of Hellas still follow the old fashion, +the Ozolian Locrians for instance, the Aetolians, the Acarnanians, and +that region of the continent; and the custom of carrying arms is still +kept up among these continentals, from the old piratical habits. +The whole of Hellas used once to carry arms, their habitations being +unprotected and their communication with each other unsafe; indeed, +to wear arms was as much a part of everyday life with them as with the +barbarians. And the fact that the people in these parts of Hellas are +still living in the old way points to a time when the same mode of life +was once equally common to all. The Athenians were the first to lay +aside their weapons, and to adopt an easier and more luxurious mode of +life; indeed, it is only lately that their rich old men left off the +luxury of wearing undergarments of linen, and fastening a knot of their +hair with a tie of golden grasshoppers, a fashion which spread to +their Ionian kindred and long prevailed among the old men there. On the +contrary, a modest style of dressing, more in conformity with modern +ideas, was first adopted by the Lacedaemonians, the rich doing their +best to assimilate their way of life to that of the common people. +They also set the example of contending naked, publicly stripping and +anointing themselves with oil in their gymnastic exercises. Formerly, +even in the Olympic contests, the athletes who contended wore belts +across their middles; and it is but a few years since that the practice +ceased. To this day among some of the barbarians, especially in Asia, +when prizes for boxing and wrestling are offered, belts are worn by the +combatants. And there are many other points in which a likeness might be +shown between the life of the Hellenic world of old and the barbarian of +to-day. + +With respect to their towns, later on, at an era of increased facilities +of navigation and a greater supply of capital, we find the shores +becoming the site of walled towns, and the isthmuses being occupied for +the purposes of commerce and defence against a neighbour. But the old +towns, on account of the great prevalence of piracy, were built away +from the sea, whether on the islands or the continent, and still remain +in their old sites. For the pirates used to plunder one another, and +indeed all coast populations, whether seafaring or not. + +The islanders, too, were great pirates. These islanders were Carians and +Phoenicians, by whom most of the islands were colonized, as was proved +by the following fact. During the purification of Delos by Athens in +this war all the graves in the island were taken up, and it was found +that above half their inmates were Carians: they were identified by the +fashion of the arms buried with them, and by the method of interment, +which was the same as the Carians still follow. But as soon as Minos +had formed his navy, communication by sea became easier, as he colonized +most of the islands, and thus expelled the malefactors. The coast +population now began to apply themselves more closely to the acquisition +of wealth, and their life became more settled; some even began to build +themselves walls on the strength of their newly acquired riches. For the +love of gain would reconcile the weaker to the dominion of the stronger, +and the possession of capital enabled the more powerful to reduce the +smaller towns to subjection. And it was at a somewhat later stage of +this development that they went on the expedition against Troy. + +What enabled Agamemnon to raise the armament was more, in my opinion, +his superiority in strength, than the oaths of Tyndareus, which +bound the suitors to follow him. Indeed, the account given by those +Peloponnesians who have been the recipients of the most credible +tradition is this. First of all Pelops, arriving among a needy +population from Asia with vast wealth, acquired such power that, +stranger though he was, the country was called after him; and this power +fortune saw fit materially to increase in the hands of his descendants. +Eurystheus had been killed in Attica by the Heraclids. Atreus was his +mother's brother; and to the hands of his relation, who had left his +father on account of the death of Chrysippus, Eurystheus, when he set +out on his expedition, had committed Mycenae and the government. As time +went on and Eurystheus did not return, Atreus complied with the +wishes of the Mycenaeans, who were influenced by fear of the +Heraclids--besides, his power seemed considerable, and he had not +neglected to court the favour of the populace--and assumed the sceptre +of Mycenae and the rest of the dominions of Eurystheus. And so the +power of the descendants of Pelops came to be greater than that of the +descendants of Perseus. To all this Agamemnon succeeded. He had also a +navy far stronger than his contemporaries, so that, in my opinion, +fear was quite as strong an element as love in the formation of the +confederate expedition. The strength of his navy is shown by the fact +that his own was the largest contingent, and that of the Arcadians was +furnished by him; this at least is what Homer says, if his testimony is +deemed sufficient. Besides, in his account of the transmission of the +sceptre, he calls him + + Of many an isle, and of all Argos king. + +Now Agamemnon's was a continental power; and he could not have been +master of any except the adjacent islands (and these would not be many), +but through the possession of a fleet. + +And from this expedition we may infer the character of earlier +enterprises. Now Mycenae may have been a small place, and many of the +towns of that age may appear comparatively insignificant, but no exact +observer would therefore feel justified in rejecting the estimate given +by the poets and by tradition of the magnitude of the armament. For I +suppose if Lacedaemon were to become desolate, and the temples and the +foundations of the public buildings were left, that as time went on +there would be a strong disposition with posterity to refuse to accept +her fame as a true exponent of her power. And yet they occupy two-fifths +of Peloponnese and lead the whole, not to speak of their numerous allies +without. Still, as the city is neither built in a compact form nor +adorned with magnificent temples and public edifices, but composed of +villages after the old fashion of Hellas, there would be an impression +of inadequacy. Whereas, if Athens were to suffer the same misfortune, +I suppose that any inference from the appearance presented to the eye +would make her power to have been twice as great as it is. We have +therefore no right to be sceptical, nor to content ourselves with an +inspection of a town to the exclusion of a consideration of its power; +but we may safely conclude that the armament in question surpassed +all before it, as it fell short of modern efforts; if we can here also +accept the testimony of Homer's poems, in which, without allowing for +the exaggeration which a poet would feel himself licensed to employ, we +can see that it was far from equalling ours. He has represented it as +consisting of twelve hundred vessels; the Boeotian complement of each +ship being a hundred and twenty men, that of the ships of Philoctetes +fifty. By this, I conceive, he meant to convey the maximum and the +minimum complement: at any rate, he does not specify the amount of any +others in his catalogue of the ships. That they were all rowers as well +as warriors we see from his account of the ships of Philoctetes, in +which all the men at the oar are bowmen. Now it is improbable that +many supernumeraries sailed, if we except the kings and high officers; +especially as they had to cross the open sea with munitions of war, +in ships, moreover, that had no decks, but were equipped in the old +piratical fashion. So that if we strike the average of the largest +and smallest ships, the number of those who sailed will appear +inconsiderable, representing, as they did, the whole force of Hellas. +And this was due not so much to scarcity of men as of money. Difficulty +of subsistence made the invaders reduce the numbers of the army to a +point at which it might live on the country during the prosecution of +the war. Even after the victory they obtained on their arrival--and a +victory there must have been, or the fortifications of the naval camp +could never have been built--there is no indication of their whole +force having been employed; on the contrary, they seem to have turned to +cultivation of the Chersonese and to piracy from want of supplies. This +was what really enabled the Trojans to keep the field for ten years +against them; the dispersion of the enemy making them always a match for +the detachment left behind. If they had brought plenty of supplies with +them, and had persevered in the war without scattering for piracy and +agriculture, they would have easily defeated the Trojans in the field, +since they could hold their own against them with the division on +service. In short, if they had stuck to the siege, the capture of Troy +would have cost them less time and less trouble. But as want of money +proved the weakness of earlier expeditions, so from the same cause +even the one in question, more famous than its predecessors, may be +pronounced on the evidence of what it effected to have been inferior to +its renown and to the current opinion about it formed under the tuition +of the poets. + +Even after the Trojan War, Hellas was still engaged in removing and +settling, and thus could not attain to the quiet which must precede +growth. The late return of the Hellenes from Ilium caused many +revolutions, and factions ensued almost everywhere; and it was the +citizens thus driven into exile who founded the cities. Sixty years +after the capture of Ilium, the modern Boeotians were driven out of +Arne by the Thessalians, and settled in the present Boeotia, the former +Cadmeis; though there was a division of them there before, some of whom +joined the expedition to Ilium. Twenty years later, the Dorians and the +Heraclids became masters of Peloponnese; so that much had to be done +and many years had to elapse before Hellas could attain to a durable +tranquillity undisturbed by removals, and could begin to send out +colonies, as Athens did to Ionia and most of the islands, and the +Peloponnesians to most of Italy and Sicily and some places in the rest +of Hellas. All these places were founded subsequently to the war with +Troy. + +But as the power of Hellas grew, and the acquisition of wealth became +more an object, the revenues of the states increasing, tyrannies were +by their means established almost everywhere--the old form of government +being hereditary monarchy with definite prerogatives--and Hellas began +to fit out fleets and apply herself more closely to the sea. It is said +that the Corinthians were the first to approach the modern style of +naval architecture, and that Corinth was the first place in Hellas where +galleys were built; and we have Ameinocles, a Corinthian shipwright, +making four ships for the Samians. Dating from the end of this war, it +is nearly three hundred years ago that Ameinocles went to Samos. Again, +the earliest sea-fight in history was between the Corinthians and +Corcyraeans; this was about two hundred and sixty years ago, dating from +the same time. Planted on an isthmus, Corinth had from time out of mind +been a commercial emporium; as formerly almost all communication between +the Hellenes within and without Peloponnese was carried on overland, and +the Corinthian territory was the highway through which it travelled. +She had consequently great money resources, as is shown by the epithet +"wealthy" bestowed by the old poets on the place, and this enabled her, +when traffic by sea became more common, to procure her navy and put down +piracy; and as she could offer a mart for both branches of the trade, +she acquired for herself all the power which a large revenue affords. +Subsequently the Ionians attained to great naval strength in the reign +of Cyrus, the first king of the Persians, and of his son Cambyses, and +while they were at war with the former commanded for a while the Ionian +sea. Polycrates also, the tyrant of Samos, had a powerful navy in the +reign of Cambyses, with which he reduced many of the islands, and among +them Rhenea, which he consecrated to the Delian Apollo. About this time +also the Phocaeans, while they were founding Marseilles, defeated the +Carthaginians in a sea-fight. These were the most powerful navies. And +even these, although so many generations had elapsed since the Trojan +war, seem to have been principally composed of the old fifty-oars and +long-boats, and to have counted few galleys among their ranks. Indeed it +was only shortly the Persian war, and the death of Darius the successor +of Cambyses, that the Sicilian tyrants and the Corcyraeans acquired any +large number of galleys. For after these there were no navies of any +account in Hellas till the expedition of Xerxes; Aegina, Athens, and +others may have possessed a few vessels, but they were principally +fifty-oars. It was quite at the end of this period that the war with +Aegina and the prospect of the barbarian invasion enabled Themistocles +to persuade the Athenians to build the fleet with which they fought at +Salamis; and even these vessels had not complete decks. + +The navies, then, of the Hellenes during the period we have traversed +were what I have described. All their insignificance did not prevent +their being an element of the greatest power to those who cultivated +them, alike in revenue and in dominion. They were the means by which the +islands were reached and reduced, those of the smallest area falling the +easiest prey. Wars by land there were none, none at least by which +power was acquired; we have the usual border contests, but of distant +expeditions with conquest for object we hear nothing among the Hellenes. +There was no union of subject cities round a great state, no spontaneous +combination of equals for confederate expeditions; what fighting there +was consisted merely of local warfare between rival neighbours. The +nearest approach to a coalition took place in the old war between +Chalcis and Eretria; this was a quarrel in which the rest of the +Hellenic name did to some extent take sides. + +Various, too, were the obstacles which the national growth encountered +in various localities. The power of the Ionians was advancing with rapid +strides, when it came into collision with Persia, under King Cyrus, who, +after having dethroned Croesus and overrun everything between the Halys +and the sea, stopped not till he had reduced the cities of the coast; +the islands being only left to be subdued by Darius and the Phoenician +navy. + +Again, wherever there were tyrants, their habit of providing simply +for themselves, of looking solely to their personal comfort and family +aggrandizement, made safety the great aim of their policy, and prevented +anything great proceeding from them; though they would each have their +affairs with their immediate neighbours. All this is only true of the +mother country, for in Sicily they attained to very great power. Thus +for a long time everywhere in Hellas do we find causes which make the +states alike incapable of combination for great and national ends, or of +any vigorous action of their own. + +But at last a time came when the tyrants of Athens and the far older +tyrannies of the rest of Hellas were, with the exception of those in +Sicily, once and for all put down by Lacedaemon; for this city, though +after the settlement of the Dorians, its present inhabitants, it +suffered from factions for an unparalleled length of time, still at a +very early period obtained good laws, and enjoyed a freedom from tyrants +which was unbroken; it has possessed the same form of government for +more than four hundred years, reckoning to the end of the late war, and +has thus been in a position to arrange the affairs of the other states. +Not many years after the deposition of the tyrants, the battle of +Marathon was fought between the Medes and the Athenians. Ten years +afterwards, the barbarian returned with the armada for the subjugation +of Hellas. In the face of this great danger, the command of the +confederate Hellenes was assumed by the Lacedaemonians in virtue of +their superior power; and the Athenians, having made up their minds to +abandon their city, broke up their homes, threw themselves into their +ships, and became a naval people. This coalition, after repulsing the +barbarian, soon afterwards split into two sections, which included the +Hellenes who had revolted from the King, as well as those who had aided +him in the war. At the end of the one stood Athens, at the head of the +other Lacedaemon, one the first naval, the other the first military +power in Hellas. For a short time the league held together, till the +Lacedaemonians and Athenians quarrelled and made war upon each other +with their allies, a duel into which all the Hellenes sooner or later +were drawn, though some might at first remain neutral. So that the whole +period from the Median war to this, with some peaceful intervals, was +spent by each power in war, either with its rival, or with its own +revolted allies, and consequently afforded them constant practice in +military matters, and that experience which is learnt in the school of +danger. + +The policy of Lacedaemon was not to exact tribute from her allies, but +merely to secure their subservience to her interests by establishing +oligarchies among them; Athens, on the contrary, had by degrees deprived +hers of their ships, and imposed instead contributions in money on +all except Chios and Lesbos. Both found their resources for this +war separately to exceed the sum of their strength when the alliance +flourished intact. + +Having now given the result of my inquiries into early times, I grant +that there will be a difficulty in believing every particular detail. +The way that most men deal with traditions, even traditions of their +own country, is to receive them all alike as they are delivered, without +applying any critical test whatever. The general Athenian public fancy +that Hipparchus was tyrant when he fell by the hands of Harmodius +and Aristogiton, not knowing that Hippias, the eldest of the sons of +Pisistratus, was really supreme, and that Hipparchus and Thessalus were +his brothers; and that Harmodius and Aristogiton suspecting, on the very +day, nay at the very moment fixed on for the deed, that information had +been conveyed to Hippias by their accomplices, concluded that he had +been warned, and did not attack him, yet, not liking to be apprehended +and risk their lives for nothing, fell upon Hipparchus near the +temple of the daughters of Leos, and slew him as he was arranging the +Panathenaic procession. + +There are many other unfounded ideas current among the rest of the +Hellenes, even on matters of contemporary history, which have not +been obscured by time. For instance, there is the notion that the +Lacedaemonian kings have two votes each, the fact being that they have +only one; and that there is a company of Pitane, there being simply no +such thing. So little pains do the vulgar take in the investigation +of truth, accepting readily the first story that comes to hand. On the +whole, however, the conclusions I have drawn from the proofs quoted may, +I believe, safely be relied on. Assuredly they will not be disturbed +either by the lays of a poet displaying the exaggeration of his craft, +or by the compositions of the chroniclers that are attractive at truth's +expense; the subjects they treat of being out of the reach of evidence, +and time having robbed most of them of historical value by enthroning +them in the region of legend. Turning from these, we can rest satisfied +with having proceeded upon the clearest data, and having arrived at +conclusions as exact as can be expected in matters of such antiquity. +To come to this war: despite the known disposition of the actors in a +struggle to overrate its importance, and when it is over to return to +their admiration of earlier events, yet an examination of the facts will +show that it was much greater than the wars which preceded it. + +With reference to the speeches in this history, some were delivered +before the war began, others while it was going on; some I heard myself, +others I got from various quarters; it was in all cases difficult to +carry them word for word in one's memory, so my habit has been to make +the speakers say what was in my opinion demanded of them by the various +occasions, of course adhering as closely as possible to the general +sense of what they really said. And with reference to the narrative of +events, far from permitting myself to derive it from the first source +that came to hand, I did not even trust my own impressions, but it +rests partly on what I saw myself, partly on what others saw for me, +the accuracy of the report being always tried by the most severe and +detailed tests possible. My conclusions have cost me some labour from +the want of coincidence between accounts of the same occurrences by +different eye-witnesses, arising sometimes from imperfect memory, +sometimes from undue partiality for one side or the other. The absence +of romance in my history will, I fear, detract somewhat from its +interest; but if it be judged useful by those inquirers who desire +an exact knowledge of the past as an aid to the interpretation of the +future, which in the course of human things must resemble if it does not +reflect it, I shall be content. In fine, I have written my work, not as +an essay which is to win the applause of the moment, but as a possession +for all time. + +The Median War, the greatest achievement of past times, yet found a +speedy decision in two actions by sea and two by land. The Peloponnesian +War was prolonged to an immense length, and, long as it was, it was +short without parallel for the misfortunes that it brought upon Hellas. +Never had so many cities been taken and laid desolate, here by the +barbarians, here by the parties contending (the old inhabitants being +sometimes removed to make room for others); never was there so much +banishing and blood-shedding, now on the field of battle, now in the +strife of faction. Old stories of occurrences handed down by tradition, +but scantily confirmed by experience, suddenly ceased to be incredible; +there were earthquakes of unparalleled extent and violence; eclipses of +the sun occurred with a frequency unrecorded in previous history; there +were great droughts in sundry places and consequent famines, and that +most calamitous and awfully fatal visitation, the plague. All this +came upon them with the late war, which was begun by the Athenians and +Peloponnesians by the dissolution of the thirty years' truce made after +the conquest of Euboea. To the question why they broke the treaty, I +answer by placing first an account of their grounds of complaint and +points of difference, that no one may ever have to ask the immediate +cause which plunged the Hellenes into a war of such magnitude. The +real cause I consider to be the one which was formally most kept out +of sight. The growth of the power of Athens, and the alarm which this +inspired in Lacedaemon, made war inevitable. Still it is well to give +the grounds alleged by either side which led to the dissolution of the +treaty and the breaking out of the war. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +_Causes of the War--The Affair of Epidamnus--The Affair of Potidaea_ + +The city of Epidamnus stands on the right of the entrance of the Ionic +Gulf. Its vicinity is inhabited by the Taulantians, an Illyrian +people. The place is a colony from Corcyra, founded by Phalius, son +of Eratocleides, of the family of the Heraclids, who had according to +ancient usage been summoned for the purpose from Corinth, the mother +country. The colonists were joined by some Corinthians, and others of +the Dorian race. Now, as time went on, the city of Epidamnus became +great and populous; but falling a prey to factions arising, it is +said, from a war with her neighbours the barbarians, she became much +enfeebled, and lost a considerable amount of her power. The last act +before the war was the expulsion of the nobles by the people. The exiled +party joined the barbarians, and proceeded to plunder those in the city +by sea and land; and the Epidamnians, finding themselves hard pressed, +sent ambassadors to Corcyra beseeching their mother country not to allow +them to perish, but to make up matters between them and the exiles, +and to rid them of the war with the barbarians. The ambassadors seated +themselves in the temple of Hera as suppliants, and made the above +requests to the Corcyraeans. But the Corcyraeans refused to accept their +supplication, and they were dismissed without having effected anything. + +When the Epidamnians found that no help could be expected from Corcyra, +they were in a strait what to do next. So they sent to Delphi and +inquired of the God whether they should deliver their city to the +Corinthians and endeavour to obtain some assistance from their founders. +The answer he gave them was to deliver the city and place themselves +under Corinthian protection. So the Epidamnians went to Corinth and +delivered over the colony in obedience to the commands of the oracle. +They showed that their founder came from Corinth, and revealed the +answer of the god; and they begged them not to allow them to perish, +but to assist them. This the Corinthians consented to do. Believing the +colony to belong as much to themselves as to the Corcyraeans, they felt +it to be a kind of duty to undertake their protection. Besides, they +hated the Corcyraeans for their contempt of the mother country. Instead +of meeting with the usual honours accorded to the parent city by every +other colony at public assemblies, such as precedence at sacrifices, +Corinth found herself treated with contempt by a power which in point of +wealth could stand comparison with any even of the richest communities +in Hellas, which possessed great military strength, and which sometimes +could not repress a pride in the high naval position of an island +whose nautical renown dated from the days of its old inhabitants, the +Phaeacians. This was one reason of the care that they lavished on their +fleet, which became very efficient; indeed they began the war with a +force of a hundred and twenty galleys. + +All these grievances made Corinth eager to send the promised aid to +Epidamnus. Advertisement was made for volunteer settlers, and a force of +Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Corinthians was dispatched. They marched by +land to Apollonia, a Corinthian colony, the route by sea being avoided +from fear of Corcyraean interruption. When the Corcyraeans heard of the +arrival of the settlers and troops in Epidamnus, and the surrender of +the colony to Corinth, they took fire. Instantly putting to sea with +five-and-twenty ships, which were quickly followed by others, they +insolently commanded the Epidamnians to receive back the banished +nobles--(it must be premised that the Epidamnian exiles had come to +Corcyra and, pointing to the sepulchres of their ancestors, had appealed +to their kindred to restore them)--and to dismiss the Corinthian +garrison and settlers. But to all this the Epidamnians turned a deaf +ear. Upon this the Corcyraeans commenced operations against them with +a fleet of forty sail. They took with them the exiles, with a view +to their restoration, and also secured the services of the Illyrians. +Sitting down before the city, they issued a proclamation to the effect +that any of the natives that chose, and the foreigners, might depart +unharmed, with the alternative of being treated as enemies. On their +refusal the Corcyraeans proceeded to besiege the city, which stands +on an isthmus; and the Corinthians, receiving intelligence of the +investment of Epidamnus, got together an armament and proclaimed a +colony to Epidamnus, perfect political equality being guaranteed to all +who chose to go. Any who were not prepared to sail at once might, by +paying down the sum of fifty Corinthian drachmae, have a share in the +colony without leaving Corinth. Great numbers took advantage of this +proclamation, some being ready to start directly, others paying the +requisite forfeit. In case of their passage being disputed by the +Corcyraeans, several cities were asked to lend them a convoy. Megara +prepared to accompany them with eight ships, Pale in Cephallonia with +four; Epidaurus furnished five, Hermione one, Troezen two, Leucas ten, +and Ambracia eight. The Thebans and Phliasians were asked for money, the +Eleans for hulls as well; while Corinth herself furnished thirty ships +and three thousand heavy infantry. + +When the Corcyraeans heard of their preparations they came to Corinth +with envoys from Lacedaemon and Sicyon, whom they persuaded to accompany +them, and bade her recall the garrison and settlers, as she had nothing +to do with Epidamnus. If, however, she had any claims to make, they were +willing to submit the matter to the arbitration of such of the cities in +Peloponnese as should be chosen by mutual agreement, and that the colony +should remain with the city to whom the arbitrators might assign it. +They were also willing to refer the matter to the oracle at Delphi. If, +in defiance of their protestations, war was appealed to, they should be +themselves compelled by this violence to seek friends in quarters where +they had no desire to seek them, and to make even old ties give way to +the necessity of assistance. The answer they got from Corinth was that, +if they would withdraw their fleet and the barbarians from Epidamnus, +negotiation might be possible; but, while the town was still being +besieged, going before arbitrators was out of the question. The +Corcyraeans retorted that if Corinth would withdraw her troops from +Epidamnus they would withdraw theirs, or they were ready to let both +parties remain in statu quo, an armistice being concluded till judgment +could be given. + +Turning a deaf ear to all these proposals, when their ships were manned +and their allies had come in, the Corinthians sent a herald before them +to declare war and, getting under way with seventy-five ships and two +thousand heavy infantry, sailed for Epidamnus to give battle to the +Corcyraeans. The fleet was under the command of Aristeus, son of +Pellichas, Callicrates, son of Callias, and Timanor, son of Timanthes; +the troops under that of Archetimus, son of Eurytimus, and Isarchidas, +son of Isarchus. When they had reached Actium in the territory of +Anactorium, at the mouth of the mouth of the Gulf of Ambracia, where +the temple of Apollo stands, the Corcyraeans sent on a herald in a light +boat to warn them not to sail against them. Meanwhile they proceeded +to man their ships, all of which had been equipped for action, the old +vessels being undergirded to make them seaworthy. On the return of the +herald without any peaceful answer from the Corinthians, their ships +being now manned, they put out to sea to meet the enemy with a fleet of +eighty sail (forty were engaged in the siege of Epidamnus), formed +line, and went into action, and gained a decisive victory, and destroyed +fifteen of the Corinthian vessels. The same day had seen Epidamnus +compelled by its besiegers to capitulate; the conditions being that the +foreigners should be sold, and the Corinthians kept as prisoners of war, +till their fate should be otherwise decided. + +After the engagement the Corcyraeans set up a trophy on Leukimme, a +headland of Corcyra, and slew all their captives except the Corinthians, +whom they kept as prisoners of war. Defeated at sea, the Corinthians and +their allies repaired home, and left the Corcyraeans masters of all +the sea about those parts. Sailing to Leucas, a Corinthian colony, they +ravaged their territory, and burnt Cyllene, the harbour of the Eleans, +because they had furnished ships and money to Corinth. For almost the +whole of the period that followed the battle they remained masters of +the sea, and the allies of Corinth were harassed by Corcyraean cruisers. +At last Corinth, roused by the sufferings of her allies, sent out ships +and troops in the fall of the summer, who formed an encampment at Actium +and about Chimerium, in Thesprotis, for the protection of Leucas and +the rest of the friendly cities. The Corcyraeans on their part formed a +similar station on Leukimme. Neither party made any movement, but they +remained confronting each other till the end of the summer, and winter +was at hand before either of them returned home. + +Corinth, exasperated by the war with the Corcyraeans, spent the whole of +the year after the engagement and that succeeding it in building ships, +and in straining every nerve to form an efficient fleet; rowers being +drawn from Peloponnese and the rest of Hellas by the inducement of large +bounties. The Corcyraeans, alarmed at the news of their preparations, +being without a single ally in Hellas (for they had not enrolled +themselves either in the Athenian or in the Lacedaemonian confederacy), +decided to repair to Athens in order to enter into alliance and to +endeavour to procure support from her. Corinth also, hearing of their +intentions, sent an embassy to Athens to prevent the Corcyraean navy +being joined by the Athenian, and her prospect of ordering the war +according to her wishes being thus impeded. An assembly was convoked, +and the rival advocates appeared: the Corcyraeans spoke as follows: + +"Athenians! when a people that have not rendered any important service +or support to their neighbours in times past, for which they might claim +to be repaid, appear before them as we now appear before you to solicit +their assistance, they may fairly be required to satisfy certain +preliminary conditions. They should show, first, that it is expedient +or at least safe to grant their request; next, that they will retain a +lasting sense of the kindness. But if they cannot clearly establish any +of these points, they must not be annoyed if they meet with a rebuff. +Now the Corcyraeans believe that with their petition for assistance they +can also give you a satisfactory answer on these points, and they have +therefore dispatched us hither. It has so happened that our policy as +regards you with respect to this request, turns out to be inconsistent, +and as regards our interests, to be at the present crisis inexpedient. +We say inconsistent, because a power which has never in the whole of her +past history been willing to ally herself with any of her neighbours, +is now found asking them to ally themselves with her. And we say +inexpedient, because in our present war with Corinth it has left us in +a position of entire isolation, and what once seemed the wise precaution +of refusing to involve ourselves in alliances with other powers, lest we +should also involve ourselves in risks of their choosing, has now proved +to be folly and weakness. It is true that in the late naval engagement +we drove back the Corinthians from our shores single-handed. But they +have now got together a still larger armament from Peloponnese and the +rest of Hellas; and we, seeing our utter inability to cope with them +without foreign aid, and the magnitude of the danger which subjection +to them implies, find it necessary to ask help from you and from every +other power. And we hope to be excused if we forswear our old principle +of complete political isolation, a principle which was not adopted with +any sinister intention, but was rather the consequence of an error in +judgment. + +"Now there are many reasons why in the event of your compliance you will +congratulate yourselves on this request having been made to you. First, +because your assistance will be rendered to a power which, herself +inoffensive, is a victim to the injustice of others. Secondly, because +all that we most value is at stake in the present contest, and your +welcome of us under these circumstances will be a proof of goodwill +which will ever keep alive the gratitude you will lay up in our hearts. +Thirdly, yourselves excepted, we are the greatest naval power in Hellas. +Moreover, can you conceive a stroke of good fortune more rare in +itself, or more disheartening to your enemies, than that the power whose +adhesion you would have valued above much material and moral strength +should present herself self-invited, should deliver herself into your +hands without danger and without expense, and should lastly put you +in the way of gaining a high character in the eyes of the world, the +gratitude of those whom you shall assist, and a great accession of +strength for yourselves? You may search all history without finding +many instances of a people gaining all these advantages at once, or +many instances of a power that comes in quest of assistance being in +a position to give to the people whose alliance she solicits as much +safety and honour as she will receive. But it will be urged that it +is only in the case of a war that we shall be found useful. To this +we answer that if any of you imagine that that war is far off, he is +grievously mistaken, and is blind to the fact that Lacedaemon regards +you with jealousy and desires war, and that Corinth is powerful +there--the same, remember, that is your enemy, and is even now trying +to subdue us as a preliminary to attacking you. And this she does to +prevent our becoming united by a common enmity, and her having us both +on her hands, and also to ensure getting the start of you in one of two +ways, either by crippling our power or by making its strength her own. +Now it is our policy to be beforehand with her--that is, for Corcyra to +make an offer of alliance and for you to accept it; in fact, we ought to +form plans against her instead of waiting to defeat the plans she forms +against us. + +"If she asserts that for you to receive a colony of hers into alliance +is not right, let her know that every colony that is well treated +honours its parent state, but becomes estranged from it by injustice. +For colonists are not sent forth on the understanding that they are to +be the slaves of those that remain behind, but that they are to be their +equals. And that Corinth was injuring us is clear. Invited to refer the +dispute about Epidamnus to arbitration, they chose to prosecute their +complaints war rather than by a fair trial. And let their conduct +towards us who are their kindred be a warning to you not to be misled +by their deceit, nor to yield to their direct requests; concessions to +adversaries only end in self-reproach, and the more strictly they are +avoided the greater will be the chance of security. + +"If it be urged that your reception of us will be a breach of the treaty +existing between you and Lacedaemon, the answer is that we are a neutral +state, and that one of the express provisions of that treaty is that +it shall be competent for any Hellenic state that is neutral to join +whichever side it pleases. And it is intolerable for Corinth to be +allowed to obtain men for her navy not only from her allies, but also +from the rest of Hellas, no small number being furnished by your own +subjects; while we are to be excluded both from the alliance left open +to us by treaty, and from any assistance that we might get from other +quarters, and you are to be accused of political immorality if you +comply with our request. On the other hand, we shall have much greater +cause to complain of you, if you do not comply with it; if we, who are +in peril and are no enemies of yours, meet with a repulse at your hands, +while Corinth, who is the aggressor and your enemy, not only meets with +no hindrance from you, but is even allowed to draw material for war from +your dependencies. This ought not to be, but you should either forbid +her enlisting men in your dominions, or you should lend us too what help +you may think advisable. + +"But your real policy is to afford us avowed countenance and support. +The advantages of this course, as we premised in the beginning of our +speech, are many. We mention one that is perhaps the chief. Could there +be a clearer guarantee of our good faith than is offered by the fact +that the power which is at enmity with you is also at enmity with us, +and that that power is fully able to punish defection? And there is a +wide difference between declining the alliance of an inland and of +a maritime power. For your first endeavour should be to prevent, if +possible, the existence of any naval power except your own; failing +this, to secure the friendship of the strongest that does exist. And if +any of you believe that what we urge is expedient, but fear to act upon +this belief, lest it should lead to a breach of the treaty, you must +remember that on the one hand, whatever your fears, your strength will +be formidable to your antagonists; on the other, whatever the confidence +you derive from refusing to receive us, your weakness will have no +terrors for a strong enemy. You must also remember that your decision +is for Athens no less than Corcyra, and that you are not making the +best provision for her interests, if at a time when you are anxiously +scanning the horizon that you may be in readiness for the breaking out +of the war which is all but upon you, you hesitate to attach to your +side a place whose adhesion or estrangement is alike pregnant with +the most vital consequences. For it lies conveniently for the +coast-navigation in the direction of Italy and Sicily, being able to bar +the passage of naval reinforcements from thence to Peloponnese, and +from Peloponnese thither; and it is in other respects a most desirable +station. To sum up as shortly as possible, embracing both general and +particular considerations, let this show you the folly of sacrificing +us. Remember that there are but three considerable naval powers in +Hellas--Athens, Corcyra, and Corinth--and that if you allow two of these +three to become one, and Corinth to secure us for herself, you will have +to hold the sea against the united fleets of Corcyra and Peloponnese. +But if you receive us, you will have our ships to reinforce you in the +struggle." + +Such were the words of the Corcyraeans. After they had finished, the +Corinthians spoke as follows: + +"These Corcyraeans in the speech we have just heard do not confine +themselves to the question of their reception into your alliance. They +also talk of our being guilty of injustice, and their being the victims +of an unjustifiable war. It becomes necessary for us to touch upon both +these points before we proceed to the rest of what we have to say, that +you may have a more correct idea of the grounds of our claim, and have +good cause to reject their petition. According to them, their old policy +of refusing all offers of alliance was a policy of moderation. It was in +fact adopted for bad ends, not for good; indeed their conduct is such +as to make them by no means desirous of having allies present to witness +it, or of having the shame of asking their concurrence. Besides, +their geographical situation makes them independent of others, and +consequently the decision in cases where they injure any lies not with +judges appointed by mutual agreement, but with themselves, because, +while they seldom make voyages to their neighbours, they are constantly +being visited by foreign vessels which are compelled to put in to +Corcyra. In short, the object that they propose to themselves, in their +specious policy of complete isolation, is not to avoid sharing in the +crimes of others, but to secure monopoly of crime to themselves--the +licence of outrage wherever they can compel, of fraud wherever they can +elude, and the enjoyment of their gains without shame. And yet if they +were the honest men they pretend to be, the less hold that others had +upon them, the stronger would be the light in which they might have put +their honesty by giving and taking what was just. + +"But such has not been their conduct either towards others or towards +us. The attitude of our colony towards us has always been one of +estrangement and is now one of hostility; for, say they: 'We were not +sent out to be ill-treated.' We rejoin that we did not found the colony +to be insulted by them, but to be their head and to be regarded with +a proper respect. At any rate our other colonies honour us, and we +are much beloved by our colonists; and clearly, if the majority are +satisfied with us, these can have no good reason for a dissatisfaction +in which they stand alone, and we are not acting improperly in making +war against them, nor are we making war against them without having +received signal provocation. Besides, if we were in the wrong, it would +be honourable in them to give way to our wishes, and disgraceful for us +to trample on their moderation; but in the pride and licence of wealth +they have sinned again and again against us, and never more deeply than +when Epidamnus, our dependency, which they took no steps to claim in its +distress upon our coming to relieve it, was by them seized, and is now +held by force of arms. + +"As to their allegation that they wished the question to be first +submitted to arbitration, it is obvious that a challenge coming from the +party who is safe in a commanding position cannot gain the credit due +only to him who, before appealing to arms, in deeds as well as words, +places himself on a level with his adversary. In their case, it was not +before they laid siege to the place, but after they at length understood +that we should not tamely suffer it, that they thought of the specious +word arbitration. And not satisfied with their own misconduct there, +they appear here now requiring you to join with them not in alliance but +in crime, and to receive them in spite of their being at enmity with us. +But it was when they stood firmest that they should have made overtures +to you, and not at a time when we have been wronged and they are in +peril; nor yet at a time when you will be admitting to a share in your +protection those who never admitted you to a share in their power, and +will be incurring an equal amount of blame from us with those in whose +offences you had no hand. No, they should have shared their power with +you before they asked you to share your fortunes with them. + +"So then the reality of the grievances we come to complain of, and the +violence and rapacity of our opponents, have both been proved. But that +you cannot equitably receive them, this you have still to learn. It may +be true that one of the provisions of the treaty is that it shall be +competent for any state, whose name was not down on the list, to join +whichever side it pleases. But this agreement is not meant for those +whose object in joining is the injury of other powers, but for those +whose need of support does not arise from the fact of defection, and +whose adhesion will not bring to the power that is mad enough to receive +them war instead of peace; which will be the case with you, if you +refuse to listen to us. For you cannot become their auxiliary and remain +our friend; if you join in their attack, you must share the punishment +which the defenders inflict on them. And yet you have the best possible +right to be neutral, or, failing this, you should on the contrary join +us against them. Corinth is at least in treaty with you; with Corcyra +you were never even in truce. But do not lay down the principle that +defection is to be patronized. Did we on the defection of the Samians +record our vote against you, when the rest of the Peloponnesian powers +were equally divided on the question whether they should assist them? +No, we told them to their face that every power has a right to punish +its own allies. Why, if you make it your policy to receive and assist +all offenders, you will find that just as many of your dependencies will +come over to us, and the principle that you establish will press less +heavily on us than on yourselves. + +"This then is what Hellenic law entitles us to demand as a right. But +we have also advice to offer and claims on your gratitude, which, since +there is no danger of our injuring you, as we are not enemies, and since +our friendship does not amount to very frequent intercourse, we say +ought to be liquidated at the present juncture. When you were in want +of ships of war for the war against the Aeginetans, before the Persian +invasion, Corinth supplied you with twenty vessels. That good turn, and +the line we took on the Samian question, when we were the cause of the +Peloponnesians refusing to assist them, enabled you to conquer Aegina +and to punish Samos. And we acted thus at crises when, if ever, men are +wont in their efforts against their enemies to forget everything for the +sake of victory, regarding him who assists them then as a friend, even +if thus far he has been a foe, and him who opposes them then as a foe, +even if he has thus far been a friend; indeed they allow their real +interests to suffer from their absorbing preoccupation in the struggle. + +"Weigh well these considerations, and let your youth learn what they are +from their elders, and let them determine to do unto us as we have done +unto you. And let them not acknowledge the justice of what we say, +but dispute its wisdom in the contingency of war. Not only is the +straightest path generally speaking the wisest; but the coming of the +war, which the Corcyraeans have used as a bugbear to persuade you to do +wrong, is still uncertain, and it is not worth while to be carried away +by it into gaining the instant and declared enmity of Corinth. It were, +rather, wise to try and counteract the unfavourable impression which +your conduct to Megara has created. For kindness opportunely shown has a +greater power of removing old grievances than the facts of the case +may warrant. And do not be seduced by the prospect of a great naval +alliance. Abstinence from all injustice to other first-rate powers is +a greater tower of strength than anything that can be gained by the +sacrifice of permanent tranquillity for an apparent temporary advantage. +It is now our turn to benefit by the principle that we laid down at +Lacedaemon, that every power has a right to punish her own allies. +We now claim to receive the same from you, and protest against your +rewarding us for benefiting you by our vote by injuring us by yours. +On the contrary, return us like for like, remembering that this is +that very crisis in which he who lends aid is most a friend, and he who +opposes is most a foe. And for these Corcyraeans--neither receive them +into alliance in our despite, nor be their abettors in crime. So do, and +you will act as we have a right to expect of you, and at the same time +best consult your own interests." + +Such were the words of the Corinthians. + +When the Athenians had heard both out, two assemblies were held. In the +first there was a manifest disposition to listen to the representations +of Corinth; in the second, public feeling had changed and an alliance +with Corcyra was decided on, with certain reservations. It was to be a +defensive, not an offensive alliance. It did not involve a breach of the +treaty with Peloponnese: Athens could not be required to join Corcyra in +any attack upon Corinth. But each of the contracting parties had a right +to the other's assistance against invasion, whether of his own territory +or that of an ally. For it began now to be felt that the coming of the +Peloponnesian war was only a question of time, and no one was willing +to see a naval power of such magnitude as Corcyra sacrificed to Corinth; +though if they could let them weaken each other by mutual conflict, it +would be no bad preparation for the struggle which Athens might one day +have to wage with Corinth and the other naval powers. At the same time +the island seemed to lie conveniently on the coasting passage to Italy +and Sicily. With these views, Athens received Corcyra into alliance and, +on the departure of the Corinthians not long afterwards, sent ten ships +to their assistance. They were commanded by Lacedaemonius, the son +of Cimon, Diotimus, the son of Strombichus, and Proteas, the son of +Epicles. Their instructions were to avoid collision with the Corinthian +fleet except under certain circumstances. If it sailed to Corcyra and +threatened a landing on her coast, or in any of her possessions, they +were to do their utmost to prevent it. These instructions were prompted +by an anxiety to avoid a breach of the treaty. + +Meanwhile the Corinthians completed their preparations, and sailed for +Corcyra with a hundred and fifty ships. Of these Elis furnished ten, +Megara twelve, Leucas ten, Ambracia twenty-seven, Anactorium one, and +Corinth herself ninety. Each of these contingents had its own admiral, +the Corinthian being under the command of Xenoclides, son of Euthycles, +with four colleagues. Sailing from Leucas, they made land at the part +of the continent opposite Corcyra. They anchored in the harbour of +Chimerium, in the territory of Thesprotis, above which, at some distance +from the sea, lies the city of Ephyre, in the Elean district. By this +city the Acherusian lake pours its waters into the sea. It gets its name +from the river Acheron, which flows through Thesprotis and falls into +the lake. There also the river Thyamis flows, forming the boundary +between Thesprotis and Kestrine; and between these rivers rises the +point of Chimerium. In this part of the continent the Corinthians now +came to anchor, and formed an encampment. When the Corcyraeans saw them +coming, they manned a hundred and ten ships, commanded by Meikiades, +Aisimides, and Eurybatus, and stationed themselves at one of the Sybota +isles; the ten Athenian ships being present. On Point Leukimme they +posted their land forces, and a thousand heavy infantry who had come +from Zacynthus to their assistance. Nor were the Corinthians on the +mainland without their allies. The barbarians flocked in large numbers +to their assistance, the inhabitants of this part of the continent being +old allies of theirs. + +When the Corinthian preparations were completed, they took three days' +provisions and put out from Chimerium by night, ready for action. +Sailing with the dawn, they sighted the Corcyraean fleet out at sea and +coming towards them. When they perceived each other, both sides formed +in order of battle. On the Corcyraean right wing lay the Athenian ships, +the rest of the line being occupied by their own vessels formed in three +squadrons, each of which was commanded by one of the three admirals. +Such was the Corcyraean formation. The Corinthian was as follows: on the +right wing lay the Megarian and Ambraciot ships, in the centre the rest +of the allies in order. But the left was composed of the best sailers +in the Corinthian navy, to encounter the Athenians and the right wing of +the Corcyraeans. As soon as the signals were raised on either side, they +joined battle. Both sides had a large number of heavy infantry on their +decks, and a large number of archers and darters, the old imperfect +armament still prevailing. The sea-fight was an obstinate one, though +not remarkable for its science; indeed it was more like a battle by +land. Whenever they charged each other, the multitude and crush of the +vessels made it by no means easy to get loose; besides, their hopes of +victory lay principally in the heavy infantry on the decks, who stood +and fought in order, the ships remaining stationary. The manoeuvre of +breaking the line was not tried; in short, strength and pluck had more +share in the fight than science. Everywhere tumult reigned, the battle +being one scene of confusion; meanwhile the Athenian ships, by coming +up to the Corcyraeans whenever they were pressed, served to alarm the +enemy, though their commanders could not join in the battle from fear of +their instructions. The right wing of the Corinthians suffered most. The +Corcyraeans routed it, and chased them in disorder to the continent with +twenty ships, sailed up to their camp, and burnt the tents which they +found empty, and plundered the stuff. So in this quarter the Corinthians +and their allies were defeated, and the Corcyraeans were victorious. +But where the Corinthians themselves were, on the left, they gained +a decided success; the scanty forces of the Corcyraeans being further +weakened by the want of the twenty ships absent on the pursuit. Seeing +the Corcyraeans hard pressed, the Athenians began at length to assist +them more unequivocally. At first, it is true, they refrained from +charging any ships; but when the rout was becoming patent, and the +Corinthians were pressing on, the time at last came when every one set +to, and all distinction was laid aside, and it came to this point, that +the Corinthians and Athenians raised their hands against each other. + +After the rout, the Corinthians, instead of employing themselves in +lashing fast and hauling after them the hulls of the vessels which they +had disabled, turned their attention to the men, whom they butchered as +they sailed through, not caring so much to make prisoners. Some even of +their own friends were slain by them, by mistake, in their ignorance of +the defeat of the right wing For the number of the ships on both sides, +and the distance to which they covered the sea, made it difficult, after +they had once joined, to distinguish between the conquering and the +conquered; this battle proving far greater than any before it, any at +least between Hellenes, for the number of vessels engaged. After the +Corinthians had chased the Corcyraeans to the land, they turned to the +wrecks and their dead, most of whom they succeeded in getting hold of +and conveying to Sybota, the rendezvous of the land forces furnished by +their barbarian allies. Sybota, it must be known, is a desert harbour of +Thesprotis. This task over, they mustered anew, and sailed against the +Corcyraeans, who on their part advanced to meet them with all their +ships that were fit for service and remaining to them, accompanied by +the Athenian vessels, fearing that they might attempt a landing in their +territory. It was by this time getting late, and the paean had been sung +for the attack, when the Corinthians suddenly began to back water. They +had observed twenty Athenian ships sailing up, which had been sent out +afterwards to reinforce the ten vessels by the Athenians, who feared, as +it turned out justly, the defeat of the Corcyraeans and the inability +of their handful of ships to protect them. These ships were thus seen +by the Corinthians first. They suspected that they were from Athens, and +that those which they saw were not all, but that there were more behind; +they accordingly began to retire. The Corcyraeans meanwhile had not +sighted them, as they were advancing from a point which they could not +so well see, and were wondering why the Corinthians were backing water, +when some caught sight of them, and cried out that there were ships in +sight ahead. Upon this they also retired; for it was now getting dark, +and the retreat of the Corinthians had suspended hostilities. Thus +they parted from each other, and the battle ceased with night. The +Corcyraeans were in their camp at Leukimme, when these twenty ships from +Athens, under the command of Glaucon, the son of Leagrus, and Andocides, +son of Leogoras, bore on through the corpses and the wrecks, and sailed +up to the camp, not long after they were sighted. It was now night, and +the Corcyraeans feared that they might be hostile vessels; but they soon +knew them, and the ships came to anchor. + +The next day the thirty Athenian vessels put out to sea, accompanied by +all the Corcyraean ships that were seaworthy, and sailed to the harbour +at Sybota, where the Corinthians lay, to see if they would engage. The +Corinthians put out from the land and formed a line in the open sea, but +beyond this made no further movement, having no intention of assuming +the offensive. For they saw reinforcements arrived fresh from Athens, +and themselves confronted by numerous difficulties, such as the +necessity of guarding the prisoners whom they had on board and the want +of all means of refitting their ships in a desert place. What they were +thinking more about was how their voyage home was to be effected; they +feared that the Athenians might consider that the treaty was dissolved +by the collision which had occurred, and forbid their departure. + +Accordingly they resolved to put some men on board a boat, and send them +without a herald's wand to the Athenians, as an experiment. Having done +so, they spoke as follows: "You do wrong, Athenians, to begin war and +break the treaty. Engaged in chastising our enemies, we find you placing +yourselves in our path in arms against us. Now if your intentions are to +prevent us sailing to Corcyra, or anywhere else that we may wish, and if +you are for breaking the treaty, first take us that are here and treat +us as enemies." Such was what they said, and all the Corcyraean armament +that were within hearing immediately called out to take them and kill +them. But the Athenians answered as follows: "Neither are we beginning +war, Peloponnesians, nor are we breaking the treaty; but these +Corcyraeans are our allies, and we are come to help them. So if you want +to sail anywhere else, we place no obstacle in your way; but if you are +going to sail against Corcyra, or any of her possessions, we shall do +our best to stop you." + +Receiving this answer from the Athenians, the Corinthians commenced +preparations for their voyage home, and set up a trophy in Sybota, on +the continent; while the Corcyraeans took up the wrecks and dead that +had been carried out to them by the current, and by a wind which rose in +the night and scattered them in all directions, and set up their trophy +in Sybota, on the island, as victors. The reasons each side had for +claiming the victory were these. The Corinthians had been victorious +in the sea-fight until night; and having thus been enabled to carry +off most wrecks and dead, they were in possession of no fewer than a +thousand prisoners of war, and had sunk close upon seventy vessels. The +Corcyraeans had destroyed about thirty ships, and after the arrival of +the Athenians had taken up the wrecks and dead on their side; they had +besides seen the Corinthians retire before them, backing water on sight +of the Athenian vessels, and upon the arrival of the Athenians refuse to +sail out against them from Sybota. Thus both sides claimed the victory. + +The Corinthians on the voyage home took Anactorium, which stands at the +mouth of the Ambracian gulf. The place was taken by treachery, being +common ground to the Corcyraeans and Corinthians. After establishing +Corinthian settlers there, they retired home. Eight hundred of the +Corcyraeans were slaves; these they sold; two hundred and fifty they +retained in captivity, and treated with great attention, in the hope +that they might bring over their country to Corinth on their return; +most of them being, as it happened, men of very high position in +Corcyra. In this way Corcyra maintained her political existence in the +war with Corinth, and the Athenian vessels left the island. This was +the first cause of the war that Corinth had against the Athenians, +viz., that they had fought against them with the Corcyraeans in time of +treaty. + +Almost immediately after this, fresh differences arose between the +Athenians and Peloponnesians, and contributed their share to the war. +Corinth was forming schemes for retaliation, and Athens suspected her +hostility. The Potidaeans, who inhabit the isthmus of Pallene, being a +Corinthian colony, but tributary allies of Athens, were ordered to +raze the wall looking towards Pallene, to give hostages, to dismiss the +Corinthian magistrates, and in future not to receive the persons sent +from Corinth annually to succeed them. It was feared that they might be +persuaded by Perdiccas and the Corinthians to revolt, and might draw the +rest of the allies in the direction of Thrace to revolt with them. +These precautions against the Potidaeans were taken by the Athenians +immediately after the battle at Corcyra. Not only was Corinth at +length openly hostile, but Perdiccas, son of Alexander, king of the +Macedonians, had from an old friend and ally been made an enemy. He +had been made an enemy by the Athenians entering into alliance with his +brother Philip and Derdas, who were in league against him. In his alarm +he had sent to Lacedaemon to try and involve the Athenians in a war with +the Peloponnesians, and was endeavouring to win over Corinth in order +to bring about the revolt of Potidaea. He also made overtures to the +Chalcidians in the direction of Thrace, and to the Bottiaeans, to +persuade them to join in the revolt; for he thought that if these places +on the border could be made his allies, it would be easier to carry +on the war with their co-operation. Alive to all this, and wishing to +anticipate the revolt of the cities, the Athenians acted as follows. +They were just then sending off thirty ships and a thousand heavy +infantry for his country under the command of Archestratus, son of +Lycomedes, with four colleagues. They instructed the captains to take +hostages of the Potidaeans, to raze the wall, and to be on their guard +against the revolt of the neighbouring cities. + +Meanwhile the Potidaeans sent envoys to Athens on the chance of +persuading them to take no new steps in their matters; they also went +to Lacedaemon with the Corinthians to secure support in case of need. +Failing after prolonged negotiation to obtain anything satisfactory +from the Athenians; being unable, for all they could say, to prevent the +vessels that were destined for Macedonia from also sailing against them; +and receiving from the Lacedaemonian government a promise to invade +Attica, if the Athenians should attack Potidaea, the Potidaeans, thus +favoured by the moment, at last entered into league with the Chalcidians +and Bottiaeans, and revolted. And Perdiccas induced the Chalcidians to +abandon and demolish their towns on the seaboard and, settling inland at +Olynthus, to make that one city a strong place: meanwhile to those who +followed his advice he gave a part of his territory in Mygdonia round +Lake Bolbe as a place of abode while the war against the Athenians +should last. They accordingly demolished their towns, removed inland and +prepared for war. The thirty ships of the Athenians, arriving before +the Thracian places, found Potidaea and the rest in revolt. Their +commanders, considering it to be quite impossible with their present +force to carry on war with Perdiccas and with the confederate towns +as well turned to Macedonia, their original destination, and, having +established themselves there, carried on war in co-operation with +Philip, and the brothers of Derdas, who had invaded the country from the +interior. + +Meanwhile the Corinthians, with Potidaea in revolt and the Athenian +ships on the coast of Macedonia, alarmed for the safety of the place +and thinking its danger theirs, sent volunteers from Corinth, and +mercenaries from the rest of Peloponnese, to the number of sixteen +hundred heavy infantry in all, and four hundred light troops. Aristeus, +son of Adimantus, who was always a steady friend to the Potidaeans, took +command of the expedition, and it was principally for love of him that +most of the men from Corinth volunteered. They arrived in Thrace forty +days after the revolt of Potidaea. + +The Athenians also immediately received the news of the revolt of the +cities. On being informed that Aristeus and his reinforcements were on +their way, they sent two thousand heavy infantry of their own citizens +and forty ships against the places in revolt, under the command +of Callias, son of Calliades, and four colleagues. They arrived in +Macedonia first, and found the force of a thousand men that had been +first sent out, just become masters of Therme and besieging Pydna. +Accordingly they also joined in the investment, and besieged Pydna for +a while. Subsequently they came to terms and concluded a forced alliance +with Perdiccas, hastened by the calls of Potidaea and by the arrival of +Aristeus at that place. They withdrew from Macedonia, going to Beroea +and thence to Strepsa, and, after a futile attempt on the latter place, +they pursued by land their march to Potidaea with three thousand heavy +infantry of their own citizens, besides a number of their allies, and +six hundred Macedonian horsemen, the followers of Philip and Pausanias. +With these sailed seventy ships along the coast. Advancing by short +marches, on the third day they arrived at Gigonus, where they encamped. + +Meanwhile the Potidaeans and the Peloponnesians with Aristeus were +encamped on the side looking towards Olynthus on the isthmus, in +expectation of the Athenians, and had established their market outside +the city. The allies had chosen Aristeus general of all the infantry; +while the command of the cavalry was given to Perdiccas, who had at +once left the alliance of the Athenians and gone back to that of the +Potidaeans, having deputed Iolaus as his general: The plan of Aristeus +was to keep his own force on the isthmus, and await the attack of the +Athenians; leaving the Chalcidians and the allies outside the isthmus, +and the two hundred cavalry from Perdiccas in Olynthus to act upon the +Athenian rear, on the occasion of their advancing against him; and thus +to place the enemy between two fires. While Callias the Athenian general +and his colleagues dispatched the Macedonian horse and a few of the +allies to Olynthus, to prevent any movement being made from that +quarter, the Athenians themselves broke up their camp and marched +against Potidaea. After they had arrived at the isthmus, and saw the +enemy preparing for battle, they formed against him, and soon afterwards +engaged. The wing of Aristeus, with the Corinthians and other picked +troops round him, routed the wing opposed to it, and followed for +a considerable distance in pursuit. But the rest of the army of the +Potidaeans and of the Peloponnesians was defeated by the Athenians, +and took refuge within the fortifications. Returning from the pursuit, +Aristeus perceived the defeat of the rest of the army. Being at a +loss which of the two risks to choose, whether to go to Olynthus or to +Potidaea, he at last determined to draw his men into as small a space +as possible, and force his way with a run into Potidaea. Not without +difficulty, through a storm of missiles, he passed along by the +breakwater through the sea, and brought off most of his men safe, +though a few were lost. Meanwhile the auxiliaries of the Potidaeans from +Olynthus, which is about seven miles off and in sight of Potidaea, when +the battle began and the signals were raised, advanced a little way +to render assistance; and the Macedonian horse formed against them to +prevent it. But on victory speedily declaring for the Athenians and the +signals being taken down, they retired back within the wall; and the +Macedonians returned to the Athenians. Thus there were no cavalry +present on either side. After the battle the Athenians set up a trophy, +and gave back their dead to the Potidaeans under truce. The Potidaeans +and their allies had close upon three hundred killed; the Athenians a +hundred and fifty of their own citizens, and Callias their general. + +The wall on the side of the isthmus had now works at once raised against +it, and manned by the Athenians. That on the side of Pallene had no +works raised against it. They did not think themselves strong enough at +once to keep a garrison in the isthmus and to cross over to Pallene and +raise works there; they were afraid that the Potidaeans and their allies +might take advantage of their division to attack them. Meanwhile the +Athenians at home learning that there were no works at Pallene, some +time afterwards sent off sixteen hundred heavy infantry of their own +citizens under the command of Phormio, son of Asopius. Arrived at +Pallene, he fixed his headquarters at Aphytis, and led his army against +Potidaea by short marches, ravaging the country as he advanced. No one +venturing to meet him in the field, he raised works against the wall +on the side of Pallene. So at length Potidaea was strongly invested on +either side, and from the sea by the ships co-operating in the blockade. +Aristeus, seeing its investment complete, and having no hope of its +salvation, except in the event of some movement from the Peloponnese, or +of some other improbable contingency, advised all except five hundred +to watch for a wind and sail out of the place, in order that their +provisions might last the longer. He was willing to be himself one of +those who remained. Unable to persuade them, and desirous of acting on +the next alternative, and of having things outside in the best posture +possible, he eluded the guardships of the Athenians and sailed out. +Remaining among the Chalcidians, he continued to carry on the war; in +particular he laid an ambuscade near the city of the Sermylians, and cut +off many of them; he also communicated with Peloponnese, and tried to +contrive some method by which help might be brought. Meanwhile, after +the completion of the investment of Potidaea, Phormio next employed +his sixteen hundred men in ravaging Chalcidice and Bottica: some of the +towns also were taken by him. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +_Congress of the Peloponnesian Confederacy at Lacedaemon_ + +The Athenians and Peloponnesians had these antecedent grounds of +complaint against each other: the complaint of Corinth was that her +colony of Potidaea, and Corinthian and Peloponnesian citizens within it, +were being besieged; that of Athens against the Peloponnesians that they +had incited a town of hers, a member of her alliance and a contributor +to her revenue, to revolt, and had come and were openly fighting against +her on the side of the Potidaeans. For all this, war had not yet +broken out: there was still truce for a while; for this was a private +enterprise on the part of Corinth. + +But the siege of Potidaea put an end to her inaction; she had men inside +it: besides, she feared for the place. Immediately summoning the allies +to Lacedaemon, she came and loudly accused Athens of breach of the +treaty and aggression on the rights of Peloponnese. With her, the +Aeginetans, formally unrepresented from fear of Athens, in secret proved +not the least urgent of the advocates for war, asserting that they had +not the independence guaranteed to them by the treaty. After extending +the summons to any of their allies and others who might have complaints +to make of Athenian aggression, the Lacedaemonians held their ordinary +assembly, and invited them to speak. There were many who came forward +and made their several accusations; among them the Megarians, in a +long list of grievances, called special attention to the fact of their +exclusion from the ports of the Athenian empire and the market of +Athens, in defiance of the treaty. Last of all the Corinthians +came forward, and having let those who preceded them inflame the +Lacedaemonians, now followed with a speech to this effect: + +"Lacedaemonians! the confidence which you feel in your constitution and +social order, inclines you to receive any reflections of ours on other +powers with a certain scepticism. Hence springs your moderation, but +hence also the rather limited knowledge which you betray in dealing with +foreign politics. Time after time was our voice raised to warn you of +the blows about to be dealt us by Athens, and time after time, instead +of taking the trouble to ascertain the worth of our communications, you +contented yourselves with suspecting the speakers of being inspired +by private interest. And so, instead of calling these allies together +before the blow fell, you have delayed to do so till we are smarting +under it; allies among whom we have not the worst title to speak, as +having the greatest complaints to make, complaints of Athenian outrage +and Lacedaemonian neglect. Now if these assaults on the rights of Hellas +had been made in the dark, you might be unacquainted with the facts, and +it would be our duty to enlighten you. As it is, long speeches are not +needed where you see servitude accomplished for some of us, meditated +for others--in particular for our allies--and prolonged preparations in +the aggressor against the hour of war. Or what, pray, is the meaning of +their reception of Corcyra by fraud, and their holding it against us +by force? what of the siege of Potidaea?--places one of which lies most +conveniently for any action against the Thracian towns; while the other +would have contributed a very large navy to the Peloponnesians? + +"For all this you are responsible. You it was who first allowed them +to fortify their city after the Median war, and afterwards to erect the +long walls--you who, then and now, are always depriving of freedom not +only those whom they have enslaved, but also those who have as yet been +your allies. For the true author of the subjugation of a people is not +so much the immediate agent, as the power which permits it having the +means to prevent it; particularly if that power aspires to the glory of +being the liberator of Hellas. We are at last assembled. It has not been +easy to assemble, nor even now are our objects defined. We ought not to +be still inquiring into the fact of our wrongs, but into the means of +our defence. For the aggressors with matured plans to oppose to our +indecision have cast threats aside and betaken themselves to action. And +we know what are the paths by which Athenian aggression travels, and how +insidious is its progress. A degree of confidence she may feel from the +idea that your bluntness of perception prevents your noticing her; but +it is nothing to the impulse which her advance will receive from +the knowledge that you see, but do not care to interfere. You, +Lacedaemonians, of all the Hellenes are alone inactive, and defend +yourselves not by doing anything but by looking as if you would do +something; you alone wait till the power of an enemy is becoming twice +its original size, instead of crushing it in its infancy. And yet the +world used to say that you were to be depended upon; but in your case, +we fear, it said more than the truth. The Mede, we ourselves know, had +time to come from the ends of the earth to Peloponnese, without any +force of yours worthy of the name advancing to meet him. But this was a +distant enemy. Well, Athens at all events is a near neighbour, and yet +Athens you utterly disregard; against Athens you prefer to act on the +defensive instead of on the offensive, and to make it an affair of +chances by deferring the struggle till she has grown far stronger than +at first. And yet you know that on the whole the rock on which the +barbarian was wrecked was himself, and that if our present enemy Athens +has not again and again annihilated us, we owe it more to her blunders +than to your protection; Indeed, expectations from you have before now +been the ruin of some, whose faith induced them to omit preparation. + +"We hope that none of you will consider these words of remonstrance to +be rather words of hostility; men remonstrate with friends who are +in error, accusations they reserve for enemies who have wronged them. +Besides, we consider that we have as good a right as any one to point +out a neighbour's faults, particularly when we contemplate the great +contrast between the two national characters; a contrast of which, +as far as we can see, you have little perception, having never yet +considered what sort of antagonists you will encounter in the Athenians, +how widely, how absolutely different from yourselves. The Athenians are +addicted to innovation, and their designs are characterized by swiftness +alike in conception and execution; you have a genius for keeping what +you have got, accompanied by a total want of invention, and when forced +to act you never go far enough. Again, they are adventurous beyond +their power, and daring beyond their judgment, and in danger they are +sanguine; your wont is to attempt less than is justified by your power, +to mistrust even what is sanctioned by your judgment, and to fancy that +from danger there is no release. Further, there is promptitude on their +side against procrastination on yours; they are never at home, you +are never from it: for they hope by their absence to extend their +acquisitions, you fear by your advance to endanger what you have left +behind. They are swift to follow up a success, and slow to recoil from a +reverse. Their bodies they spend ungrudgingly in their country's cause; +their intellect they jealously husband to be employed in her service. A +scheme unexecuted is with them a positive loss, a successful enterprise +a comparative failure. The deficiency created by the miscarriage of an +undertaking is soon filled up by fresh hopes; for they alone are enabled +to call a thing hoped for a thing got, by the speed with which they act +upon their resolutions. Thus they toil on in trouble and danger all the +days of their life, with little opportunity for enjoying, being ever +engaged in getting: their only idea of a holiday is to do what the +occasion demands, and to them laborious occupation is less of a +misfortune than the peace of a quiet life. To describe their character +in a word, one might truly say that they were born into the world to +take no rest themselves and to give none to others. + +"Such is Athens, your antagonist. And yet, Lacedaemonians, you still +delay, and fail to see that peace stays longest with those, who are not +more careful to use their power justly than to show their determination +not to submit to injustice. On the contrary, your ideal of fair dealing +is based on the principle that, if you do not injure others, you need +not risk your own fortunes in preventing others from injuring you. Now +you could scarcely have succeeded in such a policy even with a neighbour +like yourselves; but in the present instance, as we have just shown, +your habits are old-fashioned as compared with theirs. It is the law as +in art, so in politics, that improvements ever prevail; and though fixed +usages may be best for undisturbed communities, constant necessities of +action must be accompanied by the constant improvement of methods. Thus +it happens that the vast experience of Athens has carried her further +than you on the path of innovation. + +"Here, at least, let your procrastination end. For the present, assist +your allies and Potidaea in particular, as you promised, by a speedy +invasion of Attica, and do not sacrifice friends and kindred to their +bitterest enemies, and drive the rest of us in despair to some other +alliance. Such a step would not be condemned either by the Gods who +received our oaths, or by the men who witnessed them. The breach of a +treaty cannot be laid to the people whom desertion compels to seek new +relations, but to the power that fails to assist its confederate. But if +you will only act, we will stand by you; it would be unnatural for us to +change, and never should we meet with such a congenial ally. For these +reasons choose the right course, and endeavour not to let Peloponnese +under your supremacy degenerate from the prestige that it enjoyed under +that of your ancestors." + +Such were the words of the Corinthians. There happened to be Athenian +envoys present at Lacedaemon on other business. On hearing the speeches +they thought themselves called upon to come before the Lacedaemonians. +Their intention was not to offer a defence on any of the charges which +the cities brought against them, but to show on a comprehensive view +that it was not a matter to be hastily decided on, but one that demanded +further consideration. There was also a wish to call attention to +the great power of Athens, and to refresh the memory of the old and +enlighten the ignorance of the young, from a notion that their words +might have the effect of inducing them to prefer tranquillity to war. So +they came to the Lacedaemonians and said that they too, if there was no +objection, wished to speak to their assembly. They replied by inviting +them to come forward. The Athenians advanced, and spoke as follows: + +"The object of our mission here was not to argue with your allies, but +to attend to the matters on which our state dispatched us. However, the +vehemence of the outcry that we hear against us has prevailed on us to +come forward. It is not to combat the accusations of the cities (indeed +you are not the judges before whom either we or they can plead), but to +prevent your taking the wrong course on matters of great importance by +yielding too readily to the persuasions of your allies. We also wish to +show on a review of the whole indictment that we have a fair title to +our possessions, and that our country has claims to consideration. We +need not refer to remote antiquity: there we could appeal to the voice +of tradition, but not to the experience of our audience. But to the +Median War and contemporary history we must refer, although we are +rather tired of continually bringing this subject forward. In our action +during that war we ran great risk to obtain certain advantages: you had +your share in the solid results, do not try to rob us of all share in +the good that the glory may do us. However, the story shall be told not +so much to deprecate hostility as to testify against it, and to show, +if you are so ill advised as to enter into a struggle with Athens, what +sort of an antagonist she is likely to prove. We assert that at Marathon +we were at the front, and faced the barbarian single-handed. That when +he came the second time, unable to cope with him by land we went +on board our ships with all our people, and joined in the action at +Salamis. This prevented his taking the Peloponnesian states in detail, +and ravaging them with his fleet; when the multitude of his vessels +would have made any combination for self-defence impossible. The best +proof of this was furnished by the invader himself. Defeated at sea, he +considered his power to be no longer what it had been, and retired as +speedily as possible with the greater part of his army. + +"Such, then, was the result of the matter, and it was clearly proved +that it was on the fleet of Hellas that her cause depended. Well, to +this result we contributed three very useful elements, viz., the +largest number of ships, the ablest commander, and the most unhesitating +patriotism. Our contingent of ships was little less than two-thirds of +the whole four hundred; the commander was Themistocles, through +whom chiefly it was that the battle took place in the straits, the +acknowledged salvation of our cause. Indeed, this was the reason of +your receiving him with honours such as had never been accorded to any +foreign visitor. While for daring patriotism we had no competitors. +Receiving no reinforcements from behind, seeing everything in front of +us already subjugated, we had the spirit, after abandoning our city, +after sacrificing our property (instead of deserting the remainder of +the league or depriving them of our services by dispersing), to throw +ourselves into our ships and meet the danger, without a thought of +resenting your neglect to assist us. We assert, therefore, that we +conferred on you quite as much as we received. For you had a stake to +fight for; the cities which you had left were still filled with your +homes, and you had the prospect of enjoying them again; and your coming +was prompted quite as much by fear for yourselves as for us; at all +events, you never appeared till we had nothing left to lose. But we left +behind us a city that was a city no longer, and staked our lives for a +city that had an existence only in desperate hope, and so bore our full +share in your deliverance and in ours. But if we had copied others, and +allowed fears for our territory to make us give in our adhesion to the +Mede before you came, or if we had suffered our ruin to break our spirit +and prevent us embarking in our ships, your naval inferiority would have +made a sea-fight unnecessary, and his objects would have been peaceably +attained. + +"Surely, Lacedaemonians, neither by the patriotism that we displayed at +that crisis, nor by the wisdom of our counsels, do we merit our extreme +unpopularity with the Hellenes, not at least unpopularity for our +empire. That empire we acquired by no violent means, but because you +were unwilling to prosecute to its conclusion the war against the +barbarian, and because the allies attached themselves to us and +spontaneously asked us to assume the command. And the nature of the case +first compelled us to advance our empire to its present height; fear +being our principal motive, though honour and interest afterwards +came in. And at last, when almost all hated us, when some had already +revolted and had been subdued, when you had ceased to be the friends +that you once were, and had become objects of suspicion and dislike, +it appeared no longer safe to give up our empire; especially as all +who left us would fall to you. And no one can quarrel with a people for +making, in matters of tremendous risk, the best provision that it can +for its interest. + +"You, at all events, Lacedaemonians, have used your supremacy to settle +the states in Peloponnese as is agreeable to you. And if at the period +of which we were speaking you had persevered to the end of the matter, +and had incurred hatred in your command, we are sure that you would +have made yourselves just as galling to the allies, and would have been +forced to choose between a strong government and danger to yourselves. +It follows that it was not a very wonderful action, or contrary to the +common practice of mankind, if we did accept an empire that was offered +to us, and refused to give it up under the pressure of three of the +strongest motives, fear, honour, and interest. And it was not we who +set the example, for it has always been law that the weaker should be +subject to the stronger. Besides, we believed ourselves to be worthy +of our position, and so you thought us till now, when calculations of +interest have made you take up the cry of justice--a consideration which +no one ever yet brought forward to hinder his ambition when he had a +chance of gaining anything by might. And praise is due to all who, +if not so superior to human nature as to refuse dominion, yet respect +justice more than their position compels them to do. + +"We imagine that our moderation would be best demonstrated by the +conduct of others who should be placed in our position; but even our +equity has very unreasonably subjected us to condemnation instead of +approval. Our abatement of our rights in the contract trials with our +allies, and our causing them to be decided by impartial laws at Athens, +have gained us the character of being litigious. And none care to +inquire why this reproach is not brought against other imperial powers, +who treat their subjects with less moderation than we do; the secret +being that where force can be used, law is not needed. But our subjects +are so habituated to associate with us as equals that any defeat +whatever that clashes with their notions of justice, whether it proceeds +from a legal judgment or from the power which our empire gives us, makes +them forget to be grateful for being allowed to retain most of their +possessions, and more vexed at a part being taken, than if we had from +the first cast law aside and openly gratified our covetousness. If we +had done so, not even would they have disputed that the weaker must give +way to the stronger. Men's indignation, it seems, is more excited by +legal wrong than by violent wrong; the first looks like being cheated by +an equal, the second like being compelled by a superior. At all events +they contrived to put up with much worse treatment than this from the +Mede, yet they think our rule severe, and this is to be expected, for +the present always weighs heavy on the conquered. This at least is +certain. If you were to succeed in overthrowing us and in taking our +place, you would speedily lose the popularity with which fear of us +has invested you, if your policy of to-day is at all to tally with +the sample that you gave of it during the brief period of your command +against the Mede. Not only is your life at home regulated by rules and +institutions incompatible with those of others, but your citizens abroad +act neither on these rules nor on those which are recognized by the rest +of Hellas. + +"Take time then in forming your resolution, as the matter is of great +importance; and do not be persuaded by the opinions and complaints of +others to bring trouble on yourselves, but consider the vast influence +of accident in war, before you are engaged in it. As it continues, it +generally becomes an affair of chances, chances from which neither of +us is exempt, and whose event we must risk in the dark. It is a common +mistake in going to war to begin at the wrong end, to act first, and +wait for disaster to discuss the matter. But we are not yet by any means +so misguided, nor, so far as we can see, are you; accordingly, while it +is still open to us both to choose aright, we bid you not to dissolve +the treaty, or to break your oaths, but to have our differences settled +by arbitration according to our agreement. Or else we take the gods who +heard the oaths to witness, and if you begin hostilities, whatever line +of action you choose, we will try not to be behindhand in repelling +you." + +Such were the words of the Athenians. After the Lacedaemonians had heard +the complaints of the allies against the Athenians, and the observations +of the latter, they made all withdraw, and consulted by themselves on +the question before them. The opinions of the majority all led to the +same conclusion; the Athenians were open aggressors, and war must be +declared at once. But Archidamus, the Lacedaemonian king, came forward, +who had the reputation of being at once a wise and a moderate man, and +made the following speech: + +"I have not lived so long, Lacedaemonians, without having had the +experience of many wars, and I see those among you of the same age as +myself, who will not fall into the common misfortune of longing for +war from inexperience or from a belief in its advantage and its safety. +This, the war on which you are now debating, would be one of the +greatest magnitude, on a sober consideration of the matter. In a +struggle with Peloponnesians and neighbours our strength is of the same +character, and it is possible to move swiftly on the different points. +But a struggle with a people who live in a distant land, who have also +an extraordinary familiarity with the sea, and who are in the highest +state of preparation in every other department; with wealth private and +public, with ships, and horses, and heavy infantry, and a population +such as no one other Hellenic place can equal, and lastly a number +of tributary allies--what can justify us in rashly beginning such a +struggle? wherein is our trust that we should rush on it unprepared? Is +it in our ships? There we are inferior; while if we are to practise and +become a match for them, time must intervene. Is it in our money? There +we have a far greater deficiency. We neither have it in our treasury, +nor are we ready to contribute it from our private funds. Confidence +might possibly be felt in our superiority in heavy infantry and +population, which will enable us to invade and devastate their lands. +But the Athenians have plenty of other land in their empire, and +can import what they want by sea. Again, if we are to attempt an +insurrection of their allies, these will have to be supported with a +fleet, most of them being islanders. What then is to be our war? For +unless we can either beat them at sea, or deprive them of the revenues +which feed their navy, we shall meet with little but disaster. Meanwhile +our honour will be pledged to keeping on, particularly if it be the +opinion that we began the quarrel. For let us never be elated by the +fatal hope of the war being quickly ended by the devastation of their +lands. I fear rather that we may leave it as a legacy to our children; +so improbable is it that the Athenian spirit will be the slave of their +land, or Athenian experience be cowed by war. + +"Not that I would bid you be so unfeeling as to suffer them to injure +your allies, and to refrain from unmasking their intrigues; but I do bid +you not to take up arms at once, but to send and remonstrate with +them in a tone not too suggestive of war, nor again too suggestive +of submission, and to employ the interval in perfecting our own +preparations. The means will be, first, the acquisition of allies, +Hellenic or barbarian it matters not, so long as they are an accession +to our strength naval or pecuniary--I say Hellenic or barbarian, because +the odium of such an accession to all who like us are the objects of +the designs of the Athenians is taken away by the law of +self-preservation--and secondly the development of our home resources. +If they listen to our embassy, so much the better; but if not, after +the lapse of two or three years our position will have become materially +strengthened, and we can then attack them if we think proper. Perhaps +by that time the sight of our preparations, backed by language equally +significant, will have disposed them to submission, while their land +is still untouched, and while their counsels may be directed to the +retention of advantages as yet undestroyed. For the only light in which +you can view their land is that of a hostage in your hands, a hostage +the more valuable the better it is cultivated. This you ought to spare +as long as possible, and not make them desperate, and so increase the +difficulty of dealing with them. For if while still unprepared, hurried +away by the complaints of our allies, we are induced to lay it waste, +have a care that we do not bring deep disgrace and deep perplexity upon +Peloponnese. Complaints, whether of communities or individuals, it is +possible to adjust; but war undertaken by a coalition for sectional +interests, whose progress there is no means of foreseeing, does not +easily admit of creditable settlement. + +"And none need think it cowardice for a number of confederates to pause +before they attack a single city. The Athenians have allies as numerous +as our own, and allies that pay tribute, and war is a matter not so much +of arms as of money, which makes arms of use. And this is more than ever +true in a struggle between a continental and a maritime power. First, +then, let us provide money, and not allow ourselves to be carried away +by the talk of our allies before we have done so: as we shall have the +largest share of responsibility for the consequences be they good or +bad, we have also a right to a tranquil inquiry respecting them. + +"And the slowness and procrastination, the parts of our character that +are most assailed by their criticism, need not make you blush. If +we undertake the war without preparation, we should by hastening its +commencement only delay its conclusion: further, a free and a famous +city has through all time been ours. The quality which they condemn is +really nothing but a wise moderation; thanks to its possession, we +alone do not become insolent in success and give way less than others in +misfortune; we are not carried away by the pleasure of hearing ourselves +cheered on to risks which our judgment condemns; nor, if annoyed, are +we any the more convinced by attempts to exasperate us by accusation. +We are both warlike and wise, and it is our sense of order that makes +us so. We are warlike, because self-control contains honour as a +chief constituent, and honour bravery. And we are wise, because we are +educated with too little learning to despise the laws, and with too +severe a self-control to disobey them, and are brought up not to be +too knowing in useless matters--such as the knowledge which can give a +specious criticism of an enemy's plans in theory, but fails to assail +them with equal success in practice--but are taught to consider that +the schemes of our enemies are not dissimilar to our own, and that the +freaks of chance are not determinable by calculation. In practice we +always base our preparations against an enemy on the assumption that his +plans are good; indeed, it is right to rest our hopes not on a belief +in his blunders, but on the soundness of our provisions. Nor ought we to +believe that there is much difference between man and man, but to think +that the superiority lies with him who is reared in the severest school. +These practices, then, which our ancestors have delivered to us, and by +whose maintenance we have always profited, must not be given up. And +we must not be hurried into deciding in a day's brief space a question +which concerns many lives and fortunes and many cities, and in which +honour is deeply involved--but we must decide calmly. This our strength +peculiarly enables us to do. As for the Athenians, send to them on the +matter of Potidaea, send on the matter of the alleged wrongs of the +allies, particularly as they are prepared with legal satisfaction; and +to proceed against one who offers arbitration as against a wrongdoer, +law forbids. Meanwhile do not omit preparation for war. This decision +will be the best for yourselves, the most terrible to your opponents." + +Such were the words of Archidamus. Last came forward Sthenelaidas, one +of the ephors for that year, and spoke to the Lacedaemonians as follows: + +"The long speech of the Athenians I do not pretend to understand. They +said a good deal in praise of themselves, but nowhere denied that they +are injuring our allies and Peloponnese. And yet if they behaved well +against the Mede then, but ill towards us now, they deserve double +punishment for having ceased to be good and for having become bad. We +meanwhile are the same then and now, and shall not, if we are wise, +disregard the wrongs of our allies, or put off till to-morrow the duty +of assisting those who must suffer to-day. Others have much money and +ships and horses, but we have good allies whom we must not give up to +the Athenians, nor by lawsuits and words decide the matter, as it is +anything but in word that we are harmed, but render instant and powerful +help. And let us not be told that it is fitting for us to deliberate +under injustice; long deliberation is rather fitting for those who have +injustice in contemplation. Vote therefore, Lacedaemonians, for war, +as the honour of Sparta demands, and neither allow the further +aggrandizement of Athens, nor betray our allies to ruin, but with the +gods let us advance against the aggressors." + +With these words he, as ephor, himself put the question to the assembly +of the Lacedaemonians. He said that he could not determine which was +the loudest acclamation (their mode of decision is by acclamation not +by voting); the fact being that he wished to make them declare their +opinion openly and thus to increase their ardour for war. Accordingly +he said: "All Lacedaemonians who are of opinion that the treaty has +been broken, and that Athens is guilty, leave your seats and go there," +pointing out a certain place; "all who are of the opposite opinion, +there." They accordingly stood up and divided; and those who held that +the treaty had been broken were in a decided majority. Summoning the +allies, they told them that their opinion was that Athens had been +guilty of injustice, but that they wished to convoke all the allies and +put it to the vote; in order that they might make war, if they decided +to do so, on a common resolution. Having thus gained their point, the +delegates returned home at once; the Athenian envoys a little later, +when they had dispatched the objects of their mission. This decision of +the assembly, judging that the treaty had been broken, was made in the +fourteenth year of the thirty years' truce, which was entered into after +the affair of Euboea. + +The Lacedaemonians voted that the treaty had been broken, and that the +war must be declared, not so much because they were persuaded by the +arguments of the allies, as because they feared the growth of the power +of the Athenians, seeing most of Hellas already subject to them. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +_From the end of the Persian to the beginning of the Peloponnesian +War--The Progress from Supremacy to Empire_ + +The way in which Athens came to be placed in the circumstances under +which her power grew was this. After the Medes had returned from Europe, +defeated by sea and land by the Hellenes, and after those of them who +had fled with their ships to Mycale had been destroyed, Leotychides, +king of the Lacedaemonians, the commander of the Hellenes at Mycale, +departed home with the allies from Peloponnese. But the Athenians and +the allies from Ionia and Hellespont, who had now revolted from the +King, remained and laid siege to Sestos, which was still held by the +Medes. After wintering before it, they became masters of the place on +its evacuation by the barbarians; and after this they sailed away from +Hellespont to their respective cities. Meanwhile the Athenian people, +after the departure of the barbarian from their country, at once +proceeded to carry over their children and wives, and such property +as they had left, from the places where they had deposited them, and +prepared to rebuild their city and their walls. For only isolated +portions of the circumference had been left standing, and most of +the houses were in ruins; though a few remained, in which the Persian +grandees had taken up their quarters. + +Perceiving what they were going to do, the Lacedaemonians sent an +embassy to Athens. They would have themselves preferred to see neither +her nor any other city in possession of a wall; though here they acted +principally at the instigation of their allies, who were alarmed at +the strength of her newly acquired navy and the valour which she had +displayed in the war with the Medes. They begged her not only to abstain +from building walls for herself, but also to join them in throwing down +the walls that still held together of the ultra-Peloponnesian cities. +The real meaning of their advice, the suspicion that it contained +against the Athenians, was not proclaimed; it was urged that so the +barbarian, in the event of a third invasion, would not have any strong +place, such as he now had in Thebes, for his base of operations; and +that Peloponnese would suffice for all as a base both for retreat and +offence. After the Lacedaemonians had thus spoken, they were, on the +advice of Themistocles, immediately dismissed by the Athenians, with +the answer that ambassadors should be sent to Sparta to discuss the +question. Themistocles told the Athenians to send him off with all speed +to Lacedaemon, but not to dispatch his colleagues as soon as they had +selected them, but to wait until they had raised their wall to the +height from which defence was possible. Meanwhile the whole population +in the city was to labour at the wall, the Athenians, their wives, and +their children, sparing no edifice, private or public, which might be +of any use to the work, but throwing all down. After giving these +instructions, and adding that he would be responsible for all other +matters there, he departed. Arrived at Lacedaemon he did not seek an +audience with the authorities, but tried to gain time and made excuses. +When any of the government asked him why he did not appear in the +assembly, he would say that he was waiting for his colleagues, who had +been detained in Athens by some engagement; however, that he expected +their speedy arrival, and wondered that they were not yet there. At +first the Lacedaemonians trusted the words of Themistocles, through +their friendship for him; but when others arrived, all distinctly +declaring that the work was going on and already attaining some +elevation, they did not know how to disbelieve it. Aware of this, he +told them that rumours are deceptive, and should not be trusted; they +should send some reputable persons from Sparta to inspect, whose report +might be trusted. They dispatched them accordingly. Concerning these +Themistocles secretly sent word to the Athenians to detain them as far +as possible without putting them under open constraint, and not to let +them go until they had themselves returned. For his colleagues had +now joined him, Abronichus, son of Lysicles, and Aristides, son of +Lysimachus, with the news that the wall was sufficiently advanced; +and he feared that when the Lacedaemonians heard the facts, they might +refuse to let them go. So the Athenians detained the envoys according to +his message, and Themistocles had an audience with the Lacedaemonians, +and at last openly told them that Athens was now fortified sufficiently +to protect its inhabitants; that any embassy which the Lacedaemonians or +their allies might wish to send to them should in future proceed on +the assumption that the people to whom they were going was able to +distinguish both its own and the general interests. That when the +Athenians thought fit to abandon their city and to embark in their +ships, they ventured on that perilous step without consulting them; +and that on the other hand, wherever they had deliberated with the +Lacedaemonians, they had proved themselves to be in judgment second to +none. That they now thought it fit that their city should have a wall, +and that this would be more for the advantage of both the citizens of +Athens and the Hellenic confederacy; for without equal military strength +it was impossible to contribute equal or fair counsel to the common +interest. It followed, he observed, either that all the members of the +confederacy should be without walls, or that the present step should be +considered a right one. + +The Lacedaemonians did not betray any open signs of anger against the +Athenians at what they heard. The embassy, it seems, was prompted not +by a desire to obstruct, but to guide the counsels of their government: +besides, Spartan feeling was at that time very friendly towards Athens +on account of the patriotism which she had displayed in the struggle +with the Mede. Still the defeat of their wishes could not but cause +them secret annoyance. The envoys of each state departed home without +complaint. + +In this way the Athenians walled their city in a little while. To +this day the building shows signs of the haste of its execution; the +foundations are laid of stones of all kinds, and in some places not +wrought or fitted, but placed just in the order in which they were +brought by the different hands; and many columns, too, from tombs, and +sculptured stones were put in with the rest. For the bounds of the city +were extended at every point of the circumference; and so they laid +hands on everything without exception in their haste. Themistocles also +persuaded them to finish the walls of Piraeus, which had been begun +before, in his year of office as archon; being influenced alike by the +fineness of a locality that has three natural harbours, and by the great +start which the Athenians would gain in the acquisition of power by +becoming a naval people. For he first ventured to tell them to stick to +the sea and forthwith began to lay the foundations of the empire. It was +by his advice, too, that they built the walls of that thickness which +can still be discerned round Piraeus, the stones being brought up by +two wagons meeting each other. Between the walls thus formed there +was neither rubble nor mortar, but great stones hewn square and fitted +together, cramped to each other on the outside with iron and lead. About +half the height that he intended was finished. His idea was by their +size and thickness to keep off the attacks of an enemy; he thought that +they might be adequately defended by a small garrison of invalids, and +the rest be freed for service in the fleet. For the fleet claimed most +of his attention. He saw, as I think, that the approach by sea was +easier for the king's army than that by land: he also thought Piraeus +more valuable than the upper city; indeed, he was always advising the +Athenians, if a day should come when they were hard pressed by land, +to go down into Piraeus, and defy the world with their fleet. Thus, +therefore, the Athenians completed their wall, and commenced their other +buildings immediately after the retreat of the Mede. + +Meanwhile Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, was sent out from Lacedaemon as +commander-in-chief of the Hellenes, with twenty ships from Peloponnese. +With him sailed the Athenians with thirty ships, and a number of the +other allies. They made an expedition against Cyprus and subdued most of +the island, and afterwards against Byzantium, which was in the hands of +the Medes, and compelled it to surrender. This event took place while +the Spartans were still supreme. But the violence of Pausanias had +already begun to be disagreeable to the Hellenes, particularly to the +Ionians and the newly liberated populations. These resorted to the +Athenians and requested them as their kinsmen to become their leaders, +and to stop any attempt at violence on the part of Pausanias. The +Athenians accepted their overtures, and determined to put down any +attempt of the kind and to settle everything else as their interests +might seem to demand. In the meantime the Lacedaemonians recalled +Pausanias for an investigation of the reports which had reached them. +Manifold and grave accusations had been brought against him by Hellenes +arriving in Sparta; and, to all appearance, there had been in him more +of the mimicry of a despot than of the attitude of a general. As it +happened, his recall came just at the time when the hatred which he +had inspired had induced the allies to desert him, the soldiers from +Peloponnese excepted, and to range themselves by the side of the +Athenians. On his arrival at Lacedaemon, he was censured for his +private acts of oppression, but was acquitted on the heaviest counts and +pronounced not guilty; it must be known that the charge of Medism formed +one of the principal, and to all appearance one of the best founded, +articles against him. The Lacedaemonians did not, however, restore him +to his command, but sent out Dorkis and certain others with a small +force; who found the allies no longer inclined to concede to them the +supremacy. Perceiving this they departed, and the Lacedaemonians did +not send out any to succeed them. They feared for those who went out +a deterioration similar to that observable in Pausanias; besides, +they desired to be rid of the Median War, and were satisfied of the +competency of the Athenians for the position, and of their friendship at +the time towards themselves. + +The Athenians, having thus succeeded to the supremacy by the voluntary +act of the allies through their hatred of Pausanias, fixed which cities +were to contribute money against the barbarian, which ships; their +professed object being to retaliate for their sufferings by ravaging +the King's country. Now was the time that the office of "Treasurers for +Hellas" was first instituted by the Athenians. These officers received +the tribute, as the money contributed was called. The tribute was first +fixed at four hundred and sixty talents. The common treasury was at +Delos, and the congresses were held in the temple. Their supremacy +commenced with independent allies who acted on the resolutions of a +common congress. It was marked by the following undertakings in war and +in administration during the interval between the Median and the present +war, against the barbarian, against their own rebel allies, and against +the Peloponnesian powers which would come in contact with them on +various occasions. My excuse for relating these events, and for +venturing on this digression, is that this passage of history has been +omitted by all my predecessors, who have confined themselves either +to Hellenic history before the Median War, or the Median War itself. +Hellanicus, it is true, did touch on these events in his Athenian +history; but he is somewhat concise and not accurate in his dates. +Besides, the history of these events contains an explanation of the +growth of the Athenian empire. + +First the Athenians besieged and captured Eion on the Strymon from the +Medes, and made slaves of the inhabitants, being under the command of +Cimon, son of Miltiades. Next they enslaved Scyros, the island in the +Aegean, containing a Dolopian population, and colonized it themselves. +This was followed by a war against Carystus, in which the rest of Euboea +remained neutral, and which was ended by surrender on conditions. After +this Naxos left the confederacy, and a war ensued, and she had to return +after a siege; this was the first instance of the engagement being +broken by the subjugation of an allied city, a precedent which +was followed by that of the rest in the order which circumstances +prescribed. Of all the causes of defection, that connected with arrears +of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; +for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves +offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used +to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labour. In some other +respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been +at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it +was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the +confederacy. For this the allies had themselves to blame; the wish to +get off service making most of them arrange to pay their share of the +expense in money instead of in ships, and so to avoid having to leave +their homes. Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds +which they contributed, a revolt always found them without resources or +experience for war. + +Next we come to the actions by land and by sea at the river Eurymedon, +between the Athenians with their allies, and the Medes, when the +Athenians won both battles on the same day under the conduct of Cimon, +son of Miltiades, and captured and destroyed the whole Phoenician fleet, +consisting of two hundred vessels. Some time afterwards occurred the +defection of the Thasians, caused by disagreements about the marts on +the opposite coast of Thrace, and about the mine in their possession. +Sailing with a fleet to Thasos, the Athenians defeated them at sea and +effected a landing on the island. About the same time they sent ten +thousand settlers of their own citizens and the allies to settle +the place then called Ennea Hodoi or Nine Ways, now Amphipolis. They +succeeded in gaining possession of Ennea Hodoi from the Edonians, but on +advancing into the interior of Thrace were cut off in Drabescus, a town +of the Edonians, by the assembled Thracians, who regarded the settlement +of the place Ennea Hodoi as an act of hostility. Meanwhile the Thasians +being defeated in the field and suffering siege, appealed to Lacedaemon, +and desired her to assist them by an invasion of Attica. Without +informing Athens, she promised and intended to do so, but was prevented +by the occurrence of the earthquake, accompanied by the secession of the +Helots and the Thuriats and Aethaeans of the Perioeci to Ithome. Most of +the Helots were the descendants of the old Messenians that were enslaved +in the famous war; and so all of them came to be called Messenians. So +the Lacedaemonians being engaged in a war with the rebels in Ithome, +the Thasians in the third year of the siege obtained terms from +the Athenians by razing their walls, delivering up their ships, and +arranging to pay the moneys demanded at once, and tribute in future; +giving up their possessions on the continent together with the mine. + +The Lacedaemonians, meanwhile, finding the war against the rebels in +Ithome likely to last, invoked the aid of their allies, and especially +of the Athenians, who came in some force under the command of Cimon. +The reason for this pressing summons lay in their reputed skill in +siege operations; a long siege had taught the Lacedaemonians their own +deficiency in this art, else they would have taken the place by assault. +The first open quarrel between the Lacedaemonians and Athenians arose +out of this expedition. The Lacedaemonians, when assault failed to take +the place, apprehensive of the enterprising and revolutionary character +of the Athenians, and further looking upon them as of alien extraction, +began to fear that, if they remained, they might be tempted by the +besieged in Ithome to attempt some political changes. They accordingly +dismissed them alone of the allies, without declaring their suspicions, +but merely saying that they had now no need of them. But the Athenians, +aware that their dismissal did not proceed from the more honourable +reason of the two, but from suspicions which had been conceived, went +away deeply offended, and conscious of having done nothing to merit such +treatment from the Lacedaemonians; and the instant that they returned +home they broke off the alliance which had been made against the Mede, +and allied themselves with Sparta's enemy Argos; each of the contracting +parties taking the same oaths and making the same alliance with the +Thessalians. + +Meanwhile the rebels in Ithome, unable to prolong further a ten years' +resistance, surrendered to Lacedaemon; the conditions being that they +should depart from Peloponnese under safe conduct, and should never set +foot in it again: any one who might hereafter be found there was to be +the slave of his captor. It must be known that the Lacedaemonians had +an old oracle from Delphi, to the effect that they should let go the +suppliant of Zeus at Ithome. So they went forth with their children and +their wives, and being received by Athens from the hatred that she now +felt for the Lacedaemonians, were located at Naupactus, which she had +lately taken from the Ozolian Locrians. The Athenians received +another addition to their confederacy in the Megarians; who left the +Lacedaemonian alliance, annoyed by a war about boundaries forced on +them by Corinth. The Athenians occupied Megara and Pegae, and built the +Megarians their long walls from the city to Nisaea, in which they placed +an Athenian garrison. This was the principal cause of the Corinthians +conceiving such a deadly hatred against Athens. + +Meanwhile Inaros, son of Psammetichus, a Libyan king of the Libyans on +the Egyptian border, having his headquarters at Marea, the town +above Pharos, caused a revolt of almost the whole of Egypt from King +Artaxerxes and, placing himself at its head, invited the Athenians to +his assistance. Abandoning a Cyprian expedition upon which they happened +to be engaged with two hundred ships of their own and their allies, +they arrived in Egypt and sailed from the sea into the Nile, and making +themselves masters of the river and two-thirds of Memphis, addressed +themselves to the attack of the remaining third, which is called White +Castle. Within it were Persians and Medes who had taken refuge there, +and Egyptians who had not joined the rebellion. + +Meanwhile the Athenians, making a descent from their fleet upon +Haliae, were engaged by a force of Corinthians and Epidaurians; and +the Corinthians were victorious. Afterwards the Athenians engaged the +Peloponnesian fleet off Cecruphalia; and the Athenians were victorious. +Subsequently war broke out between Aegina and Athens, and there was a +great battle at sea off Aegina between the Athenians and Aeginetans, +each being aided by their allies; in which victory remained with the +Athenians, who took seventy of the enemy's ships, and landed in the +country and commenced a siege under the command of Leocrates, son +of Stroebus. Upon this the Peloponnesians, desirous of aiding the +Aeginetans, threw into Aegina a force of three hundred heavy infantry, +who had before been serving with the Corinthians and Epidaurians. +Meanwhile the Corinthians and their allies occupied the heights of +Geraneia, and marched down into the Megarid, in the belief that, with a +large force absent in Aegina and Egypt, Athens would be unable to help +the Megarians without raising the siege of Aegina. But the Athenians, +instead of moving the army of Aegina, raised a force of the old and +young men that had been left in the city, and marched into the +Megarid under the command of Myronides. After a drawn battle with the +Corinthians, the rival hosts parted, each with the impression that they +had gained the victory. The Athenians, however, if anything, had rather +the advantage, and on the departure of the Corinthians set up a trophy. +Urged by the taunts of the elders in their city, the Corinthians made +their preparations, and about twelve days afterwards came and set up +their trophy as victors. Sallying out from Megara, the Athenians cut +off the party that was employed in erecting the trophy, and engaged and +defeated the rest. In the retreat of the vanquished army, a considerable +division, pressed by the pursuers and mistaking the road, dashed into a +field on some private property, with a deep trench all round it, and +no way out. Being acquainted with the place, the Athenians hemmed their +front with heavy infantry and, placing the light troops round in a +circle, stoned all who had gone in. Corinth here suffered a severe blow. +The bulk of her army continued its retreat home. + +About this time the Athenians began to build the long walls to the sea, +that towards Phalerum and that towards Piraeus. Meanwhile the Phocians +made an expedition against Doris, the old home of the Lacedaemonians, +containing the towns of Boeum, Kitinium, and Erineum. They had taken +one of these towns, when the Lacedaemonians under Nicomedes, son of +Cleombrotus, commanding for King Pleistoanax, son of Pausanias, who was +still a minor, came to the aid of the Dorians with fifteen hundred +heavy infantry of their own, and ten thousand of their allies. After +compelling the Phocians to restore the town on conditions, they began +their retreat. The route by sea, across the Crissaean Gulf, exposed them +to the risk of being stopped by the Athenian fleet; that across Geraneia +seemed scarcely safe, the Athenians holding Megara and Pegae. For the +pass was a difficult one, and was always guarded by the Athenians; and, +in the present instance, the Lacedaemonians had information that they +meant to dispute their passage. So they resolved to remain in Boeotia, +and to consider which would be the safest line of march. They had also +another reason for this resolve. Secret encouragement had been given +them by a party in Athens, who hoped to put an end to the reign of +democracy and the building of the Long Walls. Meanwhile the Athenians +marched against them with their whole levy and a thousand Argives and +the respective contingents of the rest of their allies. Altogether they +were fourteen thousand strong. The march was prompted by the notion that +the Lacedaemonians were at a loss how to effect their passage, and also +by suspicions of an attempt to overthrow the democracy. Some cavalry +also joined the Athenians from their Thessalian allies; but these went +over to the Lacedaemonians during the battle. + +The battle was fought at Tanagra in Boeotia. After heavy loss on both +sides, victory declared for the Lacedaemonians and their allies. +After entering the Megarid and cutting down the fruit trees, the +Lacedaemonians returned home across Geraneia and the isthmus. Sixty-two +days after the battle the Athenians marched into Boeotia under the +command of Myronides, defeated the Boeotians in battle at Oenophyta, and +became masters of Boeotia and Phocis. They dismantled the walls of the +Tanagraeans, took a hundred of the richest men of the Opuntian Locrians +as hostages, and finished their own long walls. This was followed by the +surrender of the Aeginetans to Athens on conditions; they pulled down +their walls, gave up their ships, and agreed to pay tribute in future. +The Athenians sailed round Peloponnese under Tolmides, son of +Tolmaeus, burnt the arsenal of Lacedaemon, took Chalcis, a town of the +Corinthians, and in a descent upon Sicyon defeated the Sicyonians in +battle. + +Meanwhile the Athenians in Egypt and their allies were still there, +and encountered all the vicissitudes of war. First the Athenians were +masters of Egypt, and the King sent Megabazus a Persian to Lacedaemon +with money to bribe the Peloponnesians to invade Attica and so draw off +the Athenians from Egypt. Finding that the matter made no progress, and +that the money was only being wasted, he recalled Megabazus with the +remainder of the money, and sent Megabuzus, son of Zopyrus, a Persian, +with a large army to Egypt. Arriving by land he defeated the Egyptians +and their allies in a battle, and drove the Hellenes out of Memphis, and +at length shut them up in the island of Prosopitis, where he besieged +them for a year and six months. At last, draining the canal of its +waters, which he diverted into another channel, he left their ships high +and dry and joined most of the island to the mainland, and then marched +over on foot and captured it. Thus the enterprise of the Hellenes came +to ruin after six years of war. Of all that large host a few travelling +through Libya reached Cyrene in safety, but most of them perished. And +thus Egypt returned to its subjection to the King, except Amyrtaeus, the +king in the marshes, whom they were unable to capture from the extent +of the marsh; the marshmen being also the most warlike of the Egyptians. +Inaros, the Libyan king, the sole author of the Egyptian revolt, was +betrayed, taken, and crucified. Meanwhile a relieving squadron of fifty +vessels had sailed from Athens and the rest of the confederacy for +Egypt. They put in to shore at the Mendesian mouth of the Nile, in total +ignorance of what had occurred. Attacked on the land side by the +troops, and from the sea by the Phoenician navy, most of the ships were +destroyed; the few remaining being saved by retreat. Such was the end of +the great expedition of the Athenians and their allies to Egypt. + +Meanwhile Orestes, son of Echecratidas, the Thessalian king, being an +exile from Thessaly, persuaded the Athenians to restore him. Taking with +them the Boeotians and Phocians their allies, the Athenians marched to +Pharsalus in Thessaly. They became masters of the country, though only +in the immediate vicinity of the camp; beyond which they could not go +for fear of the Thessalian cavalry. But they failed to take the city +or to attain any of the other objects of their expedition, and returned +home with Orestes without having effected anything. Not long after this +a thousand of the Athenians embarked in the vessels that were at Pegae +(Pegae, it must be remembered, was now theirs), and sailed along the +coast to Sicyon under the command of Pericles, son of Xanthippus. +Landing in Sicyon and defeating the Sicyonians who engaged them, they +immediately took with them the Achaeans and, sailing across, marched +against and laid siege to Oeniadae in Acarnania. Failing however to take +it, they returned home. + +Three years afterwards a truce was made between the Peloponnesians and +Athenians for five years. Released from Hellenic war, the Athenians made +an expedition to Cyprus with two hundred vessels of their own and their +allies, under the command of Cimon. Sixty of these were detached to +Egypt at the instance of Amyrtaeus, the king in the marshes; the rest +laid siege to Kitium, from which, however, they were compelled to retire +by the death of Cimon and by scarcity of provisions. Sailing off Salamis +in Cyprus, they fought with the Phoenicians, Cyprians, and Cilicians by +land and sea, and, being victorious on both elements departed home, +and with them the returned squadron from Egypt. After this the +Lacedaemonians marched out on a sacred war, and, becoming masters of the +temple at Delphi, it in the hands of the Delphians. Immediately after +their retreat, the Athenians marched out, became masters of the temple, +and placed it in the hands of the Phocians. + +Some time after this, Orchomenus, Chaeronea, and some other places in +Boeotia being in the hands of the Boeotian exiles, the Athenians marched +against the above-mentioned hostile places with a thousand Athenian +heavy infantry and the allied contingents, under the command of +Tolmides, son of Tolmaeus. They took Chaeronea, and made slaves of the +inhabitants, and, leaving a garrison, commenced their return. On +their road they were attacked at Coronea by the Boeotian exiles from +Orchomenus, with some Locrians and Euboean exiles, and others who were +of the same way of thinking, were defeated in battle, and some killed, +others taken captive. The Athenians evacuated all Boeotia by a treaty +providing for the recovery of the men; and the exiled Boeotians +returned, and with all the rest regained their independence. + +This was soon afterwards followed by the revolt of Euboea from Athens. +Pericles had already crossed over with an army of Athenians to the +island, when news was brought to him that Megara had revolted, that +the Peloponnesians were on the point of invading Attica, and that the +Athenian garrison had been cut off by the Megarians, with the exception +of a few who had taken refuge in Nisaea. The Megarians had introduced +the Corinthians, Sicyonians, and Epidaurians into the town before they +revolted. Meanwhile Pericles brought his army back in all haste from +Euboea. After this the Peloponnesians marched into Attica as far as +Eleusis and Thrius, ravaging the country under the conduct of King +Pleistoanax, the son of Pausanias, and without advancing further +returned home. The Athenians then crossed over again to Euboea under +the command of Pericles, and subdued the whole of the island: all but +Histiaea was settled by convention; the Histiaeans they expelled from +their homes, and occupied their territory themselves. + +Not long after their return from Euboea, they made a truce with the +Lacedaemonians and their allies for thirty years, giving up the posts +which they occupied in Peloponnese--Nisaea, Pegae, Troezen, and Achaia. +In the sixth year of the truce, war broke out between the Samians and +Milesians about Priene. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens +with loud complaints against the Samians. In this they were joined by +certain private persons from Samos itself, who wished to revolutionize +the government. Accordingly the Athenians sailed to Samos with forty +ships and set up a democracy; took hostages from the Samians, fifty boys +and as many men, lodged them in Lemnos, and after leaving a garrison in +the island returned home. But some of the Samians had not remained in +the island, but had fled to the continent. Making an agreement with the +most powerful of those in the city, and an alliance with Pissuthnes, son +of Hystaspes, the then satrap of Sardis, they got together a force of +seven hundred mercenaries, and under cover of night crossed over to +Samos. Their first step was to rise on the commons, most of whom they +secured; their next to steal their hostages from Lemnos; after which +they revolted, gave up the Athenian garrison left with them and its +commanders to Pissuthnes, and instantly prepared for an expedition +against Miletus. The Byzantines also revolted with them. + +As soon as the Athenians heard the news, they sailed with sixty ships +against Samos. Sixteen of these went to Caria to look out for the +Phoenician fleet, and to Chios and Lesbos carrying round orders for +reinforcements, and so never engaged; but forty-four ships under the +command of Pericles with nine colleagues gave battle, off the island of +Tragia, to seventy Samian vessels, of which twenty were transports, as +they were sailing from Miletus. Victory remained with the Athenians. +Reinforced afterwards by forty ships from Athens, and twenty-five Chian +and Lesbian vessels, the Athenians landed, and having the superiority by +land invested the city with three walls; it was also invested from the +sea. Meanwhile Pericles took sixty ships from the blockading squadron, +and departed in haste for Caunus and Caria, intelligence having been +brought in of the approach of the Phoenician fleet to the aid of the +Samians; indeed Stesagoras and others had left the island with five +ships to bring them. But in the meantime the Samians made a sudden +sally, and fell on the camp, which they found unfortified. Destroying +the look-out vessels, and engaging and defeating such as were being +launched to meet them, they remained masters of their own seas for +fourteen days, and carried in and carried out what they pleased. But +on the arrival of Pericles, they were once more shut up. Fresh +reinforcements afterwards arrived--forty ships from Athens with +Thucydides, Hagnon, and Phormio; twenty with Tlepolemus and Anticles, +and thirty vessels from Chios and Lesbos. After a brief attempt at +fighting, the Samians, unable to hold out, were reduced after a nine +months' siege and surrendered on conditions; they razed their walls, +gave hostages, delivered up their ships, and arranged to pay the +expenses of the war by instalments. The Byzantines also agreed to be +subject as before. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +_Second Congress at Lacedaemon--Preparations for War and Diplomatic +Skirmishes--Cylon--Pausanias--Themistocles_ + +After this, though not many years later, we at length come to what +has been already related, the affairs of Corcyra and Potidaea, and the +events that served as a pretext for the present war. All these actions +of the Hellenes against each other and the barbarian occurred in the +fifty years' interval between the retreat of Xerxes and the beginning of +the present war. During this interval the Athenians succeeded in placing +their empire on a firmer basis, and advanced their own home power to a +very great height. The Lacedaemonians, though fully aware of it, opposed +it only for a little while, but remained inactive during most of the +period, being of old slow to go to war except under the pressure of +necessity, and in the present instance being hampered by wars at home; +until the growth of the Athenian power could be no longer ignored, and +their own confederacy became the object of its encroachments. They then +felt that they could endure it no longer, but that the time had come +for them to throw themselves heart and soul upon the hostile power, and +break it, if they could, by commencing the present war. And though the +Lacedaemonians had made up their own minds on the fact of the breach of +the treaty and the guilt of the Athenians, yet they sent to Delphi and +inquired of the God whether it would be well with them if they went to +war; and, as it is reported, received from him the answer that if they +put their whole strength into the war, victory would be theirs, and +the promise that he himself would be with them, whether invoked or +uninvoked. Still they wished to summon their allies again, and to take +their vote on the propriety of making war. After the ambassadors from +the confederates had arrived and a congress had been convened, they all +spoke their minds, most of them denouncing the Athenians and demanding +that the war should begin. In particular the Corinthians. They had +before on their own account canvassed the cities in detail to induce +them to vote for the war, in the fear that it might come too late to +save Potidaea; they were present also on this occasion, and came forward +the last, and made the following speech: + +"Fellow allies, we can no longer accuse the Lacedaemonians of having +failed in their duty: they have not only voted for war themselves, +but have assembled us here for that purpose. We say their duty, for +supremacy has its duties. Besides equitably administering private +interests, leaders are required to show a special care for the common +welfare in return for the special honours accorded to them by all in +other ways. For ourselves, all who have already had dealings with the +Athenians require no warning to be on their guard against them. The +states more inland and out of the highway of communication should +understand that, if they omit to support the coast powers, the result +will be to injure the transit of their produce for exportation and the +reception in exchange of their imports from the sea; and they must not +be careless judges of what is now said, as if it had nothing to do with +them, but must expect that the sacrifice of the powers on the coast will +one day be followed by the extension of the danger to the interior, +and must recognize that their own interests are deeply involved in this +discussion. For these reasons they should not hesitate to exchange peace +for war. If wise men remain quiet, while they are not injured, brave +men abandon peace for war when they are injured, returning to an +understanding on a favourable opportunity: in fact, they are neither +intoxicated by their success in war, nor disposed to take an injury for +the sake of the delightful tranquillity of peace. Indeed, to falter for +the sake of such delights is, if you remain inactive, the quickest way +of losing the sweets of repose to which you cling; while to conceive +extravagant pretensions from success in war is to forget how hollow is +the confidence by which you are elated. For if many ill-conceived plans +have succeeded through the still greater fatuity of an opponent, many +more, apparently well laid, have on the contrary ended in disgrace. The +confidence with which we form our schemes is never completely justified +in their execution; speculation is carried on in safety, but, when it +comes to action, fear causes failure. + +"To apply these rules to ourselves, if we are now kindling war it is +under the pressure of injury, with adequate grounds of complaint; and +after we have chastised the Athenians we will in season desist. We have +many reasons to expect success--first, superiority in numbers and in +military experience, and secondly our general and unvarying obedience in +the execution of orders. The naval strength which they possess shall +be raised by us from our respective antecedent resources, and from the +moneys at Olympia and Delphi. A loan from these enables us to seduce +their foreign sailors by the offer of higher pay. For the power of +Athens is more mercenary than national; while ours will not be exposed +to the same risk, as its strength lies more in men than in money. A +single defeat at sea is in all likelihood their ruin: should they +hold out, in that case there will be the more time for us to exercise +ourselves in naval matters; and as soon as we have arrived at an +equality in science, we need scarcely ask whether we shall be their +superiors in courage. For the advantages that we have by nature they +cannot acquire by education; while their superiority in science must be +removed by our practice. The money required for these objects shall be +provided by our contributions: nothing indeed could be more monstrous +than the suggestion that, while their allies never tire of contributing +for their own servitude, we should refuse to spend for vengeance and +self-preservation the treasure which by such refusal we shall forfeit to +Athenian rapacity and see employed for our own ruin. + +"We have also other ways of carrying on the war, such as revolt of their +allies, the surest method of depriving them of their revenues, which are +the source of their strength, and establishment of fortified positions +in their country, and various operations which cannot be foreseen at +present. For war of all things proceeds least upon definite rules, but +draws principally upon itself for contrivances to meet an emergency; and +in such cases the party who faces the struggle and keeps his temper +best meets with most security, and he who loses his temper about it +with correspondent disaster. Let us also reflect that if it was merely +a number of disputes of territory between rival neighbours, it might be +borne; but here we have an enemy in Athens that is a match for our whole +coalition, and more than a match for any of its members; so that unless +as a body and as individual nationalities and individual cities we make +an unanimous stand against her, she will easily conquer us divided and +in detail. That conquest, terrible as it may sound, would, it must be +known, have no other end than slavery pure and simple; a word which +Peloponnese cannot even hear whispered without disgrace, or without +disgrace see so many states abused by one. Meanwhile the opinion would +be either that we were justly so used, or that we put up with it from +cowardice, and were proving degenerate sons in not even securing for +ourselves the freedom which our fathers gave to Hellas; and in allowing +the establishment in Hellas of a tyrant state, though in individual +states we think it our duty to put down sole rulers. And we do not know +how this conduct can be held free from three of the gravest failings, +want of sense, of courage, or of vigilance. For we do not suppose that +you have taken refuge in that contempt of an enemy which has proved so +fatal in so many instances--a feeling which from the numbers that it has +ruined has come to be called not contemptuous but contemptible. + +"There is, however, no advantage in reflections on the past further +than may be of service to the present. For the future we must provide by +maintaining what the present gives us and redoubling our efforts; it is +hereditary to us to win virtue as the fruit of labour, and you must +not change the habit, even though you should have a slight advantage +in wealth and resources; for it is not right that what was won in want +should be lost in plenty; no, we must boldly advance to the war for many +reasons; the god has commanded it and promised to be with us, and the +rest of Hellas will all join in the struggle, part from fear, part from +interest. You will be the first to break a treaty which the god, in +advising us to go to war, judges to be violated already, but rather to +support a treaty that has been outraged: indeed, treaties are broken not +by resistance but by aggression. + +"Your position, therefore, from whatever quarter you may view it, will +amply justify you in going to war; and this step we recommend in the +interests of all, bearing in mind that identity of interest is the +surest of bonds, whether between states or individuals. Delay not, +therefore, to assist Potidaea, a Dorian city besieged by Ionians, which +is quite a reversal of the order of things; nor to assert the freedom +of the rest. It is impossible for us to wait any longer when waiting +can only mean immediate disaster for some of us, and, if it comes to be +known that we have conferred but do not venture to protect ourselves, +like disaster in the near future for the rest. Delay not, fellow allies, +but, convinced of the necessity of the crisis and the wisdom of this +counsel, vote for the war, undeterred by its immediate terrors, but +looking beyond to the lasting peace by which it will be succeeded. Out +of war peace gains fresh stability, but to refuse to abandon repose for +war is not so sure a method of avoiding danger. We must believe that +the tyrant city that has been established in Hellas has been established +against all alike, with a programme of universal empire, part fulfilled, +part in contemplation; let us then attack and reduce it, and win +future security for ourselves and freedom for the Hellenes who are now +enslaved." + +Such were the words of the Corinthians. The Lacedaemonians, having now +heard all, give their opinion, took the vote of all the allied states +present in order, great and small alike; and the majority voted for war. +This decided, it was still impossible for them to commence at once, from +their want of preparation; but it was resolved that the means requisite +were to be procured by the different states, and that there was to be +no delay. And indeed, in spite of the time occupied with the necessary +arrangements, less than a year elapsed before Attica was invaded, and +the war openly begun. + +This interval was spent in sending embassies to Athens charged with +complaints, in order to obtain as good a pretext for war as possible, +in the event of her paying no attention to them. The first Lacedaemonian +embassy was to order the Athenians to drive out the curse of the +goddess; the history of which is as follows. In former generations there +was an Athenian of the name of Cylon, a victor at the Olympic games, +of good birth and powerful position, who had married a daughter of +Theagenes, a Megarian, at that time tyrant of Megara. Now this Cylon was +inquiring at Delphi; when he was told by the god to seize the Acropolis +of Athens on the grand festival of Zeus. Accordingly, procuring a force +from Theagenes and persuading his friends to join him, when the +Olympic festival in Peloponnese came, he seized the Acropolis, with the +intention of making himself tyrant, thinking that this was the grand +festival of Zeus, and also an occasion appropriate for a victor at the +Olympic games. Whether the grand festival that was meant was in Attica +or elsewhere was a question which he never thought of, and which the +oracle did not offer to solve. For the Athenians also have a festival +which is called the grand festival of Zeus Meilichios or Gracious, viz., +the Diasia. It is celebrated outside the city, and the whole people +sacrifice not real victims but a number of bloodless offerings peculiar +to the country. However, fancying he had chosen the right time, he made +the attempt. As soon as the Athenians perceived it, they flocked in, one +and all, from the country, and sat down, and laid siege to the citadel. +But as time went on, weary of the labour of blockade, most of them +departed; the responsibility of keeping guard being left to the nine +archons, with plenary powers to arrange everything according to their +good judgment. It must be known that at that time most political +functions were discharged by the nine archons. Meanwhile Cylon and +his besieged companions were distressed for want of food and water. +Accordingly Cylon and his brother made their escape; but the rest +being hard pressed, and some even dying of famine, seated themselves as +suppliants at the altar in the Acropolis. The Athenians who were charged +with the duty of keeping guard, when they saw them at the point of death +in the temple, raised them up on the understanding that no harm should +be done to them, led them out, and slew them. Some who as they passed by +took refuge at the altars of the awful goddesses were dispatched on the +spot. From this deed the men who killed them were called accursed and +guilty against the goddess, they and their descendants. Accordingly +these cursed ones were driven out by the Athenians, driven out again by +Cleomenes of Lacedaemon and an Athenian faction; the living were driven +out, and the bones of the dead were taken up; thus they were cast out. +For all that, they came back afterwards, and their descendants are still +in the city. + +This, then was the curse that the Lacedaemonians ordered them to drive +out. They were actuated primarily, as they pretended, by a care for the +honour of the gods; but they also know that Pericles, son of Xanthippus, +was connected with the curse on his mother's side, and they thought that +his banishment would materially advance their designs on Athens. Not +that they really hoped to succeed in procuring this; they rather thought +to create a prejudice against him in the eyes of his countrymen from the +feeling that the war would be partly caused by his misfortune. For being +the most powerful man of his time, and the leading Athenian statesman, +he opposed the Lacedaemonians in everything, and would have no +concessions, but ever urged the Athenians on to war. + +The Athenians retorted by ordering the Lacedaemonians to drive out the +curse of Taenarus. The Lacedaemonians had once raised up some Helot +suppliants from the temple of Poseidon at Taenarus, led them away and +slain them; for which they believe the great earthquake at Sparta to +have been a retribution. The Athenians also ordered them to drive out +the curse of the goddess of the Brazen House; the history of which is +as follows. After Pausanias the Lacedaemonian had been recalled by the +Spartans from his command in the Hellespont (this is his first recall), +and had been tried by them and acquitted, not being again sent out in a +public capacity, he took a galley of Hermione on his own responsibility, +without the authority of the Lacedaemonians, and arrived as a private +person in the Hellespont. He came ostensibly for the Hellenic war, +really to carry on his intrigues with the King, which he had begun +before his recall, being ambitious of reigning over Hellas. The +circumstance which first enabled him to lay the King under an +obligation, and to make a beginning of the whole design, was this. Some +connections and kinsmen of the King had been taken in Byzantium, on its +capture from the Medes, when he was first there, after the return from +Cyprus. These captives he sent off to the King without the knowledge +of the rest of the allies, the account being that they had escaped from +him. He managed this with the help of Gongylus, an Eretrian, whom he had +placed in charge of Byzantium and the prisoners. He also gave Gongylus +a letter for the King, the contents of which were as follows, as was +afterwards discovered: "Pausanias, the general of Sparta, anxious to do +you a favour, sends you these his prisoners of war. I propose also, with +your approval, to marry your daughter, and to make Sparta and the rest +of Hellas subject to you. I may say that I think I am able to do this, +with your co-operation. Accordingly if any of this please you, send +a safe man to the sea through whom we may in future conduct our +correspondence." + +This was all that was revealed in the writing, and Xerxes was pleased +with the letter. He sent off Artabazus, son of Pharnaces, to the sea +with orders to supersede Megabates, the previous governor in the satrapy +of Daskylion, and to send over as quickly as possible to Pausanias at +Byzantium a letter which he entrusted to him; to show him the royal +signet, and to execute any commission which he might receive from +Pausanias on the King's matters with all care and fidelity. Artabazus +on his arrival carried the King's orders into effect, and sent over the +letter, which contained the following answer: "Thus saith King Xerxes +to Pausanias. For the men whom you have saved for me across sea from +Byzantium, an obligation is laid up for you in our house, recorded for +ever; and with your proposals I am well pleased. Let neither night nor +day stop you from diligently performing any of your promises to me; +neither for cost of gold nor of silver let them be hindered, nor yet for +number of troops, wherever it may be that their presence is needed; but +with Artabazus, an honourable man whom I send you, boldly advance my +objects and yours, as may be most for the honour and interest of us +both." + +Before held in high honour by the Hellenes as the hero of Plataea, +Pausanias, after the receipt of this letter, became prouder than ever, +and could no longer live in the usual style, but went out of Byzantium +in a Median dress, was attended on his march through Thrace by a +bodyguard of Medes and Egyptians, kept a Persian table, and was quite +unable to contain his intentions, but betrayed by his conduct in trifles +what his ambition looked one day to enact on a grander scale. He also +made himself difficult of access, and displayed so violent a temper to +every one without exception that no one could come near him. Indeed, +this was the principal reason why the confederacy went over to the +Athenians. + +The above-mentioned conduct, coming to the ears of the Lacedaemonians, +occasioned his first recall. And after his second voyage out in the ship +of Hermione, without their orders, he gave proofs of similar behaviour. +Besieged and expelled from Byzantium by the Athenians, he did not return +to Sparta; but news came that he had settled at Colonae in the Troad, +and was intriguing with the barbarians, and that his stay there was for +no good purpose; and the ephors, now no longer hesitating, sent him a +herald and a scytale with orders to accompany the herald or be declared +a public enemy. Anxious above everything to avoid suspicion, and +confident that he could quash the charge by means of money, he returned +a second time to Sparta. At first thrown into prison by the ephors +(whose powers enable them to do this to the King), soon compromised +the matter and came out again, and offered himself for trial to any who +wished to institute an inquiry concerning him. + +Now the Spartans had no tangible proof against him--neither his enemies +nor the nation--of that indubitable kind required for the punishment +of a member of the royal family, and at that moment in high office; he +being regent for his first cousin King Pleistarchus, Leonidas's son, who +was still a minor. But by his contempt of the laws and imitation of the +barbarians, he gave grounds for much suspicion of his being discontented +with things established; all the occasions on which he had in any way +departed from the regular customs were passed in review, and it was +remembered that he had taken upon himself to have inscribed on +the tripod at Delphi, which was dedicated by the Hellenes as the +first-fruits of the spoil of the Medes, the following couplet: + + The Mede defeated, great Pausanias raised + This monument, that Phoebus might be praised. + +At the time the Lacedaemonians had at once erased the couplet, and +inscribed the names of the cities that had aided in the overthrow of +the barbarian and dedicated the offering. Yet it was considered that +Pausanias had here been guilty of a grave offence, which, interpreted +by the light of the attitude which he had since assumed, gained a +new significance, and seemed to be quite in keeping with his present +schemes. Besides, they were informed that he was even intriguing with +the Helots; and such indeed was the fact, for he promised them freedom +and citizenship if they would join him in insurrection and would +help him to carry out his plans to the end. Even now, mistrusting the +evidence even of the Helots themselves, the ephors would not consent +to take any decided step against him; in accordance with their regular +custom towards themselves, namely, to be slow in taking any irrevocable +resolve in the matter of a Spartan citizen without indisputable proof. +At last, it is said, the person who was going to carry to Artabazus the +last letter for the King, a man of Argilus, once the favourite and most +trusty servant of Pausanias, turned informer. Alarmed by the reflection +that none of the previous messengers had ever returned, having +counterfeited the seal, in order that, if he found himself mistaken in +his surmises, or if Pausanias should ask to make some correction, he +might not be discovered, he undid the letter, and found the postscript +that he had suspected, viz. an order to put him to death. + +On being shown the letter, the ephors now felt more certain. Still, they +wished to hear Pausanias commit himself with their own ears. Accordingly +the man went by appointment to Taenarus as a suppliant, and there built +himself a hut divided into two by a partition; within which he concealed +some of the ephors and let them hear the whole matter plainly. For +Pausanias came to him and asked him the reason of his suppliant +position; and the man reproached him with the order that he had +written concerning him, and one by one declared all the rest of the +circumstances, how he who had never yet brought him into any danger, +while employed as agent between him and the King, was yet just like the +mass of his servants to be rewarded with death. Admitting all this, and +telling him not to be angry about the matter, Pausanias gave him the +pledge of raising him up from the temple, and begged him to set off as +quickly as possible, and not to hinder the business in hand. + +The ephors listened carefully, and then departed, taking no action for +the moment, but, having at last attained to certainty, were preparing +to arrest him in the city. It is reported that, as he was about to be +arrested in the street, he saw from the face of one of the ephors what +he was coming for; another, too, made him a secret signal, and betrayed +it to him from kindness. Setting off with a run for the temple of the +goddess of the Brazen House, the enclosure of which was near at hand, he +succeeded in taking sanctuary before they took him, and entering into a +small chamber, which formed part of the temple, to avoid being exposed +to the weather, lay still there. The ephors, for the moment distanced +in the pursuit, afterwards took off the roof of the chamber, and having +made sure that he was inside, shut him in, barricaded the doors, and +staying before the place, reduced him by starvation. When they found +that he was on the point of expiring, just as he was, in the chamber, +they brought him out of the temple, while the breath was still in him, +and as soon as he was brought out he died. They were going to throw +him into the Kaiadas, where they cast criminals, but finally decided to +inter him somewhere near. But the god at Delphi afterwards ordered the +Lacedaemonians to remove the tomb to the place of his death--where he +now lies in the consecrated ground, as an inscription on a monument +declares--and, as what had been done was a curse to them, to give back +two bodies instead of one to the goddess of the Brazen House. So they +had two brazen statues made, and dedicated them as a substitute for +Pausanias. The Athenians retorted by telling the Lacedaemonians to drive +out what the god himself had pronounced to be a curse. + +To return to the Medism of Pausanias. Matter was found in the course +of the inquiry to implicate Themistocles; and the Lacedaemonians +accordingly sent envoys to the Athenians and required them to punish him +as they had punished Pausanias. The Athenians consented to do so. But +he had, as it happened, been ostracized, and, with a residence at Argos, +was in the habit of visiting other parts of Peloponnese. So they sent +with the Lacedaemonians, who were ready to join in the pursuit, persons +with instructions to take him wherever they found him. But Themistocles +got scent of their intentions, and fled from Peloponnese to Corcyra, +which was under obligations towards him. But the Corcyraeans alleged +that they could not venture to shelter him at the cost of offending +Athens and Lacedaemon, and they conveyed him over to the continent +opposite. Pursued by the officers who hung on the report of his +movements, at a loss where to turn, he was compelled to stop at the +house of Admetus, the Molossian king, though they were not on friendly +terms. Admetus happened not to be indoors, but his wife, to whom he made +himself a suppliant, instructed him to take their child in his arms +and sit down by the hearth. Soon afterwards Admetus came in, and +Themistocles told him who he was, and begged him not to revenge on +Themistocles in exile any opposition which his requests might have +experienced from Themistocles at Athens. Indeed, he was now far too +low for his revenge; retaliation was only honourable between equals. +Besides, his opposition to the king had only affected the success of a +request, not the safety of his person; if the king were to give him up +to the pursuers that he mentioned, and the fate which they intended for +him, he would just be consigning him to certain death. + +The King listened to him and raised him up with his son, as he was +sitting with him in his arms after the most effectual method of +supplication, and on the arrival of the Lacedaemonians not long +afterwards, refused to give him up for anything they could say, but sent +him off by land to the other sea to Pydna in Alexander's dominions, as +he wished to go to the Persian king. There he met with a merchantman +on the point of starting for Ionia. Going on board, he was carried by +a storm to the Athenian squadron which was blockading Naxos. In his +alarm--he was luckily unknown to the people in the vessel--he told +the master who he was and what he was flying for, and said that, if +he refused to save him, he would declare that he was taking him for a +bribe. Meanwhile their safety consisted in letting no one leave the ship +until a favourable time for sailing should arise. If he complied with +his wishes, he promised him a proper recompense. The master acted as he +desired, and, after lying to for a day and a night out of reach of the +squadron, at length arrived at Ephesus. + +After having rewarded him with a present of money, as soon as he +received some from his friends at Athens and from his secret hoards at +Argos, Themistocles started inland with one of the coast Persians, and +sent a letter to King Artaxerxes, Xerxes's son, who had just come to the +throne. Its contents were as follows: "I, Themistocles, am come to +you, who did your house more harm than any of the Hellenes, when I +was compelled to defend myself against your father's invasion--harm, +however, far surpassed by the good that I did him during his retreat, +which brought no danger for me but much for him. For the past, you are a +good turn in my debt"--here he mentioned the warning sent to Xerxes from +Salamis to retreat, as well as his finding the bridges unbroken, which, +as he falsely pretended, was due to him--"for the present, able to do +you great service, I am here, pursued by the Hellenes for my friendship +for you. However, I desire a year's grace, when I shall be able to +declare in person the objects of my coming." + +It is said that the King approved his intention, and told him to do as +he said. He employed the interval in making what progress he could in +the study of the Persian tongue, and of the customs of the country. +Arrived at court at the end of the year, he attained to very high +consideration there, such as no Hellene has ever possessed before or +since; partly from his splendid antecedents, partly from the hopes +which he held out of effecting for him the subjugation of Hellas, but +principally by the proof which experience daily gave of his capacity. +For Themistocles was a man who exhibited the most indubitable signs +of genius; indeed, in this particular he has a claim on our admiration +quite extraordinary and unparalleled. By his own native capacity, alike +unformed and unsupplemented by study, he was at once the best judge in +those sudden crises which admit of little or of no deliberation, and the +best prophet of the future, even to its most distant possibilities. An +able theoretical expositor of all that came within the sphere of his +practice, he was not without the power of passing an adequate judgment +in matters in which he had no experience. He could also excellently +divine the good and evil which lay hid in the unseen future. In fine, +whether we consider the extent of his natural powers, or the slightness +of his application, this extraordinary man must be allowed to have +surpassed all others in the faculty of intuitively meeting an emergency. +Disease was the real cause of his death; though there is a story of his +having ended his life by poison, on finding himself unable to fulfil his +promises to the king. However this may be, there is a monument to him +in the marketplace of Asiatic Magnesia. He was governor of the district, +the King having given him Magnesia, which brought in fifty talents a +year, for bread, Lampsacus, which was considered to be the richest wine +country, for wine, and Myos for other provisions. His bones, it is said, +were conveyed home by his relatives in accordance with his wishes, and +interred in Attic ground. This was done without the knowledge of the +Athenians; as it is against the law to bury in Attica an outlaw +for treason. So ends the history of Pausanias and Themistocles, the +Lacedaemonian and the Athenian, the most famous men of their time in +Hellas. + +To return to the Lacedaemonians. The history of their first embassy, +the injunctions which it conveyed, and the rejoinder which it provoked, +concerning the expulsion of the accursed persons, have been related +already. It was followed by a second, which ordered Athens to raise the +siege of Potidaea, and to respect the independence of Aegina. Above all, +it gave her most distinctly to understand that war might be prevented +by the revocation of the Megara decree, excluding the Megarians from the +use of Athenian harbours and of the market of Athens. But Athens was +not inclined either to revoke the decree, or to entertain their other +proposals; she accused the Megarians of pushing their cultivation into +the consecrated ground and the unenclosed land on the border, and of +harbouring her runaway slaves. At last an embassy arrived with the +Lacedaemonian ultimatum. The ambassadors were Ramphias, Melesippus, and +Agesander. Not a word was said on any of the old subjects; there was +simply this: "Lacedaemon wishes the peace to continue, and there is no +reason why it should not, if you would leave the Hellenes independent." +Upon this the Athenians held an assembly, and laid the matter before +their consideration. It was resolved to deliberate once for all on all +their demands, and to give them an answer. There were many speakers who +came forward and gave their support to one side or the other, urging +the necessity of war, or the revocation of the decree and the folly +of allowing it to stand in the way of peace. Among them came forward +Pericles, son of Xanthippus, the first man of his time at Athens, ablest +alike in counsel and in action, and gave the following advice: + +"There is one principle, Athenians, which I hold to through everything, +and that is the principle of no concession to the Peloponnesians. I know +that the spirit which inspires men while they are being persuaded to +make war is not always retained in action; that as circumstances change, +resolutions change. Yet I see that now as before the same, almost +literally the same, counsel is demanded of me; and I put it to those of +you who are allowing yourselves to be persuaded, to support the national +resolves even in the case of reverses, or to forfeit all credit for +their wisdom in the event of success. For sometimes the course of things +is as arbitrary as the plans of man; indeed this is why we usually blame +chance for whatever does not happen as we expected. Now it was clear +before that Lacedaemon entertained designs against us; it is still +more clear now. The treaty provides that we shall mutually submit our +differences to legal settlement, and that we shall meanwhile each keep +what we have. Yet the Lacedaemonians never yet made us any such offer, +never yet would accept from us any such offer; on the contrary, they +wish complaints to be settled by war instead of by negotiation; and +in the end we find them here dropping the tone of expostulation and +adopting that of command. They order us to raise the siege of Potidaea, +to let Aegina be independent, to revoke the Megara decree; and they +conclude with an ultimatum warning us to leave the Hellenes independent. +I hope that you will none of you think that we shall be going to war +for a trifle if we refuse to revoke the Megara decree, which appears +in front of their complaints, and the revocation of which is to save us +from war, or let any feeling of self-reproach linger in your minds, as +if you went to war for slight cause. Why, this trifle contains the whole +seal and trial of your resolution. If you give way, you will instantly +have to meet some greater demand, as having been frightened into +obedience in the first instance; while a firm refusal will make them +clearly understand that they must treat you more as equals. Make your +decision therefore at once, either to submit before you are harmed, or +if we are to go to war, as I for one think we ought, to do so without +caring whether the ostensible cause be great or small, resolved +against making concessions or consenting to a precarious tenure of our +possessions. For all claims from an equal, urged upon a neighbour as +commands before any attempt at legal settlement, be they great or be +they small, have only one meaning, and that is slavery. + +"As to the war and the resources of either party, a detailed comparison +will not show you the inferiority of Athens. Personally engaged in the +cultivation of their land, without funds either private or public, the +Peloponnesians are also without experience in long wars across sea, from +the strict limit which poverty imposes on their attacks upon each other. +Powers of this description are quite incapable of often manning a fleet +or often sending out an army: they cannot afford the absence from their +homes, the expenditure from their own funds; and besides, they have not +command of the sea. Capital, it must be remembered, maintains a war more +than forced contributions. Farmers are a class of men that are always +more ready to serve in person than in purse. Confident that the former +will survive the dangers, they are by no means so sure that the latter +will not be prematurely exhausted, especially if the war last longer +than they expect, which it very likely will. In a single battle the +Peloponnesians and their allies may be able to defy all Hellas, but they +are incapacitated from carrying on a war against a power different in +character from their own, by the want of the single council-chamber +requisite to prompt and vigorous action, and the substitution of a diet +composed of various races, in which every state possesses an equal vote, +and each presses its own ends, a condition of things which generally +results in no action at all. The great wish of some is to avenge +themselves on some particular enemy, the great wish of others to save +their own pocket. Slow in assembling, they devote a very small fraction +of the time to the consideration of any public object, most of it to the +prosecution of their own objects. Meanwhile each fancies that no harm +will come of his neglect, that it is the business of somebody else +to look after this or that for him; and so, by the same notion being +entertained by all separately, the common cause imperceptibly decays. + +"But the principal point is the hindrance that they will experience from +want of money. The slowness with which it comes in will cause delay; but +the opportunities of war wait for no man. Again, we need not be alarmed +either at the possibility of their raising fortifications in Attica, or +at their navy. It would be difficult for any system of fortifications to +establish a rival city, even in time of peace, much more, surely, in +an enemy's country, with Athens just as much fortified against it as it +against Athens; while a mere post might be able to do some harm to the +country by incursions and by the facilities which it would afford for +desertion, but can never prevent our sailing into their country and +raising fortifications there, and making reprisals with our powerful +fleet. For our naval skill is of more use to us for service on land, +than their military skill for service at sea. Familiarity with the sea +they will not find an easy acquisition. If you who have been practising +at it ever since the Median invasion have not yet brought it to +perfection, is there any chance of anything considerable being effected +by an agricultural, unseafaring population, who will besides be +prevented from practising by the constant presence of strong squadrons +of observation from Athens? With a small squadron they might hazard an +engagement, encouraging their ignorance by numbers; but the restraint of +a strong force will prevent their moving, and through want of practice +they will grow more clumsy, and consequently more timid. It must be kept +in mind that seamanship, just like anything else, is a matter of art, +and will not admit of being taken up occasionally as an occupation for +times of leisure; on the contrary, it is so exacting as to leave leisure +for nothing else. + +"Even if they were to touch the moneys at Olympia or Delphi, and try to +seduce our foreign sailors by the temptation of higher pay, that would +only be a serious danger if we could not still be a match for them by +embarking our own citizens and the aliens resident among us. But in fact +by this means we are always a match for them; and, best of all, we have +a larger and higher class of native coxswains and sailors among our own +citizens than all the rest of Hellas. And to say nothing of the danger +of such a step, none of our foreign sailors would consent to become an +outlaw from his country, and to take service with them and their hopes, +for the sake of a few days' high pay. + +"This, I think, is a tolerably fair account of the position of the +Peloponnesians; that of Athens is free from the defects that I have +criticized in them, and has other advantages of its own, which they can +show nothing to equal. If they march against our country we will sail +against theirs, and it will then be found that the desolation of +the whole of Attica is not the same as that of even a fraction of +Peloponnese; for they will not be able to supply the deficiency except +by a battle, while we have plenty of land both on the islands and the +continent. The rule of the sea is indeed a great matter. Consider for +a moment. Suppose that we were islanders; can you conceive a more +impregnable position? Well, this in future should, as far as possible, +be our conception of our position. Dismissing all thought of our land +and houses, we must vigilantly guard the sea and the city. No irritation +that we may feel for the former must provoke us to a battle with the +numerical superiority of the Peloponnesians. A victory would only be +succeeded by another battle against the same superiority: a reverse +involves the loss of our allies, the source of our strength, who will +not remain quiet a day after we become unable to march against them. We +must cry not over the loss of houses and land but of men's lives; since +houses and land do not gain men, but men them. And if I had thought that +I could persuade you, I would have bid you go out and lay them waste +with your own hands, and show the Peloponnesians that this at any rate +will not make you submit. + +"I have many other reasons to hope for a favourable issue, if you can +consent not to combine schemes of fresh conquest with the conduct of +the war, and will abstain from wilfully involving yourselves in other +dangers; indeed, I am more afraid of our own blunders than of the +enemy's devices. But these matters shall be explained in another speech, +as events require; for the present dismiss these men with the answer +that we will allow Megara the use of our market and harbours, when the +Lacedaemonians suspend their alien acts in favour of us and our allies, +there being nothing in the treaty to prevent either one or the other: +that we will leave the cities independent, if independent we found them +when we made the treaty, and when the Lacedaemonians grant to their +cities an independence not involving subservience to Lacedaemonian +interests, but such as each severally may desire: that we are willing +to give the legal satisfaction which our agreements specify, and that we +shall not commence hostilities, but shall resist those who do commence +them. This is an answer agreeable at once to the rights and the dignity +of Athens. It must be thoroughly understood that war is a necessity; but +that the more readily we accept it, the less will be the ardour of +our opponents, and that out of the greatest dangers communities and +individuals acquire the greatest glory. Did not our fathers resist the +Medes not only with resources far different from ours, but even when +those resources had been abandoned; and more by wisdom than by fortune, +more by daring than by strength, did not they beat off the barbarian and +advance their affairs to their present height? We must not fall behind +them, but must resist our enemies in any way and in every way, and +attempt to hand down our power to our posterity unimpaired." + +Such were the words of Pericles. The Athenians, persuaded of the wisdom +of his advice, voted as he desired, and answered the Lacedaemonians as +he recommended, both on the separate points and in the general; they +would do nothing on dictation, but were ready to have the complaints +settled in a fair and impartial manner by the legal method, which the +terms of the truce prescribed. So the envoys departed home and did not +return again. + +These were the charges and differences existing between the rival powers +before the war, arising immediately from the affair at Epidamnus and +Corcyra. Still intercourse continued in spite of them, and mutual +communication. It was carried on without heralds, but not without +suspicion, as events were occurring which were equivalent to a breach of +the treaty and matter for war. + + + + +BOOK II + +CHAPTER VI + +_Beginning of the Peloponnesian War--First Invasion of Attica--Funeral +Oration of Pericles_ + +The war between the Athenians and Peloponnesians and the allies on +either side now really begins. For now all intercourse except through +the medium of heralds ceased, and hostilities were commenced and +prosecuted without intermission. The history follows the chronological +order of events by summers and winters. + +The thirty years' truce which was entered into after the conquest of +Euboea lasted fourteen years. In the fifteenth, in the forty-eighth year +of the priestess-ship of Chrysis at Argos, in the ephorate of Aenesias +at Sparta, in the last month but two of the archonship of Pythodorus +at Athens, and six months after the battle of Potidaea, just at the +beginning of spring, a Theban force a little over three hundred strong, +under the command of their Boeotarchs, Pythangelus, son of Phyleides, +and Diemporus, son of Onetorides, about the first watch of the night, +made an armed entry into Plataea, a town of Boeotia in alliance with +Athens. The gates were opened to them by a Plataean called Naucleides, +who, with his party, had invited them in, meaning to put to death the +citizens of the opposite party, bring over the city to Thebes, and thus +obtain power for themselves. This was arranged through Eurymachus, son +of Leontiades, a person of great influence at Thebes. For Plataea had +always been at variance with Thebes; and the latter, foreseeing that war +was at hand, wished to surprise her old enemy in time of peace, before +hostilities had actually broken out. Indeed this was how they got in so +easily without being observed, as no guard had been posted. After the +soldiers had grounded arms in the market-place, those who had invited +them in wished them to set to work at once and go to their enemies' +houses. This, however, the Thebans refused to do, but determined to +make a conciliatory proclamation, and if possible to come to a friendly +understanding with the citizens. Their herald accordingly invited +any who wished to resume their old place in the confederacy of their +countrymen to ground arms with them, for they thought that in this way +the city would readily join them. + +On becoming aware of the presence of the Thebans within their gates, and +of the sudden occupation of the town, the Plataeans concluded in +their alarm that more had entered than was really the case, the night +preventing their seeing them. They accordingly came to terms and, +accepting the proposal, made no movement; especially as the Thebans +offered none of them any violence. But somehow or other, during the +negotiations, they discovered the scanty numbers of the Thebans, and +decided that they could easily attack and overpower them; the mass of +the Plataeans being averse to revolting from Athens. At all events they +resolved to attempt it. Digging through the party walls of the houses, +they thus managed to join each other without being seen going through +the streets, in which they placed wagons without the beasts in them, to +serve as a barricade, and arranged everything else as seemed convenient +for the occasion. When everything had been done that circumstances +permitted, they watched their opportunity and went out of their houses +against the enemy. It was still night, though daybreak was at hand: in +daylight it was thought that their attack would be met by men full of +courage and on equal terms with their assailants, while in darkness +it would fall upon panic-stricken troops, who would also be at a +disadvantage from their enemy's knowledge of the locality. So they made +their assault at once, and came to close quarters as quickly as they +could. + +The Thebans, finding themselves outwitted, immediately closed up to +repel all attacks made upon them. Twice or thrice they beat back their +assailants. But the men shouted and charged them, the women and slaves +screamed and yelled from the houses and pelted them with stones and +tiles; besides, it had been raining hard all night; and so at last their +courage gave way, and they turned and fled through the town. Most of the +fugitives were quite ignorant of the right ways out, and this, with the +mud, and the darkness caused by the moon being in her last quarter, and +the fact that their pursuers knew their way about and could easily stop +their escape, proved fatal to many. The only gate open was the one +by which they had entered, and this was shut by one of the Plataeans +driving the spike of a javelin into the bar instead of the bolt; so that +even here there was no longer any means of exit. They were now chased +all over the town. Some got on the wall and threw themselves over, in +most cases with a fatal result. One party managed to find a deserted +gate, and obtaining an axe from a woman, cut through the bar; but as +they were soon observed only a few succeeded in getting out. Others were +cut off in detail in different parts of the city. The most numerous and +compact body rushed into a large building next to the city wall: the +doors on the side of the street happened to be open, and the Thebans +fancied that they were the gates of the town, and that there was a +passage right through to the outside. The Plataeans, seeing their +enemies in a trap, now consulted whether they should set fire to the +building and burn them just as they were, or whether there was anything +else that they could do with them; until at length these and the rest +of the Theban survivors found wandering about the town agreed to an +unconditional surrender of themselves and their arms to the Plataeans. + +While such was the fate of the party in Plataea, the rest of the Thebans +who were to have joined them with all their forces before daybreak, in +case of anything miscarrying with the body that had entered, received +the news of the affair on the road, and pressed forward to their +succour. Now Plataea is nearly eight miles from Thebes, and their march +delayed by the rain that had fallen in the night, for the river Asopus +had risen and was not easy of passage; and so, having to march in the +rain, and being hindered in crossing the river, they arrived too late, +and found the whole party either slain or captive. When they learned +what had happened, they at once formed a design against the Plataeans +outside the city. As the attack had been made in time of peace, and was +perfectly unexpected, there were of course men and stock in the fields; +and the Thebans wished if possible to have some prisoners to exchange +against their countrymen in the town, should any chance to have been +taken alive. Such was their plan. But the Plataeans suspected their +intention almost before it was formed, and becoming alarmed for +their fellow citizens outside the town, sent a herald to the Thebans, +reproaching them for their unscrupulous attempt to seize their city in +time of peace, and warning them against any outrage on those outside. +Should the warning be disregarded, they threatened to put to death the +men they had in their hands, but added that, on the Thebans retiring +from their territory, they would surrender the prisoners to their +friends. This is the Theban account of the matter, and they say that +they had an oath given them. The Plataeans, on the other hand, do not +admit any promise of an immediate surrender, but make it contingent upon +subsequent negotiation: the oath they deny altogether. Be this as it +may, upon the Thebans retiring from their territory without committing +any injury, the Plataeans hastily got in whatever they had in the +country and immediately put the men to death. The prisoners were a +hundred and eighty in number; Eurymachus, the person with whom the +traitors had negotiated, being one. + +This done, the Plataeans sent a messenger to Athens, gave back the dead +to the Thebans under a truce, and arranged things in the city as seemed +best to meet the present emergency. The Athenians meanwhile, having +had word of the affair sent them immediately after its occurrence, had +instantly seized all the Boeotians in Attica, and sent a herald to the +Plataeans to forbid their proceeding to extremities with their Theban +prisoners without instructions from Athens. The news of the men's death +had of course not arrived; the first messenger having left Plataea just +when the Thebans entered it, the second just after their defeat and +capture; so there was no later news. Thus the Athenians sent orders +in ignorance of the facts; and the herald on his arrival found the +men slain. After this the Athenians marched to Plataea and brought in +provisions, and left a garrison in the place, also taking away the women +and children and such of the men as were least efficient. + +After the affair at Plataea, the treaty had been broken by an overt +act, and Athens at once prepared for war, as did also Lacedaemon and her +allies. They resolved to send embassies to the King and to such other of +the barbarian powers as either party could look to for assistance, +and tried to ally themselves with the independent states at home. +Lacedaemon, in addition to the existing marine, gave orders to the +states that had declared for her in Italy and Sicily to build vessels +up to a grand total of five hundred, the quota of each city being +determined by its size, and also to provide a specified sum of money. +Till these were ready they were to remain neutral and to admit single +Athenian ships into their harbours. Athens on her part reviewed her +existing confederacy, and sent embassies to the places more +immediately round Peloponnese--Corcyra, Cephallenia, Acarnania, and +Zacynthus--perceiving that if these could be relied on she could carry +the war all round Peloponnese. + +And if both sides nourished the boldest hopes and put forth their utmost +strength for the war, this was only natural. Zeal is always at its +height at the commencement of an undertaking; and on this particular +occasion Peloponnese and Athens were both full of young men whose +inexperience made them eager to take up arms, while the rest of Hellas +stood straining with excitement at the conflict of its leading cities. +Everywhere predictions were being recited and oracles being chanted +by such persons as collect them, and this not only in the contending +cities. Further, some while before this, there was an earthquake at +Delos, for the first time in the memory of the Hellenes. This was said +and thought to be ominous of the events impending; indeed, nothing of +the kind that happened was allowed to pass without remark. The good +wishes of men made greatly for the Lacedaemonians, especially as they +proclaimed themselves the liberators of Hellas. No private or public +effort that could help them in speech or action was omitted; each +thinking that the cause suffered wherever he could not himself see to +it. So general was the indignation felt against Athens, whether by those +who wished to escape from her empire, or were apprehensive of being +absorbed by it. Such were the preparations and such the feelings with +which the contest opened. + +The allies of the two belligerents were the following. These were the +allies of Lacedaemon: all the Peloponnesians within the Isthmus except +the Argives and Achaeans, who were neutral; Pellene being the only +Achaean city that first joined in the war, though her example was +afterwards followed by the rest. Outside Peloponnese the Megarians, +Locrians, Boeotians, Phocians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Anactorians. +Of these, ships were furnished by the Corinthians, Megarians, +Sicyonians, Pellenians, Eleans, Ambraciots, and Leucadians; and +cavalry by the Boeotians, Phocians, and Locrians. The other states +sent infantry. This was the Lacedaemonian confederacy. That of Athens +comprised the Chians, Lesbians, Plataeans, the Messenians in Naupactus, +most of the Acarnanians, the Corcyraeans, Zacynthians, and some +tributary cities in the following countries, viz., Caria upon the sea +with her Dorian neighbours, Ionia, the Hellespont, the Thracian towns, +the islands lying between Peloponnese and Crete towards the east, and +all the Cyclades except Melos and Thera. Of these, ships were furnished +by Chios, Lesbos, and Corcyra, infantry and money by the rest. Such were +the allies of either party and their resources for the war. + +Immediately after the affair at Plataea, Lacedaemon sent round orders +to the cities in Peloponnese and the rest of her confederacy to prepare +troops and the provisions requisite for a foreign campaign, in order to +invade Attica. The several states were ready at the time appointed and +assembled at the Isthmus: the contingent of each city being two-thirds +of its whole force. After the whole army had mustered, the Lacedaemonian +king, Archidamus, the leader of the expedition, called together the +generals of all the states and the principal persons and officers, and +exhorted them as follows: + +"Peloponnesians and allies, our fathers made many campaigns both within +and without Peloponnese, and the elder men among us here are not without +experience in war. Yet we have never set out with a larger force than +the present; and if our numbers and efficiency are remarkable, so also +is the power of the state against which we march. We ought not then +to show ourselves inferior to our ancestors, or unequal to our own +reputation. For the hopes and attention of all Hellas are bent upon the +present effort, and its sympathy is with the enemy of the hated Athens. +Therefore, numerous as the invading army may appear to be, and certain +as some may think it that our adversary will not meet us in the field, +this is no sort of justification for the least negligence upon the +march; but the officers and men of each particular city should always be +prepared for the advent of danger in their own quarters. The course of +war cannot be foreseen, and its attacks are generally dictated by +the impulse of the moment; and where overweening self-confidence has +despised preparation, a wise apprehension often been able to make head +against superior numbers. Not that confidence is out of place in an army +of invasion, but in an enemy's country it should also be accompanied by +the precautions of apprehension: troops will by this combination be best +inspired for dealing a blow, and best secured against receiving one. +In the present instance, the city against which we are going, far from +being so impotent for defence, is on the contrary most excellently +equipped at all points; so that we have every reason to expect that +they will take the field against us, and that if they have not set out +already before we are there, they will certainly do so when they see us +in their territory wasting and destroying their property. For men +are always exasperated at suffering injuries to which they are not +accustomed, and on seeing them inflicted before their very eyes; and +where least inclined for reflection, rush with the greatest heat to +action. The Athenians are the very people of all others to do this, as +they aspire to rule the rest of the world, and are more in the habit of +invading and ravaging their neighbours' territory, than of seeing their +own treated in the like fashion. Considering, therefore, the power +of the state against which we are marching, and the greatness of the +reputation which, according to the event, we shall win or lose for our +ancestors and ourselves, remember as you follow where you may be led to +regard discipline and vigilance as of the first importance, and to obey +with alacrity the orders transmitted to you; as nothing contributes so +much to the credit and safety of an army as the union of large bodies by +a single discipline." + +With this brief speech dismissing the assembly, Archidamus first sent +off Melesippus, son of Diacritus, a Spartan, to Athens, in case she +should be more inclined to submit on seeing the Peloponnesians actually +on the march. But the Athenians did not admit into the city or to their +assembly, Pericles having already carried a motion against admitting +either herald or embassy from the Lacedaemonians after they had once +marched out. + +The herald was accordingly sent away without an audience, and ordered to +be beyond the frontier that same day; in future, if those who sent +him had a proposition to make, they must retire to their own territory +before they dispatched embassies to Athens. An escort was sent with +Melesippus to prevent his holding communication with any one. When he +reached the frontier and was just going to be dismissed, he departed +with these words: "This day will be the beginning of great misfortunes +to the Hellenes." As soon as he arrived at the camp, and Archidamus +learnt that the Athenians had still no thoughts of submitting, he at +length began his march, and advanced with his army into their territory. +Meanwhile the Boeotians, sending their contingent and cavalry to join +the Peloponnesian expedition, went to Plataea with the remainder and +laid waste the country. + +While the Peloponnesians were still mustering at the Isthmus, or on the +march before they invaded Attica, Pericles, son of Xanthippus, one of +the ten generals of the Athenians, finding that the invasion was to +take place, conceived the idea that Archidamus, who happened to be his +friend, might possibly pass by his estate without ravaging it. This he +might do, either from a personal wish to oblige him, or acting under +instructions from Lacedaemon for the purpose of creating a prejudice +against him, as had been before attempted in the demand for the +expulsion of the accursed family. He accordingly took the precaution of +announcing to the Athenians in the assembly that, although Archidamus +was his friend, yet this friendship should not extend to the detriment +of the state, and that in case the enemy should make his houses and +lands an exception to the rest and not pillage them, he at once gave +them up to be public property, so that they should not bring him into +suspicion. He also gave the citizens some advice on their present +affairs in the same strain as before. They were to prepare for the war, +and to carry in their property from the country. They were not to go out +to battle, but to come into the city and guard it, and get ready their +fleet, in which their real strength lay. They were also to keep a tight +rein on their allies--the strength of Athens being derived from the +money brought in by their payments, and success in war depending +principally upon conduct and capital, had no reason to despond. Apart +from other sources of income, an average revenue of six hundred talents +of silver was drawn from the tribute of the allies; and there were still +six thousand talents of coined silver in the Acropolis, out of nine +thousand seven hundred that had once been there, from which the +money had been taken for the porch of the Acropolis, the other public +buildings, and for Potidaea. This did not include the uncoined gold +and silver in public and private offerings, the sacred vessels for the +processions and games, the Median spoils, and similar resources to the +amount of five hundred talents. To this he added the treasures of the +other temples. These were by no means inconsiderable, and might fairly +be used. Nay, if they were ever absolutely driven to it, they might +take even the gold ornaments of Athene herself; for the statue contained +forty talents of pure gold and it was all removable. This might be used +for self-preservation, and must every penny of it be restored. Such was +their financial position--surely a satisfactory one. Then they had an +army of thirteen thousand heavy infantry, besides sixteen thousand +more in the garrisons and on home duty at Athens. This was at first the +number of men on guard in the event of an invasion: it was composed of +the oldest and youngest levies and the resident aliens who had heavy +armour. The Phaleric wall ran for four miles, before it joined that +round the city; and of this last nearly five had a guard, although part +of it was left without one, viz., that between the Long Wall and the +Phaleric. Then there were the Long Walls to Piraeus, a distance of +some four miles and a half, the outer of which was manned. Lastly, the +circumference of Piraeus with Munychia was nearly seven miles and a +half; only half of this, however, was guarded. Pericles also showed +them that they had twelve hundred horse including mounted archers, with +sixteen hundred archers unmounted, and three hundred galleys fit for +service. Such were the resources of Athens in the different departments +when the Peloponnesian invasion was impending and hostilities were +being commenced. Pericles also urged his usual arguments for expecting a +favourable issue to the war. + +The Athenians listened to his advice, and began to carry in their wives +and children from the country, and all their household furniture, even +to the woodwork of their houses which they took down. Their sheep and +cattle they sent over to Euboea and the adjacent islands. But they found +it hard to move, as most of them had been always used to live in the +country. + +From very early times this had been more the case with the Athenians +than with others. Under Cecrops and the first kings, down to the reign +of Theseus, Attica had always consisted of a number of independent +townships, each with its own town hall and magistrates. Except in times +of danger the king at Athens was not consulted; in ordinary seasons +they carried on their government and settled their affairs without his +interference; sometimes even they waged war against him, as in the +case of the Eleusinians with Eumolpus against Erechtheus. In Theseus, +however, they had a king of equal intelligence and power; and one of +the chief features in his organization of the country was to abolish the +council-chambers and magistrates of the petty cities, and to merge them +in the single council-chamber and town hall of the present capital. +Individuals might still enjoy their private property just as before, but +they were henceforth compelled to have only one political centre, viz., +Athens; which thus counted all the inhabitants of Attica among her +citizens, so that when Theseus died he left a great state behind him. +Indeed, from him dates the Synoecia, or Feast of Union; which is paid +for by the state, and which the Athenians still keep in honour of the +goddess. Before this the city consisted of the present citadel and the +district beneath it looking rather towards the south. This is shown by +the fact that the temples of the other deities, besides that of Athene, +are in the citadel; and even those that are outside it are mostly +situated in this quarter of the city, as that of the Olympian Zeus, of +the Pythian Apollo, of Earth, and of Dionysus in the Marshes, the same +in whose honour the older Dionysia are to this day celebrated in the +month of Anthesterion not only by the Athenians but also by their Ionian +descendants. There are also other ancient temples in this quarter. The +fountain too, which, since the alteration made by the tyrants, has been +called Enneacrounos, or Nine Pipes, but which, when the spring was open, +went by the name of Callirhoe, or Fairwater, was in those days, from +being so near, used for the most important offices. Indeed, the old +fashion of using the water before marriage and for other sacred purposes +is still kept up. Again, from their old residence in that quarter, the +citadel is still known among Athenians as the city. + +The Athenians thus long lived scattered over Attica in independent +townships. Even after the centralization of Theseus, old habit still +prevailed; and from the early times down to the present war most +Athenians still lived in the country with their families and households, +and were consequently not at all inclined to move now, especially +as they had only just restored their establishments after the Median +invasion. Deep was their trouble and discontent at abandoning their +houses and the hereditary temples of the ancient constitution, and at +having to change their habits of life and to bid farewell to what each +regarded as his native city. + +When they arrived at Athens, though a few had houses of their own to +go to, or could find an asylum with friends or relatives, by far the +greater number had to take up their dwelling in the parts of the city +that were not built over and in the temples and chapels of the heroes, +except the Acropolis and the temple of the Eleusinian Demeter and such +other Places as were always kept closed. The occupation of the plot of +ground lying below the citadel called the Pelasgian had been forbidden +by a curse; and there was also an ominous fragment of a Pythian oracle +which said: + +Leave the Pelasgian parcel desolate, Woe worth the day that men inhabit +it! + +Yet this too was now built over in the necessity of the moment. And in +my opinion, if the oracle proved true, it was in the opposite sense to +what was expected. For the misfortunes of the state did not arise from +the unlawful occupation, but the necessity of the occupation from the +war; and though the god did not mention this, he foresaw that it would +be an evil day for Athens in which the plot came to be inhabited. Many +also took up their quarters in the towers of the walls or wherever else +they could. For when they were all come in, the city proved too small +to hold them; though afterwards they divided the Long Walls and a +great part of Piraeus into lots and settled there. All this while great +attention was being given to the war; the allies were being mustered, +and an armament of a hundred ships equipped for Peloponnese. Such was +the state of preparation at Athens. + +Meanwhile the army of the Peloponnesians was advancing. The first town +they came to in Attica was Oenoe, where they to enter the country. +Sitting down before it, they prepared to assault the wall with engines +and otherwise. Oenoe, standing upon the Athenian and Boeotian border, +was of course a walled town, and was used as a fortress by the Athenians +in time of war. So the Peloponnesians prepared for their assault, and +wasted some valuable time before the place. This delay brought the +gravest censure upon Archidamus. Even during the levying of the war he +had credit for weakness and Athenian sympathies by the half measures he +had advocated; and after the army had assembled he had further injured +himself in public estimation by his loitering at the Isthmus and the +slowness with which the rest of the march had been conducted. But all +this was as nothing to the delay at Oenoe. During this interval the +Athenians were carrying in their property; and it was the belief of the +Peloponnesians that a quick advance would have found everything still +out, had it not been for his procrastination. Such was the feeling +of the army towards Archidamus during the siege. But he, it is said, +expected that the Athenians would shrink from letting their land be +wasted, and would make their submission while it was still uninjured; +and this was why he waited. + +But after he had assaulted Oenoe, and every possible attempt to take it +had failed, as no herald came from Athens, he at last broke up his camp +and invaded Attica. This was about eighty days after the Theban attempt +upon Plataea, just in the middle of summer, when the corn was ripe, and +Archidamus, son of Zeuxis, king of Lacedaemon, was in command. Encamping +in Eleusis and the Thriasian plain, they began their ravages, and +putting to flight some Athenian horse at a place called Rheiti, or +the Brooks, they then advanced, keeping Mount Aegaleus on their right, +through Cropia, until they reached Acharnae, the largest of the Athenian +demes or townships. Sitting down before it, they formed a camp there, +and continued their ravages for a long while. + +The reason why Archidamus remained in order of battle at Acharnae during +this incursion, instead of descending into the plain, is said to have +been this. He hoped that the Athenians might possibly be tempted by +the multitude of their youth and the unprecedented efficiency of their +service to come out to battle and attempt to stop the devastation +of their lands. Accordingly, as they had met him at Eleusis or the +Thriasian plain, he tried if they could be provoked to a sally by the +spectacle of a camp at Acharnae. He thought the place itself a good +position for encamping; and it seemed likely that such an important +part of the state as the three thousand heavy infantry of the Acharnians +would refuse to submit to the ruin of their property, and would force +a battle on the rest of the citizens. On the other hand, should the +Athenians not take the field during this incursion, he could then +fearlessly ravage the plain in future invasions, and extend his advance +up to the very walls of Athens. After the Acharnians had lost their own +property they would be less willing to risk themselves for that of their +neighbours; and so there would be division in the Athenian counsels. +These were the motives of Archidamus for remaining at Acharnae. + +In the meanwhile, as long as the army was at Eleusis and the Thriasian +plain, hopes were still entertained of its not advancing any nearer. It +was remembered that Pleistoanax, son of Pausanias, king of Lacedaemon, +had invaded Attica with a Peloponnesian army fourteen years before, but +had retreated without advancing farther than Eleusis and Thria, which +indeed proved the cause of his exile from Sparta, as it was thought +he had been bribed to retreat. But when they saw the army at Acharnae, +barely seven miles from Athens, they lost all patience. The territory of +Athens was being ravaged before the very eyes of the Athenians, a sight +which the young men had never seen before and the old only in the +Median wars; and it was naturally thought a grievous insult, and the +determination was universal, especially among the young men, to sally +forth and stop it. Knots were formed in the streets and engaged in hot +discussion; for if the proposed sally was warmly recommended, it was +also in some cases opposed. Oracles of the most various import were +recited by the collectors, and found eager listeners in one or other of +the disputants. Foremost in pressing for the sally were the Acharnians, +as constituting no small part of the army of the state, and as it was +their land that was being ravaged. In short, the whole city was in a +most excited state; Pericles was the object of general indignation; his +previous counsels were totally forgotten; he was abused for not leading +out the army which he commanded, and was made responsible for the whole +of the public suffering. + +He, meanwhile, seeing anger and infatuation just now in the ascendant, +and of his wisdom in refusing a sally, would not call either assembly or +meeting of the people, fearing the fatal results of a debate inspired +by passion and not by prudence. Accordingly he addressed himself to +the defence of the city, and kept it as quiet as possible, though he +constantly sent out cavalry to prevent raids on the lands near the city +from flying parties of the enemy. There was a trifling affair at Phrygia +between a squadron of the Athenian horse with the Thessalians and the +Boeotian cavalry; in which the former had rather the best of it, until +the heavy infantry advanced to the support of the Boeotians, when the +Thessalians and Athenians were routed and lost a few men, whose bodies, +however, were recovered the same day without a truce. The next day the +Peloponnesians set up a trophy. Ancient alliance brought the Thessalians +to the aid of Athens; those who came being the Larisaeans, Pharsalians, +Cranonians, Pyrasians, Gyrtonians, and Pheraeans. The Larisaean +commanders were Polymedes and Aristonus, two party leaders in Larisa; +the Pharsalian general was Menon; each of the other cities had also its +own commander. + +In the meantime the Peloponnesians, as the Athenians did not come out +to engage them, broke up from Acharnae and ravaged some of the demes +between Mount Parnes and Brilessus. While they were in Attica the +Athenians sent off the hundred ships which they had been preparing round +Peloponnese, with a thousand heavy infantry and four hundred archers on +board, under the command of Carcinus, son of Xenotimus, Proteas, son of +Epicles, and Socrates, son of Antigenes. This armament weighed anchor +and started on its cruise, and the Peloponnesians, after remaining in +Attica as long as their provisions lasted, retired through Boeotia by a +different road to that by which they had entered. As they passed Oropus +they ravaged the territory of Graea, which is held by the Oropians from +Athens, and reaching Peloponnese broke up to their respective cities. + +After they had retired the Athenians set guards by land and sea at the +points at which they intended to have regular stations during the war. +They also resolved to set apart a special fund of a thousand talents +from the moneys in the Acropolis. This was not to be spent, but the +current expenses of the war were to be otherwise provided for. If any +one should move or put to the vote a proposition for using the money for +any purpose whatever except that of defending the city in the event +of the enemy bringing a fleet to make an attack by sea, it should be a +capital offence. With this sum of money they also set aside a special +fleet of one hundred galleys, the best ships of each year, with their +captains. None of these were to be used except with the money and +against the same peril, should such peril arise. + +Meanwhile the Athenians in the hundred ships round Peloponnese, +reinforced by a Corcyraean squadron of fifty vessels and some others +of the allies in those parts, cruised about the coasts and ravaged the +country. Among other places they landed in Laconia and made an assault +upon Methone; there being no garrison in the place, and the wall being +weak. But it so happened that Brasidas, son of Tellis, a Spartan, was +in command of a guard for the defence of the district. Hearing of the +attack, he hurried with a hundred heavy infantry to the assistance of +the besieged, and dashing through the army of the Athenians, which was +scattered over the country and had its attention turned to the wall, +threw himself into Methone. He lost a few men in making good his +entrance, but saved the place and won the thanks of Sparta by his +exploit, being thus the first officer who obtained this notice during +the war. The Athenians at once weighed anchor and continued their +cruise. Touching at Pheia in Elis, they ravaged the country for two days +and defeated a picked force of three hundred men that had come from the +vale of Elis and the immediate neighbourhood to the rescue. But a stiff +squall came down upon them, and, not liking to face it in a place +where there was no harbour, most of them got on board their ships, and +doubling Point Ichthys sailed into the port of Pheia. In the meantime +the Messenians, and some others who could not get on board, marched over +by land and took Pheia. The fleet afterwards sailed round and picked +them up and then put to sea; Pheia being evacuated, as the main army of +the Eleans had now come up. The Athenians continued their cruise, and +ravaged other places on the coast. + +About the same time the Athenians sent thirty ships to cruise round +Locris and also to guard Euboea; Cleopompus, son of Clinias, being in +command. Making descents from the fleet he ravaged certain places on +the sea-coast, and captured Thronium and took hostages from it. He also +defeated at Alope the Locrians that had assembled to resist him. + +During the summer the Athenians also expelled the Aeginetans with their +wives and children from Aegina, on the ground of their having been the +chief agents in bringing the war upon them. Besides, Aegina lies so near +Peloponnese that it seemed safer to send colonists of their own to hold +it, and shortly afterwards the settlers were sent out. The banished +Aeginetans found an asylum in Thyrea, which was given to them by +Lacedaemon, not only on account of her quarrel with Athens, but also +because the Aeginetans had laid her under obligations at the time of the +earthquake and the revolt of the Helots. The territory of Thyrea is on +the frontier of Argolis and Laconia, reaching down to the sea. Those of +the Aeginetans who did not settle here were scattered over the rest of +Hellas. + +The same summer, at the beginning of a new lunar month, the only time by +the way at which it appears possible, the sun was eclipsed after noon. +After it had assumed the form of a crescent and some of the stars had +come out, it returned to its natural shape. + +During the same summer Nymphodorus, son of Pythes, an Abderite, whose +sister Sitalces had married, was made their proxenus by the Athenians +and sent for to Athens. They had hitherto considered him their enemy; +but he had great influence with Sitalces, and they wished this prince +to become their ally. Sitalces was the son of Teres and King of the +Thracians. Teres, the father of Sitalces, was the first to establish the +great kingdom of the Odrysians on a scale quite unknown to the rest of +Thrace, a large portion of the Thracians being independent. This Teres +is in no way related to Tereus who married Pandion's daughter Procne +from Athens; nor indeed did they belong to the same part of Thrace. +Tereus lived in Daulis, part of what is now called Phocis, but which at +that time was inhabited by Thracians. It was in this land that the +women perpetrated the outrage upon Itys; and many of the poets when they +mention the nightingale call it the Daulian bird. Besides, Pandion in +contracting an alliance for his daughter would consider the advantages +of mutual assistance, and would naturally prefer a match at the above +moderate distance to the journey of many days which separates Athens +from the Odrysians. Again the names are different; and this Teres was +king of the Odrysians, the first by the way who attained to any power. +Sitalces, his son, was now sought as an ally by the Athenians, who +desired his aid in the reduction of the Thracian towns and of Perdiccas. +Coming to Athens, Nymphodorus concluded the alliance with Sitalces and +made his son Sadocus an Athenian citizen, and promised to finish the +war in Thrace by persuading Sitalces to send the Athenians a force of +Thracian horse and targeteers. He also reconciled them with Perdiccas, +and induced them to restore Therme to him; upon which Perdiccas at +once joined the Athenians and Phormio in an expedition against the +Chalcidians. Thus Sitalces, son of Teres, King of the Thracians, and +Perdiccas, son of Alexander, King of the Macedonians, became allies of +Athens. + +Meanwhile the Athenians in the hundred vessels were still cruising round +Peloponnese. After taking Sollium, a town belonging to Corinth, and +presenting the city and territory to the Acarnanians of Palaira, they +stormed Astacus, expelled its tyrant Evarchus, and gained the place for +their confederacy. Next they sailed to the island of Cephallenia and +brought it over without using force. Cephallenia lies off Acarnania and +Leucas, and consists of four states, the Paleans, Cranians, Samaeans, +and Pronaeans. Not long afterwards the fleet returned to Athens. Towards +the autumn of this year the Athenians invaded the Megarid with their +whole levy, resident aliens included, under the command of Pericles, son +of Xanthippus. The Athenians in the hundred ships round Peloponnese +on their journey home had just reached Aegina, and hearing that the +citizens at home were in full force at Megara, now sailed over and +joined them. This was without doubt the largest army of Athenians ever +assembled, the state being still in the flower of her strength and yet +unvisited by the plague. Full ten thousand heavy infantry were in +the field, all Athenian citizens, besides the three thousand before +Potidaea. Then the resident aliens who joined in the incursion were +at least three thousand strong; besides which there was a multitude of +light troops. They ravaged the greater part of the territory, and then +retired. Other incursions into the Megarid were afterwards made by +the Athenians annually during the war, sometimes only with cavalry, +sometimes with all their forces. This went on until the capture of +Nisaea. Atalanta also, the desert island off the Opuntian coast, was +towards the end of this summer converted into a fortified post by the +Athenians, in order to prevent privateers issuing from Opus and the rest +of Locris and plundering Euboea. Such were the events of this summer +after the return of the Peloponnesians from Attica. + +In the ensuing winter the Acarnanian Evarchus, wishing to return to +Astacus, persuaded the Corinthians to sail over with forty ships and +fifteen hundred heavy infantry and restore him; himself also hiring +some mercenaries. In command of the force were Euphamidas, son of +Aristonymus, Timoxenus, son of Timocrates, and Eumachus, son of Chrysis, +who sailed over and restored him and, after failing in an attempt on +some places on the Acarnanian coast which they were desirous of +gaining, began their voyage home. Coasting along shore they touched at +Cephallenia and made a descent on the Cranian territory, and losing some +men by the treachery of the Cranians, who fell suddenly upon them after +having agreed to treat, put to sea somewhat hurriedly and returned home. + +In the same winter the Athenians gave a funeral at the public cost +to those who had first fallen in this war. It was a custom of their +ancestors, and the manner of it is as follows. Three days before the +ceremony, the bones of the dead are laid out in a tent which has been +erected; and their friends bring to their relatives such offerings as +they please. In the funeral procession cypress coffins are borne in +cars, one for each tribe; the bones of the deceased being placed in the +coffin of their tribe. Among these is carried one empty bier decked for +the missing, that is, for those whose bodies could not be recovered. Any +citizen or stranger who pleases, joins in the procession: and the female +relatives are there to wail at the burial. The dead are laid in the +public sepulchre in the Beautiful suburb of the city, in which those +who fall in war are always buried; with the exception of those slain at +Marathon, who for their singular and extraordinary valour were interred +on the spot where they fell. After the bodies have been laid in the +earth, a man chosen by the state, of approved wisdom and eminent +reputation, pronounces over them an appropriate panegyric; after which +all retire. Such is the manner of the burying; and throughout the whole +of the war, whenever the occasion arose, the established custom was +observed. Meanwhile these were the first that had fallen, and Pericles, +son of Xanthippus, was chosen to pronounce their eulogium. When the +proper time arrived, he advanced from the sepulchre to an elevated +platform in order to be heard by as many of the crowd as possible, and +spoke as follows: + +"Most of my predecessors in this place have commended him who made this +speech part of the law, telling us that it is well that it should be +delivered at the burial of those who fall in battle. For myself, I +should have thought that the worth which had displayed itself in deeds +would be sufficiently rewarded by honours also shown by deeds; such as +you now see in this funeral prepared at the people's cost. And I could +have wished that the reputations of many brave men were not to be +imperilled in the mouth of a single individual, to stand or fall +according as he spoke well or ill. For it is hard to speak properly upon +a subject where it is even difficult to convince your hearers that you +are speaking the truth. On the one hand, the friend who is familiar with +every fact of the story may think that some point has not been set +forth with that fullness which he wishes and knows it to deserve; on the +other, he who is a stranger to the matter may be led by envy to suspect +exaggeration if he hears anything above his own nature. For men can +endure to hear others praised only so long as they can severally +persuade themselves of their own ability to equal the actions recounted: +when this point is passed, envy comes in and with it incredulity. +However, since our ancestors have stamped this custom with their +approval, it becomes my duty to obey the law and to try to satisfy your +several wishes and opinions as best I may. + +"I shall begin with our ancestors: it is both just and proper that they +should have the honour of the first mention on an occasion like the +present. They dwelt in the country without break in the succession from +generation to generation, and handed it down free to the present time by +their valour. And if our more remote ancestors deserve praise, much more +do our own fathers, who added to their inheritance the empire which we +now possess, and spared no pains to be able to leave their acquisitions +to us of the present generation. Lastly, there are few parts of our +dominions that have not been augmented by those of us here, who are +still more or less in the vigour of life; while the mother country has +been furnished by us with everything that can enable her to depend on +her own resources whether for war or for peace. That part of our history +which tells of the military achievements which gave us our several +possessions, or of the ready valour with which either we or our fathers +stemmed the tide of Hellenic or foreign aggression, is a theme too +familiar to my hearers for me to dilate on, and I shall therefore pass +it by. But what was the road by which we reached our position, what the +form of government under which our greatness grew, what the national +habits out of which it sprang; these are questions which I may try to +solve before I proceed to my panegyric upon these men; since I think +this to be a subject upon which on the present occasion a speaker may +properly dwell, and to which the whole assemblage, whether citizens or +foreigners, may listen with advantage. + +"Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighbouring states; we are +rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. Its administration +favours the many instead of the few; this is why it is called a +democracy. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in +their private differences; if no social standing, advancement in public +life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being +allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if +a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of +his condition. The freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also +to our ordinary life. There, far from exercising a jealous surveillance +over each other, we do not feel called upon to be angry with our +neighbour for doing what he likes, or even to indulge in those injurious +looks which cannot fail to be offensive, although they inflict no +positive penalty. But all this ease in our private relations does not +make us lawless as citizens. Against this fear is our chief safeguard, +teaching us to obey the magistrates and the laws, particularly such as +regard the protection of the injured, whether they are actually on the +statute book, or belong to that code which, although unwritten, yet +cannot be broken without acknowledged disgrace. + +"Further, we provide plenty of means for the mind to refresh itself from +business. We celebrate games and sacrifices all the year round, and the +elegance of our private establishments forms a daily source of pleasure +and helps to banish the spleen; while the magnitude of our city draws +the produce of the world into our harbour, so that to the Athenian the +fruits of other countries are as familiar a luxury as those of his own. + +"If we turn to our military policy, there also we differ from our +antagonists. We throw open our city to the world, and never by alien +acts exclude foreigners from any opportunity of learning or observing, +although the eyes of an enemy may occasionally profit by our liberality; +trusting less in system and policy than to the native spirit of our +citizens; while in education, where our rivals from their very cradles +by a painful discipline seek after manliness, at Athens we live exactly +as we please, and yet are just as ready to encounter every legitimate +danger. In proof of this it may be noticed that the Lacedaemonians +do not invade our country alone, but bring with them all their +confederates; while we Athenians advance unsupported into the territory +of a neighbour, and fighting upon a foreign soil usually vanquish with +ease men who are defending their homes. Our united force was never +yet encountered by any enemy, because we have at once to attend to our +marine and to dispatch our citizens by land upon a hundred different +services; so that, wherever they engage with some such fraction of our +strength, a success against a detachment is magnified into a victory +over the nation, and a defeat into a reverse suffered at the hands of +our entire people. And yet if with habits not of labour but of ease, +and courage not of art but of nature, we are still willing to encounter +danger, we have the double advantage of escaping the experience of +hardships in anticipation and of facing them in the hour of need as +fearlessly as those who are never free from them. + +"Nor are these the only points in which our city is worthy of +admiration. We cultivate refinement without extravagance and knowledge +without effeminacy; wealth we employ more for use than for show, and +place the real disgrace of poverty not in owning to the fact but +in declining the struggle against it. Our public men have, besides +politics, their private affairs to attend to, and our ordinary citizens, +though occupied with the pursuits of industry, are still fair judges of +public matters; for, unlike any other nation, regarding him who takes no +part in these duties not as unambitious but as useless, we Athenians +are able to judge at all events if we cannot originate, and, instead +of looking on discussion as a stumbling-block in the way of action, we +think it an indispensable preliminary to any wise action at all. Again, +in our enterprises we present the singular spectacle of daring and +deliberation, each carried to its highest point, and both united in +the same persons; although usually decision is the fruit of ignorance, +hesitation of reflection. But the palm of courage will surely be +adjudged most justly to those, who best know the difference between +hardship and pleasure and yet are never tempted to shrink from danger. +In generosity we are equally singular, acquiring our friends by +conferring, not by receiving, favours. Yet, of course, the doer of the +favour is the firmer friend of the two, in order by continued kindness +to keep the recipient in his debt; while the debtor feels less keenly +from the very consciousness that the return he makes will be a payment, +not a free gift. And it is only the Athenians, who, fearless of +consequences, confer their benefits not from calculations of expediency, +but in the confidence of liberality. + +"In short, I say that as a city we are the school of Hellas, while I +doubt if the world can produce a man who, where he has only himself to +depend upon, is equal to so many emergencies, and graced by so happy a +versatility, as the Athenian. And that this is no mere boast thrown +out for the occasion, but plain matter of fact, the power of the state +acquired by these habits proves. For Athens alone of her contemporaries +is found when tested to be greater than her reputation, and alone gives +no occasion to her assailants to blush at the antagonist by whom they +have been worsted, or to her subjects to question her title by merit to +rule. Rather, the admiration of the present and succeeding ages will be +ours, since we have not left our power without witness, but have shown +it by mighty proofs; and far from needing a Homer for our panegyrist, or +other of his craft whose verses might charm for the moment only for the +impression which they gave to melt at the touch of fact, we have forced +every sea and land to be the highway of our daring, and everywhere, +whether for evil or for good, have left imperishable monuments behind +us. Such is the Athens for which these men, in the assertion of their +resolve not to lose her, nobly fought and died; and well may every one +of their survivors be ready to suffer in her cause. + +"Indeed if I have dwelt at some length upon the character of our +country, it has been to show that our stake in the struggle is not the +same as theirs who have no such blessings to lose, and also that the +panegyric of the men over whom I am now speaking might be by definite +proofs established. That panegyric is now in a great measure complete; +for the Athens that I have celebrated is only what the heroism of +these and their like have made her, men whose fame, unlike that of most +Hellenes, will be found to be only commensurate with their deserts. And +if a test of worth be wanted, it is to be found in their closing scene, +and this not only in cases in which it set the final seal upon their +merit, but also in those in which it gave the first intimation of their +having any. For there is justice in the claim that steadfastness in +his country's battles should be as a cloak to cover a man's other +imperfections; since the good action has blotted out the bad, and his +merit as a citizen more than outweighed his demerits as an individual. +But none of these allowed either wealth with its prospect of future +enjoyment to unnerve his spirit, or poverty with its hope of a day of +freedom and riches to tempt him to shrink from danger. No, holding that +vengeance upon their enemies was more to be desired than any personal +blessings, and reckoning this to be the most glorious of hazards, they +joyfully determined to accept the risk, to make sure of their vengeance, +and to let their wishes wait; and while committing to hope the +uncertainty of final success, in the business before them they thought +fit to act boldly and trust in themselves. Thus choosing to die +resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from +dishonour, but met danger face to face, and after one brief moment, +while at the summit of their fortune, escaped, not from their fear, but +from their glory. + +"So died these men as became Athenians. You, their survivors, must +determine to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you +may pray that it may have a happier issue. And not contented with ideas +derived only from words of the advantages which are bound up with the +defence of your country, though these would furnish a valuable text to +a speaker even before an audience so alive to them as the present, you +must yourselves realize the power of Athens, and feed your eyes upon her +from day to day, till love of her fills your hearts; and then, when +all her greatness shall break upon you, you must reflect that it was by +courage, sense of duty, and a keen feeling of honour in action that +men were enabled to win all this, and that no personal failure in an +enterprise could make them consent to deprive their country of their +valour, but they laid it at her feet as the most glorious contribution +that they could offer. For this offering of their lives made in common +by them all they each of them individually received that renown which +never grows old, and for a sepulchre, not so much that in which their +bones have been deposited, but that noblest of shrines wherein their +glory is laid up to be eternally remembered upon every occasion on which +deed or story shall call for its commemoration. For heroes have the +whole earth for their tomb; and in lands far from their own, where the +column with its epitaph declares it, there is enshrined in every breast +a record unwritten with no tablet to preserve it, except that of the +heart. These take as your model and, judging happiness to be the fruit +of freedom and freedom of valour, never decline the dangers of war. For +it is not the miserable that would most justly be unsparing of their +lives; these have nothing to hope for: it is rather they to whom +continued life may bring reverses as yet unknown, and to whom a fall, if +it came, would be most tremendous in its consequences. And surely, to +a man of spirit, the degradation of cowardice must be immeasurably more +grievous than the unfelt death which strikes him in the midst of his +strength and patriotism! + +"Comfort, therefore, not condolence, is what I have to offer to the +parents of the dead who may be here. Numberless are the chances to +which, as they know, the life of man is subject; but fortunate indeed +are they who draw for their lot a death so glorious as that which has +caused your mourning, and to whom life has been so exactly measured as +to terminate in the happiness in which it has been passed. Still I know +that this is a hard saying, especially when those are in question of +whom you will constantly be reminded by seeing in the homes of others +blessings of which once you also boasted: for grief is felt not so much +for the want of what we have never known, as for the loss of that to +which we have been long accustomed. Yet you who are still of an age to +beget children must bear up in the hope of having others in their stead; +not only will they help you to forget those whom you have lost, but will +be to the state at once a reinforcement and a security; for never can +a fair or just policy be expected of the citizen who does not, like +his fellows, bring to the decision the interests and apprehensions of a +father. While those of you who have passed your prime must congratulate +yourselves with the thought that the best part of your life was +fortunate, and that the brief span that remains will be cheered by the +fame of the departed. For it is only the love of honour that never grows +old; and honour it is, not gain, as some would have it, that rejoices +the heart of age and helplessness. + +"Turning to the sons or brothers of the dead, I see an arduous struggle +before you. When a man is gone, all are wont to praise him, and should +your merit be ever so transcendent, you will still find it difficult not +merely to overtake, but even to approach their renown. The living have +envy to contend with, while those who are no longer in our path are +honoured with a goodwill into which rivalry does not enter. On the other +hand, if I must say anything on the subject of female excellence to +those of you who will now be in widowhood, it will be all comprised in +this brief exhortation. Great will be your glory in not falling short of +your natural character; and greatest will be hers who is least talked of +among the men, whether for good or for bad. + +"My task is now finished. I have performed it to the best of my ability, +and in word, at least, the requirements of the law are now satisfied. If +deeds be in question, those who are here interred have received part of +their honours already, and for the rest, their children will be brought +up till manhood at the public expense: the state thus offers a valuable +prize, as the garland of victory in this race of valour, for the reward +both of those who have fallen and their survivors. And where the rewards +for merit are greatest, there are found the best citizens. + +"And now that you have brought to a close your lamentations for your +relatives, you may depart." + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +_Second Year of the War--The Plague of Athens--Position and Policy of +Pericles--Fall of Potidaea_ + +Such was the funeral that took place during this winter, with which the +first year of the war came to an end. In the first days of summer the +Lacedaemonians and their allies, with two-thirds of their forces +as before, invaded Attica, under the command of Archidamus, son of +Zeuxidamus, King of Lacedaemon, and sat down and laid waste the country. +Not many days after their arrival in Attica the plague first began to +show itself among the Athenians. It was said that it had broken out in +many places previously in the neighbourhood of Lemnos and elsewhere; +but a pestilence of such extent and mortality was nowhere remembered. +Neither were the physicians at first of any service, ignorant as they +were of the proper way to treat it, but they died themselves the most +thickly, as they visited the sick most often; nor did any human art +succeed any better. Supplications in the temples, divinations, and so +forth were found equally futile, till the overwhelming nature of the +disaster at last put a stop to them altogether. + +It first began, it is said, in the parts of Ethiopia above Egypt, +and thence descended into Egypt and Libya and into most of the King's +country. Suddenly falling upon Athens, it first attacked the +population in Piraeus--which was the occasion of their saying that the +Peloponnesians had poisoned the reservoirs, there being as yet no wells +there--and afterwards appeared in the upper city, when the deaths became +much more frequent. All speculation as to its origin and its causes, if +causes can be found adequate to produce so great a disturbance, I leave +to other writers, whether lay or professional; for myself, I shall +simply set down its nature, and explain the symptoms by which perhaps +it may be recognized by the student, if it should ever break out again. +This I can the better do, as I had the disease myself, and watched its +operation in the case of others. + +That year then is admitted to have been otherwise unprecedentedly free +from sickness; and such few cases as occurred all determined in this. +As a rule, however, there was no ostensible cause; but people in good +health were all of a sudden attacked by violent heats in the head, and +redness and inflammation in the eyes, the inward parts, such as the +throat or tongue, becoming bloody and emitting an unnatural and fetid +breath. These symptoms were followed by sneezing and hoarseness, after +which the pain soon reached the chest, and produced a hard cough. When +it fixed in the stomach, it upset it; and discharges of bile of every +kind named by physicians ensued, accompanied by very great distress. +In most cases also an ineffectual retching followed, producing violent +spasms, which in some cases ceased soon after, in others much later. +Externally the body was not very hot to the touch, nor pale in its +appearance, but reddish, livid, and breaking out into small pustules and +ulcers. But internally it burned so that the patient could not bear to +have on him clothing or linen even of the very lightest description; or +indeed to be otherwise than stark naked. What they would have liked best +would have been to throw themselves into cold water; as indeed was done +by some of the neglected sick, who plunged into the rain-tanks in their +agonies of unquenchable thirst; though it made no difference whether +they drank little or much. Besides this, the miserable feeling of not +being able to rest or sleep never ceased to torment them. The body +meanwhile did not waste away so long as the distemper was at its +height, but held out to a marvel against its ravages; so that when +they succumbed, as in most cases, on the seventh or eighth day to the +internal inflammation, they had still some strength in them. But if they +passed this stage, and the disease descended further into the bowels, +inducing a violent ulceration there accompanied by severe diarrhoea, +this brought on a weakness which was generally fatal. For the disorder +first settled in the head, ran its course from thence through the whole +of the body, and, even where it did not prove mortal, it still left its +mark on the extremities; for it settled in the privy parts, the fingers +and the toes, and many escaped with the loss of these, some too with +that of their eyes. Others again were seized with an entire loss of +memory on their first recovery, and did not know either themselves or +their friends. + +But while the nature of the distemper was such as to baffle all +description, and its attacks almost too grievous for human nature to +endure, it was still in the following circumstance that its difference +from all ordinary disorders was most clearly shown. All the birds and +beasts that prey upon human bodies, either abstained from touching them +(though there were many lying unburied), or died after tasting them. +In proof of this, it was noticed that birds of this kind actually +disappeared; they were not about the bodies, or indeed to be seen at +all. But of course the effects which I have mentioned could best be +studied in a domestic animal like the dog. + +Such then, if we pass over the varieties of particular cases which were +many and peculiar, were the general features of the distemper. Meanwhile +the town enjoyed an immunity from all the ordinary disorders; or if any +case occurred, it ended in this. Some died in neglect, others in the +midst of every attention. No remedy was found that could be used as a +specific; for what did good in one case, did harm in another. Strong +and weak constitutions proved equally incapable of resistance, all alike +being swept away, although dieted with the utmost precaution. By far the +most terrible feature in the malady was the dejection which ensued +when any one felt himself sickening, for the despair into which they +instantly fell took away their power of resistance, and left them a +much easier prey to the disorder; besides which, there was the awful +spectacle of men dying like sheep, through having caught the infection +in nursing each other. This caused the greatest mortality. On the +one hand, if they were afraid to visit each other, they perished from +neglect; indeed many houses were emptied of their inmates for want of +a nurse: on the other, if they ventured to do so, death was the +consequence. This was especially the case with such as made any +pretensions to goodness: honour made them unsparing of themselves in +their attendance in their friends' houses, where even the members of the +family were at last worn out by the moans of the dying, and succumbed to +the force of the disaster. Yet it was with those who had recovered from +the disease that the sick and the dying found most compassion. These +knew what it was from experience, and had now no fear for themselves; +for the same man was never attacked twice--never at least fatally. +And such persons not only received the congratulations of others, but +themselves also, in the elation of the moment, half entertained the vain +hope that they were for the future safe from any disease whatsoever. + +An aggravation of the existing calamity was the influx from the country +into the city, and this was especially felt by the new arrivals. As +there were no houses to receive them, they had to be lodged at the hot +season of the year in stifling cabins, where the mortality raged without +restraint. The bodies of dying men lay one upon another, and half-dead +creatures reeled about the streets and gathered round all the fountains +in their longing for water. The sacred places also in which they had +quartered themselves were full of corpses of persons that had died +there, just as they were; for as the disaster passed all bounds, men, +not knowing what was to become of them, became utterly careless of +everything, whether sacred or profane. All the burial rites before in +use were entirely upset, and they buried the bodies as best they could. +Many from want of the proper appliances, through so many of their +friends having died already, had recourse to the most shameless +sepultures: sometimes getting the start of those who had raised a pile, +they threw their own dead body upon the stranger's pyre and ignited it; +sometimes they tossed the corpse which they were carrying on the top of +another that was burning, and so went off. + +Nor was this the only form of lawless extravagance which owed its origin +to the plague. Men now coolly ventured on what they had formerly done +in a corner, and not just as they pleased, seeing the rapid transitions +produced by persons in prosperity suddenly dying and those who before +had nothing succeeding to their property. So they resolved to spend +quickly and enjoy themselves, regarding their lives and riches as alike +things of a day. Perseverance in what men called honour was popular with +none, it was so uncertain whether they would be spared to attain +the object; but it was settled that present enjoyment, and all that +contributed to it, was both honourable and useful. Fear of gods or law +of man there was none to restrain them. As for the first, they judged it +to be just the same whether they worshipped them or not, as they saw all +alike perishing; and for the last, no one expected to live to be brought +to trial for his offences, but each felt that a far severer sentence had +been already passed upon them all and hung ever over their heads, and +before this fell it was only reasonable to enjoy life a little. + +Such was the nature of the calamity, and heavily did it weigh on the +Athenians; death raging within the city and devastation without. +Among other things which they remembered in their distress was, very +naturally, the following verse which the old men said had long ago been +uttered: + + A Dorian war shall come and with it death. + +So a dispute arose as to whether dearth and not death had not been the +word in the verse; but at the present juncture, it was of course decided +in favour of the latter; for the people made their recollection fit +in with their sufferings. I fancy, however, that if another Dorian +war should ever afterwards come upon us, and a dearth should happen to +accompany it, the verse will probably be read accordingly. The oracle +also which had been given to the Lacedaemonians was now remembered by +those who knew of it. When the god was asked whether they should go to +war, he answered that if they put their might into it, victory would be +theirs, and that he would himself be with them. With this oracle +events were supposed to tally. For the plague broke out as soon as the +Peloponnesians invaded Attica, and never entering Peloponnese (not +at least to an extent worth noticing), committed its worst ravages at +Athens, and next to Athens, at the most populous of the other towns. +Such was the history of the plague. + +After ravaging the plain, the Peloponnesians advanced into the Paralian +region as far as Laurium, where the Athenian silver mines are, and first +laid waste the side looking towards Peloponnese, next that which faces +Euboea and Andros. But Pericles, who was still general, held the same +opinion as in the former invasion, and would not let the Athenians march +out against them. + +However, while they were still in the plain, and had not yet entered +the Paralian land, he had prepared an armament of a hundred ships for +Peloponnese, and when all was ready put out to sea. On board the ships +he took four thousand Athenian heavy infantry, and three hundred +cavalry in horse transports, and then for the first time made out of old +galleys; fifty Chian and Lesbian vessels also joining in the expedition. +When this Athenian armament put out to sea, they left the Peloponnesians +in Attica in the Paralian region. Arriving at Epidaurus in Peloponnese +they ravaged most of the territory, and even had hopes of taking the +town by an assault: in this however they were not successful. Putting +out from Epidaurus, they laid waste the territory of Troezen, Halieis, +and Hermione, all towns on the coast of Peloponnese, and thence sailing +to Prasiai, a maritime town in Laconia, ravaged part of its territory, +and took and sacked the place itself; after which they returned home, +but found the Peloponnesians gone and no longer in Attica. + +During the whole time that the Peloponnesians were in Attica and the +Athenians on the expedition in their ships, men kept dying of the plague +both in the armament and in Athens. Indeed it was actually asserted +that the departure of the Peloponnesians was hastened by fear of the +disorder; as they heard from deserters that it was in the city, and +also could see the burials going on. Yet in this invasion they remained +longer than in any other, and ravaged the whole country, for they were +about forty days in Attica. + +The same summer Hagnon, son of Nicias, and Cleopompus, son of Clinias, +the colleagues of Pericles, took the armament of which he had lately +made use, and went off upon an expedition against the Chalcidians in the +direction of Thrace and Potidaea, which was still under siege. As soon +as they arrived, they brought up their engines against Potidaea and +tried every means of taking it, but did not succeed either in capturing +the city or in doing anything else worthy of their preparations. For the +plague attacked them here also, and committed such havoc as to cripple +them completely, even the previously healthy soldiers of the former +expedition catching the infection from Hagnon's troops; while Phormio +and the sixteen hundred men whom he commanded only escaped by being no +longer in the neighbourhood of the Chalcidians. The end of it was that +Hagnon returned with his ships to Athens, having lost one thousand and +fifty out of four thousand heavy infantry in about forty days; though +the soldiers stationed there before remained in the country and carried +on the siege of Potidaea. + +After the second invasion of the Peloponnesians a change came over the +spirit of the Athenians. Their land had now been twice laid waste; and +war and pestilence at once pressed heavy upon them. They began to find +fault with Pericles, as the author of the war and the cause of all their +misfortunes, and became eager to come to terms with Lacedaemon, and +actually sent ambassadors thither, who did not however succeed in their +mission. Their despair was now complete and all vented itself upon +Pericles. When he saw them exasperated at the present turn of affairs +and acting exactly as he had anticipated, he called an assembly, +being (it must be remembered) still general, with the double object of +restoring confidence and of leading them from these angry feelings to a +calmer and more hopeful state of mind. He accordingly came forward and +spoke as follows: + +"I was not unprepared for the indignation of which I have been the +object, as I know its causes; and I have called an assembly for the +purpose of reminding you upon certain points, and of protesting against +your being unreasonably irritated with me, or cowed by your sufferings. +I am of opinion that national greatness is more for the advantage of +private citizens, than any individual well-being coupled with public +humiliation. A man may be personally ever so well off, and yet if his +country be ruined he must be ruined with it; whereas a flourishing +commonwealth always affords chances of salvation to unfortunate +individuals. Since then a state can support the misfortunes of private +citizens, while they cannot support hers, it is surely the duty of every +one to be forward in her defence, and not like you to be so confounded +with your domestic afflictions as to give up all thoughts of the common +safety, and to blame me for having counselled war and yourselves for +having voted it. And yet if you are angry with me, it is with one who, +as I believe, is second to no man either in knowledge of the proper +policy, or in the ability to expound it, and who is moreover not only a +patriot but an honest one. A man possessing that knowledge without that +faculty of exposition might as well have no idea at all on the matter: +if he had both these gifts, but no love for his country, he would be but +a cold advocate for her interests; while were his patriotism not proof +against bribery, everything would go for a price. So that if you thought +that I was even moderately distinguished for these qualities when you +took my advice and went to war, there is certainly no reason now why I +should be charged with having done wrong. + +"For those of course who have a free choice in the matter and whose +fortunes are not at stake, war is the greatest of follies. But if the +only choice was between submission with loss of independence, and danger +with the hope of preserving that independence, in such a case it is he +who will not accept the risk that deserves blame, not he who will. I am +the same man and do not alter, it is you who change, since in fact you +took my advice while unhurt, and waited for misfortune to repent of +it; and the apparent error of my policy lies in the infirmity of your +resolution, since the suffering that it entails is being felt by every +one among you, while its advantage is still remote and obscure to all, +and a great and sudden reverse having befallen you, your mind is too +much depressed to persevere in your resolves. For before what is sudden, +unexpected, and least within calculation, the spirit quails; and putting +all else aside, the plague has certainly been an emergency of this kind. +Born, however, as you are, citizens of a great state, and brought up, as +you have been, with habits equal to your birth, you should be ready to +face the greatest disasters and still to keep unimpaired the lustre of +your name. For the judgment of mankind is as relentless to the weakness +that falls short of a recognized renown, as it is jealous of the +arrogance that aspires higher than its due. Cease then to grieve for +your private afflictions, and address yourselves instead to the safety +of the commonwealth. + +"If you shrink before the exertions which the war makes necessary, +and fear that after all they may not have a happy result, you know the +reasons by which I have often demonstrated to you the groundlessness +of your apprehensions. If those are not enough, I will now reveal an +advantage arising from the greatness of your dominion, which I think +has never yet suggested itself to you, which I never mentioned in my +previous speeches, and which has so bold a sound that I should scarce +adventure it now, were it not for the unnatural depression which I see +around me. You perhaps think that your empire extends only over your +allies; I will declare to you the truth. The visible field of action has +two parts, land and sea. In the whole of one of these you are completely +supreme, not merely as far as you use it at present, but also to what +further extent you may think fit: in fine, your naval resources are +such that your vessels may go where they please, without the King or any +other nation on earth being able to stop them. So that although you +may think it a great privation to lose the use of your land and houses, +still you must see that this power is something widely different; and +instead of fretting on their account, you should really regard them in +the light of the gardens and other accessories that embellish a great +fortune, and as, in comparison, of little moment. You should know too +that liberty preserved by your efforts will easily recover for us what +we have lost, while, the knee once bowed, even what you have will pass +from you. Your fathers receiving these possessions not from others, but +from themselves, did not let slip what their labour had acquired, but +delivered them safe to you; and in this respect at least you must prove +yourselves their equals, remembering that to lose what one has got is +more disgraceful than to be balked in getting, and you must confront +your enemies not merely with spirit but with disdain. Confidence indeed +a blissful ignorance can impart, ay, even to a coward's breast, but +disdain is the privilege of those who, like us, have been assured +by reflection of their superiority to their adversary. And where the +chances are the same, knowledge fortifies courage by the contempt which +is its consequence, its trust being placed, not in hope, which is +the prop of the desperate, but in a judgment grounded upon existing +resources, whose anticipations are more to be depended upon. + +"Again, your country has a right to your services in sustaining the +glories of her position. These are a common source of pride to you all, +and you cannot decline the burdens of empire and still expect to share +its honours. You should remember also that what you are fighting against +is not merely slavery as an exchange for independence, but also loss +of empire and danger from the animosities incurred in its exercise. +Besides, to recede is no longer possible, if indeed any of you in the +alarm of the moment has become enamoured of the honesty of such an +unambitious part. For what you hold is, to speak somewhat plainly, a +tyranny; to take it perhaps was wrong, but to let it go is unsafe. And +men of these retiring views, making converts of others, would quickly +ruin a state; indeed the result would be the same if they could live +independent by themselves; for the retiring and unambitious are +never secure without vigorous protectors at their side; in fine, such +qualities are useless to an imperial city, though they may help a +dependency to an unmolested servitude. + +"But you must not be seduced by citizens like these or angry with +me--who, if I voted for war, only did as you did yourselves--in spite of +the enemy having invaded your country and done what you could be +certain that he would do, if you refused to comply with his demands; and +although besides what we counted for, the plague has come upon us--the +only point indeed at which our calculation has been at fault. It is +this, I know, that has had a large share in making me more unpopular +than I should otherwise have been--quite undeservedly, unless you are +also prepared to give me the credit of any success with which chance may +present you. Besides, the hand of heaven must be borne with resignation, +that of the enemy with fortitude; this was the old way at Athens, and do +not you prevent it being so still. Remember, too, that if your country +has the greatest name in all the world, it is because she never bent +before disaster; because she has expended more life and effort in war +than any other city, and has won for herself a power greater than +any hitherto known, the memory of which will descend to the latest +posterity; even if now, in obedience to the general law of decay, we +should ever be forced to yield, still it will be remembered that we held +rule over more Hellenes than any other Hellenic state, that we sustained +the greatest wars against their united or separate powers, and inhabited +a city unrivalled by any other in resources or magnitude. These glories +may incur the censure of the slow and unambitious; but in the breast of +energy they will awake emulation, and in those who must remain without +them an envious regret. Hatred and unpopularity at the moment have +fallen to the lot of all who have aspired to rule others; but where +odium must be incurred, true wisdom incurs it for the highest objects. +Hatred also is short-lived; but that which makes the splendour of the +present and the glory of the future remains for ever unforgotten. Make +your decision, therefore, for glory then and honour now, and attain +both objects by instant and zealous effort: do not send heralds to +Lacedaemon, and do not betray any sign of being oppressed by your +present sufferings, since they whose minds are least sensitive to +calamity, and whose hands are most quick to meet it, are the greatest +men and the greatest communities." + +Such were the arguments by which Pericles tried to cure the Athenians +of their anger against him and to divert their thoughts from their +immediate afflictions. As a community he succeeded in convincing them; +they not only gave up all idea of sending to Lacedaemon, but applied +themselves with increased energy to the war; still as private +individuals they could not help smarting under their sufferings, +the common people having been deprived of the little that they were +possessed, while the higher orders had lost fine properties with costly +establishments and buildings in the country, and, worst of all, had +war instead of peace. In fact, the public feeling against him did not +subside until he had been fined. Not long afterwards, however, according +to the way of the multitude, they again elected him general and +committed all their affairs to his hands, having now become less +sensitive to their private and domestic afflictions, and understanding +that he was the best man of all for the public necessities. For as +long as he was at the head of the state during the peace, he pursued a +moderate and conservative policy; and in his time its greatness was at +its height. When the war broke out, here also he seems to have rightly +gauged the power of his country. He outlived its commencement two years +and six months, and the correctness of his previsions respecting it +became better known by his death. He told them to wait quietly, to pay +attention to their marine, to attempt no new conquests, and to expose +the city to no hazards during the war, and doing this, promised them a +favourable result. What they did was the very contrary, allowing private +ambitions and private interests, in matters apparently quite foreign +to the war, to lead them into projects unjust both to themselves and to +their allies--projects whose success would only conduce to the honour +and advantage of private persons, and whose failure entailed certain +disaster on the country in the war. The causes of this are not far to +seek. Pericles indeed, by his rank, ability, and known integrity, was +enabled to exercise an independent control over the multitude--in short, +to lead them instead of being led by them; for as he never sought power +by improper means, he was never compelled to flatter them, but, on the +contrary, enjoyed so high an estimation that he could afford to anger +them by contradiction. Whenever he saw them unseasonably and insolently +elated, he would with a word reduce them to alarm; on the other hand, +if they fell victims to a panic, he could at once restore them to +confidence. In short, what was nominally a democracy became in his hands +government by the first citizen. With his successors it was different. +More on a level with one another, and each grasping at supremacy, they +ended by committing even the conduct of state affairs to the whims +of the multitude. This, as might have been expected in a great and +sovereign state, produced a host of blunders, and amongst them +the Sicilian expedition; though this failed not so much through a +miscalculation of the power of those against whom it was sent, +as through a fault in the senders in not taking the best measures +afterwards to assist those who had gone out, but choosing rather to +occupy themselves with private cabals for the leadership of the commons, +by which they not only paralysed operations in the field, but also first +introduced civil discord at home. Yet after losing most of their fleet +besides other forces in Sicily, and with faction already dominant in the +city, they could still for three years make head against their original +adversaries, joined not only by the Sicilians, but also by their own +allies nearly all in revolt, and at last by the King's son, Cyrus, who +furnished the funds for the Peloponnesian navy. Nor did they finally +succumb till they fell the victims of their own intestine disorders. +So superfluously abundant were the resources from which the genius of +Pericles foresaw an easy triumph in the war over the unaided forces of +the Peloponnesians. + +During the same summer the Lacedaemonians and their allies made an +expedition with a hundred ships against Zacynthus, an island lying off +the coast of Elis, peopled by a colony of Achaeans from Peloponnese, +and in alliance with Athens. There were a thousand Lacedaemonian heavy +infantry on board, and Cnemus, a Spartan, as admiral. They made a +descent from their ships, and ravaged most of the country; but as the +inhabitants would not submit, they sailed back home. + +At the end of the same summer the Corinthian Aristeus, Aneristus, +Nicolaus, and Stratodemus, envoys from Lacedaemon, Timagoras, a Tegean, +and a private individual named Pollis from Argos, on their way to +Asia to persuade the King to supply funds and join in the war, came +to Sitalces, son of Teres in Thrace, with the idea of inducing him, if +possible, to forsake the alliance of Athens and to march on Potidaea +then besieged by an Athenian force, and also of getting conveyed by his +means to their destination across the Hellespont to Pharnabazus, who was +to send them up the country to the King. But there chanced to be with +Sitalces some Athenian ambassadors--Learchus, son of Callimachus, and +Ameiniades, son of Philemon--who persuaded Sitalces' son, Sadocus, the +new Athenian citizen, to put the men into their hands and thus prevent +their crossing over to the King and doing their part to injure the +country of his choice. He accordingly had them seized, as they were +travelling through Thrace to the vessel in which they were to cross the +Hellespont, by a party whom he had sent on with Learchus and Ameiniades, +and gave orders for their delivery to the Athenian ambassadors, by whom +they were brought to Athens. On their arrival, the Athenians, afraid +that Aristeus, who had been notably the prime mover in the previous +affairs of Potidaea and their Thracian possessions, might live to do +them still more mischief if he escaped, slew them all the same day, +without giving them a trial or hearing the defence which they wished to +offer, and cast their bodies into a pit; thinking themselves +justified in using in retaliation the same mode of warfare which the +Lacedaemonians had begun, when they slew and cast into pits all the +Athenian and allied traders whom they caught on board the merchantmen +round Peloponnese. Indeed, at the outset of the war, the Lacedaemonians +butchered as enemies all whom they took on the sea, whether allies of +Athens or neutrals. + +About the same time towards the close of the summer, the Ambraciot +forces, with a number of barbarians that they had raised, marched +against the Amphilochian Argos and the rest of that country. The origin +of their enmity against the Argives was this. This Argos and the rest +of Amphilochia were colonized by Amphilochus, son of Amphiaraus. +Dissatisfied with the state of affairs at home on his return thither +after the Trojan War, he built this city in the Ambracian Gulf, and +named it Argos after his own country. This was the largest town in +Amphilochia, and its inhabitants the most powerful. Under the +pressure of misfortune many generations afterwards, they called in the +Ambraciots, their neighbours on the Amphilochian border, to join their +colony; and it was by this union with the Ambraciots that they learnt +their present Hellenic speech, the rest of the Amphilochians being +barbarians. After a time the Ambraciots expelled the Argives and held +the city themselves. Upon this the Amphilochians gave themselves over +to the Acarnanians; and the two together called the Athenians, who sent +them Phormio as general and thirty ships; upon whose arrival they took +Argos by storm, and made slaves of the Ambraciots; and the Amphilochians +and Acarnanians inhabited the town in common. After this began the +alliance between the Athenians and Acarnanians. The enmity of the +Ambraciots against the Argives thus commenced with the enslavement +of their citizens; and afterwards during the war they collected +this armament among themselves and the Chaonians, and other of the +neighbouring barbarians. Arrived before Argos, they became masters of +the country; but not being successful in their attacks upon the town, +returned home and dispersed among their different peoples. + +Such were the events of the summer. The ensuing winter the Athenians +sent twenty ships round Peloponnese, under the command of Phormio, who +stationed himself at Naupactus and kept watch against any one sailing in +or out of Corinth and the Crissaean Gulf. Six others went to Caria and +Lycia under Melesander, to collect tribute in those parts, and also to +prevent the Peloponnesian privateers from taking up their station in +those waters and molesting the passage of the merchantmen from Phaselis +and Phoenicia and the adjoining continent. However, Melesander, going up +the country into Lycia with a force of Athenians from the ships and the +allies, was defeated and killed in battle, with the loss of a number of +his troops. + +The same winter the Potidaeans at length found themselves no longer able +to hold out against their besiegers. The inroads of the Peloponnesians +into Attica had not had the desired effect of making the Athenians raise +the siege. Provisions there were none left; and so far had distress for +food gone in Potidaea that, besides a number of other horrors, instances +had even occurred of the people having eaten one another. In this +extremity they at last made proposals for capitulating to the +Athenian generals in command against them--Xenophon, son of Euripides, +Hestiodorus, son of Aristocleides, and Phanomachus, son of Callimachus. +The generals accepted their proposals, seeing the sufferings of the army +in so exposed a position; besides which the state had already spent two +thousand talents upon the siege. The terms of the capitulation were as +follows: a free passage out for themselves, their children, wives and +auxiliaries, with one garment apiece, the women with two, and a fixed +sum of money for their journey. Under this treaty they went out +to Chalcidice and other places, according as was their power. The +Athenians, however, blamed the generals for granting terms without +instructions from home, being of opinion that the place would have had +to surrender at discretion. They afterwards sent settlers of their own +to Potidaea, and colonized it. Such were the events of the winter, +and so ended the second year of this war of which Thucydides was the +historian. + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +_Third Year of the War--Investment of Plataea--Naval Victories of +Phormio--Thracian Irruption into Macedonia under Sitalces_ + +The next summer the Peloponnesians and their allies, instead of invading +Attica, marched against Plataea, under the command of Archidamus, son of +Zeuxidamus, king of the Lacedaemonians. He had encamped his army and +was about to lay waste the country, when the Plataeans hastened to send +envoys to him, and spoke as follows: "Archidamus and Lacedaemonians, +in invading the Plataean territory, you do what is wrong in itself, +and worthy neither of yourselves nor of the fathers who begot you. +Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, your countryman, after freeing Hellas +from the Medes with the help of those Hellenes who were willing to +undertake the risk of the battle fought near our city, offered sacrifice +to Zeus the Liberator in the marketplace of Plataea, and calling all the +allies together restored to the Plataeans their city and territory, and +declared it independent and inviolate against aggression or conquest. +Should any such be attempted, the allies present were to help according +to their power. Your fathers rewarded us thus for the courage and +patriotism that we displayed at that perilous epoch; but you do just the +contrary, coming with our bitterest enemies, the Thebans, to enslave us. +We appeal, therefore, to the gods to whom the oaths were then made, to +the gods of your ancestors, and lastly to those of our country, and call +upon you to refrain from violating our territory or transgressing the +oaths, and to let us live independent, as Pausanias decreed." + +The Plataeans had got thus far when they were cut short by Archidamus +saying: "There is justice, Plataeans, in what you say, if you act up +to your words. According, to the grant of Pausanias, continue to +be independent yourselves, and join in freeing those of your fellow +countrymen who, after sharing in the perils of that period, joined in +the oaths to you, and are now subject to the Athenians; for it is to +free them and the rest that all this provision and war has been made. +I could wish that you would share our labours and abide by the oaths +yourselves; if this is impossible, do what we have already required of +you--remain neutral, enjoying your own; join neither side, but receive +both as friends, neither as allies for the war. With this we shall be +satisfied." Such were the words of Archidamus. The Plataeans, after +hearing what he had to say, went into the city and acquainted the people +with what had passed, and presently returned for answer that it was +impossible for them to do what he proposed without consulting the +Athenians, with whom their children and wives now were; besides which +they had their fears for the town. After his departure, what was to +prevent the Athenians from coming and taking it out of their hands, or +the Thebans, who would be included in the oaths, from taking advantage +of the proposed neutrality to make a second attempt to seize the city? +Upon these points he tried to reassure them by saying: "You have only to +deliver over the city and houses to us Lacedaemonians, to point out the +boundaries of your land, the number of your fruit-trees, and whatever +else can be numerically stated, and yourselves to withdraw wherever you +like as long as the war shall last. When it is over we will restore to +you whatever we received, and in the interim hold it in trust and keep +it in cultivation, paying you a sufficient allowance." + +When they had heard what he had to say, they re-entered the city, and +after consulting with the people said that they wished first to acquaint +the Athenians with this proposal, and in the event of their approving to +accede to it; in the meantime they asked him to grant them a truce and +not to lay waste their territory. He accordingly granted a truce for the +number of days requisite for the journey, and meanwhile abstained +from ravaging their territory. The Plataean envoys went to Athens, and +consulted with the Athenians, and returned with the following message +to those in the city: "The Athenians say, Plataeans, that they never +hitherto, since we became their allies, on any occasion abandoned us to +an enemy, nor will they now neglect us, but will help us according +to their ability; and they adjure you by the oaths which your fathers +swore, to keep the alliance unaltered." + +On the delivery of this message by the envoys, the Plataeans resolved +not to be unfaithful to the Athenians but to endure, if it must be, +seeing their lands laid waste and any other trials that might come to +them, and not to send out again, but to answer from the wall that it was +impossible for them to do as the Lacedaemonians proposed. As soon as +he had received this answer, King Archidamus proceeded first to make a +solemn appeal to the gods and heroes of the country in words following: +"Ye gods and heroes of the Plataean territory, be my witnesses that not +as aggressors originally, nor until these had first departed from the +common oath, did we invade this land, in which our fathers offered you +their prayers before defeating the Medes, and which you made auspicious +to the Hellenic arms; nor shall we be aggressors in the measures to +which we may now resort, since we have made many fair proposals but have +not been successful. Graciously accord that those who were the first +to offend may be punished for it, and that vengeance may be attained by +those who would righteously inflict it." + +After this appeal to the gods Archidamus put his army in motion. First +he enclosed the town with a palisade formed of the fruit-trees which +they cut down, to prevent further egress from Plataea; next they threw +up a mound against the city, hoping that the largeness of the +force employed would ensure the speedy reduction of the place. They +accordingly cut down timber from Cithaeron, and built it up on either +side, laying it like lattice-work to serve as a wall to keep the mound +from spreading abroad, and carried to it wood and stones and earth and +whatever other material might help to complete it. They continued to +work at the mound for seventy days and nights without intermission, +being divided into relief parties to allow of some being employed in +carrying while others took sleep and refreshment; the Lacedaemonian +officer attached to each contingent keeping the men to the work. But the +Plataeans, observing the progress of the mound, constructed a wall of +wood and fixed it upon that part of the city wall against which the +mound was being erected, and built up bricks inside it which they took +from the neighbouring houses. The timbers served to bind the building +together, and to prevent its becoming weak as it advanced in height; +it had also a covering of skins and hides, which protected the woodwork +against the attacks of burning missiles and allowed the men to work +in safety. Thus the wall was raised to a great height, and the mound +opposite made no less rapid progress. The Plataeans also thought of +another expedient; they pulled out part of the wall upon which the mound +abutted, and carried the earth into the city. + +Discovering this the Peloponnesians twisted up clay in wattles of reed +and threw it into the breach formed in the mound, in order to give it +consistency and prevent its being carried away like the soil. Stopped +in this way the Plataeans changed their mode of operation, and digging +a mine from the town calculated their way under the mound, and began to +carry off its material as before. This went on for a long while without +the enemy outside finding it out, so that for all they threw on the +top their mound made no progress in proportion, being carried away from +beneath and constantly settling down in the vacuum. But the Plataeans, +fearing that even thus they might not be able to hold out against the +superior numbers of the enemy, had yet another invention. They stopped +working at the large building in front of the mound, and starting at +either end of it inside from the old low wall, built a new one in the +form of a crescent running in towards the town; in order that in the +event of the great wall being taken this might remain, and the enemy +have to throw up a fresh mound against it, and as they advanced within +might not only have their trouble over again, but also be exposed to +missiles on their flanks. While raising the mound the Peloponnesians +also brought up engines against the city, one of which was brought up +upon the mound against the great building and shook down a good piece of +it, to the no small alarm of the Plataeans. Others were advanced +against different parts of the wall but were lassoed and broken by the +Plataeans; who also hung up great beams by long iron chains from either +extremity of two poles laid on the wall and projecting over it, and drew +them up at an angle whenever any point was threatened by the engine, +and loosing their hold let the beam go with its chains slack, so that it +fell with a run and snapped off the nose of the battering ram. + +After this the Peloponnesians, finding that their engines effected +nothing, and that their mound was met by the counterwork, concluded that +their present means of offence were unequal to the taking of the city, +and prepared for its circumvallation. First, however, they determined to +try the effects of fire and see whether they could not, with the help of +a wind, burn the town, as it was not a large one; indeed they thought of +every possible expedient by which the place might be reduced without the +expense of a blockade. They accordingly brought faggots of brushwood and +threw them from the mound, first into the space between it and the wall; +and this soon becoming full from the number of hands at work, they next +heaped the faggots up as far into the town as they could reach from the +top, and then lighted the wood by setting fire to it with sulphur and +pitch. The consequence was a fire greater than any one had ever yet seen +produced by human agency, though it could not of course be compared to +the spontaneous conflagrations sometimes known to occur through the wind +rubbing the branches of a mountain forest together. And this fire was +not only remarkable for its magnitude, but was also, at the end of so +many perils, within an ace of proving fatal to the Plataeans; a great +part of the town became entirely inaccessible, and had a wind blown upon +it, in accordance with the hopes of the enemy, nothing could have saved +them. As it was, there is also a story of heavy rain and thunder having +come on by which the fire was put out and the danger averted. + +Failing in this last attempt the Peloponnesians left a portion of +their forces on the spot, dismissing the rest, and built a wall of +circumvallation round the town, dividing the ground among the various +cities present; a ditch being made within and without the lines, from +which they got their bricks. All being finished by about the rising +of Arcturus, they left men enough to man half the wall, the rest being +manned by the Boeotians, and drawing off their army dispersed to their +several cities. The Plataeans had before sent off their wives and +children and oldest men and the mass of the non-combatants to Athens; so +that the number of the besieged left in the place comprised four hundred +of their own citizens, eighty Athenians, and a hundred and ten women +to bake their bread. This was the sum total at the commencement of the +siege, and there was no one else within the walls, bond or free. Such +were the arrangements made for the blockade of Plataea. + +The same summer and simultaneously with the expedition against Plataea, +the Athenians marched with two thousand heavy infantry and two hundred +horse against the Chalcidians in the direction of Thrace and the +Bottiaeans, just as the corn was getting ripe, under the command +of Xenophon, son of Euripides, with two colleagues. Arriving before +Spartolus in Bottiaea, they destroyed the corn and had some hopes of the +city coming over through the intrigues of a faction within. But those +of a different way of thinking had sent to Olynthus; and a garrison of +heavy infantry and other troops arrived accordingly. These issuing +from Spartolus were engaged by the Athenians in front of the town: the +Chalcidian heavy infantry, and some auxiliaries with them, were beaten +and retreated into Spartolus; but the Chalcidian horse and light troops +defeated the horse and light troops of the Athenians. The Chalcidians +had already a few targeteers from Crusis, and presently after the battle +were joined by some others from Olynthus; upon seeing whom the light +troops from Spartolus, emboldened by this accession and by their +previous success, with the help of the Chalcidian horse and the +reinforcement just arrived again attacked the Athenians, who retired +upon the two divisions which they had left with their baggage. Whenever +the Athenians advanced, their adversary gave way, pressing them with +missiles the instant they began to retire. The Chalcidian horse also, +riding up and charging them just as they pleased, at last caused a +panic amongst them and routed and pursued them to a great distance. The +Athenians took refuge in Potidaea, and afterwards recovered their dead +under truce, and returned to Athens with the remnant of their army; +four hundred and thirty men and all the generals having fallen. The +Chalcidians and Bottiaeans set up a trophy, took up their dead, and +dispersed to their several cities. + +The same summer, not long after this, the Ambraciots and Chaonians, +being desirous of reducing the whole of Acarnania and detaching it +from Athens, persuaded the Lacedaemonians to equip a fleet from +their confederacy and send a thousand heavy infantry to Acarnania, +representing that, if a combined movement were made by land and sea, +the coast Acarnanians would be unable to march, and the conquest +of Zacynthus and Cephallenia easily following on the possession of +Acarnania, the cruise round Peloponnese would be no longer so convenient +for the Athenians. Besides which there was a hope of taking Naupactus. +The Lacedaemonians accordingly at once sent off a few vessels with +Cnemus, who was still high admiral, and the heavy infantry on board; and +sent round orders for the fleet to equip as quickly as possible and sail +to Leucas. The Corinthians were the most forward in the business; the +Ambraciots being a colony of theirs. While the ships from Corinth, +Sicyon, and the neighbourhood were getting ready, and those from Leucas, +Anactorium, and Ambracia, which had arrived before, were waiting for +them at Leucas, Cnemus and his thousand heavy infantry had run into the +gulf, giving the slip to Phormio, the commander of the Athenian squadron +stationed off Naupactus, and began at once to prepare for the land +expedition. The Hellenic troops with him consisted of the Ambraciots, +Leucadians, and Anactorians, and the thousand Peloponnesians with whom +he came; the barbarian of a thousand Chaonians, who, belonging to a +nation that has no king, were led by Photys and Nicanor, the two members +of the royal family to whom the chieftainship for that year had been +confided. With the Chaonians came also some Thesprotians, like them +without a king, some Molossians and Atintanians led by Sabylinthus, the +guardian of King Tharyps who was still a minor, and some Paravaeans, +under their king Oroedus, accompanied by a thousand Orestians, subjects +of King Antichus and placed by him under the command of Oroedus. There +were also a thousand Macedonians sent by Perdiccas without the knowledge +of the Athenians, but they arrived too late. With this force Cnemus set +out, without waiting for the fleet from Corinth. Passing through +the territory of Amphilochian Argos, and sacking the open village of +Limnaea, they advanced to Stratus the Acarnanian capital; this once +taken, the rest of the country, they felt convinced, would speedily +follow. + +The Acarnanians, finding themselves invaded by a large army by land, and +from the sea threatened by a hostile fleet, made no combined attempt +at resistance, but remained to defend their homes, and sent for help to +Phormio, who replied that, when a fleet was on the point of sailing from +Corinth, it was impossible for him to leave Naupactus unprotected. The +Peloponnesians meanwhile and their allies advanced upon Stratus in three +divisions, with the intention of encamping near it and attempting the +wall by force if they failed to succeed by negotiation. The order of +march was as follows: the centre was occupied by the Chaonians and the +rest of the barbarians, with the Leucadians and Anactorians and +their followers on the right, and Cnemus with the Peloponnesians and +Ambraciots on the left; each division being a long way off from, and +sometimes even out of sight of, the others. The Hellenes advanced in +good order, keeping a look-out till they encamped in a good position; +but the Chaonians, filled with self-confidence, and having the highest +character for courage among the tribes of that part of the continent, +without waiting to occupy their camp, rushed on with the rest of the +barbarians, in the idea that they should take the town by assault and +obtain the sole glory of the enterprise. While they were coming on, the +Stratians, becoming aware how things stood, and thinking that the defeat +of this division would considerably dishearten the Hellenes behind it, +occupied the environs of the town with ambuscades, and as soon as +they approached engaged them at close quarters from the city and the +ambuscades. A panic seizing the Chaonians, great numbers of them +were slain; and as soon as they were seen to give way the rest of the +barbarians turned and fled. Owing to the distance by which their allies +had preceded them, neither of the Hellenic divisions knew anything of +the battle, but fancied they were hastening on to encamp. However, when +the flying barbarians broke in upon them, they opened their ranks to +receive them, brought their divisions together, and stopped quiet where +they were for the day; the Stratians not offering to engage them, as the +rest of the Acarnanians had not yet arrived, but contenting themselves +with slinging at them from a distance, which distressed them greatly, as +there was no stirring without their armour. The Acarnanians would seem +to excel in this mode of warfare. + +As soon as night fell, Cnemus hastily drew off his army to the river +Anapus, about nine miles from Stratus, recovering his dead next day +under truce, and being there joined by the friendly Oeniadae, fell back +upon their city before the enemy's reinforcements came up. From hence +each returned home; and the Stratians set up a trophy for the battle +with the barbarians. + +Meanwhile the fleet from Corinth and the rest of the confederates in the +Crissaean Gulf, which was to have co-operated with Cnemus and prevented +the coast Acarnanians from joining their countrymen in the interior, +was disabled from doing so by being compelled about the same time as the +battle at Stratus to fight with Phormio and the twenty Athenian vessels +stationed at Naupactus. For they were watched, as they coasted along out +of the gulf, by Phormio, who wished to attack in the open sea. But the +Corinthians and allies had started for Acarnania without any idea of +fighting at sea, and with vessels more like transports for carrying +soldiers; besides which, they never dreamed of the twenty Athenian ships +venturing to engage their forty-seven. However, while they were coasting +along their own shore, there were the Athenians sailing along in line +with them; and when they tried to cross over from Patrae in Achaea to +the mainland on the other side, on their way to Acarnania, they saw them +again coming out from Chalcis and the river Evenus to meet them. They +slipped from their moorings in the night, but were observed, and were at +length compelled to fight in mid passage. Each state that contributed +to the armament had its own general; the Corinthian commanders were +Machaon, Isocrates, and Agatharchidas. The Peloponnesians ranged their +vessels in as large a circle as possible without leaving an opening, +with the prows outside and the sterns in; and placed within all the +small craft in company, and their five best sailers to issue out at a +moment's notice and strengthen any point threatened by the enemy. + +The Athenians, formed in line, sailed round and round them, and forced +them to contract their circle, by continually brushing past and making +as though they would attack at once, having been previously cautioned +by Phormio not to do so till he gave the signal. His hope was that the +Peloponnesians would not retain their order like a force on shore, but +that the ships would fall foul of one another and the small craft cause +confusion; and if the wind should blow from the gulf (in expectation +of which he kept sailing round them, and which usually rose towards +morning), they would not, he felt sure, remain steady an instant. He +also thought that it rested with him to attack when he pleased, as his +ships were better sailers, and that an attack timed by the coming of the +wind would tell best. When the wind came down, the enemy's ships were +now in a narrow space, and what with the wind and the small craft +dashing against them, at once fell into confusion: ship fell foul of +ship, while the crews were pushing them off with poles, and by their +shouting, swearing, and struggling with one another, made captains' +orders and boatswains' cries alike inaudible, and through being unable +for want of practice to clear their oars in the rough water, prevented +the vessels from obeying their helmsmen properly. At this moment Phormio +gave the signal, and the Athenians attacked. Sinking first one of +the admirals, they then disabled all they came across, so that no one +thought of resistance for the confusion, but fled for Patrae and Dyme in +Achaea. The Athenians gave chase and captured twelve ships, and taking +most of the men out of them sailed to Molycrium, and after setting up +a trophy on the promontory of Rhium and dedicating a ship to Poseidon, +returned to Naupactus. As for the Peloponnesians, they at once sailed +with their remaining ships along the coast from Dyme and Patrae to +Cyllene, the Eleian arsenal; where Cnemus, and the ships from Leucas +that were to have joined them, also arrived after the battle at Stratus. + +The Lacedaemonians now sent to the fleet to Cnemus three +commissioners--Timocrates, Bradidas, and Lycophron--with orders to +prepare to engage again with better fortune, and not to be driven from +the sea by a few vessels; for they could not at all account for their +discomfiture, the less so as it was their first attempt at sea; and +they fancied that it was not that their marine was so inferior, but that +there had been misconduct somewhere, not considering the long experience +of the Athenians as compared with the little practice which they had had +themselves. The commissioners were accordingly sent in anger. As soon +as they arrived they set to work with Cnemus to order ships from the +different states, and to put those which they already had in fighting +order. Meanwhile Phormio sent word to Athens of their preparations and +his own victory, and desired as many ships as possible to be speedily +sent to him, as he stood in daily expectation of a battle. Twenty were +accordingly sent, but instructions were given to their commander to go +first to Crete. For Nicias, a Cretan of Gortys, who was proxenus of +the Athenians, had persuaded them to sail against Cydonia, promising +to procure the reduction of that hostile town; his real wish being to +oblige the Polichnitans, neighbours of the Cydonians. He accordingly +went with the ships to Crete, and, accompanied by the Polichnitans, +laid waste the lands of the Cydonians; and, what with adverse winds and +stress of weather wasted no little time there. + +While the Athenians were thus detained in Crete, the Peloponnesians in +Cyllene got ready for battle, and coasted along to Panormus in Achaea, +where their land army had come to support them. Phormio also coasted +along to Molycrian Rhium, and anchored outside it with twenty ships, +the same as he had fought with before. This Rhium was friendly to the +Athenians. The other, in Peloponnese, lies opposite to it; the sea +between them is about three-quarters of a mile broad, and forms the +mouth of the Crissaean gulf. At this, the Achaean Rhium, not far off +Panormus, where their army lay, the Peloponnesians now cast anchor with +seventy-seven ships, when they saw the Athenians do so. For six or seven +days they remained opposite each other, practising and preparing for the +battle; the one resolved not to sail out of the Rhia into the open sea, +for fear of the disaster which had already happened to them, the other +not to sail into the straits, thinking it advantageous to the enemy, to +fight in the narrows. At last Cnemus and Brasidas and the rest of the +Peloponnesian commanders, being desirous of bringing on a battle as +soon as possible, before reinforcements should arrive from Athens, and +noticing that the men were most of them cowed by the previous defeat and +out of heart for the business, first called them together and encouraged +them as follows: + +"Peloponnesians, the late engagement, which may have made some of you +afraid of the one now in prospect, really gives no just ground for +apprehension. Preparation for it, as you know, there was little enough; +and the object of our voyage was not so much to fight at sea as an +expedition by land. Besides this, the chances of war were largely +against us; and perhaps also inexperience had something to do with our +failure in our first naval action. It was not, therefore, cowardice that +produced our defeat, nor ought the determination which force has not +quelled, but which still has a word to say with its adversary, to lose +its edge from the result of an accident; but admitting the possibility +of a chance miscarriage, we should know that brave hearts must be always +brave, and while they remain so can never put forward inexperience as an +excuse for misconduct. Nor are you so behind the enemy in experience +as you are ahead of him in courage; and although the science of your +opponents would, if valour accompanied it, have also the presence of +mind to carry out at in emergency the lesson it has learnt, yet a faint +heart will make all art powerless in the face of danger. For fear takes +away presence of mind, and without valour art is useless. Against their +superior experience set your superior daring, and against the fear +induced by defeat the fact of your having been then unprepared; +remember, too, that you have always the advantage of superior numbers, +and of engaging off your own coast, supported by your heavy infantry; +and as a rule, numbers and equipment give victory. At no point, +therefore, is defeat likely; and as for our previous mistakes, the very +fact of their occurrence will teach us better for the future. Steersmen +and sailors may, therefore, confidently attend to their several duties, +none quitting the station assigned to them: as for ourselves, we +promise to prepare for the engagement at least as well as your previous +commanders, and to give no excuse for any one misconducting himself. +Should any insist on doing so, he shall meet with the punishment he +deserves, while the brave shall be honoured with the appropriate rewards +of valour." + +The Peloponnesian commanders encouraged their men after this fashion. +Phormio, meanwhile, being himself not without fears for the courage of +his men, and noticing that they were forming in groups among themselves +and were alarmed at the odds against them, desired to call them together +and give them confidence and counsel in the present emergency. He had +before continually told them, and had accustomed their minds to the +idea, that there was no numerical superiority that they could not face; +and the men themselves had long been persuaded that Athenians need never +retire before any quantity of Peloponnesian vessels. At the moment, +however, he saw that they were dispirited by the sight before them, and +wishing to refresh their confidence, called them together and spoke as +follows: + +"I see, my men, that you are frightened by the number of the enemy, and +I have accordingly called you together, not liking you to be afraid of +what is not really terrible. In the first place, the Peloponnesians, +already defeated, and not even themselves thinking that they are a match +for us, have not ventured to meet us on equal terms, but have equipped +this multitude of ships against us. Next, as to that upon which they +most rely, the courage which they suppose constitutional to them, their +confidence here only arises from the success which their experience in +land service usually gives them, and which they fancy will do the same +for them at sea. But this advantage will in all justice belong to us +on this element, if to them on that; as they are not superior to us +in courage, but we are each of us more confident, according to our +experience in our particular department. Besides, as the Lacedaemonians +use their supremacy over their allies to promote their own glory, they +are most of them being brought into danger against their will, or they +would never, after such a decided defeat, have ventured upon a fresh +engagement. You need not, therefore, be afraid of their dash. You, on +the contrary, inspire a much greater and better founded alarm, both +because of your late victory and also of their belief that we should not +face them unless about to do something worthy of a success so signal. +An adversary numerically superior, like the one before us, comes into +action trusting more to strength than to resolution; while he who +voluntarily confronts tremendous odds must have very great internal +resources to draw upon. For these reasons the Peloponnesians fear +our irrational audacity more than they would ever have done a more +commensurate preparation. Besides, many armaments have before now +succumbed to an inferior through want of skill or sometimes of courage; +neither of which defects certainly are ours. As to the battle, it shall +not be, if I can help it, in the strait, nor will I sail in there at +all; seeing that in a contest between a number of clumsily managed +vessels and a small, fast, well-handled squadron, want of sea room is +an undoubted disadvantage. One cannot run down an enemy properly without +having a sight of him a good way off, nor can one retire at need when +pressed; one can neither break the line nor return upon his rear, the +proper tactics for a fast sailer; but the naval action necessarily +becomes a land one, in which numbers must decide the matter. For all +this I will provide as far as can be. Do you stay at your posts by your +ships, and be sharp at catching the word of command, the more so as we +are observing one another from so short a distance; and in action think +order and silence all-important--qualities useful in war generally, and +in naval engagements in particular; and behave before the enemy in a +manner worthy of your past exploits. The issues you will fight for are +great--to destroy the naval hopes of the Peloponnesians or to bring +nearer to the Athenians their fears for the sea. And I may once more +remind you that you have defeated most of them already; and beaten men +do not face a danger twice with the same determination." + +Such was the exhortation of Phormio. The Peloponnesians finding that the +Athenians did not sail into the gulf and the narrows, in order to lead +them in whether they wished it or not, put out at dawn, and forming four +abreast, sailed inside the gulf in the direction of their own country, +the right wing leading as they had lain at anchor. In this wing were +placed twenty of their best sailers; so that in the event of Phormio +thinking that their object was Naupactus, and coasting along thither to +save the place, the Athenians might not be able to escape their onset +by getting outside their wing, but might be cut off by the vessels in +question. As they expected, Phormio, in alarm for the place at that +moment emptied of its garrison, as soon as he saw them put out, +reluctantly and hurriedly embarked and sailed along shore; the Messenian +land forces moving along also to support him. The Peloponnesians seeing +him coasting along with his ships in single file, and by this inside +the gulf and close inshore as they so much wished, at one signal tacked +suddenly and bore down in line at their best speed on the Athenians, +hoping to cut off the whole squadron. The eleven leading vessels, +however, escaped the Peloponnesian wing and its sudden movement, and +reached the more open water; but the rest were overtaken as they tried +to run through, driven ashore and disabled; such of the crews being +slain as had not swum out of them. Some of the ships the Peloponnesians +lashed to their own, and towed off empty; one they took with the men +in it; others were just being towed off, when they were saved by the +Messenians dashing into the sea with their armour and fighting from the +decks that they had boarded. + +Thus far victory was with the Peloponnesians, and the Athenian fleet +destroyed; the twenty ships in the right wing being meanwhile in chase +of the eleven Athenian vessels that had escaped their sudden movement +and reached the more open water. These, with the exception of one +ship, all outsailed them and got safe into Naupactus, and forming close +inshore opposite the temple of Apollo, with their prows facing the +enemy, prepared to defend themselves in case the Peloponnesians should +sail inshore against them. After a while the Peloponnesians came up, +chanting the paean for their victory as they sailed on; the single +Athenian ship remaining being chased by a Leucadian far ahead of the +rest. But there happened to be a merchantman lying at anchor in the +roadstead, which the Athenian ship found time to sail round, and struck +the Leucadian in chase amidships and sank her. An exploit so sudden and +unexpected produced a panic among the Peloponnesians; and having fallen +out of order in the excitement of victory, some of them dropped their +oars and stopped their way in order to let the main body come up--an +unsafe thing to do considering how near they were to the enemy's prows; +while others ran aground in the shallows, in their ignorance of the +localities. + +Elated at this incident, the Athenians at one word gave a cheer, and +dashed at the enemy, who, embarrassed by his mistakes and the disorder +in which he found himself, only stood for an instant, and then fled for +Panormus, whence he had put out. The Athenians following on his heels +took the six vessels nearest them, and recovered those of their own +which had been disabled close inshore and taken in tow at the beginning +of the action; they killed some of the crews and took some prisoners. +On board the Leucadian which went down off the merchantman, was the +Lacedaemonian Timocrates, who killed himself when the ship was sunk, and +was cast up in the harbour of Naupactus. The Athenians on their return +set up a trophy on the spot from which they had put out and turned the +day, and picking up the wrecks and dead that were on their shore, gave +back to the enemy their dead under truce. The Peloponnesians also set +up a trophy as victors for the defeat inflicted upon the ships they +had disabled in shore, and dedicated the vessel which they had taken at +Achaean Rhium, side by side with the trophy. After this, apprehensive of +the reinforcement expected from Athens, all except the Leucadians sailed +into the Crissaean Gulf for Corinth. Not long after their retreat, the +twenty Athenian ships, which were to have joined Phormio before the +battle, arrived at Naupactus. + +Thus the summer ended. Winter was now at hand; but dispersing the fleet, +which had retired to Corinth and the Crissaean Gulf, Cnemus, Brasidas, +and the other Peloponnesian captains allowed themselves to be persuaded +by the Megarians to make an attempt upon Piraeus, the port of Athens, +which from her decided superiority at sea had been naturally left +unguarded and open. Their plan was as follows: The men were each to take +their oar, cushion, and rowlock thong, and, going overland from Corinth +to the sea on the Athenian side, to get to Megara as quickly as they +could, and launching forty vessels, which happened to be in the docks at +Nisaea, to sail at once to Piraeus. There was no fleet on the look-out +in the harbour, and no one had the least idea of the enemy attempting +a surprise; while an open attack would, it was thought, never be +deliberately ventured on, or, if in contemplation, would be speedily +known at Athens. Their plan formed, the next step was to put it in +execution. Arriving by night and launching the vessels from Nisaea, they +sailed, not to Piraeus as they had originally intended, being afraid +of the risk, besides which there was some talk of a wind having stopped +them, but to the point of Salamis that looks towards Megara; where there +was a fort and a squadron of three ships to prevent anything sailing in +or out of Megara. This fort they assaulted, and towed off the galleys +empty, and surprising the inhabitants began to lay waste the rest of the +island. + +Meanwhile fire signals were raised to alarm Athens, and a panic ensued +there as serious as any that occurred during the war. The idea in the +city was that the enemy had already sailed into Piraeus: in Piraeus it +was thought that they had taken Salamis and might at any moment arrive +in the port; as indeed might easily have been done if their hearts had +been a little firmer: certainly no wind would have prevented them. As +soon as day broke, the Athenians assembled in full force, launched their +ships, and embarking in haste and uproar went with the fleet to Salamis, +while their soldiery mounted guard in Piraeus. The Peloponnesians, on +becoming aware of the coming relief, after they had overrun most of +Salamis, hastily sailed off with their plunder and captives and the +three ships from Fort Budorum to Nisaea; the state of their ships also +causing them some anxiety, as it was a long while since they had +been launched, and they were not water-tight. Arrived at Megara, they +returned back on foot to Corinth. The Athenians finding them no longer +at Salamis, sailed back themselves; and after this made arrangements for +guarding Piraeus more diligently in future, by closing the harbours, and +by other suitable precautions. + +About the same time, at the beginning of this winter, Sitalces, son +of Teres, the Odrysian king of Thrace, made an expedition against +Perdiccas, son of Alexander, king of Macedonia, and the Chalcidians in +the neighbourhood of Thrace; his object being to enforce one promise and +fulfil another. On the one hand Perdiccas had made him a promise, +when hard pressed at the commencement of the war, upon condition that +Sitalces should reconcile the Athenians to him and not attempt to +restore his brother and enemy, the pretender Philip, but had not offered +to fulfil his engagement; on the other he, Sitalces, on entering into +alliance with the Athenians, had agreed to put an end to the Chalcidian +war in Thrace. These were the two objects of his invasion. With him he +brought Amyntas, the son of Philip, whom he destined for the throne of +Macedonia, and some Athenian envoys then at his court on this business, +and Hagnon as general; for the Athenians were to join him against +the Chalcidians with a fleet and as many soldiers as they could get +together. + +Beginning with the Odrysians, he first called out the Thracian tribes +subject to him between Mounts Haemus and Rhodope and the Euxine and +Hellespont; next the Getae beyond Haemus, and the other hordes settled +south of the Danube in the neighbourhood of the Euxine, who, like the +Getae, border on the Scythians and are armed in the same manner, being +all mounted archers. Besides these he summoned many of the hill Thracian +independent swordsmen, called Dii and mostly inhabiting Mount Rhodope, +some of whom came as mercenaries, others as volunteers; also the +Agrianes and Laeaeans, and the rest of the Paeonian tribes in his +empire, at the confines of which these lay, extending up to the Laeaean +Paeonians and the river Strymon, which flows from Mount Scombrus through +the country of the Agrianes and Laeaeans; there the empire of Sitalces +ends and the territory of the independent Paeonians begins. Bordering +on the Triballi, also independent, were the Treres and Tilataeans, who +dwell to the north of Mount Scombrus and extend towards the setting sun +as far as the river Oskius. This river rises in the same mountains +as the Nestus and Hebrus, a wild and extensive range connected with +Rhodope. + +The empire of the Odrysians extended along the seaboard from Abdera to +the mouth of the Danube in the Euxine. The navigation of this coast by +the shortest route takes a merchantman four days and four nights with +a wind astern the whole way: by land an active man, travelling by the +shortest road, can get from Abdera to the Danube in eleven days. Such +was the length of its coast line. Inland from Byzantium to the Laeaeans +and the Strymon, the farthest limit of its extension into the interior, +it is a journey of thirteen days for an active man. The tribute from +all the barbarian districts and the Hellenic cities, taking what they +brought in under Seuthes, the successor of Sitalces, who raised it to +its greatest height, amounted to about four hundred talents in gold and +silver. There were also presents in gold and silver to a no less amount, +besides stuff, plain and embroidered, and other articles, made not only +for the king, but also for the Odrysian lords and nobles. For there was +here established a custom opposite to that prevailing in the Persian +kingdom, namely, of taking rather than giving; more disgrace being +attached to not giving when asked than to asking and being refused; +and although this prevailed elsewhere in Thrace, it was practised most +extensively among the powerful Odrysians, it being impossible to get +anything done without a present. It was thus a very powerful kingdom; +in revenue and general prosperity surpassing all in Europe between the +Ionian Gulf and the Euxine, and in numbers and military resources coming +decidedly next to the Scythians, with whom indeed no people in Europe +can bear comparison, there not being even in Asia any nation singly a +match for them if unanimous, though of course they are not on a level +with other races in general intelligence and the arts of civilized life. + +It was the master of this empire that now prepared to take the field. +When everything was ready, he set out on his march for Macedonia, first +through his own dominions, next over the desolate range of Cercine that +divides the Sintians and Paeonians, crossing by a road which he had made +by felling the timber on a former campaign against the latter people. +Passing over these mountains, with the Paeonians on his right and the +Sintians and Maedians on the left, he finally arrived at Doberus, +in Paeonia, losing none of his army on the march, except perhaps by +sickness, but receiving some augmentations, many of the independent +Thracians volunteering to join him in the hope of plunder; so that +the whole is said to have formed a grand total of a hundred and fifty +thousand. Most of this was infantry, though there was about a third +cavalry, furnished principally by the Odrysians themselves and next to +them by the Getae. The most warlike of the infantry were the independent +swordsmen who came down from Rhodope; the rest of the mixed multitude +that followed him being chiefly formidable by their numbers. + +Assembling in Doberus, they prepared for descending from the heights +upon Lower Macedonia, where the dominions of Perdiccas lay; for the +Lyncestae, Elimiots, and other tribes more inland, though Macedonians by +blood, and allies and dependants of their kindred, still have their +own separate governments. The country on the sea coast, now called +Macedonia, was first acquired by Alexander, the father of Perdiccas, and +his ancestors, originally Temenids from Argos. This was effected by the +expulsion from Pieria of the Pierians, who afterwards inhabited Phagres +and other places under Mount Pangaeus, beyond the Strymon (indeed the +country between Pangaeus and the sea is still called the Pierian Gulf); +of the Bottiaeans, at present neighbours of the Chalcidians, from +Bottia, and by the acquisition in Paeonia of a narrow strip along the +river Axius extending to Pella and the sea; the district of Mygdonia, +between the Axius and the Strymon, being also added by the expulsion of +the Edonians. From Eordia also were driven the Eordians, most of +whom perished, though a few of them still live round Physca, and +the Almopians from Almopia. These Macedonians also conquered places +belonging to the other tribes, which are still theirs--Anthemus, +Crestonia, Bisaltia, and much of Macedonia proper. The whole is +now called Macedonia, and at the time of the invasion of Sitalces, +Perdiccas, Alexander's son, was the reigning king. + +These Macedonians, unable to take the field against so numerous an +invader, shut themselves up in such strong places and fortresses as the +country possessed. Of these there was no great number, most of those now +found in the country having been erected subsequently by Archelaus, the +son of Perdiccas, on his accession, who also cut straight roads, and +otherwise put the kingdom on a better footing as regards horses, heavy +infantry, and other war material than had been done by all the eight +kings that preceded him. Advancing from Doberus, the Thracian host first +invaded what had been once Philip's government, and took Idomene by +assault, Gortynia, Atalanta, and some other places by negotiation, these +last coming over for love of Philip's son, Amyntas, then with Sitalces. +Laying siege to Europus, and failing to take it, he next advanced into +the rest of Macedonia to the left of Pella and Cyrrhus, not proceeding +beyond this into Bottiaea and Pieria, but staying to lay waste Mygdonia, +Crestonia, and Anthemus. + +The Macedonians never even thought of meeting him with infantry; but the +Thracian host was, as opportunity offered, attacked by handfuls of their +horse, which had been reinforced from their allies in the interior. +Armed with cuirasses, and excellent horsemen, wherever these charged +they overthrew all before them, but ran considerable risk in entangling +themselves in the masses of the enemy, and so finally desisted from +these efforts, deciding that they were not strong enough to venture +against numbers so superior. + +Meanwhile Sitalces opened negotiations with Perdiccas on the objects of +his expedition; and finding that the Athenians, not believing that he +would come, did not appear with their fleet, though they sent presents +and envoys, dispatched a large part of his army against the Chalcidians +and Bottiaeans, and shutting them up inside their walls laid waste their +country. While he remained in these parts, the people farther south, +such as the Thessalians, Magnetes, and the other tribes subject to the +Thessalians, and the Hellenes as far as Thermopylae, all feared that the +army might advance against them, and prepared accordingly. These fears +were shared by the Thracians beyond the Strymon to the north, who +inhabited the plains, such as the Panaeans, the Odomanti, the Droi, +and the Dersaeans, all of whom are independent. It was even matter of +conversation among the Hellenes who were enemies of Athens whether he +might not be invited by his ally to advance also against them. Meanwhile +he held Chalcidice and Bottice and Macedonia, and was ravaging them +all; but finding that he was not succeeding in any of the objects of +his invasion, and that his army was without provisions and was suffering +from the severity of the season, he listened to the advice of Seuthes, +son of Spardacus, his nephew and highest officer, and decided to retreat +without delay. This Seuthes had been secretly gained by Perdiccas by the +promise of his sister in marriage with a rich dowry. In accordance with +this advice, and after a stay of thirty days in all, eight of which +were spent in Chalcidice, he retired home as quickly as he could; and +Perdiccas afterwards gave his sister Stratonice to Seuthes as he had +promised. Such was the history of the expedition of Sitalces. + +In the course of this winter, after the dispersion of the Peloponnesian +fleet, the Athenians in Naupactus, under Phormio, coasted along to +Astacus and disembarked, and marched into the interior of Acarnania with +four hundred Athenian heavy infantry and four hundred Messenians. +After expelling some suspected persons from Stratus, Coronta, and other +places, and restoring Cynes, son of Theolytus, to Coronta, they returned +to their ships, deciding that it was impossible in the winter season to +march against Oeniadae, a place which, unlike the rest of Acarnania, had +been always hostile to them; for the river Achelous flowing from Mount +Pindus through Dolopia and the country of the Agraeans and Amphilochians +and the plain of Acarnania, past the town of Stratus in the upper part +of its course, forms lakes where it falls into the sea round Oeniadae, +and thus makes it impracticable for an army in winter by reason of the +water. Opposite to Oeniadae lie most of the islands called Echinades, +so close to the mouths of the Achelous that that powerful stream is +constantly forming deposits against them, and has already joined some +of the islands to the continent, and seems likely in no long while to do +the same with the rest. For the current is strong, deep, and turbid, +and the islands are so thick together that they serve to imprison the +alluvial deposit and prevent its dispersing, lying, as they do, not +in one line, but irregularly, so as to leave no direct passage for the +water into the open sea. The islands in question are uninhabited and of +no great size. There is also a story that Alcmaeon, son of Amphiraus, +during his wanderings after the murder of his mother was bidden by +Apollo to inhabit this spot, through an oracle which intimated that he +would have no release from his terrors until he should find a country to +dwell in which had not been seen by the sun, or existed as land at +the time he slew his mother; all else being to him polluted ground. +Perplexed at this, the story goes on to say, he at last observed this +deposit of the Achelous, and considered that a place sufficient to +support life upon, might have been thrown up during the long interval +that had elapsed since the death of his mother and the beginning of +his wanderings. Settling, therefore, in the district round Oeniadae, he +founded a dominion, and left the country its name from his son Acarnan. +Such is the story we have received concerning Alcmaeon. + +The Athenians and Phormio putting back from Acarnania and arriving at +Naupactus, sailed home to Athens in the spring, taking with them the +ships that they had captured, and such of the prisoners made in the late +actions as were freemen; who were exchanged, man for man. And so ended +this winter, and the third year of this war, of which Thucydides was the +historian. + + + + +BOOK III + +CHAPTER IX + +_Fourth and Fifth Years of the War--Revolt of Mitylene_ + +The next summer, just as the corn was getting ripe, the Peloponnesians +and their allies invaded Attica under the command of Archidamus, son +of Zeuxidamus, king of the Lacedaemonians, and sat down and ravaged +the land; the Athenian horse as usual attacking them, wherever it was +practicable, and preventing the mass of the light troops from advancing +from their camp and wasting the parts near the city. After staying +the time for which they had taken provisions, the invaders retired and +dispersed to their several cities. + +Immediately after the invasion of the Peloponnesians all Lesbos, except +Methymna, revolted from the Athenians. The Lesbians had wished to revolt +even before the war, but the Lacedaemonians would not receive them; and +yet now when they did revolt, they were compelled to do so sooner than +they had intended. While they were waiting until the moles for their +harbours and the ships and walls that they had in building should be +finished, and for the arrival of archers and corn and other things that +they were engaged in fetching from the Pontus, the Tenedians, with whom +they were at enmity, and the Methymnians, and some factious persons in +Mitylene itself, who were proxeni of Athens, informed the Athenians +that the Mitylenians were forcibly uniting the island under their +sovereignty, and that the preparations about which they were so +active, were all concerted with the Boeotians their kindred and the +Lacedaemonians with a view to a revolt, and that, unless they were +immediately prevented, Athens would lose Lesbos. + +However, the Athenians, distressed by the plague, and by the war that +had recently broken out and was now raging, thought it a serious matter +to add Lesbos with its fleet and untouched resources to the list of +their enemies; and at first would not believe the charge, giving too +much weight to their wish that it might not be true. But when an embassy +which they sent had failed to persuade the Mitylenians to give up the +union and preparations complained of, they became alarmed, and resolved +to strike the first blow. They accordingly suddenly sent off forty ships +that had been got ready to sail round Peloponnese, under the command +of Cleippides, son of Deinias, and two others; word having been brought +them of a festival in honour of the Malean Apollo outside the town, +which is kept by the whole people of Mitylene, and at which, if haste +were made, they might hope to take them by surprise. If this plan +succeeded, well and good; if not, they were to order the Mitylenians to +deliver up their ships and to pull down their walls, and if they did not +obey, to declare war. The ships accordingly set out; the ten galleys, +forming the contingent of the Mitylenians present with the fleet +according to the terms of the alliance, being detained by the Athenians, +and their crews placed in custody. However, the Mitylenians were +informed of the expedition by a man who crossed from Athens to Euboea, +and going overland to Geraestus, sailed from thence by a merchantman +which he found on the point of putting to sea, and so arrived at +Mitylene the third day after leaving Athens. The Mitylenians accordingly +refrained from going out to the temple at Malea, and moreover barricaded +and kept guard round the half-finished parts of their walls and +harbours. + +When the Athenians sailed in not long after and saw how things stood, +the generals delivered their orders, and upon the Mitylenians refusing +to obey, commenced hostilities. The Mitylenians, thus compelled to go to +war without notice and unprepared, at first sailed out with their fleet +and made some show of fighting, a little in front of the harbour; but +being driven back by the Athenian ships, immediately offered to treat +with the commanders, wishing, if possible, to get the ships away for the +present upon any tolerable terms. The Athenian commanders accepted their +offers, being themselves fearful that they might not be able to cope +with the whole of Lesbos; and an armistice having been concluded, the +Mitylenians sent to Athens one of the informers, already repentant of +his conduct, and others with him, to try to persuade the Athenians of +the innocence of their intentions and to get the fleet recalled. In the +meantime, having no great hope of a favourable answer from Athens, they +also sent off a galley with envoys to Lacedaemon, unobserved by the +Athenian fleet which was anchored at Malea to the north of the town. + +While these envoys, reaching Lacedaemon after a difficult journey +across the open sea, were negotiating for succours being sent them, the +ambassadors from Athens returned without having effected anything; +and hostilities were at once begun by the Mitylenians and the rest of +Lesbos, with the exception of the Methymnians, who came to the aid of +the Athenians with the Imbrians and Lemnians and some few of the other +allies. The Mitylenians made a sortie with all their forces against the +Athenian camp; and a battle ensued, in which they gained some slight +advantage, but retired notwithstanding, not feeling sufficient +confidence in themselves to spend the night upon the field. After +this they kept quiet, wishing to wait for the chance of reinforcements +arriving from Peloponnese before making a second venture, being +encouraged by the arrival of Meleas, a Laconian, and Hermaeondas, a +Theban, who had been sent off before the insurrection but had been +unable to reach Lesbos before the Athenian expedition, and who now stole +in in a galley after the battle, and advised them to send another galley +and envoys back with them, which the Mitylenians accordingly did. + +Meanwhile the Athenians, greatly encouraged by the inaction of the +Mitylenians, summoned allies to their aid, who came in all the quicker +from seeing so little vigour displayed by the Lesbians, and bringing +round their ships to a new station to the south of the town, fortified +two camps, one on each side of the city, and instituted a blockade of +both the harbours. The sea was thus closed against the Mitylenians, who, +however, commanded the whole country, with the rest of the Lesbians who +had now joined them; the Athenians only holding a limited area round +their camps, and using Malea more as the station for their ships and +their market. + +While the war went on in this way at Mitylene, the Athenians, about the +same time in this summer, also sent thirty ships to Peloponnese under +Asopius, son of Phormio; the Acarnanians insisting that the commander +sent should be some son or relative of Phormio. As the ships coasted +along shore they ravaged the seaboard of Laconia; after which Asopius +sent most of the fleet home, and himself went on with twelve vessels to +Naupactus, and afterwards raising the whole Acarnanian population made +an expedition against Oeniadae, the fleet sailing along the Achelous, +while the army laid waste the country. The inhabitants, however, showing +no signs of submitting, he dismissed the land forces and himself sailed +to Leucas, and making a descent upon Nericus was cut off during his +retreat, and most of his troops with him, by the people in those parts +aided by some coastguards; after which the Athenians sailed away, +recovering their dead from the Leucadians under truce. + +Meanwhile the envoys of the Mitylenians sent out in the first ship were +told by the Lacedaemonians to come to Olympia, in order that the rest +of the allies might hear them and decide upon their matter, and so they +journeyed thither. It was the Olympiad in which the Rhodian Dorieus +gained his second victory, and the envoys having been introduced to make +their speech after the festival, spoke as follows: + +"Lacedaemonians and allies, the rule established among the Hellenes +is not unknown to us. Those who revolt in war and forsake their former +confederacy are favourably regarded by those who receive them, in so +far as they are of use to them, but otherwise are thought less well of, +through being considered traitors to their former friends. Nor is this +an unfair way of judging, where the rebels and the power from whom they +secede are at one in policy and sympathy, and a match for each other +in resources and power, and where no reasonable ground exists for the +rebellion. But with us and the Athenians this was not the case; and no +one need think the worse of us for revolting from them in danger, after +having been honoured by them in time of peace. + +"Justice and honesty will be the first topics of our speech, especially +as we are asking for alliance; because we know that there can never be +any solid friendship between individuals, or union between communities +that is worth the name, unless the parties be persuaded of each other's +honesty, and be generally congenial the one to the other; since from +difference in feeling springs also difference in conduct. Between +ourselves and the Athenians alliance began, when you withdrew from the +Median War and they remained to finish the business. But we did not +become allies of the Athenians for the subjugation of the Hellenes, but +allies of the Hellenes for their liberation from the Mede; and as long +as the Athenians led us fairly we followed them loyally; but when we saw +them relax their hostility to the Mede, to try to compass the subjection +of the allies, then our apprehensions began. Unable, however, to unite +and defend themselves, on account of the number of confederates that had +votes, all the allies were enslaved, except ourselves and the Chians, +who continued to send our contingents as independent and nominally free. +Trust in Athens as a leader, however, we could no longer feel, judging +by the examples already given; it being unlikely that she would reduce +our fellow confederates, and not do the same by us who were left, if +ever she had the power. + +"Had we all been still independent, we could have had more faith in +their not attempting any change; but the greater number being their +subjects, while they were treating us as equals, they would naturally +chafe under this solitary instance of independence as contrasted with +the submission of the majority; particularly as they daily grew more +powerful, and we more destitute. Now the only sure basis of an alliance +is for each party to be equally afraid of the other; he who would like +to encroach is then deterred by the reflection that he will not have +odds in his favour. Again, if we were left independent, it was only +because they thought they saw their way to empire more clearly by +specious language and by the paths of policy than by those of force. +Not only were we useful as evidence that powers who had votes, like +themselves, would not, surely, join them in their expeditions, against +their will, without the party attacked being in the wrong; but the same +system also enabled them to lead the stronger states against the weaker +first, and so to leave the former to the last, stripped of their natural +allies, and less capable of resistance. But if they had begun with us, +while all the states still had their resources under their own control, +and there was a centre to rally round, the work of subjugation would +have been found less easy. Besides this, our navy gave them some +apprehension: it was always possible that it might unite with you or +with some other power, and become dangerous to Athens. The court which +we paid to their commons and its leaders for the time being also helped +us to maintain our independence. However, we did not expect to be able +to do so much longer, if this war had not broken out, from the examples +that we had had of their conduct to the rest. + +"How then could we put our trust in such friendship or freedom as we +had here? We accepted each other against our inclination; fear made them +court us in war, and us them in peace; sympathy, the ordinary basis of +confidence, had its place supplied by terror, fear having more share +than friendship in detaining us in the alliance; and the first party +that should be encouraged by the hope of impunity was certain to break +faith with the other. So that to condemn us for being the first to break +off, because they delay the blow that we dread, instead of ourselves +delaying to know for certain whether it will be dealt or not, is to take +a false view of the case. For if we were equally able with them to +meet their plots and imitate their delay, we should be their equals and +should be under no necessity of being their subjects; but the liberty of +offence being always theirs, that of defence ought clearly to be ours. + +"Such, Lacedaemonians and allies, are the grounds and the reasons of +our revolt; clear enough to convince our hearers of the fairness of our +conduct, and sufficient to alarm ourselves, and to make us turn to some +means of safety. This we wished to do long ago, when we sent to you on +the subject while the peace yet lasted, but were balked by your refusing +to receive us; and now, upon the Boeotians inviting us, we at once +responded to the call, and decided upon a twofold revolt, from the +Hellenes and from the Athenians, not to aid the latter in harming the +former, but to join in their liberation, and not to allow the Athenians +in the end to destroy us, but to act in time against them. Our revolt, +however, has taken place prematurely and without preparation--a fact +which makes it all the more incumbent on you to receive us into alliance +and to send us speedy relief, in order to show that you support your +friends, and at the same time do harm to your enemies. You have an +opportunity such as you never had before. Disease and expenditure have +wasted the Athenians: their ships are either cruising round your coasts, +or engaged in blockading us; and it is not probable that they will have +any to spare, if you invade them a second time this summer by sea and +land; but they will either offer no resistance to your vessels, or +withdraw from both our shores. Nor must it be thought that this is a +case of putting yourselves into danger for a country which is not yours. +Lesbos may appear far off, but when help is wanted she will be found +near enough. It is not in Attica that the war will be decided, as some +imagine, but in the countries by which Attica is supported; and the +Athenian revenue is drawn from the allies, and will become still larger +if they reduce us; as not only will no other state revolt, but our +resources will be added to theirs, and we shall be treated worse than +those that were enslaved before. But if you will frankly support us, you +will add to your side a state that has a large navy, which is your +great want; you will smooth the way to the overthrow of the Athenians by +depriving them of their allies, who will be greatly encouraged to come +over; and you will free yourselves from the imputation made against +you, of not supporting insurrection. In short, only show yourselves as +liberators, and you may count upon having the advantage in the war. + +"Respect, therefore, the hopes placed in you by the Hellenes, and that +Olympian Zeus, in whose temple we stand as very suppliants; become the +allies and defenders of the Mitylenians, and do not sacrifice us, who +put our lives upon the hazard, in a cause in which general good will +result to all from our success, and still more general harm if we fail +through your refusing to help us; but be the men that the Hellenes think +you, and our fears desire." + +Such were the words of the Mitylenians. After hearing them out, the +Lacedaemonians and confederates granted what they urged, and took +the Lesbians into alliance, and deciding in favour of the invasion of +Attica, told the allies present to march as quickly as possible to +the Isthmus with two-thirds of their forces; and arriving there first +themselves, got ready hauling machines to carry their ships across from +Corinth to the sea on the side of Athens, in order to make their attack +by sea and land at once. However, the zeal which they displayed was not +imitated by the rest of the confederates, who came in but slowly, being +engaged in harvesting their corn and sick of making expeditions. + +Meanwhile the Athenians, aware that the preparations of the enemy were +due to his conviction of their weakness, and wishing to show him that he +was mistaken, and that they were able, without moving the Lesbian fleet, +to repel with ease that with which they were menaced from Peloponnese, +manned a hundred ships by embarking the citizens of Athens, except the +knights and Pentacosiomedimni, and the resident aliens; and putting +out to the Isthmus, displayed their power, and made descents upon +Peloponnese wherever they pleased. A disappointment so signal made the +Lacedaemonians think that the Lesbians had not spoken the truth; and +embarrassed by the non-appearance of the confederates, coupled with the +news that the thirty ships round Peloponnese were ravaging the lands +near Sparta, they went back home. Afterwards, however, they got ready +a fleet to send to Lesbos, and ordering a total of forty ships from +the different cities in the league, appointed Alcidas to command the +expedition in his capacity of high admiral. Meanwhile the Athenians in +the hundred ships, upon seeing the Lacedaemonians go home, went home +likewise. + +If, at the time that this fleet was at sea, Athens had almost the +largest number of first-rate ships in commission that she ever possessed +at any one moment, she had as many or even more when the war began. At +that time one hundred guarded Attica, Euboea, and Salamis; a hundred +more were cruising round Peloponnese, besides those employed at Potidaea +and in other places; making a grand total of two hundred and fifty +vessels employed on active service in a single summer. It was this, with +Potidaea, that most exhausted her revenues--Potidaea being blockaded +by a force of heavy infantry (each drawing two drachmae a day, one for +himself and another for his servant), which amounted to three thousand +at first, and was kept at this number down to the end of the siege; +besides sixteen hundred with Phormio who went away before it was over; +and the ships being all paid at the same rate. In this way her money was +wasted at first; and this was the largest number of ships ever manned by +her. + +About the same time that the Lacedaemonians were at the Isthmus, the +Mitylenians marched by land with their mercenaries against Methymna, +which they thought to gain by treachery. After assaulting the town, and +not meeting with the success that they anticipated, they withdrew to +Antissa, Pyrrha, and Eresus; and taking measures for the better security +of these towns and strengthening their walls, hastily returned home. +After their departure the Methymnians marched against Antissa, but +were defeated in a sortie by the Antissians and their mercenaries, +and retreated in haste after losing many of their number. Word of this +reaching Athens, and the Athenians learning that the Mitylenians were +masters of the country and their own soldiers unable to hold them +in check, they sent out about the beginning of autumn Paches, son of +Epicurus, to take the command, and a thousand Athenian heavy infantry; +who worked their own passage and, arriving at Mitylene, built a single +wall all round it, forts being erected at some of the strongest points. +Mitylene was thus blockaded strictly on both sides, by land and by sea; +and winter now drew near. + +The Athenians needing money for the siege, although they had for the +first time raised a contribution of two hundred talents from their own +citizens, now sent out twelve ships to levy subsidies from their allies, +with Lysicles and four others in command. After cruising to different +places and laying them under contribution, Lysicles went up the country +from Myus, in Caria, across the plain of the Meander, as far as the hill +of Sandius; and being attacked by the Carians and the people of Anaia, +was slain with many of his soldiers. + +The same winter the Plataeans, who were still being besieged by the +Peloponnesians and Boeotians, distressed by the failure of their +provisions, and seeing no hope of relief from Athens, nor any other +means of safety, formed a scheme with the Athenians besieged with them +for escaping, if possible, by forcing their way over the enemy's walls; +the attempt having been suggested by Theaenetus, son of Tolmides, a +soothsayer, and Eupompides, son of Daimachus, one of their generals. At +first all were to join: afterwards, half hung back, thinking the risk +great; about two hundred and twenty, however, voluntarily persevered in +the attempt, which was carried out in the following way. Ladders were +made to match the height of the enemy's wall, which they measured by +the layers of bricks, the side turned towards them not being thoroughly +whitewashed. These were counted by many persons at once; and though some +might miss the right calculation, most would hit upon it, particularly +as they counted over and over again, and were no great way from the +wall, but could see it easily enough for their purpose. The length +required for the ladders was thus obtained, being calculated from the +breadth of the brick. + +Now the wall of the Peloponnesians was constructed as follows. It +consisted of two lines drawn round the place, one against the Plataeans, +the other against any attack on the outside from Athens, about sixteen +feet apart. The intermediate space of sixteen feet was occupied by huts +portioned out among the soldiers on guard, and built in one block, so as +to give the appearance of a single thick wall with battlements on either +side. At intervals of every ten battlements were towers of considerable +size, and the same breadth as the wall, reaching right across from its +inner to its outer face, with no means of passing except through the +middle. Accordingly on stormy and wet nights the battlements were +deserted, and guard kept from the towers, which were not far apart and +roofed in above. + +Such being the structure of the wall by which the Plataeans were +blockaded, when their preparations were completed, they waited for a +stormy night of wind and rain and without any moon, and then set out, +guided by the authors of the enterprise. Crossing first the ditch that +ran round the town, they next gained the wall of the enemy unperceived +by the sentinels, who did not see them in the darkness, or hear them, +as the wind drowned with its roar the noise of their approach; besides +which they kept a good way off from each other, that they might not be +betrayed by the clash of their weapons. They were also lightly equipped, +and had only the left foot shod to preserve them from slipping in the +mire. They came up to the battlements at one of the intermediate spaces +where they knew them to be unguarded: those who carried the ladders went +first and planted them; next twelve light-armed soldiers with only a +dagger and a breastplate mounted, led by Ammias, son of Coroebus, who +was the first on the wall; his followers getting up after him and going +six to each of the towers. After these came another party of light +troops armed with spears, whose shields, that they might advance the +easier, were carried by men behind, who were to hand them to them when +they found themselves in presence of the enemy. After a good many had +mounted they were discovered by the sentinels in the towers, by the +noise made by a tile which was knocked down by one of the Plataeans as +he was laying hold of the battlements. The alarm was instantly given, +and the troops rushed to the wall, not knowing the nature of the danger, +owing to the dark night and stormy weather; the Plataeans in the town +having also chosen that moment to make a sortie against the wall of the +Peloponnesians upon the side opposite to that on which their men +were getting over, in order to divert the attention of the besiegers. +Accordingly they remained distracted at their several posts, without any +venturing to stir to give help from his own station, and at a loss +to guess what was going on. Meanwhile the three hundred set aside for +service on emergencies went outside the wall in the direction of the +alarm. Fire-signals of an attack were also raised towards Thebes; but +the Plataeans in the town at once displayed a number of others, prepared +beforehand for this very purpose, in order to render the enemy's signals +unintelligible, and to prevent his friends getting a true idea of what +was passing and coming to his aid before their comrades who had gone out +should have made good their escape and be in safety. + +Meanwhile the first of the scaling party that had got up, after +carrying both the towers and putting the sentinels to the sword, posted +themselves inside to prevent any one coming through against them; and +rearing ladders from the wall, sent several men up on the towers, and +from their summit and base kept in check all of the enemy that came up, +with their missiles, while their main body planted a number of ladders +against the wall, and knocking down the battlements, passed over between +the towers; each as soon as he had got over taking up his station at the +edge of the ditch, and plying from thence with arrows and darts any who +came along the wall to stop the passage of his comrades. When all were +over, the party on the towers came down, the last of them not without +difficulty, and proceeded to the ditch, just as the three hundred came +up carrying torches. The Plataeans, standing on the edge of the ditch +in the dark, had a good view of their opponents, and discharged their +arrows and darts upon the unarmed parts of their bodies, while they +themselves could not be so well seen in the obscurity for the torches; +and thus even the last of them got over the ditch, though not without +effort and difficulty; as ice had formed in it, not strong enough to +walk upon, but of that watery kind which generally comes with a wind +more east than north, and the snow which this wind had caused to fall +during the night had made the water in the ditch rise, so that they +could scarcely breast it as they crossed. However, it was mainly the +violence of the storm that enabled them to effect their escape at all. + +Starting from the ditch, the Plataeans went all together along the road +leading to Thebes, keeping the chapel of the hero Androcrates upon their +right; considering that the last road which the Peloponnesians would +suspect them of having taken would be that towards their enemies' +country. Indeed they could see them pursuing with torches upon the +Athens road towards Cithaeron and Druoskephalai or Oakheads. After going +for rather more than half a mile upon the road to Thebes, the Plataeans +turned off and took that leading to the mountain, to Erythrae and +Hysiae, and reaching the hills, made good their escape to Athens, two +hundred and twelve men in all; some of their number having turned back +into the town before getting over the wall, and one archer having been +taken prisoner at the outer ditch. Meanwhile the Peloponnesians gave up +the pursuit and returned to their posts; and the Plataeans in the town, +knowing nothing of what had passed, and informed by those who had turned +back that not a man had escaped, sent out a herald as soon as it was day +to make a truce for the recovery of the dead bodies, and then, learning +the truth, desisted. In this way the Plataean party got over and were +saved. + +Towards the close of the same winter, Salaethus, a Lacedaemonian, +was sent out in a galley from Lacedaemon to Mitylene. Going by sea to +Pyrrha, and from thence overland, he passed along the bed of a torrent, +where the line of circumvallation was passable, and thus entering +unperceived into Mitylene told the magistrates that Attica would +certainly be invaded, and the forty ships destined to relieve them +arrive, and that he had been sent on to announce this and to superintend +matters generally. The Mitylenians upon this took courage, and laid +aside the idea of treating with the Athenians; and now this winter +ended, and with it ended the fourth year of the war of which Thucydides +was the historian. + +The next summer the Peloponnesians sent off the forty-two ships for +Mitylene, under Alcidas, their high admiral, and themselves and their +allies invaded Attica, their object being to distract the Athenians by +a double movement, and thus to make it less easy for them to act against +the fleet sailing to Mitylene. The commander in this invasion was +Cleomenes, in the place of King Pausanias, son of Pleistoanax, his +nephew, who was still a minor. Not content with laying waste whatever +had shot up in the parts which they had before devastated, the invaders +now extended their ravages to lands passed over in their previous +incursions; so that this invasion was more severely felt by the +Athenians than any except the second; the enemy staying on and on until +they had overrun most of the country, in the expectation of hearing +from Lesbos of something having been achieved by their fleet, which they +thought must now have got over. However, as they did not obtain any +of the results expected, and their provisions began to run short, they +retreated and dispersed to their different cities. + +In the meantime the Mitylenians, finding their provisions failing, while +the fleet from Peloponnese was loitering on the way instead of appearing +at Mitylene, were compelled to come to terms with the Athenians in the +following manner. Salaethus having himself ceased to expect the fleet +to arrive, now armed the commons with heavy armour, which they had not +before possessed, with the intention of making a sortie against the +Athenians. The commons, however, no sooner found themselves possessed of +arms than they refused any longer to obey their officers; and forming +in knots together, told the authorities to bring out in public the +provisions and divide them amongst them all, or they would themselves +come to terms with the Athenians and deliver up the city. + +The government, aware of their inability to prevent this, and of the +danger they would be in, if left out of the capitulation, publicly +agreed with Paches and the army to surrender Mitylene at discretion +and to admit the troops into the town; upon the understanding that the +Mitylenians should be allowed to send an embassy to Athens to plead +their cause, and that Paches should not imprison, make slaves of, or put +to death any of the citizens until its return. Such were the terms of +the capitulation; in spite of which the chief authors of the negotiation +with Lacedaemon were so completely overcome by terror when the army +entered that they went and seated themselves by the altars, from which +they were raised up by Paches under promise that he would do them no +wrong, and lodged by him in Tenedos, until he should learn the pleasure +of the Athenians concerning them. Paches also sent some galleys and +seized Antissa, and took such other military measures as he thought +advisable. + +Meanwhile the Peloponnesians in the forty ships, who ought to have made +all haste to relieve Mitylene, lost time in coming round Peloponnese +itself, and proceeding leisurely on the remainder of the voyage, made +Delos without having been seen by the Athenians at Athens, and from +thence arriving at Icarus and Myconus, there first heard of the fall +of Mitylene. Wishing to know the truth, they put into Embatum, in the +Erythraeid, about seven days after the capture of the town. Here they +learned the truth, and began to consider what they were to do; and +Teutiaplus, an Elean, addressed them as follows: + +"Alcidas and Peloponnesians who share with me the command of this +armament, my advice is to sail just as we are to Mitylene, before we +have been heard of. We may expect to find the Athenians as much off +their guard as men generally are who have just taken a city: this will +certainly be so by sea, where they have no idea of any enemy attacking +them, and where our strength, as it happens, mainly lies; while even +their land forces are probably scattered about the houses in the +carelessness of victory. If therefore we were to fall upon them suddenly +and in the night, I have hopes, with the help of the well-wishers that +we may have left inside the town, that we shall become masters of the +place. Let us not shrink from the risk, but let us remember that this is +just the occasion for one of the baseless panics common in war: and that +to be able to guard against these in one's own case, and to detect the +moment when an attack will find an enemy at this disadvantage, is what +makes a successful general." + +These words of Teutiaplus failing to move Alcidas, some of the Ionian +exiles and the Lesbians with the expedition began to urge him, since +this seemed too dangerous, to seize one of the Ionian cities or the +Aeolic town of Cyme, to use as a base for effecting the revolt of Ionia. +This was by no means a hopeless enterprise, as their coming was welcome +everywhere; their object would be by this move to deprive Athens of +her chief source of revenue, and at the same time to saddle her with +expense, if she chose to blockade them; and they would probably induce +Pissuthnes to join them in the war. However, Alcidas gave this proposal +as bad a reception as the other, being eager, since he had come too late +for Mitylene, to find himself back in Peloponnese as soon as possible. + +Accordingly he put out from Embatum and proceeded along shore; and +touching at the Teian town, Myonnesus, there butchered most of the +prisoners that he had taken on his passage. Upon his coming to anchor at +Ephesus, envoys came to him from the Samians at Anaia, and told him that +he was not going the right way to free Hellas in massacring men who had +never raised a hand against him, and who were not enemies of his, but +allies of Athens against their will, and that if he did not stop he +would turn many more friends into enemies than enemies into friends. +Alcidas agreed to this, and let go all the Chians still in his hands and +some of the others that he had taken; the inhabitants, instead of flying +at the sight of his vessels, rather coming up to them, taking them +for Athenian, having no sort of expectation that while the Athenians +commanded the sea Peloponnesian ships would venture over to Ionia. + +From Ephesus Alcidas set sail in haste and fled. He had been seen by +the Salaminian and Paralian galleys, which happened to be sailing from +Athens, while still at anchor off Clarus; and fearing pursuit he now +made across the open sea, fully determined to touch nowhere, if he could +help it, until he got to Peloponnese. Meanwhile news of him had come in +to Paches from the Erythraeid, and indeed from all quarters. As Ionia +was unfortified, great fears were felt that the Peloponnesians coasting +along shore, even if they did not intend to stay, might make descents +in passing and plunder the towns; and now the Paralian and Salaminian, +having seen him at Clarus, themselves brought intelligence of the fact. +Paches accordingly gave hot chase, and continued the pursuit as far as +the isle of Patmos, and then finding that Alcidas had got on too far to +be overtaken, came back again. Meanwhile he thought it fortunate that, +as he had not fallen in with them out at sea, he had not overtaken them +anywhere where they would have been forced to encamp, and so give him +the trouble of blockading them. + +On his return along shore he touched, among other places, at Notium, the +port of Colophon, where the Colophonians had settled after the capture +of the upper town by Itamenes and the barbarians, who had been called in +by certain individuals in a party quarrel. The capture of the town took +place about the time of the second Peloponnesian invasion of Attica. +However, the refugees, after settling at Notium, again split up into +factions, one of which called in Arcadian and barbarian mercenaries +from Pissuthnes and, entrenching these in a quarter apart, formed a new +community with the Median party of the Colophonians who joined them from +the upper town. Their opponents had retired into exile, and now called +in Paches, who invited Hippias, the commander of the Arcadians in the +fortified quarter, to a parley, upon condition that, if they could +not agree, he was to be put back safe and sound in the fortification. +However, upon his coming out to him, he put him into custody, though not +in chains, and attacked suddenly and took by surprise the fortification, +and putting the Arcadians and the barbarians found in it to the sword, +afterwards took Hippias into it as he had promised, and, as soon as he +was inside, seized him and shot him down. Paches then gave up Notium to +the Colophonians not of the Median party; and settlers were afterwards +sent out from Athens, and the place colonized according to Athenian +laws, after collecting all the Colophonians found in any of the cities. + +Arrived at Mitylene, Paches reduced Pyrrha and Eresus; and finding the +Lacedaemonian, Salaethus, in hiding in the town, sent him off to Athens, +together with the Mitylenians that he had placed in Tenedos, and any +other persons that he thought concerned in the revolt. He also sent +back the greater part of his forces, remaining with the rest to settle +Mitylene and the rest of Lesbos as he thought best. + +Upon the arrival of the prisoners with Salaethus, the Athenians at once +put the latter to death, although he offered, among other things, to +procure the withdrawal of the Peloponnesians from Plataea, which was +still under siege; and after deliberating as to what they should do with +the former, in the fury of the moment determined to put to death not +only the prisoners at Athens, but the whole adult male population of +Mitylene, and to make slaves of the women and children. It was remarked +that Mitylene had revolted without being, like the rest, subjected to +the empire; and what above all swelled the wrath of the Athenians was +the fact of the Peloponnesian fleet having ventured over to Ionia to her +support, a fact which was held to argue a long meditated rebellion. +They accordingly sent a galley to communicate the decree to Paches, +commanding him to lose no time in dispatching the Mitylenians. The +morrow brought repentance with it and reflection on the horrid cruelty +of a decree, which condemned a whole city to the fate merited only by +the guilty. This was no sooner perceived by the Mitylenian ambassadors +at Athens and their Athenian supporters, than they moved the authorities +to put the question again to the vote; which they the more easily +consented to do, as they themselves plainly saw that most of the +citizens wished some one to give them an opportunity for reconsidering +the matter. An assembly was therefore at once called, and after much +expression of opinion upon both sides, Cleon, son of Cleaenetus, the +same who had carried the former motion of putting the Mitylenians to +death, the most violent man at Athens, and at that time by far the most +powerful with the commons, came forward again and spoke as follows: + +"I have often before now been convinced that a democracy is incapable +of empire, and never more so than by your present change of mind in the +matter of Mitylene. Fears or plots being unknown to you in your daily +relations with each other, you feel just the same with regard to your +allies, and never reflect that the mistakes into which you may be led by +listening to their appeals, or by giving way to your own compassion, are +full of danger to yourselves, and bring you no thanks for your weakness +from your allies; entirely forgetting that your empire is a despotism +and your subjects disaffected conspirators, whose obedience is ensured +not by your suicidal concessions, but by the superiority given you by +your own strength and not their loyalty. The most alarming feature in +the case is the constant change of measures with which we appear to be +threatened, and our seeming ignorance of the fact that bad laws which +are never changed are better for a city than good ones that have no +authority; that unlearned loyalty is more serviceable than quick-witted +insubordination; and that ordinary men usually manage public affairs +better than their more gifted fellows. The latter are always wanting to +appear wiser than the laws, and to overrule every proposition brought +forward, thinking that they cannot show their wit in more important +matters, and by such behaviour too often ruin their country; while those +who mistrust their own cleverness are content to be less learned than +the laws, and less able to pick holes in the speech of a good speaker; +and being fair judges rather than rival athletes, generally conduct +affairs successfully. These we ought to imitate, instead of being led on +by cleverness and intellectual rivalry to advise your people against our +real opinions. + +"For myself, I adhere to my former opinion, and wonder at those who have +proposed to reopen the case of the Mitylenians, and who are thus causing +a delay which is all in favour of the guilty, by making the sufferer +proceed against the offender with the edge of his anger blunted; +although where vengeance follows most closely upon the wrong, it best +equals it and most amply requites it. I wonder also who will be the man +who will maintain the contrary, and will pretend to show that the crimes +of the Mitylenians are of service to us, and our misfortunes injurious +to the allies. Such a man must plainly either have such confidence in +his rhetoric as to adventure to prove that what has been once for all +decided is still undetermined, or be bribed to try to delude us by +elaborate sophisms. In such contests the state gives the rewards to +others, and takes the dangers for herself. The persons to blame are +you who are so foolish as to institute these contests; who go to see an +oration as you would to see a sight, take your facts on hearsay, judge +of the practicability of a project by the wit of its advocates, and +trust for the truth as to past events not to the fact which you saw +more than to the clever strictures which you heard; the easy victims of +new-fangled arguments, unwilling to follow received conclusions; slaves +to every new paradox, despisers of the commonplace; the first wish of +every man being that he could speak himself, the next to rival those who +can speak by seeming to be quite up with their ideas by applauding +every hit almost before it is made, and by being as quick in catching +an argument as you are slow in foreseeing its consequences; asking, if +I may so say, for something different from the conditions under which +we live, and yet comprehending inadequately those very conditions; +very slaves to the pleasure of the ear, and more like the audience of a +rhetorician than the council of a city. + +"In order to keep you from this, I proceed to show that no one state has +ever injured you as much as Mitylene. I can make allowance for those who +revolt because they cannot bear our empire, or who have been forced +to do so by the enemy. But for those who possessed an island with +fortifications; who could fear our enemies only by sea, and there had +their own force of galleys to protect them; who were independent and +held in the highest honour by you--to act as these have done, this +is not revolt--revolt implies oppression; it is deliberate and wanton +aggression; an attempt to ruin us by siding with our bitterest enemies; +a worse offence than a war undertaken on their own account in the +acquisition of power. The fate of those of their neighbours who had +already rebelled and had been subdued was no lesson to them; their own +prosperity could not dissuade them from affronting danger; but blindly +confident in the future, and full of hopes beyond their power though +not beyond their ambition, they declared war and made their decision to +prefer might to right, their attack being determined not by provocation +but by the moment which seemed propitious. The truth is that great +good fortune coming suddenly and unexpectedly tends to make a people +insolent; in most cases it is safer for mankind to have success in +reason than out of reason; and it is easier for them, one may say, to +stave off adversity than to preserve prosperity. Our mistake has been +to distinguish the Mitylenians as we have done: had they been long +ago treated like the rest, they never would have so far forgotten +themselves, human nature being as surely made arrogant by consideration +as it is awed by firmness. Let them now therefore be punished as their +crime requires, and do not, while you condemn the aristocracy, absolve +the people. This is certain, that all attacked you without distinction, +although they might have come over to us and been now again in +possession of their city. But no, they thought it safer to throw in +their lot with the aristocracy and so joined their rebellion! Consider +therefore: if you subject to the same punishment the ally who is forced +to rebel by the enemy, and him who does so by his own free choice, which +of them, think you, is there that will not rebel upon the slightest +pretext; when the reward of success is freedom, and the penalty of +failure nothing so very terrible? We meanwhile shall have to risk our +money and our lives against one state after another; and if successful, +shall receive a ruined town from which we can no longer draw the revenue +upon which our strength depends; while if unsuccessful, we shall have +an enemy the more upon our hands, and shall spend the time that might be +employed in combating our existing foes in warring with our own allies. + +"No hope, therefore, that rhetoric may instil or money purchase, of the +mercy due to human infirmity must be held out to the Mitylenians. Their +offence was not involuntary, but of malice and deliberate; and mercy +is only for unwilling offenders. I therefore, now as before, persist +against your reversing your first decision, or giving way to the +three failings most fatal to empire--pity, sentiment, and indulgence. +Compassion is due to those who can reciprocate the feeling, not to those +who will never pity us in return, but are our natural and necessary +foes: the orators who charm us with sentiment may find other less +important arenas for their talents, in the place of one where the city +pays a heavy penalty for a momentary pleasure, themselves receiving fine +acknowledgments for their fine phrases; while indulgence should be shown +towards those who will be our friends in future, instead of towards men +who will remain just what they were, and as much our enemies as before. +To sum up shortly, I say that if you follow my advice you will do what +is just towards the Mitylenians, and at the same time expedient; +while by a different decision you will not oblige them so much as pass +sentence upon yourselves. For if they were right in rebelling, you must +be wrong in ruling. However, if, right or wrong, you determine to rule, +you must carry out your principle and punish the Mitylenians as your +interest requires; or else you must give up your empire and cultivate +honesty without danger. Make up your minds, therefore, to give them +like for like; and do not let the victims who escaped the plot be more +insensible than the conspirators who hatched it; but reflect what +they would have done if victorious over you, especially they were the +aggressors. It is they who wrong their neighbour without a cause, that +pursue their victim to the death, on account of the danger which they +foresee in letting their enemy survive; since the object of a wanton +wrong is more dangerous, if he escape, than an enemy who has not this to +complain of. Do not, therefore, be traitors to yourselves, but recall +as nearly as possible the moment of suffering and the supreme importance +which you then attached to their reduction; and now pay them back in +their turn, without yielding to present weakness or forgetting the peril +that once hung over you. Punish them as they deserve, and teach your +other allies by a striking example that the penalty of rebellion is +death. Let them once understand this and you will not have so often to +neglect your enemies while you are fighting with your own confederates." + +Such were the words of Cleon. After him Diodotus, son of Eucrates, who +had also in the previous assembly spoken most strongly against putting +the Mitylenians to death, came forward and spoke as follows: + +"I do not blame the persons who have reopened the case of the +Mitylenians, nor do I approve the protests which we have heard against +important questions being frequently debated. I think the two things +most opposed to good counsel are haste and passion; haste usually goes +hand in hand with folly, passion with coarseness and narrowness of mind. +As for the argument that speech ought not to be the exponent of action, +the man who uses it must be either senseless or interested: senseless +if he believes it possible to treat of the uncertain future through any +other medium; interested if, wishing to carry a disgraceful measure and +doubting his ability to speak well in a bad cause, he thinks to +frighten opponents and hearers by well-aimed calumny. What is still more +intolerable is to accuse a speaker of making a display in order to be +paid for it. If ignorance only were imputed, an unsuccessful speaker +might retire with a reputation for honesty, if not for wisdom; while the +charge of dishonesty makes him suspected, if successful, and thought, if +defeated, not only a fool but a rogue. The city is no gainer by such a +system, since fear deprives it of its advisers; although in truth, if +our speakers are to make such assertions, it would be better for the +country if they could not speak at all, as we should then make fewer +blunders. The good citizen ought to triumph not by frightening his +opponents but by beating them fairly in argument; and a wise city, +without over-distinguishing its best advisers, will nevertheless +not deprive them of their due, and, far from punishing an unlucky +counsellor, will not even regard him as disgraced. In this way +successful orators would be least tempted to sacrifice their convictions +to popularity, in the hope of still higher honours, and unsuccessful +speakers to resort to the same popular arts in order to win over the +multitude. + +"This is not our way; and, besides, the moment that a man is suspected +of giving advice, however good, from corrupt motives, we feel such a +grudge against him for the gain which after all we are not certain he +will receive, that we deprive the city of its certain benefit. Plain +good advice has thus come to be no less suspected than bad; and the +advocate of the most monstrous measures is not more obliged to use +deceit to gain the people, than the best counsellor is to lie in order +to be believed. The city and the city only, owing to these refinements, +can never be served openly and without disguise; he who does serve it +openly being always suspected of serving himself in some secret way in +return. Still, considering the magnitude of the interests involved, and +the position of affairs, we orators must make it our business to look +a little farther than you who judge offhand; especially as we, your +advisers, are responsible, while you, our audience, are not so. For if +those who gave the advice, and those who took it, suffered equally, you +would judge more calmly; as it is, you visit the disasters into which +the whim of the moment may have led you upon the single person of your +adviser, not upon yourselves, his numerous companions in error. + +"However, I have not come forward either to oppose or to accuse in the +matter of Mitylene; indeed, the question before us as sensible men is +not their guilt, but our interests. Though I prove them ever so guilty, +I shall not, therefore, advise their death, unless it be expedient; +nor though they should have claims to indulgence, shall I recommend it, +unless it be dearly for the good of the country. I consider that we are +deliberating for the future more than for the present; and where Cleon +is so positive as to the useful deterrent effects that will follow from +making rebellion capital, I, who consider the interests of the future +quite as much as he, as positively maintain the contrary. And I require +you not to reject my useful considerations for his specious ones: his +speech may have the attraction of seeming the more just in your present +temper against Mitylene; but we are not in a court of justice, but in a +political assembly; and the question is not justice, but how to make the +Mitylenians useful to Athens. + +"Now of course communities have enacted the penalty of death for many +offences far lighter than this: still hope leads men to venture, and no +one ever yet put himself in peril without the inward conviction that he +would succeed in his design. Again, was there ever city rebelling that +did not believe that it possessed either in itself or in its alliances +resources adequate to the enterprise? All, states and individuals, are +alike prone to err, and there is no law that will prevent them; or +why should men have exhausted the list of punishments in search of +enactments to protect them from evildoers? It is probable that in early +times the penalties for the greatest offences were less severe, and +that, as these were disregarded, the penalty of death has been by +degrees in most cases arrived at, which is itself disregarded in like +manner. Either then some means of terror more terrible than this must be +discovered, or it must be owned that this restraint is useless; and that +as long as poverty gives men the courage of necessity, or plenty fills +them with the ambition which belongs to insolence and pride, and the +other conditions of life remain each under the thraldom of some fatal +and master passion, so long will the impulse never be wanting to drive +men into danger. Hope also and cupidity, the one leading and the other +following, the one conceiving the attempt, the other suggesting the +facility of succeeding, cause the widest ruin, and, although invisible +agents, are far stronger than the dangers that are seen. Fortune, +too, powerfully helps the delusion and, by the unexpected aid that she +sometimes lends, tempts men to venture with inferior means; and this is +especially the case with communities, because the stakes played for are +the highest, freedom or empire, and, when all are acting together, each +man irrationally magnifies his own capacity. In fine, it is impossible +to prevent, and only great simplicity can hope to prevent, human nature +doing what it has once set its mind upon, by force of law or by any +other deterrent force whatsoever. + +"We must not, therefore, commit ourselves to a false policy through a +belief in the efficacy of the punishment of death, or exclude rebels +from the hope of repentance and an early atonement of their error. +Consider a moment. At present, if a city that has already revolted +perceive that it cannot succeed, it will come to terms while it is still +able to refund expenses, and pay tribute afterwards. In the other case, +what city, think you, would not prepare better than is now done, and +hold out to the last against its besiegers, if it is all one whether it +surrender late or soon? And how can it be otherwise than hurtful to us +to be put to the expense of a siege, because surrender is out of the +question; and if we take the city, to receive a ruined town from which +we can no longer draw the revenue which forms our real strength against +the enemy? We must not, therefore, sit as strict judges of the offenders +to our own prejudice, but rather see how by moderate chastisements we +may be enabled to benefit in future by the revenue-producing powers +of our dependencies; and we must make up our minds to look for our +protection not to legal terrors but to careful administration. At +present we do exactly the opposite. When a free community, held +in subjection by force, rises, as is only natural, and asserts its +independence, it is no sooner reduced than we fancy ourselves obliged +to punish it severely; although the right course with freemen is not to +chastise them rigorously when they do rise, but rigorously to watch them +before they rise, and to prevent their ever entertaining the idea, +and, the insurrection suppressed, to make as few responsible for it as +possible. + +"Only consider what a blunder you would commit in doing as Cleon +recommends. As things are at present, in all the cities the people +is your friend, and either does not revolt with the oligarchy, or, if +forced to do so, becomes at once the enemy of the insurgents; so that in +the war with the hostile city you have the masses on your side. But +if you butcher the people of Mitylene, who had nothing to do with +the revolt, and who, as soon as they got arms, of their own motion +surrendered the town, first you will commit the crime of killing your +benefactors; and next you will play directly into the hands of the +higher classes, who when they induce their cities to rise, will +immediately have the people on their side, through your having announced +in advance the same punishment for those who are guilty and for those +who are not. On the contrary, even if they were guilty, you ought to +seem not to notice it, in order to avoid alienating the only class +still friendly to us. In short, I consider it far more useful for the +preservation of our empire voluntarily to put up with injustice, than +to put to death, however justly, those whom it is our interest to keep +alive. As for Cleon's idea that in punishment the claims of justice and +expediency can both be satisfied, facts do not confirm the possibility +of such a combination. + +"Confess, therefore, that this is the wisest course, and without +conceding too much either to pity or to indulgence, by neither of which +motives do I any more than Cleon wish you to be influenced, upon the +plain merits of the case before you, be persuaded by me to try calmly +those of the Mitylenians whom Paches sent off as guilty, and to leave +the rest undisturbed. This is at once best for the future, and most +terrible to your enemies at the present moment; inasmuch as good policy +against an adversary is superior to the blind attacks of brute force." + +Such were the words of Diodotus. The two opinions thus expressed were +the ones that most directly contradicted each other; and the Athenians, +notwithstanding their change of feeling, now proceeded to a division, +in which the show of hands was almost equal, although the motion of +Diodotus carried the day. Another galley was at once sent off in haste, +for fear that the first might reach Lesbos in the interval, and the +city be found destroyed; the first ship having about a day and a +night's start. Wine and barley-cakes were provided for the vessel by the +Mitylenian ambassadors, and great promises made if they arrived in time; +which caused the men to use such diligence upon the voyage that they +took their meals of barley-cakes kneaded with oil and wine as they +rowed, and only slept by turns while the others were at the oar. Luckily +they met with no contrary wind, and the first ship making no haste +upon so horrid an errand, while the second pressed on in the manner +described, the first arrived so little before them, that Paches had +only just had time to read the decree, and to prepare to execute the +sentence, when the second put into port and prevented the massacre. The +danger of Mitylene had indeed been great. + +The other party whom Paches had sent off as the prime movers in the +rebellion, were upon Cleon's motion put to death by the Athenians, the +number being rather more than a thousand. The Athenians also demolished +the walls of the Mitylenians, and took possession of their ships. +Afterwards tribute was not imposed upon the Lesbians; but all their +land, except that of the Methymnians, was divided into three thousand +allotments, three hundred of which were reserved as sacred for the gods, +and the rest assigned by lot to Athenian shareholders, who were sent out +to the island. With these the Lesbians agreed to pay a rent of two +minae a year for each allotment, and cultivated the land themselves. The +Athenians also took possession of the towns on the continent belonging +to the Mitylenians, which thus became for the future subject to Athens. +Such were the events that took place at Lesbos. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +_Fifth Year of the War--Trial and Execution of the Plataeans-- +Corcyraean Revolution_ + +During the same summer, after the reduction of Lesbos, the Athenians +under Nicias, son of Niceratus, made an expedition against the island +of Minoa, which lies off Megara and was used as a fortified post by the +Megarians, who had built a tower upon it. Nicias wished to enable the +Athenians to maintain their blockade from this nearer station instead +of from Budorum and Salamis; to stop the Peloponnesian galleys and +privateers sailing out unobserved from the island, as they had been in +the habit of doing; and at the same time prevent anything from coming +into Megara. Accordingly, after taking two towers projecting on the side +of Nisaea, by engines from the sea, and clearing the entrance into the +channel between the island and the shore, he next proceeded to cut off +all communication by building a wall on the mainland at the point where +a bridge across a morass enabled succours to be thrown into the island, +which was not far off from the continent. A few days sufficing to +accomplish this, he afterwards raised some works in the island also, and +leaving a garrison there, departed with his forces. + +About the same time in this summer, the Plataeans, being now without +provisions and unable to support the siege, surrendered to the +Peloponnesians in the following manner. An assault had been made upon +the wall, which the Plataeans were unable to repel. The Lacedaemonian +commander, perceiving their weakness, wished to avoid taking the place +by storm; his instructions from Lacedaemon having been so conceived, in +order that if at any future time peace should be made with Athens, and +they should agree each to restore the places that they had taken in the +war, Plataea might be held to have come over voluntarily, and not be +included in the list. He accordingly sent a herald to them to ask +if they were willing voluntarily to surrender the town to the +Lacedaemonians, and accept them as their judges, upon the understanding +that the guilty should be punished, but no one without form of law. The +Plataeans were now in the last state of weakness, and the herald had +no sooner delivered his message than they surrendered the town. The +Peloponnesians fed them for some days until the judges from Lacedaemon, +who were five in number, arrived. Upon their arrival no charge was +preferred; they simply called up the Plataeans, and asked them whether +they had done the Lacedaemonians and allies any service in the war +then raging. The Plataeans asked leave to speak at greater length, +and deputed two of their number to represent them: Astymachus, son of +Asopolaus, and Lacon, son of Aeimnestus, proxenus of the Lacedaemonians, +who came forward and spoke as follows: + +"Lacedaemonians, when we surrendered our city we trusted in you, and +looked forward to a trial more agreeable to the forms of law than the +present, to which we had no idea of being subjected; the judges also in +whose hands we consented to place ourselves were you, and you only (from +whom we thought we were most likely to obtain justice), and not other +persons, as is now the case. As matters stand, we are afraid that we +have been doubly deceived. We have good reason to suspect, not only that +the issue to be tried is the most terrible of all, but that you will not +prove impartial; if we may argue from the fact that no accusation was +first brought forward for us to answer, but we had ourselves to ask +leave to speak, and from the question being put so shortly, that a true +answer to it tells against us, while a false one can be contradicted. In +this dilemma, our safest, and indeed our only course, seems to be to say +something at all risks: placed as we are, we could scarcely be silent +without being tormented by the damning thought that speaking might have +saved us. Another difficulty that we have to encounter is the difficulty +of convincing you. Were we unknown to each other we might profit by +bringing forward new matter with which you were unacquainted: as it is, +we can tell you nothing that you do not know already, and we fear, not +that you have condemned us in your own minds of having failed in our +duty towards you, and make this our crime, but that to please a third +party we have to submit to a trial the result of which is already +decided. Nevertheless, we will place before you what we can justly urge, +not only on the question of the quarrel which the Thebans have against +us, but also as addressing you and the rest of the Hellenes; and we will +remind you of our good services, and endeavour to prevail with you. + +"To your short question, whether we have done the Lacedaemonians and +allies any service in this war, we say, if you ask us as enemies, that +to refrain from serving you was not to do you injury; if as friends, +that you are more in fault for having marched against us. During the +peace, and against the Mede, we acted well: we have not now been the +first to break the peace, and we were the only Boeotians who then joined +in defending against the Mede the liberty of Hellas. Although an inland +people, we were present at the action at Artemisium; in the battle that +took place in our territory we fought by the side of yourselves and +Pausanias; and in all the other Hellenic exploits of the time we took +a part quite out of proportion to our strength. Besides, you, as +Lacedaemonians, ought not to forget that at the time of the great panic +at Sparta, after the earthquake, caused by the secession of the Helots +to Ithome, we sent the third part of our citizens to assist you. + +"On these great and historical occasions such was the part that we +chose, although afterwards we became your enemies. For this you were to +blame. When we asked for your alliance against our Theban oppressors, +you rejected our petition, and told us to go to the Athenians who were +our neighbours, as you lived too far off. In the war we never have done +to you, and never should have done to you, anything unreasonable. If we +refused to desert the Athenians when you asked us, we did no wrong; they +had helped us against the Thebans when you drew back, and we could no +longer give them up with honour; especially as we had obtained their +alliance and had been admitted to their citizenship at our own request, +and after receiving benefits at their hands; but it was plainly our duty +loyally to obey their orders. Besides, the faults that either of you may +commit in your supremacy must be laid, not upon the followers, but on +the chiefs that lead them astray. + +"With regard to the Thebans, they have wronged us repeatedly, and +their last aggression, which has been the means of bringing us into our +present position, is within your own knowledge. In seizing our city in +time of peace, and what is more at a holy time in the month, they justly +encountered our vengeance, in accordance with the universal law which +sanctions resistance to an invader; and it cannot now be right that we +should suffer on their account. By taking your own immediate interest +and their animosity as the test of justice, you will prove yourselves to +be rather waiters on expediency than judges of right; although if they +seem useful to you now, we and the rest of the Hellenes gave you +much more valuable help at a time of greater need. Now you are the +assailants, and others fear you; but at the crisis to which we allude, +when the barbarian threatened all with slavery, the Thebans were on +his side. It is just, therefore, to put our patriotism then against +our error now, if error there has been; and you will find the merit +outweighing the fault, and displayed at a juncture when there were few +Hellenes who would set their valour against the strength of Xerxes, +and when greater praise was theirs who preferred the dangerous path of +honour to the safe course of consulting their own interest with respect +to the invasion. To these few we belonged, and highly were we honoured +for it; and yet we now fear to perish by having again acted on the same +principles, and chosen to act well with Athens sooner than wisely with +Sparta. Yet in justice the same cases should be decided in the same way, +and policy should not mean anything else than lasting gratitude for +the service of good ally combined with a proper attention to one's own +immediate interest. + +"Consider also that at present the Hellenes generally regard you as a +pattern of worth and honour; and if you pass an unjust sentence upon us +in this which is no obscure cause, but one in which you, the judges, +are as illustrious as we, the prisoners, are blameless, take care +that displeasure be not felt at an unworthy decision in the matter of +honourable men made by men yet more honourable than they, and at the +consecration in the national temples of spoils taken from the +Plataeans, the benefactors of Hellas. Shocking indeed will it seem for +Lacedaemonians to destroy Plataea, and for the city whose name your +fathers inscribed upon the tripod at Delphi for its good service, to +be by you blotted out from the map of Hellas, to please the Thebans. To +such a depth of misfortune have we fallen that, while the Medes' success +had been our ruin, Thebans now supplant us in your once fond regards; +and we have been subjected to two dangers, the greatest of any--that of +dying of starvation then, if we had not surrendered our town, and now of +being tried for our lives. So that we Plataeans, after exertions beyond +our power in the cause of the Hellenes, are rejected by all, forsaken +and unassisted; helped by none of our allies, and reduced to doubt the +stability of our only hope, yourselves. + +"Still, in the name of the gods who once presided over our confederacy, +and of our own good service in the Hellenic cause, we adjure you to +relent; to recall the decision which we fear that the Thebans may have +obtained from you; to ask back the gift that you have given them, that +they disgrace not you by slaying us; to gain a pure instead of a guilty +gratitude, and not to gratify others to be yourselves rewarded with +shame. Our lives may be quickly taken, but it will be a heavy task to +wipe away the infamy of the deed; as we are no enemies whom you might +justly punish, but friends forced into taking arms against you. To grant +us our lives would be, therefore, a righteous judgment; if you consider +also that we are prisoners who surrendered of their own accord, +stretching out our hands for quarter, whose slaughter Hellenic law +forbids, and who besides were always your benefactors. Look at the +sepulchres of your fathers, slain by the Medes and buried in our +country, whom year by year we honoured with garments and all other dues, +and the first-fruits of all that our land produced in their season, +as friends from a friendly country and allies to our old companions +in arms. Should you not decide aright, your conduct would be the very +opposite to ours. Consider only: Pausanias buried them thinking that he +was laying them in friendly ground and among men as friendly; but you, +if you kill us and make the Plataean territory Theban, will leave +your fathers and kinsmen in a hostile soil and among their murderers, +deprived of the honours which they now enjoy. What is more, you will +enslave the land in which the freedom of the Hellenes was won, make +desolate the temples of the gods to whom they prayed before they +overcame the Medes, and take away your ancestral sacrifices from those +who founded and instituted them. + +"It were not to your glory, Lacedaemonians, either to offend in this way +against the common law of the Hellenes and against your own ancestors, +or to kill us your benefactors to gratify another's hatred without +having been wronged yourselves: it were more so to spare us and to yield +to the impressions of a reasonable compassion; reflecting not merely +on the awful fate in store for us, but also on the character of the +sufferers, and on the impossibility of predicting how soon misfortune +may fall even upon those who deserve it not. We, as we have a right to +do and as our need impels us, entreat you, calling aloud upon the gods +at whose common altar all the Hellenes worship, to hear our request, to +be not unmindful of the oaths which your fathers swore, and which we +now plead--we supplicate you by the tombs of your fathers, and appeal +to those that are gone to save us from falling into the hands of the +Thebans and their dearest friends from being given up to their most +detested foes. We also remind you of that day on which we did the most +glorious deeds, by your fathers' sides, we who now on this are like to +suffer the most dreadful fate. Finally, to do what is necessary and +yet most difficult for men in our situation--that is, to make an end of +speaking, since with that ending the peril of our lives draws near--in +conclusion we say that we did not surrender our city to the Thebans (to +that we would have preferred inglorious starvation), but trusted in and +capitulated to you; and it would be just, if we fail to persuade you, to +put us back in the same position and let us take the chance that falls +to us. And at the same time we adjure you not to give us up--your +suppliants, Lacedaemonians, out of your hands and faith, Plataeans +foremost of the Hellenic patriots, to Thebans, our most hated +enemies--but to be our saviours, and not, while you free the rest of the +Hellenes, to bring us to destruction." + +Such were the words of the Plataeans. The Thebans, afraid that the +Lacedaemonians might be moved by what they had heard, came forward and +said that they too desired to address them, since the Plataeans had, +against their wish, been allowed to speak at length instead of being +confined to a simple answer to the question. Leave being granted, the +Thebans spoke as follows: + +"We should never have asked to make this speech if the Plataeans on +their side had contented themselves with shortly answering the question, +and had not turned round and made charges against us, coupled with a +long defence of themselves upon matters outside the present inquiry and +not even the subject of accusation, and with praise of what no one +finds fault with. However, since they have done so, we must answer their +charges and refute their self-praise, in order that neither our bad name +nor their good may help them, but that you may hear the real truth on +both points, and so decide. + +"The origin of our quarrel was this. We settled Plataea some time after +the rest of Boeotia, together with other places out of which we had +driven the mixed population. The Plataeans not choosing to recognize our +supremacy, as had been first arranged, but separating themselves from +the rest of the Boeotians, and proving traitors to their nationality, +we used compulsion; upon which they went over to the Athenians, and with +them did as much harm, for which we retaliated. + +"Next, when the barbarian invaded Hellas, they say that they were the +only Boeotians who did not Medize; and this is where they most glorify +themselves and abuse us. We say that if they did not Medize, it was +because the Athenians did not do so either; just as afterwards when the +Athenians attacked the Hellenes they, the Plataeans, were again the only +Boeotians who Atticized. And yet consider the forms of our respective +governments when we so acted. Our city at that juncture had neither an +oligarchical constitution in which all the nobles enjoyed equal +rights, nor a democracy, but that which is most opposed to law and good +government and nearest a tyranny--the rule of a close cabal. These, +hoping to strengthen their individual power by the success of the Mede, +kept down by force the people, and brought him into the town. The city +as a whole was not its own mistress when it so acted, and ought not to +be reproached for the errors that it committed while deprived of its +constitution. Examine only how we acted after the departure of the Mede +and the recovery of the constitution; when the Athenians attacked the +rest of Hellas and endeavoured to subjugate our country, of the greater +part of which faction had already made them masters. Did not we fight +and conquer at Coronea and liberate Boeotia, and do we not now actively +contribute to the liberation of the rest, providing horses to the cause +and a force unequalled by that of any other state in the confederacy? + +"Let this suffice to excuse us for our Medism. We will now endeavour +to show that you have injured the Hellenes more than we, and are more +deserving of condign punishment. It was in defence against us, say you, +that you became allies and citizens of Athens. If so, you ought only +to have called in the Athenians against us, instead of joining them in +attacking others: it was open to you to do this if you ever felt that +they were leading you where you did not wish to follow, as Lacedaemon +was already your ally against the Mede, as you so much insist; and this +was surely sufficient to keep us off, and above all to allow you to +deliberate in security. Nevertheless, of your own choice and without +compulsion you chose to throw your lot in with Athens. And you say that +it had been base for you to betray your benefactors; but it was surely +far baser and more iniquitous to sacrifice the whole body of the +Hellenes, your fellow confederates, who were liberating Hellas, than the +Athenians only, who were enslaving it. The return that you made them was +therefore neither equal nor honourable, since you called them in, as you +say, because you were being oppressed yourselves, and then became their +accomplices in oppressing others; although baseness rather consists in +not returning like for like than in not returning what is justly due but +must be unjustly paid. + +"Meanwhile, after thus plainly showing that it was not for the sake +of the Hellenes that you alone then did not Medize, but because the +Athenians did not do so either, and you wished to side with them and +to be against the rest; you now claim the benefit of good deeds done +to please your neighbours. This cannot be admitted: you chose the +Athenians, and with them you must stand or fall. Nor can you plead the +league then made and claim that it should now protect you. You abandoned +that league, and offended against it by helping instead of hindering the +subjugation of the Aeginetans and others of its members, and that not +under compulsion, but while in enjoyment of the same institutions that +you enjoy to the present hour, and no one forcing you as in our case. +Lastly, an invitation was addressed to you before you were blockaded +to be neutral and join neither party: this you did not accept. Who then +merit the detestation of the Hellenes more justly than you, you who +sought their ruin under the mask of honour? The former virtues that you +allege you now show not to be proper to your character; the real bent of +your nature has been at length damningly proved: when the Athenians took +the path of injustice you followed them. + +"Of our unwilling Medism and your wilful Atticizing this then is our +explanation. The last wrong wrong of which you complain consists in our +having, as you say, lawlessly invaded your town in time of peace and +festival. Here again we cannot think that we were more in fault than +yourselves. If of our own proper motion we made an armed attack upon +your city and ravaged your territory, we are guilty; but if the first +men among you in estate and family, wishing to put an end to the foreign +connection and to restore you to the common Boeotian country, of their +own free will invited us, wherein is our crime? Where wrong is done, +those who lead, as you say, are more to blame than those who follow. Not +that, in our judgment, wrong was done either by them or by us. Citizens +like yourselves, and with more at stake than you, they opened their own +walls and introduced us into their own city, not as foes but as friends, +to prevent the bad among you from becoming worse; to give honest men +their due; to reform principles without attacking persons, since +you were not to be banished from your city, but brought home to your +kindred, nor to be made enemies to any, but friends alike to all. + +"That our intention was not hostile is proved by our behaviour. We did +no harm to any one, but publicly invited those who wished to live under +a national, Boeotian government to come over to us; which as first you +gladly did, and made an agreement with us and remained tranquil, until +you became aware of the smallness of our numbers. Now it is possible +that there may have been something not quite fair in our entering +without the consent of your commons. At any rate you did not repay us in +kind. Instead of refraining, as we had done, from violence, and inducing +us to retire by negotiation, you fell upon us in violation of your +agreement, and slew some of us in fight, of which we do not so much +complain, for in that there was a certain justice; but others who held +out their hands and received quarter, and whose lives you subsequently +promised us, you lawlessly butchered. If this was not abominable, what +is? And after these three crimes committed one after the other--the +violation of your agreement, the murder of the men afterwards, and the +lying breach of your promise not to kill them, if we refrained from +injuring your property in the country--you still affirm that we are the +criminals and yourselves pretend to escape justice. Not so, if these +your judges decide aright, but you will be punished for all together. + +"Such, Lacedaemonians, are the facts. We have gone into them at some +length both on your account and on our own, that you may fed that +you will justly condemn the prisoners, and we, that we have given an +additional sanction to our vengeance. We would also prevent you from +being melted by hearing of their past virtues, if any such they had: +these may be fairly appealed to by the victims of injustice, but only +aggravate the guilt of criminals, since they offend against their better +nature. Nor let them gain anything by crying and wailing, by calling +upon your fathers' tombs and their own desolate condition. Against this +we point to the far more dreadful fate of our youth, butchered at their +hands; the fathers of whom either fell at Coronea, bringing Boeotia over +to you, or seated, forlorn old men by desolate hearths, with far more +reason implore your justice upon the prisoners. The pity which they +appeal to is rather due to men who suffer unworthily; those who suffer +justly as they do are on the contrary subjects for triumph. For their +present desolate condition they have themselves to blame, since they +wilfully rejected the better alliance. Their lawless act was not +provoked by any action of ours: hate, not justice, inspired their +decision; and even now the satisfaction which they afford us is not +adequate; they will suffer by a legal sentence, not as they pretend +as suppliants asking for quarter in battle, but as prisoners who have +surrendered upon agreement to take their trial. Vindicate, therefore, +Lacedaemonians, the Hellenic law which they have broken; and to us, the +victims of its violation, grant the reward merited by our zeal. Nor let +us be supplanted in your favour by their harangues, but offer an example +to the Hellenes, that the contests to which you invite them are of +deeds, not words: good deeds can be shortly stated, but where wrong is +done a wealth of language is needed to veil its deformity. However, if +leading powers were to do what you are now doing, and putting one short +question to all alike were to decide accordingly, men would be less +tempted to seek fine phrases to cover bad actions." + +Such were the words of the Thebans. The Lacedaemonian judges decided +that the question whether they had received any service from the +Plataeans in the war, was a fair one for them to put; as they had +always invited them to be neutral, agreeably to the original covenant of +Pausanias after the defeat of the Mede, and had again definitely offered +them the same conditions before the blockade. This offer having +been refused, they were now, they conceived, by the loyalty of their +intention released from their covenant; and having, as they considered, +suffered evil at the hands of the Plataeans, they brought them in again +one by one and asked each of them the same question, that is to say, +whether they had done the Lacedaemonians and allies any service in the +war; and upon their saying that they had not, took them out and slew +them, all without exception. The number of Plataeans thus massacred was +not less than two hundred, with twenty-five Athenians who had shared in +the siege. The women were taken as slaves. The city the Thebans gave +for about a year to some political emigrants from Megara and to the +surviving Plataeans of their own party to inhabit, and afterwards razed +it to the ground from the very foundations, and built on to the precinct +of Hera an inn two hundred feet square, with rooms all round above +and below, making use for this purpose of the roofs and doors of the +Plataeans: of the rest of the materials in the wall, the brass and the +iron, they made couches which they dedicated to Hera, for whom they also +built a stone chapel of a hundred feet square. The land they confiscated +and let out on a ten years' lease to Theban occupiers. The adverse +attitude of the Lacedaemonians in the whole Plataean affair was mainly +adopted to please the Thebans, who were thought to be useful in the war +at that moment raging. Such was the end of Plataea, in the ninety-third +year after she became the ally of Athens. + +Meanwhile, the forty ships of the Peloponnesians that had gone to the +relief of the Lesbians, and which we left flying across the open +sea, pursued by the Athenians, were caught in a storm off Crete, and +scattering from thence made their way to Peloponnese, where they found +at Cyllene thirteen Leucadian and Ambraciot galleys, with Brasidas, son +of Tellis, lately arrived as counsellor to Alcidas; the Lacedaemonians, +upon the failure of the Lesbian expedition, having resolved to +strengthen their fleet and sail to Corcyra, where a revolution had +broken out, so as to arrive there before the twelve Athenian ships at +Naupactus could be reinforced from Athens. Brasidas and Alcidas began to +prepare accordingly. + +The Corcyraean revolution began with the return of the prisoners taken +in the sea-fights off Epidamnus. These the Corinthians had released, +nominally upon the security of eight hundred talents given by their +proxeni, but in reality upon their engagement to bring over Corcyra to +Corinth. These men proceeded to canvass each of the citizens, and to +intrigue with the view of detaching the city from Athens. Upon the +arrival of an Athenian and a Corinthian vessel, with envoys on board, a +conference was held in which the Corcyraeans voted to remain allies of +the Athenians according to their agreement, but to be friends of the +Peloponnesians as they had been formerly. Meanwhile, the returned +prisoners brought Peithias, a volunteer proxenus of the Athenians and +leader of the commons, to trial, upon the charge of enslaving Corcyra to +Athens. He, being acquitted, retorted by accusing five of the richest +of their number of cutting stakes in the ground sacred to Zeus and +Alcinous; the legal penalty being a stater for each stake. Upon their +conviction, the amount of the penalty being very large, they seated +themselves as suppliants in the temples to be allowed to pay it by +instalments; but Peithias, who was one of the senate, prevailed upon +that body to enforce the law; upon which the accused, rendered desperate +by the law, and also learning that Peithias had the intention, while +still a member of the senate, to persuade the people to conclude a +defensive and offensive alliance with Athens, banded together armed with +daggers, and suddenly bursting into the senate killed Peithias and sixty +others, senators and private persons; some few only of the party +of Peithias taking refuge in the Athenian galley, which had not yet +departed. + +After this outrage, the conspirators summoned the Corcyraeans to an +assembly, and said that this would turn out for the best, and would +save them from being enslaved by Athens: for the future, they moved +to receive neither party unless they came peacefully in a single ship, +treating any larger number as enemies. This motion made, they compelled +it to be adopted, and instantly sent off envoys to Athens to justify +what had been done and to dissuade the refugees there from any hostile +proceedings which might lead to a reaction. + +Upon the arrival of the embassy, the Athenians arrested the envoys and +all who listened to them, as revolutionists, and lodged them in Aegina. +Meanwhile a Corinthian galley arriving in the island with Lacedaemonian +envoys, the dominant Corcyraean party attacked the commons and defeated +them in battle. Night coming on, the commons took refuge in the +Acropolis and the higher parts of the city, and concentrated themselves +there, having also possession of the Hyllaic harbour; their adversaries +occupying the market-place, where most of them lived, and the harbour +adjoining, looking towards the mainland. + +The next day passed in skirmishes of little importance, each party +sending into the country to offer freedom to the slaves and to invite +them to join them. The mass of the slaves answered the appeal of the +commons; their antagonists being reinforced by eight hundred mercenaries +from the continent. + +After a day's interval hostilities recommenced, victory remaining with +the commons, who had the advantage in numbers and position, the women +also valiantly assisting them, pelting with tiles from the houses, and +supporting the melee with a fortitude beyond their sex. Towards dusk, +the oligarchs in full rout, fearing that the victorious commons might +assault and carry the arsenal and put them to the sword, fired the +houses round the marketplace and the lodging-houses, in order to bar +their advance; sparing neither their own, nor those of their neighbours; +by which much stuff of the merchants was consumed and the city risked +total destruction, if a wind had come to help the flame by blowing on +it. Hostilities now ceasing, both sides kept quiet, passing the night +on guard, while the Corinthian ship stole out to sea upon the victory +of the commons, and most of the mercenaries passed over secretly to the +continent. + +The next day the Athenian general, Nicostratus, son of Diitrephes, came +up from Naupactus with twelve ships and five hundred Messenian heavy +infantry. He at once endeavoured to bring about a settlement, and +persuaded the two parties to agree together to bring to trial ten of the +ringleaders, who presently fled, while the rest were to live in +peace, making terms with each other, and entering into a defensive and +offensive alliance with the Athenians. This arranged, he was about to +sail away, when the leaders of the commons induced him to leave them +five of his ships to make their adversaries less disposed to move, while +they manned and sent with him an equal number of their own. He had no +sooner consented, than they began to enroll their enemies for the +ships; and these, fearing that they might be sent off to Athens, seated +themselves as suppliants in the temple of the Dioscuri. An attempt on +the part of Nicostratus to reassure them and to persuade them to rise +proving unsuccessful, the commons armed upon this pretext, alleging +the refusal of their adversaries to sail with them as a proof of the +hollowness of their intentions, and took their arms out of their houses, +and would have dispatched some whom they fell in with, if Nicostratus +had not prevented it. The rest of the party, seeing what was going on, +seated themselves as suppliants in the temple of Hera, being not less +than four hundred in number; until the commons, fearing that they might +adopt some desperate resolution, induced them to rise, and conveyed them +over to the island in front of the temple, where provisions were sent +across to them. + +At this stage in the revolution, on the fourth or fifth day after the +removal of the men to the island, the Peloponnesian ships arrived from +Cyllene where they had been stationed since their return from Ionia, +fifty-three in number, still under the command of Alcidas, but with +Brasidas also on board as his adviser; and dropping anchor at Sybota, a +harbour on the mainland, at daybreak made sail for Corcyra. + +The Corcyraeans in great confusion and alarm at the state of things in +the city and at the approach of the invader, at once proceeded to equip +sixty vessels, which they sent out, as fast as they were manned, against +the enemy, in spite of the Athenians recommending them to let them sail +out first, and to follow themselves afterwards with all their ships +together. Upon their vessels coming up to the enemy in this straggling +fashion, two immediately deserted: in others the crews were fighting +among themselves, and there was no order in anything that was done; so +that the Peloponnesians, seeing their confusion, placed twenty ships to +oppose the Corcyraeans, and ranged the rest against the twelve Athenian +ships, amongst which were the two vessels Salaminia and Paralus. + +While the Corcyraeans, attacking without judgment and in small +detachments, were already crippled by their own misconduct, the +Athenians, afraid of the numbers of the enemy and of being surrounded, +did not venture to attack the main body or even the centre of the +division opposed to them, but fell upon its wing and sank one vessel; +after which the Peloponnesians formed in a circle, and the Athenians +rowed round them and tried to throw them into disorder. Perceiving this, +the division opposed to the Corcyraeans, fearing a repetition of the +disaster of Naupactus, came to support their friends, and the whole +fleet now bore down, united, upon the Athenians, who retired before it, +backing water, retiring as leisurely as possible in order to give the +Corcyraeans time to escape, while the enemy was thus kept occupied. Such +was the character of this sea-fight, which lasted until sunset. + +The Corcyraeans now feared that the enemy would follow up their victory +and sail against the town and rescue the men in the island, or strike +some other blow equally decisive, and accordingly carried the men +over again to the temple of Hera, and kept guard over the city. The +Peloponnesians, however, although victorious in the sea-fight, did not +venture to attack the town, but took the thirteen Corcyraean vessels +which they had captured, and with them sailed back to the continent +from whence they had put out. The next day equally they refrained +from attacking the city, although the disorder and panic were at their +height, and though Brasidas, it is said, urged Alcidas, his superior +officer, to do so, but they landed upon the promontory of Leukimme and +laid waste the country. + +Meanwhile the commons in Corcyra, being still in great fear of the fleet +attacking them, came to a parley with the suppliants and their friends, +in order to save the town; and prevailed upon some of them to go on +board the ships, of which they still manned thirty, against the expected +attack. But the Peloponnesians after ravaging the country until midday +sailed away, and towards nightfall were informed by beacon signals of +the approach of sixty Athenian vessels from Leucas, under the command of +Eurymedon, son of Thucles; which had been sent off by the Athenians upon +the news of the revolution and of the fleet with Alcidas being about to +sail for Corcyra. + +The Peloponnesians accordingly at once set off in haste by night for +home, coasting along shore; and hauling their ships across the Isthmus +of Leucas, in order not to be seen doubling it, so departed. The +Corcyraeans, made aware of the approach of the Athenian fleet and of the +departure of the enemy, brought the Messenians from outside the walls +into the town, and ordered the fleet which they had manned to sail round +into the Hyllaic harbour; and while it was so doing, slew such of their +enemies as they laid hands on, dispatching afterwards, as they landed +them, those whom they had persuaded to go on board the ships. Next they +went to the sanctuary of Hera and persuaded about fifty men to take +their trial, and condemned them all to death. The mass of the suppliants +who had refused to do so, on seeing what was taking place, slew each +other there in the consecrated ground; while some hanged themselves upon +the trees, and others destroyed themselves as they were severally +able. During seven days that Eurymedon stayed with his sixty ships, the +Corcyraeans were engaged in butchering those of their fellow citizens +whom they regarded as their enemies: and although the crime imputed was +that of attempting to put down the democracy, some were slain also for +private hatred, others by their debtors because of the moneys owed to +them. Death thus raged in every shape; and, as usually happens at such +times, there was no length to which violence did not go; sons were +killed by their fathers, and suppliants dragged from the altar or slain +upon it; while some were even walled up in the temple of Dionysus and +died there. + +So bloody was the march of the revolution, and the impression which it +made was the greater as it was one of the first to occur. Later on, one +may say, the whole Hellenic world was convulsed; struggles being every, +where made by the popular chiefs to bring in the Athenians, and by the +oligarchs to introduce the Lacedaemonians. In peace there would have +been neither the pretext nor the wish to make such an invitation; but +in war, with an alliance always at the command of either faction for +the hurt of their adversaries and their own corresponding advantage, +opportunities for bringing in the foreigner were never wanting to the +revolutionary parties. The sufferings which revolution entailed upon +the cities were many and terrible, such as have occurred and always will +occur, as long as the nature of mankind remains the same; though in a +severer or milder form, and varying in their symptoms, according to the +variety of the particular cases. In peace and prosperity, states and +individuals have better sentiments, because they do not find themselves +suddenly confronted with imperious necessities; but war takes away the +easy supply of daily wants, and so proves a rough master, that brings +most men's characters to a level with their fortunes. Revolution thus +ran its course from city to city, and the places which it arrived at +last, from having heard what had been done before, carried to a still +greater excess the refinement of their inventions, as manifested in the +cunning of their enterprises and the atrocity of their reprisals. Words +had to change their ordinary meaning and to take that which was now +given them. Reckless audacity came to be considered the courage of a +loyal ally; prudent hesitation, specious cowardice; moderation was held +to be a cloak for unmanliness; ability to see all sides of a question, +inaptness to act on any. Frantic violence became the attribute of +manliness; cautious plotting, a justifiable means of self-defence. The +advocate of extreme measures was always trustworthy; his opponent a +man to be suspected. To succeed in a plot was to have a shrewd head, to +divine a plot a still shrewder; but to try to provide against having +to do either was to break up your party and to be afraid of your +adversaries. In fine, to forestall an intending criminal, or to suggest +the idea of a crime where it was wanting, was equally commended until +even blood became a weaker tie than party, from the superior readiness +of those united by the latter to dare everything without reserve; +for such associations had not in view the blessings derivable from +established institutions but were formed by ambition for their +overthrow; and the confidence of their members in each other rested +less on any religious sanction than upon complicity in crime. The fair +proposals of an adversary were met with jealous precautions by the +stronger of the two, and not with a generous confidence. Revenge +also was held of more account than self-preservation. Oaths of +reconciliation, being only proffered on either side to meet an immediate +difficulty, only held good so long as no other weapon was at hand; but +when opportunity offered, he who first ventured to seize it and to take +his enemy off his guard, thought this perfidious vengeance sweeter than +an open one, since, considerations of safety apart, success by treachery +won him the palm of superior intelligence. Indeed it is generally the +case that men are readier to call rogues clever than simpletons honest, +and are as ashamed of being the second as they are proud of being the +first. The cause of all these evils was the lust for power arising from +greed and ambition; and from these passions proceeded the violence of +parties once engaged in contention. The leaders in the cities, each +provided with the fairest professions, on the one side with the cry +of political equality of the people, on the other of a moderate +aristocracy, sought prizes for themselves in those public interests +which they pretended to cherish, and, recoiling from no means in their +struggles for ascendancy engaged in the direst excesses; in their acts +of vengeance they went to even greater lengths, not stopping at what +justice or the good of the state demanded, but making the party caprice +of the moment their only standard, and invoking with equal readiness the +condemnation of an unjust verdict or the authority of the strong arm +to glut the animosities of the hour. Thus religion was in honour with +neither party; but the use of fair phrases to arrive at guilty ends was +in high reputation. Meanwhile the moderate part of the citizens perished +between the two, either for not joining in the quarrel, or because envy +would not suffer them to escape. + +Thus every form of iniquity took root in the Hellenic countries by +reason of the troubles. The ancient simplicity into which honour so +largely entered was laughed down and disappeared; and society became +divided into camps in which no man trusted his fellow. To put an end to +this, there was neither promise to be depended upon, nor oath that could +command respect; but all parties dwelling rather in their calculation +upon the hopelessness of a permanent state of things, were more intent +upon self-defence than capable of confidence. In this contest +the blunter wits were most successful. Apprehensive of their own +deficiencies and of the cleverness of their antagonists, they feared to +be worsted in debate and to be surprised by the combinations of their +more versatile opponents, and so at once boldly had recourse to action: +while their adversaries, arrogantly thinking that they should know +in time, and that it was unnecessary to secure by action what policy +afforded, often fell victims to their want of precaution. + +Meanwhile Corcyra gave the first example of most of the crimes alluded +to; of the reprisals exacted by the governed who had never experienced +equitable treatment or indeed aught but insolence from their +rulers--when their hour came; of the iniquitous resolves of those who +desired to get rid of their accustomed poverty, and ardently coveted +their neighbours' goods; and lastly, of the savage and pitiless excesses +into which men who had begun the struggle, not in a class but in a party +spirit, were hurried by their ungovernable passions. In the confusion +into which life was now thrown in the cities, human nature, always +rebelling against the law and now its master, gladly showed itself +ungoverned in passion, above respect for justice, and the enemy of all +superiority; since revenge would not have been set above religion, and +gain above justice, had it not been for the fatal power of envy. Indeed +men too often take upon themselves in the prosecution of their revenge +to set the example of doing away with those general laws to which all +alike can look for salvation in adversity, instead of allowing them to +subsist against the day of danger when their aid may be required. + +While the revolutionary passions thus for the first time displayed +themselves in the factions of Corcyra, Eurymedon and the Athenian fleet +sailed away; after which some five hundred Corcyraean exiles who had +succeeded in escaping, took some forts on the mainland, and becoming +masters of the Corcyraean territory over the water, made this their base +to Plunder their countrymen in the island, and did so much damage as to +cause a severe famine in the town. They also sent envoys to Lacedaemon +and Corinth to negotiate their restoration; but meeting with no success, +afterwards got together boats and mercenaries and crossed over to the +island, being about six hundred in all; and burning their boats so as to +have no hope except in becoming masters of the country, went up to Mount +Istone, and fortifying themselves there, began to annoy those in the +city and obtained command of the country. + +At the close of the same summer the Athenians sent twenty ships +under the command of Laches, son of Melanopus, and Charoeades, son of +Euphiletus, to Sicily, where the Syracusans and Leontines were at +war. The Syracusans had for allies all the Dorian cities except +Camarina--these had been included in the Lacedaemonian confederacy from +the commencement of the war, though they had not taken any active part +in it--the Leontines had Camarina and the Chalcidian cities. In Italy +the Locrians were for the Syracusans, the Rhegians for their Leontine +kinsmen. The allies of the Leontines now sent to Athens and appealed +to their ancient alliance and to their Ionian origin, to persuade the +Athenians to send them a fleet, as the Syracusans were blockading them +by land and sea. The Athenians sent it upon the plea of their common +descent, but in reality to prevent the exportation of Sicilian corn +to Peloponnese and to test the possibility of bringing Sicily into +subjection. Accordingly they established themselves at Rhegium in Italy, +and from thence carried on the war in concert with their allies. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +_Year of the War--Campaigns of Demosthenes in Western Greece--Ruin of +Ambracia_ + +Summer was now over. The winter following, the plague a second time +attacked the Athenians; for although it had never entirely left them, +still there had been a notable abatement in its ravages. The second +visit lasted no less than a year, the first having lasted two; and +nothing distressed the Athenians and reduced their power more than this. +No less than four thousand four hundred heavy infantry in the ranks died +of it and three hundred cavalry, besides a number of the multitude +that was never ascertained. At the same time took place the numerous +earthquakes in Athens, Euboea, and Boeotia, particularly at Orchomenus +in the last-named country. + +The same winter the Athenians in Sicily and the Rhegians, with thirty +ships, made an expedition against the islands of Aeolus; it being +impossible to invade them in summer, owing to the want of water. These +islands are occupied by the Liparaeans, a Cnidian colony, who live +in one of them of no great size called Lipara; and from this as their +headquarters cultivate the rest, Didyme, Strongyle, and Hiera. In Hiera +the people in those parts believe that Hephaestus has his forge, from +the quantity of flame which they see it send out by night, and of smoke +by day. These islands lie off the coast of the Sicels and Messinese, and +were allies of the Syracusans. The Athenians laid waste their land, +and as the inhabitants did not submit, sailed back to Rhegium. Thus the +winter ended, and with it ended the fifth year of this war, of which +Thucydides was the historian. + +The next summer the Peloponnesians and their allies set out to invade +Attica under the command of Agis, son of Archidamus, and went as far +as the Isthmus, but numerous earthquakes occurring, turned back again +without the invasion taking place. About the same time that these +earthquakes were so common, the sea at Orobiae, in Euboea, retiring from +the then line of coast, returned in a huge wave and invaded a great part +of the town, and retreated leaving some of it still under water; so +that what was once land is now sea; such of the inhabitants perishing as +could not run up to the higher ground in time. A similar inundation +also occurred at Atalanta, the island off the Opuntian Locrian coast, +carrying away part of the Athenian fort and wrecking one of two ships +which were drawn up on the beach. At Peparethus also the sea retreated +a little, without however any inundation following; and an earthquake +threw down part of the wall, the town hall, and a few other buildings. +The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the +earthquake. At the point where its shock has been the most violent, the +sea is driven back and, suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes +the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident +could happen. + +During the same summer different operations were carried on by the +different belligerents in Sicily; by the Siceliots themselves against +each other, and by the Athenians and their allies: I shall however +confine myself to the actions in which the Athenians took part, choosing +the most important. The death of the Athenian general Charoeades, killed +by the Syracusans in battle, left Laches in the sole command of the +fleet, which he now directed in concert with the allies against Mylae, +a place belonging to the Messinese. Two Messinese battalions in garrison +at Mylae laid an ambush for the party landing from the ships, but were +routed with great slaughter by the Athenians and their allies, who +thereupon assaulted the fortification and compelled them to surrender +the Acropolis and to march with them upon Messina. This town afterwards +also submitted upon the approach of the Athenians and their allies, and +gave hostages and all other securities required. + +The same summer the Athenians sent thirty ships round Peloponnese under +Demosthenes, son of Alcisthenes, and Procles, son of Theodorus, and +sixty others, with two thousand heavy infantry, against Melos, under +Nicias, son of Niceratus; wishing to reduce the Melians, who, although +islanders, refused to be subjects of Athens or even to join her +confederacy. The devastation of their land not procuring their +submission, the fleet, weighing from Melos, sailed to Oropus in the +territory of Graea, and landing at nightfall, the heavy infantry started +at once from the ships by land for Tanagra in Boeotia, where they were +met by the whole levy from Athens, agreeably to a concerted signal, +under the command of Hipponicus, son of Callias, and Eurymedon, son of +Thucles. They encamped, and passing that day in ravaging the Tanagraean +territory, remained there for the night; and next day, after defeating +those of the Tanagraeans who sailed out against them and some Thebans +who had come up to help the Tanagraeans, took some arms, set up a +trophy, and retired, the troops to the city and the others to the ships. +Nicias with his sixty ships coasted alongshore and ravaged the Locrian +seaboard, and so returned home. + +About this time the Lacedaemonians founded their colony of Heraclea in +Trachis, their object being the following: the Malians form in all three +tribes, the Paralians, the Hiereans, and the Trachinians. The last +of these having suffered severely in a war with their neighbours +the Oetaeans, at first intended to give themselves up to Athens; but +afterwards fearing not to find in her the security that they sought, +sent to Lacedaemon, having chosen Tisamenus for their ambassador. In +this embassy joined also the Dorians from the mother country of the +Lacedaemonians, with the same request, as they themselves also suffered +from the same enemy. After hearing them, the Lacedaemonians determined +to send out the colony, wishing to assist the Trachinians and Dorians, +and also because they thought that the proposed town would lie +conveniently for the purposes of the war against the Athenians. A fleet +might be got ready there against Euboea, with the advantage of a short +passage to the island; and the town would also be useful as a station on +the road to Thrace. In short, everything made the Lacedaemonians +eager to found the place. After first consulting the god at Delphi and +receiving a favourable answer, they sent off the colonists, Spartans, +and Perioeci, inviting also any of the rest of the Hellenes who might +wish to accompany them, except Ionians, Achaeans, and certain other +nationalities; three Lacedaemonians leading as founders of the colony, +Leon, Alcidas, and Damagon. The settlement effected, they fortified anew +the city, now called Heraclea, distant about four miles and a half from +Thermopylae and two miles and a quarter from the sea, and commenced +building docks, closing the side towards Thermopylae just by the pass +itself, in order that they might be easily defended. + +The foundation of this town, evidently meant to annoy Euboea (the +passage across to Cenaeum in that island being a short one), at first +caused some alarm at Athens, which the event however did nothing to +justify, the town never giving them any trouble. The reason of this +was as follows. The Thessalians, who were sovereign in those parts, and +whose territory was menaced by its foundation, were afraid that it might +prove a very powerful neighbour, and accordingly continually harassed +and made war upon the new settlers, until they at last wore them out in +spite of their originally considerable numbers, people flocking from +all quarters to a place founded by the Lacedaemonians, and thus thought +secure of prosperity. On the other hand the Lacedaemonians themselves, +in the persons of their governors, did their full share towards ruining +its prosperity and reducing its population, as they frightened away the +greater part of the inhabitants by governing harshly and in some cases +not fairly, and thus made it easier for their neighbours to prevail +against them. + +The same summer, about the same time that the Athenians were detained +at Melos, their fellow citizens in the thirty ships cruising round +Peloponnese, after cutting off some guards in an ambush at Ellomenus in +Leucadia, subsequently went against Leucas itself with a large armament, +having been reinforced by the whole levy of the Acarnanians except +Oeniadae, and by the Zacynthians and Cephallenians and fifteen ships +from Corcyra. While the Leucadians witnessed the devastation of their +land, without and within the isthmus upon which the town of Leucas and +the temple of Apollo stand, without making any movement on account +of the overwhelming numbers of the enemy, the Acarnanians urged +Demosthenes, the Athenian general, to build a wall so as to cut off +the town from the continent, a measure which they were convinced would +secure its capture and rid them once and for all of a most troublesome +enemy. + +Demosthenes however had in the meanwhile been persuaded by the +Messenians that it was a fine opportunity for him, having so large an +army assembled, to attack the Aetolians, who were not only the enemies +of Naupactus, but whose reduction would further make it easy to gain +the rest of that part of the continent for the Athenians. The Aetolian +nation, although numerous and warlike, yet dwelt in unwalled villages +scattered far apart, and had nothing but light armour, and might, +according to the Messenians, be subdued without much difficulty before +succours could arrive. The plan which they recommended was to attack +first the Apodotians, next the Ophionians, and after these the +Eurytanians, who are the largest tribe in Aetolia, and speak, as is +said, a language exceedingly difficult to understand, and eat their +flesh raw. These once subdued, the rest would easily come in. + +To this plan Demosthenes consented, not only to please the Messenians, +but also in the belief that by adding the Aetolians to his other +continental allies he would be able, without aid from home, to march +against the Boeotians by way of Ozolian Locris to Kytinium in Doris, +keeping Parnassus on his right until he descended to the Phocians, whom +he could force to join him if their ancient friendship for Athens did +not, as he anticipated, at once decide them to do so. Arrived in Phocis +he was already upon the frontier of Boeotia. He accordingly weighed from +Leucas, against the wish of the Acarnanians, and with his whole armament +sailed along the coast to Sollium, where he communicated to them his +intention; and upon their refusing to agree to it on account of the +non-investment of Leucas, himself with the rest of the forces, the +Cephallenians, the Messenians, and Zacynthians, and three hundred +Athenian marines from his own ships (the fifteen Corcyraean vessels +having departed), started on his expedition against the Aetolians. His +base he established at Oeneon in Locris, as the Ozolian Locrians were +allies of Athens and were to meet him with all their forces in the +interior. Being neighbours of the Aetolians and armed in the same way, +it was thought that they would be of great service upon the expedition, +from their acquaintance with the localities and the warfare of the +inhabitants. + +After bivouacking with the army in the precinct of Nemean Zeus, in +which the poet Hesiod is said to have been killed by the people of the +country, according to an oracle which had foretold that he should die in +Nemea, Demosthenes set out at daybreak to invade Aetolia. The first day +he took Potidania, the next Krokyle, and the third Tichium, where he +halted and sent back the booty to Eupalium in Locris, having determined +to pursue his conquests as far as the Ophionians, and, in the event +of their refusing to submit, to return to Naupactus and make them the +objects of a second expedition. Meanwhile the Aetolians had been aware +of his design from the moment of its formation, and as soon as the army +invaded their country came up in great force with all their tribes; +even the most remote Ophionians, the Bomiensians, and Calliensians, who +extend towards the Malian Gulf, being among the number. + +The Messenians, however, adhered to their original advice. Assuring +Demosthenes that the Aetolians were an easy conquest, they urged him to +push on as rapidly as possible, and to try to take the villages as fast +as he came up to them, without waiting until the whole nation should be +in arms against him. Led on by his advisers and trusting in his fortune, +as he had met with no opposition, without waiting for his Locrian +reinforcements, who were to have supplied him with the light-armed +darters in which he was most deficient, he advanced and stormed +Aegitium, the inhabitants flying before him and posting themselves upon +the hills above the town, which stood on high ground about nine miles +from the sea. Meanwhile the Aetolians had gathered to the rescue, and +now attacked the Athenians and their allies, running down from the hills +on every side and darting their javelins, falling back when the Athenian +army advanced, and coming on as it retired; and for a long while the +battle was of this character, alternate advance and retreat, in both +which operations the Athenians had the worst. + +Still as long as their archers had arrows left and were able to use +them, they held out, the light-armed Aetolians retiring before the +arrows; but after the captain of the archers had been killed and his men +scattered, the soldiers, wearied out with the constant repetition of the +same exertions and hard pressed by the Aetolians with their javelins, at +last turned and fled, and falling into pathless gullies and places that +they were unacquainted with, thus perished, the Messenian Chromon, +their guide, having also unfortunately been killed. A great many were +overtaken in the pursuit by the swift-footed and light-armed Aetolians, +and fell beneath their javelins; the greater number however missed their +road and rushed into the wood, which had no ways out, and which was soon +fired and burnt round them by the enemy. Indeed the Athenian army fell +victims to death in every form, and suffered all the vicissitudes of +flight; the survivors escaped with difficulty to the sea and Oeneon in +Locris, whence they had set out. Many of the allies were killed, and +about one hundred and twenty Athenian heavy infantry, not a man less, +and all in the prime of life. These were by far the best men in the city +of Athens that fell during this war. Among the slain was also Procles, +the colleague of Demosthenes. Meanwhile the Athenians took up their +dead under truce from the Aetolians, and retired to Naupactus, and from +thence went in their ships to Athens; Demosthenes staying behind in +Naupactus and in the neighbourhood, being afraid to face the Athenians +after the disaster. + +About the same time the Athenians on the coast of Sicily sailed to +Locris, and in a descent which they made from the ships defeated the +Locrians who came against them, and took a fort upon the river Halex. + +The same summer the Aetolians, who before the Athenian expedition had +sent an embassy to Corinth and Lacedaemon, composed of Tolophus, an +Ophionian, Boriades, an Eurytanian, and Tisander, an Apodotian, obtained +that an army should be sent them against Naupactus, which had invited +the Athenian invasion. The Lacedaemonians accordingly sent off towards +autumn three thousand heavy infantry of the allies, five hundred of whom +were from Heraclea, the newly founded city in Trachis, under the command +of Eurylochus, a Spartan, accompanied by Macarius and Menedaius, also +Spartans. + +The army having assembled at Delphi, Eurylochus sent a herald to the +Ozolian Locrians; the road to Naupactus lying through their territory, +and he having besides conceived the idea of detaching them from Athens. +His chief abettors in Locris were the Amphissians, who were alarmed at +the hostility of the Phocians. These first gave hostages themselves, and +induced the rest to do the same for fear of the invading army; first, +their neighbours the Myonians, who held the most difficult of the +passes, and after them the Ipnians, Messapians, Tritaeans, Chalaeans, +Tolophonians, Hessians, and Oeanthians, all of whom joined in the +expedition; the Olpaeans contenting themselves with giving hostages, +without accompanying the invasion; and the Hyaeans refusing to do +either, until the capture of Polis, one of their villages. + +His preparations completed, Eurylochus lodged the hostages in Kytinium, +in Doris, and advanced upon Naupactus through the country of the +Locrians, taking upon his way Oeneon and Eupalium, two of their towns +that refused to join him. Arrived in the Naupactian territory, and +having been now joined by the Aetolians, the army laid waste the land +and took the suburb of the town, which was unfortified; and after this +Molycrium also, a Corinthian colony subject to Athens. Meanwhile the +Athenian Demosthenes, who since the affair in Aetolia had remained near +Naupactus, having had notice of the army and fearing for the town, went +and persuaded the Acarnanians, although not without difficulty because +of his departure from Leucas, to go to the relief of Naupactus. They +accordingly sent with him on board his ships a thousand heavy infantry, +who threw themselves into the place and saved it; the extent of its +wall and the small number of its defenders otherwise placing it in the +greatest danger. Meanwhile Eurylochus and his companions, finding that +this force had entered and that it was impossible to storm the town, +withdrew, not to Peloponnese, but to the country once called Aeolis, and +now Calydon and Pleuron, and to the places in that neighbourhood, and +Proschium in Aetolia; the Ambraciots having come and urged them to +combine with them in attacking Amphilochian Argos and the rest of +Amphilochia and Acarnania; affirming that the conquest of these +countries would bring all the continent into alliance with Lacedaemon. +To this Eurylochus consented, and dismissing the Aetolians, now remained +quiet with his army in those parts, until the time should come for the +Ambraciots to take the field, and for him to join them before Argos. + +Summer was now over. The winter ensuing, the Athenians in Sicily with +their Hellenic allies, and such of the Sicel subjects or allies of +Syracuse as had revolted from her and joined their army, marched +against the Sicel town Inessa, the acropolis of which was held by +the Syracusans, and after attacking it without being able to take it, +retired. In the retreat, the allies retreating after the Athenians were +attacked by the Syracusans from the fort, and a large part of their army +routed with great slaughter. After this, Laches and the Athenians from +the ships made some descents in Locris, and defeating the Locrians, +who came against them with Proxenus, son of Capaton, upon the river +Caicinus, took some arms and departed. + +The same winter the Athenians purified Delos, in compliance, it appears, +with a certain oracle. It had been purified before by Pisistratus the +tyrant; not indeed the whole island, but as much of it as could be seen +from the temple. All of it was, however, now purified in the following +way. All the sepulchres of those that had died in Delos were taken up, +and for the future it was commanded that no one should be allowed either +to die or to give birth to a child in the island; but that they should +be carried over to Rhenea, which is so near to Delos that Polycrates, +tyrant of Samos, having added Rhenea to his other island conquests +during his period of naval ascendancy, dedicated it to the Delian Apollo +by binding it to Delos with a chain. + +The Athenians, after the purification, celebrated, for the first time, +the quinquennial festival of the Delian games. Once upon a time, +indeed, there was a great assemblage of the Ionians and the neighbouring +islanders at Delos, who used to come to the festival, as the Ionians +now do to that of Ephesus, and athletic and poetical contests took place +there, and the cities brought choirs of dancers. Nothing can be clearer +on this point than the following verses of Homer, taken from a hymn to +Apollo: + + Phoebus, wherever thou strayest, far or near, + Delos was still of all thy haunts most dear. + Thither the robed Ionians take their way + With wife and child to keep thy holiday, + Invoke thy favour on each manly game, + And dance and sing in honour of thy name. + +That there was also a poetical contest in which the Ionians went to +contend, again is shown by the following, taken from the same hymn. +After celebrating the Delian dance of the women, he ends his song of +praise with these verses, in which he also alludes to himself: + + Well, may Apollo keep you all! and so, + Sweethearts, good-bye--yet tell me not I go + Out from your hearts; and if in after hours + Some other wanderer in this world of ours + Touch at your shores, and ask your maidens here + Who sings the songs the sweetest to your ear, + Think of me then, and answer with a smile, + 'A blind old man of Scio's rocky isle.' + +Homer thus attests that there was anciently a great assembly and +festival at Delos. In later times, although the islanders and the +Athenians continued to send the choirs of dancers with sacrifices, the +contests and most of the ceremonies were abolished, probably through +adversity, until the Athenians celebrated the games upon this occasion +with the novelty of horse-races. + +The same winter the Ambraciots, as they had promised Eurylochus when +they retained his army, marched out against Amphilochian Argos with +three thousand heavy infantry, and invading the Argive territory +occupied Olpae, a stronghold on a hill near the sea, which had been +formerly fortified by the Acarnanians and used as the place of assizes +for their nation, and which is about two miles and three-quarters from +the city of Argos upon the sea-coast. Meanwhile the Acarnanians went +with a part of their forces to the relief of Argos, and with the rest +encamped in Amphilochia at the place called Crenae, or the Wells, +to watch for Eurylochus and his Peloponnesians, and to prevent their +passing through and effecting their junction with the Ambraciots; +while they also sent for Demosthenes, the commander of the Aetolian +expedition, to be their leader, and for the twenty Athenian ships that +were cruising off Peloponnese under the command of Aristotle, son +of Timocrates, and Hierophon, son of Antimnestus. On their part, the +Ambraciots at Olpae sent a messenger to their own city, to beg them to +come with their whole levy to their assistance, fearing that the army of +Eurylochus might not be able to pass through the Acarnanians, and that +they might themselves be obliged to fight single-handed, or be unable to +retreat, if they wished it, without danger. + +Meanwhile Eurylochus and his Peloponnesians, learning that the +Ambraciots at Olpae had arrived, set out from Proschium with all haste +to join them, and crossing the Achelous advanced through Acarnania, +which they found deserted by its population, who had gone to the relief +of Argos; keeping on their right the city of the Stratians and its +garrison, and on their left the rest of Acarnania. Traversing the +territory of the Stratians, they advanced through Phytia, next, skirting +Medeon, through Limnaea; after which they left Acarnania behind them +and entered a friendly country, that of the Agraeans. From thence they +reached and crossed Mount Thymaus, which belongs to the Agraeans, and +descended into the Argive territory after nightfall, and passing +between the city of Argos and the Acarnanian posts at Crenae, joined the +Ambraciots at Olpae. + +Uniting here at daybreak, they sat down at the place called Metropolis, +and encamped. Not long afterwards the Athenians in the twenty ships came +into the Ambracian Gulf to support the Argives, with Demosthenes and two +hundred Messenian heavy infantry, and sixty Athenian archers. While the +fleet off Olpae blockaded the hill from the sea, the Acarnanians and a +few of the Amphilochians, most of whom were kept back by force by the +Ambraciots, had already arrived at Argos, and were preparing to give +battle to the enemy, having chosen Demosthenes to command the whole of +the allied army in concert with their own generals. Demosthenes led them +near to Olpae and encamped, a great ravine separating the two armies. +During five days they remained inactive; on the sixth both sides formed +in order of battle. The army of the Peloponnesians was the largest and +outflanked their opponents; and Demosthenes fearing that his right might +be surrounded, placed in ambush in a hollow way overgrown with bushes +some four hundred heavy infantry and light troops, who were to rise up +at the moment of the onset behind the projecting left wing of the enemy, +and to take them in the rear. When both sides were ready they joined +battle; Demosthenes being on the right wing with the Messenians and a +few Athenians, while the rest of the line was made up of the different +divisions of the Acarnanians, and of the Amphilochian carters. The +Peloponnesians and Ambraciots were drawn up pell-mell together, with +the exception of the Mantineans, who were massed on the left, without +however reaching to the extremity of the wing, where Eurylochus and his +men confronted the Messenians and Demosthenes. + +The Peloponnesians were now well engaged and with their outflanking wing +were upon the point of turning their enemy's right; when the Acarnanians +from the ambuscade set upon them from behind, and broke them at the +first attack, without their staying to resist; while the panic into +which they fell caused the flight of most of their army, terrified +beyond measure at seeing the division of Eurylochus and their best +troops cut to pieces. Most of the work was done by Demosthenes and his +Messenians, who were posted in this part of the field. Meanwhile the +Ambraciots (who are the best soldiers in those countries) and the troops +upon the right wing, defeated the division opposed to them and pursued +it to Argos. Returning from the pursuit, they found their main body +defeated; and hard pressed by the Acarnanians, with difficulty made good +their passage to Olpae, suffering heavy loss on the way, as they dashed +on without discipline or order, the Mantineans excepted, who kept their +ranks best of any in the army during the retreat. + +The battle did not end until the evening. The next day Menedaius, who on +the death of Eurylochus and Macarius had succeeded to the sole command, +being at a loss after so signal a defeat how to stay and sustain a +siege, cut off as he was by land and by the Athenian fleet by sea, and +equally so how to retreat in safety, opened a parley with Demosthenes +and the Acarnanian generals for a truce and permission to retreat, and +at the same time for the recovery of the dead. The dead they gave back +to him, and setting up a trophy took up their own also to the number of +about three hundred. The retreat demanded they refused publicly to the +army; but permission to depart without delay was secretly granted to the +Mantineans and to Menedaius and the other commanders and principal men +of the Peloponnesians by Demosthenes and his Acarnanian colleagues; who +desired to strip the Ambraciots and the mercenary host of foreigners of +their supporters; and, above all, to discredit the Lacedaemonians +and Peloponnesians with the Hellenes in those parts, as traitors and +self-seekers. + +While the enemy was taking up his dead and hastily burying them as he +could, and those who obtained permission were secretly planning their +retreat, word was brought to Demosthenes and the Acarnanians that the +Ambraciots from the city, in compliance with the first message from +Olpae, were on the march with their whole levy through Amphilochia to +join their countrymen at Olpae, knowing nothing of what had occurred. +Demosthenes prepared to march with his army against them, and meanwhile +sent on at once a strong division to beset the roads and occupy the +strong positions. In the meantime the Mantineans and others included +in the agreement went out under the pretence of gathering herbs and +firewood, and stole off by twos and threes, picking on the way the +things which they professed to have come out for, until they had gone +some distance from Olpae, when they quickened their pace. The Ambraciots +and such of the rest as had accompanied them in larger parties, seeing +them going on, pushed on in their turn, and began running in order to +catch them up. The Acarnanians at first thought that all alike were +departing without permission, and began to pursue the Peloponnesians; +and believing that they were being betrayed, even threw a dart or two at +some of their generals who tried to stop them and told them that leave +had been given. Eventually, however, they let pass the Mantineans and +Peloponnesians, and slew only the Ambraciots, there being much dispute +and difficulty in distinguishing whether a man was an Ambraciot or a +Peloponnesian. The number thus slain was about two hundred; the rest +escaped into the bordering territory of Agraea, and found refuge with +Salynthius, the friendly king of the Agraeans. + +Meanwhile the Ambraciots from the city arrived at Idomene. Idomene +consists of two lofty hills, the higher of which the troops sent on by +Demosthenes succeeded in occupying after nightfall, unobserved by the +Ambraciots, who had meanwhile ascended the smaller and bivouacked under +it. After supper Demosthenes set out with the rest of the army, as soon +as it was evening; himself with half his force making for the pass, and +the remainder going by the Amphilochian hills. At dawn he fell upon the +Ambraciots while they were still abed, ignorant of what had passed, +and fully thinking that it was their own countrymen--Demosthenes having +purposely put the Messenians in front with orders to address them in +the Doric dialect, and thus to inspire confidence in the sentinels, +who would not be able to see them as it was still night. In this way he +routed their army as soon as he attacked it, slaying most of them where +they were, the rest breaking away in flight over the hills. The roads, +however, were already occupied, and while the Amphilochians knew their +own country, the Ambraciots were ignorant of it and could not tell which +way to turn, and had also heavy armour as against a light-armed enemy, +and so fell into ravines and into the ambushes which had been set for +them, and perished there. In their manifold efforts to escape some even +turned to the sea, which was not far off, and seeing the Athenian ships +coasting alongshore just while the action was going on, swam off to +them, thinking it better in the panic they were in, to perish, if perish +they must, by the hands of the Athenians, than by those of the barbarous +and detested Amphilochians. Of the large Ambraciot force destroyed +in this manner, a few only reached the city in safety; while the +Acarnanians, after stripping the dead and setting up a trophy, returned +to Argos. + +The next day arrived a herald from the Ambraciots who had fled from +Olpae to the Agraeans, to ask leave to take up the dead that had fallen +after the first engagement, when they left the camp with the Mantineans +and their companions, without, like them, having had permission to do +so. At the sight of the arms of the Ambraciots from the city, the herald +was astonished at their number, knowing nothing of the disaster and +fancying that they were those of their own party. Some one asked him +what he was so astonished at, and how many of them had been killed, +fancying in his turn that this was the herald from the troops at +Idomene. He replied: "About two hundred"; upon which his interrogator +took him up, saying: "Why, the arms you see here are of more than a +thousand." The herald replied: "Then they are not the arms of those who +fought with us?" The other answered: "Yes, they are, if at least you +fought at Idomene yesterday." "But we fought with no one yesterday; +but the day before in the retreat." "However that may be, we fought +yesterday with those who came to reinforce you from the city of the +Ambraciots." When the herald heard this and knew that the reinforcement +from the city had been destroyed, he broke into wailing and, stunned +at the magnitude of the present evils, went away at once without having +performed his errand, or again asking for the dead bodies. Indeed, this +was by far the greatest disaster that befell any one Hellenic city in an +equal number of days during this war; and I have not set down the number +of the dead, because the amount stated seems so out of proportion to +the size of the city as to be incredible. In any case I know that if +the Acarnanians and Amphilochians had wished to take Ambracia as the +Athenians and Demosthenes advised, they would have done so without a +blow; as it was, they feared that if the Athenians had it they would be +worse neighbours to them than the present. + +After this the Acarnanians allotted a third of the spoils to the +Athenians, and divided the rest among their own different towns. The +share of the Athenians was captured on the voyage home; the arms now +deposited in the Attic temples are three hundred panoplies, which the +Acarnanians set apart for Demosthenes, and which he brought to Athens +in person, his return to his country after the Aetolian disaster being +rendered less hazardous by this exploit. The Athenians in the twenty +ships also went off to Naupactus. The Acarnanians and Amphilochians, +after the departure of Demosthenes and the Athenians, granted the +Ambraciots and Peloponnesians who had taken refuge with Salynthius +and the Agraeans a free retreat from Oeniadae, to which place they had +removed from the country of Salynthius, and for the future concluded +with the Ambraciots a treaty and alliance for one hundred years, +upon the terms following. It was to be a defensive, not an offensive +alliance; the Ambraciots could not be required to march with the +Acarnanians against the Peloponnesians, nor the Acarnanians with the +Ambraciots against the Athenians; for the rest the Ambraciots were to +give up the places and hostages that they held of the Amphilochians, +and not to give help to Anactorium, which was at enmity with the +Acarnanians. With this arrangement they put an end to the war. After +this the Corinthians sent a garrison of their own citizens to Ambracia, +composed of three hundred heavy infantry, under the command of +Xenocleides, son of Euthycles, who reached their destination after a +difficult journey across the continent. Such was the history of the +affair of Ambracia. + +The same winter the Athenians in Sicily made a descent from their +ships upon the territory of Himera, in concert with the Sicels, who had +invaded its borders from the interior, and also sailed to the islands +of Aeolus. Upon their return to Rhegium they found the Athenian general, +Pythodorus, son of Isolochus, come to supersede Laches in the command +of the fleet. The allies in Sicily had sailed to Athens and induced the +Athenians to send out more vessels to their assistance, pointing out +that the Syracusans who already commanded their land were making efforts +to get together a navy, to avoid being any longer excluded from the sea +by a few vessels. The Athenians proceeded to man forty ships to send to +them, thinking that the war in Sicily would thus be the sooner +ended, and also wishing to exercise their navy. One of the generals, +Pythodorus, was accordingly sent out with a few ships; Sophocles, son +of Sostratides, and Eurymedon, son of Thucles, being destined to follow +with the main body. Meanwhile Pythodorus had taken the command of +Laches' ships, and towards the end of winter sailed against the Locrian +fort, which Laches had formerly taken, and returned after being defeated +in battle by the Locrians. + +In the first days of this spring, the stream of fire issued from Etna, +as on former occasions, and destroyed some land of the Catanians, who +live upon Mount Etna, which is the largest mountain in Sicily. Fifty +years, it is said, had elapsed since the last eruption, there having +been three in all since the Hellenes have inhabited Sicily. Such were +the events of this winter; and with it ended the sixth year of this war, +of which Thucydides was the historian. + + + + +BOOK IV + +CHAPTER XII + +_Seventh Year of the War--Occupation of Pylos--Surrender of the Spartan +Army in Sphacteria_ + +Next summer, about the time of the corn's coming into ear, ten Syracusan +and as many Locrian vessels sailed to Messina, in Sicily, and occupied +the town upon the invitation of the inhabitants; and Messina revolted +from the Athenians. The Syracusans contrived this chiefly because they +saw that the place afforded an approach to Sicily, and feared that the +Athenians might hereafter use it as a base for attacking them with a +larger force; the Locrians because they wished to carry on hostilities +from both sides of the strait and to reduce their enemies, the people of +Rhegium. Meanwhile, the Locrians had invaded the Rhegian territory with +all their forces, to prevent their succouring Messina, and also at +the instance of some exiles from Rhegium who were with them; the long +factions by which that town had been torn rendering it for the moment +incapable of resistance, and thus furnishing an additional temptation +to the invaders. After devastating the country the Locrian land forces +retired, their ships remaining to guard Messina, while others were being +manned for the same destination to carry on the war from thence. + +About the same time in the spring, before the corn was ripe, the +Peloponnesians and their allies invaded Attica under Agis, the son of +Archidamus, king of the Lacedaemonians, and sat down and laid waste the +country. Meanwhile the Athenians sent off the forty ships which they +had been preparing to Sicily, with the remaining generals Eurymedon +and Sophocles; their colleague Pythodorus having already preceded them +thither. These had also instructions as they sailed by to look to the +Corcyraeans in the town, who were being plundered by the exiles in the +mountain. To support these exiles sixty Peloponnesian vessels had lately +sailed, it being thought that the famine raging in the city would +make it easy for them to reduce it. Demosthenes also, who had remained +without employment since his return from Acarnania, applied and +obtained permission to use the fleet, if he wished it, upon the coast of +Peloponnese. + +Off Laconia they heard that the Peloponnesian ships were already at +Corcyra, upon which Eurymedon and Sophocles wished to hasten to the +island, but Demosthenes required them first to touch at Pylos and do +what was wanted there, before continuing their voyage. While they were +making objections, a squall chanced to come on and carried the fleet +into Pylos. Demosthenes at once urged them to fortify the place, it +being for this that he had come on the voyage, and made them observe +there was plenty of stone and timber on the spot, and that the place +was strong by nature, and together with much of the country round +unoccupied; Pylos, or Coryphasium, as the Lacedaemonians call it, being +about forty-five miles distant from Sparta, and situated in the old +country of the Messenians. The commanders told him that there was no +lack of desert headlands in Peloponnese if he wished to put the city +to expense by occupying them. He, however, thought that this place was +distinguished from others of the kind by having a harbour close by; +while the Messenians, the old natives of the country, speaking the same +dialect as the Lacedaemonians, could do them the greatest mischief +by their incursions from it, and would at the same time be a trusty +garrison. + +After speaking to the captains of companies on the subject, and failing +to persuade either the generals or the soldiers, he remained inactive +with the rest from stress of weather; until the soldiers themselves +wanting occupation were seized with a sudden impulse to go round and +fortify the place. Accordingly they set to work in earnest, and having +no iron tools, picked up stones, and put them together as they happened +to fit, and where mortar was needed, carried it on their backs for want +of hods, stooping down to make it stay on, and clasping their hands +together behind to prevent it falling off; sparing no effort to be +able to complete the most vulnerable points before the arrival of the +Lacedaemonians, most of the place being sufficiently strong by nature +without further fortifications. + +Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians were celebrating a festival, and also at +first made light of the news, in the idea that whenever they chose to +take the field the place would be immediately evacuated by the enemy or +easily taken by force; the absence of their army before Athens having +also something to do with their delay. The Athenians fortified the +place on the land side, and where it most required it, in six days, and +leaving Demosthenes with five ships to garrison it, with the main body +of the fleet hastened on their voyage to Corcyra and Sicily. + +As soon as the Peloponnesians in Attica heard of the occupation of +Pylos, they hurried back home; the Lacedaemonians and their king Agis +thinking that the matter touched them nearly. Besides having made their +invasion early in the season, and while the corn was still green, most +of their troops were short of provisions: the weather also was unusually +bad for the time of year, and greatly distressed their army. Many +reasons thus combined to hasten their departure and to make this +invasion a very short one; indeed they only stayed fifteen days in +Attica. + +About the same time the Athenian general Simonides getting together a +few Athenians from the garrisons, and a number of the allies in those +parts, took Eion in Thrace, a Mendaean colony and hostile to Athens, by +treachery, but had no sooner done so than the Chalcidians and Bottiaeans +came up and beat him out of it, with the loss of many of his soldiers. + +On the return of the Peloponnesians from Attica, the Spartans themselves +and the nearest of the Perioeci at once set out for Pylos, the other +Lacedaemonians following more slowly, as they had just come in from +another campaign. Word was also sent round Peloponnese to come up as +quickly as possible to Pylos; while the sixty Peloponnesian ships were +sent for from Corcyra, and being dragged by their crews across the +isthmus of Leucas, passed unperceived by the Athenian squadron at +Zacynthus, and reached Pylos, where the land forces had arrived before +them. Before the Peloponnesian fleet sailed in, Demosthenes found time +to send out unobserved two ships to inform Eurymedon and the Athenians +on board the fleet at Zacynthus of the danger of Pylos and to summon +them to his assistance. While the ships hastened on their voyage in +obedience to the orders of Demosthenes, the Lacedaemonians prepared to +assault the fort by land and sea, hoping to capture with ease a work +constructed in haste, and held by a feeble garrison. Meanwhile, as they +expected the Athenian ships to arrive from Zacynthus, they intended, if +they failed to take the place before, to block up the entrances of the +harbour to prevent their being able to anchor inside it. For the island +of Sphacteria, stretching along in a line close in front of the harbour, +at once makes it safe and narrows its entrances, leaving a passage for +two ships on the side nearest Pylos and the Athenian fortifications, and +for eight or nine on that next the rest of the mainland: for the rest, +the island was entirely covered with wood, and without paths through +not being inhabited, and about one mile and five furlongs in length. +The inlets the Lacedaemonians meant to close with a line of ships placed +close together, with their prows turned towards the sea, and, meanwhile, +fearing that the enemy might make use of the island to operate against +them, carried over some heavy infantry thither, stationing others along +the coast. By this means the island and the continent would be alike +hostile to the Athenians, as they would be unable to land on either; and +the shore of Pylos itself outside the inlet towards the open sea having +no harbour, and, therefore, presenting no point which they could use as +a base to relieve their countrymen, they, the Lacedaemonians, without +sea-fight or risk would in all probability become masters of the place, +occupied as it had been on the spur of the moment, and unfurnished with +provisions. This being determined, they carried over to the island the +heavy infantry, drafted by lot from all the companies. Some others had +crossed over before in relief parties, but these last who were +left there were four hundred and twenty in number, with their Helot +attendants, commanded by Epitadas, son of Molobrus. + +Meanwhile Demosthenes, seeing the Lacedaemonians about to attack him +by sea and land at once, himself was not idle. He drew up under the +fortification and enclosed in a stockade the galleys remaining to him of +those which had been left him, arming the sailors taken out of them with +poor shields made most of them of osier, it being impossible to procure +arms in such a desert place, and even these having been obtained from a +thirty-oared Messenian privateer and a boat belonging to some Messenians +who happened to have come to them. Among these Messenians were forty +heavy infantry, whom he made use of with the rest. Posting most of his +men, unarmed and armed, upon the best fortified and strong points of the +place towards the interior, with orders to repel any attack of the land +forces, he picked sixty heavy infantry and a few archers from his whole +force, and with these went outside the wall down to the sea, where he +thought that the enemy would most likely attempt to land. Although the +ground was difficult and rocky, looking towards the open sea, the fact +that this was the weakest part of the wall would, he thought, encourage +their ardour, as the Athenians, confident in their naval superiority, +had here paid little attention to their defences, and the enemy if he +could force a landing might feel secure of taking the place. At this +point, accordingly, going down to the water's edge, he posted his heavy +infantry to prevent, if possible, a landing, and encouraged them in the +following terms: + +"Soldiers and comrades in this adventure, I hope that none of you in our +present strait will think to show his wit by exactly calculating all the +perils that encompass us, but that you will rather hasten to close with +the enemy, without staying to count the odds, seeing in this your best +chance of safety. In emergencies like ours calculation is out of place; +the sooner the danger is faced the better. To my mind also most of the +chances are for us, if we will only stand fast and not throw away our +advantages, overawed by the numbers of the enemy. One of the points in +our favour is the awkwardness of the landing. This, however, only helps +us if we stand our ground. If we give way it will be practicable enough, +in spite of its natural difficulty, without a defender; and the enemy +will instantly become more formidable from the difficulty he will have +in retreating, supposing that we succeed in repulsing him, which we +shall find it easier to do, while he is on board his ships, than after +he has landed and meets us on equal terms. As to his numbers, these need +not too much alarm you. Large as they may be he can only engage in +small detachments, from the impossibility of bringing to. Besides, the +numerical superiority that we have to meet is not that of an army on +land with everything else equal, but of troops on board ship, upon an +element where many favourable accidents are required to act with effect. +I therefore consider that his difficulties may be fairly set against our +numerical deficiencies, and at the same time I charge you, as Athenians +who know by experience what landing from ships on a hostile territory +means, and how impossible it is to drive back an enemy determined enough +to stand his ground and not to be frightened away by the surf and the +terrors of the ships sailing in, to stand fast in the present emergency, +beat back the enemy at the water's edge, and save yourselves and the +place." + +Thus encouraged by Demosthenes, the Athenians felt more confident, and +went down to meet the enemy, posting themselves along the edge of +the sea. The Lacedaemonians now put themselves in movement and +simultaneously assaulted the fortification with their land forces +and with their ships, forty-three in number, under their admiral, +Thrasymelidas, son of Cratesicles, a Spartan, who made his attack just +where Demosthenes expected. The Athenians had thus to defend themselves +on both sides, from the land and from the sea; the enemy rowing up in +small detachments, the one relieving the other--it being impossible for +many to bring to at once--and showing great ardour and cheering +each other on, in the endeavour to force a passage and to take the +fortification. He who most distinguished himself was Brasidas. Captain +of a galley, and seeing that the captains and steersmen, impressed by +the difficulty of the position, hung back even where a landing might +have seemed possible, for fear of wrecking their vessels, he shouted +out to them, that they must never allow the enemy to fortify himself +in their country for the sake of saving timber, but must shiver their +vessels and force a landing; and bade the allies, instead of hesitating +in such a moment to sacrifice their ships for Lacedaemon in return +for her many benefits, to run them boldly aground, land in one way or +another, and make themselves masters of the place and its garrison. + +Not content with this exhortation, he forced his own steersman to run +his ship ashore, and stepping on to the gangway, was endeavouring to +land, when he was cut down by the Athenians, and after receiving many +wounds fainted away. Falling into the bows, his shield slipped off +his arm into the sea, and being thrown ashore was picked up by the +Athenians, and afterwards used for the trophy which they set up for this +attack. The rest also did their best, but were not able to land, owing +to the difficulty of the ground and the unflinching tenacity of +the Athenians. It was a strange reversal of the order of things for +Athenians to be fighting from the land, and from Laconian land too, +against Lacedaemonians coming from the sea; while Lacedaemonians were +trying to land from shipboard in their own country, now become hostile, +to attack Athenians, although the former were chiefly famous at the +time as an inland people and superior by land, the latter as a maritime +people with a navy that had no equal. + +After continuing their attacks during that day and most of the next, the +Peloponnesians desisted, and the day after sent some of their ships to +Asine for timber to make engines, hoping to take by their aid, in spite +of its height, the wall opposite the harbour, where the landing was +easiest. At this moment the Athenian fleet from Zacynthus arrived, now +numbering fifty sail, having been reinforced by some of the ships on +guard at Naupactus and by four Chian vessels. Seeing the coast and +the island both crowded with heavy infantry, and the hostile ships in +harbour showing no signs of sailing out, at a loss where to anchor, they +sailed for the moment to the desert island of Prote, not far off, where +they passed the night. The next day they got under way in readiness to +engage in the open sea if the enemy chose to put out to meet them, being +determined in the event of his not doing so to sail in and attack him. +The Lacedaemonians did not put out to sea, and having omitted to close +the inlets as they had intended, remained quiet on shore, engaged in +manning their ships and getting ready, in the case of any one sailing +in, to fight in the harbour, which is a fairly large one. + +Perceiving this, the Athenians advanced against them by each inlet, and +falling on the enemy's fleet, most of which was by this time afloat and +in line, at once put it to flight, and giving chase as far as the short +distance allowed, disabled a good many vessels and took five, one with +its crew on board; dashing in at the rest that had taken refuge on +shore, and battering some that were still being manned, before they +could put out, and lashing on to their own ships and towing off empty +others whose crews had fled. At this sight the Lacedaemonians, maddened +by a disaster which cut off their men on the island, rushed to the +rescue, and going into the sea with their heavy armour, laid hold of +the ships and tried to drag them back, each man thinking that success +depended on his individual exertions. Great was the melee, and quite +in contradiction to the naval tactics usual to the two combatants; the +Lacedaemonians in their excitement and dismay being actually engaged in +a sea-fight on land, while the victorious Athenians, in their eagerness +to push their success as far as possible, were carrying on a land-fight +from their ships. After great exertions and numerous wounds on both +sides they separated, the Lacedaemonians saving their empty ships, +except those first taken; and both parties returning to their camp, the +Athenians set up a trophy, gave back the dead, secured the wrecks, and +at once began to cruise round and jealously watch the island, with its +intercepted garrison, while the Peloponnesians on the mainland, whose +contingents had now all come up, stayed where they were before Pylos. + +When the news of what had happened at Pylos reached Sparta, the disaster +was thought so serious that the Lacedaemonians resolved that the +authorities should go down to the camp, and decide on the spot what was +best to be done. There, seeing that it was impossible to help their men, +and not wishing to risk their being reduced by hunger or overpowered by +numbers, they determined, with the consent of the Athenian generals, +to conclude an armistice at Pylos and send envoys to Athens to obtain +a convention, and to endeavour to get back their men as quickly as +possible. + +The generals accepting their offers, an armistice was concluded upon the +terms following: + +That the Lacedaemonians should bring to Pylos and deliver up to the +Athenians the ships that had fought in the late engagement, and all +in Laconia that were vessels of war, and should make no attack on the +fortification either by land or by sea. + +That the Athenians should allow the Lacedaemonians on the mainland to +send to the men in the island a certain fixed quantity of corn ready +kneaded, that is to say, two quarts of barley meal, one pint of wine, +and a piece of meat for each man, and half the same quantity for a +servant. + +That this allowance should be sent in under the eyes of the Athenians, +and that no boat should sail to the island except openly. + +That the Athenians should continue to the island same as before, +without however landing upon it, and should refrain from attacking the +Peloponnesian troops either by land or by sea. + +That if either party should infringe any of these terms in the slightest +particular, the armistice should be at once void. + +That the armistice should hold good until the return of the +Lacedaemonian envoys from Athens--the Athenians sending them thither +in a galley and bringing them back again--and upon the arrival of the +envoys should be at an end, and the ships be restored by the Athenians +in the same state as they received them. + +Such were the terms of the armistice, and the ships were delivered over +to the number of sixty, and the envoys sent off accordingly. Arrived at +Athens they spoke as follows: + +"Athenians, the Lacedaemonians sent us to try to find some way of +settling the affair of our men on the island, that shall be at once +satisfactory to our interests, and as consistent with our dignity in +our misfortune as circumstances permit. We can venture to speak at some +length without any departure from the habit of our country. Men of few +words where many are not wanted, we can be less brief when there is a +matter of importance to be illustrated and an end to be served by its +illustration. Meanwhile we beg you to take what we may say, not in a +hostile spirit, nor as if we thought you ignorant and wished to +lecture you, but rather as a suggestion on the best course to be taken, +addressed to intelligent judges. You can now, if you choose, employ your +present success to advantage, so as to keep what you have got and gain +honour and reputation besides, and you can avoid the mistake of those +who meet with an extraordinary piece of good fortune, and are led on by +hope to grasp continually at something further, through having already +succeeded without expecting it. While those who have known most +vicissitudes of good and bad, have also justly least faith in their +prosperity; and to teach your city and ours this lesson experience has +not been wanting. + +"To be convinced of this you have only to look at our present +misfortune. What power in Hellas stood higher than we did? and yet we +are come to you, although we formerly thought ourselves more able +to grant what we are now here to ask. Nevertheless, we have not been +brought to this by any decay in our power, or through having our heads +turned by aggrandizement; no, our resources are what they have always +been, and our error has been an error of judgment, to which all are +equally liable. Accordingly, the prosperity which your city now enjoys, +and the accession that it has lately received, must not make you fancy +that fortune will be always with you. Indeed sensible men are prudent +enough to treat their gains as precarious, just as they would also +keep a clear head in adversity, and think that war, so far from staying +within the limit to which a combatant may wish to confine it, will run +the course that its chances prescribe; and thus, not being puffed up by +confidence in military success, they are less likely to come to grief, +and most ready to make peace, if they can, while their fortune lasts. +This, Athenians, you have a good opportunity to do now with us, and thus +to escape the possible disasters which may follow upon your refusal, and +the consequent imputation of having owed to accident even your present +advantages, when you might have left behind you a reputation for power +and wisdom which nothing could endanger. + +"The Lacedaemonians accordingly invite you to make a treaty and to end +the war, and offer peace and alliance and the most friendly and intimate +relations in every way and on every occasion between us; and in return +ask for the men on the island, thinking it better for both parties +not to stand out to the end, on the chance of some favourable accident +enabling the men to force their way out, or of their being compelled +to succumb under the pressure of blockade. Indeed if great enmities are +ever to be really settled, we think it will be, not by the system of +revenge and military success, and by forcing an opponent to swear to a +treaty to his disadvantage, but when the more fortunate combatant waives +these his privileges, to be guided by gentler feelings conquers his +rival in generosity, and accords peace on more moderate conditions than +he expected. From that moment, instead of the debt of revenge which +violence must entail, his adversary owes a debt of generosity to be paid +in kind, and is inclined by honour to stand to his agreement. And men +oftener act in this manner towards their greatest enemies than where the +quarrel is of less importance; they are also by nature as glad to give +way to those who first yield to them, as they are apt to be provoked by +arrogance to risks condemned by their own judgment. + +"To apply this to ourselves: if peace was ever desirable for both +parties, it is surely so at the present moment, before anything +irremediable befall us and force us to hate you eternally, personally +as well as politically, and you to miss the advantages that we now offer +you. While the issue is still in doubt, and you have reputation and our +friendship in prospect, and we the compromise of our misfortune before +anything fatal occur, let us be reconciled, and for ourselves choose +peace instead of war, and grant to the rest of the Hellenes a remission +from their sufferings, for which be sure they will think they have +chiefly you to thank. The war that they labour under they know not which +began, but the peace that concludes it, as it depends on your decision, +will by their gratitude be laid to your door. By such a decision you +can become firm friends with the Lacedaemonians at their own invitation, +which you do not force from them, but oblige them by accepting. And from +this friendship consider the advantages that are likely to follow: when +Attica and Sparta are at one, the rest of Hellas, be sure, will remain +in respectful inferiority before its heads." + +Such were the words of the Lacedaemonians, their idea being that the +Athenians, already desirous of a truce and only kept back by their +opposition, would joyfully accept a peace freely offered, and give back +the men. The Athenians, however, having the men on the island, thought +that the treaty would be ready for them whenever they chose to make it, +and grasped at something further. Foremost to encourage them in this +policy was Cleon, son of Cleaenetus, a popular leader of the time +and very powerful with the multitude, who persuaded them to answer as +follows: First, the men in the island must surrender themselves and +their arms and be brought to Athens. Next, the Lacedaemonians must +restore Nisaea, Pegae, Troezen, and Achaia, all places acquired not by +arms, but by the previous convention, under which they had been ceded by +Athens herself at a moment of disaster, when a truce was more necessary +to her than at present. This done they might take back their men, and +make a truce for as long as both parties might agree. + +To this answer the envoys made no reply, but asked that commissioners +might be chosen with whom they might confer on each point, and quietly +talk the matter over and try to come to some agreement. Hereupon Cleon +violently assailed them, saying that he knew from the first that they +had no right intentions, and that it was clear enough now by their +refusing to speak before the people, and wanting to confer in secret +with a committee of two or three. No, if they meant anything honest let +them say it out before all. The Lacedaemonians, however, seeing that +whatever concessions they might be prepared to make in their misfortune, +it was impossible for them to speak before the multitude and lose credit +with their allies for a negotiation which might after all miscarry, and +on the other hand, that the Athenians would never grant what they +asked upon moderate terms, returned from Athens without having effected +anything. + +Their arrival at once put an end to the armistice at Pylos, and the +Lacedaemonians asked back their ships according to the convention. The +Athenians, however, alleged an attack on the fort in contravention of +the truce, and other grievances seemingly not worth mentioning, and +refused to give them back, insisting upon the clause by which the +slightest infringement made the armistice void. The Lacedaemonians, +after denying the contravention and protesting against their bad faith +in the matter of the ships, went away and earnestly addressed themselves +to the war. Hostilities were now carried on at Pylos upon both sides +with vigour. The Athenians cruised round the island all day with two +ships going different ways; and by night, except on the seaward side in +windy weather, anchored round it with their whole fleet, which, having +been reinforced by twenty ships from Athens come to aid in the blockade, +now numbered seventy sail; while the Peloponnesians remained encamped on +the continent, making attacks on the fort, and on the look-out for any +opportunity which might offer itself for the deliverance of their men. + +Meanwhile the Syracusans and their allies in Sicily had brought up +to the squadron guarding Messina the reinforcement which we left them +preparing, and carried on the war from thence, incited chiefly by the +Locrians from hatred of the Rhegians, whose territory they had invaded +with all their forces. The Syracusans also wished to try their fortune +at sea, seeing that the Athenians had only a few ships actually at +Rhegium, and hearing that the main fleet destined to join them was +engaged in blockading the island. A naval victory, they thought, would +enable them to blockade Rhegium by sea and land, and easily to reduce +it; a success which would at once place their affairs upon a solid +basis, the promontory of Rhegium in Italy and Messina in Sicily being so +near each other that it would be impossible for the Athenians to cruise +against them and command the strait. The strait in question consists +of the sea between Rhegium and Messina, at the point where Sicily +approaches nearest to the continent, and is the Charybdis through which +the story makes Ulysses sail; and the narrowness of the passage and +the strength of the current that pours in from the vast Tyrrhenian and +Sicilian mains, have rightly given it a bad reputation. + +In this strait the Syracusans and their allies were compelled to fight, +late in the day, about the passage of a boat, putting out with rather +more than thirty ships against sixteen Athenian and eight Rhegian +vessels. Defeated by the Athenians they hastily set off, each for +himself, to their own stations at Messina and Rhegium, with the loss of +one ship; night coming on before the battle was finished. After this +the Locrians retired from the Rhegian territory, and the ships of the +Syracusans and their allies united and came to anchor at Cape Pelorus, +in the territory of Messina, where their land forces joined them. Here +the Athenians and Rhegians sailed up, and seeing the ships unmanned, +made an attack, in which they in their turn lost one vessel, which was +caught by a grappling iron, the crew saving themselves by swimming. +After this the Syracusans got on board their ships, and while they were +being towed alongshore to Messina, were again attacked by the Athenians, +but suddenly got out to sea and became the assailants, and caused them +to lose another vessel. After thus holding their own in the voyage +alongshore and in the engagement as above described, the Syracusans +sailed on into the harbour of Messina. + +Meanwhile the Athenians, having received warning that Camarina was +about to be betrayed to the Syracusans by Archias and his party, sailed +thither; and the Messinese took this opportunity to attack by sea and +land with all their forces their Chalcidian neighbour, Naxos. The first +day they forced the Naxians to keep their walls, and laid waste their +country; the next they sailed round with their ships, and laid waste +their land on the river Akesines, while their land forces menaced the +city. Meanwhile the Sicels came down from the high country in great +numbers, to aid against the Messinese; and the Naxians, elated at the +sight, and animated by a belief that the Leontines and their other +Hellenic allies were coming to their support, suddenly sallied out from +the town, and attacked and routed the Messinese, killing more than a +thousand of them; while the remainder suffered severely in their retreat +home, being attacked by the barbarians on the road, and most of them +cut off. The ships put in to Messina, and afterwards dispersed for their +different homes. The Leontines and their allies, with the Athenians, +upon this at once turned their arms against the now weakened Messina, +and attacked, the Athenians with their ships on the side of the harbour, +and the land forces on that of the town. The Messinese, however, +sallying out with Demoteles and some Locrians who had been left to +garrison the city after the disaster, suddenly attacked and routed most +of the Leontine army, killing a great number; upon seeing which the +Athenians landed from their ships, and falling on the Messinese in +disorder chased them back into the town, and setting up a trophy retired +to Rhegium. After this the Hellenes in Sicily continued to make war on +each other by land, without the Athenians. + +Meanwhile the Athenians at Pylos were still besieging the Lacedaemonians +in the island, the Peloponnesian forces on the continent remaining where +they were. The blockade was very laborious for the Athenians from want +of food and water; there was no spring except one in the citadel of +Pylos itself, and that not a large one, and most of them were obliged to +grub up the shingle on the sea beach and drink such water as they could +find. They also suffered from want of room, being encamped in a narrow +space; and as there was no anchorage for the ships, some took their +meals on shore in their turn, while the others were anchored out at sea. +But their greatest discouragement arose from the unexpectedly long time +which it took to reduce a body of men shut up in a desert island, with +only brackish water to drink, a matter which they had imagined would +take them only a few days. The fact was that the Lacedaemonians had made +advertisement for volunteers to carry into the island ground corn, wine, +cheese, and any other food useful in a siege; high prices being offered, +and freedom promised to any of the Helots who should succeed in doing +so. The Helots accordingly were most forward to engage in this risky +traffic, putting off from this or that part of Peloponnese, and running +in by night on the seaward side of the island. They were best pleased, +however, when they could catch a wind to carry them in. It was more easy +to elude the look-out of the galleys, when it blew from the seaward, +as it became impossible for them to anchor round the island; while +the Helots had their boats rated at their value in money, and ran them +ashore, without caring how they landed, being sure to find the soldiers +waiting for them at the landing-places. But all who risked it in fair +weather were taken. Divers also swam in under water from the harbour, +dragging by a cord in skins poppyseed mixed with honey, and bruised +linseed; these at first escaped notice, but afterwards a look-out was +kept for them. In short, both sides tried every possible contrivance, +the one to throw in provisions, and the other to prevent their +introduction. + +At Athens, meanwhile, the news that the army was in great distress, and +that corn found its way in to the men in the island, caused no small +perplexity; and the Athenians began to fear that winter might come on +and find them still engaged in the blockade. They saw that the convoying +of provisions round Peloponnese would be then impossible. The country +offered no resources in itself, and even in summer they could not send +round enough. The blockade of a place without harbours could no +longer be kept up; and the men would either escape by the siege being +abandoned, or would watch for bad weather and sail out in the boats that +brought in their corn. What caused still more alarm was the attitude +of the Lacedaemonians, who must, it was thought by the Athenians, feel +themselves on strong ground not to send them any more envoys; and +they began to repent having rejected the treaty. Cleon, perceiving the +disfavour with which he was regarded for having stood in the way of the +convention, now said that their informants did not speak the truth; and +upon the messengers recommending them, if they did not believe them, to +send some commissioners to see, Cleon himself and Theagenes were chosen +by the Athenians as commissioners. Aware that he would now be obliged +either to say what had been already said by the men whom he was +slandering, or be proved a liar if he said the contrary, he told the +Athenians, whom he saw to be not altogether disinclined for a fresh +expedition, that instead of sending and wasting their time and +opportunities, if they believed what was told them, they ought to sail +against the men. And pointing at Nicias, son of Niceratus, then general, +whom he hated, he tauntingly said that it would be easy, if they had +men for generals, to sail with a force and take those in the island, and +that if he had himself been in command, he would have done it. + +Nicias, seeing the Athenians murmuring against Cleon for not sailing now +if it seemed to him so easy, and further seeing himself the object of +attack, told him that for all that the generals cared, he might take +what force he chose and make the attempt. At first Cleon fancied that +this resignation was merely a figure of speech, and was ready to go, but +finding that it was seriously meant, he drew back, and said that Nicias, +not he, was general, being now frightened, and having never supposed +that Nicias would go so far as to retire in his favour. Nicias, however, +repeated his offer, and resigned the command against Pylos, and called +the Athenians to witness that he did so. And as the multitude is wont to +do, the more Cleon shrank from the expedition and tried to back out +of what he had said, the more they encouraged Nicias to hand over his +command, and clamoured at Cleon to go. At last, not knowing how to get +out of his words, he undertook the expedition, and came forward and said +that he was not afraid of the Lacedaemonians, but would sail without +taking any one from the city with him, except the Lemnians and Imbrians +that were at Athens, with some targeteers that had come up from Aenus, +and four hundred archers from other quarters. With these and the +soldiers at Pylos, he would within twenty days either bring the +Lacedaemonians alive, or kill them on the spot. The Athenians could not +help laughing at his fatuity, while sensible men comforted themselves +with the reflection that they must gain in either circumstance; either +they would be rid of Cleon, which they rather hoped, or if disappointed +in this expectation, would reduce the Lacedaemonians. + +After he had settled everything in the assembly, and the Athenians +had voted him the command of the expedition, he chose as his colleague +Demosthenes, one of the generals at Pylos, and pushed forward the +preparations for his voyage. His choice fell upon Demosthenes because +he heard that he was contemplating a descent on the island; the soldiers +distressed by the difficulties of the position, and rather besieged than +besiegers, being eager to fight it out, while the firing of the island +had increased the confidence of the general. He had been at first +afraid, because the island having never been inhabited was almost +entirely covered with wood and without paths, thinking this to be in +the enemy's favour, as he might land with a large force, and yet might +suffer loss by an attack from an unseen position. The mistakes and +forces of the enemy the wood would in a great measure conceal from him, +while every blunder of his own troops would be at once detected, and +they would be thus able to fall upon him unexpectedly just where they +pleased, the attack being always in their power. If, on the other hand, +he should force them to engage in the thicket, the smaller number who +knew the country would, he thought, have the advantage over the +larger who were ignorant of it, while his own army might be cut off +imperceptibly, in spite of its numbers, as the men would not be able to +see where to succour each other. + +The Aetolian disaster, which had been mainly caused by the wood, had not +a little to do with these reflections. Meanwhile, one of the soldiers +who were compelled by want of room to land on the extremities of +the island and take their dinners, with outposts fixed to prevent a +surprise, set fire to a little of the wood without meaning to do so; +and as it came on to blow soon afterwards, almost the whole was consumed +before they were aware of it. Demosthenes was now able for the first +time to see how numerous the Lacedaemonians really were, having up to +this moment been under the impression that they took in provisions for a +smaller number; he also saw that the Athenians thought success important +and were anxious about it, and that it was now easier to land on the +island, and accordingly got ready for the attempt, sent for troops +from the allies in the neighbourhood, and pushed forward his other +preparations. At this moment Cleon arrived at Pylos with the troops +which he had asked for, having sent on word to say that he was coming. +The first step taken by the two generals after their meeting was to send +a herald to the camp on the mainland, to ask if they were disposed +to avoid all risk and to order the men on the island to surrender +themselves and their arms, to be kept in gentle custody until some +general convention should be concluded. + +On the rejection of this proposition the generals let one day pass, and +the next, embarking all their heavy infantry on board a few ships, +put out by night, and a little before dawn landed on both sides of the +island from the open sea and from the harbour, being about eight hundred +strong, and advanced with a run against the first post in the island. + +The enemy had distributed his force as follows: In this first post there +were about thirty heavy infantry; the centre and most level part, +where the water was, was held by the main body, and by Epitadas their +commander; while a small party guarded the very end of the island, +towards Pylos, which was precipitous on the sea-side and very difficult +to attack from the land, and where there was also a sort of old fort of +stones rudely put together, which they thought might be useful to them, +in case they should be forced to retreat. Such was their disposition. + +The advanced post thus attacked by the Athenians was at once put to the +sword, the men being scarcely out of bed and still arming, the landing +having taken them by surprise, as they fancied the ships were only +sailing as usual to their stations for the night. As soon as day broke, +the rest of the army landed, that is to say, all the crews of rather +more than seventy ships, except the lowest rank of oars, with the +arms they carried, eight hundred archers, and as many targeteers, the +Messenian reinforcements, and all the other troops on duty round Pylos, +except the garrison on the fort. The tactics of Demosthenes had divided +them into companies of two hundred, more or less, and made them occupy +the highest points in order to paralyse the enemy by surrounding him on +every side and thus leaving him without any tangible adversary, exposed +to the cross-fire of their host; plied by those in his rear if he +attacked in front, and by those on one flank if he moved against those +on the other. In short, wherever he went he would have the assailants +behind him, and these light-armed assailants, the most awkward of all; +arrows, darts, stones, and slings making them formidable at a distance, +and there being no means of getting at them at close quarters, as they +could conquer flying, and the moment their pursuer turned they were upon +him. Such was the idea that inspired Demosthenes in his conception of +the descent, and presided over its execution. + +Meanwhile the main body of the troops in the island (that under +Epitadas), seeing their outpost cut off and an army advancing against +them, serried their ranks and pressed forward to close with the Athenian +heavy infantry in front of them, the light troops being upon their +flanks and rear. However, they were not able to engage or to profit by +their superior skill, the light troops keeping them in check on either +side with their missiles, and the heavy infantry remaining stationary +instead of advancing to meet them; and although they routed the light +troops wherever they ran up and approached too closely, yet they +retreated fighting, being lightly equipped, and easily getting the start +in their flight, from the difficult and rugged nature of the ground, +in an island hitherto desert, over which the Lacedaemonians could not +pursue them with their heavy armour. + +After this skirmishing had lasted some little while, the Lacedaemonians +became unable to dash out with the same rapidity as before upon the +points attacked, and the light troops finding that they now fought with +less vigour, became more confident. They could see with their own eyes +that they were many times more numerous than the enemy; they were now +more familiar with his aspect and found him less terrible, the result +not having justified the apprehensions which they had suffered, +when they first landed in slavish dismay at the idea of attacking +Lacedaemonians; and accordingly their fear changing to disdain, they +now rushed all together with loud shouts upon them, and pelted them with +stones, darts, and arrows, whichever came first to hand. The shouting +accompanying their onset confounded the Lacedaemonians, unaccustomed to +this mode of fighting; dust rose from the newly burnt wood, and it was +impossible to see in front of one with the arrows and stones flying +through clouds of dust from the hands of numerous assailants. The +Lacedaemonians had now to sustain a rude conflict; their caps would not +keep out the arrows, darts had broken off in the armour of the wounded, +while they themselves were helpless for offence, being prevented from +using their eyes to see what was before them, and unable to hear the +words of command for the hubbub raised by the enemy; danger encompassed +them on every side, and there was no hope of any means of defence or +safety. + +At last, after many had been already wounded in the confined space in +which they were fighting, they formed in close order and retired on +the fort at the end of the island, which was not far off, and to their +friends who held it. The moment they gave way, the light troops became +bolder and pressed upon them, shouting louder than ever, and killed +as many as they came up with in their retreat, but most of the +Lacedaemonians made good their escape to the fort, and with the garrison +in it ranged themselves all along its whole extent to repulse the enemy +wherever it was assailable. The Athenians pursuing, unable to surround +and hem them in, owing to the strength of the ground, attacked them in +front and tried to storm the position. For a long time, indeed for most +of the day, both sides held out against all the torments of the battle, +thirst, and sun, the one endeavouring to drive the enemy from the high +ground, the other to maintain himself upon it, it being now more easy +for the Lacedaemonians to defend themselves than before, as they could +not be surrounded on the flanks. + +The struggle began to seem endless, when the commander of the Messenians +came to Cleon and Demosthenes, and told them that they were losing their +labour: but if they would give him some archers and light troops to +go round on the enemy's rear by a way he would undertake to find, he +thought he could force the approach. Upon receiving what he asked for, +he started from a point out of sight in order not to be seen by the +enemy, and creeping on wherever the precipices of the island permitted, +and where the Lacedaemonians, trusting to the strength of the ground, +kept no guard, succeeded after the greatest difficulty in getting round +without their seeing him, and suddenly appeared on the high ground in +their rear, to the dismay of the surprised enemy and the still greater +joy of his expectant friends. The Lacedaemonians thus placed between two +fires, and in the same dilemma, to compare small things with great, as +at Thermopylae, where the defenders were cut off through the Persians +getting round by the path, being now attacked in front and behind, began +to give way, and overcome by the odds against them and exhausted from +want of food, retreated. + +The Athenians were already masters of the approaches when Cleon and +Demosthenes perceiving that, if the enemy gave way a single step +further, they would be destroyed by their soldiery, put a stop to the +battle and held their men back; wishing to take the Lacedaemonians alive +to Athens, and hoping that their stubbornness might relax on hearing the +offer of terms, and that they might surrender and yield to the present +overwhelming danger. Proclamation was accordingly made, to know if they +would surrender themselves and their arms to the Athenians to be dealt +at their discretion. + +The Lacedaemonians hearing this offer, most of them lowered their +shields and waved their hands to show that they accepted it. Hostilities +now ceased, and a parley was held between Cleon and Demosthenes and +Styphon, son of Pharax, on the other side; since Epitadas, the first of +the previous commanders, had been killed, and Hippagretas, the next in +command, left for dead among the slain, though still alive, and thus +the command had devolved upon Styphon according to the law, in case of +anything happening to his superiors. Styphon and his companions said +they wished to send a herald to the Lacedaemonians on the mainland, to +know what they were to do. The Athenians would not let any of them go, +but themselves called for heralds from the mainland, and after questions +had been carried backwards and forwards two or three times, the last man +that passed over from the Lacedaemonians on the continent brought this +message: "The Lacedaemonians bid you to decide for yourselves so long as +you do nothing dishonourable"; upon which after consulting together they +surrendered themselves and their arms. The Athenians, after guarding +them that day and night, the next morning set up a trophy in the island, +and got ready to sail, giving their prisoners in batches to be guarded +by the captains of the galleys; and the Lacedaemonians sent a herald and +took up their dead. The number of the killed and prisoners taken in the +island was as follows: four hundred and twenty heavy infantry had passed +over; three hundred all but eight were taken alive to Athens; the rest +were killed. About a hundred and twenty of the prisoners were Spartans. +The Athenian loss was small, the battle not having been fought at close +quarters. + +The blockade in all, counting from the fight at sea to the battle in +the island, had lasted seventy-two days. For twenty of these, during the +absence of the envoys sent to treat for peace, the men had provisions +given them, for the rest they were fed by the smugglers. Corn and other +victual was found in the island; the commander Epitadas having kept +the men upon half rations. The Athenians and Peloponnesians now each +withdrew their forces from Pylos, and went home, and crazy as Cleon's +promise was, he fulfilled it, by bringing the men to Athens within the +twenty days as he had pledged himself to do. + +Nothing that happened in the war surprised the Hellenes so much as this. +It was the opinion that no force or famine could make the Lacedaemonians +give up their arms, but that they would fight on as they could, and +die with them in their hands: indeed people could scarcely believe that +those who had surrendered were of the same stuff as the fallen; and +an Athenian ally, who some time after insultingly asked one of the +prisoners from the island if those that had fallen were men of honour, +received for answer that the atraktos--that is, the arrow--would be +worth a great deal if it could tell men of honour from the rest; in +allusion to the fact that the killed were those whom the stones and the +arrows happened to hit. + +Upon the arrival of the men the Athenians determined to keep them in +prison until the peace, and if the Peloponnesians invaded their country +in the interval, to bring them out and put them to death. Meanwhile the +defence of Pylos was not forgotten; the Messenians from Naupactus sent +to their old country, to which Pylos formerly belonged, some of the +likeliest of their number, and began a series of incursions into +Laconia, which their common dialect rendered most destructive. The +Lacedaemonians, hitherto without experience of incursions or a warfare +of the kind, finding the Helots deserting, and fearing the march of +revolution in their country, began to be seriously uneasy, and in spite +of their unwillingness to betray this to the Athenians began to send +envoys to Athens, and tried to recover Pylos and the prisoners. The +Athenians, however, kept grasping at more, and dismissed envoy after +envoy without their having effected anything. Such was the history of +the affair of Pylos. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +_Seventh and Eighth Years of the War--End of Corcyraean Revolution-- +Peace of Gela--Capture of Nisaea_ + +The same summer, directly after these events, the Athenians made an +expedition against the territory of Corinth with eighty ships and two +thousand Athenian heavy infantry, and two hundred cavalry on board horse +transports, accompanied by the Milesians, Andrians, and Carystians from +the allies, under the command of Nicias, son of Niceratus, with two +colleagues. Putting out to sea they made land at daybreak between +Chersonese and Rheitus, at the beach of the country underneath +the Solygian hill, upon which the Dorians in old times established +themselves and carried on war against the Aeolian inhabitants of +Corinth, and where a village now stands called Solygia. The beach where +the fleet came to is about a mile and a half from the village, seven +miles from Corinth, and two and a quarter from the Isthmus. The +Corinthians had heard from Argos of the coming of the Athenian armament, +and had all come up to the Isthmus long before, with the exception of +those who lived beyond it, and also of five hundred who were away in +garrison in Ambracia and Leucadia; and they were there in full force +watching for the Athenians to land. These last, however, gave them the +slip by coming in the dark; and being informed by signals of the +fact the Corinthians left half their number at Cenchreae, in case the +Athenians should go against Crommyon, and marched in all haste to the +rescue. + +Battus, one of the two generals present at the action, went with +a company to defend the village of Solygia, which was unfortified; +Lycophron remaining to give battle with the rest. The Corinthians first +attacked the right wing of the Athenians, which had just landed in front +of Chersonese, and afterwards the rest of the army. The battle was an +obstinate one, and fought throughout hand to hand. The right wing of the +Athenians and Carystians, who had been placed at the end of the +line, received and with some difficulty repulsed the Corinthians, +who thereupon retreated to a wall upon the rising ground behind, and +throwing down the stones upon them, came on again singing the paean, and +being received by the Athenians, were again engaged at close quarters. +At this moment a Corinthian company having come to the relief of the +left wing, routed and pursued the Athenian right to the sea, whence they +were in their turn driven back by the Athenians and Carystians from +the ships. Meanwhile the rest of the army on either side fought on +tenaciously, especially the right wing of the Corinthians, where +Lycophron sustained the attack of the Athenian left, which it was feared +might attempt the village of Solygia. + +After holding on for a long while without either giving way, the +Athenians aided by their horse, of which the enemy had none, at length +routed the Corinthians, who retired to the hill and, halting, remained +quiet there, without coming down again. It was in this rout of the right +wing that they had the most killed, Lycophron their general being among +the number. The rest of the army, broken and put to flight in this way +without being seriously pursued or hurried, retired to the high ground +and there took up its position. The Athenians, finding that the enemy no +longer offered to engage them, stripped his dead and took up their own +and immediately set up a trophy. Meanwhile, the half of the Corinthians +left at Cenchreae to guard against the Athenians sailing on Crommyon, +although unable to see the battle for Mount Oneion, found out what was +going on by the dust, and hurried up to the rescue; as did also the +older Corinthians from the town, upon discovering what had occurred. The +Athenians seeing them all coming against them, and thinking that they +were reinforcements arriving from the neighbouring Peloponnesians, +withdrew in haste to their ships with their spoils and their own dead, +except two that they left behind, not being able to find them, and going +on board crossed over to the islands opposite, and from thence sent a +herald, and took up under truce the bodies which they had left behind. +Two hundred and twelve Corinthians fell in the battle, and rather less +than fifty Athenians. + +Weighing from the islands, the Athenians sailed the same day to Crommyon +in the Corinthian territory, about thirteen miles from the city, and +coming to anchor laid waste the country, and passed the night there. The +next day, after first coasting along to the territory of Epidaurus +and making a descent there, they came to Methana between Epidaurus +and Troezen, and drew a wall across and fortified the isthmus of the +peninsula, and left a post there from which incursions were henceforth +made upon the country of Troezen, Haliae, and Epidaurus. After walling +off this spot, the fleet sailed off home. + +While these events were going on, Eurymedon and Sophocles had put to sea +with the Athenian fleet from Pylos on their way to Sicily and, arriving +at Corcyra, joined the townsmen in an expedition against the party +established on Mount Istone, who had crossed over, as I have mentioned, +after the revolution and become masters of the country, to the great +hurt of the inhabitants. Their stronghold having been taken by an +attack, the garrison took refuge in a body upon some high ground and +there capitulated, agreeing to give up their mercenary auxiliaries, lay +down their arms, and commit themselves to the discretion of the Athenian +people. The generals carried them across under truce to the island of +Ptychia, to be kept in custody until they could be sent to Athens, upon +the understanding that, if any were caught running away, all would +lose the benefit of the treaty. Meanwhile the leaders of the Corcyraean +commons, afraid that the Athenians might spare the lives of the +prisoners, had recourse to the following stratagem. They gained over +some few men on the island by secretly sending friends with instructions +to provide them with a boat, and to tell them, as if for their own +sakes, that they had best escape as quickly as possible, as the Athenian +generals were going to give them up to the Corcyraean people. + +These representations succeeding, it was so arranged that the men were +caught sailing out in the boat that was provided, and the treaty became +void accordingly, and the whole body were given up to the Corcyraeans. +For this result the Athenian generals were in a great measure +responsible; their evident disinclination to sail for Sicily, and +thus to leave to others the honour of conducting the men to Athens, +encouraged the intriguers in their design and seemed to affirm the truth +of their representations. The prisoners thus handed over were shut up +by the Corcyraeans in a large building, and afterwards taken out by +twenties and led past two lines of heavy infantry, one on each side, +being bound together, and beaten and stabbed by the men in the lines +whenever any saw pass a personal enemy; while men carrying whips went by +their side and hastened on the road those that walked too slowly. + +As many as sixty men were taken out and killed in this way without the +knowledge of their friends in the building, who fancied they were merely +being moved from one prison to another. At last, however, someone opened +their eyes to the truth, upon which they called upon the Athenians to +kill them themselves, if such was their pleasure, and refused any longer +to go out of the building, and said they would do all they could to +prevent any one coming in. The Corcyraeans, not liking themselves to +force a passage by the doors, got up on the top of the building, and +breaking through the roof, threw down the tiles and let fly arrows at +them, from which the prisoners sheltered themselves as well as they +could. Most of their number, meanwhile, were engaged in dispatching +themselves by thrusting into their throats the arrows shot by the enemy, +and hanging themselves with the cords taken from some beds that happened +to be there, and with strips made from their clothing; adopting, in +short, every possible means of self-destruction, and also falling +victims to the missiles of their enemies on the roof. Night came on +while these horrors were enacting, and most of it had passed before they +were concluded. When it was day the Corcyraeans threw them in layers +upon wagons and carried them out of the city. All the women taken in +the stronghold were sold as slaves. In this way the Corcyraeans of the +mountain were destroyed by the commons; and so after terrible excesses +the party strife came to an end, at least as far as the period of this +war is concerned, for of one party there was practically nothing left. +Meanwhile the Athenians sailed off to Sicily, their primary destination, +and carried on the war with their allies there. + +At the close of the summer, the Athenians at Naupactus and the +Acarnanians made an expedition against Anactorium, the Corinthian town +lying at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, and took it by treachery; +and the Acarnanians themselves, sending settlers from all parts of +Acarnania, occupied the place. + +Summer was now over. During the winter ensuing, Aristides, son of +Archippus, one of the commanders of the Athenian ships sent to collect +money from the allies, arrested at Eion, on the Strymon, Artaphernes, +a Persian, on his way from the King to Lacedaemon. He was conducted +to Athens, where the Athenians got his dispatches translated from the +Assyrian character and read them. With numerous references to other +subjects, they in substance told the Lacedaemonians that the King did +not know what they wanted, as of the many ambassadors they had sent him +no two ever told the same story; if however they were prepared to speak +plainly they might send him some envoys with this Persian. The Athenians +afterwards sent back Artaphernes in a galley to Ephesus, and ambassadors +with him, who heard there of the death of King Artaxerxes, son of +Xerxes, which took place about that time, and so returned home. + +The same winter the Chians pulled down their new wall at the command of +the Athenians, who suspected them of meditating an insurrection, after +first however obtaining pledges from the Athenians, and security as far +as this was possible for their continuing to treat them as before. Thus +the winter ended, and with it ended the seventh year of this war of +which Thucydides is the historian. + +In first days of the next summer there was an eclipse of the sun at the +time of new moon, and in the early part of the same month an earthquake. +Meanwhile, the Mitylenian and other Lesbian exiles set out, for the +most part from the continent, with mercenaries hired in Peloponnese, and +others levied on the spot, and took Rhoeteum, but restored it without +injury on the receipt of two thousand Phocaean staters. After this they +marched against Antandrus and took the town by treachery, their plan +being to free Antandrus and the rest of the Actaean towns, formerly +owned by Mitylene but now held by the Athenians. Once fortified there, +they would have every facility for ship-building from the vicinity +of Ida and the consequent abundance of timber, and plenty of other +supplies, and might from this base easily ravage Lesbos, which was +not far off, and make themselves masters of the Aeolian towns on the +continent. + +While these were the schemes of the exiles, the Athenians in the same +summer made an expedition with sixty ships, two thousand heavy infantry, +a few cavalry, and some allied troops from Miletus and other parts, +against Cythera, under the command of Nicias, son of Niceratus, +Nicostratus, son of Diotrephes, and Autocles, son of Tolmaeus. Cythera +is an island lying off Laconia, opposite Malea; the inhabitants are +Lacedaemonians of the class of the Perioeci; and an officer called the +judge of Cythera went over to the place annually from Sparta. A garrison +of heavy infantry was also regularly sent there, and great attention +paid to the island, as it was the landing-place for the merchantmen from +Egypt and Libya, and at the same time secured Laconia from the attacks +of privateers from the sea, at the only point where it is assailable, as +the whole coast rises abruptly towards the Sicilian and Cretan seas. + +Coming to land here with their armament, the Athenians with ten ships +and two thousand Milesian heavy infantry took the town of Scandea, on +the sea; and with the rest of their forces landing on the side of the +island looking towards Malea, went against the lower town of Cythera, +where they found all the inhabitants encamped. A battle ensuing, the +Cytherians held their ground for some little while, and then turned +and fled into the upper town, where they soon afterwards capitulated to +Nicias and his colleagues, agreeing to leave their fate to the decision +of the Athenians, their lives only being safe. A correspondence had +previously been going on between Nicias and certain of the inhabitants, +which caused the surrender to be effected more speedily, and upon terms +more advantageous, present and future, for the Cytherians; who would +otherwise have been expelled by the Athenians on account of their being +Lacedaemonians and their island being so near to Laconia. After the +capitulation, the Athenians occupied the town of Scandea near the +harbour, and appointing a garrison for Cythera, sailed to Asine, Helus, +and most of the places on the sea, and making descents and passing the +night on shore at such spots as were convenient, continued ravaging the +country for about seven days. + +The Lacedaemonians seeing the Athenians masters of Cythera, and +expecting descents of the kind upon their coasts, nowhere opposed +them in force, but sent garrisons here and there through the country, +consisting of as many heavy infantry as the points menaced seemed to +require, and generally stood very much upon the defensive. After the +severe and unexpected blow that had befallen them in the island, the +occupation of Pylos and Cythera, and the apparition on every side of +a war whose rapidity defied precaution, they lived in constant fear +of internal revolution, and now took the unusual step of raising four +hundred horse and a force of archers, and became more timid than ever +in military matters, finding themselves involved in a maritime struggle, +which their organization had never contemplated, and that against +Athenians, with whom an enterprise unattempted was always looked upon +as a success sacrificed. Besides this, their late numerous reverses +of fortune, coming close one upon another without any reason, had +thoroughly unnerved them, and they were always afraid of a second +disaster like that on the island, and thus scarcely dared to take the +field, but fancied that they could not stir without a blunder, for +being new to the experience of adversity they had lost all confidence in +themselves. + +Accordingly they now allowed the Athenians to ravage their seaboard, +without making any movement, the garrisons in whose neighbourhood the +descents were made always thinking their numbers insufficient, and +sharing the general feeling. A single garrison which ventured to resist, +near Cotyrta and Aphrodisia, struck terror by its charge into the +scattered mob of light troops, but retreated, upon being received by the +heavy infantry, with the loss of a few men and some arms, for which the +Athenians set up a trophy, and then sailed off to Cythera. From thence +they sailed round to Epidaurus Limera, ravaged part of the country, +and so came to Thyrea in the Cynurian territory, upon the Argive and +Laconian border. This district had been given by its Lacedaemonian +owners to the expelled Aeginetans to inhabit, in return for their good +offices at the time of the earthquake and the rising of the Helots; and +also because, although subjects of Athens, they had always sided with +Lacedaemon. + +While the Athenians were still at sea, the Aeginetans evacuated a fort +which they were building upon the coast, and retreated into the upper +town where they lived, rather more than a mile from the sea. One of the +Lacedaemonian district garrisons which was helping them in the work, +refused to enter here with them at their entreaty, thinking it dangerous +to shut themselves up within the wall, and retiring to the high ground +remained quiet, not considering themselves a match for the enemy. +Meanwhile the Athenians landed, and instantly advanced with all their +forces and took Thyrea. The town they burnt, pillaging what was in +it; the Aeginetans who were not slain in action they took with them to +Athens, with Tantalus, son of Patrocles, their Lacedaemonian commander, +who had been wounded and taken prisoner. They also took with them a +few men from Cythera whom they thought it safest to remove. These the +Athenians determined to lodge in the islands: the rest of the Cytherians +were to retain their lands and pay four talents tribute; the Aeginetans +captured to be all put to death, on account of the old inveterate feud; +and Tantalus to share the imprisonment of the Lacedaemonians taken on +the island. + +The same summer, the inhabitants of Camarina and Gela in Sicily first +made an armistice with each other, after which embassies from all +the other Sicilian cities assembled at Gela to try to bring about a +pacification. After many expressions of opinion on one side and the +other, according to the griefs and pretensions of the different +parties complaining, Hermocrates, son of Hermon, a Syracusan, the +most influential man among them, addressed the following words to the +assembly: + +"If I now address you, Sicilians, it is not because my city is the least +in Sicily or the greatest sufferer by the war, but in order to state +publicly what appears to me to be the best policy for the whole island. +That war is an evil is a proposition so familiar to every one that it +would be tedious to develop it. No one is forced to engage in it by +ignorance, or kept out of it by fear, if he fancies there is anything to +be gained by it. To the former the gain appears greater than the danger, +while the latter would rather stand the risk than put up with any +immediate sacrifice. But if both should happen to have chosen the +wrong moment for acting in this way, advice to make peace would not be +unserviceable; and this, if we did but see it, is just what we stand +most in need of at the present juncture. + +"I suppose that no one will dispute that we went to war at first in +order to serve our own several interests, that we are now, in view +of the same interests, debating how we can make peace; and that if +we separate without having as we think our rights, we shall go to war +again. And yet, as men of sense, we ought to see that our separate +interests are not alone at stake in the present congress: there is also +the question whether we have still time to save Sicily, the whole of +which in my opinion is menaced by Athenian ambition; and we ought to +find in the name of that people more imperious arguments for peace than +any which I can advance, when we see the first power in Hellas watching +our mistakes with the few ships that she has at present in our waters, +and under the fair name of alliance speciously seeking to turn to +account the natural hostility that exists between us. If we go to war, +and call in to help us a people that are ready enough to carry their +arms even where they are not invited; and if we injure ourselves at +our own expense, and at the same time serve as the pioneers of their +dominion, we may expect, when they see us worn out, that they will +one day come with a larger armament, and seek to bring all of us into +subjection. + +"And yet as sensible men, if we call in allies and court danger, +it should be in order to enrich our different countries with new +acquisitions, and not to ruin what they possess already; and we should +understand that the intestine discords which are so fatal to communities +generally, will be equally so to Sicily, if we, its inhabitants, +absorbed in our local quarrels, neglect the common enemy. These +considerations should reconcile individual with individual, and city +with city, and unite us in a common effort to save the whole of Sicily. +Nor should any one imagine that the Dorians only are enemies of Athens, +while the Chalcidian race is secured by its Ionian blood; the attack in +question is not inspired by hatred of one of two nationalities, but by +a desire for the good things in Sicily, the common property of us all. +This is proved by the Athenian reception of the Chalcidian invitation: +an ally who has never given them any assistance whatever, at once +receives from them almost more than the treaty entitles him to. That the +Athenians should cherish this ambition and practise this policy is very +excusable; and I do not blame those who wish to rule, but those who are +over-ready to serve. It is just as much in men's nature to rule those +who submit to them, as it is to resist those who molest them; one is not +less invariable than the other. Meanwhile all who see these dangers +and refuse to provide for them properly, or who have come here without +having made up their minds that our first duty is to unite to get rid of +the common peril, are mistaken. The quickest way to be rid of it is to +make peace with each other; since the Athenians menace us not from their +own country, but from that of those who invited them here. In this way +instead of war issuing in war, peace quietly ends our quarrels; and the +guests who come hither under fair pretences for bad ends, will have good +reason for going away without having attained them. + +"So far as regards the Athenians, such are the great advantages proved +inherent in a wise policy. Independently of this, in the face of the +universal consent, that peace is the first of blessings, how can we +refuse to make it amongst ourselves; or do you not think that the good +which you have, and the ills that you complain of, would be better +preserved and cured by quiet than by war; that peace has its honours and +splendours of a less perilous kind, not to mention the numerous other +blessings that one might dilate on, with the not less numerous miseries +of war? These considerations should teach you not to disregard my words, +but rather to look in them every one for his own safety. If there be any +here who feels certain either by right or might to effect his object, +let not this surprise be to him too severe a disappointment. Let him +remember that many before now have tried to chastise a wrongdoer, and +failing to punish their enemy have not even saved themselves; while +many who have trusted in force to gain an advantage, instead of gaining +anything more, have been doomed to lose what they had. Vengeance is not +necessarily successful because wrong has been done, or strength sure +because it is confident; but the incalculable element in the future +exercises the widest influence, and is the most treacherous, and yet in +fact the most useful of all things, as it frightens us all equally, and +thus makes us consider before attacking each other. + +"Let us therefore now allow the undefined fear of this unknown future, +and the immediate terror of the Athenians' presence, to produce their +natural impression, and let us consider any failure to carry out +the programmes that we may each have sketched out for ourselves as +sufficiently accounted for by these obstacles, and send away the +intruder from the country; and if everlasting peace be impossible +between us, let us at all events make a treaty for as long a term as +possible, and put off our private differences to another day. In fine, +let us recognize that the adoption of my advice will leave us each +citizens of a free state, and as such arbiters of our own destiny, able +to return good or bad offices with equal effect; while its rejection +will make us dependent on others, and thus not only impotent to repel +an insult, but on the most favourable supposition, friends to our direst +enemies, and at feud with our natural friends. + +"For myself, though, as I said at first, the representative of a great +city, and able to think less of defending myself than of attacking +others, I am prepared to concede something in prevision of these +dangers. I am not inclined to ruin myself for the sake of hurting my +enemies, or so blinded by animosity as to think myself equally master +of my own plans and of fortune which I cannot command; but I am ready +to give up anything in reason. I call upon the rest of you to imitate +my conduct of your own free will, without being forced to do so by the +enemy. There is no disgrace in connections giving way to one another, +a Dorian to a Dorian, or a Chalcidian to his brethren; above and beyond +this we are neighbours, live in the same country, are girt by the same +sea, and go by the same name of Sicilians. We shall go to war again, I +suppose, when the time comes, and again make peace among ourselves by +means of future congresses; but the foreign invader, if we are wise, +will always find us united against him, since the hurt of one is the +danger of all; and we shall never, in future, invite into the island +either allies or mediators. By so acting we shall at the present moment +do for Sicily a double service, ridding her at once of the Athenians, +and of civil war, and in future shall live in freedom at home, and be +less menaced from abroad." + +Such were the words of Hermocrates. The Sicilians took his advice, and +came to an understanding among themselves to end the war, each keeping +what they had--the Camarinaeans taking Morgantina at a price fixed to +be paid to the Syracusans--and the allies of the Athenians called the +officers in command, and told them that they were going to make peace +and that they would be included in the treaty. The generals assenting, +the peace was concluded, and the Athenian fleet afterwards sailed +away from Sicily. Upon their arrival at Athens, the Athenians banished +Pythodorus and Sophocles, and fined Eurymedon for having taken bribes +to depart when they might have subdued Sicily. So thoroughly had the +present prosperity persuaded the citizens that nothing could withstand +them, and that they could achieve what was possible and impracticable +alike, with means ample or inadequate it mattered not. The secret of +this was their general extraordinary success, which made them confuse +their strength with their hopes. + +The same summer the Megarians in the city, pressed by the hostilities of +the Athenians, who invaded their country twice every year with all their +forces, and harassed by the incursions of their own exiles at Pegae, +who had been expelled in a revolution by the popular party, began to ask +each other whether it would not be better to receive back their exiles, +and free the town from one of its two scourges. The friends of the +emigrants, perceiving the agitation, now more openly than before +demanded the adoption of this proposition; and the leaders of the +commons, seeing that the sufferings of the times had tired out +the constancy of their supporters, entered in their alarm into +correspondence with the Athenian generals, Hippocrates, son of Ariphron, +and Demosthenes, son of Alcisthenes, and resolved to betray the town, +thinking this less dangerous to themselves than the return of the party +which they had banished. It was accordingly arranged that the Athenians +should first take the long walls extending for nearly a mile from the +city to the port of Nisaea, to prevent the Peloponnesians coming to the +rescue from that place, where they formed the sole garrison to secure +the fidelity of Megara; and that after this the attempt should be made +to put into their hands the upper town, which it was thought would then +come over with less difficulty. + +The Athenians, after plans had been arranged between themselves and +their correspondents both as to words and actions, sailed by night to +Minoa, the island off Megara, with six hundred heavy infantry under the +command of Hippocrates, and took post in a quarry not far off, out of +which bricks used to be taken for the walls; while Demosthenes, the +other commander, with a detachment of Plataean light troops and another +of Peripoli, placed himself in ambush in the precinct of Enyalius, which +was still nearer. No one knew of it, except those whose business it was +to know that night. A little before daybreak, the traitors in Megara +began to act. Every night for a long time back, under pretence of +marauding, in order to have a means of opening the gates, they had been +used, with the consent of the officer in command, to carry by night a +sculling boat upon a cart along the ditch to the sea, and so to sail +out, bringing it back again before day upon the cart, and taking it +within the wall through the gates, in order, as they pretended, to +baffle the Athenian blockade at Minoa, there being no boat to be seen in +the harbour. On the present occasion the cart was already at the gates, +which had been opened in the usual way for the boat, when the Athenians, +with whom this had been concerted, saw it, and ran at the top of their +speed from the ambush in order to reach the gates before they were shut +again, and while the cart was still there to prevent their being closed; +their Megarian accomplices at the same moment killing the guard at +the gates. The first to run in was Demosthenes with his Plataeans and +Peripoli, just where the trophy now stands; and he was no sooner within +the gates than the Plataeans engaged and defeated the nearest party +of Peloponnesians who had taken the alarm and come to the rescue, and +secured the gates for the approaching Athenian heavy infantry. + +After this, each of the Athenians as fast as they entered went against +the wall. A few of the Peloponnesian garrison stood their ground at +first, and tried to repel the assault, and some of them were killed; but +the main body took fright and fled; the night attack and the sight of +the Megarian traitors in arms against them making them think that all +Megara had gone over to the enemy. It so happened also that the Athenian +herald of his own idea called out and invited any of the Megarians that +wished, to join the Athenian ranks; and this was no sooner heard by the +garrison than they gave way, and, convinced that they were the victims +of a concerted attack, took refuge in Nisaea. By daybreak, the walls +being now taken and the Megarians in the city in great agitation, the +persons who had negotiated with the Athenians, supported by the rest of +the popular party which was privy to the plot, said that they ought to +open the gates and march out to battle. It had been concerted between +them that the Athenians should rush in, the moment that the gates were +opened, while the conspirators were to be distinguished from the rest by +being anointed with oil, and so to avoid being hurt. They could open the +gates with more security, as four thousand Athenian heavy infantry from +Eleusis, and six hundred horse, had marched all night, according to +agreement, and were now close at hand. The conspirators were all ready +anointed and at their posts by the gates, when one of their accomplices +denounced the plot to the opposite party, who gathered together and came +in a body, and roundly said that they must not march out--a thing they +had never yet ventured on even when in greater force than at present--or +wantonly compromise the safety of the town, and that if what they said +was not attended to, the battle would have to be fought in Megara. For +the rest, they gave no signs of their knowledge of the intrigue, but +stoutly maintained that their advice was the best, and meanwhile +kept close by and watched the gates, making it impossible for the +conspirators to effect their purpose. + +The Athenian generals seeing that some obstacle had arisen, and that +the capture of the town by force was no longer practicable, at once +proceeded to invest Nisaea, thinking that, if they could take it +before relief arrived, the surrender of Megara would soon follow. +Iron, stone-masons, and everything else required quickly coming up from +Athens, the Athenians started from the wall which they occupied, and +from this point built a cross wall looking towards Megara down to the +sea on either side of Nisaea; the ditch and the walls being divided +among the army, stones and bricks taken from the suburb, and the +fruit-trees and timber cut down to make a palisade wherever this +seemed necessary; the houses also in the suburb with the addition of +battlements sometimes entering into the fortification. The whole of this +day the work continued, and by the afternoon of the next the wall was +all but completed, when the garrison in Nisaea, alarmed by the absolute +want of provisions, which they used to take in for the day from the +upper town, not anticipating any speedy relief from the Peloponnesians, +and supposing Megara to be hostile, capitulated to the Athenians on +condition that they should give up their arms, and should each be +ransomed for a stipulated sum; their Lacedaemonian commander, and any +others of his countrymen in the place, being left to the discretion of +the Athenians. On these conditions they surrendered and came out, and +the Athenians broke down the long walls at their point of junction +with Megara, took possession of Nisaea, and went on with their other +preparations. + +Just at this time the Lacedaemonian Brasidas, son of Tellis, happened to +be in the neighbourhood of Sicyon and Corinth, getting ready an army for +Thrace. As soon as he heard of the capture of the walls, fearing for +the Peloponnesians in Nisaea and the safety of Megara, he sent to the +Boeotians to meet him as quickly as possible at Tripodiscus, a village +so called of the Megarid, under Mount Geraneia, and went himself, with +two thousand seven hundred Corinthian heavy infantry, four hundred +Phliasians, six hundred Sicyonians, and such troops of his own as he had +already levied, expecting to find Nisaea not yet taken. Hearing of its +fall (he had marched out by night to Tripodiscus), he took three hundred +picked men from the army, without waiting till his coming should be +known, and came up to Megara unobserved by the Athenians, who were down +by the sea, ostensibly, and really if possible, to attempt Nisaea, but +above all to get into Megara and secure the town. He accordingly +invited the townspeople to admit his party, saying that he had hopes of +recovering Nisaea. + +However, one of the Megarian factions feared that he might expel them +and restore the exiles; the other that the commons, apprehensive of this +very danger, might set upon them, and the city be thus destroyed by a +battle within its gates under the eyes of the ambushed Athenians. He was +accordingly refused admittance, both parties electing to remain quiet +and await the event; each expecting a battle between the Athenians +and the relieving army, and thinking it safer to see their friends +victorious before declaring in their favour. + +Unable to carry his point, Brasidas went back to the rest of the army. +At daybreak the Boeotians joined him. Having determined to relieve +Megara, whose danger they considered their own, even before hearing from +Brasidas, they were already in full force at Plataea, when his messenger +arrived to add spurs to their resolution; and they at once sent on to +him two thousand two hundred heavy infantry, and six hundred horse, +returning home with the main body. The whole army thus assembled +numbered six thousand heavy infantry. The Athenian heavy infantry were +drawn up by Nisaea and the sea; but the light troops being scattered +over the plain were attacked by the Boeotian horse and driven to the +sea, being taken entirely by surprise, as on previous occasions no +relief had ever come to the Megarians from any quarter. Here the +Boeotians were in their turn charged and engaged by the Athenian horse, +and a cavalry action ensued which lasted a long time, and in which +both parties claimed the victory. The Athenians killed and stripped +the leader of the Boeotian horse and some few of his comrades who had +charged right up to Nisaea, and remaining masters of the bodies gave +them back under truce, and set up a trophy; but regarding the action +as a whole the forces separated without either side having gained +a decisive advantage, the Boeotians returning to their army and the +Athenians to Nisaea. + +After this Brasidas and the army came nearer to the sea and to Megara, +and taking up a convenient position, remained quiet in order of battle, +expecting to be attacked by the Athenians and knowing that the Megarians +were waiting to see which would be the victor. This attitude seemed +to present two advantages. Without taking the offensive or willingly +provoking the hazards of a battle, they openly showed their readiness to +fight, and thus without bearing the burden of the day would fairly +reap its honours; while at the same time they effectually served their +interests at Megara. For if they had failed to show themselves they +would not have had a chance, but would have certainly been considered +vanquished, and have lost the town. As it was, the Athenians might +possibly not be inclined to accept their challenge, and their object +would be attained without fighting. And so it turned out. The Athenians +formed outside the long walls and, the enemy not attacking, there +remained motionless; their generals having decided that the risk was too +unequal. In fact most of their objects had been already attained; and +they would have to begin a battle against superior numbers, and if +victorious could only gain Megara, while a defeat would destroy the +flower of their heavy soldiery. For the enemy it was different; as even +the states actually represented in his army risked each only a part of +its entire force, he might well be more audacious. Accordingly, after +waiting for some time without either side attacking, the Athenians +withdrew to Nisaea, and the Peloponnesians after them to the point from +which they had set out. The friends of the Megarian exiles now threw +aside their hesitation, and opened the gates to Brasidas and the +commanders from the different states--looking upon him as the victor +and upon the Athenians as having declined the battle--and receiving +them into the town proceeded to discuss matters with them; the party in +correspondence with the Athenians being paralysed by the turn things had +taken. + +Afterwards Brasidas let the allies go home, and himself went back +to Corinth, to prepare for his expedition to Thrace, his original +destination. The Athenians also returning home, the Megarians in the +city most implicated in the Athenian negotiation, knowing that they had +been detected, presently disappeared; while the rest conferred with the +friends of the exiles, and restored the party at Pegae, after binding +them under solemn oaths to take no vengeance for the past, and only to +consult the real interests of the town. However, as soon as they were +in office, they held a review of the heavy infantry, and separating the +battalions, picked out about a hundred of their enemies, and of those +who were thought to be most involved in the correspondence with the +Athenians, brought them before the people, and compelling the vote to be +given openly, had them condemned and executed, and established a close +oligarchy in the town--a revolution which lasted a very long while, +although effected by a very few partisans. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +_Eighth and Ninth Years of the War--Invasion of Boeotia--Fall of +Amphipolis--Brilliant Successes of Brasidas_ + +The same summer the Mitylenians were about to fortify Antandrus, as +they had intended, when Demodocus and Aristides, the commanders of the +Athenian squadron engaged in levying subsidies, heard on the Hellespont +of what was being done to the place (Lamachus their colleague having +sailed with ten ships into the Pontus) and conceived fears of its +becoming a second Anaia-the place in which the Samian exiles had +established themselves to annoy Samos, helping the Peloponnesians by +sending pilots to their navy, and keeping the city in agitation and +receiving all its outlaws. They accordingly got together a force from +the allies and set sail, defeated in battle the troops that met them +from Antandrus, and retook the place. Not long after, Lamachus, who had +sailed into the Pontus, lost his ships at anchor in the river Calex, in +the territory of Heraclea, rain having fallen in the interior and the +flood coming suddenly down upon them; and himself and his troops passed +by land through the Bithynian Thracians on the Asiatic side, and arrived +at Chalcedon, the Megarian colony at the mouth of the Pontus. + +The same summer the Athenian general, Demosthenes, arrived at Naupactus +with forty ships immediately after the return from the Megarid. +Hippocrates and himself had had overtures made to them by certain men +in the cities in Boeotia, who wished to change the constitution and +introduce a democracy as at Athens; Ptoeodorus, a Theban exile, being +the chief mover in this intrigue. The seaport town of Siphae, in the bay +of Crisae, in the Thespian territory, was to be betrayed to them by one +party; Chaeronea (a dependency of what was formerly called the Minyan, +now the Boeotian, Orchomenus) to be put into their hands by another from +that town, whose exiles were very active in the business, hiring men in +Peloponnese. Some Phocians also were in the plot, Chaeronea being the +frontier town of Boeotia and close to Phanotis in Phocia. Meanwhile +the Athenians were to seize Delium, the sanctuary of Apollo, in the +territory of Tanagra looking towards Euboea; and all these events were +to take place simultaneously upon a day appointed, in order that the +Boeotians might be unable to unite to oppose them at Delium, being +everywhere detained by disturbances at home. Should the enterprise +succeed, and Delium be fortified, its authors confidently expected that +even if no revolution should immediately follow in Boeotia, yet +with these places in their hands, and the country being harassed by +incursions, and a refuge in each instance near for the partisans engaged +in them, things would not remain as they were, but that the rebels being +supported by the Athenians and the forces of the oligarchs divided, it +would be possible after a while to settle matters according to their +wishes. + +Such was the plot in contemplation. Hippocrates with a force raised at +home awaited the proper moment to take the field against the Boeotians; +while he sent on Demosthenes with the forty ships above mentioned to +Naupactus, to raise in those parts an army of Acarnanians and of the +other allies, and sail and receive Siphae from the conspirators; a +day having been agreed on for the simultaneous execution of both these +operations. Demosthenes on his arrival found Oeniadae already compelled +by the united Acarnanians to join the Athenian confederacy, and himself +raising all the allies in those countries marched against and subdued +Salynthius and the Agraeans; after which he devoted himself to the +preparations necessary to enable him to be at Siphae by the time +appointed. + +About the same time in the summer, Brasidas set out on his march for the +Thracian places with seventeen hundred heavy infantry, and arriving at +Heraclea in Trachis, from thence sent on a messenger to his friends +at Pharsalus, to ask them to conduct himself and his army through the +country. Accordingly there came to Melitia in Achaia Panaerus, Dorus, +Hippolochidas, Torylaus, and Strophacus, the Chalcidian proxenus, under +whose escort he resumed his march, being accompanied also by other +Thessalians, among whom was Niconidas from Larissa, a friend of +Perdiccas. It was never very easy to traverse Thessaly without an +escort; and throughout all Hellas for an armed force to pass without +leave through a neighbour's country was a delicate step to take. Besides +this the Thessalian people had always sympathized with the Athenians. +Indeed if instead of the customary close oligarchy there had been a +constitutional government in Thessaly, he would never have been able +to proceed; since even as it was, he was met on his march at the +river Enipeus by certain of the opposite party who forbade his further +progress, and complained of his making the attempt without the consent +of the nation. To this his escort answered that they had no intention +of taking him through against their will; they were only friends in +attendance on an unexpected visitor. Brasidas himself added that he came +as a friend to Thessaly and its inhabitants, his arms not being directed +against them but against the Athenians, with whom he was at war, +and that although he knew of no quarrel between the Thessalians and +Lacedaemonians to prevent the two nations having access to each other's +territory, he neither would nor could proceed against their wishes; he +could only beg them not to stop him. With this answer they went away, +and he took the advice of his escort, and pushed on without halting, +before a greater force might gather to prevent him. Thus in the day that +he set out from Melitia he performed the whole distance to Pharsalus, +and encamped on the river Apidanus; and so to Phacium and from thence to +Perrhaebia. Here his Thessalian escort went back, and the Perrhaebians, +who are subjects of Thessaly, set him down at Dium in the dominions +of Perdiccas, a Macedonian town under Mount Olympus, looking towards +Thessaly. + +In this way Brasidas hurried through Thessaly before any one could +be got ready to stop him, and reached Perdiccas and Chalcidice. The +departure of the army from Peloponnese had been procured by the +Thracian towns in revolt against Athens and by Perdiccas, alarmed at the +successes of the Athenians. The Chalcidians thought that they would be +the first objects of an Athenian expedition, not that the neighbouring +towns which had not yet revolted did not also secretly join in the +invitation; and Perdiccas also had his apprehensions on account of his +old quarrels with the Athenians, although not openly at war with them, +and above all wished to reduce Arrhabaeus, king of the Lyncestians. It +had been less difficult for them to get an army to leave Peloponnese, +because of the ill fortune of the Lacedaemonians at the present moment. +The attacks of the Athenians upon Peloponnese, and in particular upon +Laconia, might, it was hoped, be diverted most effectually by annoying +them in return, and by sending an army to their allies, especially +as they were willing to maintain it and asked for it to aid them in +revolting. The Lacedaemonians were also glad to have an excuse for +sending some of the Helots out of the country, for fear that the present +aspect of affairs and the occupation of Pylos might encourage them to +move. Indeed fear of their numbers and obstinacy even persuaded the +Lacedaemonians to the action which I shall now relate, their policy at +all times having been governed by the necessity of taking precautions +against them. The Helots were invited by a proclamation to pick out +those of their number who claimed to have most distinguished themselves +against the enemy, in order that they might receive their freedom; the +object being to test them, as it was thought that the first to claim +their freedom would be the most high-spirited and the most apt to +rebel. As many as two thousand were selected accordingly, who crowned +themselves and went round the temples, rejoicing in their new freedom. +The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no one +ever knew how each of them perished. The Spartans now therefore gladly +sent seven hundred as heavy infantry with Brasidas, who recruited the +rest of his force by means of money in Peloponnese. + +Brasidas himself was sent out by the Lacedaemonians mainly at his +own desire, although the Chalcidians also were eager to have a man so +thorough as he had shown himself whenever there was anything to be done +at Sparta, and whose after-service abroad proved of the utmost use to +his country. At the present moment his just and moderate conduct towards +the towns generally succeeded in procuring their revolt, besides +the places which he managed to take by treachery; and thus when the +Lacedaemonians desired to treat, as they ultimately did, they had places +to offer in exchange, and the burden of war meanwhile shifted from +Peloponnese. Later on in the war, after the events in Sicily, the +present valour and conduct of Brasidas, known by experience to some, +by hearsay to others, was what mainly created in the allies of Athens a +feeling for the Lacedaemonians. He was the first who went out and +showed himself so good a man at all points as to leave behind him the +conviction that the rest were like him. + +Meanwhile his arrival in the Thracian country no sooner became known +to the Athenians than they declared war against Perdiccas, whom they +regarded as the author of the expedition, and kept a closer watch on +their allies in that quarter. + +Upon the arrival of Brasidas and his army, Perdiccas immediately started +with them and with his own forces against Arrhabaeus, son of Bromerus, +king of the Lyncestian Macedonians, his neighbour, with whom he had a +quarrel and whom he wished to subdue. However, when he arrived with his +army and Brasidas at the pass leading into Lyncus, Brasidas told him +that before commencing hostilities he wished to go and try to persuade +Arrhabaeus to become the ally of Lacedaemon, this latter having already +made overtures intimating his willingness to make Brasidas arbitrator +between them, and the Chalcidian envoys accompanying him having warned +him not to remove the apprehensions of Perdiccas, in order to ensure his +greater zeal in their cause. Besides, the envoys of Perdiccas had talked +at Lacedaemon about his bringing many of the places round him into +alliance with them; and thus Brasidas thought he might take a larger +view of the question of Arrhabaeus. Perdiccas however retorted that he +had not brought him with him to arbitrate in their quarrel, but to put +down the enemies whom he might point out to him; and that while he, +Perdiccas, maintained half his army it was a breach of faith for +Brasidas to parley with Arrhabaeus. Nevertheless Brasidas disregarded +the wishes of Perdiccas and held the parley in spite of him, and +suffered himself to be persuaded to lead off the army without invading +the country of Arrhabaeus; after which Perdiccas, holding that faith had +not been kept with him, contributed only a third instead of half of the +support of the army. + +The same summer, without loss of time, Brasidas marched with the +Chalcidians against Acanthus, a colony of the Andrians, a little before +vintage. The inhabitants were divided into two parties on the question +of receiving him; those who had joined the Chalcidians in inviting him, +and the popular party. However, fear for their fruit, which was still +out, enabled Brasidas to persuade the multitude to admit him alone, and +to hear what he had to say before making a decision; and he was admitted +accordingly and appeared before the people, and not being a bad speaker +for a Lacedaemonian, addressed them as follows: + +"Acanthians, the Lacedaemonians have sent out me and my army to make +good the reason that we gave for the war when we began it, viz., that we +were going to war with the Athenians in order to free Hellas. Our delay +in coming has been caused by mistaken expectations as to the war at +home, which led us to hope, by our own unassisted efforts and without +your risking anything, to effect the speedy downfall of the Athenians; +and you must not blame us for this, as we are now come the moment that +we were able, prepared with your aid to do our best to subdue them. +Meanwhile I am astonished at finding your gates shut against me, and at +not meeting with a better welcome. We Lacedaemonians thought of you as +allies eager to have us, to whom we should come in spirit even before we +were with you in body; and in this expectation undertook all the risks +of a march of many days through a strange country, so far did our zeal +carry us. It will be a terrible thing if after this you have other +intentions, and mean to stand in the way of your own and Hellenic +freedom. It is not merely that you oppose me yourselves; but wherever I +may go people will be less inclined to join me, on the score that you, +to whom I first came--an important town like Acanthus, and prudent men +like the Acanthians--refused to admit me. I shall have nothing to prove +that the reason which I advance is the true one; it will be said either +that there is something unfair in the freedom which I offer, or that +I am in insufficient force and unable to protect you against an attack +from Athens. Yet when I went with the army which I now have to the +relief of Nisaea, the Athenians did not venture to engage me although +in greater force than I; and it is not likely they will ever send across +sea against you an army as numerous as they had at Nisaea. And for +myself, I have come here not to hurt but to free the Hellenes, witness +the solemn oaths by which I have bound my government that the allies +that I may bring over shall be independent; and besides my object in +coming is not by force or fraud to obtain your alliance, but to +offer you mine to help you against your Athenian masters. I protest, +therefore, against any suspicions of my intentions after the guarantees +which I offer, and equally so against doubts of my ability to protect +you, and I invite you to join me without hesitation. + +"Some of you may hang back because they have private enemies, and fear +that I may put the city into the hands of a party: none need be more +tranquil than they. I am not come here to help this party or that; and I +do not consider that I should be bringing you freedom in any real sense, +if I should disregard your constitution, and enslave the many to the few +or the few to the many. This would be heavier than a foreign yoke; and +we Lacedaemonians, instead of being thanked for our pains, should get +neither honour nor glory, but, contrariwise, reproaches. The charges +which strengthen our hands in the war against the Athenians would on +our own showing be merited by ourselves, and more hateful in us than in +those who make no pretensions to honesty; as it is more disgraceful for +persons of character to take what they covet by fair-seeming fraud than +by open force; the one aggression having for its justification the might +which fortune gives, the other being simply a piece of clever roguery. +A matter which concerns us thus nearly we naturally look to most +jealously; and over and above the oaths that I have mentioned, what +stronger assurance can you have, when you see that our words, compared +with the actual facts, produce the necessary conviction that it is our +interest to act as we say? + +"If to these considerations of mine you put in the plea of inability, +and claim that your friendly feeling should save you from being hurt by +your refusal; if you say that freedom, in your opinion, is not without +its dangers, and that it is right to offer it to those who can accept +it, but not to force it on any against their will, then I shall take the +gods and heroes of your country to witness that I came for your good and +was rejected, and shall do my best to compel you by laying waste your +land. I shall do so without scruple, being justified by the necessity +which constrains me, first, to prevent the Lacedaemonians from being +damaged by you, their friends, in the event of your nonadhesion, through +the moneys that you pay to the Athenians; and secondly, to prevent the +Hellenes from being hindered by you in shaking off their servitude. +Otherwise indeed we should have no right to act as we propose; except +in the name of some public interest, what call should we Lacedaemonians +have to free those who do not wish it? Empire we do not aspire to: it +is what we are labouring to put down; and we should wrong the greater +number if we allowed you to stand in the way of the independence that +we offer to all. Endeavour, therefore, to decide wisely, and strive to +begin the work of liberation for the Hellenes, and lay up for +yourselves endless renown, while you escape private loss, and cover your +commonwealth with glory." + +Such were the words of Brasidas. The Acanthians, after much had been +said on both sides of the question, gave their votes in secret, and the +majority, influenced by the seductive arguments of Brasidas and by fear +for their fruit, decided to revolt from Athens; not however admitting +the army until they had taken his personal security for the oaths sworn +by his government before they sent him out, assuring the independence of +the allies whom he might bring over. Not long after, Stagirus, a colony +of the Andrians, followed their example and revolted. + +Such were the events of this summer. It was in the first days of the +winter following that the places in Boeotia were to be put into the +hands of the Athenian generals, Hippocrates and Demosthenes, the latter +of whom was to go with his ships to Siphae, the former to Delium. A +mistake, however, was made in the days on which they were each to start; +and Demosthenes, sailing first to Siphae, with the Acarnanians and many +of the allies from those parts on board, failed to effect anything, +through the plot having been betrayed by Nicomachus, a Phocian from +Phanotis, who told the Lacedaemonians, and they the Boeotians. Succours +accordingly flocked in from all parts of Boeotia, Hippocrates not being +yet there to make his diversion, and Siphae and Chaeronea were promptly +secured, and the conspirators, informed of the mistake, did not venture +on any movement in the towns. + +Meanwhile Hippocrates made a levy in mass of the citizens, resident +aliens, and foreigners in Athens, and arrived at his destination after +the Boeotians had already come back from Siphae, and encamping his +army began to fortify Delium, the sanctuary of Apollo, in the following +manner. A trench was dug all round the temple and the consecrated +ground, and the earth thrown up from the excavation was made to do +duty as a wall, in which stakes were also planted, the vines round the +sanctuary being cut down and thrown in, together with stones and bricks +pulled down from the houses near; every means, in short, being used +to run up the rampart. Wooden towers were also erected where they +were wanted, and where there was no part of the temple buildings left +standing, as on the side where the gallery once existing had fallen in. +The work was begun on the third day after leaving home, and continued +during the fourth, and till dinnertime on the fifth, when most of it +being now finished the army removed from Delium about a mile and a +quarter on its way home. From this point most of the light troops went +straight on, while the heavy infantry halted and remained where they +were; Hippocrates having stayed behind at Delium to arrange the posts, +and to give directions for the completion of such part of the outworks +as had been left unfinished. + +During the days thus employed the Boeotians were mustering at Tanagra, +and by the time that they had come in from all the towns, found the +Athenians already on their way home. The rest of the eleven Boeotarchs +were against giving battle, as the enemy was no longer in Boeotia, the +Athenians being just over the Oropian border, when they halted; but +Pagondas, son of Aeolidas, one of the Boeotarchs of Thebes (Arianthides, +son of Lysimachidas, being the other), and then commander-in-chief, +thought it best to hazard a battle. He accordingly called the men to +him, company after company, to prevent their all leaving their arms at +once, and urged them to attack the Athenians, and stand the issue of a +battle, speaking as follows: + +"Boeotians, the idea that we ought not to give battle to the Athenians, +unless we came up with them in Boeotia, is one which should never have +entered into the head of any of us, your generals. It was to annoy +Boeotia that they crossed the frontier and built a fort in our country; +and they are therefore, I imagine, our enemies wherever we may come up +with them, and from wheresoever they may have come to act as enemies +do. And if any one has taken up with the idea in question for reasons of +safety, it is high time for him to change his mind. The party attacked, +whose own country is in danger, can scarcely discuss what is prudent +with the calmness of men who are in full enjoyment of what they have +got, and are thinking of attacking a neighbour in order to get more. It +is your national habit, in your country or out of it, to oppose the same +resistance to a foreign invader; and when that invader is Athenian, and +lives upon your frontier besides, it is doubly imperative to do so. As +between neighbours generally, freedom means simply a determination +to hold one's own; and with neighbours like these, who are trying to +enslave near and far alike, there is nothing for it but to fight it out +to the last. Look at the condition of the Euboeans and of most of the +rest of Hellas, and be convinced that others have to fight with their +neighbours for this frontier or that, but that for us conquest means one +frontier for the whole country, about which no dispute can be made, for +they will simply come and take by force what we have. So much more have +we to fear from this neighbour than from another. Besides, people who, +like the Athenians in the present instance, are tempted by pride of +strength to attack their neighbours, usually march most confidently +against those who keep still, and only defend themselves in their own +country, but think twice before they grapple with those who meet them +outside their frontier and strike the first blow if opportunity offers. +The Athenians have shown us this themselves; the defeat which we +inflicted upon them at Coronea, at the time when our quarrels had +allowed them to occupy the country, has given great security to Boeotia +until the present day. Remembering this, the old must equal their +ancient exploits, and the young, the sons of the heroes of that time, +must endeavour not to disgrace their native valour; and trusting in the +help of the god whose temple has been sacrilegiously fortified, and +in the victims which in our sacrifices have proved propitious, we must +march against the enemy, and teach him that he must go and get what he +wants by attacking someone who will not resist him, but that men whose +glory it is to be always ready to give battle for the liberty of their +own country, and never unjustly to enslave that of others, will not let +him go without a struggle." + +By these arguments Pagondas persuaded the Boeotians to attack the +Athenians, and quickly breaking up his camp led his army forward, it +being now late in the day. On nearing the enemy, he halted in a position +where a hill intervening prevented the two armies from seeing each +other, and then formed and prepared for action. Meanwhile Hippocrates +at Delium, informed of the approach of the Boeotians, sent orders to his +troops to throw themselves into line, and himself joined them not long +afterwards, leaving about three hundred horse behind him at Delium, +at once to guard the place in case of attack, and to watch their +opportunity and fall upon the Boeotians during the battle. The Boeotians +placed a detachment to deal with these, and when everything was arranged +to their satisfaction appeared over the hill, and halted in the order +which they had determined on, to the number of seven thousand heavy +infantry, more than ten thousand light troops, one thousand horse, and +five hundred targeteers. On their right were the Thebans and those of +their province, in the centre the Haliartians, Coronaeans, Copaeans, +and the other people around the lake, and on the left the Thespians, +Tanagraeans, and Orchomenians, the cavalry and the light troops being at +the extremity of each wing. The Thebans formed twenty-five shields deep, +the rest as they pleased. Such was the strength and disposition of the +Boeotian army. + +On the side of the Athenians, the heavy infantry throughout the whole +army formed eight deep, being in numbers equal to the enemy, with the +cavalry upon the two wings. Light troops regularly armed there were none +in the army, nor had there ever been any at Athens. Those who had joined +in the invasion, though many times more numerous than those of the +enemy, had mostly followed unarmed, as part of the levy in mass of the +citizens and foreigners at Athens, and having started first on their way +home were not present in any number. The armies being now in line and +upon the point of engaging, Hippocrates, the general, passed along the +Athenian ranks, and encouraged them as follows: + +"Athenians, I shall only say a few words to you, but brave men require +no more, and they are addressed more to your understanding than to your +courage. None of you must fancy that we are going out of our way to +run this risk in the country of another. Fought in their territory the +battle will be for ours: if we conquer, the Peloponnesians will never +invade your country without the Boeotian horse, and in one battle you +will win Boeotia and in a manner free Attica. Advance to meet them +then like citizens of a country in which you all glory as the first in +Hellas, and like sons of the fathers who beat them at Oenophyta with +Myronides and thus gained possession of Boeotia." + +Hippocrates had got half through the army with his exhortation, when +the Boeotians, after a few more hasty words from Pagondas, struck up the +paean, and came against them from the hill; the Athenians advancing to +meet them, and closing at a run. The extreme wing of neither army came +into action, one like the other being stopped by the water-courses in +the way; the rest engaged with the utmost obstinacy, shield against +shield. The Boeotian left, as far as the centre, was worsted by the +Athenians. The Thespians in that part of the field suffered most +severely. The troops alongside them having given way, they were +surrounded in a narrow space and cut down fighting hand to hand; some +of the Athenians also fell into confusion in surrounding the enemy +and mistook and so killed each other. In this part of the field the +Boeotians were beaten, and retreated upon the troops still fighting; but +the right, where the Thebans were, got the better of the Athenians and +shoved them further and further back, though gradually at first. It so +happened also that Pagondas, seeing the distress of his left, had sent +two squadrons of horse, where they could not be seen, round the hill, +and their sudden appearance struck a panic into the victorious wing of +the Athenians, who thought that it was another army coming against them. +At length in both parts of the field, disturbed by this panic, and with +their line broken by the advancing Thebans, the whole Athenian army took +to flight. Some made for Delium and the sea, some for Oropus, others for +Mount Parnes, or wherever they had hopes of safety, pursued and cut down +by the Boeotians, and in particular by the cavalry, composed partly +of Boeotians and partly of Locrians, who had come up just as the rout +began. Night however coming on to interrupt the pursuit, the mass of the +fugitives escaped more easily than they would otherwise have done. The +next day the troops at Oropus and Delium returned home by sea, after +leaving a garrison in the latter place, which they continued to hold +notwithstanding the defeat. + +The Boeotians set up a trophy, took up their own dead, and stripped +those of the enemy, and leaving a guard over them retired to Tanagra, +there to take measures for attacking Delium. Meanwhile a herald came +from the Athenians to ask for the dead, but was met and turned back by +a Boeotian herald, who told him that he would effect nothing until +the return of himself the Boeotian herald, and who then went on to the +Athenians, and told them on the part of the Boeotians that they had +done wrong in transgressing the law of the Hellenes. Of what use was the +universal custom protecting the temples in an invaded country, if the +Athenians were to fortify Delium and live there, acting exactly as +if they were on unconsecrated ground, and drawing and using for their +purposes the water which they, the Boeotians, never touched except for +sacred uses? Accordingly for the god as well as for themselves, in the +name of the deities concerned, and of Apollo, the Boeotians invited them +first to evacuate the temple, if they wished to take up the dead that +belonged to them. + +After these words from the herald, the Athenians sent their own herald +to the Boeotians to say that they had not done any wrong to the temple, +and for the future would do it no more harm than they could help; +not having occupied it originally in any such design, but to defend +themselves from it against those who were really wronging them. The law +of the Hellenes was that conquest of a country, whether more or less +extensive, carried with it possession of the temples in that country, +with the obligation to keep up the usual ceremonies, at least as far +as possible. The Boeotians and most other people who had turned out the +owners of a country, and put themselves in their places by force, now +held as of right the temples which they originally entered as usurpers. +If the Athenians could have conquered more of Boeotia this would have +been the case with them: as things stood, the piece of it which they +had got they should treat as their own, and not quit unless obliged. The +water they had disturbed under the impulsion of a necessity which they +had not wantonly incurred, having been forced to use it in defending +themselves against the Boeotians who first invaded Attica. Besides, +anything done under the pressure of war and danger might reasonably +claim indulgence even in the eye of the god; or why, pray, were the +altars the asylum for involuntary offences? Transgression also was a +term applied to presumptuous offenders, not to the victims of adverse +circumstances. In short, which were most impious--the Boeotians who +wished to barter dead bodies for holy places, or the Athenians who +refused to give up holy places to obtain what was theirs by right? The +condition of evacuating Boeotia must therefore be withdrawn. They were +no longer in Boeotia. They stood where they stood by the right of the +sword. All that the Boeotians had to do was to tell them to take up +their dead under a truce according to the national custom. + +The Boeotians replied that if they were in Boeotia, they must evacuate +that country before taking up their dead; if they were in their own +territory, they could do as they pleased: for they knew that, although +the Oropid where the bodies as it chanced were lying (the battle having +been fought on the borders) was subject to Athens, yet the Athenians +could not get them without their leave. Besides, why should they grant a +truce for Athenian ground? And what could be fairer than to tell them +to evacuate Boeotia if they wished to get what they asked? The +Athenian herald accordingly returned with this answer, without having +accomplished his object. + +Meanwhile the Boeotians at once sent for darters and slingers from the +Malian Gulf, and with two thousand Corinthian heavy infantry who had +joined them after the battle, the Peloponnesian garrison which had +evacuated Nisaea, and some Megarians with them, marched against Delium, +and attacked the fort, and after divers efforts finally succeeded in +taking it by an engine of the following description. They sawed in two +and scooped out a great beam from end to end, and fitting it nicely +together again like a pipe, hung by chains a cauldron at one extremity, +with which communicated an iron tube projecting from the beam, which +was itself in great part plated with iron. This they brought up from +a distance upon carts to the part of the wall principally composed of +vines and timber, and when it was near, inserted huge bellows into their +end of the beam and blew with them. The blast passing closely confined +into the cauldron, which was filled with lighted coals, sulphur and +pitch, made a great blaze, and set fire to the wall, which soon became +untenable for its defenders, who left it and fled; and in this way the +fort was taken. Of the garrison some were killed and two hundred made +prisoners; most of the rest got on board their ships and returned home. + +Soon after the fall of Delium, which took place seventeen days after +the battle, the Athenian herald, without knowing what had happened, came +again for the dead, which were now restored by the Boeotians, who no +longer answered as at first. Not quite five hundred Boeotians fell in +the battle, and nearly one thousand Athenians, including Hippocrates the +general, besides a great number of light troops and camp followers. + +Soon after this battle Demosthenes, after the failure of his voyage to +Siphae and of the plot on the town, availed himself of the Acarnanian +and Agraean troops and of the four hundred Athenian heavy infantry +which he had on board, to make a descent on the Sicyonian coast. Before +however all his ships had come to shore, the Sicyonians came up and +routed and chased to their ships those that had landed, killing some and +taking others prisoners; after which they set up a trophy, and gave back +the dead under truce. + +About the same time with the affair of Delium took place the death +of Sitalces, king of the Odrysians, who was defeated in battle, in a +campaign against the Triballi; Seuthes, son of Sparadocus, his nephew, +succeeding to the kingdom of the Odrysians, and of the rest of Thrace +ruled by Sitalces. + +The same winter Brasidas, with his allies in the Thracian places, +marched against Amphipolis, the Athenian colony on the river Strymon. +A settlement upon the spot on which the city now stands was before +attempted by Aristagoras, the Milesian (when he fled from King Darius), +who was however dislodged by the Edonians; and thirty-two years later +by the Athenians, who sent thither ten thousand settlers of their own +citizens, and whoever else chose to go. These were cut off at Drabescus +by the Thracians. Twenty-nine years after, the Athenians returned +(Hagnon, son of Nicias, being sent out as leader of the colony) and +drove out the Edonians, and founded a town on the spot, formerly called +Ennea Hodoi or Nine Ways. The base from which they started was Eion, +their commercial seaport at the mouth of the river, not more than three +miles from the present town, which Hagnon named Amphipolis, because +the Strymon flows round it on two sides, and he built it so as to be +conspicuous from the sea and land alike, running a long wall across from +river to river, to complete the circumference. + +Brasidas now marched against this town, starting from Arne in +Chalcidice. Arriving about dusk at Aulon and Bromiscus, where the lake +of Bolbe runs into the sea, he supped there, and went on during the +night. The weather was stormy and it was snowing a little, which +encouraged him to hurry on, in order, if possible, to take every one at +Amphipolis by surprise, except the party who were to betray it. The plot +was carried on by some natives of Argilus, an Andrian colony, residing +in Amphipolis, where they had also other accomplices gained over by +Perdiccas or the Chalcidians. But the most active in the matter were the +inhabitants of Argilus itself, which is close by, who had always been +suspected by the Athenians, and had had designs on the place. These men +now saw their opportunity arrive with Brasidas, and having for some +time been in correspondence with their countrymen in Amphipolis for the +betrayal of the town, at once received him into Argilus, and revolted +from the Athenians, and that same night took him on to the bridge over +the river; where he found only a small guard to oppose him, the town +being at some distance from the passage, and the walls not reaching down +to it as at present. This guard he easily drove in, partly through +there being treason in their ranks, partly from the stormy state of the +weather and the suddenness of his attack, and so got across the +bridge, and immediately became master of all the property outside; the +Amphipolitans having houses all over the quarter. + +The passage of Brasidas was a complete surprise to the people in the +town; and the capture of many of those outside, and the flight of the +rest within the wall, combined to produce great confusion among the +citizens; especially as they did not trust one another. It is even said +that if Brasidas, instead of stopping to pillage, had advanced straight +against the town, he would probably have taken it. In fact, however, he +established himself where he was and overran the country outside, and +for the present remained inactive, vainly awaiting a demonstration +on the part of his friends within. Meanwhile the party opposed to the +traitors proved numerous enough to prevent the gates being immediately +thrown open, and in concert with Eucles, the general, who had come +from Athens to defend the place, sent to the other commander in Thrace, +Thucydides, son of Olorus, the author of this history, who was at the +isle of Thasos, a Parian colony, half a day's sail from Amphipolis, to +tell him to come to their relief. On receipt of this message he at once +set sail with seven ships which he had with him, in order, if possible, +to reach Amphipolis in time to prevent its capitulation, or in any case +to save Eion. + +Meanwhile Brasidas, afraid of succours arriving by sea from Thasos, and +learning that Thucydides possessed the right of working the gold +mines in that part of Thrace, and had thus great influence with the +inhabitants of the continent, hastened to gain the town, if possible, +before the people of Amphipolis should be encouraged by his arrival to +hope that he could save them by getting together a force of allies from +the sea and from Thrace, and so refuse to surrender. He accordingly +offered moderate terms, proclaiming that any of the Amphipolitans and +Athenians who chose, might continue to enjoy their property with full +rights of citizenship; while those who did not wish to stay had five +days to depart, taking their property with them. + +The bulk of the inhabitants, upon hearing this, began to change their +minds, especially as only a small number of the citizens were Athenians, +the majority having come from different quarters, and many of the +prisoners outside had relations within the walls. They found the +proclamation a fair one in comparison of what their fear had suggested; +the Athenians being glad to go out, as they thought they ran more risk +than the rest, and further, did not expect any speedy relief, and the +multitude generally being content at being left in possession of their +civic rights, and at such an unexpected reprieve from danger. The +partisans of Brasidas now openly advocated this course, seeing that the +feeling of the people had changed, and that they no longer gave ear +to the Athenian general present; and thus the surrender was made and +Brasidas was admitted by them on the terms of his proclamation. In this +way they gave up the city, and late in the same day Thucydides and his +ships entered the harbour of Eion, Brasidas having just got hold of +Amphipolis, and having been within a night of taking Eion: had the ships +been less prompt in relieving it, in the morning it would have been his. + +After this Thucydides put all in order at Eion to secure it against any +present or future attack of Brasidas, and received such as had elected +to come there from the interior according to the terms agreed on. +Meanwhile Brasidas suddenly sailed with a number of boats down the river +to Eion to see if he could not seize the point running out from the +wall, and so command the entrance; at the same time he attempted it by +land, but was beaten off on both sides and had to content himself with +arranging matters at Amphipolis and in the neighbourhood. Myrcinus, an +Edonian town, also came over to him; the Edonian king Pittacus having +been killed by the sons of Goaxis and his own wife Brauro; and Galepsus +and Oesime, which are Thasian colonies, not long after followed its +example. Perdiccas too came up immediately after the capture and joined +in these arrangements. + +The news that Amphipolis was in the hands of the enemy caused great +alarm at Athens. Not only was the town valuable for the timber it +afforded for shipbuilding, and the money that it brought in; but also, +although the escort of the Thessalians gave the Lacedaemonians a means +of reaching the allies of Athens as far as the Strymon, yet as long as +they were not masters of the bridge but were watched on the side of Eion +by the Athenian galleys, and on the land side impeded by a large and +extensive lake formed by the waters of the river, it was impossible +for them to go any further. Now, on the contrary, the path seemed open. +There was also the fear of the allies revolting, owing to the moderation +displayed by Brasidas in all his conduct, and to the declarations which +he was everywhere making that he sent out to free Hellas. The towns +subject to the Athenians, hearing of the capture of Amphipolis and of +the terms accorded to it, and of the gentleness of Brasidas, felt most +strongly encouraged to change their condition, and sent secret messages +to him, begging him to come on to them; each wishing to be the first to +revolt. Indeed there seemed to be no danger in so doing; their mistake +in their estimate of the Athenian power was as great as that power +afterwards turned out to be, and their judgment was based more upon +blind wishing than upon any sound prevision; for it is a habit of +mankind to entrust to careless hope what they long for, and to use +sovereign reason to thrust aside what they do not fancy. Besides the +late severe blow which the Athenians had met with in Boeotia, joined +to the seductive, though untrue, statements of Brasidas, about the +Athenians not having ventured to engage his single army at Nisaea, made +the allies confident, and caused them to believe that no Athenian force +would be sent against them. Above all the wish to do what was +agreeable at the moment, and the likelihood that they should find the +Lacedaemonians full of zeal at starting, made them eager to venture. +Observing this, the Athenians sent garrisons to the different towns, as +far as was possible at such short notice and in winter; while Brasidas +sent dispatches to Lacedaemon asking for reinforcements, and +himself made preparations for building galleys in the Strymon. The +Lacedaemonians however did not send him any, partly through envy on +the part of their chief men, partly because they were more bent on +recovering the prisoners of the island and ending the war. + +The same winter the Megarians took and razed to the foundations the long +walls which had been occupied by the Athenians; and Brasidas after the +capture of Amphipolis marched with his allies against Acte, a promontory +running out from the King's dike with an inward curve, and ending +in Athos, a lofty mountain looking towards the Aegean Sea. In it are +various towns, Sane, an Andrian colony, close to the canal, and facing +the sea in the direction of Euboea; the others being Thyssus, Cleone, +Acrothoi, Olophyxus, and Dium, inhabited by mixed barbarian races +speaking the two languages. There is also a small Chalcidian element; +but the greater number are Tyrrheno-Pelasgians once settled in Lemnos +and Athens, and Bisaltians, Crestonians, and Edonians; the towns being +all small ones. Most of these came over to Brasidas; but Sane and Dium +held out and saw their land ravaged by him and his army. + +Upon their not submitting, he at once marched against Torone in +Chalcidice, which was held by an Athenian garrison, having been invited +by a few persons who were prepared to hand over the town. Arriving in +the dark a little before daybreak, he sat down with his army near the +temple of the Dioscuri, rather more than a quarter of a mile from the +city. The rest of the town of Torone and the Athenians in garrison did +not perceive his approach; but his partisans knowing that he was coming +(a few of them had secretly gone out to meet him) were on the watch for +his arrival, and were no sooner aware of it than they took it to them +seven light-armed men with daggers, who alone of twenty men ordered +on this service dared to enter, commanded by Lysistratus an Olynthian. +These passed through the sea wall, and without being seen went up and +put to the sword the garrison of the highest post in the town, which +stands on a hill, and broke open the postern on the side of Canastraeum. + +Brasidas meanwhile came a little nearer and then halted with his main +body, sending on one hundred targeteers to be ready to rush in first, +the moment that a gate should be thrown open and the beacon lighted as +agreed. After some time passed in waiting and wondering at the delay, +the targeteers by degrees got up close to the town. The Toronaeans +inside at work with the party that had entered had by this time broken +down the postern and opened the gates leading to the market-place by +cutting through the bar, and first brought some men round and let +them in by the postern, in order to strike a panic into the surprised +townsmen by suddenly attacking them from behind and on both sides at +once; after which they raised the fire-signal as had been agreed, and +took in by the market gates the rest of the targeteers. + +Brasidas seeing the signal told the troops to rise, and dashed forward +amid the loud hurrahs of his men, which carried dismay among the +astonished townspeople. Some burst in straight by the gate, others over +some square pieces of timber placed against the wall (which has fallen +down and was being rebuilt) to draw up stones; Brasidas and the greater +number making straight uphill for the higher part of the town, in order +to take it from top to bottom, and once for all, while the rest of the +multitude spread in all directions. + +The capture of the town was effected before the great body of the +Toronaeans had recovered from their surprise and confusion; but +the conspirators and the citizens of their party at once joined the +invaders. About fifty of the Athenian heavy infantry happened to be +sleeping in the market-place when the alarm reached them. A few of these +were killed fighting; the rest escaped, some by land, others to the two +ships on the station, and took refuge in Lecythus, a fort garrisoned by +their own men in the corner of the town running out into the sea and +cut off by a narrow isthmus; where they were joined by the Toronaeans of +their party. + +Day now arrived, and the town being secured, Brasidas made a +proclamation to the Toronaeans who had taken refuge with the Athenians, +to come out, as many as chose, to their homes without fearing for their +rights or persons, and sent a herald to invite the Athenians to accept a +truce, and to evacuate Lecythus with their property, as being Chalcidian +ground. The Athenians refused this offer, but asked for a truce for a +day to take up their dead. Brasidas granted it for two days, which he +employed in fortifying the houses near, and the Athenians in doing +the same to their positions. Meanwhile he called a meeting of the +Toronaeans, and said very much what he had said at Acanthus, namely, +that they must not look upon those who had negotiated with him for the +capture of the town as bad men or as traitors, as they had not acted as +they had done from corrupt motives or in order to enslave the city, but +for the good and freedom of Torone; nor again must those who had not +shared in the enterprise fancy that they would not equally reap its +fruits, as he had not come to destroy either city or individual. This +was the reason of his proclamation to those that had fled for refuge to +the Athenians: he thought none the worse of them for their friendship +for the Athenians; he believed that they had only to make trial of the +Lacedaemonians to like them as well, or even much better, as acting much +more justly: it was for want of such a trial that they were now afraid +of them. Meanwhile he warned all of them to prepare to be staunch +allies, and for being held responsible for all faults in future: for the +past, they had not wronged the Lacedaemonians but had been wronged by +others who were too strong for them, and any opposition that they might +have offered him could be excused. + +Having encouraged them with this address, as soon as the truce expired +he made his attack upon Lecythus; the Athenians defending themselves +from a poor wall and from some houses with parapets. One day they beat +him off; the next the enemy were preparing to bring up an engine against +them from which they meant to throw fire upon the wooden defences, and +the troops were already coming up to the point where they fancied they +could best bring up the engine, and where place was most assailable; +meanwhile the Athenians put a wooden tower upon a house opposite, and +carried up a quantity of jars and casks of water and big stones, and a +large number of men also climbed up. The house thus laden too heavily +suddenly broke down with a loud crash; at which the men who were near +and saw it were more vexed than frightened; but those not so near, and +still more those furthest off, thought that the place was already taken +at that point, and fled in haste to the sea and the ships. + +Brasidas, perceiving that they were deserting the parapet, and seeing +what was going on, dashed forward with his troops, and immediately took +the fort, and put to the sword all whom he found in it. In this way the +place was evacuated by the Athenians, who went across in their boats +and ships to Pallene. Now there is a temple of Athene in Lecythus, and +Brasidas had proclaimed in the moment of making the assault that he +would give thirty silver minae to the man first on the wall. Being now +of opinion that the capture was scarcely due to human means, he gave +the thirty minae to the goddess for her temple, and razed and cleared +Lecythus, and made the whole of it consecrated ground. The rest of +the winter he spent in settling the places in his hands, and in making +designs upon the rest; and with the expiration of the winter the eighth +year of this war ended. + +In the spring of the summer following, the Lacedaemonians and Athenians +made an armistice for a year; the Athenians thinking that they would +thus have full leisure to take their precautions before Brasidas could +procure the revolt of any more of their towns, and might also, if it +suited them, conclude a general peace; the Lacedaemonians divining the +actual fears of the Athenians, and thinking that after once tasting a +respite from trouble and misery they would be more disposed to consent +to a reconciliation, and to give back the prisoners, and make a treaty +for the longer period. The great idea of the Lacedaemonians was to get +back their men while Brasidas's good fortune lasted: further successes +might make the struggle a less unequal one in Chalcidice, but would +leave them still deprived of their men, and even in Chalcidice not more +than a match for the Athenians and by no means certain of victory. An +armistice was accordingly concluded by Lacedaemon and her allies upon +the terms following: + +1. As to the temple and oracle of the Pythian Apollo, we are agreed that +whosoever will shall have access to it, without fraud or fear, according +to the usages of his forefathers. The Lacedaemonians and the allies +present agree to this, and promise to send heralds to the Boeotians and +Phocians, and to do their best to persuade them to agree likewise. + +2. As to the treasure of the god, we agree to exert ourselves to detect +all malversators, truly and honestly following the customs of our +forefathers, we and you and all others willing to do so, all following +the customs of our forefathers. As to these points the Lacedaemonians +and the other allies are agreed as has been said. + +3. As to what follows, the Lacedaemonians and the other allies agree, +if the Athenians conclude a treaty, to remain, each of us in our own +territory, retaining our respective acquisitions: the garrison +in Coryphasium keeping within Buphras and Tomeus: that in Cythera +attempting no communication with the Peloponnesian confederacy, neither +we with them, nor they with us: that in Nisaea and Minoa not crossing +the road leading from the gates of the temple of Nisus to that of +Poseidon and from thence straight to the bridge at Minoa: the Megarians +and the allies being equally bound not to cross this road, and +the Athenians retaining the island they have taken, without any +communication on either side: as to Troezen, each side retaining what it +has, and as was arranged with the Athenians. + +4. As to the use of the sea, so far as refers to their own coast and to +that of their confederacy, that the Lacedaemonians and their allies may +voyage upon it in any vessel rowed by oars and of not more than five +hundred talents tonnage, not a vessel of war. + +5. That all heralds and embassies, with as many attendants as they +please, for concluding the war and adjusting claims, shall have free +passage, going and coming, to Peloponnese or Athens by land and by sea. + +6. That during the truce, deserters whether bond or free shall be +received neither by you, nor by us. + +7. Further, that satisfaction shall be given by you to us and by us to +you according to the public law of our several countries, all disputes +being settled by law without recourse to hostilities. + +The Lacedaemonians and allies agree to these articles; but if you have +anything fairer or juster to suggest, come to Lacedaemon and let us +know: whatever shall be just will meet with no objection either from +the Lacedaemonians or from the allies. Only let those who come come with +full powers, as you desire us. The truce shall be for one year. + +Approved by the people. + +The tribe of Acamantis had the prytany, Phoenippus was secretary, +Niciades chairman. Laches moved, in the name of the good luck of the +Athenians, that they should conclude the armistice upon the terms agreed +upon by the Lacedaemonians and the allies. It was agreed accordingly +in the popular assembly that the armistice should be for one year, +beginning that very day, the fourteenth of the month of Elaphebolion; +during which time ambassadors and heralds should go and come between the +two countries to discuss the bases of a pacification. That the generals +and prytanes should call an assembly of the people, in which the +Athenians should first consult on the peace, and on the mode in which +the embassy for putting an end to the war should be admitted. That the +embassy now present should at once take the engagement before the people +to keep well and truly this truce for one year. + +On these terms the Lacedaemonians concluded with the Athenians and their +allies on the twelfth day of the Spartan month Gerastius; the allies +also taking the oaths. Those who concluded and poured the libation +were Taurus, son of Echetimides, Athenaeus, son of Pericleidas, and +Philocharidas, son of Eryxidaidas, Lacedaemonians; Aeneas, son of +Ocytus, and Euphamidas, son of Aristonymus, Corinthians; Damotimus, son +of Naucrates, and Onasimus, son of Megacles, Sicyonians; Nicasus, son of +Cecalus, and Menecrates, son of Amphidorus, Megarians; and Amphias, son +of Eupaidas, an Epidaurian; and the Athenian generals Nicostratus, son +of Diitrephes, Nicias, son of Niceratus, and Autocles, son of Tolmaeus. +Such was the armistice, and during the whole of it conferences went on +on the subject of a pacification. + +In the days in which they were going backwards and forwards to these +conferences, Scione, a town in Pallene, revolted from Athens, and went +over to Brasidas. The Scionaeans say that they are Pallenians from +Peloponnese, and that their first founders on their voyage from Troy +were carried in to this spot by the storm which the Achaeans were +caught in, and there settled. The Scionaeans had no sooner revolted than +Brasidas crossed over by night to Scione, with a friendly galley ahead +and himself in a small boat some way behind; his idea being that if he +fell in with a vessel larger than the boat he would have the galley to +defend him, while a ship that was a match for the galley would probably +neglect the small vessel to attack the large one, and thus leave +him time to escape. His passage effected, he called a meeting of the +Scionaeans and spoke to the same effect as at Acanthus and Torone, +adding that they merited the utmost commendation, in that, in spite of +Pallene within the isthmus being cut off by the Athenian occupation +of Potidaea and of their own practically insular position, they had +of their own free will gone forward to meet their liberty instead of +timorously waiting until they had been by force compelled to their own +manifest good. This was a sign that they would valiantly undergo any +trial, however great; and if he should order affairs as he intended, +he should count them among the truest and sincerest friends of the +Lacedaemonians, and would in every other way honour them. + +The Scionaeans were elated by his language, and even those who had +at first disapproved of what was being done catching the general +confidence, they determined on a vigorous conduct of the war, and +welcomed Brasidas with all possible honours, publicly crowning him +with a crown of gold as the liberator of Hellas; while private persons +crowded round him and decked him with garlands as though he had been an +athlete. Meanwhile Brasidas left them a small garrison for the present +and crossed back again, and not long afterwards sent over a larger +force, intending with the help of the Scionaeans to attempt Mende and +Potidaea before the Athenians should arrive; Scione, he felt, being too +like an island for them not to relieve it. He had besides intelligence +in the above towns about their betrayal. + +In the midst of his designs upon the towns in question, a galley +arrived with the commissioners carrying round the news of the armistice, +Aristonymus for the Athenians and Athenaeus for the Lacedaemonians. The +troops now crossed back to Torone, and the commissioners gave Brasidas +notice of the convention. All the Lacedaemonian allies in Thrace +accepted what had been done; and Aristonymus made no difficulty about +the rest, but finding, on counting the days, that the Scionaeans had +revolted after the date of the convention, refused to include them in +it. To this Brasidas earnestly objected, asserting that the revolt took +place before, and would not give up the town. Upon Aristonymus reporting +the case to Athens, the people at once prepared to send an expedition +to Scione. Upon this, envoys arrived from Lacedaemon, alleging that this +would be a breach of the truce, and laying claim to the town upon the +faith of the assertion of Brasidas, and meanwhile offering to submit the +question to arbitration. Arbitration, however, was what the Athenians +did not choose to risk; being determined to send troops at once to +the place, and furious at the idea of even the islanders now daring to +revolt, in a vain reliance upon the power of the Lacedaemonians by land. +Besides the facts of the revolt were rather as the Athenians contended, +the Scionaeans having revolted two days after the convention. Cleon +accordingly succeeded in carrying a decree to reduce and put to death +the Scionaeans; and the Athenians employed the leisure which they now +enjoyed in preparing for the expedition. + +Meanwhile Mende revolted, a town in Pallene and a colony of the +Eretrians, and was received without scruple by Brasidas, in spite of its +having evidently come over during the armistice, on account of certain +infringements of the truce alleged by him against the Athenians. This +audacity of Mende was partly caused by seeing Brasidas forward in the +matter and by the conclusions drawn from his refusal to betray Scione; +and besides, the conspirators in Mende were few, and, as I have already +intimated, had carried on their practices too long not to fear detection +for themselves, and not to wish to force the inclination of the +multitude. This news made the Athenians more furious than ever, and they +at once prepared against both towns. Brasidas, expecting their arrival, +conveyed away to Olynthus in Chalcidice the women and children of +the Scionaeans and Mendaeans, and sent over to them five hundred +Peloponnesian heavy infantry and three hundred Chalcidian targeteers, +all under the command of Polydamidas. + +Leaving these two towns to prepare together against the speedy arrival +of the Athenians, Brasidas and Perdiccas started on a second joint +expedition into Lyncus against Arrhabaeus; the latter with the forces +of his Macedonian subjects, and a corps of heavy infantry composed of +Hellenes domiciled in the country; the former with the Peloponnesians +whom he still had with him and the Chalcidians, Acanthians, and the rest +in such force as they were able. In all there were about three thousand +Hellenic heavy infantry, accompanied by all the Macedonian cavalry with +the Chalcidians, near one thousand strong, besides an immense crowd +of barbarians. On entering the country of Arrhabaeus, they found the +Lyncestians encamped awaiting them, and themselves took up a position +opposite. The infantry on either side were upon a hill, with a plain +between them, into which the horse of both armies first galloped down +and engaged a cavalry action. After this the Lyncestian heavy infantry +advanced from their hill to join their cavalry and offered battle; upon +which Brasidas and Perdiccas also came down to meet them, and engaged +and routed them with heavy loss; the survivors taking refuge upon the +heights and there remaining inactive. The victors now set up a trophy +and waited two or three days for the Illyrian mercenaries who were to +join Perdiccas. Perdiccas then wished to go on and attack the villages +of Arrhabaeus, and to sit still no longer; but Brasidas, afraid that the +Athenians might sail up during his absence, and of something happening +to Mende, and seeing besides that the Illyrians did not appear, far from +seconding this wish was anxious to return. + +While they were thus disputing, the news arrived that the Illyrians +had actually betrayed Perdiccas and had joined Arrhabaeus; and the fear +inspired by their warlike character made both parties now think it best +to retreat. However, owing to the dispute, nothing had been settled as +to when they should start; and night coming on, the Macedonians and +the barbarian crowd took fright in a moment in one of those mysterious +panics to which great armies are liable; and persuaded that an army many +times more numerous than that which had really arrived was advancing and +all but upon them, suddenly broke and fled in the direction of home, +and thus compelled Perdiccas, who at first did not perceive what had +occurred, to depart without seeing Brasidas, the two armies being +encamped at a considerable distance from each other. At daybreak +Brasidas, perceiving that the Macedonians had gone on, and that the +Illyrians and Arrhabaeus were on the point of attacking him, formed his +heavy infantry into a square, with the light troops in the centre, and +himself also prepared to retreat. Posting his youngest soldiers to dash +out wherever the enemy should attack them, he himself with three hundred +picked men in the rear intended to face about during the retreat and +beat off the most forward of their assailants, Meanwhile, before the +enemy approached, he sought to sustain the courage of his soldiers with +the following hasty exhortation: + +"Peloponnesians, if I did not suspect you of being dismayed at being +left alone to sustain the attack of a numerous and barbarian enemy, +I should just have said a few words to you as usual without further +explanation. As it is, in the face of the desertion of our friends and +the numbers of the enemy, I have some advice and information to offer, +which, brief as they must be, will, I hope, suffice for the more +important points. The bravery that you habitually display in war does +not depend on your having allies at your side in this or that encounter, +but on your native courage; nor have numbers any terrors for citizens of +states like yours, in which the many do not rule the few, but rather the +few the many, owing their position to nothing else than to superiority +in the field. Inexperience now makes you afraid of barbarians; and yet +the trial of strength which you had with the Macedonians among them, and +my own judgment, confirmed by what I hear from others, should be enough +to satisfy you that they will not prove formidable. Where an enemy +seems strong but is really weak, a true knowledge of the facts makes his +adversary the bolder, just as a serious antagonist is encountered most +confidently by those who do not know him. Thus the present enemy might +terrify an inexperienced imagination; they are formidable in outward +bulk, their loud yelling is unbearable, and the brandishing of their +weapons in the air has a threatening appearance. But when it comes to +real fighting with an opponent who stands his ground, they are not what +they seemed; they have no regular order that they should be ashamed of +deserting their positions when hard pressed; flight and attack are +with them equally honourable, and afford no test of courage; their +independent mode of fighting never leaving any one who wants to run away +without a fair excuse for so doing. In short, they think frightening +you at a secure distance a surer game than meeting you hand to hand; +otherwise they would have done the one and not the other. You can thus +plainly see that the terrors with which they were at first invested are +in fact trifling enough, though to the eye and ear very prominent. Stand +your ground therefore when they advance, and again wait your opportunity +to retire in good order, and you will reach a place of safety all the +sooner, and will know for ever afterwards that rabble such as these, to +those who sustain their first attack, do but show off their courage by +threats of the terrible things that they are going to do, at a distance, +but with those who give way to them are quick enough to display their +heroism in pursuit when they can do so without danger." + +With this brief address Brasidas began to lead off his army. Seeing +this, the barbarians came on with much shouting and hubbub, thinking +that he was flying and that they would overtake him and cut him off. But +wherever they charged they found the young men ready to dash out against +them, while Brasidas with his picked company sustained their onset. Thus +the Peloponnesians withstood the first attack, to the surprise of the +enemy, and afterwards received and repulsed them as fast as they came +on, retiring as soon as their opponents became quiet. The main body of +the barbarians ceased therefore to molest the Hellenes with Brasidas in +the open country, and leaving behind a certain number to harass their +march, the rest went on after the flying Macedonians, slaying those +with whom they came up, and so arrived in time to occupy the narrow pass +between two hills that leads into the country of Arrhabaeus. They knew +that this was the only way by which Brasidas could retreat, and now +proceeded to surround him just as he entered the most impracticable part +of the road, in order to cut him off. + +Brasidas, perceiving their intention, told his three hundred to run on +without order, each as quickly as he could, to the hill which seemed +easiest to take, and to try to dislodge the barbarians already there, +before they should be joined by the main body closing round him. These +attacked and overpowered the party upon the hill, and the main army +of the Hellenes now advanced with less difficulty towards it--the +barbarians being terrified at seeing their men on that side driven from +the height and no longer following the main body, who, they considered, +had gained the frontier and made good their escape. The heights once +gained, Brasidas now proceeded more securely, and the same day arrived +at Arnisa, the first town in the dominions of Perdiccas. The soldiers, +enraged at the desertion of the Macedonians, vented their rage on all +their yokes of oxen which they found on the road, and on any baggage +which had tumbled off (as might easily happen in the panic of a night +retreat), by unyoking and cutting down the cattle and taking the baggage +for themselves. From this moment Perdiccas began to regard Brasidas as +an enemy and to feel against the Peloponnesians a hatred which could +not be congenial to the adversary of the Athenians. However, he departed +from his natural interests and made it his endeavour to come to terms +with the latter and to get rid of the former. + +On his return from Macedonia to Torone, Brasidas found the Athenians +already masters of Mende, and remained quiet where he was, thinking +it now out of his power to cross over into Pallene and assist the +Mendaeans, but he kept good watch over Torone. For about the same time +as the campaign in Lyncus, the Athenians sailed upon the expedition +which we left them preparing against Mende and Scione, with fifty ships, +ten of which were Chians, one thousand Athenian heavy infantry and six +hundred archers, one hundred Thracian mercenaries and some targeteers +drawn from their allies in the neighbourhood, under the command of +Nicias, son of Niceratus, and Nicostratus, son of Diitrephes. Weighing +from Potidaea, the fleet came to land opposite the temple of Poseidon, +and proceeded against Mende; the men of which town, reinforced by three +hundred Scionaeans, with their Peloponnesian auxiliaries, seven hundred +heavy infantry in all, under Polydamidas, they found encamped upon a +strong hill outside the city. These Nicias, with one hundred and twenty +light-armed Methonaeans, sixty picked men from the Athenian heavy +infantry, and all the archers, tried to reach by a path running up +the hill, but received a wound and found himself unable to force the +position; while Nicostratus, with all the rest of the army, advancing +upon the hill, which was naturally difficult, by a different approach +further off, was thrown into utter disorder; and the whole Athenian +army narrowly escaped being defeated. For that day, as the Mendaeans and +their allies showed no signs of yielding, the Athenians retreated and +encamped, and the Mendaeans at nightfall returned into the town. + +The next day the Athenians sailed round to the Scione side, and took the +suburb, and all day plundered the country, without any one coming out +against them, partly because of intestine disturbances in the town; and +the following night the three hundred Scionaeans returned home. On the +morrow Nicias advanced with half the army to the frontier of Scione and +laid waste the country; while Nicostratus with the remainder sat down +before the town near the upper gate on the road to Potidaea. The arms +of the Mendaeans and of their Peloponnesian auxiliaries within the wall +happened to be piled in that quarter, where Polydamidas accordingly +began to draw them up for battle, encouraging the Mendaeans to make a +sortie. At this moment one of the popular party answered him factiously +that they would not go out and did not want a war, and for thus +answering was dragged by the arm and knocked about by Polydamidas. +Hereupon the infuriated commons at once seized their arms and rushed +at the Peloponnesians and at their allies of the opposite faction. The +troops thus assaulted were at once routed, partly from the suddenness +of the conflict and partly through fear of the gates being opened to the +Athenians, with whom they imagined that the attack had been concerted. +As many as were not killed on the spot took refuge in the citadel, +which they had held from the first; and the whole, Athenian army, Nicias +having by this time returned and being close to the city, now burst into +Mende, which had opened its gates without any convention, and sacked it +just as if they had taken it by storm, the generals even finding some +difficulty in restraining them from also massacring the inhabitants. +After this the Athenians told the Mendaeans that they might retain their +civil rights, and themselves judge the supposed authors of the revolt; +and cut off the party in the citadel by a wall built down to the sea +on either side, appointing troops to maintain the blockade. Having thus +secured Mende, they proceeded against Scione. + +The Scionaeans and Peloponnesians marched out against them, occupying a +strong hill in front of the town, which had to be captured by the enemy +before they could invest the place. The Athenians stormed the hill, +defeated and dislodged its occupants, and, having encamped and set up +a trophy, prepared for the work of circumvallation. Not long after they +had begun their operations, the auxiliaries besieged in the citadel of +Mende forced the guard by the sea-side and arrived by night at Scione, +into which most of them succeeded in entering, passing through the +besieging army. + +While the investment of Scione was in progress, Perdiccas sent a herald +to the Athenian generals and made peace with the Athenians, through +spite against Brasidas for the retreat from Lyncus, from which moment +indeed he had begun to negotiate. The Lacedaemonian Ischagoras was just +then upon the point of starting with an army overland to join Brasidas; +and Perdiccas, being now required by Nicias to give some proof of the +sincerity of his reconciliation to the Athenians, and being himself +no longer disposed to let the Peloponnesians into his country, put in +motion his friends in Thessaly, with whose chief men he always took +care to have relations, and so effectually stopped the army and its +preparation that they did not even try the Thessalians. Ischagoras +himself, however, with Ameinias and Aristeus, succeeded in reaching +Brasidas; they had been commissioned by the Lacedaemonians to inspect +the state of affairs, and brought out from Sparta (in violation of all +precedent) some of their young men to put in command of the towns, +to guard against their being entrusted to the persons upon the spot. +Brasidas accordingly placed Clearidas, son of Cleonymus, in Amphipolis, +and Pasitelidas, son of Hegesander, in Torone. + +The same summer the Thebans dismantled the wall of the Thespians on the +charge of Atticism, having always wished to do so, and now finding it +an easy matter, as the flower of the Thespian youth had perished in the +battle with the Athenians. The same summer also the temple of Hera at +Argos was burnt down, through Chrysis, the priestess, placing a lighted +torch near the garlands and then falling asleep, so that they all caught +fire and were in a blaze before she observed it. Chrysis that very night +fled to Phlius for fear of the Argives, who, agreeably to the law in +such a case, appointed another priestess named Phaeinis. Chrysis at the +time of her flight had been priestess for eight years of the present war +and half the ninth. At the close of the summer the investment of Scione +was completed, and the Athenians, leaving a detachment to maintain the +blockade, returned with the rest of their army. + +During the winter following, the Athenians and Lacedaemonians were +kept quiet by the armistice; but the Mantineans and Tegeans, and their +respective allies, fought a battle at Laodicium, in the Oresthid. The +victory remained doubtful, as each side routed one of the wings opposed +to them, and both set up trophies and sent spoils to Delphi. After heavy +loss on both sides the battle was undecided, and night interrupted +the action; yet the Tegeans passed the night on the field and set up +a trophy at once, while the Mantineans withdrew to Bucolion and set up +theirs afterwards. + +At the close of the same winter, in fact almost in spring, Brasidas made +an attempt upon Potidaea. He arrived by night, and succeeded in planting +a ladder against the wall without being discovered, the ladder being +planted just in the interval between the passing round of the bell and +the return of the man who brought it back. Upon the garrison, however, +taking the alarm immediately afterwards, before his men came up, he +quickly led off his troops, without waiting until it was day. So ended +the winter and the ninth year of this war of which Thucydides is the +historian. + + + + +BOOK V + +CHAPTER XV + +_Tenth Year of the War--Death of Cleon and Brasidas--Peace of Nicias_ + +The next summer the truce for a year ended, after lasting until the +Pythian games. During the armistice the Athenians expelled the Delians +from Delos, concluding that they must have been polluted by some old +offence at the time of their consecration, and that this had been the +omission in the previous purification of the island, which, as I have +related, had been thought to have been duly accomplished by the removal +of the graves of the dead. The Delians had Atramyttium in Asia given +them by Pharnaces, and settled there as they removed from Delos. + +Meanwhile Cleon prevailed on the Athenians to let him set sail at the +expiration of the armistice for the towns in the direction of Thrace +with twelve hundred heavy infantry and three hundred horse from Athens, +a large force of the allies, and thirty ships. First touching at the +still besieged Scione, and taking some heavy infantry from the army +there, he next sailed into Cophos, a harbour in the territory of +Torone, which is not far from the town. From thence, having learnt from +deserters that Brasidas was not in Torone, and that its garrison was not +strong enough to give him battle, he advanced with his army against the +town, sending ten ships to sail round into the harbour. He first came to +the fortification lately thrown up in front of the town by Brasidas in +order to take in the suburb, to do which he had pulled down part of the +original wall and made it all one city. To this point Pasitelidas, the +Lacedaemonian commander, with such garrison as there was in the place, +hurried to repel the Athenian assault; but finding himself hard pressed, +and seeing the ships that had been sent round sailing into the harbour, +Pasitelidas began to be afraid that they might get up to the city before +its defenders were there and, the fortification being also carried, he +might be taken prisoner, and so abandoned the outwork and ran into the +town. But the Athenians from the ships had already taken Torone, and +their land forces following at his heels burst in with him with a rush +over the part of the old wall that had been pulled down, killing some of +the Peloponnesians and Toronaeans in the melee, and making prisoners +of the rest, and Pasitelidas their commander amongst them. Brasidas +meanwhile had advanced to relieve Torone, and had only about four miles +more to go when he heard of its fall on the road, and turned back again. +Cleon and the Athenians set up two trophies, one by the harbour, the +other by the fortification and, making slaves of the wives and children +of the Toronaeans, sent the men with the Peloponnesians and any +Chalcidians that were there, to the number of seven hundred, to Athens; +whence, however, they all came home afterwards, the Peloponnesians on +the conclusion of peace, and the rest by being exchanged against other +prisoners with the Olynthians. About the same time Panactum, a fortress +on the Athenian border, was taken by treachery by the Boeotians. +Meanwhile Cleon, after placing a garrison in Torone, weighed anchor and +sailed around Athos on his way to Amphipolis. + +About the same time Phaeax, son of Erasistratus, set sail with two +colleagues as ambassador from Athens to Italy and Sicily. The Leontines, +upon the departure of the Athenians from Sicily after the pacification, +had placed a number of new citizens upon the roll, and the commons had +a design for redividing the land; but the upper classes, aware of their +intention, called in the Syracusans and expelled the commons. These last +were scattered in various directions; but the upper classes came to an +agreement with the Syracusans, abandoned and laid waste their city, and +went and lived at Syracuse, where they were made citizens. Afterwards +some of them were dissatisfied, and leaving Syracuse occupied Phocaeae, +a quarter of the town of Leontini, and Bricinniae, a strong place in the +Leontine country, and being there joined by most of the exiled commons +carried on war from the fortifications. The Athenians hearing this, sent +Phaeax to see if they could not by some means so convince their allies +there and the rest of the Sicilians of the ambitious designs of Syracuse +as to induce them to form a general coalition against her, and thus save +the commons of Leontini. Arrived in Sicily, Phaeax succeeded at Camarina +and Agrigentum, but meeting with a repulse at Gela did not go on to +the rest, as he saw that he should not succeed with them, but returned +through the country of the Sicels to Catana, and after visiting +Bricinniae as he passed, and encouraging its inhabitants, sailed back to +Athens. + +During his voyage along the coast to and from Sicily, he treated with +some cities in Italy on the subject of friendship with Athens, and also +fell in with some Locrian settlers exiled from Messina, who had been +sent thither when the Locrians were called in by one of the factions +that divided Messina after the pacification of Sicily, and Messina came +for a time into the hands of the Locrians. These being met by Phaeax on +their return home received no injury at his hands, as the Locrians had +agreed with him for a treaty with Athens. They were the only people +of the allies who, when the reconciliation between the Sicilians took +place, had not made peace with her; nor indeed would they have done +so now, if they had not been pressed by a war with the Hipponians and +Medmaeans who lived on their border, and were colonists of theirs. +Phaeax meanwhile proceeded on his voyage, and at length arrived at +Athens. + +Cleon, whom we left on his voyage from Torone to Amphipolis, made Eion +his base, and after an unsuccessful assault upon the Andrian colony +of Stagirus, took Galepsus, a colony of Thasos, by storm. He now sent +envoys to Perdiccas to command his attendance with an army, as +provided by the alliance; and others to Thrace, to Polles, king of the +Odomantians, who was to bring as many Thracian mercenaries as possible; +and himself remained inactive in Eion, awaiting their arrival. Informed +of this, Brasidas on his part took up a position of observation upon +Cerdylium, a place situated in the Argilian country on high ground +across the river, not far from Amphipolis, and commanding a view on all +sides, and thus made it impossible for Cleon's army to move without +his seeing it; for he fully expected that Cleon, despising the scanty +numbers of his opponent, would march against Amphipolis with the +force that he had got with him. At the same time Brasidas made +his preparations, calling to his standard fifteen hundred Thracian +mercenaries and all the Edonians, horse and targeteers; he also had +a thousand Myrcinian and Chalcidian targeteers, besides those in +Amphipolis, and a force of heavy infantry numbering altogether about two +thousand, and three hundred Hellenic horse. Fifteen hundred of these he +had with him upon Cerdylium; the rest were stationed with Clearidas in +Amphipolis. + +After remaining quiet for some time, Cleon was at length obliged to do +as Brasidas expected. His soldiers, tired of their inactivity, began +also seriously to reflect on the weakness and incompetence of their +commander, and the skill and valour that would be opposed to him, and on +their own original unwillingness to accompany him. These murmurs coming +to the ears of Cleon, he resolved not to disgust the army by keeping it +in the same place, and broke up his camp and advanced. The temper of +the general was what it had been at Pylos, his success on that occasion +having given him confidence in his capacity. He never dreamed of any one +coming out to fight him, but said that he was rather going up to view +the place; and if he waited for his reinforcements, it was not in order +to make victory secure in case he should be compelled to engage, but +to be enabled to surround and storm the city. He accordingly came and +posted his army upon a strong hill in front of Amphipolis, and proceeded +to examine the lake formed by the Strymon, and how the town lay on the +side of Thrace. He thought to retire at pleasure without fighting, as +there was no one to be seen upon the wall or coming out of the gates, +all of which were shut. Indeed, it seemed a mistake not to have brought +down engines with him; he could then have taken the town, there being no +one to defend it. + +As soon as Brasidas saw the Athenians in motion he descended himself +from Cerdylium and entered Amphipolis. He did not venture to go out in +regular order against the Athenians: he mistrusted his strength, and +thought it inadequate to the attempt; not in numbers--these were not so +unequal--but in quality, the flower of the Athenian army being in the +field, with the best of the Lemnians and Imbrians. He therefore prepared +to assail them by stratagem. By showing the enemy the number of his +troops, and the shifts which he had been put to to to arm them, he +thought that he should have less chance of beating him than by not +letting him have a sight of them, and thus learn how good a right he +had to despise them. He accordingly picked out a hundred and fifty heavy +infantry and, putting the rest under Clearidas, determined to attack +suddenly before the Athenians retired; thinking that he should not have +again such a chance of catching them alone, if their reinforcements were +once allowed to come up; and so calling all his soldiers together in +order to encourage them and explain his intention, spoke as follows: + +"Peloponnesians, the character of the country from which we have come, +one which has always owed its freedom to valour, and the fact that you +are Dorians and the enemy you are about to fight Ionians, whom you are +accustomed to beat, are things that do not need further comment. But the +plan of attack that I propose to pursue, this it is as well to explain, +in order that the fact of our adventuring with a part instead of with +the whole of our forces may not damp your courage by the apparent +disadvantage at which it places you. I imagine it is the poor opinion +that he has of us, and the fact that he has no idea of any one coming +out to engage him, that has made the enemy march up to the place and +carelessly look about him as he is doing, without noticing us. But the +most successful soldier will always be the man who most happily detects +a blunder like this, and who carefully consulting his own means makes +his attack not so much by open and regular approaches, as by seizing the +opportunity of the moment; and these stratagems, which do the greatest +service to our friends by most completely deceiving our enemies, +have the most brilliant name in war. Therefore, while their careless +confidence continues, and they are still thinking, as in my judgment +they are now doing, more of retreat than of maintaining their position, +while their spirit is slack and not high-strung with expectation, I with +the men under my command will, if possible, take them by surprise and +fall with a run upon their centre; and do you, Clearidas, afterwards, +when you see me already upon them, and, as is likely, dealing terror +among them, take with you the Amphipolitans, and the rest of the allies, +and suddenly open the gates and dash at them, and hasten to engage as +quickly as you can. That is our best chance of establishing a panic +among them, as a fresh assailant has always more terrors for an enemy +than the one he is immediately engaged with. Show yourself a brave +man, as a Spartan should; and do you, allies, follow him like men, and +remember that zeal, honour, and obedience mark the good soldier, and +that this day will make you either free men and allies of Lacedaemon, or +slaves of Athens; even if you escape without personal loss of liberty +or life, your bondage will be on harsher terms than before, and you will +also hinder the liberation of the rest of the Hellenes. No cowardice +then on your part, seeing the greatness of the issues at stake, and I +will show that what I preach to others I can practise myself." + +After this brief speech Brasidas himself prepared for the sally, and +placed the rest with Clearidas at the Thracian gates to support him as +had been agreed. Meanwhile he had been seen coming down from Cerdylium +and then in the city, which is overlooked from the outside, sacrificing +near the temple of Athene; in short, all his movements had been +observed, and word was brought to Cleon, who had at the moment gone on +to look about him, that the whole of the enemy's force could be seen +in the town, and that the feet of horses and men in great numbers were +visible under the gates, as if a sally were intended. Upon hearing this +he went up to look, and having done so, being unwilling to venture upon +the decisive step of a battle before his reinforcements came up, and +fancying that he would have time to retire, bid the retreat be sounded +and sent orders to the men to effect it by moving on the left wing in +the direction of Eion, which was indeed the only way practicable. This +however not being quick enough for him, he joined the retreat in person +and made the right wing wheel round, thus turning its unarmed side +to the enemy. It was then that Brasidas, seeing the Athenian force in +motion and his opportunity come, said to the men with him and the rest: +"Those fellows will never stand before us, one can see that by the way +their spears and heads are going. Troops which do as they do seldom +stand a charge. Quick, someone, and open the gates I spoke of, and let +us be out and at them with no fears for the result." Accordingly +issuing out by the palisade gate and by the first in the long wall then +existing, he ran at the top of his speed along the straight road, where +the trophy now stands as you go by the steepest part of the hill, and +fell upon and routed the centre of the Athenians, panic-stricken by +their own disorder and astounded at his audacity. At the same moment +Clearidas in execution of his orders issued out from the Thracian gates +to support him, and also attacked the enemy. The result was that the +Athenians, suddenly and unexpectedly attacked on both sides, fell into +confusion; and their left towards Eion, which had already got on some +distance, at once broke and fled. Just as it was in full retreat and +Brasidas was passing on to attack the right, he received a wound; but +his fall was not perceived by the Athenians, as he was taken up by those +near him and carried off the field. The Athenian right made a better +stand, and though Cleon, who from the first had no thought of fighting, +at once fled and was overtaken and slain by a Myrcinian targeteer, his +infantry forming in close order upon the hill twice or thrice repulsed +the attacks of Clearidas, and did not finally give way until they were +surrounded and routed by the missiles of the Myrcinian and Chalcidian +horse and the targeteers. Thus the Athenian army was all now in flight; +and such as escaped being killed in the battle, or by the Chalcidian +horse and the targeteers, dispersed among the hills, and with difficulty +made their way to Eion. The men who had taken up and rescued Brasidas, +brought him into the town with the breath still in him: he lived to hear +of the victory of his troops, and not long after expired. The rest of +the army returning with Clearidas from the pursuit stripped the dead and +set up a trophy. + +After this all the allies attended in arms and buried Brasidas at the +public expense in the city, in front of what is now the marketplace, and +the Amphipolitans, having enclosed his tomb, ever afterwards sacrifice +to him as a hero and have given to him the honour of games and annual +offerings. They constituted him the founder of their colony, and pulled +down the Hagnonic erections, and obliterated everything that could be +interpreted as a memorial of his having founded the place; for they +considered that Brasidas had been their preserver, and courting as they +did the alliance of Lacedaemon for fear of Athens, in their present +hostile relations with the latter they could no longer with the same +advantage or satisfaction pay Hagnon his honours. They also gave the +Athenians back their dead. About six hundred of the latter had fallen +and only seven of the enemy, owing to there having been no regular +engagement, but the affair of accident and panic that I have described. +After taking up their dead the Athenians sailed off home, while +Clearidas and his troops remained to arrange matters at Amphipolis. + +About the same time three Lacedaemonians--Ramphias, Autocharidas, and +Epicydidas--led a reinforcement of nine hundred heavy infantry to the +towns in the direction of Thrace, and arriving at Heraclea in Trachis +reformed matters there as seemed good to them. While they delayed there, +this battle took place and so the summer ended. + +With the beginning of the winter following, Ramphias and his companions +penetrated as far as Pierium in Thessaly; but as the Thessalians opposed +their further advance, and Brasidas whom they came to reinforce was +dead, they turned back home, thinking that the moment had gone by, +the Athenians being defeated and gone, and themselves not equal to the +execution of Brasidas's designs. The main cause however of their return +was because they knew that when they set out Lacedaemonian opinion was +really in favour of peace. + +Indeed it so happened that directly after the battle of Amphipolis and +the retreat of Ramphias from Thessaly, both sides ceased to prosecute +the war and turned their attention to peace. Athens had suffered +severely at Delium, and again shortly afterwards at Amphipolis, and +had no longer that confidence in her strength which had made her before +refuse to treat, in the belief of ultimate victory which her success +at the moment had inspired; besides, she was afraid of her allies being +tempted by her reverses to rebel more generally, and repented having +let go the splendid opportunity for peace which the affair of Pylos had +offered. Lacedaemon, on the other hand, found the event of the war to +falsify her notion that a few years would suffice for the overthrow of +the power of the Athenians by the devastation of their land. She had +suffered on the island a disaster hitherto unknown at Sparta; she saw +her country plundered from Pylos and Cythera; the Helots were deserting, +and she was in constant apprehension that those who remained in +Peloponnese would rely upon those outside and take advantage of the +situation to renew their old attempts at revolution. Besides this, as +chance would have it, her thirty years' truce with the Argives was upon +the point of expiring; and they refused to renew it unless Cynuria were +restored to them; so that it seemed impossible to fight Argos and +Athens at once. She also suspected some of the cities in Peloponnese of +intending to go over to the enemy and that was indeed the case. + +These considerations made both sides disposed for an accommodation; the +Lacedaemonians being probably the most eager, as they ardently desired +to recover the men taken upon the island, the Spartans among whom +belonged to the first families and were accordingly related to the +governing body in Lacedaemon. Negotiations had been begun directly after +their capture, but the Athenians in their hour of triumph would not +consent to any reasonable terms; though after their defeat at Delium, +Lacedaemon, knowing that they would be now more inclined to listen, +at once concluded the armistice for a year, during which they were to +confer together and see if a longer period could not be agreed upon. + +Now, however, after the Athenian defeat at Amphipolis, and the death of +Cleon and Brasidas, who had been the two principal opponents of peace on +either side--the latter from the success and honour which war gave him, +the former because he thought that, if tranquillity were restored, +his crimes would be more open to detection and his slanders less +credited--the foremost candidates for power in either city, Pleistoanax, +son of Pausanias, king of Lacedaemon, and Nicias, son of Niceratus, the +most fortunate general of his time, each desired peace more ardently +than ever. Nicias, while still happy and honoured, wished to secure his +good fortune, to obtain a present release from trouble for himself and +his countrymen, and hand down to posterity a name as an ever-successful +statesman, and thought the way to do this was to keep out of danger and +commit himself as little as possible to fortune, and that peace alone +made this keeping out of danger possible. Pleistoanax, again, was +assailed by his enemies for his restoration, and regularly held up by +them to the prejudice of his countrymen, upon every reverse that befell +them, as though his unjust restoration were the cause; the accusation +being that he and his brother Aristocles had bribed the prophetess of +Delphi to tell the Lacedaemonian deputations which successively arrived +at the temple to bring home the seed of the demigod son of Zeus from +abroad, else they would have to plough with a silver share. In this +way, it was insisted, in time he had induced the Lacedaemonians in +the nineteenth year of his exile to Lycaeum (whither he had gone when +banished on suspicion of having been bribed to retreat from Attica, and +had built half his house within the consecrated precinct of Zeus for +fear of the Lacedaemonians), to restore him with the same dances and +sacrifices with which they had instituted their kings upon the first +settlement of Lacedaemon. The smart of this accusation, and the +reflection that in peace no disaster could occur, and that when +Lacedaemon had recovered her men there would be nothing for his enemies +to take hold of (whereas, while war lasted, the highest station must +always bear the scandal of everything that went wrong), made him +ardently desire a settlement. Accordingly this winter was employed in +conferences; and as spring rapidly approached, the Lacedaemonians sent +round orders to the cities to prepare for a fortified occupation of +Attica, and held this as a sword over the heads of the Athenians to +induce them to listen to their overtures; and at last, after many claims +had been urged on either side at the conferences a peace was agreed on +upon the following basis. Each party was to restore its conquests, +but Athens was to keep Nisaea; her demand for Plataea being met by +the Thebans asserting that they had acquired the place not by force or +treachery, but by the voluntary adhesion upon agreement of its citizens; +and the same, according to the Athenian account, being the history of +her acquisition of Nisaea. This arranged, the Lacedaemonians +summoned their allies, and all voting for peace except the Boeotians, +Corinthians, Eleans, and Megarians, who did not approve of these +proceedings, they concluded the treaty and made peace, each of the +contracting parties swearing to the following articles: + +The Athenians and Lacedaemonians and their allies made a treaty, and +swore to it, city by city, as follows; + +1. Touching the national temples, there shall be a free passage by land +and by sea to all who wish it, to sacrifice, travel, consult, and attend +the oracle or games, according to the customs of their countries. + +2. The temple and shrine of Apollo at Delphi and the Delphians shall +be governed by their own laws, taxed by their own state, and judged by +their own judges, the land and the people, according to the custom of +their country. + +3. The treaty shall be binding for fifty years upon the Athenians and +the allies of the Athenians, and upon the Lacedaemonians and the allies +of the Lacedaemonians, without fraud or hurt by land or by sea. + +4. It shall not be lawful to take up arms, with intent to do hurt, +either for the Lacedaemonians and their allies against the Athenians +and their allies, or for the Athenians and their allies against the +Lacedaemonians and their allies, in any way or means whatsoever. But +should any difference arise between them they are to have recourse to +law and oaths, according as may be agreed between the parties. + +5. The Lacedaemonians and their allies shall give back Amphipolis to +the Athenians. Nevertheless, in the case of cities given up by the +Lacedaemonians to the Athenians, the inhabitants shall be allowed to go +where they please and to take their property with them: and the cities +shall be independent, paying only the tribute of Aristides. And it shall +not be lawful for the Athenians or their allies to carry on war against +them after the treaty has been concluded, so long as the tribute is +paid. The cities referred to are Argilus, Stagirus, Acanthus, Scolus, +Olynthus, and Spartolus. These cities shall be neutral, allies neither +of the Lacedaemonians nor of the Athenians: but if the cities consent, +it shall be lawful for the Athenians to make them their allies, provided +always that the cities wish it. The Mecybernaeans, Sanaeans, and +Singaeans shall inhabit their own cities, as also the Olynthians and +Acanthians: but the Lacedaemonians and their allies shall give back +Panactum to the Athenians. + +6. The Athenians shall give back Coryphasium, Cythera, Methana, +Lacedaemonians that are in the prison at Athens or elsewhere in the +Athenian dominions, and shall let go the Peloponnesians besieged in +Scione, and all others in Scione that are allies of the Lacedaemonians, +and all whom Brasidas sent in there, and any others of the allies of the +Lacedaemonians that may be in the prison at Athens or elsewhere in the +Athenian dominions. + +7. The Lacedaemonians and their allies shall in like manner give back +any of the Athenians or their allies that they may have in their hands. + +8. In the case of Scione, Torone, and Sermylium, and any other cities +that the Athenians may have, the Athenians may adopt such measures as +they please. + +9. The Athenians shall take an oath to the Lacedaemonians and their +allies, city by city. Every man shall swear by the most binding oath of +his country, seventeen from each city. The oath shall be as follows; "I +will abide by this agreement and treaty honestly and without deceit." +In the same way an oath shall be taken by the Lacedaemonians and their +allies to the Athenians: and the oath shall be renewed annually by both +parties. Pillars shall be erected at Olympia, Pythia, the Isthmus, at +Athens in the Acropolis, and at Lacedaemon in the temple at Amyclae. + +10. If anything be forgotten, whatever it be, and on whatever point, it +shall be consistent with their oath for both parties, the Athenians and +Lacedaemonians, to alter it, according to their discretion. + +The treaty begins from the ephoralty of Pleistolas in Lacedaemon, on the +27th day of the month of Artemisium, and from the archonship, of Alcaeus +at Athens, on the 25th day of the month of Elaphebolion. Those who +took the oath and poured the libations for the Lacedaemonians were +Pleistoanax, Agis, Pleistolas, Damagetis, Chionis, Metagenes, Acanthus, +Daithus, Ischagoras, Philocharidas, Zeuxidas, Antippus, Tellis, +Alcinadas, Empedias, Menas, and Laphilus: for the Athenians, Lampon, +Isthmonicus, Nicias, Laches, Euthydemus, Procles, Pythodorus, Hagnon, +Myrtilus, Thrasycles, Theagenes, Aristocrates, Iolcius, Timocrates, +Leon, Lamachus, and Demosthenes. + +This treaty was made in the spring, just at the end of winter, directly +after the city festival of Dionysus, just ten years, with the difference +of a few days, from the first invasion of Attica and the commencement of +this war. This must be calculated by the seasons rather than by trusting +to the enumeration of the names of the several magistrates or offices of +honour that are used to mark past events. Accuracy is impossible where +an event may have occurred in the beginning, or middle, or at any period +in their tenure of office. But by computing by summers and winters, the +method adopted in this history, it will be found that, each of these +amounting to half a year, there were ten summers and as many winters +contained in this first war. + +Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians, to whose lot it fell to begin the work +of restitution, immediately set free all the prisoners of war in their +possession, and sent Ischagoras, Menas, and Philocharidas as envoys to +the towns in the direction of Thrace, to order Clearidas to hand over +Amphipolis to the Athenians, and the rest of their allies each to accept +the treaty as it affected them. They, however, did not like its +terms, and refused to accept it; Clearidas also, willing to oblige the +Chalcidians, would not hand over the town, averring his inability to +do so against their will. Meanwhile he hastened in person to Lacedaemon +with envoys from the place, to defend his disobedience against the +possible accusations of Ischagoras and his companions, and also to see +whether it was too late for the agreement to be altered; and on +finding the Lacedaemonians were bound, quickly set out back again with +instructions from them to hand over the place, if possible, or at all +events to bring out the Peloponnesians that were in it. + +The allies happened to be present in person at Lacedaemon, and those +who had not accepted the treaty were now asked by the Lacedaemonians +to adopt it. This, however, they refused to do, for the same reasons +as before, unless a fairer one than the present were agreed upon; +and remaining firm in their determination were dismissed by the +Lacedaemonians, who now decided on forming an alliance with the +Athenians, thinking that Argos, who had refused the application of +Ampelidas and Lichas for a renewal of the treaty, would without Athens +be no longer formidable, and that the rest of the Peloponnese would be +most likely to keep quiet, if the coveted alliance of Athens were +shut against them. Accordingly, after conference with the Athenian +ambassadors, an alliance was agreed upon and oaths were exchanged, upon +the terms following: + +1. The Lacedaemonians shall be allies of the Athenians for fifty years. + +2. Should any enemy invade the territory of Lacedaemon and injure +the Lacedaemonians, the Athenians shall help in such way as they most +effectively can, according to their power. But if the invader be gone +after plundering the country, that city shall be the enemy of Lacedaemon +and Athens, and shall be chastised by both, and one shall not make peace +without the other. This to be honestly, loyally, and without fraud. + +3. Should any enemy invade the territory of Athens and injure the +Athenians, the Lacedaemonians shall help them in such way as they most +effectively can, according to their power. But if the invader be gone +after plundering the country, that city shall be the enemy of Lacedaemon +and Athens, and shall be chastised by both, and one shall not make peace +without the other. This to be honestly, loyally, and without fraud. + +4. Should the slave population rise, the Athenians shall help the +Lacedaemonians with all their might, according to their power. + +5. This treaty shall be sworn to by the same persons on either side that +swore to the other. It shall be renewed annually by the Lacedaemonians +going to Athens for the Dionysia, and the Athenians to Lacedaemon +for the Hyacinthia, and a pillar shall be set up by either party: at +Lacedaemon near the statue of Apollo at Amyclae, and at Athens on the +Acropolis near the statue of Athene. Should the Lacedaemonians +and Athenians see to add to or take away from the alliance in any +particular, it shall be consistent with their oaths for both parties to +do so, according to their discretion. + +Those who took the oath for the Lacedaemonians were Pleistoanax, +Agis, Pleistolas, Damagetus, Chionis, Metagenes, Acanthus, Daithus, +Ischagoras, Philocharidas, Zeuxidas, Antippus, Alcinadas, Tellis, +Empedias, Menas, and Laphilus; for the Athenians, Lampon, Isthmionicus, +Laches, Nicias, Euthydemus, Procles, Pythodorus, Hagnon, Myrtilus, +Thrasycles, Theagenes, Aristocrates, Iolcius, Timocrates, Leon, +Lamachus, and Demosthenes. + +This alliance was made not long after the treaty; and the Athenians gave +back the men from the island to the Lacedaemonians, and the summer of +the eleventh year began. This completes the history of the first war, +which occupied the whole of the ten years previously. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +_Feeling against Sparta in Peloponnese--League of the Mantineans, +Eleans, Argives, and Athenians--Battle of Mantinea and breaking up of +the League_ + +After the treaty and the alliance between the Lacedaemonians and +Athenians, concluded after the ten years' war, in the ephorate of +Pleistolas at Lacedaemon, and the archonship of Alcaeus at Athens, the +states which had accepted them were at peace; but the Corinthians and +some of the cities in Peloponnese trying to disturb the settlement, +a fresh agitation was instantly commenced by the allies against +Lacedaemon. Further, the Lacedaemonians, as time went on, became +suspected by the Athenians through their not performing some of the +provisions in the treaty; and though for six years and ten months +they abstained from invasion of each other's territory, yet abroad an +unstable armistice did not prevent either party doing the other the most +effectual injury, until they were finally obliged to break the treaty +made after the ten years' war and to have recourse to open hostilities. + +The history of this period has been also written by the same Thucydides, +an Athenian, in the chronological order of events by summers and +winters, to the time when the Lacedaemonians and their allies put an end +to the Athenian empire, and took the Long Walls and Piraeus. The war had +then lasted for twenty-seven years in all. Only a mistaken judgment can +object to including the interval of treaty in the war. Looked at by the +light of facts it cannot, it will be found, be rationally considered +a state of peace, where neither party either gave or got back all that +they had agreed, apart from the violations of it which occurred on both +sides in the Mantinean and Epidaurian wars and other instances, and +the fact that the allies in the direction of Thrace were in as open +hostility as ever, while the Boeotians had only a truce renewed every +ten days. So that the first ten years' war, the treacherous armistice +that followed it, and the subsequent war will, calculating by the +seasons, be found to make up the number of years which I have mentioned, +with the difference of a few days, and to afford an instance of faith +in oracles being for once justified by the event. I certainly all along +remember from the beginning to the end of the war its being commonly +declared that it would last thrice nine years. I lived through the whole +of it, being of an age to comprehend events, and giving my attention to +them in order to know the exact truth about them. It was also my fate +to be an exile from my country for twenty years after my command at +Amphipolis; and being present with both parties, and more especially +with the Peloponnesians by reason of my exile, I had leisure to observe +affairs somewhat particularly. I will accordingly now relate the +differences that arose after the ten years' war, the breach of the +treaty, and the hostilities that followed. + +After the conclusion of the fifty years' truce and of the subsequent +alliance, the embassies from Peloponnese which had been summoned for +this business returned from Lacedaemon. The rest went straight home, but +the Corinthians first turned aside to Argos and opened negotiations with +some of the men in office there, pointing out that Lacedaemon could have +no good end in view, but only the subjugation of Peloponnese, or she +would never have entered into treaty and alliance with the once detested +Athenians, and that the duty of consulting for the safety of Peloponnese +had now fallen upon Argos, who should immediately pass a decree +inviting any Hellenic state that chose, such state being independent and +accustomed to meet fellow powers upon the fair and equal ground of law +and justice, to make a defensive alliance with the Argives; appointing +a few individuals with plenipotentiary powers, instead of making the +people the medium of negotiation, in order that, in the case of an +applicant being rejected, the fact of his overtures might not be +made public. They said that many would come over from hatred of the +Lacedaemonians. After this explanation of their views, the Corinthians +returned home. + +The persons with whom they had communicated reported the proposal to +their government and people, and the Argives passed the decree and chose +twelve men to negotiate an alliance for any Hellenic state that wished +it, except Athens and Lacedaemon, neither of which should be able to +join without reference to the Argive people. Argos came into the +plan the more readily because she saw that war with Lacedaemon was +inevitable, the truce being on the point of expiring; and also because +she hoped to gain the supremacy of Peloponnese. For at this time +Lacedaemon had sunk very low in public estimation because of her +disasters, while the Argives were in a most flourishing condition, +having taken no part in the Attic war, but having on the contrary +profited largely by their neutrality. The Argives accordingly prepared +to receive into alliance any of the Hellenes that desired it. + +The Mantineans and their allies were the first to come over through fear +of the Lacedaemonians. Having taken advantage of the war against Athens +to reduce a large part of Arcadia into subjection, they thought that +Lacedaemon would not leave them undisturbed in their conquests, now +that she had leisure to interfere, and consequently gladly turned to a +powerful city like Argos, the historical enemy of the Lacedaemonians, +and a sister democracy. Upon the defection of Mantinea, the rest of +Peloponnese at once began to agitate the propriety of following her +example, conceiving that the Mantineans not have changed sides without +good reason; besides which they were angry with Lacedaemon among other +reasons for having inserted in the treaty with Athens that it should +be consistent with their oaths for both parties, Lacedaemonians and +Athenians, to add to or take away from it according to their discretion. +It was this clause that was the real origin of the panic in Peloponnese, +by exciting suspicions of a Lacedaemonian and Athenian combination +against their liberties: any alteration should properly have been made +conditional upon the consent of the whole body of the allies. With these +apprehensions there was a very general desire in each state to place +itself in alliance with Argos. + +In the meantime the Lacedaemonians perceiving the agitation going on in +Peloponnese, and that Corinth was the author of it and was herself about +to enter into alliance with the Argives, sent ambassadors thither in the +hope of preventing what was in contemplation. They accused her of having +brought it all about, and told her that she could not desert Lacedaemon +and become the ally of Argos, without adding violation of her oaths to +the crime which she had already committed in not accepting the treaty +with Athens, when it had been expressly agreed that the decision of +the majority of the allies should be binding, unless the gods or heroes +stood in the way. Corinth in her answer, delivered before those of her +allies who had like her refused to accept the treaty, and whom she had +previously invited to attend, refrained from openly stating the injuries +she complained of, such as the non-recovery of Sollium or Anactorium +from the Athenians, or any other point in which she thought she had been +prejudiced, but took shelter under the pretext that she could not give +up her Thracian allies, to whom her separate individual security had +been given, when they first rebelled with Potidaea, as well as upon +subsequent occasions. She denied, therefore, that she committed any +violation of her oaths to the allies in not entering into the treaty +with Athens; having sworn upon the faith of the gods to her Thracian +friends, she could not honestly give them up. Besides, the expression +was, "unless the gods or heroes stand in the way." Now here, as it +appeared to her, the gods stood in the way. This was what she said on +the subject of her former oaths. As to the Argive alliance, she would +confer with her friends and do whatever was right. The Lacedaemonian +envoys returning home, some Argive ambassadors who happened to be in +Corinth pressed her to conclude the alliance without further delay, but +were told to attend at the next congress to be held at Corinth. + +Immediately afterwards an Elean embassy arrived, and first making an +alliance with Corinth went on from thence to Argos, according to their +instructions, and became allies of the Argives, their country being just +then at enmity with Lacedaemon and Lepreum. Some time back there had +been a war between the Lepreans and some of the Arcadians; and the +Eleans being called in by the former with the offer of half their lands, +had put an end to the war, and leaving the land in the hands of its +Leprean occupiers had imposed upon them the tribute of a talent to the +Olympian Zeus. Till the Attic war this tribute was paid by the Lepreans, +who then took the war as an excuse for no longer doing so, and upon the +Eleans using force appealed to Lacedaemon. The case was thus submitted +to her arbitrament; but the Eleans, suspecting the fairness of the +tribunal, renounced the reference and laid waste the Leprean territory. +The Lacedaemonians nevertheless decided that the Lepreans were +independent and the Eleans aggressors, and as the latter did not abide +by the arbitration, sent a garrison of heavy infantry into Lepreum. Upon +this the Eleans, holding that Lacedaemon had received one of their rebel +subjects, put forward the convention providing that each confederate +should come out of the Attic war in possession of what he had when he +went into it, and considering that justice had not been done them +went over to the Argives, and now made the alliance through their +ambassadors, who had been instructed for that purpose. Immediately +after them the Corinthians and the Thracian Chalcidians became allies +of Argos. Meanwhile the Boeotians and Megarians, who acted together, +remained quiet, being left to do as they pleased by Lacedaemon, and +thinking that the Argive democracy would not suit so well with their +aristocratic government as the Lacedaemonian constitution. + +About the same time in this summer Athens succeeded in reducing Scione, +put the adult males to death, and, making slaves of the women and +children, gave the land for the Plataeans to live in. She also brought +back the Delians to Delos, moved by her misfortunes in the field and by +the commands of the god at Delphi. Meanwhile the Phocians and Locrians +commenced hostilities. The Corinthians and Argives, being now in +alliance, went to Tegea to bring about its defection from Lacedaemon, +seeing that, if so considerable a state could be persuaded to join, +all Peloponnese would be with them. But when the Tegeans said that they +would do nothing against Lacedaemon, the hitherto zealous Corinthians +relaxed their activity, and began to fear that none of the rest would +now come over. Still they went to the Boeotians and tried to persuade +them to alliance and a common action generally with Argos and +themselves, and also begged them to go with them to Athens and obtain +for them a ten days' truce similar to that made between the Athenians +and Boeotians not long after the fifty years' treaty, and, in the event +of the Athenians refusing, to throw up the armistice, and not make +any truce in future without Corinth. These were the requests of the +Corinthians. The Boeotians stopped them on the subject of the Argive +alliance, but went with them to Athens, where however they failed +to obtain the ten days' truce; the Athenian answer being that +the Corinthians had truce already, as being allies of Lacedaemon. +Nevertheless the Boeotians did not throw up their ten days' truce, in +spite of the prayers and reproaches of the Corinthians for their breach +of faith; and these last had to content themselves with a de facto +armistice with Athens. + +The same summer the Lacedaemonians marched into Arcadia with their whole +levy under Pleistoanax, son of Pausanias, king of Lacedaemon, against +the Parrhasians, who were subjects of Mantinea, and a faction of whom +had invited their aid. They also meant to demolish, if possible, the +fort of Cypsela which the Mantineans had built and garrisoned in the +Parrhasian territory, to annoy the district of Sciritis in Laconia. The +Lacedaemonians accordingly laid waste the Parrhasian country, and the +Mantineans, placing their town in the hands of an Argive garrison, +addressed themselves to the defence of their confederacy, but being +unable to save Cypsela or the Parrhasian towns went back to Mantinea. +Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians made the Parrhasians independent, razed the +fortress, and returned home. + +The same summer the soldiers from Thrace who had gone out with +Brasidas came back, having been brought from thence after the treaty by +Clearidas; and the Lacedaemonians decreed that the Helots who had fought +with Brasidas should be free and allowed to live where they liked, and +not long afterwards settled them with the Neodamodes at Lepreum, which +is situated on the Laconian and Elean border; Lacedaemon being at this +time at enmity with Elis. Those however of the Spartans who had been +taken prisoners on the island and had surrendered their arms might, it +was feared, suppose that they were to be subjected to some degradation +in consequence of their misfortune, and so make some attempt at +revolution, if left in possession of their franchise. These were +therefore at once disfranchised, although some of them were in office at +the time, and thus placed under a disability to take office, or buy and +sell anything. After some time, however, the franchise was restored to +them. + +The same summer the Dians took Thyssus, a town on Acte by Athos in +alliance with Athens. During the whole of this summer intercourse +between the Athenians and Peloponnesians continued, although each party +began to suspect the other directly after the treaty, because of the +places specified in it not being restored. Lacedaemon, to whose lot it +had fallen to begin by restoring Amphipolis and the other towns, had +not done so. She had equally failed to get the treaty accepted by her +Thracian allies, or by the Boeotians or the Corinthians; although she +was continually promising to unite with Athens in compelling their +compliance, if it were longer refused. She also kept fixing a time at +which those who still refused to come in were to be declared enemies +to both parties, but took care not to bind herself by any written +agreement. Meanwhile the Athenians, seeing none of these professions +performed in fact, began to suspect the honesty of her intentions, and +consequently not only refused to comply with her demands for Pylos, but +also repented having given up the prisoners from the island, and kept +tight hold of the other places, until Lacedaemon's part of the treaty +should be fulfilled. Lacedaemon, on the other hand, said she had done +what she could, having given up the Athenian prisoners of war in her +possession, evacuated Thrace, and performed everything else in her +power. Amphipolis it was out of her ability to restore; but she would +endeavour to bring the Boeotians and Corinthians into the treaty, to +recover Panactum, and send home all the Athenian prisoners of war in +Boeotia. Meanwhile she required that Pylos should be restored, or at all +events that the Messenians and Helots should be withdrawn, as her troops +had been from Thrace, and the place garrisoned, if necessary, by the +Athenians themselves. After a number of different conferences held +during the summer, she succeeded in persuading Athens to withdraw from +Pylos the Messenians and the rest of the Helots and deserters from +Laconia, who were accordingly settled by her at Cranii in Cephallenia. +Thus during this summer there was peace and intercourse between the two +peoples. + +Next winter, however, the ephors under whom the treaty had been made +were no longer in office, and some of their successors were directly +opposed to it. Embassies now arrived from the Lacedaemonian confederacy, +and the Athenians, Boeotians, and Corinthians also presented themselves +at Lacedaemon, and after much discussion and no agreement between them, +separated for their several homes; when Cleobulus and Xenares, the two +ephors who were the most anxious to break off the treaty, took advantage +of this opportunity to communicate privately with the Boeotians and +Corinthians, and, advising them to act as much as possible together, +instructed the former first to enter into alliance with Argos, and then +try and bring themselves and the Argives into alliance with Lacedaemon. +The Boeotians would so be least likely to be compelled to come into the +Attic treaty; and the Lacedaemonians would prefer gaining the friendship +and alliance of Argos even at the price of the hostility of Athens +and the rupture of the treaty. The Boeotians knew that an honourable +friendship with Argos had been long the desire of Lacedaemon; for the +Lacedaemonians believed that this would considerably facilitate the +conduct of the war outside Peloponnese. Meanwhile they begged the +Boeotians to place Panactum in her hands in order that she might, if +possible, obtain Pylos in exchange for it, and so be more in a position +to resume hostilities with Athens. + +After receiving these instructions for their governments from Xenares +and Cleobulus and their friends at Lacedaemon, the Boeotians and +Corinthians departed. On their way home they were joined by two persons +high in office at Argos, who had waited for them on the road, and who +now sounded them upon the possibility of the Boeotians joining the +Corinthians, Eleans, and Mantineans in becoming the allies of Argos, in +the idea that if this could be effected they would be able, thus united, +to make peace or war as they pleased either against Lacedaemon or any +other power. The Boeotian envoys were were pleased at thus hearing +themselves accidentally asked to do what their friends at Lacedaemon +had told them; and the two Argives perceiving that their proposal was +agreeable, departed with a promise to send ambassadors to the Boeotians. +On their arrival the Boeotians reported to the Boeotarchs what had been +said to them at Lacedaemon and also by the Argives who had met them, +and the Boeotarchs, pleased with the idea, embraced it with the more +eagerness from the lucky coincidence of Argos soliciting the very thing +wanted by their friends at Lacedaemon. Shortly afterwards ambassadors +appeared from Argos with the proposals indicated; and the Boeotarchs +approved of the terms and dismissed the ambassadors with a promise to +send envoys to Argos to negotiate the alliance. + +In the meantime it was decided by the Boeotarchs, the Corinthians, +the Megarians, and the envoys from Thrace first to interchange oaths +together to give help to each other whenever it was required and not +to make war or peace except in common; after which the Boeotians and +Megarians, who acted together, should make the alliance with Argos. But +before the oaths were taken the Boeotarchs communicated these proposals +to the four councils of the Boeotians, in whom the supreme power +resides, and advised them to interchange oaths with all such cities as +should be willing to enter into a defensive league with the Boeotians. +But the members of the Boeotian councils refused their assent to the +proposal, being afraid of offending Lacedaemon by entering into a league +with the deserter Corinth; the Boeotarchs not having acquainted +them with what had passed at Lacedaemon and with the advice given by +Cleobulus and Xenares and the Boeotian partisans there, namely, that +they should become allies of Corinth and Argos as a preliminary to a +junction with Lacedaemon; fancying that, even if they should say nothing +about this, the councils would not vote against what had been decided +and advised by the Boeotarchs. This difficulty arising, the Corinthians +and the envoys from Thrace departed without anything having been +concluded; and the Boeotarchs, who had previously intended after +carrying this to try and effect the alliance with Argos, now omitted to +bring the Argive question before the councils, or to send to Argos the +envoys whom they had promised; and a general coldness and delay ensued +in the matter. + +In this same winter Mecyberna was assaulted and taken by the Olynthians, +having an Athenian garrison inside it. + +All this while negotiations had been going on between the Athenians +and Lacedaemonians about the conquests still retained by each, and +Lacedaemon, hoping that if Athens were to get back Panactum from the +Boeotians she might herself recover Pylos, now sent an embassy to +the Boeotians, and begged them to place Panactum and their Athenian +prisoners in her hands, in order that she might exchange them for Pylos. +This the Boeotians refused to do, unless Lacedaemon made a separate +alliance with them as she had done with Athens. Lacedaemon knew that +this would be a breach of faith to Athens, as it had been agreed that +neither of them should make peace or war without the other; yet wishing +to obtain Panactum which she hoped to exchange for Pylos, and the party +who pressed for the dissolution of the treaty strongly affecting the +Boeotian connection, she at length concluded the alliance just as +winter gave way to spring; and Panactum was instantly razed. And so the +eleventh year of the war ended. + +In the first days of the summer following, the Argives, seeing that the +promised ambassadors from Boeotia did not arrive, and that Panactum +was being demolished, and that a separate alliance had been concluded +between the Boeotians and Lacedaemonians, began to be afraid that Argos +might be left alone, and all the confederacy go over to Lacedaemon. They +fancied that the Boeotians had been persuaded by the Lacedaemonians to +raze Panactum and to enter into the treaty with the Athenians, and that +Athens was privy to this arrangement, and even her alliance, therefore, +no longer open to them--a resource which they had always counted +upon, by reason of the dissensions existing, in the event of the +noncontinuance of their treaty with Lacedaemon. In this strait the +Argives, afraid that, as the result of refusing to renew the treaty with +Lacedaemon and of aspiring to the supremacy in Peloponnese, they would +have the Lacedaemonians, Tegeans, Boeotians, and Athenians on their +hands all at once, now hastily sent off Eustrophus and Aeson, who seemed +the persons most likely to be acceptable, as envoys to Lacedaemon, +with the view of making as good a treaty as they could with the +Lacedaemonians, upon such terms as could be got, and being left in +peace. + +Having reached Lacedaemon, their ambassadors proceeded to negotiate the +terms of the proposed treaty. What the Argives first demanded was that +they might be allowed to refer to the arbitration of some state or +private person the question of the Cynurian land, a piece of frontier +territory about which they have always been disputing, and which +contains the towns of Thyrea and Anthene, and is occupied by the +Lacedaemonians. The Lacedaemonians at first said that they could not +allow this point to be discussed, but were ready to conclude upon the +old terms. Eventually, however, the Argive ambassadors succeeded in +obtaining from them this concession: For the present there was to be +a truce for fifty years, but it should be competent for either party, +there being neither plague nor war in Lacedaemon or Argos, to give a +formal challenge and decide the question of this territory by battle, as +on a former occasion, when both sides claimed the victory; pursuit +not being allowed beyond the frontier of Argos or Lacedaemon. The +Lacedaemonians at first thought this mere folly; but at last, anxious +at any cost to have the friendship of Argos they agreed to the terms +demanded, and reduced them to writing. However, before any of this +should become binding, the ambassadors were to return to Argos and +communicate with their people and, in the event of their approval, to +come at the feast of the Hyacinthia and take the oaths. + +The envoys returned accordingly. In the meantime, while the +Argives were engaged in these negotiations, the Lacedaemonian +ambassadors--Andromedes, Phaedimus, and Antimenidas--who were to receive +the prisoners from the Boeotians and restore them and Panactum to the +Athenians, found that the Boeotians had themselves razed Panactum, upon +the plea that oaths had been anciently exchanged between their people +and the Athenians, after a dispute on the subject to the effect that +neither should inhabit the place, but that they should graze it in +common. As for the Athenian prisoners of war in the hands of the +Boeotians, these were delivered over to Andromedes and his colleagues, +and by them conveyed to Athens and given back. The envoys at the same +time announced the razing of Panactum, which to them seemed as good as +its restitution, as it would no longer lodge an enemy of Athens. This +announcement was received with great indignation by the Athenians, +who thought that the Lacedaemonians had played them false, both in the +matter of the demolition of Panactum, which ought to have been restored +to them standing, and in having, as they now heard, made a separate +alliance with the Boeotians, in spite of their previous promise to join +Athens in compelling the adhesion of those who refused to accede to +the treaty. The Athenians also considered the other points in which +Lacedaemon had failed in her compact, and thinking that they had been +overreached, gave an angry answer to the ambassadors and sent them away. + +The breach between the Lacedaemonians and Athenians having gone thus +far, the party at Athens, also, who wished to cancel the treaty, +immediately put themselves in motion. Foremost amongst these was +Alcibiades, son of Clinias, a man yet young in years for any other +Hellenic city, but distinguished by the splendour of his ancestry. +Alcibiades thought the Argive alliance really preferable, not that +personal pique had not also a great deal to do with his opposition; he +being offended with the Lacedaemonians for having negotiated the treaty +through Nicias and Laches, and having overlooked him on account of his +youth, and also for not having shown him the respect due to the ancient +connection of his family with them as their proxeni, which, renounced +by his grandfather, he had lately himself thought to renew by his +attentions to their prisoners taken in the island. Being thus, as he +thought, slighted on all hands, he had in the first instance spoken +against the treaty, saying that the Lacedaemonians were not to be +trusted, but that they only treated, in order to be enabled by this +means to crush Argos, and afterwards to attack Athens alone; and now, +immediately upon the above occurring, he sent privately to the Argives, +telling them to come as quickly as possible to Athens, accompanied by +the Mantineans and Eleans, with proposals of alliance; as the moment was +propitious and he himself would do all he could to help them. + +Upon receiving this message and discovering that the Athenians, far from +being privy to the Boeotian alliance, were involved in a serious quarrel +with the Lacedaemonians, the Argives paid no further attention to the +embassy which they had just sent to Lacedaemon on the subject of the +treaty, and began to incline rather towards the Athenians, reflecting +that, in the event of war, they would thus have on their side a city +that was not only an ancient ally of Argos, but a sister democracy +and very powerful at sea. They accordingly at once sent ambassadors to +Athens to treat for an alliance, accompanied by others from Elis and +Mantinea. + +At the same time arrived in haste from Lacedaemon an embassy consisting +of persons reputed well disposed towards the Athenians--Philocharidas, +Leon, and Endius--for fear that the Athenians in their irritation +might conclude alliance with the Argives, and also to ask back Pylos in +exchange for Panactum, and in defence of the alliance with the Boeotians +to plead that it had not been made to hurt the Athenians. Upon the +envoys speaking in the senate upon these points, and stating that they +had come with full powers to settle all others at issue between them, +Alcibiades became afraid that, if they were to repeat these statements +to the popular assembly, they might gain the multitude, and the +Argive alliance might be rejected, and accordingly had recourse to +the following stratagem. He persuaded the Lacedaemonians by a solemn +assurance that if they would say nothing of their full powers in +the assembly, he would give back Pylos to them (himself, the present +opponent of its restitution, engaging to obtain this from the +Athenians), and would settle the other points at issue. His plan was to +detach them from Nicias and to disgrace them before the people, as being +without sincerity in their intentions, or even common consistency in +their language, and so to get the Argives, Eleans, and Mantineans taken +into alliance. This plan proved successful. When the envoys appeared +before the people, and upon the question being put to them, did not say +as they had said in the senate, that they had come with full powers, +the Athenians lost all patience, and carried away by Alcibiades, who +thundered more loudly than ever against the Lacedaemonians, were ready +instantly to introduce the Argives and their companions and to take +them into alliance. An earthquake, however, occurring, before anything +definite had been done, this assembly was adjourned. + +In the assembly held the next day, Nicias, in spite of the +Lacedaemonians having been deceived themselves, and having allowed +him to be deceived also in not admitting that they had come with +full powers, still maintained that it was best to be friends with the +Lacedaemonians, and, letting the Argive proposals stand over, to send +once more to Lacedaemon and learn her intentions. The adjournment of +the war could only increase their own prestige and injure that of their +rivals; the excellent state of their affairs making it their interest to +preserve this prosperity as long as possible, while those of Lacedaemon +were so desperate that the sooner she could try her fortune again the +better. He succeeded accordingly in persuading them to send ambassadors, +himself being among the number, to invite the Lacedaemonians, if they +were really sincere, to restore Panactum intact with Amphipolis, and +to abandon their alliance with the Boeotians (unless they consented to +accede to the treaty), agreeably to the stipulation which forbade either +to treat without the other. The ambassadors were also directed to say +that the Athenians, had they wished to play false, might already have +made alliance with the Argives, who were indeed come to Athens for that +very purpose, and went off furnished with instructions as to any other +complaints that the Athenians had to make. Having reached Lacedaemon, +they communicated their instructions, and concluded by telling the +Lacedaemonians that unless they gave up their alliance with the +Boeotians, in the event of their not acceding to the treaty, the +Athenians for their part would ally themselves with the Argives and +their friends. The Lacedaemonians, however, refused to give up the +Boeotian alliance--the party of Xenares the ephor, and such as shared +their view, carrying the day upon this point--but renewed the oaths at +the request of Nicias, who feared to return without having accomplished +anything and to be disgraced; as was indeed his fate, he being held +the author of the treaty with Lacedaemon. When he returned, and the +Athenians heard that nothing had been done at Lacedaemon, they flew into +a passion, and deciding that faith had not been kept with them, took +advantage of the presence of the Argives and their allies, who had been +introduced by Alcibiades, and made a treaty and alliance with them upon +the terms following: + +The Athenians, Argives, Mantineans, and Eleans, acting for themselves +and the allies in their respective empires, made a treaty for a hundred +years, to be without fraud or hurt by land and by sea. + +1. It shall not be lawful to carry on war, either for the Argives, +Eleans, Mantineans, and their allies, against the Athenians, or the +allies in the Athenian empire: or for the Athenians and their allies +against the Argives, Eleans, Mantineans, or their allies, in any way or +means whatsoever. + +The Athenians, Argives, Eleans, and Mantineans shall be allies for a +hundred years upon the terms following: + +2. If an enemy invade the country of the Athenians, the Argives, Eleans, +and Mantineans shall go to the relief of Athens, according as the +Athenians may require by message, in such way as they most effectually +can, to the best of their power. But if the invader be gone after +plundering the territory, the offending state shall be the enemy of +the Argives, Mantineans, Eleans, and Athenians, and war shall be made +against it by all these cities: and no one of the cities shall be able +to make peace with that state, except all the above cities agree to do +so. + +3. Likewise the Athenians shall go to the relief of Argos, Mantinea, +and Elis, if an enemy invade the country of Elis, Mantinea, or Argos, +according as the above cities may require by message, in such way +as they most effectually can, to the best of their power. But if the +invader be gone after plundering the territory, the state offending +shall be the enemy of the Athenians, Argives, Mantineans, and Eleans, +and war shall be made against it by all these cities, and peace may not +be made with that state except all the above cities agree to it. + +4. No armed force shall be allowed to pass for hostile purposes through +the country of the powers contracting, or of the allies in their +respective empires, or to go by sea, except all the cities--that is to +say, Athens, Argos, Mantinea, and Elis--vote for such passage. + +5. The relieving troops shall be maintained by the city sending them for +thirty days from their arrival in the city that has required them, and +upon their return in the same way: if their services be desired for a +longer period, the city that sent for them shall maintain them, at the +rate of three Aeginetan obols per day for a heavy-armed soldier, archer, +or light soldier, and an Aeginetan drachma for a trooper. + +6. The city sending for the troops shall have the command when the war +is in its own country: but in case of the cities resolving upon a joint +expedition the command shall be equally divided among all the cities. + +7. The treaty shall be sworn to by the Athenians for themselves and +their allies, by the Argives, Mantineans, Eleans, and their allies, by +each state individually. Each shall swear the oath most binding in his +country over full-grown victims: the oath being as follows: + +"I STAND BY THE ALLIANCE AND ITS ARTICLES, JUSTLY, INNOCENTLY, AND +SINCERELY, AND I WILL NOT TRANSGRESS THE SAME IN ANY WAY OR MEANS +WHATSOEVER." + +The oath shall be taken at Athens by the Senate and the magistrates, the +Prytanes administering it: at Argos by the Senate, the Eighty, and the +Artynae, the Eighty administering it: at Mantinea by the Demiurgi, +the Senate, and the other magistrates, the Theori and Polemarchs +administering it: at Elis by the Demiurgi, the magistrates, and the Six +Hundred, the Demiurgi and the Thesmophylaces administering it. The oaths +shall be renewed by the Athenians going to Elis, Mantinea, and Argos +thirty days before the Olympic games: by the Argives, Mantineans, +and Eleans going to Athens ten days before the great feast of the +Panathenaea. The articles of the treaty, the oaths, and the alliance +shall be inscribed on a stone pillar by the Athenians in the citadel, +by the Argives in the market-place, in the temple of Apollo: by the +Mantineans in the temple of Zeus, in the market-place: and a brazen +pillar shall be erected jointly by them at the Olympic games now at +hand. Should the above cities see good to make any addition in these +articles, whatever all the above cities shall agree upon, after +consulting together, shall be binding. + +Although the treaty and alliances were thus concluded, still the treaty +between the Lacedaemonians and Athenians was not renounced by either +party. Meanwhile Corinth, although the ally of the Argives, did not +accede to the new treaty, any more than she had done to the alliance, +defensive and offensive, formed before this between the Eleans, Argives, +and Mantineans, when she declared herself content with the first +alliance, which was defensive only, and which bound them to help each +other, but not to join in attacking any. The Corinthians thus stood +aloof from their allies, and again turned their thoughts towards +Lacedaemon. + +At the Olympic games which were held this summer, and in which the +Arcadian Androsthenes was victor the first time in the wrestling and +boxing, the Lacedaemonians were excluded from the temple by the Eleans, +and thus prevented from sacrificing or contending, for having refused +to pay the fine specified in the Olympic law imposed upon them by the +Eleans, who alleged that they had attacked Fort Phyrcus, and sent heavy +infantry of theirs into Lepreum during the Olympic truce. The amount of +the fine was two thousand minae, two for each heavy-armed soldier, as +the law prescribes. The Lacedaemonians sent envoys, and pleaded that the +imposition was unjust; saying that the truce had not yet been proclaimed +at Lacedaemon when the heavy infantry were sent off. But the Eleans +affirmed that the armistice with them had already begun (they +proclaim it first among themselves), and that the aggression of the +Lacedaemonians had taken them by surprise while they were living +quietly as in time of peace, and not expecting anything. Upon this the +Lacedaemonians submitted, that if the Eleans really believed that they +had committed an aggression, it was useless after that to proclaim the +truce at Lacedaemon; but they had proclaimed it notwithstanding, as +believing nothing of the kind, and from that moment the Lacedaemonians +had made no attack upon their country. Nevertheless the Eleans adhered +to what they had said, that nothing would persuade them that an +aggression had not been committed; if, however, the Lacedaemonians would +restore Lepreum, they would give up their own share of the money and pay +that of the god for them. + +As this proposal was not accepted, the Eleans tried a second. Instead +of restoring Lepreum, if this was objected to, the Lacedaemonians should +ascend the altar of the Olympian Zeus, as they were so anxious to have +access to the temple, and swear before the Hellenes that they would +surely pay the fine at a later day. This being also refused, the +Lacedaemonians were excluded from the temple, the sacrifice, and +the games, and sacrificed at home; the Lepreans being the only other +Hellenes who did not attend. Still the Eleans were afraid of the +Lacedaemonians sacrificing by force, and kept guard with a heavy-armed +company of their young men; being also joined by a thousand Argives, the +same number of Mantineans, and by some Athenian cavalry who stayed at +Harpina during the feast. Great fears were felt in the assembly of +the Lacedaemonians coming in arms, especially after Lichas, son of +Arcesilaus, a Lacedaemonian, had been scourged on the course by the +umpires; because, upon his horses being the winners, and the Boeotian +people being proclaimed the victor on account of his having no right +to enter, he came forward on the course and crowned the charioteer, in +order to show that the chariot was his. After this incident all +were more afraid than ever, and firmly looked for a disturbance: the +Lacedaemonians, however, kept quiet, and let the feast pass by, as we +have seen. After the Olympic games, the Argives and the allies repaired +to Corinth to invite her to come over to them. There they found some +Lacedaemonian envoys; and a long discussion ensued, which after all +ended in nothing, as an earthquake occurred, and they dispersed to their +different homes. + +Summer was now over. The winter following a battle took place between +the Heracleots in Trachinia and the Aenianians, Dolopians, Malians, and +certain of the Thessalians, all tribes bordering on and hostile to the +town, which directly menaced their country. Accordingly, after having +opposed and harassed it from its very foundation by every means in their +power, they now in this battle defeated the Heracleots, Xenares, son of +Cnidis, their Lacedaemonian commander, being among the slain. Thus the +winter ended and the twelfth year of this war ended also. After the +battle, Heraclea was so terribly reduced that in the first days of the +summer following the Boeotians occupied the place and sent away the +Lacedaemonian Agesippidas for misgovernment, fearing that the town might +be taken by the Athenians while the Lacedaemonians were distracted +with the affairs of Peloponnese. The Lacedaemonians, nevertheless, were +offended with them for what they had done. + +The same summer Alcibiades, son of Clinias, now one of the generals +at Athens, in concert with the Argives and the allies, went into +Peloponnese with a few Athenian heavy infantry and archers and some of +the allies in those parts whom he took up as he passed, and with this +army marched here and there through Peloponnese, and settled various +matters connected with the alliance, and among other things induced the +Patrians to carry their walls down to the sea, intending himself also +to build a fort near the Achaean Rhium. However, the Corinthians and +Sicyonians, and all others who would have suffered by its being built, +came up and hindered him. + +The same summer war broke out between the Epidaurians and Argives. The +pretext was that the Epidaurians did not send an offering for their +pasture-land to Apollo Pythaeus, as they were bound to do, the Argives +having the chief management of the temple; but, apart from this pretext, +Alcibiades and the Argives were determined, if possible, to gain +possession of Epidaurus, and thus to ensure the neutrality of Corinth +and give the Athenians a shorter passage for their reinforcements from +Aegina than if they had to sail round Scyllaeum. The Argives accordingly +prepared to invade Epidaurus by themselves, to exact the offering. + +About the same time the Lacedaemonians marched out with all their people +to Leuctra upon their frontier, opposite to Mount Lycaeum, under the +command of Agis, son of Archidamus, without any one knowing their +destination, not even the cities that sent the contingents. The +sacrifices, however, for crossing the frontier not proving propitious, +the Lacedaemonians returned home themselves, and sent word to the allies +to be ready to march after the month ensuing, which happened to be the +month of Carneus, a holy time for the Dorians. Upon the retreat of the +Lacedaemonians the Argives marched out on the last day but three of the +month before Carneus, and keeping this as the day during the whole time +that they were out, invaded and plundered Epidaurus. The Epidaurians +summoned their allies to their aid, some of whom pleaded the month as +an excuse; others came as far as the frontier of Epidaurus and there +remained inactive. + +While the Argives were in Epidaurus embassies from the cities assembled +at Mantinea, upon the invitation of the Athenians. The conference having +begun, the Corinthian Euphamidas said that their actions did not agree +with their words; while they were sitting deliberating about peace, the +Epidaurians and their allies and the Argives were arrayed against each +other in arms; deputies from each party should first go and separate the +armies, and then the talk about peace might be resumed. In compliance +with this suggestion, they went and brought back the Argives from +Epidaurus, and afterwards reassembled, but without succeeding any +better in coming to a conclusion; and the Argives a second time invaded +Epidaurus and plundered the country. The Lacedaemonians also marched out +to Caryae; but the frontier sacrifices again proving unfavourable, they +went back again, and the Argives, after ravaging about a third of the +Epidaurian territory, returned home. Meanwhile a thousand Athenian heavy +infantry had come to their aid under the command of Alcibiades, but +finding that the Lacedaemonian expedition was at an end, and that they +were no longer wanted, went back again. + +So passed the summer. The next winter the Lacedaemonians managed to +elude the vigilance of the Athenians, and sent in a garrison of three +hundred men to Epidaurus, under the command of Agesippidas. Upon this +the Argives went to the Athenians and complained of their having allowed +an enemy to pass by sea, in spite of the clause in the treaty by which +the allies were not to allow an enemy to pass through their country. +Unless, therefore, they now put the Messenians and Helots in Pylos to +annoy the Lacedaemonians, they, the Argives, should consider that faith +had not been kept with them. The Athenians were persuaded by Alcibiades +to inscribe at the bottom of the Laconian pillar that the Lacedaemonians +had not kept their oaths, and to convey the Helots at Cranii to Pylos +to plunder the country; but for the rest they remained quiet as +before. During this winter hostilities went on between the Argives and +Epidaurians, without any pitched battle taking place, but only forays +and ambuscades, in which the losses were small and fell now on one side +and now on the other. At the close of the winter, towards the beginning +of spring, the Argives went with scaling ladders to Epidaurus, expecting +to find it left unguarded on account of the war and to be able to take +it by assault, but returned unsuccessful. And the winter ended, and with +it the thirteenth year of the war ended also. + +In the middle of the next summer the Lacedaemonians, seeing the +Epidaurians, their allies, in distress, and the rest of Peloponnese +either in revolt or disaffected, concluded that it was high time for +them to interfere if they wished to stop the progress of the evil, and +accordingly with their full force, the Helots included, took the field +against Argos, under the command of Agis, son of Archidamus, king of the +Lacedaemonians. The Tegeans and the other Arcadian allies of Lacedaemon +joined in the expedition. The allies from the rest of Peloponnese and +from outside mustered at Phlius; the Boeotians with five thousand heavy +infantry and as many light troops, and five hundred horse and the same +number of dismounted troopers; the Corinthians with two thousand heavy +infantry; the rest more or less as might happen; and the Phliasians with +all their forces, the army being in their country. + +The preparations of the Lacedaemonians from the first had been known to +the Argives, who did not, however, take the field until the enemy was on +his road to join the rest at Phlius. Reinforced by the Mantineans with +their allies, and by three thousand Elean heavy infantry, they advanced +and fell in with the Lacedaemonians at Methydrium in Arcadia. Each party +took up its position upon a hill, and the Argives prepared to engage the +Lacedaemonians while they were alone; but Agis eluded them by breaking +up his camp in the night, and proceeded to join the rest of the allies +at Phlius. The Argives discovering this at daybreak, marched first +to Argos and then to the Nemean road, by which they expected the +Lacedaemonians and their allies would come down. However, Agis, +instead of taking this road as they expected, gave the Lacedaemonians, +Arcadians, and Epidaurians their orders, and went along another +difficult road, and descended into the plain of Argos. The Corinthians, +Pellenians, and Phliasians marched by another steep road; while the +Boeotians, Megarians, and Sicyonians had instructions to come down by +the Nemean road where the Argives were posted, in order that, if the +enemy advanced into the plain against the troops of Agis, they might +fall upon his rear with their cavalry. These dispositions concluded, +Agis invaded the plain and began to ravage Saminthus and other places. + +Discovering this, the Argives came up from Nemea, day having now +dawned. On their way they fell in with the troops of the Phliasians and +Corinthians, and killed a few of the Phliasians and had perhaps a +few more of their own men killed by the Corinthians. Meanwhile the +Boeotians, Megarians, and Sicyonians, advancing upon Nemea according to +their instructions, found the Argives no longer there, as they had gone +down on seeing their property ravaged, and were now forming for battle, +the Lacedaemonians imitating their example. The Argives were now +completely surrounded; from the plain the Lacedaemonians and their +allies shut them off from their city; above them were the Corinthians, +Phliasians, and Pellenians; and on the side of Nemea the Boeotians, +Sicyonians, and Megarians. Meanwhile their army was without cavalry, the +Athenians alone among the allies not having yet arrived. Now the bulk of +the Argives and their allies did not see the danger of their position, +but thought that they could not have a fairer field, having intercepted +the Lacedaemonians in their own country and close to the city. Two men, +however, in the Argive army, Thrasylus, one of the five generals, and +Alciphron, the Lacedaemonian proxenus, just as the armies were upon the +point of engaging, went and held a parley with Agis and urged him not to +bring on a battle, as the Argives were ready to refer to fair and equal +arbitration whatever complaints the Lacedaemonians might have against +them, and to make a treaty and live in peace in future. + +The Argives who made these statements did so upon their own authority, +not by order of the people, and Agis on his accepted their proposals, +and without himself either consulting the majority, simply communicated +the matter to a single individual, one of the high officers accompanying +the expedition, and granted the Argives a truce for four months, in +which to fulfil their promises; after which he immediately led off the +army without giving any explanation to any of the other allies. The +Lacedaemonians and allies followed their general out of respect for the +law, but amongst themselves loudly blamed Agis for going away from so +fair a field (the enemy being hemmed in on every side by infantry and +cavalry) without having done anything worthy of their strength. Indeed +this was by far the finest Hellenic army ever yet brought together; and +it should have been seen while it was still united at Nemea, with the +Lacedaemonians in full force, the Arcadians, Boeotians, Corinthians, +Sicyonians, Pellenians, Phliasians and Megarians, and all these the +flower of their respective populations, thinking themselves a match not +merely for the Argive confederacy, but for another such added to it. The +army thus retired blaming Agis, and returned every man to his home. The +Argives however blamed still more loudly the persons who had concluded +the truce without consulting the people, themselves thinking that they +had let escape with the Lacedaemonians an opportunity such as they +should never see again; as the struggle would have been under the walls +of their city, and by the side of many and brave allies. On their return +accordingly they began to stone Thrasylus in the bed of the Charadrus, +where they try all military causes before entering the city. Thrasylus +fled to the altar, and so saved his life; his property however they +confiscated. + +After this arrived a thousand Athenian heavy infantry and three hundred +horse, under the command of Laches and Nicostratus; whom the Argives, +being nevertheless loath to break the truce with the Lacedaemonians, +begged to depart, and refused to bring before the people, to whom they +had a communication to make, until compelled to do so by the entreaties +of the Mantineans and Eleans, who were still at Argos. The Athenians, by +the mouth of Alcibiades their ambassador there present, told the Argives +and the allies that they had no right to make a truce at all without +the consent of their fellow confederates, and now that the Athenians +had arrived so opportunely the war ought to be resumed. These arguments +proving successful with the allies, they immediately marched upon +Orchomenos, all except the Argives, who, although they had consented +like the rest, stayed behind at first, but eventually joined the others. +They now all sat down and besieged Orchomenos, and made assaults upon +it; one of their reasons for desiring to gain this place being that +hostages from Arcadia had been lodged there by the Lacedaemonians. The +Orchomenians, alarmed at the weakness of their wall and the numbers of +the enemy, and at the risk they ran of perishing before relief arrived, +capitulated upon condition of joining the league, of giving hostages of +their own to the Mantineans, and giving up those lodged with them by the +Lacedaemonians. Orchomenos thus secured, the allies now consulted as to +which of the remaining places they should attack next. The Eleans +were urgent for Lepreum; the Mantineans for Tegea; and the Argives and +Athenians giving their support to the Mantineans, the Eleans went home +in a rage at their not having voted for Lepreum; while the rest of the +allies made ready at Mantinea for going against Tegea, which a party +inside had arranged to put into their hands. + +Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians, upon their return from Argos after +concluding the four months' truce, vehemently blamed Agis for not having +subdued Argos, after an opportunity such as they thought they had never +had before; for it was no easy matter to bring so many and so good +allies together. But when the news arrived of the capture of Orchomenos, +they became more angry than ever, and, departing from all precedent, in +the heat of the moment had almost decided to raze his house, and to fine +him ten thousand drachmae. Agis however entreated them to do none of +these things, promising to atone for his fault by good service in the +field, failing which they might then do to him whatever they pleased; +and they accordingly abstained from razing his house or fining him +as they had threatened to do, and now made a law, hitherto unknown at +Lacedaemon, attaching to him ten Spartans as counsellors, without whose +consent he should have no power to lead an army out of the city. + +At this juncture arrived word from their friends in Tegea that, unless +they speedily appeared, Tegea would go over from them to the Argives and +their allies, if it had not gone over already. Upon this news a force +marched out from Lacedaemon, of the Spartans and Helots and all their +people, and that instantly and upon a scale never before witnessed. +Advancing to Orestheum in Maenalia, they directed the Arcadians in their +league to follow close after them to Tegea, and, going on themselves as +far as Orestheum, from thence sent back the sixth part of the Spartans, +consisting of the oldest and youngest men, to guard their homes, and +with the rest of their army arrived at Tegea; where their Arcadian +allies soon after joined them. Meanwhile they sent to Corinth, to the +Boeotians, the Phocians, and Locrians, with orders to come up as quickly +as possible to Mantinea. These had but short notice; and it was not easy +except all together, and after waiting for each other, to pass through +the enemy's country, which lay right across and blocked up the line of +communication. Nevertheless they made what haste they could. Meanwhile +the Lacedaemonians with the Arcadian allies that had joined them, +entered the territory of Mantinea, and encamping near the temple of +Heracles began to plunder the country. + +Here they were seen by the Argives and their allies, who immediately +took up a strong and difficult position, and formed in order of battle. +The Lacedaemonians at once advanced against them, and came on within a +stone's throw or javelin's cast, when one of the older men, seeing the +enemy's position to be a strong one, hallooed to Agis that he was minded +to cure one evil with another; meaning that he wished to make amends for +his retreat, which had been so much blamed, from Argos, by his present +untimely precipitation. Meanwhile Agis, whether in consequence of this +halloo or of some sudden new idea of his own, quickly led back his army +without engaging, and entering the Tegean territory, began to turn off +into that of Mantinea the water about which the Mantineans and Tegeans +are always fighting, on account of the extensive damage it does to +whichever of the two countries it falls into. His object in this was to +make the Argives and their allies come down from the hill, to resist the +diversion of the water, as they would be sure to do when they knew of +it, and thus to fight the battle in the plain. He accordingly stayed +that day where he was, engaged in turning off the water. The Argives +and their allies were at first amazed at the sudden retreat of the enemy +after advancing so near, and did not know what to make of it; but when +he had gone away and disappeared, without their having stirred to pursue +him, they began anew to find fault with their generals, who had not +only let the Lacedaemonians get off before, when they were so happily +intercepted before Argos, but who now again allowed them to run away, +without any one pursuing them, and to escape at their leisure while the +Argive army was leisurely betrayed. The generals, half-stunned for the +moment, afterwards led them down from the hill, and went forward and +encamped in the plain, with the intention of attacking the enemy. + +The next day the Argives and their allies formed in the order in which +they meant to fight, if they chanced to encounter the enemy; and the +Lacedaemonians returning from the water to their old encampment by the +temple of Heracles, suddenly saw their adversaries close in front of +them, all in complete order, and advanced from the hill. A shock like +that of the present moment the Lacedaemonians do not ever remember +to have experienced: there was scant time for preparation, as they +instantly and hastily fell into their ranks, Agis, their king, directing +everything, agreeably to the law. For when a king is in the field all +commands proceed from him: he gives the word to the Polemarchs; they to +the Lochages; these to the Pentecostyes; these again to the Enomotarchs, +and these last to the Enomoties. In short all orders required pass +in the same way and quickly reach the troops; as almost the whole +Lacedaemonian army, save for a small part, consists of officers under +officers, and the care of what is to be done falls upon many. + +In this battle the left wing was composed of the Sciritae, who in a +Lacedaemonian army have always that post to themselves alone; next to +these were the soldiers of Brasidas from Thrace, and the Neodamodes with +them; then came the Lacedaemonians themselves, company after company, +with the Arcadians of Heraea at their side. After these were the +Maenalians, and on the right wing the Tegeans with a few of the +Lacedaemonians at the extremity; their cavalry being posted upon the two +wings. Such was the Lacedaemonian formation. That of their opponents was +as follows: On the right were the Mantineans, the action taking place in +their country; next to them the allies from Arcadia; after whom came the +thousand picked men of the Argives, to whom the state had given a long +course of military training at the public expense; next to them the rest +of the Argives, and after them their allies, the Cleonaeans and Orneans, +and lastly the Athenians on the extreme left, and lastly the Athenians +on the extreme left, and their own cavalry with them. + +Such were the order and the forces of the two combatants. The +Lacedaemonian army looked the largest; though as to putting down the +numbers of either host, or of the contingents composing it, I could not +do so with any accuracy. Owing to the secrecy of their government the +number of the Lacedaemonians was not known, and men are so apt to brag +about the forces of their country that the estimate of their opponents +was not trusted. The following calculation, however, makes it possible +to estimate the numbers of the Lacedaemonians present upon this +occasion. There were seven companies in the field without counting the +Sciritae, who numbered six hundred men: in each company there were four +Pentecostyes, and in the Pentecosty four Enomoties. The first rank of +the Enomoty was composed of four soldiers: as to the depth, although +they had not been all drawn up alike, but as each captain chose, they +were generally ranged eight deep; the first rank along the whole line, +exclusive of the Sciritae, consisted of four hundred and forty-eight +men. + +The armies being now on the eve of engaging, each contingent received +some words of encouragement from its own commander. The Mantineans were, +reminded that they were going to fight for their country and to avoid +returning to the experience of servitude after having tasted that +of empire; the Argives, that they would contend for their ancient +supremacy, to regain their once equal share of Peloponnese of which they +had been so long deprived, and to punish an enemy and a neighbour for a +thousand wrongs; the Athenians, of the glory of gaining the honours of +the day with so many and brave allies in arms, and that a victory over +the Lacedaemonians in Peloponnese would cement and extend their empire, +and would besides preserve Attica from all invasions in future. These +were the incitements addressed to the Argives and their allies. The +Lacedaemonians meanwhile, man to man, and with their war-songs in +the ranks, exhorted each brave comrade to remember what he had learnt +before; well aware that the long training of action was of more +saving virtue than any brief verbal exhortation, though never so well +delivered. + +After this they joined battle, the Argives and their allies advancing +with haste and fury, the Lacedaemonians slowly and to the music of many +flute-players--a standing institution in their army, that has nothing to +do with religion, but is meant to make them advance evenly, stepping in +time, without break their order, as large armies are apt to do in the +moment of engaging. + +Just before the battle joined, King Agis resolved upon the following +manoeuvre. All armies are alike in this: on going into action they get +forced out rather on their right wing, and one and the other overlap +with this adversary's left; because fear makes each man do his best +to shelter his unarmed side with the shield of the man next him on the +right, thinking that the closer the shields are locked together the +better will he be protected. The man primarily responsible for this is +the first upon the right wing, who is always striving to withdraw from +the enemy his unarmed side; and the same apprehension makes the rest +follow him. On the present occasion the Mantineans reached with their +wing far beyond the Sciritae, and the Lacedaemonians and Tegeans still +farther beyond the Athenians, as their army was the largest. Agis, +afraid of his left being surrounded, and thinking that the Mantineans +outflanked it too far, ordered the Sciritae and Brasideans to move +out from their place in the ranks and make the line even with the +Mantineans, and told the Polemarchs Hipponoidas and Aristocles to +fill up the gap thus formed, by throwing themselves into it with two +companies taken from the right wing; thinking that his right would still +be strong enough and to spare, and that the line fronting the Mantineans +would gain in solidity. + +However, as he gave these orders in the moment of the onset, and at +short notice, it so happened that Aristocles and Hipponoidas would not +move over, for which offence they were afterwards banished from Sparta, +as having been guilty of cowardice; and the enemy meanwhile closed +before the Sciritae (whom Agis on seeing that the two companies did +not move over ordered to return to their place) had time to fill up +the breach in question. Now it was, however, that the Lacedaemonians, +utterly worsted in respect of skill, showed themselves as superior in +point of courage. As soon as they came to close quarters with the enemy, +the Mantinean right broke their Sciritae and Brasideans, and, bursting +in with their allies and the thousand picked Argives into the unclosed +breach in their line, cut up and surrounded the Lacedaemonians, and +drove them in full rout to the wagons, slaying some of the older men on +guard there. But the Lacedaemonians, worsted in this part of the field, +with the rest of their army, and especially the centre, where the three +hundred knights, as they are called, fought round King Agis, fell on +the older men of the Argives and the five companies so named, and on +the Cleonaeans, the Orneans, and the Athenians next them, and instantly +routed them; the greater number not even waiting to strike a blow, but +giving way the moment that they came on, some even being trodden under +foot, in their fear of being overtaken by their assailants. + +The army of the Argives and their allies, having given way in this +quarter, was now completely cut in two, and the Lacedaemonian and Tegean +right simultaneously closing round the Athenians with the troops that +outflanked them, these last found themselves placed between two fires, +being surrounded on one side and already defeated on the other. Indeed +they would have suffered more severely than any other part of the army, +but for the services of the cavalry which they had with them. Agis also +on perceiving the distress of his left opposed to the Mantineans and the +thousand Argives, ordered all the army to advance to the support of the +defeated wing; and while this took place, as the enemy moved past and +slanted away from them, the Athenians escaped at their leisure, and +with them the beaten Argive division. Meanwhile the Mantineans and their +allies and the picked body of the Argives ceased to press the enemy, +and seeing their friends defeated and the Lacedaemonians in full advance +upon them, took to flight. Many of the Mantineans perished; but the bulk +of the picked body of the Argives made good their escape. The flight +and retreat, however, were neither hurried nor long; the Lacedaemonians +fighting long and stubbornly until the rout of their enemy, but that +once effected, pursuing for a short time and not far. + +Such was the battle, as nearly as possible as I have described it; the +greatest that had occurred for a very long while among the Hellenes, +and joined by the most considerable states. The Lacedaemonians took up +a position in front of the enemy's dead, and immediately set up a trophy +and stripped the slain; they took up their own dead and carried them +back to Tegea, where they buried them, and restored those of the enemy +under truce. The Argives, Orneans, and Cleonaeans had seven hundred +killed; the Mantineans two hundred, and the Athenians and Aeginetans +also two hundred, with both their generals. On the side of the +Lacedaemonians, the allies did not suffer any loss worth speaking of: as +to the Lacedaemonians themselves it was difficult to learn the truth; it +is said, however, that there were slain about three hundred of them. + +While the battle was impending, Pleistoanax, the other king, set out +with a reinforcement composed of the oldest and youngest men, and got +as far as Tegea, where he heard of the victory and went back again. The +Lacedaemonians also sent and turned back the allies from Corinth and +from beyond the Isthmus, and returning themselves dismissed their +allies, and kept the Carnean holidays, which happened to be at that +time. The imputations cast upon them by the Hellenes at the time, +whether of cowardice on account of the disaster in the island, or of +mismanagement and slowness generally, were all wiped out by this single +action: fortune, it was thought, might have humbled them, but the men +themselves were the same as ever. + +The day before this battle, the Epidaurians with all their forces +invaded the deserted Argive territory, and cut off many of the guards +left there in the absence of the Argive army. After the battle three +thousand Elean heavy infantry arriving to aid the Mantineans, and a +reinforcement of one thousand Athenians, all these allies marched +at once against Epidaurus, while the Lacedaemonians were keeping the +Carnea, and dividing the work among them began to build a wall round +the city. The rest left off; but the Athenians finished at once the part +assigned to them round Cape Heraeum; and having all joined in leaving +a garrison in the fortification in question, they returned to their +respective cities. + +Summer now came to an end. In the first days of the next winter, when +the Carnean holidays were over, the Lacedaemonians took the field, and +arriving at Tegea sent on to Argos proposals of accommodation. They had +before had a party in the town desirous of overthrowing the democracy; +and after the battle that had been fought, these were now far more in a +position to persuade the people to listen to terms. Their plan was first +to make a treaty with the Lacedaemonians, to be followed by an alliance, +and after this to fall upon the commons. Lichas, son of Arcesilaus, the +Argive proxenus, accordingly arrived at Argos with two proposals from +Lacedaemon, to regulate the conditions of war or peace, according as +they preferred the one or the other. After much discussion, Alcibiades +happening to be in the town, the Lacedaemonian party, who now ventured +to act openly, persuaded the Argives to accept the proposal for +accommodation; which ran as follows: + +The assembly of the Lacedaemonians agrees to treat with the Argives upon +the terms following: + +1. The Argives shall restore to the Orchomenians their children, and +to the Maenalians their men, and shall restore the men they have in +Mantinea to the Lacedaemonians. + +2. They shall evacuate Epidaurus, and raze the fortification there. If +the Athenians refuse to withdraw from Epidaurus, they shall be declared +enemies of the Argives and of the Lacedaemonians, and of the allies of +the Lacedaemonians and the allies of the Argives. + +3. If the Lacedaemonians have any children in their custody, they shall +restore them every one to his city. + +4. As to the offering to the god, the Argives, if they wish, shall +impose an oath upon the Epidaurians, but, if not, they shall swear it +themselves. + +5. All the cities in Peloponnese, both small and great, shall be +independent according to the customs of their country. + +6. If any of the powers outside Peloponnese invade Peloponnesian +territory, the parties contracting shall unite to repel them, on such +terms as they may agree upon, as being most fair for the Peloponnesians. + +7. All allies of the Lacedaemonians outside Peloponnese shall be on the +same footing as the Lacedaemonians, and the allies of the Argives shall +be on the same footing as the Argives, being left in enjoyment of their +own possessions. + +8. This treaty shall be shown to the allies, and shall be concluded, if +they approve; if the allies think fit, they may send the treaty to be +considered at home. + +The Argives began by accepting this proposal, and the Lacedaemonian army +returned home from Tegea. After this intercourse was renewed between +them, and not long afterwards the same party contrived that the Argives +should give up the league with the Mantineans, Eleans, and Athenians, +and should make a treaty and alliance with the Lacedaemonians; which was +consequently done upon the terms following: + +The Lacedaemonians and Argives agree to a treaty and alliance for fifty +years upon the terms following: + +1. All disputes shall be decided by fair and impartial arbitration, +agreeably to the customs of the two countries. + +2. The rest of the cities in Peloponnese may be included in this treaty +and alliance, as independent and sovereign, in full enjoyment of +what they possess, all disputes being decided by fair and impartial +arbitration, agreeably to the customs of the said cities. + +3. All allies of the Lacedaemonians outside Peloponnese shall be upon +the same footing as the Lacedaemonians themselves, and the allies of +the Argives shall be upon the same footing as the Argives themselves, +continuing to enjoy what they possess. + +4. If it shall be anywhere necessary to make an expedition in common, +the Lacedaemonians and Argives shall consult upon it and decide, as may +be most fair for the allies. + +5. If any of the cities, whether inside or outside Peloponnese, have a +question whether of frontiers or otherwise, it must be settled, but if +one allied city should have a quarrel with another allied city, it +must be referred to some third city thought impartial by both parties. +Private citizens shall have their disputes decided according to the laws +of their several countries. + +The treaty and above alliance concluded, each party at once released +everything whether acquired by war or otherwise, and thenceforth acting +in common voted to receive neither herald nor embassy from the Athenians +unless they evacuated their forts and withdrew from Peloponnese, and +also to make neither peace nor war with any, except jointly. Zeal was +not wanting: both parties sent envoys to the Thracian places and to +Perdiccas, and persuaded the latter to join their league. Still he did +not at once break off from Athens, although minded to do so upon seeing +the way shown him by Argos, the original home of his family. They also +renewed their old oaths with the Chalcidians and took new ones: the +Argives, besides, sent ambassadors to the Athenians, bidding them +evacuate the fort at Epidaurus. The Athenians, seeing their own men +outnumbered by the rest of the garrison, sent Demosthenes to bring them +out. This general, under colour of a gymnastic contest which he arranged +on his arrival, got the rest of the garrison out of the place, and shut +the gates behind them. Afterwards the Athenians renewed their treaty +with the Epidaurians, and by themselves gave up the fortress. + +After the defection of Argos from the league, the Mantineans, though +they held out at first, in the end finding themselves powerless without +the Argives, themselves too came to terms with Lacedaemon, and gave up +their sovereignty over the towns. The Lacedaemonians and Argives, each a +thousand strong, now took the field together, and the former first went +by themselves to Sicyon and made the government there more oligarchical +than before, and then both, uniting, put down the democracy at Argos and +set up an oligarchy favourable to Lacedaemon. These events occurred at +the close of the winter, just before spring; and the fourteenth year of +the war ended. The next summer the people of Dium, in Athos, revolted +from the Athenians to the Chalcidians, and the Lacedaemonians settled +affairs in Achaea in a way more agreeable to the interests of their +country. Meanwhile the popular party at Argos little by little +gathered new consistency and courage, and waited for the moment of the +Gymnopaedic festival at Lacedaemon, and then fell upon the oligarchs. +After a fight in the city, victory declared for the commons, who slew +some of their opponents and banished others. The Lacedaemonians for a +long while let the messages of their friends at Argos remain without +effect. At last they put off the Gymnopaediae and marched to their +succour, but learning at Tegea the defeat of the oligarchs, refused to +go any further in spite of the entreaties of those who had escaped, +and returned home and kept the festival. Later on, envoys arrived with +messages from the Argives in the town and from the exiles, when the +allies were also at Sparta; and after much had been said on both sides, +the Lacedaemonians decided that the party in the town had done wrong, +and resolved to march against Argos, but kept delaying and putting +off the matter. Meanwhile the commons at Argos, in fear of the +Lacedaemonians, began again to court the Athenian alliance, which they +were convinced would be of the greatest service to them; and accordingly +proceeded to build long walls to the sea, in order that in case of a +blockade by land; with the help of the Athenians they might have the +advantage of importing what they wanted by sea. Some of the cities in +Peloponnese were also privy to the building of these walls; and the +Argives with all their people, women and slaves not excepted, addressed +themselves to the work, while carpenters and masons came to them from +Athens. + +Summer was now over. The winter following the Lacedaemonians, hearing of +the walls that were building, marched against Argos with their allies, +the Corinthians excepted, being also not without intelligence in the +city itself; Agis, son of Archidamus, their king, was in command. The +intelligence which they counted upon within the town came to nothing; +they however took and razed the walls which were being built, and after +capturing the Argive town Hysiae and killing all the freemen that fell +into their hands, went back and dispersed every man to his city. After +this the Argives marched into Phlius and plundered it for harbouring +their exiles, most of whom had settled there, and so returned home. +The same winter the Athenians blockaded Macedonia, on the score of the +league entered into by Perdiccas with the Argives and Lacedaemonians, +and also of his breach of his engagements on the occasion of the +expedition prepared by Athens against the Chalcidians in the direction +of Thrace and against Amphipolis, under the command of Nicias, son of +Niceratus, which had to be broken up mainly because of his desertion. +He was therefore proclaimed an enemy. And thus the winter ended, and the +fifteenth year of the war ended with it. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +_Sixteenth Year of the War--The Melian Conference--Fate of Melos_ + +The next summer Alcibiades sailed with twenty ships to Argos and seized +the suspected persons still left of the Lacedaemonian faction to the +number of three hundred, whom the Athenians forthwith lodged in the +neighbouring islands of their empire. The Athenians also made an +expedition against the isle of Melos with thirty ships of their own, six +Chian, and two Lesbian vessels, sixteen hundred heavy infantry, three +hundred archers, and twenty mounted archers from Athens, and about +fifteen hundred heavy infantry from the allies and the islanders. +The Melians are a colony of Lacedaemon that would not submit to the +Athenians like the other islanders, and at first remained neutral and +took no part in the struggle, but afterwards upon the Athenians using +violence and plundering their territory, assumed an attitude of open +hostility. Cleomedes, son of Lycomedes, and Tisias, son of Tisimachus, +the generals, encamping in their territory with the above armament, +before doing any harm to their land, sent envoys to negotiate. These the +Melians did not bring before the people, but bade them state the object +of their mission to the magistrates and the few; upon which the Athenian +envoys spoke as follows: + +Athenians. Since the negotiations are not to go on before the people, in +order that we may not be able to speak straight on without interruption, +and deceive the ears of the multitude by seductive arguments which would +pass without refutation (for we know that this is the meaning of our +being brought before the few), what if you who sit there were to pursue +a method more cautious still? Make no set speech yourselves, but take +us up at whatever you do not like, and settle that before going any +farther. And first tell us if this proposition of ours suits you. + +The Melian commissioners answered: + +Melians. To the fairness of quietly instructing each other as you +propose there is nothing to object; but your military preparations are +too far advanced to agree with what you say, as we see you are come to +be judges in your own cause, and that all we can reasonably expect +from this negotiation is war, if we prove to have right on our side and +refuse to submit, and in the contrary case, slavery. + +Athenians. If you have met to reason about presentiments of the future, +or for anything else than to consult for the safety of your state upon +the facts that you see before you, we will give over; otherwise we will +go on. + +Melians. It is natural and excusable for men in our position to turn +more ways than one both in thought and utterance. However, the question +in this conference is, as you say, the safety of our country; and the +discussion, if you please, can proceed in the way which you propose. + +Athenians. For ourselves, we shall not trouble you with specious +pretences--either of how we have a right to our empire because we +overthrew the Mede, or are now attacking you because of wrong that you +have done us--and make a long speech which would not be believed; and in +return we hope that you, instead of thinking to influence us by saying +that you did not join the Lacedaemonians, although their colonists, or +that you have done us no wrong, will aim at what is feasible, holding +in view the real sentiments of us both; since you know as well as we +do that right, as the world goes, is only in question between equals in +power, while the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they +must. + +Melians. As we think, at any rate, it is expedient--we speak as we +are obliged, since you enjoin us to let right alone and talk only of +interest--that you should not destroy what is our common protection, the +privilege of being allowed in danger to invoke what is fair and right, +and even to profit by arguments not strictly valid if they can be got +to pass current. And you are as much interested in this as any, as your +fall would be a signal for the heaviest vengeance and an example for the +world to meditate upon. + +Athenians. The end of our empire, if end it should, does not frighten +us: a rival empire like Lacedaemon, even if Lacedaemon was our real +antagonist, is not so terrible to the vanquished as subjects who by +themselves attack and overpower their rulers. This, however, is a risk +that we are content to take. We will now proceed to show you that we are +come here in the interest of our empire, and that we shall say what we +are now going to say, for the preservation of your country; as we +would fain exercise that empire over you without trouble, and see you +preserved for the good of us both. + +Melians. And how, pray, could it turn out as good for us to serve as for +you to rule? + +Athenians. Because you would have the advantage of submitting before +suffering the worst, and we should gain by not destroying you. + +Melians. So that you would not consent to our being neutral, friends +instead of enemies, but allies of neither side. + +Athenians. No; for your hostility cannot so much hurt us as your +friendship will be an argument to our subjects of our weakness, and your +enmity of our power. + +Melians. Is that your subjects' idea of equity, to put those who have +nothing to do with you in the same category with peoples that are most +of them your own colonists, and some conquered rebels? + +Athenians. As far as right goes they think one has as much of it as the +other, and that if any maintain their independence it is because they +are strong, and that if we do not molest them it is because we are +afraid; so that besides extending our empire we should gain in security +by your subjection; the fact that you are islanders and weaker than +others rendering it all the more important that you should not succeed +in baffling the masters of the sea. + +Melians. But do you consider that there is no security in the policy +which we indicate? For here again if you debar us from talking about +justice and invite us to obey your interest, we also must explain ours, +and try to persuade you, if the two happen to coincide. How can you +avoid making enemies of all existing neutrals who shall look at case +from it that one day or another you will attack them? And what is this +but to make greater the enemies that you have already, and to force +others to become so who would otherwise have never thought of it? + +Athenians. Why, the fact is that continentals generally give us but +little alarm; the liberty which they enjoy will long prevent their +taking precautions against us; it is rather islanders like yourselves, +outside our empire, and subjects smarting under the yoke, who would +be the most likely to take a rash step and lead themselves and us into +obvious danger. + +Melians. Well then, if you risk so much to retain your empire, and your +subjects to get rid of it, it were surely great baseness and cowardice +in us who are still free not to try everything that can be tried, before +submitting to your yoke. + +Athenians. Not if you are well advised, the contest not being an equal +one, with honour as the prize and shame as the penalty, but a question +of self-preservation and of not resisting those who are far stronger +than you are. + +Melians. But we know that the fortune of war is sometimes more impartial +than the disproportion of numbers might lead one to suppose; to submit +is to give ourselves over to despair, while action still preserves for +us a hope that we may stand erect. + +Athenians. Hope, danger's comforter, may be indulged in by those who +have abundant resources, if not without loss at all events without ruin; +but its nature is to be extravagant, and those who go so far as to put +their all upon the venture see it in its true colours only when they are +ruined; but so long as the discovery would enable them to guard against +it, it is never found wanting. Let not this be the case with you, who +are weak and hang on a single turn of the scale; nor be like the vulgar, +who, abandoning such security as human means may still afford, when +visible hopes fail them in extremity, turn to invisible, to prophecies +and oracles, and other such inventions that delude men with hopes to +their destruction. + +Melians. You may be sure that we are as well aware as you of the +difficulty of contending against your power and fortune, unless the +terms be equal. But we trust that the gods may grant us fortune as good +as yours, since we are just men fighting against unjust, and that what +we want in power will be made up by the alliance of the Lacedaemonians, +who are bound, if only for very shame, to come to the aid of their +kindred. Our confidence, therefore, after all is not so utterly +irrational. + +Athenians. When you speak of the favour of the gods, we may as fairly +hope for that as yourselves; neither our pretensions nor our conduct +being in any way contrary to what men believe of the gods, or practise +among themselves. Of the gods we believe, and of men we know, that by a +necessary law of their nature they rule wherever they can. And it is not +as if we were the first to make this law, or to act upon it when made: +we found it existing before us, and shall leave it to exist for ever +after us; all we do is to make use of it, knowing that you and everybody +else, having the same power as we have, would do the same as we do. +Thus, as far as the gods are concerned, we have no fear and no reason to +fear that we shall be at a disadvantage. But when we come to your notion +about the Lacedaemonians, which leads you to believe that shame will +make them help you, here we bless your simplicity but do not envy your +folly. The Lacedaemonians, when their own interests or their country's +laws are in question, are the worthiest men alive; of their conduct +towards others much might be said, but no clearer idea of it could be +given than by shortly saying that of all the men we know they are most +conspicuous in considering what is agreeable honourable, and what is +expedient just. Such a way of thinking does not promise much for the +safety which you now unreasonably count upon. + +Melians. But it is for this very reason that we now trust to their +respect for expediency to prevent them from betraying the Melians, their +colonists, and thereby losing the confidence of their friends in Hellas +and helping their enemies. + +Athenians. Then you do not adopt the view that expediency goes with +security, while justice and honour cannot be followed without danger; +and danger the Lacedaemonians generally court as little as possible. + +Melians. But we believe that they would be more likely to face even +danger for our sake, and with more confidence than for others, as our +nearness to Peloponnese makes it easier for them to act, and our common +blood ensures our fidelity. + +Athenians. Yes, but what an intending ally trusts to is not the goodwill +of those who ask his aid, but a decided superiority of power for action; +and the Lacedaemonians look to this even more than others. At least, +such is their distrust of their home resources that it is only with +numerous allies that they attack a neighbour; now is it likely that +while we are masters of the sea they will cross over to an island? + +Melians. But they would have others to send. The Cretan Sea is a wide +one, and it is more difficult for those who command it to intercept +others, than for those who wish to elude them to do so safely. And +should the Lacedaemonians miscarry in this, they would fall upon your +land, and upon those left of your allies whom Brasidas did not reach; +and instead of places which are not yours, you will have to fight for +your own country and your own confederacy. + +Athenians. Some diversion of the kind you speak of you may one day +experience, only to learn, as others have done, that the Athenians never +once yet withdrew from a siege for fear of any. But we are struck by +the fact that, after saying you would consult for the safety of your +country, in all this discussion you have mentioned nothing which men +might trust in and think to be saved by. Your strongest arguments depend +upon hope and the future, and your actual resources are too scanty, as +compared with those arrayed against you, for you to come out victorious. +You will therefore show great blindness of judgment, unless, after +allowing us to retire, you can find some counsel more prudent than this. +You will surely not be caught by that idea of disgrace, which in dangers +that are disgraceful, and at the same time too plain to be mistaken, +proves so fatal to mankind; since in too many cases the very men that +have their eyes perfectly open to what they are rushing into, let the +thing called disgrace, by the mere influence of a seductive name, lead +them on to a point at which they become so enslaved by the phrase as in +fact to fall wilfully into hopeless disaster, and incur disgrace more +disgraceful as the companion of error, than when it comes as the result +of misfortune. This, if you are well advised, you will guard against; +and you will not think it dishonourable to submit to the greatest +city in Hellas, when it makes you the moderate offer of becoming its +tributary ally, without ceasing to enjoy the country that belongs to +you; nor when you have the choice given you between war and security, +will you be so blinded as to choose the worse. And it is certain that +those who do not yield to their equals, who keep terms with their +superiors, and are moderate towards their inferiors, on the whole +succeed best. Think over the matter, therefore, after our withdrawal, +and reflect once and again that it is for your country that you are +consulting, that you have not more than one, and that upon this one +deliberation depends its prosperity or ruin. + +The Athenians now withdrew from the conference; and the Melians, left +to themselves, came to a decision corresponding with what they had +maintained in the discussion, and answered: "Our resolution, Athenians, +is the same as it was at first. We will not in a moment deprive of +freedom a city that has been inhabited these seven hundred years; but we +put our trust in the fortune by which the gods have preserved it until +now, and in the help of men, that is, of the Lacedaemonians; and so we +will try and save ourselves. Meanwhile we invite you to allow us to be +friends to you and foes to neither party, and to retire from our country +after making such a treaty as shall seem fit to us both." + +Such was the answer of the Melians. The Athenians now departing from the +conference said: "Well, you alone, as it seems to us, judging from these +resolutions, regard what is future as more certain than what is before +your eyes, and what is out of sight, in your eagerness, as already +coming to pass; and as you have staked most on, and trusted most in, +the Lacedaemonians, your fortune, and your hopes, so will you be most +completely deceived." + +The Athenian envoys now returned to the army; and the Melians showing +no signs of yielding, the generals at once betook themselves to +hostilities, and drew a line of circumvallation round the Melians, +dividing the work among the different states. Subsequently the Athenians +returned with most of their army, leaving behind them a certain number +of their own citizens and of the allies to keep guard by land and sea. +The force thus left stayed on and besieged the place. + +About the same time the Argives invaded the territory of Phlius and lost +eighty men cut off in an ambush by the Phliasians and Argive exiles. +Meanwhile the Athenians at Pylos took so much plunder from the +Lacedaemonians that the latter, although they still refrained from +breaking off the treaty and going to war with Athens, yet proclaimed +that any of their people that chose might plunder the Athenians. The +Corinthians also commenced hostilities with the Athenians for private +quarrels of their own; but the rest of the Peloponnesians stayed +quiet. Meanwhile the Melians attacked by night and took the part of the +Athenian lines over against the market, and killed some of the men, and +brought in corn and all else that they could find useful to them, and +so returned and kept quiet, while the Athenians took measures to keep +better guard in future. + +Summer was now over. The next winter the Lacedaemonians intended to +invade the Argive territory, but arriving at the frontier found +the sacrifices for crossing unfavourable, and went back again. This +intention of theirs gave the Argives suspicions of certain of their +fellow citizens, some of whom they arrested; others, however, escaped +them. About the same time the Melians again took another part of +the Athenian lines which were but feebly garrisoned. Reinforcements +afterwards arriving from Athens in consequence, under the command of +Philocrates, son of Demeas, the siege was now pressed vigorously; +and some treachery taking place inside, the Melians surrendered at +discretion to the Athenians, who put to death all the grown men whom +they took, and sold the women and children for slaves, and subsequently +sent out five hundred colonists and inhabited the place themselves. + + + + +BOOK VI + +CHAPTER XVIII + +_Seventeenth Year of the War--The Sicilian Campaign--Affair of the +Hermae--Departure of the Expedition_ + +The same winter the Athenians resolved to sail again to Sicily, with a +greater armament than that under Laches and Eurymedon, and, if possible, +to conquer the island; most of them being ignorant of its size and of +the number of its inhabitants, Hellenic and barbarian, and of the fact +that they were undertaking a war not much inferior to that against the +Peloponnesians. For the voyage round Sicily in a merchantman is not far +short of eight days; and yet, large as the island is, there are only two +miles of sea to prevent its being mainland. + +It was settled originally as follows, and the peoples that occupied it +are these. The earliest inhabitants spoken of in any part of the country +are the Cyclopes and Laestrygones; but I cannot tell of what race +they were, or whence they came or whither they went, and must leave my +readers to what the poets have said of them and to what may be generally +known concerning them. The Sicanians appear to have been the next +settlers, although they pretend to have been the first of all and +aborigines; but the facts show that they were Iberians, driven by the +Ligurians from the river Sicanus in Iberia. It was from them that the +island, before called Trinacria, took its name of Sicania, and to the +present day they inhabit the west of Sicily. On the fall of Ilium, some +of the Trojans escaped from the Achaeans, came in ships to Sicily, and +settled next to the Sicanians under the general name of Elymi; their +towns being called Eryx and Egesta. With them settled some of the +Phocians carried on their way from Troy by a storm, first to Libya, and +afterwards from thence to Sicily. The Sicels crossed over to Sicily from +their first home Italy, flying from the Opicans, as tradition says and +as seems not unlikely, upon rafts, having watched till the wind set down +the strait to effect the passage; although perhaps they may have sailed +over in some other way. Even at the present day there are still Sicels +in Italy; and the country got its name of Italy from Italus, a king of +the Sicels, so called. These went with a great host to Sicily, defeated +the Sicanians in battle and forced them to remove to the south and west +of the island, which thus came to be called Sicily instead of Sicania, +and after they crossed over continued to enjoy the richest parts of the +country for near three hundred years before any Hellenes came to Sicily; +indeed they still hold the centre and north of the island. There were +also Phoenicians living all round Sicily, who had occupied promontories +upon the sea coasts and the islets adjacent for the purpose of trading +with the Sicels. But when the Hellenes began to arrive in considerable +numbers by sea, the Phoenicians abandoned most of their stations, and +drawing together took up their abode in Motye, Soloeis, and Panormus, +near the Elymi, partly because they confided in their alliance, and also +because these are the nearest points for the voyage between Carthage and +Sicily. + +These were the barbarians in Sicily, settled as I have said. Of the +Hellenes, the first to arrive were Chalcidians from Euboea with +Thucles, their founder. They founded Naxos and built the altar to +Apollo Archegetes, which now stands outside the town, and upon which the +deputies for the games sacrifice before sailing from Sicily. Syracuse +was founded the year afterwards by Archias, one of the Heraclids from +Corinth, who began by driving out the Sicels from the island upon which +the inner city now stands, though it is no longer surrounded by water: +in process of time the outer town also was taken within the walls and +became populous. Meanwhile Thucles and the Chalcidians set out from +Naxos in the fifth year after the foundation of Syracuse, and drove +out the Sicels by arms and founded Leontini and afterwards Catana; the +Catanians themselves choosing Evarchus as their founder. + +About the same time Lamis arrived in Sicily with a colony from Megara, +and after founding a place called Trotilus beyond the river Pantacyas, +and afterwards leaving it and for a short while joining the Chalcidians +at Leontini, was driven out by them and founded Thapsus. After his death +his companions were driven out of Thapsus, and founded a place called +the Hyblaean Megara; Hyblon, a Sicel king, having given up the place and +inviting them thither. Here they lived two hundred and forty-five years; +after which they were expelled from the city and the country by the +Syracusan tyrant Gelo. Before their expulsion, however, a hundred +years after they had settled there, they sent out Pamillus and founded +Selinus; he having come from their mother country Megara to join them in +its foundation. Gela was founded by Antiphemus from Rhodes and Entimus +from Crete, who joined in leading a colony thither, in the forty-fifth +year after the foundation of Syracuse. The town took its name from the +river Gelas, the place where the citadel now stands, and which was first +fortified, being called Lindii. The institutions which they adopted were +Dorian. Near one hundred and eight years after the foundation of Gela, +the Geloans founded Acragas (Agrigentum), so called from the river of +that name, and made Aristonous and Pystilus their founders; giving their +own institutions to the colony. Zancle was originally founded by +pirates from Cuma, the Chalcidian town in the country of the Opicans: +afterwards, however, large numbers came from Chalcis and the rest of +Euboea, and helped to people the place; the founders being Perieres and +Crataemenes from Cuma and Chalcis respectively. It first had the name +of Zancle given it by the Sicels, because the place is shaped like a +sickle, which the Sicels call zanclon; but upon the original settlers +being afterwards expelled by some Samians and other Ionians who landed +in Sicily flying from the Medes, and the Samians in their turn not long +afterwards by Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhegium, the town was by him colonized +with a mixed population, and its name changed to Messina, after his old +country. + +Himera was founded from Zancle by Euclides, Simus, and Sacon, most of +those who went to the colony being Chalcidians; though they were joined +by some exiles from Syracuse, defeated in a civil war, called the +Myletidae. The language was a mixture of Chalcidian and Doric, but the +institutions which prevailed were the Chalcidian. Acrae and Casmenae +were founded by the Syracusans; Acrae seventy years after Syracuse, +Casmenae nearly twenty after Acrae. Camarina was first founded by +the Syracusans, close upon a hundred and thirty-five years after the +building of Syracuse; its founders being Daxon and Menecolus. But +the Camarinaeans being expelled by arms by the Syracusans for having +revolted, Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, some time later receiving their +land in ransom for some Syracusan prisoners, resettled Camarina, himself +acting as its founder. Lastly, it was again depopulated by Gelo, and +settled once more for the third time by the Geloans. + +Such is the list of the peoples, Hellenic and barbarian, inhabiting +Sicily, and such the magnitude of the island which the Athenians were +now bent upon invading; being ambitious in real truth of conquering the +whole, although they had also the specious design of succouring their +kindred and other allies in the island. But they were especially incited +by envoys from Egesta, who had come to Athens and invoked their aid more +urgently than ever. The Egestaeans had gone to war with their neighbours +the Selinuntines upon questions of marriage and disputed territory, +and the Selinuntines had procured the alliance of the Syracusans, and +pressed Egesta hard by land and sea. The Egestaeans now reminded the +Athenians of the alliance made in the time of Laches, during the former +Leontine war, and begged them to send a fleet to their aid, and among a +number of other considerations urged as a capital argument that if +the Syracusans were allowed to go unpunished for their depopulation of +Leontini, to ruin the allies still left to Athens in Sicily, and to get +the whole power of the island into their hands, there would be a danger +of their one day coming with a large force, as Dorians, to the aid +of their Dorian brethren, and as colonists, to the aid of the +Peloponnesians who had sent them out, and joining these in pulling down +the Athenian empire. The Athenians would, therefore, do well to unite +with the allies still left to them, and to make a stand against the +Syracusans; especially as they, the Egestaeans, were prepared to furnish +money sufficient for the war. The Athenians, hearing these arguments +constantly repeated in their assemblies by the Egestaeans and their +supporters, voted first to send envoys to Egesta, to see if there was +really the money that they talked of in the treasury and temples, and +at the same time to ascertain in what posture was the war with the +Selinuntines. + +The envoys of the Athenians were accordingly dispatched to Sicily. +The same winter the Lacedaemonians and their allies, the Corinthians +excepted, marched into the Argive territory, and ravaged a small part +of the land, and took some yokes of oxen and carried off some corn. They +also settled the Argive exiles at Orneae, and left them a few soldiers +taken from the rest of the army; and after making a truce for a certain +while, according to which neither Orneatae nor Argives were to injure +each other's territory, returned home with the army. Not long afterwards +the Athenians came with thirty ships and six hundred heavy infantry, and +the Argives joining them with all their forces, marched out and besieged +the men in Orneae for one day; but the garrison escaped by night, the +besiegers having bivouacked some way off. The next day the Argives, +discovering it, razed Orneae to the ground, and went back again; after +which the Athenians went home in their ships. Meanwhile the Athenians +took by sea to Methone on the Macedonian border some cavalry of their +own and the Macedonian exiles that were at Athens, and plundered the +country of Perdiccas. Upon this the Lacedaemonians sent to the Thracian +Chalcidians, who had a truce with Athens from one ten days to another, +urging them to join Perdiccas in the war, which they refused to do. And +the winter ended, and with it ended the sixteenth year of this war of +which Thucydides is the historian. + +Early in the spring of the following summer the Athenian envoys arrived +from Sicily, and the Egestaeans with them, bringing sixty talents of +uncoined silver, as a month's pay for sixty ships, which they were to +ask to have sent them. The Athenians held an assembly and, after hearing +from the Egestaeans and their own envoys a report, as attractive as it +was untrue, upon the state of affairs generally, and in particular as to +the money, of which, it was said, there was abundance in the temples and +the treasury, voted to send sixty ships to Sicily, under the command of +Alcibiades, son of Clinias, Nicias, son of Niceratus, and Lamachus, son +of Xenophanes, who were appointed with full powers; they were to help +the Egestaeans against the Selinuntines, to restore Leontini upon +gaining any advantage in the war, and to order all other matters in +Sicily as they should deem best for the interests of Athens. Five days +after this a second assembly was held, to consider the speediest means +of equipping the ships, and to vote whatever else might be required by +the generals for the expedition; and Nicias, who had been chosen to the +command against his will, and who thought that the state was not well +advised, but upon a slight aid specious pretext was aspiring to the +conquest of the whole of Sicily, a great matter to achieve, came forward +in the hope of diverting the Athenians from the enterprise, and gave +them the following counsel: + +"Although this assembly was convened to consider the preparations to be +made for sailing to Sicily, I think, notwithstanding, that we have still +this question to examine, whether it be better to send out the ships at +all, and that we ought not to give so little consideration to a matter +of such moment, or let ourselves be persuaded by foreigners into +undertaking a war with which we have nothing to do. And yet, +individually, I gain in honour by such a course, and fear as little as +other men for my person--not that I think a man need be any the worse +citizen for taking some thought for his person and estate; on the +contrary, such a man would for his own sake desire the prosperity of his +country more than others--nevertheless, as I have never spoken against +my convictions to gain honour, I shall not begin to do so now, but shall +say what I think best. Against your character any words of mine would be +weak enough, if I were to advise your keeping what you have got and +not risking what is actually yours for advantages which are dubious +in themselves, and which you may or may not attain. I will, therefore, +content myself with showing that your ardour is out of season, and your +ambition not easy of accomplishment. + +"I affirm, then, that you leave many enemies behind you here to go +yonder and bring more back with you. You imagine, perhaps, that the +treaty which you have made can be trusted; a treaty that will continue +to exist nominally, as long as you keep quiet--for nominal it has +become, owing to the practices of certain men here and at Sparta--but +which in the event of a serious reverse in any quarter would not delay +our enemies a moment in attacking us; first, because the convention was +forced upon them by disaster and was less honourable to them than to us; +and secondly, because in this very convention there are many points that +are still disputed. Again, some of the most powerful states have never +yet accepted the arrangement at all. Some of these are at open war with +us; others (as the Lacedaemonians do not yet move) are restrained by +truces renewed every ten days, and it is only too probable that if they +found our power divided, as we are hurrying to divide it, they would +attack us vigorously with the Siceliots, whose alliance they would +have in the past valued as they would that of few others. A man ought, +therefore, to consider these points, and not to think of running risks +with a country placed so critically, or of grasping at another empire +before we have secured the one we have already; for in fact the Thracian +Chalcidians have been all these years in revolt from us without being +yet subdued, and others on the continents yield us but a doubtful +obedience. Meanwhile the Egestaeans, our allies, have been wronged, and +we run to help them, while the rebels who have so long wronged us still +wait for punishment. + +"And yet the latter, if brought under, might be kept under; while the +Sicilians, even if conquered, are too far off and too numerous to be +ruled without difficulty. Now it is folly to go against men who could +not be kept under even if conquered, while failure would leave us in +a very different position from that which we occupied before the +enterprise. The Siceliots, again, to take them as they are at present, +in the event of a Syracusan conquest (the favourite bugbear of the +Egestaeans), would to my thinking be even less dangerous to us than +before. At present they might possibly come here as separate states for +love of Lacedaemon; in the other case one empire would scarcely attack +another; for after joining the Peloponnesians to overthrow ours, they +could only expect to see the same hands overthrow their own in the same +way. The Hellenes in Sicily would fear us most if we never went there at +all, and next to this, if after displaying our power we went away again +as soon as possible. We all know that that which is farthest off, +and the reputation of which can least be tested, is the object of +admiration; at the least reverse they would at once begin to look down +upon us, and would join our enemies here against us. You have yourselves +experienced this with regard to the Lacedaemonians and their allies, +whom your unexpected success, as compared with what you feared at first, +has made you suddenly despise, tempting you further to aspire to +the conquest of Sicily. Instead, however, of being puffed up by the +misfortunes of your adversaries, you ought to think of breaking their +spirit before giving yourselves up to confidence, and to understand that +the one thought awakened in the Lacedaemonians by their disgrace is how +they may even now, if possible, overthrow us and repair their dishonour; +inasmuch as military reputation is their oldest and chiefest study. +Our struggle, therefore, if we are wise, will not be for the barbarian +Egestaeans in Sicily, but how to defend ourselves most effectually +against the oligarchical machinations of Lacedaemon. + +"We should also remember that we are but now enjoying some respite from +a great pestilence and from war, to the no small benefit of our estates +and persons, and that it is right to employ these at home on our own +behalf, instead of using them on behalf of these exiles whose interest +it is to lie as fairly as they can, who do nothing but talk themselves +and leave the danger to others, and who if they succeed will show no +proper gratitude, and if they fail will drag down their friends with +them. And if there be any man here, overjoyed at being chosen to +command, who urges you to make the expedition, merely for ends of his +own--specially if he be still too young to command--who seeks to be +admired for his stud of horses, but on account of its heavy expenses +hopes for some profit from his appointment, do not allow such a one to +maintain his private splendour at his country's risk, but remember that +such persons injure the public fortune while they squander their own, +and that this is a matter of importance, and not for a young man to +decide or hastily to take in hand. + +"When I see such persons now sitting here at the side of that same +individual and summoned by him, alarm seizes me; and I, in my turn, +summon any of the older men that may have such a person sitting next him +not to let himself be shamed down, for fear of being thought a coward +if he do not vote for war, but, remembering how rarely success is got +by wishing and how often by forecast, to leave to them the mad dream +of conquest, and as a true lover of his country, now threatened by the +greatest danger in its history, to hold up his hand on the other side; +to vote that the Siceliots be left in the limits now existing between +us, limits of which no one can complain (the Ionian sea for the coasting +voyage, and the Sicilian across the open main), to enjoy their own +possessions and to settle their own quarrels; that the Egestaeans, for +their part, be told to end by themselves with the Selinuntines the war +which they began without consulting the Athenians; and that for the +future we do not enter into alliance, as we have been used to do, with +people whom we must help in their need, and who can never help us in +ours. + +"And you, Prytanis, if you think it your duty to care for the +commonwealth, and if you wish to show yourself a good citizen, put +the question to the vote, and take a second time the opinions of the +Athenians. If you are afraid to move the question again, consider that +a violation of the law cannot carry any prejudice with so many abettors, +that you will be the physician of your misguided city, and that the +virtue of men in office is briefly this, to do their country as much +good as they can, or in any case no harm that they can avoid." + +Such were the words of Nicias. Most of the Athenians that came forward +spoke in favour of the expedition, and of not annulling what had +been voted, although some spoke on the other side. By far the warmest +advocate of the expedition was, however, Alcibiades, son of Clinias, who +wished to thwart Nicias both as his political opponent and also because +of the attack he had made upon him in his speech, and who was, besides, +exceedingly ambitious of a command by which he hoped to reduce Sicily +and Carthage, and personally to gain in wealth and reputation by means +of his successes. For the position he held among the citizens led him +to indulge his tastes beyond what his real means would bear, both in +keeping horses and in the rest of his expenditure; and this later on had +not a little to do with the ruin of the Athenian state. Alarmed at the +greatness of his licence in his own life and habits, and of the ambition +which he showed in all things soever that he undertook, the mass of +the people set him down as a pretender to the tyranny, and became his +enemies; and although publicly his conduct of the war was as good as +could be desired, individually, his habits gave offence to every one, +and caused them to commit affairs to other hands, and thus before long +to ruin the city. Meanwhile he now came forward and gave the following +advice to the Athenians: + +"Athenians, I have a better right to command than others--I must begin +with this as Nicias has attacked me--and at the same time I believe +myself to be worthy of it. The things for which I am abused, bring fame +to my ancestors and to myself, and to the country profit besides. The +Hellenes, after expecting to see our city ruined by the war, concluded +it to be even greater than it really is, by reason of the magnificence +with which I represented it at the Olympic games, when I sent into +the lists seven chariots, a number never before entered by any private +person, and won the first prize, and was second and fourth, and took +care to have everything else in a style worthy of my victory. Custom +regards such displays as honourable, and they cannot be made without +leaving behind them an impression of power. Again, any splendour that +I may have exhibited at home in providing choruses or otherwise, is +naturally envied by my fellow citizens, but in the eyes of foreigners +has an air of strength as in the other instance. And this is no useless +folly, when a man at his own private cost benefits not himself only, but +his city: nor is it unfair that he who prides himself on his position +should refuse to be upon an equality with the rest. He who is badly off +has his misfortunes all to himself, and as we do not see men courted in +adversity, on the like principle a man ought to accept the insolence of +prosperity; or else, let him first mete out equal measure to all, and +then demand to have it meted out to him. What I know is that persons of +this kind and all others that have attained to any distinction, although +they may be unpopular in their lifetime in their relations with their +fellow-men and especially with their equals, leave to posterity the +desire of claiming connection with them even without any ground, and +are vaunted by the country to which they belonged, not as strangers or +ill-doers, but as fellow-countrymen and heroes. Such are my aspirations, +and however I am abused for them in private, the question is whether +any one manages public affairs better than I do. Having united the most +powerful states of Peloponnese, without great danger or expense to you, +I compelled the Lacedaemonians to stake their all upon the issue of a +single day at Mantinea; and although victorious in the battle, they have +never since fully recovered confidence. + +"Thus did my youth and so-called monstrous folly find fitting arguments +to deal with the power of the Peloponnesians, and by its ardour win +their confidence and prevail. And do not be afraid of my youth now, +but while I am still in its flower, and Nicias appears fortunate, avail +yourselves to the utmost of the services of us both. Neither rescind +your resolution to sail to Sicily, on the ground that you would be going +to attack a great power. The cities in Sicily are peopled by motley +rabbles, and easily change their institutions and adopt new ones in +their stead; and consequently the inhabitants, being without any feeling +of patriotism, are not provided with arms for their persons, and have +not regularly established themselves on the land; every man thinks that +either by fair words or by party strife he can obtain something at the +public expense, and then in the event of a catastrophe settle in some +other country, and makes his preparations accordingly. From a mob like +this you need not look for either unanimity in counsel or concert in +action; but they will probably one by one come in as they get a fair +offer, especially if they are torn by civil strife as we are told. +Moreover, the Siceliots have not so many heavy infantry as they boast; +just as the Hellenes generally did not prove so numerous as each state +reckoned itself, but Hellas greatly over-estimated their numbers, and +has hardly had an adequate force of heavy infantry throughout this war. +The states in Sicily, therefore, from all that I can hear, will be found +as I say, and I have not pointed out all our advantages, for we +shall have the help of many barbarians, who from their hatred of the +Syracusans will join us in attacking them; nor will the powers at home +prove any hindrance, if you judge rightly. Our fathers with these very +adversaries, which it is said we shall now leave behind us when we +sail, and the Mede as their enemy as well, were able to win the empire, +depending solely on their superiority at sea. The Peloponnesians had +never so little hope against us as at present; and let them be ever so +sanguine, although strong enough to invade our country even if we stay +at home, they can never hurt us with their navy, as we leave one of our +own behind us that is a match for them. + +"In this state of things what reason can we give to ourselves for +holding back, or what excuse can we offer to our allies in Sicily for +not helping them? They are our confederates, and we are bound to assist +them, without objecting that they have not assisted us. We did not take +them into alliance to have them to help us in Hellas, but that they +might so annoy our enemies in Sicily as to prevent them from coming over +here and attacking us. It is thus that empire has been won, both by us +and by all others that have held it, by a constant readiness to support +all, whether barbarians or Hellenes, that invite assistance; since if +all were to keep quiet or to pick and choose whom they ought to assist, +we should make but few new conquests, and should imperil those we have +already won. Men do not rest content with parrying the attacks of a +superior, but often strike the first blow to prevent the attack being +made. And we cannot fix the exact point at which our empire shall +stop; we have reached a position in which we must not be content with +retaining but must scheme to extend it, for, if we cease to rule others, +we are in danger of being ruled ourselves. Nor can you look at inaction +from the same point of view as others, unless you are prepared to change +your habits and make them like theirs. + +"Be convinced, then, that we shall augment our power at home by this +adventure abroad, and let us make the expedition, and so humble the +pride of the Peloponnesians by sailing off to Sicily, and letting them +see how little we care for the peace that we are now enjoying; and at +the same time we shall either become masters, as we very easily may, of +the whole of Hellas through the accession of the Sicilian Hellenes, or +in any case ruin the Syracusans, to the no small advantage of ourselves +and our allies. The faculty of staying if successful, or of returning, +will be secured to us by our navy, as we shall be superior at sea to all +the Siceliots put together. And do not let the do-nothing policy which +Nicias advocates, or his setting of the young against the old, turn you +from your purpose, but in the good old fashion by which our fathers, +old and young together, by their united counsels brought our affairs +to their present height, do you endeavour still to advance them; +understanding that neither youth nor old age can do anything the one +without the other, but that levity, sobriety, and deliberate judgment +are strongest when united, and that, by sinking into inaction, the city, +like everything else, will wear itself out, and its skill in everything +decay; while each fresh struggle will give it fresh experience, and +make it more used to defend itself not in word but in deed. In short, +my conviction is that a city not inactive by nature could not choose a +quicker way to ruin itself than by suddenly adopting such a policy, and +that the safest rule of life is to take one's character and institutions +for better and for worse, and to live up to them as closely as one can." + +Such were the words of Alcibiades. After hearing him and the Egestaeans +and some Leontine exiles, who came forward reminding them of their oaths +and imploring their assistance, the Athenians became more eager for the +expedition than before. Nicias, perceiving that it would be now useless +to try to deter them by the old line of argument, but thinking that +he might perhaps alter their resolution by the extravagance of his +estimates, came forward a second time and spoke as follows: + +"I see, Athenians, that you are thoroughly bent upon the expedition, and +therefore hope that all will turn out as we wish, and proceed to give +you my opinion at the present juncture. From all that I hear we are +going against cities that are great and not subject to one another, or +in need of change, so as to be glad to pass from enforced servitude +to an easier condition, or in the least likely to accept our rule in +exchange for freedom; and, to take only the Hellenic towns, they are +very numerous for one island. Besides Naxos and Catana, which I expect +to join us from their connection with Leontini, there are seven others +armed at all points just like our own power, particularly Selinus and +Syracuse, the chief objects of our expedition. These are full of heavy +infantry, archers, and darters, have galleys in abundance and crowds to +man them; they have also money, partly in the hands of private persons, +partly in the temples at Selinus, and at Syracuse first-fruits from some +of the barbarians as well. But their chief advantage over us lies in +the number of their horses, and in the fact that they grow their corn at +home instead of importing it. + +"Against a power of this kind it will not do to have merely a weak naval +armament, but we shall want also a large land army to sail with us, if +we are to do anything worthy of our ambition, and are not to be shut out +from the country by a numerous cavalry; especially if the cities should +take alarm and combine, and we should be left without friends (except +the Egestaeans) to furnish us with horse to defend ourselves with. It +would be disgraceful to have to retire under compulsion, or to send +back for reinforcements, owing to want of reflection at first: we must +therefore start from home with a competent force, seeing that we are +going to sail far from our country, and upon an expedition not like any +which you may undertaken undertaken the quality of allies, among your +subject states here in Hellas, where any additional supplies needed were +easily drawn from the friendly territory; but we are cutting ourselves +off, and going to a land entirely strange, from which during four months +in winter it is not even easy for a messenger get to Athens. + +"I think, therefore, that we ought to take great numbers of heavy +infantry, both from Athens and from our allies, and not merely from our +subjects, but also any we may be able to get for love or for money in +Peloponnese, and great numbers also of archers and slingers, to make +head against the Sicilian horse. Meanwhile we must have an overwhelming +superiority at sea, to enable us the more easily to carry in what we +want; and we must take our own corn in merchant vessels, that is to say, +wheat and parched barley, and bakers from the mills compelled to serve +for pay in the proper proportion; in order that in case of our being +weather-bound the armament may not want provisions, as it is not every +city that will be able to entertain numbers like ours. We must also +provide ourselves with everything else as far as we can, so as not to be +dependent upon others; and above all we must take with us from home as +much money as possible, as the sums talked of as ready at Egesta are +readier, you may be sure, in talk than in any other way. + +"Indeed, even if we leave Athens with a force not only equal to that of +the enemy except in the number of heavy infantry in the field, but +even at all points superior to him, we shall still find it difficult to +conquer Sicily or save ourselves. We must not disguise from ourselves +that we go to found a city among strangers and enemies, and that he who +undertakes such an enterprise should be prepared to become master of the +country the first day he lands, or failing in this to find everything +hostile to him. Fearing this, and knowing that we shall have need of +much good counsel and more good fortune--a hard matter for mortal man to +aspire to--I wish as far as may be to make myself independent of fortune +before sailing, and when I do sail, to be as safe as a strong force +can make me. This I believe to be surest for the country at large, +and safest for us who are to go on the expedition. If any one thinks +differently I resign to him my command." + +With this Nicias concluded, thinking that he should either disgust the +Athenians by the magnitude of the undertaking, or, if obliged to sail +on the expedition, would thus do so in the safest way possible. The +Athenians, however, far from having their taste for the voyage taken +away by the burdensomeness of the preparations, became more eager for it +than ever; and just the contrary took place of what Nicias had thought, +as it was held that he had given good advice, and that the expedition +would be the safest in the world. All alike fell in love with the +enterprise. The older men thought that they would either subdue the +places against which they were to sail, or at all events, with so +large a force, meet with no disaster; those in the prime of life felt +a longing for foreign sights and spectacles, and had no doubt that they +should come safe home again; while the idea of the common people and the +soldiery was to earn wages at the moment, and make conquests that would +supply a never-ending fund of pay for the future. With this enthusiasm +of the majority, the few that liked it not, feared to appear unpatriotic +by holding up their hands against it, and so kept quiet. + +At last one of the Athenians came forward and called upon Nicias and +told him that he ought not to make excuses or put them off, but say at +once before them all what forces the Athenians should vote him. Upon +this he said, not without reluctance, that he would advise upon that +matter more at leisure with his colleagues; as far however as he could +see at present, they must sail with at least one hundred galleys--the +Athenians providing as many transports as they might determine, and +sending for others from the allies--not less than five thousand heavy +infantry in all, Athenian and allied, and if possible more; and the rest +of the armament in proportion; archers from home and from Crete, and +slingers, and whatever else might seem desirable, being got ready by the +generals and taken with them. + +Upon hearing this the Athenians at once voted that the generals should +have full powers in the matter of the numbers of the army and of the +expedition generally, to do as they judged best for the interests of +Athens. After this the preparations began; messages being sent to +the allies and the rolls drawn up at home. And as the city had just +recovered from the plague and the long war, and a number of young +men had grown up and capital had accumulated by reason of the truce, +everything was the more easily provided. + +In the midst of these preparations all the stone Hermae in the city of +Athens, that is to say the customary square figures, so common in the +doorways of private houses and temples, had in one night most of them +their fares mutilated. No one knew who had done it, but large public +rewards were offered to find the authors; and it was further voted +that any one who knew of any other act of impiety having been committed +should come and give information without fear of consequences, whether +he were citizen, alien, or slave. The matter was taken up the more +seriously, as it was thought to be ominous for the expedition, and part +of a conspiracy to bring about a revolution and to upset the democracy. + +Information was given accordingly by some resident aliens and body +servants, not about the Hermae but about some previous mutilations of +other images perpetrated by young men in a drunken frolic, and of mock +celebrations of the mysteries, averred to take place in private houses. +Alcibiades being implicated in this charge, it was taken hold of by +those who could least endure him, because he stood in the way of their +obtaining the undisturbed direction of the people, and who thought +that if he were once removed the first place would be theirs. These +accordingly magnified the matter and loudly proclaimed that the affair +of the mysteries and the mutilation of the Hermae were part and parcel +of a scheme to overthrow the democracy, and that nothing of all this had +been done without Alcibiades; the proofs alleged being the general and +undemocratic licence of his life and habits. + +Alcibiades repelled on the spot the charges in question, and also before +going on the expedition, the preparations for which were now complete, +offered to stand his trial, that it might be seen whether he was guilty +of the acts imputed to him; desiring to be punished if found guilty, +but, if acquitted, to take the command. Meanwhile he protested against +their receiving slanders against him in his absence, and begged them +rather to put him to death at once if he were guilty, and pointed out +the imprudence of sending him out at the head of so large an army, with +so serious a charge still undecided. But his enemies feared that he +would have the army for him if he were tried immediately, and that the +people might relent in favour of the man whom they already caressed +as the cause of the Argives and some of the Mantineans joining in the +expedition, and did their utmost to get this proposition rejected, +putting forward other orators who said that he ought at present to sail +and not delay the departure of the army, and be tried on his return +within a fixed number of days; their plan being to have him sent for +and brought home for trial upon some graver charge, which they would the +more easily get up in his absence. Accordingly it was decreed that he +should sail. + +After this the departure for Sicily took place, it being now about +midsummer. Most of the allies, with the corn transports and the smaller +craft and the rest of the expedition, had already received orders to +muster at Corcyra, to cross the Ionian Sea from thence in a body to the +Iapygian promontory. But the Athenians themselves, and such of their +allies as happened to be with them, went down to Piraeus upon a day +appointed at daybreak, and began to man the ships for putting out to +sea. With them also went down the whole population, one may say, of the +city, both citizens and foreigners; the inhabitants of the country each +escorting those that belonged to them, their friends, their relatives, +or their sons, with hope and lamentation upon their way, as they thought +of the conquests which they hoped to make, or of the friends whom they +might never see again, considering the long voyage which they were going +to make from their country. Indeed, at this moment, when they were now +upon the point of parting from one another, the danger came more home to +them than when they voted for the expedition; although the strength of +the armament, and the profuse provision which they remarked in every +department, was a sight that could not but comfort them. As for the +foreigners and the rest of the crowd, they simply went to see a sight +worth looking at and passing all belief. + +Indeed this armament that first sailed out was by far the most costly +and splendid Hellenic force that had ever been sent out by a single city +up to that time. In mere number of ships and heavy infantry that against +Epidaurus under Pericles, and the same when going against Potidaea under +Hagnon, was not inferior; containing as it did four thousand Athenian +heavy infantry, three hundred horse, and one hundred galleys accompanied +by fifty Lesbian and Chian vessels and many allies besides. But these +were sent upon a short voyage and with a scanty equipment. The present +expedition was formed in contemplation of a long term of service by land +and sea alike, and was furnished with ships and troops so as to be ready +for either as required. The fleet had been elaborately equipped at great +cost to the captains and the state; the treasury giving a drachma a day +to each seaman, and providing empty ships, sixty men-of-war and forty +transports, and manning these with the best crews obtainable; while the +captains gave a bounty in addition to the pay from the treasury to +the thranitae and crews generally, besides spending lavishly upon +figure-heads and equipments, and one and all making the utmost exertions +to enable their own ships to excel in beauty and fast sailing. Meanwhile +the land forces had been picked from the best muster-rolls, and vied +with each other in paying great attention to their arms and personal +accoutrements. From this resulted not only a rivalry among themselves in +their different departments, but an idea among the rest of the Hellenes +that it was more a display of power and resources than an armament +against an enemy. For if any one had counted up the public expenditure +of the state, and the private outlay of individuals--that is to say, +the sums which the state had already spent upon the expedition and was +sending out in the hands of the generals, and those which individuals +had expended upon their personal outfit, or as captains of galleys had +laid out and were still to lay out upon their vessels; and if he had +added to this the journey money which each was likely to have provided +himself with, independently of the pay from the treasury, for a voyage +of such length, and what the soldiers or traders took with them for the +purpose of exchange--it would have been found that many talents in all +were being taken out of the city. Indeed the expedition became not +less famous for its wonderful boldness and for the splendour of its +appearance, than for its overwhelming strength as compared with the +peoples against whom it was directed, and for the fact that this was the +longest passage from home hitherto attempted, and the most ambitious in +its objects considering the resources of those who undertook it. + +The ships being now manned, and everything put on board with which they +meant to sail, the trumpet commanded silence, and the prayers customary +before putting out to sea were offered, not in each ship by itself, but +by all together to the voice of a herald; and bowls of wine were mixed +through all the armament, and libations made by the soldiers and their +officers in gold and silver goblets. In their prayers joined also the +crowds on shore, the citizens and all others that wished them well. The +hymn sung and the libations finished, they put out to sea, and first +out in column then raced each other as far as Aegina, and so hastened to +reach Corcyra, where the rest of the allied forces were also assembling. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +_Seventeenth Year of the War--Parties at Syracuse--Story of Harmodius +and Aristogiton--Disgrace of Alcibiades_ + +Meanwhile at Syracuse news came in from many quarters of the expedition, +but for a long while met with no credence whatever. Indeed, an assembly +was held in which speeches, as will be seen, were delivered by +different orators, believing or contradicting the report of the Athenian +expedition; among whom Hermocrates, son of Hermon, came forward, being +persuaded that he knew the truth of the matter, and gave the following +counsel: + +"Although I shall perhaps be no better believed than others have been +when I speak upon the reality of the expedition, and although I know +that those who either make or repeat statements thought not worthy of +belief not only gain no converts but are thought fools for their pains, +I shall certainly not be frightened into holding my tongue when the +state is in danger, and when I am persuaded that I can speak with more +authority on the matter than other persons. Much as you wonder at it, +the Athenians nevertheless have set out against us with a large force, +naval and military, professedly to help the Egestaeans and to restore +Leontini, but really to conquer Sicily, and above all our city, which +once gained, the rest, they think, will easily follow. Make up your +minds, therefore, to see them speedily here, and see how you can best +repel them with the means under your hand, and do be taken off your +guard through despising the news, or neglect the common weal through +disbelieving it. Meanwhile those who believe me need not be dismayed at +the force or daring of the enemy. They will not be able to do us more +hurt than we shall do them; nor is the greatness of their armament +altogether without advantage to us. Indeed, the greater it is the +better, with regard to the rest of the Siceliots, whom dismay will make +more ready to join us; and if we defeat or drive them away, disappointed +of the objects of their ambition (for I do not fear for a moment that +they will get what they want), it will be a most glorious exploit for +us, and in my judgment by no means an unlikely one. Few indeed have been +the large armaments, either Hellenic or barbarian, that have gone far +from home and been successful. They cannot be more numerous than the +people of the country and their neighbours, all of whom fear leagues +together; and if they miscarry for want of supplies in a foreign land, +to those against whom their plans were laid none the less they leave +renown, although they may themselves have been the main cause of their +own discomfort. Thus these very Athenians rose by the defeat of the +Mede, in a great measure due to accidental causes, from the mere fact +that Athens had been the object of his attack; and this may very well be +the case with us also. + +"Let us, therefore, confidently begin preparations here; let us send and +confirm some of the Sicels, and obtain the friendship and alliance +of others, and dispatch envoys to the rest of Sicily to show that the +danger is common to all, and to Italy to get them to become our allies, +or at all events to refuse to receive the Athenians. I also think that +it would be best to send to Carthage as well; they are by no means there +without apprehension, but it is their constant fear that the Athenians +may one day attack their city, and they may perhaps think that they +might themselves suffer by letting Sicily be sacrificed, and be willing +to help us secretly if not openly, in one way if not in another. They +are the best able to do so, if they will, of any of the present day, as +they possess most gold and silver, by which war, like everything else, +flourishes. Let us also send to Lacedaemon and Corinth, and ask them to +come here and help us as soon as possible, and to keep alive the war in +Hellas. But the true thing of all others, in my opinion, to do at the +present moment, is what you, with your constitutional love of quiet, +will be slow to see, and what I must nevertheless mention. If we +Siceliots, all together, or at least as many as possible besides +ourselves, would only launch the whole of our actual navy with two +months' provisions, and meet the Athenians at Tarentum and the Iapygian +promontory, and show them that before fighting for Sicily they must +first fight for their passage across the Ionian Sea, we should strike +dismay into their army, and set them on thinking that we have a base for +our defensive--for Tarentum is ready to receive us--while they have a +wide sea to cross with all their armament, which could with difficulty +keep its order through so long a voyage, and would be easy for us to +attack as it came on slowly and in small detachments. On the other hand, +if they were to lighten their vessels, and draw together their fast +sailers and with these attack us, we could either fall upon them when +they were wearied with rowing, or if we did not choose to do so, we +could retire to Tarentum; while they, having crossed with few provisions +just to give battle, would be hard put to it in desolate places, and +would either have to remain and be blockaded, or to try to sail along +the coast, abandoning the rest of their armament, and being further +discouraged by not knowing for certain whether the cities would receive +them. In my opinion this consideration alone would be sufficient to +deter them from putting out from Corcyra; and what with deliberating and +reconnoitring our numbers and whereabouts, they would let the season +go on until winter was upon them, or, confounded by so unexpected a +circumstance, would break up the expedition, especially as their most +experienced general has, as I hear, taken the command against his will, +and would grasp at the first excuse offered by any serious demonstration +of ours. We should also be reported, I am certain, as more numerous +than we really are, and men's minds are affected by what they hear, +and besides the first to attack, or to show that they mean to defend +themselves against an attack, inspire greater fear because men see that +they are ready for the emergency. This would just be the case with the +Athenians at present. They are now attacking us in the belief that we +shall not resist, having a right to judge us severely because we did +not help the Lacedaemonians in crushing them; but if they were to see +us showing a courage for which they are not prepared, they would be more +dismayed by the surprise than they could ever be by our actual power. I +could wish to persuade you to show this courage; but if this cannot be, +at all events lose not a moment in preparing generally for the war; +and remember all of you that contempt for an assailant is best shown by +bravery in action, but that for the present the best course is to accept +the preparations which fear inspires as giving the surest promise of +safety, and to act as if the danger was real. That the Athenians are +coming to attack us, and are already upon the voyage, and all but +here--this is what I am sure of." + +Thus far spoke Hermocrates. Meanwhile the people of Syracuse were at +great strife among themselves; some contending that the Athenians had no +idea of coming and that there was no truth in what he said; some asking +if they did come what harm they could do that would not be repaid them +tenfold in return; while others made light of the whole affair and +turned it into ridicule. In short, there were few that believed +Hermocrates and feared for the future. Meanwhile Athenagoras, the leader +of the people and very powerful at that time with the masses, came +forward and spoke as follows: + +"For the Athenians, he who does not wish that they may be as misguided +as they are supposed to be, and that they may come here to become our +subjects, is either a coward or a traitor to his country; while as for +those who carry such tidings and fill you with so much alarm, I wonder +less at their audacity than at their folly if they flatter themselves +that we do not see through them. The fact is that they have their +private reasons to be afraid, and wish to throw the city into +consternation to have their own terrors cast into the shade by the +public alarm. In short, this is what these reports are worth; they do +not arise of themselves, but are concocted by men who are always causing +agitation here in Sicily. However, if you are well advised, you will +not be guided in your calculation of probabilities by what these persons +tell you, but by what shrewd men and of large experience, as I esteem +the Athenians to be, would be likely to do. Now it is not likely that +they would leave the Peloponnesians behind them, and before they have +well ended the war in Hellas wantonly come in quest of a new war quite +as arduous in Sicily; indeed, in my judgment, they are only too glad +that we do not go and attack them, being so many and so great cities as +we are. + +"However, if they should come as is reported, I consider Sicily better +able to go through with the war than Peloponnese, as being at all points +better prepared, and our city by itself far more than a match for this +pretended army of invasion, even were it twice as large again. I know +that they will not have horses with them, or get any here, except a +few perhaps from the Egestaeans; or be able to bring a force of heavy +infantry equal in number to our own, in ships which will already have +enough to do to come all this distance, however lightly laden, not to +speak of the transport of the other stores required against a city of +this magnitude, which will be no slight quantity. In fact, so strong is +my opinion upon the subject, that I do not well see how they could +avoid annihilation if they brought with them another city as large as +Syracuse, and settled down and carried on war from our frontier; much +less can they hope to succeed with all Sicily hostile to them, as +all Sicily will be, and with only a camp pitched from the ships, and +composed of tents and bare necessaries, from which they would not be +able to stir far for fear of our cavalry. + +"But the Athenians see this as I tell you, and as I have reason to know +are looking after their possessions at home, while persons here invent +stories that neither are true nor ever will be. Nor is this the first +time that I see these persons, when they cannot resort to deeds, trying +by such stories and by others even more abominable to frighten your +people and get into their hands the government: it is what I see always. +And I cannot help fearing that trying so often they may one day succeed, +and that we, as long as we do not feel the smart, may prove too weak for +the task of prevention, or, when the offenders are known, of pursuit. +The result is that our city is rarely at rest, but is subject to +constant troubles and to contests as frequent against herself as against +the enemy, not to speak of occasional tyrannies and infamous cabals. +However, I will try, if you will support me, to let nothing of this +happen in our time, by gaining you, the many, and by chastising the +authors of such machinations, not merely when they are caught in the +act--a difficult feat to accomplish--but also for what they have the +wish though not the power to do; as it is necessary to punish an enemy +not only for what he does, but also beforehand for what he intends to +do, if the first to relax precaution would not be also the first to +suffer. I shall also reprove, watch, and on occasion warn the few--the +most effectual way, in my opinion, of turning them from their evil +courses. And after all, as I have often asked, what would you have, +young men? Would you hold office at once? The law forbids it, a law +enacted rather because you are not competent than to disgrace you when +competent. Meanwhile you would not be on a legal equality with the many! +But how can it be right that citizens of the same state should be held +unworthy of the same privileges? + +"It will be said, perhaps, that democracy is neither wise nor equitable, +but that the holders of property are also the best fitted to rule. I +say, on the contrary, first, that the word demos, or people, includes +the whole state, oligarchy only a part; next, that if the best guardians +of property are the rich, and the best counsellors the wise, none +can hear and decide so well as the many; and that all these talents, +severally and collectively, have their just place in a democracy. But an +oligarchy gives the many their share of the danger, and not content with +the largest part takes and keeps the whole of the profit; and this is +what the powerful and young among you aspire to, but in a great city +cannot possibly obtain. + +"But even now, foolish men, most senseless of all the Hellenes that I +know, if you have no sense of the wickedness of your designs, or most +criminal if you have that sense and still dare to pursue them--even now, +if it is not a case for repentance, you may still learn wisdom, and +thus advance the interest of the country, the common interest of us all. +Reflect that in the country's prosperity the men of merit in your ranks +will have a share and a larger share than the great mass of your fellow +countrymen, but that if you have other designs you run a risk of being +deprived of all; and desist from reports like these, as the people know +your object and will not put up with it. If the Athenians arrive, this +city will repulse them in a manner worthy of itself; we have moreover, +generals who will see to this matter. And if nothing of this be true, as +I incline to believe, the city will not be thrown into a panic by your +intelligence, or impose upon itself a self-chosen servitude by choosing +you for its rulers; the city itself will look into the matter, and will +judge your words as if they were acts, and, instead of allowing itself +to be deprived of its liberty by listening to you, will strive to +preserve that liberty, by taking care to have always at hand the means +of making itself respected." + +Such were the words of Athenagoras. One of the generals now stood up and +stopped any other speakers coming forward, adding these words of his own +with reference to the matter in hand: "It is not well for speakers to +utter calumnies against one another, or for their hearers to entertain +them; we ought rather to look to the intelligence that we have received, +and see how each man by himself and the city as a whole may best prepare +to repel the invaders. Even if there be no need, there is no harm in +the state being furnished with horses and arms and all other insignia of +war; and we will undertake to see to and order this, and to send round +to the cities to reconnoitre and do all else that may appear desirable. +Part of this we have seen to already, and whatever we discover shall +be laid before you." After these words from the general, the Syracusans +departed from the assembly. + +In the meantime the Athenians with all their allies had now arrived at +Corcyra. Here the generals began by again reviewing the armament, and +made arrangements as to the order in which they were to anchor and +encamp, and dividing the whole fleet into three divisions, allotted one +to each of their number, to avoid sailing all together and being thus +embarrassed for water, harbourage, or provisions at the stations which +they might touch at, and at the same time to be generally better ordered +and easier to handle, by each squadron having its own commander. Next +they sent on three ships to Italy and Sicily to find out which of the +cities would receive them, with instructions to meet them on the way and +let them know before they put in to land. + +After this the Athenians weighed from Corcyra, and proceeded to cross +to Sicily with an armament now consisting of one hundred and thirty-four +galleys in all (besides two Rhodian fifty-oars), of which one hundred +were Athenian vessels--sixty men-of-war, and forty troopships--and the +remainder from Chios and the other allies; five thousand and one hundred +heavy infantry in all, that is to say, fifteen hundred Athenian citizens +from the rolls at Athens and seven hundred Thetes shipped as marines, +and the rest allied troops, some of them Athenian subjects, and besides +these five hundred Argives, and two hundred and fifty Mantineans serving +for hire; four hundred and eighty archers in all, eighty of whom were +Cretans, seven hundred slingers from Rhodes, one hundred and twenty +light-armed exiles from Megara, and one horse-transport carrying thirty +horses. + +Such was the strength of the first armament that sailed over for the +war. The supplies for this force were carried by thirty ships of +burden laden with corn, which conveyed the bakers, stone-masons, and +carpenters, and the tools for raising fortifications, accompanied by one +hundred boats, like the former pressed into the service, besides many +other boats and ships of burden which followed the armament voluntarily +for purposes of trade; all of which now left Corcyra and struck across +the Ionian Sea together. The whole force making land at the Iapygian +promontory and Tarentum, with more or less good fortune, coasted along +the shores of Italy, the cities shutting their markets and gates against +them, and according them nothing but water and liberty to anchor, and +Tarentum and Locri not even that, until they arrived at Rhegium, the +extreme point of Italy. Here at length they reunited, and not gaining +admission within the walls pitched a camp outside the city in the +precinct of Artemis, where a market was also provided for them, and drew +their ships on shore and kept quiet. Meanwhile they opened negotiations +with the Rhegians, and called upon them as Chalcidians to assist their +Leontine kinsmen; to which the Rhegians replied that they would not +side with either party, but should await the decision of the rest of +the Italiots, and do as they did. Upon this the Athenians now began to +consider what would be the best action to take in the affairs of Sicily, +and meanwhile waited for the ships sent on to come back from Egesta, in +order to know whether there was really there the money mentioned by the +messengers at Athens. + +In the meantime came in from all quarters to the Syracusans, as well as +from their own officers sent to reconnoitre, the positive tidings that +the fleet was at Rhegium; upon which they laid aside their incredulity +and threw themselves heart and soul into the work of preparation. +Guards or envoys, as the case might be, were sent round to the Sicels, +garrisons put into the posts of the Peripoli in the country, horses and +arms reviewed in the city to see that nothing was wanting, and all other +steps taken to prepare for a war which might be upon them at any moment. + +Meanwhile the three ships that had been sent on came from Egesta to the +Athenians at Rhegium, with the news that so far from there being the +sums promised, all that could be produced was thirty talents. The +generals were not a little disheartened at being thus disappointed +at the outset, and by the refusal to join in the expedition of the +Rhegians, the people they had first tried to gain and had had had most +reason to count upon, from their relationship to the Leontines and +constant friendship for Athens. If Nicias was prepared for the news +from Egesta, his two colleagues were taken completely by surprise. The +Egestaeans had had recourse to the following stratagem, when the first +envoys from Athens came to inspect their resources. They took the envoys +in question to the temple of Aphrodite at Eryx and showed them the +treasures deposited there: bowls, wine-ladles, censers, and a large +number of other pieces of plate, which from being in silver gave an +impression of wealth quite out of proportion to their really small +value. They also privately entertained the ships' crews, and collected +all the cups of gold and silver that they could find in Egesta itself or +could borrow in the neighbouring Phoenician and Hellenic towns, and each +brought them to the banquets as their own; and as all used pretty nearly +the same, and everywhere a great quantity of plate was shown, the effect +was most dazzling upon the Athenian sailors, and made them talk loudly +of the riches they had seen when they got back to Athens. The dupes in +question--who had in their turn persuaded the rest--when the news got +abroad that there was not the money supposed at Egesta, were much blamed +by the soldiers. + +Meanwhile the generals consulted upon what was to be done. The opinion +of Nicias was to sail with all the armament to Selinus, the main object +of the expedition, and if the Egestaeans could provide money for the +whole force, to advise accordingly; but if they could not, to require +them to supply provisions for the sixty ships that they had asked for, +to stay and settle matters between them and the Selinuntines either +by force or by agreement, and then to coast past the other cities, and +after displaying the power of Athens and proving their zeal for their +friends and allies, to sail home again (unless they should have some +sudden and unexpected opportunity of serving the Leontines, or of +bringing over some of the other cities), and not to endanger the state +by wasting its home resources. + +Alcibiades said that a great expedition like the present must not +disgrace itself by going away without having done anything; heralds must +be sent to all the cities except Selinus and Syracuse, and efforts +be made to make some of the Sicels revolt from the Syracusans, and to +obtain the friendship of others, in order to have corn and troops; and +first of all to gain the Messinese, who lay right in the passage and +entrance to Sicily, and would afford an excellent harbour and base for +the army. Thus, after bringing over the towns and knowing who would +be their allies in the war, they might at length attack Syracuse and +Selinus; unless the latter came to terms with Egesta and the former +ceased to oppose the restoration of Leontini. + +Lamachus, on the other hand, said that they ought to sail straight to +Syracuse, and fight their battle at once under the walls of the town +while the people were still unprepared, and the panic at its height. +Every armament was most terrible at first; if it allowed time to run on +without showing itself, men's courage revived, and they saw it appear +at last almost with indifference. By attacking suddenly, while Syracuse +still trembled at their coming, they would have the best chance of +gaining a victory for themselves and of striking a complete panic into +the enemy by the aspect of their numbers--which would never appear so +considerable as at present--by the anticipation of coming disaster, and +above all by the immediate danger of the engagement. They might also +count upon surprising many in the fields outside, incredulous of their +coming; and at the moment that the enemy was carrying in his property +the army would not want for booty if it sat down in force before the +city. The rest of the Siceliots would thus be immediately less +disposed to enter into alliance with the Syracusans, and would join the +Athenians, without waiting to see which were the strongest. They must +make Megara their naval station as a place to retreat to and a base from +which to attack: it was an uninhabited place at no great distance from +Syracuse either by land or by sea. + +After speaking to this effect, Lamachus nevertheless gave his support +to the opinion of Alcibiades. After this Alcibiades sailed in his own +vessel across to Messina with proposals of alliance, but met with no +success, the inhabitants answering that they could not receive him +within their walls, though they would provide him with a market outside. +Upon this he sailed back to Rhegium. Immediately upon his return the +generals manned and victualled sixty ships out of the whole fleet and +coasted along to Naxos, leaving the rest of the armament behind them +at Rhegium with one of their number. Received by the Naxians, they then +coasted on to Catana, and being refused admittance by the inhabitants, +there being a Syracusan party in the town, went on to the river Terias. +Here they bivouacked, and the next day sailed in single file to Syracuse +with all their ships except ten which they sent on in front to sail +into the great harbour and see if there was any fleet launched, and +to proclaim by herald from shipboard that the Athenians were come +to restore the Leontines to their country, as being their allies and +kinsmen, and that such of them, therefore, as were in Syracuse should +leave it without fear and join their friends and benefactors the +Athenians. After making this proclamation and reconnoitring the city and +the harbours, and the features of the country which they would have to +make their base of operations in the war, they sailed back to Catana. + +An assembly being held here, the inhabitants refused to receive the +armament, but invited the generals to come in and say what they desired; +and while Alcibiades was speaking and the citizens were intent on the +assembly, the soldiers broke down an ill-walled-up postern gate +without being observed, and getting inside the town, flocked into the +marketplace. The Syracusan party in the town no sooner saw the army +inside than they became frightened and withdrew, not being at all +numerous; while the rest voted for an alliance with the Athenians and +invited them to fetch the rest of their forces from Rhegium. After this +the Athenians sailed to Rhegium, and put off, this time with all the +armament, for Catana, and fell to work at their camp immediately upon +their arrival. + +Meanwhile word was brought them from Camarina that if they went there +the town would go over to them, and also that the Syracusans were +manning a fleet. The Athenians accordingly sailed alongshore with all +their armament, first to Syracuse, where they found no fleet manning, +and so always along the coast to Camarina, where they brought to at the +beach, and sent a herald to the people, who, however, refused to receive +them, saying that their oaths bound them to receive the Athenians only +with a single vessel, unless they themselves sent for more. Disappointed +here, the Athenians now sailed back again, and after landing and +plundering on Syracusan territory and losing some stragglers from their +light infantry through the coming up of the Syracusan horse, so got back +to Catana. + +There they found the Salaminia come from Athens for Alcibiades, with +orders for him to sail home to answer the charges which the state +brought against him, and for certain others of the soldiers who with +him were accused of sacrilege in the matter of the mysteries and of the +Hermae. For the Athenians, after the departure of the expedition, had +continued as active as ever in investigating the facts of the mysteries +and of the Hermae, and, instead of testing the informers, in their +suspicious temper welcomed all indifferently, arresting and imprisoning +the best citizens upon the evidence of rascals, and preferring to sift +the matter to the bottom sooner than to let an accused person of good +character pass unquestioned, owing to the rascality of the informer. The +commons had heard how oppressive the tyranny of Pisistratus and his sons +had become before it ended, and further that that had been put down at +last, not by themselves and Harmodius, but by the Lacedaemonians, and so +were always in fear and took everything suspiciously. + +Indeed, the daring action of Aristogiton and Harmodius was undertaken +in consequence of a love affair, which I shall relate at some length, to +show that the Athenians are not more accurate than the rest of the world +in their accounts of their own tyrants and of the facts of their own +history. Pisistratus dying at an advanced age in possession of the +tyranny, was succeeded by his eldest son, Hippias, and not Hipparchus, +as is vulgarly believed. Harmodius was then in the flower of youthful +beauty, and Aristogiton, a citizen in the middle rank of life, was his +lover and possessed him. Solicited without success by Hipparchus, son of +Pisistratus, Harmodius told Aristogiton, and the enraged lover, afraid +that the powerful Hipparchus might take Harmodius by force, immediately +formed a design, such as his condition in life permitted, for +overthrowing the tyranny. In the meantime Hipparchus, after a second +solicitation of Harmodius, attended with no better success, unwilling +to use violence, arranged to insult him in some covert way. Indeed, +generally their government was not grievous to the multitude, or in any +way odious in practice; and these tyrants cultivated wisdom and virtue +as much as any, and without exacting from the Athenians more than a +twentieth of their income, splendidly adorned their city, and carried on +their wars, and provided sacrifices for the temples. For the rest, the +city was left in full enjoyment of its existing laws, except that care +was always taken to have the offices in the hands of some one of the +family. Among those of them that held the yearly archonship at Athens +was Pisistratus, son of the tyrant Hippias, and named after his +grandfather, who dedicated during his term of office the altar to the +twelve gods in the market-place, and that of Apollo in the Pythian +precinct. The Athenian people afterwards built on to and lengthened the +altar in the market-place, and obliterated the inscription; but that in +the Pythian precinct can still be seen, though in faded letters, and is +to the following effect: + +Pisistratus, the son of Hippias, Sent up this record of his archonship +In precinct of Apollo Pythias. + +That Hippias was the eldest son and succeeded to the government, is what +I positively assert as a fact upon which I have had more exact accounts +than others, and may be also ascertained by the following circumstance. +He is the only one of the legitimate brothers that appears to have had +children; as the altar shows, and the pillar placed in the Athenian +Acropolis, commemorating the crime of the tyrants, which mentions no +child of Thessalus or of Hipparchus, but five of Hippias, which he had +by Myrrhine, daughter of Callias, son of Hyperechides; and naturally +the eldest would have married first. Again, his name comes first on the +pillar after that of his father; and this too is quite natural, as +he was the eldest after him, and the reigning tyrant. Nor can I ever +believe that Hippias would have obtained the tyranny so easily, if +Hipparchus had been in power when he was killed, and he, Hippias, had +had to establish himself upon the same day; but he had no doubt been +long accustomed to overawe the citizens, and to be obeyed by his +mercenaries, and thus not only conquered, but conquered with ease, +without experiencing any of the embarrassment of a younger brother +unused to the exercise of authority. It was the sad fate which made +Hipparchus famous that got him also the credit with posterity of having +been tyrant. + +To return to Harmodius; Hipparchus having been repulsed in his +solicitations insulted him as he had resolved, by first inviting a +sister of his, a young girl, to come and bear a basket in a certain +procession, and then rejecting her, on the plea that she had never been +invited at all owing to her unworthiness. If Harmodius was indignant at +this, Aristogiton for his sake now became more exasperated than ever; +and having arranged everything with those who were to join them in the +enterprise, they only waited for the great feast of the Panathenaea, the +sole day upon which the citizens forming part of the procession could +meet together in arms without suspicion. Aristogiton and Harmodius were +to begin, but were to be supported immediately by their accomplices +against the bodyguard. The conspirators were not many, for better +security, besides which they hoped that those not in the plot would be +carried away by the example of a few daring spirits, and use the arms in +their hands to recover their liberty. + +At last the festival arrived; and Hippias with his bodyguard was outside +the city in the Ceramicus, arranging how the different parts of the +procession were to proceed. Harmodius and Aristogiton had already +their daggers and were getting ready to act, when seeing one of their +accomplices talking familiarly with Hippias, who was easy of access to +every one, they took fright, and concluded that they were discovered and +on the point of being taken; and eager if possible to be revenged first +upon the man who had wronged them and for whom they had undertaken all +this risk, they rushed, as they were, within the gates, and meeting +with Hipparchus by the Leocorium recklessly fell upon him at once, +infuriated, Aristogiton by love, and Harmodius by insult, and smote him +and slew him. Aristogiton escaped the guards at the moment, through the +crowd running up, but was afterwards taken and dispatched in no merciful +way: Harmodius was killed on the spot. + +When the news was brought to Hippias in the Ceramicus, he at once +proceeded not to the scene of action, but to the armed men in the +procession, before they, being some distance away, knew anything of the +matter, and composing his features for the occasion, so as not to betray +himself, pointed to a certain spot, and bade them repair thither without +their arms. They withdrew accordingly, fancying he had something to say; +upon which he told the mercenaries to remove the arms, and there and +then picked out the men he thought guilty and all found with daggers, +the shield and spear being the usual weapons for a procession. + +In this way offended love first led Harmodius and Aristogiton to +conspire, and the alarm of the moment to commit the rash action +recounted. After this the tyranny pressed harder on the Athenians, and +Hippias, now grown more fearful, put to death many of the citizens, and +at the same time began to turn his eyes abroad for a refuge in case of +revolution. Thus, although an Athenian, he gave his daughter, Archedice, +to a Lampsacene, Aeantides, son of the tyrant of Lampsacus, seeing that +they had great influence with Darius. And there is her tomb in Lampsacus +with this inscription: + +Archedice lies buried in this earth, Hippias her sire, and Athens gave +her birth; Unto her bosom pride was never known, Though daughter, wife, +and sister to the throne. + +Hippias, after reigning three years longer over the Athenians, +was deposed in the fourth by the Lacedaemonians and the banished +Alcmaeonidae, and went with a safe conduct to Sigeum, and to Aeantides +at Lampsacus, and from thence to King Darius; from whose court he set +out twenty years after, in his old age, and came with the Medes to +Marathon. + +With these events in their minds, and recalling everything they knew by +hearsay on the subject, the Athenian people grow difficult of humour and +suspicious of the persons charged in the affair of the mysteries, and +persuaded that all that had taken place was part of an oligarchical and +monarchical conspiracy. In the state of irritation thus produced, many +persons of consideration had been already thrown into prison, and +far from showing any signs of abating, public feeling grew daily more +savage, and more arrests were made; until at last one of those in +custody, thought to be the most guilty of all, was induced by a fellow +prisoner to make a revelation, whether true or not is a matter on which +there are two opinions, no one having been able, either then or since, +to say for certain who did the deed. However this may be, the other +found arguments to persuade him, that even if he had not done it, he +ought to save himself by gaining a promise of impunity, and free the +state of its present suspicions; as he would be surer of safety if he +confessed after promise of impunity than if he denied and were brought +to trial. He accordingly made a revelation, affecting himself and others +in the affair of the Hermae; and the Athenian people, glad at last, as +they supposed, to get at the truth, and furious until then at not being +able to discover those who had conspired against the commons, at once +let go the informer and all the rest whom he had not denounced, and +bringing the accused to trial executed as many as were apprehended, and +condemned to death such as had fled and set a price upon their heads. +In this it was, after all, not clear whether the sufferers had been +punished unjustly, while in any case the rest of the city received +immediate and manifest relief. + +To return to Alcibiades: public feeling was very hostile to him, being +worked on by the same enemies who had attacked him before he went out; +and now that the Athenians fancied that they had got at the truth of +the matter of the Hermae, they believed more firmly than ever that +the affair of the mysteries also, in which he was implicated, had been +contrived by him in the same intention and was connected with the plot +against the democracy. Meanwhile it so happened that, just at the time +of this agitation, a small force of Lacedaemonians had advanced as far +as the Isthmus, in pursuance of some scheme with the Boeotians. It was +now thought that this had come by appointment, at his instigation, and +not on account of the Boeotians, and that, if the citizens had not +acted on the information received, and forestalled them by arresting the +prisoners, the city would have been betrayed. The citizens went so far +as to sleep one night armed in the temple of Theseus within the walls. +The friends also of Alcibiades at Argos were just at this time suspected +of a design to attack the commons; and the Argive hostages deposited in +the islands were given up by the Athenians to the Argive people to be +put to death upon that account: in short, everywhere something was found +to create suspicion against Alcibiades. It was therefore decided to +bring him to trial and execute him, and the Salaminia was sent to Sicily +for him and the others named in the information, with instructions to +order him to come and answer the charges against him, but not to arrest +him, because they wished to avoid causing any agitation in the army or +among the enemy in Sicily, and above all to retain the services of the +Mantineans and Argives, who, it was thought, had been induced to join +by his influence. Alcibiades, with his own ship and his fellow accused, +accordingly sailed off with the Salaminia from Sicily, as though to +return to Athens, and went with her as far as Thurii, and there they +left the ship and disappeared, being afraid to go home for trial with +such a prejudice existing against them. The crew of the Salaminia stayed +some time looking for Alcibiades and his companions, and at length, as +they were nowhere to be found, set sail and departed. Alcibiades, now an +outlaw, crossed in a boat not long after from Thurii to Peloponnese; and +the Athenians passed sentence of death by default upon him and those in +his company. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +_Seventeenth and Eighteenth Years of the War--Inaction of the Athenian +Army--Alcibiades at Sparta--Investment of Syracuse_ + +The Athenian generals left in Sicily now divided the armament into two +parts, and, each taking one by lot, sailed with the whole for Selinus +and Egesta, wishing to know whether the Egestaeans would give the money, +and to look into the question of Selinus and ascertain the state of the +quarrel between her and Egesta. Coasting along Sicily, with the shore +on their left, on the side towards the Tyrrhene Gulf they touched at +Himera, the only Hellenic city in that part of the island, and being +refused admission resumed their voyage. On their way they took Hyccara, +a petty Sicanian seaport, nevertheless at war with Egesta, and making +slaves of the inhabitants gave up the town to the Egestaeans, some of +whose horse had joined them; after which the army proceeded through the +territory of the Sicels until it reached Catana, while the fleet sailed +along the coast with the slaves on board. Meanwhile Nicias sailed +straight from Hyccara along the coast and went to Egesta and, after +transacting his other business and receiving thirty talents, rejoined +the forces. They now sold their slaves for the sum of one hundred and +twenty talents, and sailed round to their Sicel allies to urge them to +send troops; and meanwhile went with half their own force to the hostile +town of Hybla in the territory of Gela, but did not succeed in taking +it. + +Summer was now over. The winter following, the Athenians at once began +to prepare for moving on Syracuse, and the Syracusans on their side +for marching against them. From the moment when the Athenians failed to +attack them instantly as they at first feared and expected, every day +that passed did something to revive their courage; and when they saw +them sailing far away from them on the other side of Sicily, and going +to Hybla only to fail in their attempts to storm it, they thought less +of them than ever, and called upon their generals, as the multitude is +apt to do in its moments of confidence, to lead them to Catana, since +the enemy would not come to them. Parties also of the Syracusan horse +employed in reconnoitring constantly rode up to the Athenian armament, +and among other insults asked them whether they had not really come to +settle with the Syracusans in a foreign country rather than to resettle +the Leontines in their own. + +Aware of this, the Athenian generals determined to draw them out in mass +as far as possible from the city, and themselves in the meantime to sail +by night alongshore, and take up at their leisure a convenient position. +This they knew they could not so well do, if they had to disembark from +their ships in front of a force prepared for them, or to go by land +openly. The numerous cavalry of the Syracusans (a force which they were +themselves without) would then be able to do the greatest mischief to +their light troops and the crowd that followed them; but this plan would +enable them to take up a position in which the horse could do them no +hurt worth speaking of, some Syracusan exiles with the army having told +them of the spot near the Olympieum, which they afterwards occupied. In +pursuance of their idea, the generals imagined the following stratagem. +They sent to Syracuse a man devoted to them, and by the Syracusan +generals thought to be no less in their interest; he was a native of +Catana, and said he came from persons in that place, whose names the +Syracusan generals were acquainted with, and whom they knew to be among +the members of their party still left in the city. He told them that +the Athenians passed the night in the town, at some distance from their +arms, and that if the Syracusans would name a day and come with all +their people at daybreak to attack the armament, they, their friends, +would close the gates upon the troops in the city, and set fire to the +vessels, while the Syracusans would easily take the camp by an attack +upon the stockade. In this they would be aided by many of the Catanians, +who were already prepared to act, and from whom he himself came. + +The generals of the Syracusans, who did not want confidence, and who had +intended even without this to march on Catana, believed the man without +any sufficient inquiry, fixed at once a day upon which they would be +there, and dismissed him, and the Selinuntines and others of their +allies having now arrived, gave orders for all the Syracusans to march +out in mass. Their preparations completed, and the time fixed for their +arrival being at hand, they set out for Catana, and passed the night +upon the river Symaethus, in the Leontine territory. Meanwhile the +Athenians no sooner knew of their approach than they took all their +forces and such of the Sicels or others as had joined them, put them on +board their ships and boats, and sailed by night to Syracuse. Thus, when +morning broke the Athenians were landing opposite the Olympieum ready +to seize their camping ground, and the Syracusan horse having ridden up +first to Catana and found that all the armament had put to sea, turned +back and told the infantry, and then all turned back together, and went +to the relief of the city. + +In the meantime, as the march before the Syracusans was a long one, the +Athenians quietly sat down their army in a convenient position, +where they could begin an engagement when they pleased, and where the +Syracusan cavalry would have least opportunity of annoying them, either +before or during the action, being fenced off on one side by walls, +houses, trees, and by a marsh, and on the other by cliffs. They also +felled the neighbouring trees and carried them down to the sea, and +formed a palisade alongside of their ships, and with stones which they +picked up and wood hastily raised a fort at Daskon, the most vulnerable +point of their position, and broke down the bridge over the Anapus. +These preparations were allowed to go on without any interruption from +the city, the first hostile force to appear being the Syracusan cavalry, +followed afterwards by all the foot together. At first they came close +up to the Athenian army, and then, finding that they did not offer to +engage, crossed the Helorine road and encamped for the night. + +The next day the Athenians and their allies prepared for battle, their +dispositions being as follows: Their right wing was occupied by the +Argives and Mantineans, the centre by the Athenians, and the rest of the +field by the other allies. Half their army was drawn up eight deep in +advance, half close to their tents in a hollow square, formed also eight +deep, which had orders to look out and be ready to go to the support of +the troops hardest pressed. The camp followers were placed inside this +reserve. The Syracusans, meanwhile, formed their heavy infantry sixteen +deep, consisting of the mass levy of their own people, and such +allies as had joined them, the strongest contingent being that of the +Selinuntines; next to them the cavalry of the Geloans, numbering two +hundred in all, with about twenty horse and fifty archers from Camarina. +The cavalry was posted on their right, full twelve hundred strong, and +next to it the darters. As the Athenians were about to begin the attack, +Nicias went along the lines, and addressed these words of encouragement +to the army and the nations composing it: + +"Soldiers, a long exhortation is little needed by men like ourselves, +who are here to fight in the same battle, the force itself being, to my +thinking, more fit to inspire confidence than a fine speech with a weak +army. Where we have Argives, Mantineans, Athenians, and the first of the +islanders in the ranks together, it were strange indeed, with so +many and so brave companions in arms, if we did not feel confident +of victory; especially when we have mass levies opposed to our picked +troops, and what is more, Siceliots, who may disdain us but will not +stand against us, their skill not being at all commensurate to their +rashness. You may also remember that we are far from home and have no +friendly land near, except what your own swords shall win you; and here +I put before you a motive just the reverse of that which the enemy are +appealing to; their cry being that they shall fight for their country, +mine that we shall fight for a country that is not ours, where we must +conquer or hardly get away, as we shall have their horse upon us in +great numbers. Remember, therefore, your renown, and go boldly against +the enemy, thinking the present strait and necessity more terrible than +they." + +After this address Nicias at once led on the army. The Syracusans were +not at that moment expecting an immediate engagement, and some had even +gone away to the town, which was close by; these now ran up as hard as +they could and, though behind time, took their places here or there +in the main body as fast as they joined it. Want of zeal or daring was +certainly not the fault of the Syracusans, either in this or the other +battles, but although not inferior in courage, so far as their military +science might carry them, when this failed them they were compelled to +give up their resolution also. On the present occasion, although they +had not supposed that the Athenians would begin the attack, and although +constrained to stand upon their defence at short notice, they at once +took up their arms and advanced to meet them. First, the stone-throwers, +slingers, and archers of either army began skirmishing, and routed or +were routed by one another, as might be expected between light troops; +next, soothsayers brought forward the usual victims, and trumpeters +urged on the heavy infantry to the charge; and thus they advanced, +the Syracusans to fight for their country, and each individual for +his safety that day and liberty hereafter; in the enemy's army, the +Athenians to make another's country theirs and to save their own from +suffering by their defeat; the Argives and independent allies to help +them in getting what they came for, and to earn by victory another sight +of the country they had left behind; while the subject allies owed most +of their ardour to the desire of self-preservation, which they could +only hope for if victorious; next to which, as a secondary motive, came +the chance of serving on easier terms, after helping the Athenians to a +fresh conquest. + +The armies now came to close quarters, and for a long while fought +without either giving ground. Meanwhile there occurred some claps of +thunder with lightning and heavy rain, which did not fail to add to +the fears of the party fighting for the first time, and very little +acquainted with war; while to their more experienced adversaries these +phenomena appeared to be produced by the time of year, and much more +alarm was felt at the continued resistance of the enemy. At last the +Argives drove in the Syracusan left, and after them the Athenians routed +the troops opposed to them, and the Syracusan army was thus cut in two +and betook itself to flight. The Athenians did not pursue far, being +held in check by the numerous and undefeated Syracusan horse, who +attacked and drove back any of their heavy infantry whom they saw +pursuing in advance of the rest; in spite of which the victors followed +so far as was safe in a body, and then went back and set up a trophy. +Meanwhile the Syracusans rallied at the Helorine road, where they +re-formed as well as they could under the circumstances, and even sent +a garrison of their own citizens to the Olympieum, fearing that the +Athenians might lay hands on some of the treasures there. The rest +returned to the town. + +The Athenians, however, did not go to the temple, but collected their +dead and laid them upon a pyre, and passed the night upon the field. The +next day they gave the enemy back their dead under truce, to the number +of about two hundred and sixty, Syracusans and allies, and gathered +together the bones of their own, some fifty, Athenians and allies, +and taking the spoils of the enemy, sailed back to Catana. It was now +winter; and it did not seem possible for the moment to carry on the war +before Syracuse, until horse should have been sent for from Athens +and levied among the allies in Sicily--to do away with their utter +inferiority in cavalry--and money should have been collected in the +country and received from Athens, and until some of the cities, which +they hoped would be now more disposed to listen to them after +the battle, should have been brought over, and corn and all other +necessaries provided, for a campaign in the spring against Syracuse. + +With this intention they sailed off to Naxos and Catana for the winter. +Meanwhile the Syracusans burned their dead and then held an assembly, +in which Hermocrates, son of Hermon, a man who with a general ability +of the first order had given proofs of military capacity and brilliant +courage in the war, came forward and encouraged them, and told them not +to let what had occurred make them give way, since their spirit had +not been conquered, but their want of discipline had done the mischief. +Still they had not been beaten by so much as might have been expected, +especially as they were, one might say, novices in the art of war, an +army of artisans opposed to the most practised soldiers in Hellas. What +had also done great mischief was the number of the generals (there were +fifteen of them) and the quantity of orders given, combined with the +disorder and insubordination of the troops. But if they were to have +a few skilful generals, and used this winter in preparing their heavy +infantry, finding arms for such as had not got any, so as to make them +as numerous as possible, and forcing them to attend to their training +generally, they would have every chance of beating their adversaries, +courage being already theirs and discipline in the field having thus +been added to it. Indeed, both these qualities would improve, since +danger would exercise them in discipline, while their courage would +be led to surpass itself by the confidence which skill inspires. The +generals should be few and elected with full powers, and an oath should +be taken to leave them entire discretion in their command: if they +adopted this plan, their secrets would be better kept, all preparations +would be properly made, and there would be no room for excuses. + +The Syracusans heard him, and voted everything as he advised, and +elected three generals, Hermocrates himself, Heraclides, son of +Lysimachus, and Sicanus, son of Execestes. They also sent envoys to +Corinth and Lacedaemon to procure a force of allies to join them, and to +induce the Lacedaemonians for their sakes openly to address themselves +in real earnest to the war against the Athenians, that they might either +have to leave Sicily or be less able to send reinforcements to their +army there. + +The Athenian forces at Catana now at once sailed against Messina, in the +expectation of its being betrayed to them. The intrigue, however, after +all came to nothing: Alcibiades, who was in the secret, when he left +his command upon the summons from home, foreseeing that he would be +outlawed, gave information of the plot to the friends of the Syracusans +in Messina, who had at once put to death its authors, and now rose in +arms against the opposite faction with those of their way of thinking, +and succeeded in preventing the admission of the Athenians. The latter +waited for thirteen days, and then, as they were exposed to the weather +and without provisions, and met with no success, went back to Naxos, +where they made places for their ships to lie in, erected a palisade +round their camp, and retired into winter quarters; meanwhile they sent +a galley to Athens for money and cavalry to join them in the spring. +During the winter the Syracusans built a wall on to the city, so as +to take in the statue of Apollo Temenites, all along the side looking +towards Epipolae, to make the task of circumvallation longer and more +difficult, in case of their being defeated, and also erected a fort at +Megara and another in the Olympieum, and stuck palisades along the sea +wherever there was a landing Place. Meanwhile, as they knew that the +Athenians were wintering at Naxos, they marched with all their people to +Catana, and ravaged the land and set fire to the tents and encampment +of the Athenians, and so returned home. Learning also that the Athenians +were sending an embassy to Camarina, on the strength of the alliance +concluded in the time of Laches, to gain, if possible, that city, they +sent another from Syracuse to oppose them. They had a shrewd suspicion +that the Camarinaeans had not sent what they did send for the first +battle very willingly; and they now feared that they would refuse to +assist them at all in future, after seeing the success of the Athenians +in the action, and would join the latter on the strength of their +old friendship. Hermocrates, with some others, accordingly arrived at +Camarina from Syracuse, and Euphemus and others from the Athenians; and +an assembly of the Camarinaeans having been convened, Hermocrates spoke +as follows, in the hope of prejudicing them against the Athenians: + +"Camarinaeans, we did not come on this embassy because we were afraid of +your being frightened by the actual forces of the Athenians, but rather +of your being gained by what they would say to you before you heard +anything from us. They are come to Sicily with the pretext that you +know, and the intention which we all suspect, in my opinion less to +restore the Leontines to their homes than to oust us from ours; as it +is out of all reason that they should restore in Sicily the cities that +they lay waste in Hellas, or should cherish the Leontine Chalcidians +because of their Ionian blood and keep in servitude the Euboean +Chalcidians, of whom the Leontines are a colony. No; but the same policy +which has proved so successful in Hellas is now being tried in Sicily. +After being chosen as the leaders of the Ionians and of the other allies +of Athenian origin, to punish the Mede, the Athenians accused some of +failure in military service, some of fighting against each other, and +others, as the case might be, upon any colourable pretext that could +be found, until they thus subdued them all. In fine, in the struggle +against the Medes, the Athenians did not fight for the liberty of the +Hellenes, or the Hellenes for their own liberty, but the former to make +their countrymen serve them instead of him, the latter to change one +master for another, wiser indeed than the first, but wiser for evil. + +"But we are not now come to declare to an audience familiar with them +the misdeeds of a state so open to accusation as is the Athenian, but +much rather to blame ourselves, who, with the warnings we possess in the +Hellenes in those parts that have been enslaved through not supporting +each other, and seeing the same sophisms being now tried upon +ourselves--such as restorations of Leontine kinsfolk and support of +Egestaean allies--do not stand together and resolutely show them +that here are no Ionians, or Hellespontines, or islanders, who change +continually, but always serve a master, sometimes the Mede and sometimes +some other, but free Dorians from independent Peloponnese, dwelling in +Sicily. Or, are we waiting until we be taken in detail, one city after +another; knowing as we do that in no other way can we be conquered, and +seeing that they turn to this plan, so as to divide some of us by words, +to draw some by the bait of an alliance into open war with each other, +and to ruin others by such flattery as different circumstances may +render acceptable? And do we fancy when destruction first overtakes a +distant fellow countryman that the danger will not come to each of us +also, or that he who suffers before us will suffer in himself alone? + +"As for the Camarinaean who says that it is the Syracusan, not he, +that is the enemy of the Athenian, and who thinks it hard to have to +encounter risk in behalf of my country, I would have him bear in mind +that he will fight in my country, not more for mine than for his own, +and by so much the more safely in that he will enter on the struggle +not alone, after the way has been cleared by my ruin, but with me as his +ally, and that the object of the Athenian is not so much to punish the +enmity of the Syracusan as to use me as a blind to secure the friendship +of the Camarinaean. As for him who envies or even fears us (and envied +and feared great powers must always be), and who on this account wishes +Syracuse to be humbled to teach us a lesson, but would still have her +survive, in the interest of his own security the wish that he indulges +is not humanly possible. A man can control his own desires, but +he cannot likewise control circumstances; and in the event of his +calculations proving mistaken, he may live to bewail his own misfortune, +and wish to be again envying my prosperity. An idle wish, if he now +sacrifice us and refuse to take his share of perils which are the same, +in reality though not in name, for him as for us; what is nominally the +preservation of our power being really his own salvation. It was to be +expected that you, of all people in the world, Camarinaeans, being our +immediate neighbours and the next in danger, would have foreseen this, +and instead of supporting us in the lukewarm way that you are now doing, +would rather come to us of your own accord, and be now offering at +Syracuse the aid which you would have asked for at Camarina, if to +Camarina the Athenians had first come, to encourage us to resist the +invader. Neither you, however, nor the rest have as yet bestirred +yourselves in this direction. + +"Fear perhaps will make you study to do right both by us and by the +invaders, and plead that you have an alliance with the Athenians. +But you made that alliance, not against your friends, but against the +enemies that might attack you, and to help the Athenians when they were +wronged by others, not when as now they are wronging their neighbours. +Even the Rhegians, Chalcidians though they be, refuse to help to restore +the Chalcidian Leontines; and it would be strange if, while they suspect +the gist of this fine pretence and are wise without reason, you, with +every reason on your side, should yet choose to assist your natural +enemies, and should join with their direst foes in undoing those whom +nature has made your own kinsfolk. This is not to do right; but you +should help us without fear of their armament, which has no terrors if +we hold together, but only if we let them succeed in their endeavours +to separate us; since even after attacking us by ourselves and being +victorious in battle, they had to go off without effecting their +purpose. + +"United, therefore, we have no cause to despair, but rather new +encouragement to league together; especially as succour will come to us +from the Peloponnesians, in military matters the undoubted superiors of +the Athenians. And you need not think that your prudent policy of taking +sides with neither, because allies of both, is either safe for you or +fair to us. Practically it is not as fair as it pretends to be. If the +vanquished be defeated, and the victor conquer, through your refusing to +join, what is the effect of your abstention but to leave the former to +perish unaided, and to allow the latter to offend unhindered? And yet it +were more honourable to join those who are not only the injured party, +but your own kindred, and by so doing to defend the common interests of +Sicily and save your friends the Athenians from doing wrong. + +"In conclusion, we Syracusans say that it is useless for us to +demonstrate either to you or to the rest what you know already as well +as we do; but we entreat, and if our entreaty fail, we protest that we +are menaced by our eternal enemies the Ionians, and are betrayed by +you our fellow Dorians. If the Athenians reduce us, they will owe their +victory to your decision, but in their own name will reap the honour, +and will receive as the prize of their triumph the very men who enabled +them to gain it. On the other hand, if we are the conquerors, you +will have to pay for having been the cause of our danger. Consider, +therefore; and now make your choice between the security which present +servitude offers and the prospect of conquering with us and so escaping +disgraceful submission to an Athenian master and avoiding the lasting +enmity of Syracuse." + +Such were the words of Hermocrates; after whom Euphemus, the Athenian +ambassador, spoke as follows: + +"Although we came here only to renew the former alliance, the attack of +the Syracusans compels us to speak of our empire and of the good right +we have to it. The best proof of this the speaker himself furnished, +when he called the Ionians eternal enemies of the Dorians. It is the +fact; and the Peloponnesian Dorians being our superiors in numbers and +next neighbours, we Ionians looked out for the best means of escaping +their domination. After the Median War we had a fleet, and so got rid of +the empire and supremacy of the Lacedaemonians, who had no right to give +orders to us more than we to them, except that of being the strongest at +that moment; and being appointed leaders of the King's former subjects, +we continue to be so, thinking that we are least likely to fall under +the dominion of the Peloponnesians, if we have a force to defend +ourselves with, and in strict truth having done nothing unfair in +reducing to subjection the Ionians and islanders, the kinsfolk whom the +Syracusans say we have enslaved. They, our kinsfolk, came against their +mother country, that is to say against us, together with the Mede, and, +instead of having the courage to revolt and sacrifice their property as +we did when we abandoned our city, chose to be slaves themselves, and to +try to make us so. + +"We, therefore, deserve to rule because we placed the largest fleet and +an unflinching patriotism at the service of the Hellenes, and because +these, our subjects, did us mischief by their ready subservience to the +Medes; and, desert apart, we seek to strengthen ourselves against the +Peloponnesians. We make no fine profession of having a right to rule +because we overthrew the barbarian single-handed, or because we risked +what we did risk for the freedom of the subjects in question any more +than for that of all, and for our own: no one can be quarrelled with +for providing for his proper safety. If we are now here in Sicily, it +is equally in the interest of our security, with which we perceive that +your interest also coincides. We prove this from the conduct which +the Syracusans cast against us and which you somewhat too timorously +suspect; knowing that those whom fear has made suspicious may be carried +away by the charm of eloquence for the moment, but when they come to act +follow their interests. + +"Now, as we have said, fear makes us hold our empire in Hellas, and fear +makes us now come, with the help of our friends, to order safely matters +in Sicily, and not to enslave any but rather to prevent any from +being enslaved. Meanwhile, let no one imagine that we are interesting +ourselves in you without your having anything to do with us, seeing +that, if you are preserved and able to make head against the +Syracusans, they will be less likely to harm us by sending troops to the +Peloponnesians. In this way you have everything to do with us, and on +this account it is perfectly reasonable for us to restore the Leontines, +and to make them, not subjects like their kinsmen in Euboea, but as +powerful as possible, to help us by annoying the Syracusans from their +frontier. In Hellas we are alone a match for our enemies; and as for the +assertion that it is out of all reason that we should free the Sicilian, +while we enslave the Chalcidian, the fact is that the latter is useful +to us by being without arms and contributing money only; while the +former, the Leontines and our other friends, cannot be too independent. + +"Besides, for tyrants and imperial cities nothing is unreasonable if +expedient, no one a kinsman unless sure; but friendship or enmity is +everywhere an affair of time and circumstance. Here, in Sicily, our +interest is not to weaken our friends, but by means of their strength to +cripple our enemies. Why doubt this? In Hellas we treat our allies as +we find them useful. The Chians and Methymnians govern themselves and +furnish ships; most of the rest have harder terms and pay tribute in +money; while others, although islanders and easy for us to take, +are free altogether, because they occupy convenient positions round +Peloponnese. In our settlement of the states here in Sicily, we should +therefore; naturally be guided by our interest, and by fear, as we say, +of the Syracusans. Their ambition is to rule you, their object to use +the suspicions that we excite to unite you, and then, when we have gone +away without effecting anything, by force or through your isolation, to +become the masters of Sicily. And masters they must become, if you unite +with them; as a force of that magnitude would be no longer easy for us +to deal with united, and they would be more than a match for you as soon +as we were away. + +"Any other view of the case is condemned by the facts. When you first +asked us over, the fear which you held out was that of danger to Athens +if we let you come under the dominion of Syracuse; and it is not right +now to mistrust the very same argument by which you claimed to convince +us, or to give way to suspicion because we are come with a larger force +against the power of that city. Those whom you should really distrust +are the Syracusans. We are not able to stay here without you, and if +we proved perfidious enough to bring you into subjection, we should be +unable to keep you in bondage, owing to the length of the voyage and +the difficulty of guarding large, and in a military sense continental, +towns: they, the Syracusans, live close to you, not in a camp, but in +a city greater than the force we have with us, plot always against you, +never let slip an opportunity once offered, as they have shown in the +case of the Leontines and others, and now have the face, just as if you +were fools, to invite you to aid them against the power that hinders +this, and that has thus far maintained Sicily independent. We, as +against them, invite you to a much more real safety, when we beg you +not to betray that common safety which we each have in the other, and +to reflect that they, even without allies, will, by their numbers, +have always the way open to you, while you will not often have the +opportunity of defending yourselves with such numerous auxiliaries; +if, through your suspicions, you once let these go away unsuccessful +or defeated, you will wish to see if only a handful of them back again, +when the day is past in which their presence could do anything for you. + +"But we hope, Camarinaeans, that the calumnies of the Syracusans will +not be allowed to succeed either with you or with the rest: we have told +you the whole truth upon the things we are suspected of, and will now +briefly recapitulate, in the hope of convincing you. We assert that we +are rulers in Hellas in order not to be subjects; liberators in Sicily +that we may not be harmed by the Sicilians; that we are compelled to +interfere in many things, because we have many things to guard against; +and that now, as before, we are come as allies to those of you who +suffer wrong in this island, not without invitation but upon invitation. +Accordingly, instead of making yourselves judges or censors of our +conduct, and trying to turn us, which it were now difficult to do, so +far as there is anything in our interfering policy or in our character +that chimes in with your interest, this take and make use of; and +be sure that, far from being injurious to all alike, to most of the +Hellenes that policy is even beneficial. Thanks to it, all men in +all places, even where we are not, who either apprehend or meditate +aggression, from the near prospect before them, in the one case, of +obtaining our intervention in their favour, in the other, of our arrival +making the venture dangerous, find themselves constrained, respectively, +to be moderate against their will, and to be preserved without trouble +of their own. Do not you reject this security that is open to all who +desire it, and is now offered to you; but do like others, and instead of +being always on the defensive against the Syracusans, unite with us, and +in your turn at last threaten them." + +Such were the words of Euphemus. What the Camarinaeans felt was this. +Sympathizing with the Athenians, except in so far as they might be +afraid of their subjugating Sicily, they had always been at enmity with +their neighbour Syracuse. From the very fact, however, that they were +their neighbours, they feared the Syracusans most of the two, and being +apprehensive of their conquering even without them, both sent them +in the first instance the few horsemen mentioned, and for the future +determined to support them most in fact, although as sparingly as +possible; but for the moment in order not to seem to slight the +Athenians, especially as they had been successful in the engagement, to +answer both alike. Agreeably to this resolution they answered that +as both the contending parties happened to be allies of theirs, they +thought it most consistent with their oaths at present to side with +neither; with which answer the ambassadors of either party departed. + +In the meantime, while Syracuse pursued her preparations for war, the +Athenians were encamped at Naxos, and tried by negotiation to gain +as many of the Sicels as possible. Those more in the low lands, and +subjects of Syracuse, mostly held aloof; but the peoples of the interior +who had never been otherwise than independent, with few exceptions, at +once joined the Athenians, and brought down corn to the army, and in +some cases even money. The Athenians marched against those who refused +to join, and forced some of them to do so; in the case of others they +were stopped by the Syracusans sending garrisons and reinforcements. +Meanwhile the Athenians moved their winter quarters from Naxos to +Catana, and reconstructed the camp burnt by the Syracusans, and stayed +there the rest of the winter. They also sent a galley to Carthage, +with proffers of friendship, on the chance of obtaining assistance, +and another to Tyrrhenia; some of the cities there having spontaneously +offered to join them in the war. They also sent round to the Sicels and +to Egesta, desiring them to send them as many horses as possible, and +meanwhile prepared bricks, iron, and all other things necessary for the +work of circumvallation, intending by the spring to begin hostilities. + +In the meantime the Syracusan envoys dispatched to Corinth and +Lacedaemon tried as they passed along the coast to persuade the Italiots +to interfere with the proceedings of the Athenians, which threatened +Italy quite as much as Syracuse, and having arrived at Corinth made a +speech calling on the Corinthians to assist them on the ground of their +common origin. The Corinthians voted at once to aid them heart and soul +themselves, and then sent on envoys with them to Lacedaemon, to help +them to persuade her also to prosecute the war with the Athenians more +openly at home and to send succours to Sicily. The envoys from Corinth +having reached Lacedaemon found there Alcibiades with his fellow +refugees, who had at once crossed over in a trading vessel from Thurii, +first to Cyllene in Elis, and afterwards from thence to Lacedaemon; +upon the Lacedaemonians' own invitation, after first obtaining a safe +conduct, as he feared them for the part he had taken in the affair +of Mantinea. The result was that the Corinthians, Syracusans, and +Alcibiades, pressing all the same request in the assembly of the +Lacedaemonians, succeeded in persuading them; but as the ephors and the +authorities, although resolved to send envoys to Syracuse to prevent +their surrendering to the Athenians, showed no disposition to send them +any assistance, Alcibiades now came forward and inflamed and stirred the +Lacedaemonians by speaking as follows: + +"I am forced first to speak to you of the prejudice with which I am +regarded, in order that suspicion may not make you disinclined to listen +to me upon public matters. The connection, with you as your proxeni, +which the ancestors of our family by reason of some discontent +renounced, I personally tried to renew by my good offices towards you, +in particular upon the occasion of the disaster at Pylos. But although I +maintained this friendly attitude, you yet chose to negotiate the peace +with the Athenians through my enemies, and thus to strengthen them and +to discredit me. You had therefore no right to complain if I turned to +the Mantineans and Argives, and seized other occasions of thwarting and +injuring you; and the time has now come when those among you, who in +the bitterness of the moment may have been then unfairly angry with me, +should look at the matter in its true light, and take a different view. +Those again who judged me unfavourably, because I leaned rather to the +side of the commons, must not think that their dislike is any better +founded. We have always been hostile to tyrants, and all who oppose +arbitrary power are called commons; hence we continued to act as leaders +of the multitude; besides which, as democracy was the government of +the city, it was necessary in most things to conform to established +conditions. However, we endeavoured to be more moderate than the +licentious temper of the times; and while there were others, formerly +as now, who tried to lead the multitude astray--the same who banished +me--our party was that of the whole people, our creed being to do our +part in preserving the form of government under which the city enjoyed +the utmost greatness and freedom, and which we had found existing. As +for democracy, the men of sense among us knew what it was, and I perhaps +as well as any, as I have the more cause to complain of it; but there is +nothing new to be said of a patent absurdity; meanwhile we did not think +it safe to alter it under the pressure of your hostility. + +"So much then for the prejudices with which I am regarded: I now can +call your attention to the questions you must consider, and upon which +superior knowledge perhaps permits me to speak. We sailed to Sicily +first to conquer, if possible, the Siceliots, and after them the +Italiots also, and finally to assail the empire and city of Carthage. +In the event of all or most of these schemes succeeding, we were then +to attack Peloponnese, bringing with us the entire force of the Hellenes +lately acquired in those parts, and taking a number of barbarians into +our pay, such as the Iberians and others in those countries, confessedly +the most warlike known, and building numerous galleys in addition to +those which we had already, timber being plentiful in Italy; and with +this fleet blockading Peloponnese from the sea and assailing it with +our armies by land, taking some of the cities by storm, drawing works of +circumvallation round others, we hoped without difficulty to effect its +reduction, and after this to rule the whole of the Hellenic name. Money +and corn meanwhile for the better execution of these plans were to be +supplied in sufficient quantities by the newly acquired places in those +countries, independently of our revenues here at home. + +"You have thus heard the history of the present expedition from the man +who most exactly knows what our objects were; and the remaining generals +will, if they can, carry these out just the same. But that the states in +Sicily must succumb if you do not help them, I will now show. Although +the Siceliots, with all their inexperience, might even now be saved if +their forces were united, the Syracusans alone, beaten already in one +battle with all their people and blockaded from the sea, will be unable +to withstand the Athenian armament that is now there. But if Syracuse +falls, all Sicily falls also, and Italy immediately afterwards; and the +danger which I just now spoke of from that quarter will before long be +upon you. None need therefore fancy that Sicily only is in question; +Peloponnese will be so also, unless you speedily do as I tell you, and +send on board ship to Syracuse troops that shall able to row their ships +themselves, and serve as heavy infantry the moment that they land; +and what I consider even more important than the troops, a Spartan +as commanding officer to discipline the forces already on foot and to +compel recusants to serve. The friends that you have already will thus +become more confident, and the waverers will be encouraged to join +you. Meanwhile you must carry on the war here more openly, that the +Syracusans, seeing that you do not forget them, may put heart into their +resistance, and that the Athenians may be less able to reinforce their +armament. You must fortify Decelea in Attica, the blow of which the +Athenians are always most afraid and the only one that they think they +have not experienced in the present war; the surest method of harming an +enemy being to find out what he most fears, and to choose this means of +attacking him, since every one naturally knows best his own weak points +and fears accordingly. The fortification in question, while it benefits +you, will create difficulties for your adversaries, of which I shall +pass over many, and shall only mention the chief. Whatever property +there is in the country will most of it become yours, either by capture +or surrender; and the Athenians will at once be deprived of their +revenues from the silver mines at Laurium, of their present gains from +their land and from the law courts, and above all of the revenue from +their allies, which will be paid less regularly, as they lose their awe +of Athens and see you addressing yourselves with vigour to the war. +The zeal and speed with which all this shall be done depends, +Lacedaemonians, upon yourselves; as to its possibility, I am quite +confident, and I have little fear of being mistaken. + +"Meanwhile I hope that none of you will think any the worse of me if, +after having hitherto passed as a lover of my country, I now actively +join its worst enemies in attacking it, or will suspect what I say as +the fruit of an outlaw's enthusiasm. I am an outlaw from the iniquity +of those who drove me forth, not, if you will be guided by me, from your +service; my worst enemies are not you who only harmed your foes, but +they who forced their friends to become enemies; and love of country is +what I do not feel when I am wronged, but what I felt when secure in my +rights as a citizen. Indeed I do not consider that I am now attacking +a country that is still mine; I am rather trying to recover one that is +mine no longer; and the true lover of his country is not he who consents +to lose it unjustly rather than attack it, but he who longs for it so +much that he will go all lengths to recover it. For myself, therefore, +Lacedaemonians, I beg you to use me without scruple for danger and +trouble of every kind, and to remember the argument in every one's +mouth, that if I did you great harm as an enemy, I could likewise do you +good service as a friend, inasmuch as I know the plans of the Athenians, +while I only guessed yours. For yourselves I entreat you to believe that +your most capital interests are now under deliberation; and I urge you +to send without hesitation the expeditions to Sicily and Attica; by the +presence of a small part of your forces you will save important cities +in that island, and you will destroy the power of Athens both present +and prospective; after this you will dwell in security and enjoy the +supremacy over all Hellas, resting not on force but upon consent and +affection." + +Such were the words of Alcibiades. The Lacedaemonians, who had +themselves before intended to march against Athens, but were still +waiting and looking about them, at once became much more in earnest +when they received this particular information from Alcibiades, and +considered that they had heard it from the man who best knew the truth +of the matter. Accordingly they now turned their attention to the +fortifying of Decelea and sending immediate aid to the Sicilians; and +naming Gylippus, son of Cleandridas, to the command of the Syracusans, +bade him consult with that people and with the Corinthians and arrange +for succours reaching the island, in the best and speediest way possible +under the circumstances. Gylippus desired the Corinthians to send him at +once two ships to Asine, and to prepare the rest that they intended to +send, and to have them ready to sail at the proper time. Having settled +this, the envoys departed from Lacedaemon. + +In the meantime arrived the Athenian galley from Sicily sent by the +generals for money and cavalry; and the Athenians, after hearing +what they wanted, voted to send the supplies for the armament and the +cavalry. And the winter ended, and with it ended the seventeenth year of +the present war of which Thucydides is the historian. + +The next summer, at the very beginning of the season, the Athenians in +Sicily put out from Catana, and sailed along shore to Megara in Sicily, +from which, as I have mentioned above, the Syracusans expelled the +inhabitants in the time of their tyrant Gelo, themselves occupying the +territory. Here the Athenians landed and laid waste the country, and +after an unsuccessful attack upon a fort of the Syracusans, went on with +the fleet and army to the river Terias, and advancing inland laid waste +the plain and set fire to the corn; and after killing some of a small +Syracusan party which they encountered, and setting up a trophy, +went back again to their ships. They now sailed to Catana and took in +provisions there, and going with their whole force against Centoripa, +a town of the Sicels, acquired it by capitulation, and departed, after +also burning the corn of the Inessaeans and Hybleans. Upon their return +to Catana they found the horsemen arrived from Athens, to the number of +two hundred and fifty (with their equipments, but without their horses +which were to be procured upon the spot), and thirty mounted archers and +three hundred talents of silver. + +The same spring the Lacedaemonians marched against Argos, and went as +far as Cleonae, when an earthquake occurred and caused them to return. +After this the Argives invaded the Thyreatid, which is on their border, +and took much booty from the Lacedaemonians, which was sold for no less +than twenty-five talents. The same summer, not long after, the +Thespian commons made an attack upon the party in office, which was +not successful, but succours arrived from Thebes, and some were caught, +while others took refuge at Athens. + +The same summer the Syracusans learned that the Athenians had been +joined by their cavalry, and were on the point of marching against them; +and seeing that without becoming masters of Epipolae, a precipitous +spot situated exactly over the town, the Athenians could not, even if +victorious in battle, easily invest them, they determined to guard its +approaches, in order that the enemy might not ascend unobserved by this, +the sole way by which ascent was possible, as the remainder is lofty +ground, and falls right down to the city, and can all be seen from +inside; and as it lies above the rest the place is called by the +Syracusans Epipolae or Overtown. They accordingly went out in mass at +daybreak into the meadow along the river Anapus, their new generals, +Hermocrates and his colleagues, having just come into office, and held +a review of their heavy infantry, from whom they first selected a +picked body of six hundred, under the command of Diomilus, an exile +from Andros, to guard Epipolae, and to be ready to muster at a moment's +notice to help wherever help should be required. + +Meanwhile the Athenians, the very same morning, were holding a review, +having already made land unobserved with all the armament from Catana, +opposite a place called Leon, not much more than half a mile from +Epipolae, where they disembarked their army, bringing the fleet to +anchor at Thapsus, a peninsula running out into the sea, with a narrow +isthmus, and not far from the city of Syracuse either by land or water. +While the naval force of the Athenians threw a stockade across the +isthmus and remained quiet at Thapsus, the land army immediately went on +at a run to Epipolae, and succeeded in getting up by Euryelus before +the Syracusans perceived them, or could come up from the meadow and the +review. Diomilus with his six hundred and the rest advanced as quickly +as they could, but they had nearly three miles to go from the meadow +before reaching them. Attacking in this way in considerable disorder, +the Syracusans were defeated in battle at Epipolae and retired to the +town, with a loss of about three hundred killed, and Diomilus among the +number. After this the Athenians set up a trophy and restored to the +Syracusans their dead under truce, and next day descended to Syracuse +itself; and no one coming out to meet them, reascended and built a fort +at Labdalum, upon the edge of the cliffs of Epipolae, looking towards +Megara, to serve as a magazine for their baggage and money, whenever +they advanced to battle or to work at the lines. + +Not long afterwards three hundred cavalry came to them from Egesta, and +about a hundred from the Sicels, Naxians, and others; and thus, with the +two hundred and fifty from Athens, for whom they had got horses from +the Egestaeans and Catanians, besides others that they bought, they now +mustered six hundred and fifty cavalry in all. After posting a garrison +in Labdalum, they advanced to Syca, where they sat down and quickly +built the Circle or centre of their wall of circumvallation. The +Syracusans, appalled at the rapidity with which the work advanced, +determined to go out against them and give battle and interrupt it; and +the two armies were already in battle array, when the Syracusan generals +observed that their troops found such difficulty in getting into line, +and were in such disorder, that they led them back into the town, except +part of the cavalry. These remained and hindered the Athenians from +carrying stones or dispersing to any great distance, until a tribe of +the Athenian heavy infantry, with all the cavalry, charged and routed +the Syracusan horse with some loss; after which they set up a trophy for +the cavalry action. + +The next day the Athenians began building the wall to the north of the +Circle, at the same time collecting stone and timber, which they kept +laying down towards Trogilus along the shortest line for their works +from the great harbour to the sea; while the Syracusans, guided by their +generals, and above all by Hermocrates, instead of risking any more +general engagements, determined to build a counterwork in the direction +in which the Athenians were going to carry their wall. If this could be +completed in time, the enemy's lines would be cut; and meanwhile, if he +were to attempt to interrupt them by an attack, they would send a part +of their forces against him, and would secure the approaches beforehand +with their stockade, while the Athenians would have to leave off working +with their whole force in order to attend to them. They accordingly +sallied forth and began to build, starting from their city, running +a cross wall below the Athenian Circle, cutting down the olives and +erecting wooden towers. As the Athenian fleet had not yet sailed round +into the great harbour, the Syracusans still commanded the seacoast, and +the Athenians brought their provisions by land from Thapsus. + +The Syracusans now thought the stockades and stonework of their +counterwall sufficiently far advanced; and as the Athenians, afraid of +being divided and so fighting at a disadvantage, and intent upon their +own wall, did not come out to interrupt them, they left one tribe to +guard the new work and went back into the city. Meanwhile the Athenians +destroyed their pipes of drinking-water carried underground into the +city; and watching until the rest of the Syracusans were in their tents +at midday, and some even gone away into the city, and those in the +stockade keeping but indifferent guard, appointed three hundred picked +men of their own, and some men picked from the light troops and +armed for the purpose, to run suddenly as fast as they could to the +counterwork, while the rest of the army advanced in two divisions, the +one with one of the generals to the city in case of a sortie, the other +with the other general to the stockade by the postern gate. The three +hundred attacked and took the stockade, abandoned by its garrison, who +took refuge in the outworks round the statue of Apollo Temenites. Here +the pursuers burst in with them, and after getting in were beaten out by +the Syracusans, and some few of the Argives and Athenians slain; after +which the whole army retired, and having demolished the counterwork and +pulled up the stockade, carried away the stakes to their own lines, and +set up a trophy. + +The next day the Athenians from the Circle proceeded to fortify the +cliff above the marsh which on this side of Epipolae looks towards the +great harbour; this being also the shortest line for their work to +go down across the plain and the marsh to the harbour. Meanwhile the +Syracusans marched out and began a second stockade, starting from the +city, across the middle of the marsh, digging a trench alongside to make +it impossible for the Athenians to carry their wall down to the sea. As +soon as the Athenians had finished their work at the cliff they again +attacked the stockade and ditch of the Syracusans. Ordering the fleet +to sail round from Thapsus into the great harbour of Syracuse, they +descended at about dawn from Epipolae into the plain, and laying doors +and planks over the marsh, where it was muddy and firmest, crossed over +on these, and by daybreak took the ditch and the stockade, except a +small portion which they captured afterwards. A battle now ensued, in +which the Athenians were victorious, the right wing of the Syracusans +flying to the town and the left to the river. The three hundred picked +Athenians, wishing to cut off their passage, pressed on at a run to the +bridge, when the alarmed Syracusans, who had with them most of their +cavalry, closed and routed them, hurling them back upon the Athenian +right wing, the first tribe of which was thrown into a panic by the +shock. Seeing this, Lamachus came to their aid from the Athenian left +with a few archers and with the Argives, and crossing a ditch, was left +alone with a few that had crossed with him, and was killed with five or +six of his men. These the Syracusans managed immediately to snatch up +in haste and get across the river into a place of security, themselves +retreating as the rest of the Athenian army now came up. + +Meanwhile those who had at first fled for refuge to the city, seeing the +turn affairs were taking, now rallied from the town and formed against +the Athenians in front of them, sending also a part of their number to +the Circle on Epipolae, which they hoped to take while denuded of its +defenders. These took and destroyed the Athenian outwork of a thousand +feet, the Circle itself being saved by Nicias, who happened to have been +left in it through illness, and who now ordered the servants to set fire +to the engines and timber thrown down before the wall; want of men, as +he was aware, rendering all other means of escape impossible. This step +was justified by the result, the Syracusans not coming any further on +account of the fire, but retreating. Meanwhile succours were coming up +from the Athenians below, who had put to flight the troops opposed to +them; and the fleet also, according to orders, was sailing from Thapsus +into the great harbour. Seeing this, the troops on the heights retired +in haste, and the whole army of the Syracusans re-entered the city, +thinking that with their present force they would no longer be able to +hinder the wall reaching the sea. + +After this the Athenians set up a trophy and restored to the Syracusans +their dead under truce, receiving in return Lamachus and those who had +fallen with him. The whole of their forces, naval and military, being +now with them, they began from Epipolae and the cliffs and enclosed +the Syracusans with a double wall down to the sea. Provisions were now +brought in for the armament from all parts of Italy; and many of the +Sicels, who had hitherto been looking to see how things went, came as +allies to the Athenians: there also arrived three ships of fifty oars +from Tyrrhenia. Meanwhile everything else progressed favourably for +their hopes. The Syracusans began to despair of finding safety in arms, +no relief having reached them from Peloponnese, and were now proposing +terms of capitulation among themselves and to Nicias, who after the +death of Lamachus was left sole commander. No decision was come to, but, +as was natural with men in difficulties and besieged more straitly than +before, there was much discussion with Nicias and still more in the +town. Their present misfortunes had also made them suspicious of +one another; and the blame of their disasters was thrown upon the +ill-fortune or treachery of the generals under whose command they had +happened; and these were deposed and others, Heraclides, Eucles, and +Tellias, elected in their stead. + +Meanwhile the Lacedaemonian, Gylippus, and the ships from Corinth +were now off Leucas, intent upon going with all haste to the relief of +Sicily. The reports that reached them being of an alarming kind, and all +agreeing in the falsehood that Syracuse was already completely invested, +Gylippus abandoned all hope of Sicily, and wishing to save Italy, +rapidly crossed the Ionian Sea to Tarentum with the Corinthian, Pythen, +two Laconian, and two Corinthian vessels, leaving the Corinthians to +follow him after manning, in addition to their own ten, two Leucadian +and two Ambraciot ships. From Tarentum Gylippus first went on an embassy +to Thurii, and claimed anew the rights of citizenship which his father +had enjoyed; failing to bring over the townspeople, he weighed anchor +and coasted along Italy. Opposite the Terinaean Gulf he was caught +by the wind which blows violently and steadily from the north in that +quarter, and was carried out to sea; and after experiencing very rough +weather, remade Tarentum, where he hauled ashore and refitted such of +his ships as had suffered most from the tempest. Nicias heard of his +approach, but, like the Thurians, despised the scanty number of his +ships, and set down piracy as the only probable object of the voyage, +and so took no precautions for the present. + +About the same time in this summer, the Lacedaemonians invaded Argos +with their allies, and laid waste most of the country. The Athenians +went with thirty ships to the relief of the Argives, thus breaking their +treaty with the Lacedaemonians in the most overt manner. Up to this time +incursions from Pylos, descents on the coast of the rest of Peloponnese, +instead of on the Laconian, had been the extent of their co-operation +with the Argives and Mantineans; and although the Argives had often +begged them to land, if only for a moment, with their heavy infantry in +Laconia, lay waste ever so little of it with them, and depart, they had +always refused to do so. Now, however, under the command of Phytodorus, +Laespodius, and Demaratus, they landed at Epidaurus Limera, Prasiae, +and other places, and plundered the country; and thus furnished the +Lacedaemonians with a better pretext for hostilities against Athens. +After the Athenians had retired from Argos with their fleet, and the +Lacedaemonians also, the Argives made an incursion into the Phlisaid, +and returned home after ravaging their land and killing some of the +inhabitants. + + + + +BOOK VII + +CHAPTER XXI + +_Eighteenth and Nineteenth Years of the War--Arrival of Gylippus at +Syracuse--Fortification of Decelea--Successes of the Syracusans_ + +After refitting their ships, Gylippus and Pythen coasted along from +Tarentum to Epizephyrian Locris. They now received the more correct +information that Syracuse was not yet completely invested, but that +it was still possible for an army arriving at Epipolae to effect an +entrance; and they consulted, accordingly, whether they should keep +Sicily on their right and risk sailing in by sea, or, leaving it on +their left, should first sail to Himera and, taking with them the +Himeraeans and any others that might agree to join them, go to Syracuse +by land. Finally they determined to sail for Himera, especially as the +four Athenian ships which Nicias had at length sent off, on hearing that +they were at Locris, had not yet arrived at Rhegium. Accordingly, before +these reached their post, the Peloponnesians crossed the strait and, +after touching at Rhegium and Messina, came to Himera. Arrived there, +they persuaded the Himeraeans to join in the war, and not only to go +with them themselves but to provide arms for the seamen from their +vessels which they had drawn ashore at Himera; and they sent and +appointed a place for the Selinuntines to meet them with all their +forces. A few troops were also promised by the Geloans and some of the +Sicels, who were now ready to join them with much greater alacrity, +owing to the recent death of Archonidas, a powerful Sicel king in that +neighbourhood and friendly to Athens, and owing also to the vigour shown +by Gylippus in coming from Lacedaemon. Gylippus now took with him about +seven hundred of his sailors and marines, that number only having arms, +a thousand heavy infantry and light troops from Himera with a body of +a hundred horse, some light troops and cavalry from Selinus, a few +Geloans, and Sicels numbering a thousand in all, and set out on his +march for Syracuse. + +Meanwhile the Corinthian fleet from Leucas made all haste to arrive; and +one of their commanders, Gongylus, starting last with a single ship, was +the first to reach Syracuse, a little before Gylippus. Gongylus found +the Syracusans on the point of holding an assembly to consider whether +they should put an end to the war. This he prevented, and reassured +them by telling them that more vessels were still to arrive, and that +Gylippus, son of Cleandridas, had been dispatched by the Lacedaemonians +to take the command. Upon this the Syracusans took courage, and +immediately marched out with all their forces to meet Gylippus, who they +found was now close at hand. Meanwhile Gylippus, after taking Ietae, a +fort of the Sicels, on his way, formed his army in order of battle, and +so arrived at Epipolae, and ascending by Euryelus, as the Athenians had +done at first, now advanced with the Syracusans against the Athenian +lines. His arrival chanced at a critical moment. The Athenians had +already finished a double wall of six or seven furlongs to the great +harbour, with the exception of a small portion next the sea, which they +were still engaged upon; and in the remainder of the circle towards +Trogilus on the other sea, stones had been laid ready for building for +the greater part of the distance, and some points had been left half +finished, while others were entirely completed. The danger of Syracuse +had indeed been great. + +Meanwhile the Athenians, recovering from the confusion into which +they had been first thrown by the sudden approach of Gylippus and +the Syracusans, formed in order of battle. Gylippus halted at a short +distance off and sent on a herald to tell them that, if they would +evacuate Sicily with bag and baggage within five days' time, he +was willing to make a truce accordingly. The Athenians treated this +proposition with contempt, and dismissed the herald without an answer. +After this both sides began to prepare for action. Gylippus, observing +that the Syracusans were in disorder and did not easily fall into line, +drew off his troops more into the open ground, while Nicias did not lead +on the Athenians but lay still by his own wall. When Gylippus saw that +they did not come on, he led off his army to the citadel of the quarter +of Apollo Temenites, and passed the night there. On the following day +he led out the main body of his army, and, drawing them up in order of +battle before the walls of the Athenians to prevent their going to the +relief of any other quarter, dispatched a strong force against Fort +Labdalum, and took it, and put all whom he found in it to the sword, +the place not being within sight of the Athenians. On the same day an +Athenian galley that lay moored off the harbour was captured by the +Syracusans. + +After this the Syracusans and their allies began to carry a single wall, +starting from the city, in a slanting direction up Epipolae, in order +that the Athenians, unless they could hinder the work, might be no +longer able to invest them. Meanwhile the Athenians, having now finished +their wall down to the sea, had come up to the heights; and part of +their wall being weak, Gylippus drew out his army by night and attacked +it. However, the Athenians who happened to be bivouacking outside took +the alarm and came out to meet him, upon seeing which he quickly led his +men back again. The Athenians now built their wall higher, and in future +kept guard at this point themselves, disposing their confederates along +the remainder of the works, at the stations assigned to them. Nicias +also determined to fortify Plemmyrium, a promontory over against the +city, which juts out and narrows the mouth of the Great Harbour. He +thought that the fortification of this place would make it easier to +bring in supplies, as they would be able to carry on their blockade from +a less distance, near to the port occupied by the Syracusans; instead +of being obliged, upon every movement of the enemy's navy, to put out +against them from the bottom of the great harbour. Besides this, he now +began to pay more attention to the war by sea, seeing that the coming +of Gylippus had diminished their hopes by land. Accordingly, he conveyed +over his ships and some troops, and built three forts in which he placed +most of his baggage, and moored there for the future the larger craft +and men-of-war. This was the first and chief occasion of the losses +which the crews experienced. The water which they used was scarce +and had to be fetched from far, and the sailors could not go out for +firewood without being cut off by the Syracusan horse, who were masters +of the country; a third of the enemy's cavalry being stationed at the +little town of Olympieum, to prevent plundering incursions on the part +of the Athenians at Plemmyrium. Meanwhile Nicias learned that the rest +of the Corinthian fleet was approaching, and sent twenty ships to watch +for them, with orders to be on the look-out for them about Locris and +Rhegium and the approach to Sicily. + +Gylippus, meanwhile, went on with the wall across Epipolae, using the +stones which the Athenians had laid down for their own wall, and at the +same time constantly led out the Syracusans and their allies, and formed +them in order of battle in front of the lines, the Athenians forming +against him. At last he thought that the moment was come, and began the +attack; and a hand-to-hand fight ensued between the lines, where the +Syracusan cavalry could be of no use; and the Syracusans and their +allies were defeated and took up their dead under truce, while the +Athenians erected a trophy. After this Gylippus called the soldiers +together, and said that the fault was not theirs but his; he had kept +their lines too much within the works, and had thus deprived them of +the services of their cavalry and darters. He would now, therefore, lead +them on a second time. He begged them to remember that in material force +they would be fully a match for their opponents, while, with respect +to moral advantages, it were intolerable if Peloponnesians and Dorians +should not feel confident of overcoming Ionians and islanders with the +motley rabble that accompanied them, and of driving them out of the +country. + +After this he embraced the first opportunity that offered of again +leading them against the enemy. Now Nicias and the Athenians held the +opinion that even if the Syracusans should not wish to offer battle, it +was necessary for them to prevent the building of the cross wall, as it +already almost overlapped the extreme point of their own, and if it went +any further it would from that moment make no difference whether they +fought ever so many successful actions, or never fought at all. They +accordingly came out to meet the Syracusans. Gylippus led out his heavy +infantry further from the fortifications than on the former occasion, +and so joined battle; posting his horse and darters upon the flank +of the Athenians in the open space, where the works of the two walls +terminated. During the engagement the cavalry attacked and routed the +left wing of the Athenians, which was opposed to them; and the rest +of the Athenian army was in consequence defeated by the Syracusans and +driven headlong within their lines. The night following the Syracusans +carried their wall up to the Athenian works and passed them, thus +putting it out of their power any longer to stop them, and depriving +them, even if victorious in the field, of all chance of investing the +city for the future. + +After this the remaining twelve vessels of the Corinthians, Ambraciots, +and Leucadians sailed into the harbour under the command of Erasinides, +a Corinthian, having eluded the Athenian ships on guard, and helped +the Syracusans in completing the remainder of the cross wall. Meanwhile +Gylippus went into the rest of Sicily to raise land and naval forces, +and also to bring over any of the cities that either were lukewarm in +the cause or had hitherto kept out of the war altogether. Syracusan and +Corinthian envoys were also dispatched to Lacedaemon and Corinth to get +a fresh force sent over, in any way that might offer, either in +merchant vessels or transports, or in any other manner likely to prove +successful, as the Athenians too were sending for reinforcements; while +the Syracusans proceeded to man a fleet and to exercise, meaning to +try their fortune in this way also, and generally became exceedingly +confident. + +Nicias perceiving this, and seeing the strength of the enemy and his +own difficulties daily increasing, himself also sent to Athens. He had +before sent frequent reports of events as they occurred, and felt it +especially incumbent upon him to do so now, as he thought that they were +in a critical position, and that, unless speedily recalled or strongly +reinforced from home, they had no hope of safety. He feared, however, +that the messengers, either through inability to speak, or through +failure of memory, or from a wish to please the multitude, might not +report the truth, and so thought it best to write a letter, to ensure +that the Athenians should know his own opinion without its being lost in +transmission, and be able to decide upon the real facts of the case. + +His emissaries, accordingly, departed with the letter and the requisite +verbal instructions; and he attended to the affairs of the army, making +it his aim now to keep on the defensive and to avoid any unnecessary +danger. + +At the close of the same summer the Athenian general Euetion marched +in concert with Perdiccas with a large body of Thracians against +Amphipolis, and failing to take it brought some galleys round into +the Strymon, and blockaded the town from the river, having his base at +Himeraeum. + +Summer was now over. The winter ensuing, the persons sent by Nicias, +reaching Athens, gave the verbal messages which had been entrusted to +them, and answered any questions that were asked them, and delivered +the letter. The clerk of the city now came forward and read out to the +Athenians the letter, which was as follows: + +"Our past operations, Athenians, have been made known to you by many +other letters; it is now time for you to become equally familiar with +our present condition, and to take your measures accordingly. We had +defeated in most of our engagements with them the Syracusans, against +whom we were sent, and we had built the works which we now occupy, when +Gylippus arrived from Lacedaemon with an army obtained from Peloponnese +and from some of the cities in Sicily. In our first battle with him we +were victorious; in the battle on the following day we were overpowered +by a multitude of cavalry and darters, and compelled to retire within +our lines. We have now, therefore, been forced by the numbers of those +opposed to us to discontinue the work of circumvallation, and to remain +inactive; being unable to make use even of all the force we have, since +a large portion of our heavy infantry is absorbed in the defence of our +lines. Meanwhile the enemy have carried a single wall past our lines, +thus making it impossible for us to invest them in future, until this +cross wall be attacked by a strong force and captured. So that the +besieger in name has become, at least from the land side, the besieged +in reality; as we are prevented by their cavalry from even going for any +distance into the country. + +"Besides this, an embassy has been dispatched to Peloponnese to procure +reinforcements, and Gylippus has gone to the cities in Sicily, partly +in the hope of inducing those that are at present neutral to join him in +the war, partly of bringing from his allies additional contingents for +the land forces and material for the navy. For I understand that they +contemplate a combined attack, upon our lines with their land forces and +with their fleet by sea. You must none of you be surprised that I say by +sea also. They have discovered that the length of the time we have now +been in commission has rotted our ships and wasted our crews, and that +with the entireness of our crews and the soundness of our ships the +pristine efficiency of our navy has departed. For it is impossible +for us to haul our ships ashore and careen them, because, the +enemy's vessels being as many or more than our own, we are constantly +anticipating an attack. Indeed, they may be seen exercising, and it lies +with them to take the initiative; and not having to maintain a blockade, +they have greater facilities for drying their ships. + +"This we should scarcely be able to do, even if we had plenty of ships +to spare, and were freed from our present necessity of exhausting all +our strength upon the blockade. For it is already difficult to carry +in supplies past Syracuse; and were we to relax our vigilance in the +slightest degree it would become impossible. The losses which our crews +have suffered and still continue to suffer arise from the following +causes. Expeditions for fuel and for forage, and the distance from +which water has to be fetched, cause our sailors to be cut off by the +Syracusan cavalry; the loss of our previous superiority emboldens our +slaves to desert; our foreign seamen are impressed by the unexpected +appearance of a navy against us, and the strength of the enemy's +resistance; such of them as were pressed into the service take the +first opportunity of departing to their respective cities; such as were +originally seduced by the temptation of high pay, and expected little +fighting and large gains, leave us either by desertion to the enemy +or by availing themselves of one or other of the various facilities of +escape which the magnitude of Sicily affords them. Some even engage in +trade themselves and prevail upon the captains to take Hyccaric slaves +on board in their place; thus they have ruined the efficiency of our +navy. + +"Now I need not remind you that the time during which a crew is in its +prime is short, and that the number of sailors who can start a ship on +her way and keep the rowing in time is small. But by far my greatest +trouble is, that holding the post which I do, I am prevented by the +natural indocility of the Athenian seaman from putting a stop to these +evils; and that meanwhile we have no source from which to recruit our +crews, which the enemy can do from many quarters, but are compelled to +depend both for supplying the crews in service and for making good +our losses upon the men whom we brought with us. For our present +confederates, Naxos and Catana, are incapable of supplying us. There is +only one thing more wanting to our opponents, I mean the defection of +our Italian markets. If they were to see you neglect to relieve us from +our present condition, and were to go over to the enemy, famine would +compel us to evacuate, and Syracuse would finish the war without a blow. + +"I might, it is true, have written to you something different and +more agreeable than this, but nothing certainly more useful, if it is +desirable for you to know the real state of things here before taking +your measures. Besides I know that it is your nature to love to be +told the best side of things, and then to blame the teller if the +expectations which he has raised in your minds are not answered by the +result; and I therefore thought it safest to declare to you the truth. + +"Now you are not to think that either your generals or your soldiers +have ceased to be a match for the forces originally opposed to them. +But you are to reflect that a general Sicilian coalition is being formed +against us; that a fresh army is expected from Peloponnese, while the +force we have here is unable to cope even with our present antagonists; +and you must promptly decide either to recall us or to send out to us +another fleet and army as numerous again, with a large sum of money, +and someone to succeed me, as a disease in the kidneys unfits me for +retaining my post. I have, I think, some claim on your indulgence, as +while I was in my prime I did you much good service in my commands. But +whatever you mean to do, do it at the commencement of spring and without +delay, as the enemy will obtain his Sicilian reinforcements shortly, +those from Peloponnese after a longer interval; and unless you attend +to the matter the former will be here before you, while the latter will +elude you as they have done before." + +Such were the contents of Nicias's letter. When the Athenians had heard +it they refused to accept his resignation, but chose him two colleagues, +naming Menander and Euthydemus, two of the officers at the seat of war, +to fill their places until their arrival, that Nicias might not be left +alone in his sickness to bear the whole weight of affairs. They also +voted to send out another army and navy, drawn partly from the Athenians +on the muster-roll, partly from the allies. The colleagues chosen for +Nicias were Demosthenes, son of Alcisthenes, and Eurymedon, son of +Thucles. Eurymedon was sent off at once, about the time of the winter +solstice, with ten ships, a hundred and twenty talents of silver, and +instructions to tell the army that reinforcements would arrive, and that +care would be taken of them; but Demosthenes stayed behind to organize +the expedition, meaning to start as soon as it was spring, and sent for +troops to the allies, and meanwhile got together money, ships, and heavy +infantry at home. + +The Athenians also sent twenty vessels round Peloponnese to prevent +any one crossing over to Sicily from Corinth or Peloponnese. For the +Corinthians, filled with confidence by the favourable alteration in +Sicilian affairs which had been reported by the envoys upon their +arrival, and convinced that the fleet which they had before sent out +had not been without its use, were now preparing to dispatch a force of +heavy infantry in merchant vessels to Sicily, while the Lacedaemonians +did the like for the rest of Peloponnese. The Corinthians also manned +a fleet of twenty-five vessels, intending to try the result of a battle +with the squadron on guard at Naupactus, and meanwhile to make it +less easy for the Athenians there to hinder the departure of their +merchantmen, by obliging them to keep an eye upon the galleys thus +arrayed against them. + +In the meantime the Lacedaemonians prepared for their invasion of +Attica, in accordance with their own previous resolve, and at the +instigation of the Syracusans and Corinthians, who wished for an +invasion to arrest the reinforcements which they heard that Athens +was about to send to Sicily. Alcibiades also urgently advised the +fortification of Decelea, and a vigorous prosecution of the war. But the +Lacedaemonians derived most encouragement from the belief that +Athens, with two wars on her hands, against themselves and against the +Siceliots, would be more easy to subdue, and from the conviction that +she had been the first to infringe the truce. In the former war, they +considered, the offence had been more on their own side, both on account +of the entrance of the Thebans into Plataea in time of peace, and also +of their own refusal to listen to the Athenian offer of arbitration, in +spite of the clause in the former treaty that where arbitration should +be offered there should be no appeal to arms. For this reason they +thought that they deserved their misfortunes, and took to heart +seriously the disaster at Pylos and whatever else had befallen them. +But when, besides the ravages from Pylos, which went on without any +intermission, the thirty Athenian ships came out from Argos and wasted +part of Epidaurus, Prasiae, and other places; when upon every dispute +that arose as to the interpretation of any doubtful point in the treaty, +their own offers of arbitration were always rejected by the Athenians, +the Lacedaemonians at length decided that Athens had now committed the +very same offence as they had before done, and had become the guilty +party; and they began to be full of ardour for the war. They spent this +winter in sending round to their allies for iron, and in getting ready +the other implements for building their fort; and meanwhile began +raising at home, and also by forced requisitions in the rest of +Peloponnese, a force to be sent out in the merchantmen to their allies +in Sicily. Winter thus ended, and with it the eighteenth year of this +war of which Thucydides is the historian. + +In the first days of the spring following, at an earlier period than +usual, the Lacedaemonians and their allies invaded Attica, under the +command of Agis, son of Archidamus, king of the Lacedaemonians. They +began by devastating the parts bordering upon the plain, and next +proceeded to fortify Decelea, dividing the work among the different +cities. Decelea is about thirteen or fourteen miles from the city of +Athens, and the same distance or not much further from Boeotia; and the +fort was meant to annoy the plain and the richest parts of the country, +being in sight of Athens. While the Peloponnesians and their allies in +Attica were engaged in the work of fortification, their countrymen +at home sent off, at about the same time, the heavy infantry in the +merchant vessels to Sicily; the Lacedaemonians furnishing a picked force +of Helots and Neodamodes (or freedmen), six hundred heavy infantry in +all, under the command of Eccritus, a Spartan; and the Boeotians three +hundred heavy infantry, commanded by two Thebans, Xenon and Nicon, and +by Hegesander, a Thespian. These were among the first to put out into +the open sea, starting from Taenarus in Laconia. Not long after their +departure the Corinthians sent off a force of five hundred heavy +infantry, consisting partly of men from Corinth itself, and partly +of Arcadian mercenaries, placed under the command of Alexarchus, a +Corinthian. The Sicyonians also sent off two hundred heavy infantry at +same time as the Corinthians, under the command of Sargeus, a Sicyonian. +Meantime the five-and-twenty vessels manned by Corinth during the winter +lay confronting the twenty Athenian ships at Naupactus until the heavy +infantry in the merchantmen were fairly on their way from Peloponnese; +thus fulfilling the object for which they had been manned originally, +which was to divert the attention of the Athenians from the merchantmen +to the galleys. + +During this time the Athenians were not idle. Simultaneously with the +fortification of Decelea, at the very beginning of spring, they sent +thirty ships round Peloponnese, under Charicles, son of Apollodorus, +with instructions to call at Argos and demand a force of their heavy +infantry for the fleet, agreeably to the alliance. At the same time +they dispatched Demosthenes to Sicily, as they had intended, with sixty +Athenian and five Chian vessels, twelve hundred Athenian heavy infantry +from the muster-roll, and as many of the islanders as could be raised +in the different quarters, drawing upon the other subject allies for +whatever they could supply that would be of use for the war. Demosthenes +was instructed first to sail round with Charicles and to operate with +him upon the coasts of Laconia, and accordingly sailed to Aegina and +there waited for the remainder of his armament, and for Charicles to +fetch the Argive troops. + +In Sicily, about the same time in this spring, Gylippus came to Syracuse +with as many troops as he could bring from the cities which he had +persuaded to join. Calling the Syracusans together, he told them +that they must man as many ships as possible, and try their hand at +a sea-fight, by which he hoped to achieve an advantage in the war not +unworthy of the risk. With him Hermocrates actively joined in trying to +encourage his countrymen to attack the Athenians at sea, saying that the +latter had not inherited their naval prowess nor would they retain +it for ever; they had been landsmen even to a greater degree than the +Syracusans, and had only become a maritime power when obliged by the +Mede. Besides, to daring spirits like the Athenians, a daring adversary +would seem the most formidable; and the Athenian plan of paralysing by +the boldness of their attack a neighbour often not their inferior in +strength could now be used against them with as good effect by the +Syracusans. He was convinced also that the unlooked-for spectacle of +Syracusans daring to face the Athenian navy would cause a terror to the +enemy, the advantages of which would far outweigh any loss that Athenian +science might inflict upon their inexperience. He accordingly urged +them to throw aside their fears and to try their fortune at sea; and the +Syracusans, under the influence of Gylippus and Hermocrates, and perhaps +some others, made up their minds for the sea-fight and began to man +their vessels. + +When the fleet was ready, Gylippus led out the whole army by night; his +plan being to assault in person the forts on Plemmyrium by land, while +thirty-five Syracusan galleys sailed according to appointment against +the enemy from the great harbour, and the forty-five remaining came +round from the lesser harbour, where they had their arsenal, in order +to effect a junction with those inside and simultaneously to attack +Plemmyrium, and thus to distract the Athenians by assaulting them on +two sides at once. The Athenians quickly manned sixty ships, and with +twenty-five of these engaged the thirty-five of the Syracusans in the +great harbour, sending the rest to meet those sailing round from the +arsenal; and an action now ensued directly in front of the mouth of the +great harbour, maintained with equal tenacity on both sides; the one +wishing to force the passage, the other to prevent them. + +In the meantime, while the Athenians in Plemmyrium were down at the sea, +attending to the engagement, Gylippus made a sudden attack on the forts +in the early morning and took the largest first, and afterwards the two +smaller, whose garrisons did not wait for him, seeing the largest +so easily taken. At the fall of the first fort, the men from it who +succeeded in taking refuge in their boats and merchantmen, found great +difficulty in reaching the camp, as the Syracusans were having the best +of it in the engagement in the great harbour, and sent a fast-sailing +galley to pursue them. But when the two others fell, the Syracusans were +now being defeated; and the fugitives from these sailed alongshore with +more ease. The Syracusan ships fighting off the mouth of the harbour +forced their way through the Athenian vessels and sailing in without +any order fell foul of one another, and transferred the victory to the +Athenians; who not only routed the squadron in question, but also that +by which they were at first being defeated in the harbour, sinking +eleven of the Syracusan vessels and killing most of the men, except +the crews of three ships whom they made prisoners. Their own loss was +confined to three vessels; and after hauling ashore the Syracusan wrecks +and setting up a trophy upon the islet in front of Plemmyrium, they +retired to their own camp. + +Unsuccessful at sea, the Syracusans had nevertheless the forts in +Plemmyrium, for which they set up three trophies. One of the two last +taken they razed, but put in order and garrisoned the two others. In the +capture of the forts a great many men were killed and made prisoners, +and a great quantity of property was taken in all. As the Athenians had +used them as a magazine, there was a large stock of goods and corn of +the merchants inside, and also a large stock belonging to the captains; +the masts and other furniture of forty galleys being taken, besides +three galleys which had been drawn up on shore. Indeed the first and +chiefest cause of the ruin of the Athenian army was the capture of +Plemmyrium; even the entrance of the harbour being now no longer safe +for carrying in provisions, as the Syracusan vessels were stationed +there to prevent it, and nothing could be brought in without fighting; +besides the general impression of dismay and discouragement produced +upon the army. + +After this the Syracusans sent out twelve ships under the command +of Agatharchus, a Syracusan. One of these went to Peloponnese with +ambassadors to describe the hopeful state of their affairs, and to +incite the Peloponnesians to prosecute the war there even more actively +than they were now doing, while the eleven others sailed to Italy, +hearing that vessels laden with stores were on their way to the +Athenians. After falling in with and destroying most of the vessels in +question, and burning in the Caulonian territory a quantity of timber +for shipbuilding, which had been got ready for the Athenians, the +Syracusan squadron went to Locri, and one of the merchantmen from +Peloponnese coming in, while they were at anchor there, carrying +Thespian heavy infantry, took these on board and sailed alongshore +towards home. The Athenians were on the look-out for them with twenty +ships at Megara, but were only able to take one vessel with its crew; +the rest getting clear off to Syracuse. There was also some skirmishing +in the harbour about the piles which the Syracusans had driven in the +sea in front of the old docks, to allow their ships to lie at anchor +inside, without being hurt by the Athenians sailing up and running them +down. The Athenians brought up to them a ship of ten thousand talents +burden furnished with wooden turrets and screens, and fastened ropes +round the piles from their boats, wrenched them up and broke them, or +dived down and sawed them in two. Meanwhile the Syracusans plied them +with missiles from the docks, to which they replied from their large +vessel; until at last most of the piles were removed by the Athenians. +But the most awkward part of the stockade was the part out of sight: +some of the piles which had been driven in did not appear above water, +so that it was dangerous to sail up, for fear of running the ships upon +them, just as upon a reef, through not seeing them. However divers went +down and sawed off even these for reward; although the Syracusans drove +in others. Indeed there was no end to the contrivances to which they +resorted against each other, as might be expected between two hostile +armies confronting each other at such a short distance: and skirmishes +and all kinds of other attempts were of constant occurrence. Meanwhile +the Syracusans sent embassies to the cities, composed of Corinthians, +Ambraciots, and Lacedaemonians, to tell them of the capture of +Plemmyrium, and that their defeat in the sea-fight was due less to the +strength of the enemy than to their own disorder; and generally, to let +them know that they were full of hope, and to desire them to come to +their help with ships and troops, as the Athenians were expected with a +fresh army, and if the one already there could be destroyed before the +other arrived, the war would be at an end. + +While the contending parties in Sicily were thus engaged, Demosthenes, +having now got together the armament with which he was to go to the +island, put out from Aegina, and making sail for Peloponnese, joined +Charicles and the thirty ships of the Athenians. Taking on board the +heavy infantry from Argos they sailed to Laconia, and, after first +plundering part of Epidaurus Limera, landed on the coast of Laconia, +opposite Cythera, where the temple of Apollo stands, and, laying waste +part of the country, fortified a sort of isthmus, to which the Helots of +the Lacedaemonians might desert, and from whence plundering incursions +might be made as from Pylos. Demosthenes helped to occupy this place, +and then immediately sailed on to Corcyra to take up some of the +allies in that island, and so to proceed without delay to Sicily; while +Charicles waited until he had completed the fortification of the place +and, leaving a garrison there, returned home subsequently with his +thirty ships and the Argives also. + +This same summer arrived at Athens thirteen hundred targeteers, Thracian +swordsmen of the tribe of the Dii, who were to have sailed to Sicily +with Demosthenes. Since they had come too late, the Athenians determined +to send them back to Thrace, whence they had come; to keep them for +the Decelean war appearing too expensive, as the pay of each man was +a drachma a day. Indeed since Decelea had been first fortified by the +whole Peloponnesian army during this summer, and then occupied for the +annoyance of the country by the garrisons from the cities relieving +each other at stated intervals, it had been doing great mischief to the +Athenians; in fact this occupation, by the destruction of property and +loss of men which resulted from it, was one of the principal causes of +their ruin. Previously the invasions were short, and did not prevent +their enjoying their land during the rest of the time: the enemy was now +permanently fixed in Attica; at one time it was an attack in force, at +another it was the regular garrison overrunning the country and making +forays for its subsistence, and the Lacedaemonian king, Agis, was in the +field and diligently prosecuting the war; great mischief was therefore +done to the Athenians. They were deprived of their whole country: more +than twenty thousand slaves had deserted, a great part of them artisans, +and all their sheep and beasts of burden were lost; and as the cavalry +rode out daily upon excursions to Decelea and to guard the country, +their horses were either lamed by being constantly worked upon rocky +ground, or wounded by the enemy. + +Besides, the transport of provisions from Euboea, which had before been +carried on so much more quickly overland by Decelea from Oropus, was now +effected at great cost by sea round Sunium; everything the city required +had to be imported from abroad, and instead of a city it became a +fortress. Summer and winter the Athenians were worn out by having to +keep guard on the fortifications, during the day by turns, by night all +together, the cavalry excepted, at the different military posts or upon +the wall. But what most oppressed them was that they had two wars at +once, and had thus reached a pitch of frenzy which no one would have +believed possible if he had heard of it before it had come to pass. +For could any one have imagined that even when besieged by the +Peloponnesians entrenched in Attica, they would still, instead of +withdrawing from Sicily, stay on there besieging in like manner +Syracuse, a town (taken as a town) in no way inferior to Athens, or +would so thoroughly upset the Hellenic estimate of their strength and +audacity, as to give the spectacle of a people which, at the beginning +of the war, some thought might hold out one year, some two, none more +than three, if the Peloponnesians invaded their country, now seventeen +years after the first invasion, after having already suffered from all +the evils of war, going to Sicily and undertaking a new war nothing +inferior to that which they already had with the Peloponnesians? These +causes, the great losses from Decelea, and the other heavy charges that +fell upon them, produced their financial embarrassment; and it was at +this time that they imposed upon their subjects, instead of the tribute, +the tax of a twentieth upon all imports and exports by sea, which they +thought would bring them in more money; their expenditure being now not +the same as at first, but having grown with the war while their revenues +decayed. + +Accordingly, not wishing to incur expense in their present want of +money, they sent back at once the Thracians who came too late for +Demosthenes, under the conduct of Diitrephes, who was instructed, as +they were to pass through the Euripus, to make use of them if possible +in the voyage alongshore to injure the enemy. Diitrephes first landed +them at Tanagra and hastily snatched some booty; he then sailed across +the Euripus in the evening from Chalcis in Euboea and disembarking in +Boeotia led them against Mycalessus. The night he passed unobserved +near the temple of Hermes, not quite two miles from Mycalessus, and +at daybreak assaulted and took the town, which is not a large one; the +inhabitants being off their guard and not expecting that any one would +ever come up so far from the sea to molest them, the wall too being +weak, and in some places having tumbled down, while in others it had +not been built to any height, and the gates also being left open through +their feeling of security. The Thracians bursting into Mycalessus sacked +the houses and temples, and butchered the inhabitants, sparing neither +youth nor age, but killing all they fell in with, one after the other, +children and women, and even beasts of burden, and whatever other +living creatures they saw; the Thracian race, like the bloodiest of the +barbarians, being even more so when it has nothing to fear. Everywhere +confusion reigned and death in all its shapes; and in particular they +attacked a boys' school, the largest that there was in the place, into +which the children had just gone, and massacred them all. In short, the +disaster falling upon the whole town was unsurpassed in magnitude, and +unapproached by any in suddenness and in horror. + +Meanwhile the Thebans heard of it and marched to the rescue, and +overtaking the Thracians before they had gone far, recovered the plunder +and drove them in panic to the Euripus and the sea, where the vessels +which brought them were lying. The greatest slaughter took place while +they were embarking, as they did not know how to swim, and those in +the vessels on seeing what was going on on on shore moored them out +of bowshot: in the rest of the retreat the Thracians made a very +respectable defence against the Theban horse, by which they were first +attacked, dashing out and closing their ranks according to the tactics +of their country, and lost only a few men in that part of the affair. A +good number who were after plunder were actually caught in the town and +put to death. Altogether the Thracians had two hundred and fifty killed +out of thirteen hundred, the Thebans and the rest who came to the rescue +about twenty, troopers and heavy infantry, with Scirphondas, one of +the Boeotarchs. The Mycalessians lost a large proportion of their +population. + +While Mycalessus thus experienced a calamity for its extent as +lamentable as any that happened in the war, Demosthenes, whom we left +sailing to Corcyra, after the building of the fort in Laconia, found +a merchantman lying at Phea in Elis, in which the Corinthian heavy +infantry were to cross to Sicily. The ship he destroyed, but the men +escaped, and subsequently got another in which they pursued their +voyage. After this, arriving at Zacynthus and Cephallenia, he took a +body of heavy infantry on board, and sending for some of the Messenians +from Naupactus, crossed over to the opposite coast of Acarnania, to +Alyzia, and to Anactorium which was held by the Athenians. While he was +in these parts he was met by Eurymedon returning from Sicily, where he +had been sent, as has been mentioned, during the winter, with the money +for the army, who told him the news, and also that he had heard, while +at sea, that the Syracusans had taken Plemmyrium. Here, also, Conon +came to them, the commander at Naupactus, with news that the twenty-five +Corinthian ships stationed opposite to him, far from giving over the +war, were meditating an engagement; and he therefore begged them to send +him some ships, as his own eighteen were not a match for the enemy's +twenty-five. Demosthenes and Eurymedon, accordingly, sent ten of their +best sailers with Conon to reinforce the squadron at Naupactus, and +meanwhile prepared for the muster of their forces; Eurymedon, who was +now the colleague of Demosthenes, and had turned back in consequence of +his appointment, sailing to Corcyra to tell them to man fifteen ships +and to enlist heavy infantry; while Demosthenes raised slingers and +darters from the parts about Acarnania. + +Meanwhile the envoys, already mentioned, who had gone from Syracuse +to the cities after the capture of Plemmyrium, had succeeded in their +mission, and were about to bring the army that they had collected, when +Nicias got scent of it, and sent to the Centoripae and Alicyaeans and +other of the friendly Sicels, who held the passes, not to let the enemy +through, but to combine to prevent their passing, there being no other +way by which they could even attempt it, as the Agrigentines would not +give them a passage through their country. Agreeably to this request the +Sicels laid a triple ambuscade for the Siceliots upon their march, +and attacking them suddenly, while off their guard, killed about eight +hundred of them and all the envoys, the Corinthian only excepted, by +whom fifteen hundred who escaped were conducted to Syracuse. + +About the same time the Camarinaeans also came to the assistance of +Syracuse with five hundred heavy infantry, three hundred darters, and as +many archers, while the Geloans sent crews for five ships, four hundred +darters, and two hundred horse. Indeed almost the whole of Sicily, +except the Agrigentines, who were neutral, now ceased merely to watch +events as it had hitherto done, and actively joined Syracuse against the +Athenians. + +While the Syracusans after the Sicel disaster put off any immediate +attack upon the Athenians, Demosthenes and Eurymedon, whose forces from +Corcyra and the continent were now ready, crossed the Ionian Gulf with +all their armament to the Iapygian promontory, and starting from thence +touched at the Choerades Isles lying off Iapygia, where they took on +board a hundred and fifty Iapygian darters of the Messapian tribe, and +after renewing an old friendship with Artas the chief, who had furnished +them with the darters, arrived at Metapontium in Italy. Here they +persuaded their allies the Metapontines to send with them three hundred +darters and two galleys, and with this reinforcement coasted on to +Thurii, where they found the party hostile to Athens recently expelled +by a revolution, and accordingly remained there to muster and review the +whole army, to see if any had been left behind, and to prevail upon +the Thurians resolutely to join them in their expedition, and in the +circumstances in which they found themselves to conclude a defensive and +offensive alliance with the Athenians. + +About the same time the Peloponnesians in the twenty-five ships +stationed opposite to the squadron at Naupactus to protect the passage +of the transports to Sicily had got ready for engaging, and manning +some additional vessels, so as to be numerically little inferior to the +Athenians, anchored off Erineus in Achaia in the Rhypic country. The +place off which they lay being in the form of a crescent, the land +forces furnished by the Corinthians and their allies on the spot came +up and ranged themselves upon the projecting headlands on either side, +while the fleet, under the command of Polyanthes, a Corinthian, held +the intervening space and blocked up the entrance. The Athenians under +Diphilus now sailed out against them with thirty-three ships from +Naupactus, and the Corinthians, at first not moving, at length thought +they saw their opportunity, raised the signal, and advanced and engaged +the Athenians. After an obstinate struggle, the Corinthians lost three +ships, and without sinking any altogether, disabled seven of the enemy, +which were struck prow to prow and had their foreships stove in by the +Corinthian vessels, whose cheeks had been strengthened for this very +purpose. After an action of this even character, in which either party +could claim the victory (although the Athenians became masters of the +wrecks through the wind driving them out to sea, the Corinthians not +putting out again to meet them), the two combatants parted. No pursuit +took place, and no prisoners were made on either side; the Corinthians +and Peloponnesians who were fighting near the shore escaping with ease, +and none of the Athenian vessels having been sunk. The Athenians now +sailed back to Naupactus, and the Corinthians immediately set up a +trophy as victors, because they had disabled a greater number of the +enemy's ships. Moreover they held that they had not been worsted, for +the very same reason that their opponent held that he had not been +victorious; the Corinthians considering that they were conquerors, +if not decidedly conquered, and the Athenians thinking themselves +vanquished, because not decidedly victorious. However, when the +Peloponnesians sailed off and their land forces had dispersed, the +Athenians also set up a trophy as victors in Achaia, about two miles and +a quarter from Erineus, the Corinthian station. + +This was the termination of the action at Naupactus. To return to +Demosthenes and Eurymedon: the Thurians having now got ready to join +in the expedition with seven hundred heavy infantry and three hundred +darters, the two generals ordered the ships to sail along the coast to +the Crotonian territory, and meanwhile held a review of all the land +forces upon the river Sybaris, and then led them through the Thurian +country. Arrived at the river Hylias, they here received a message +from the Crotonians, saying that they would not allow the army to pass +through their country; upon which the Athenians descended towards the +shore, and bivouacked near the sea and the mouth of the Hylias, where +the fleet also met them, and the next day embarked and sailed along the +coast touching at all the cities except Locri, until they came to Petra +in the Rhegian territory. + +Meanwhile the Syracusans hearing of their approach resolved to make a +second attempt with their fleet and their other forces on shore, which +they had been collecting for this very purpose in order to do something +before their arrival. In addition to other improvements suggested by the +former sea-fight which they now adopted in the equipment of their navy, +they cut down their prows to a smaller compass to make them more +solid and made their cheeks stouter, and from these let stays into the +vessels' sides for a length of six cubits within and without, in the +same way as the Corinthians had altered their prows before engaging the +squadron at Naupactus. The Syracusans thought that they would thus have +an advantage over the Athenian vessels, which were not constructed with +equal strength, but were slight in the bows, from their being more used +to sail round and charge the enemy's side than to meet him prow to prow, +and that the battle being in the great harbour, with a great many ships +in not much room, was also a fact in their favour. Charging prow to +prow, they would stave in the enemy's bows, by striking with solid and +stout beaks against hollow and weak ones; and secondly, the Athenians +for want of room would be unable to use their favourite manoeuvre of +breaking the line or of sailing round, as the Syracusans would do their +best not to let them do the one, and want of room would prevent their +doing the other. This charging prow to prow, which had hitherto been +thought want of skill in a helmsman, would be the Syracusans' chief +manoeuvre, as being that which they should find most useful, since the +Athenians, if repulsed, would not be able to back water in any direction +except towards the shore, and that only for a little way, and in the +little space in front of their own camp. The rest of the harbour would +be commanded by the Syracusans; and the Athenians, if hard pressed, by +crowding together in a small space and all to the same point, would +run foul of one another and fall into disorder, which was, in fact, the +thing that did the Athenians most harm in all the sea-fights, they not +having, like the Syracusans, the whole harbour to retreat over. As to +their sailing round into the open sea, this would be impossible, with +the Syracusans in possession of the way out and in, especially as +Plemmyrium would be hostile to them, and the mouth of the harbour was +not large. + +With these contrivances to suit their skill and ability, and now more +confident after the previous sea-fight, the Syracusans attacked by land +and sea at once. The town force Gylippus led out a little the first and +brought them up to the wall of the Athenians, where it looked towards +the city, while the force from the Olympieum, that is to say, the heavy +infantry that were there with the horse and the light troops of the +Syracusans, advanced against the wall from the opposite side; the ships +of the Syracusans and allies sailing out immediately afterwards. The +Athenians at first fancied that they were to be attacked by land +only, and it was not without alarm that they saw the fleet suddenly +approaching as well; and while some were forming upon the walls and +in front of them against the advancing enemy, and some marching out in +haste against the numbers of horse and darters coming from the Olympieum +and from outside, others manned the ships or rushed down to the beach +to oppose the enemy, and when the ships were manned put out with +seventy-five sail against about eighty of the Syracusans. + +After spending a great part of the day in advancing and retreating +and skirmishing with each other, without either being able to gain any +advantage worth speaking of, except that the Syracusans sank one or two +of the Athenian vessels, they parted, the land force at the same time +retiring from the lines. The next day the Syracusans remained quiet, and +gave no signs of what they were going to do; but Nicias, seeing that the +battle had been a drawn one, and expecting that they would attack again, +compelled the captains to refit any of the ships that had suffered, and +moored merchant vessels before the stockade which they had driven +into the sea in front of their ships, to serve instead of an enclosed +harbour, at about two hundred feet from each other, in order that any +ship that was hard pressed might be able to retreat in safety and sail +out again at leisure. These preparations occupied the Athenians all day +until nightfall. + +The next day the Syracusans began operations at an earlier hour, but +with the same plan of attack by land and sea. A great part of the day +the rivals spent as before, confronting and skirmishing with each +other; until at last Ariston, son of Pyrrhicus, a Corinthian, the ablest +helmsman in the Syracusan service, persuaded their naval commanders to +send to the officials in the city, and tell them to move the sale market +as quickly as they could down to the sea, and oblige every one to +bring whatever eatables he had and sell them there, thus enabling the +commanders to land the crews and dine at once close to the ships, and +shortly afterwards, the selfsame day, to attack the Athenians again when +they were not expecting it. + +In compliance with this advice a messenger was sent and the market got +ready, upon which the Syracusans suddenly backed water and withdrew to +the town, and at once landed and took their dinner upon the spot; while +the Athenians, supposing that they had returned to the town because +they felt they were beaten, disembarked at their leisure and set about +getting their dinners and about their other occupations, under the idea +that they done with fighting for that day. Suddenly the Syracusans had +manned their ships and again sailed against them; and the Athenians, in +great confusion and most of them fasting, got on board, and with great +difficulty put out to meet them. For some time both parties remained on +the defensive without engaging, until the Athenians at last resolved not +to let themselves be worn out by waiting where they were, but to attack +without delay, and giving a cheer, went into action. The Syracusans +received them, and charging prow to prow as they had intended, stove in +a great part of the Athenian foreships by the strength of their beaks; +the darters on the decks also did great damage to the Athenians, but +still greater damage was done by the Syracusans who went about in small +boats, ran in upon the oars of the Athenian galleys, and sailed against +their sides, and discharged from thence their darts upon the sailors. + +At last, fighting hard in this fashion, the Syracusans gained the +victory, and the Athenians turned and fled between the merchantmen +to their own station. The Syracusan ships pursued them as far as the +merchantmen, where they were stopped by the beams armed with dolphins +suspended from those vessels over the passage. Two of the Syracusan +vessels went too near in the excitement of victory and were destroyed, +one of them being taken with its crew. After sinking seven of the +Athenian vessels and disabling many, and taking most of the men +prisoners and killing others, the Syracusans retired and set up trophies +for both the engagements, being now confident of having a decided +superiority by sea, and by no means despairing of equal success by land. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +_Nineteenth Year of the War--Arrival of Demosthenes--Defeat of the +Athenians at Epipolae--Folly and Obstinancy of Nicias_ + +In the meantime, while the Syracusans were preparing for a second attack +upon both elements, Demosthenes and Eurymedon arrived with the succours +from Athens, consisting of about seventy-three ships, including the +foreigners; nearly five thousand heavy infantry, Athenian and allied; +a large number of darters, Hellenic and barbarian, and slingers and +archers and everything else upon a corresponding scale. The Syracusans +and their allies were for the moment not a little dismayed at the idea +that there was to be no term or ending to their dangers, seeing, in +spite of the fortification of Decelea, a new army arrive nearly equal to +the former, and the power of Athens proving so great in every quarter. +On the other hand, the first Athenian armament regained a certain +confidence in the midst of its misfortunes. Demosthenes, seeing how +matters stood, felt that he could not drag on and fare as Nicias had +done, who by wintering in Catana instead of at once attacking Syracuse +had allowed the terror of his first arrival to evaporate in contempt, +and had given time to Gylippus to arrive with a force from Peloponnese, +which the Syracusans would never have sent for if he had attacked +immediately; for they fancied that they were a match for him by +themselves, and would not have discovered their inferiority until they +were already invested, and even if they then sent for succours, they +would no longer have been equally able to profit by their arrival. +Recollecting this, and well aware that it was now on the first day +after his arrival that he like Nicias was most formidable to the enemy, +Demosthenes determined to lose no time in drawing the utmost profit from +the consternation at the moment inspired by his army; and seeing that +the counterwall of the Syracusans, which hindered the Athenians from +investing them, was a single one, and that he who should become master +of the way up to Epipolae, and afterwards of the camp there, would find +no difficulty in taking it, as no one would even wait for his attack, +made all haste to attempt the enterprise. This he took to be the +shortest way of ending the war, as he would either succeed and take +Syracuse, or would lead back the armament instead of frittering away the +lives of the Athenians engaged in the expedition and the resources of +the country at large. + +First therefore the Athenians went out and laid waste the lands of the +Syracusans about the Anapus and carried all before them as at first by +land and by sea, the Syracusans not offering to oppose them upon +either element, unless it were with their cavalry and darters from the +Olympieum. Next Demosthenes resolved to attempt the counterwall first by +means of engines. As however the engines that he brought up were burnt +by the enemy fighting from the wall, and the rest of the forces repulsed +after attacking at many different points, he determined to delay +no longer, and having obtained the consent of Nicias and his fellow +commanders, proceeded to put in execution his plan of attacking +Epipolae. As by day it seemed impossible to approach and get up without +being observed, he ordered provisions for five days, took all the masons +and carpenters, and other things, such as arrows, and everything else +that they could want for the work of fortification if successful, and, +after the first watch, set out with Eurymedon and Menander and the whole +army for Epipolae, Nicias being left behind in the lines. Having come +up by the hill of Euryelus (where the former army had ascended at first) +unobserved by the enemy's guards, they went up to the fort which the +Syracusans had there, and took it, and put to the sword part of the +garrison. The greater number, however, escaped at once and gave the +alarm to the camps, of which there were three upon Epipolae, defended by +outworks, one of the Syracusans, one of the other Siceliots, and one of +the allies; and also to the six hundred Syracusans forming the original +garrison for this part of Epipolae. These at once advanced against the +assailants and, falling in with Demosthenes and the Athenians, were +routed by them after a sharp resistance, the victors immediately pushing +on, eager to achieve the objects of the attack without giving time for +their ardour to cool; meanwhile others from the very beginning were +taking the counterwall of the Syracusans, which was abandoned by its +garrison, and pulling down the battlements. The Syracusans and the +allies, and Gylippus with the troops under his command, advanced to the +rescue from the outworks, but engaged in some consternation (a night +attack being a piece of audacity which they had never expected), and +were at first compelled to retreat. But while the Athenians, flushed +with their victory, now advanced with less order, wishing to make their +way as quickly as possible through the whole force of the enemy not yet +engaged, without relaxing their attack or giving them time to rally, the +Boeotians made the first stand against them, attacked them, routed them, +and put them to flight. + +The Athenians now fell into great disorder and perplexity, so that it +was not easy to get from one side or the other any detailed account +of the affair. By day certainly the combatants have a clearer notion, +though even then by no means of all that takes place, no one knowing +much of anything that does not go on in his own immediate neighbourhood; +but in a night engagement (and this was the only one that occurred +between great armies during the war) how could any one know anything for +certain? Although there was a bright moon they saw each other only as +men do by moonlight, that is to say, they could distinguish the form of +the body, but could not tell for certain whether it was a friend or an +enemy. Both had great numbers of heavy infantry moving about in a small +space. Some of the Athenians were already defeated, while others were +coming up yet unconquered for their first attack. A large part also +of the rest of their forces either had only just got up, or were still +ascending, so that they did not know which way to march. Owing to the +rout that had taken place all in front was now in confusion, and +the noise made it difficult to distinguish anything. The victorious +Syracusans and allies were cheering each other on with loud cries, by +night the only possible means of communication, and meanwhile receiving +all who came against them; while the Athenians were seeking for one +another, taking all in front of them for enemies, even although they +might be some of their now flying friends; and by constantly asking +for the watchword, which was their only means of recognition, not only +caused great confusion among themselves by asking all at once, but also +made it known to the enemy, whose own they did not so readily discover, +as the Syracusans were victorious and not scattered, and thus less +easily mistaken. The result was that if the Athenians fell in with a +party of the enemy that was weaker than they, it escaped them through +knowing their watchword; while if they themselves failed to answer they +were put to the sword. But what hurt them as much, or indeed more than +anything else, was the singing of the paean, from the perplexity which +it caused by being nearly the same on either side; the Argives and +Corcyraeans and any other Dorian peoples in the army, struck terror into +the Athenians whenever they raised their paean, no less than did the +enemy. Thus, after being once thrown into disorder, they ended by coming +into collision with each other in many parts of the field, friends with +friends, and citizens with citizens, and not only terrified one another, +but even came to blows and could only be parted with difficulty. In the +pursuit many perished by throwing themselves down the cliffs, the way +down from Epipolae being narrow; and of those who got down safely into +the plain, although many, especially those who belonged to the first +armament, escaped through their better acquaintance with the locality, +some of the newcomers lost their way and wandered over the country, and +were cut off in the morning by the Syracusan cavalry and killed. + +The next day the Syracusans set up two trophies, one upon Epipolae where +the ascent had been made, and the other on the spot where the first +check was given by the Boeotians; and the Athenians took back their +dead under truce. A great many of the Athenians and allies were killed, +although still more arms were taken than could be accounted for by the +number of the dead, as some of those who were obliged to leap down from +the cliffs without their shields escaped with their lives and did not +perish like the rest. + +After this the Syracusans, recovering their old confidence at such an +unexpected stroke of good fortune, dispatched Sicanus with fifteen ships +to Agrigentum where there was a revolution, to induce if possible the +city to join them; while Gylippus again went by land into the rest +of Sicily to bring up reinforcements, being now in hope of taking the +Athenian lines by storm, after the result of the affair on Epipolae. + +In the meantime the Athenian generals consulted upon the disaster +which had happened, and upon the general weakness of the army. They saw +themselves unsuccessful in their enterprises, and the soldiers disgusted +with their stay; disease being rife among them owing to its being the +sickly season of the year, and to the marshy and unhealthy nature of +the spot in which they were encamped; and the state of their affairs +generally being thought desperate. Accordingly, Demosthenes was of +opinion that they ought not to stay any longer; but agreeably to his +original idea in risking the attempt upon Epipolae, now that this had +failed, he gave his vote for going away without further loss of time, +while the sea might yet be crossed, and their late reinforcement might +give them the superiority at all events on that element. He also said +that it would be more profitable for the state to carry on the war +against those who were building fortifications in Attica, than against +the Syracusans whom it was no longer easy to subdue; besides which it +was not right to squander large sums of money to no purpose by going on +with the siege. + +This was the opinion of Demosthenes. Nicias, without denying the bad +state of their affairs, was unwilling to avow their weakness, or to have +it reported to the enemy that the Athenians in full council were openly +voting for retreat; for in that case they would be much less likely +to effect it when they wanted without discovery. Moreover, his own +particular information still gave him reason to hope that the affairs +of the enemy would soon be in a worse state than their own, if the +Athenians persevered in the siege; as they would wear out the Syracusans +by want of money, especially with the more extensive command of the sea +now given them by their present navy. Besides this, there was a party +in Syracuse who wished to betray the city to the Athenians, and +kept sending him messages and telling him not to raise the siege. +Accordingly, knowing this and really waiting because he hesitated +between the two courses and wished to see his way more clearly, in his +public speech on this occasion he refused to lead off the army, saying +he was sure the Athenians would never approve of their returning without +a vote of theirs. Those who would vote upon their conduct, instead of +judging the facts as eye-witnesses like themselves and not from what +they might hear from hostile critics, would simply be guided by the +calumnies of the first clever speaker; while many, indeed most, of the +soldiers on the spot, who now so loudly proclaimed the danger of their +position, when they reached Athens would proclaim just as loudly the +opposite, and would say that their generals had been bribed to betray +them and return. For himself, therefore, who knew the Athenian temper, +sooner than perish under a dishonourable charge and by an unjust +sentence at the hands of the Athenians, he would rather take his chance +and die, if die he must, a soldier's death at the hand of the enemy. +Besides, after all, the Syracusans were in a worse case than themselves. +What with paying mercenaries, spending upon fortified posts, and now for +a full year maintaining a large navy, they were already at a loss and +would soon be at a standstill: they had already spent two thousand +talents and incurred heavy debts besides, and could not lose even +ever so small a fraction of their present force through not paying it, +without ruin to their cause; depending as they did more upon mercenaries +than upon soldiers obliged to serve, like their own. He therefore said +that they ought to stay and carry on the siege, and not depart defeated +in point of money, in which they were much superior. + +Nicias spoke positively because he had exact information of the +financial distress at Syracuse, and also because of the strength of the +Athenian party there which kept sending him messages not to raise the +siege; besides which he had more confidence than before in his fleet, +and felt sure at least of its success. Demosthenes, however, would not +hear for a moment of continuing the siege, but said that if they could +not lead off the army without a decree from Athens, and if they were +obliged to stay on, they ought to remove to Thapsus or Catana; where +their land forces would have a wide extent of country to overrun, and +could live by plundering the enemy, and would thus do them damage; while +the fleet would have the open sea to fight in, that is to say, instead +of a narrow space which was all in the enemy's favour, a wide sea-room +where their science would be of use, and where they could retreat or +advance without being confined or circumscribed either when they put +out or put in. In any case he was altogether opposed to their staying on +where they were, and insisted on removing at once, as quickly and with +as little delay as possible; and in this judgment Eurymedon agreed. +Nicias however still objecting, a certain diffidence and hesitation +came over them, with a suspicion that Nicias might have some further +information to make him so positive. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +_Nineteenth Year of the War--Battles in the Great Harbour--Retreat and +Annihilation of the Athenian Army_ + +While the Athenians lingered on in this way without moving from where +they were, Gylippus and Sicanus now arrived at Syracuse. Sicanus had +failed to gain Agrigentum, the party friendly to the Syracusans having +been driven out while he was still at Gela; but Gylippus was accompanied +not only by a large number of troops raised in Sicily, but by the heavy +infantry sent off in the spring from Peloponnese in the merchantmen, who +had arrived at Selinus from Libya. They had been carried to Libya by a +storm, and having obtained two galleys and pilots from the Cyrenians, +on their voyage alongshore had taken sides with the Euesperitae and had +defeated the Libyans who were besieging them, and from thence coasting +on to Neapolis, a Carthaginian mart, and the nearest point to Sicily, +from which it is only two days' and a night's voyage, there crossed +over and came to Selinus. Immediately upon their arrival the Syracusans +prepared to attack the Athenians again by land and sea at once. The +Athenian generals seeing a fresh army come to the aid of the enemy, and +that their own circumstances, far from improving, were becoming daily +worse, and above all distressed by the sickness of the soldiers, now +began to repent of not having removed before; and Nicias no longer +offering the same opposition, except by urging that there should be +no open voting, they gave orders as secretly as possible for all to be +prepared to sail out from the camp at a given signal. All was at last +ready, and they were on the point of sailing away, when an eclipse of +the moon, which was then at the full, took place. Most of the Athenians, +deeply impressed by this occurrence, now urged the generals to wait; and +Nicias, who was somewhat over-addicted to divination and practices +of that kind, refused from that moment even to take the question of +departure into consideration, until they had waited the thrice nine days +prescribed by the soothsayers. + +The besiegers were thus condemned to stay in the country; and the +Syracusans, getting wind of what had happened, became more eager than +ever to press the Athenians, who had now themselves acknowledged +that they were no longer their superiors either by sea or by land, as +otherwise they would never have planned to sail away. Besides which +the Syracusans did not wish them to settle in any other part of Sicily, +where they would be more difficult to deal with, but desired to force +them to fight at sea as quickly as possible, in a position favourable +to themselves. Accordingly they manned their ships and practised for +as many days as they thought sufficient. When the moment arrived they +assaulted on the first day the Athenian lines, and upon a small force of +heavy infantry and horse sallying out against them by certain gates, cut +off some of the former and routed and pursued them to the lines, where, +as the entrance was narrow, the Athenians lost seventy horses and some +few of the heavy infantry. + +Drawing off their troops for this day, on the next the Syracusans went +out with a fleet of seventy-six sail, and at the same time advanced with +their land forces against the lines. The Athenians put out to meet +them with eighty-six ships, came to close quarters, and engaged. The +Syracusans and their allies first defeated the Athenian centre, and then +caught Eurymedon, the commander of the right wing, who was sailing out +from the line more towards the land in order to surround the enemy, in +the hollow and recess of the harbour, and killed him and destroyed the +ships accompanying him; after which they now chased the whole Athenian +fleet before them and drove them ashore. + +Gylippus seeing the enemy's fleet defeated and carried ashore beyond +their stockades and camp, ran down to the breakwater with some of his +troops, in order to cut off the men as they landed and make it easier +for the Syracusans to tow off the vessels by the shore being friendly +ground. The Tyrrhenians who guarded this point for the Athenians, seeing +them come on in disorder, advanced out against them and attacked and +routed their van, hurling it into the marsh of Lysimeleia. Afterwards +the Syracusan and allied troops arrived in greater numbers, and the +Athenians fearing for their ships came up also to the rescue and engaged +them, and defeated and pursued them to some distance and killed a few of +their heavy infantry. They succeeded in rescuing most of their ships +and brought them down by their camp; eighteen however were taken by the +Syracusans and their allies, and all the men killed. The rest the enemy +tried to burn by means of an old merchantman which they filled with +faggots and pine-wood, set on fire, and let drift down the wind which +blew full on the Athenians. The Athenians, however, alarmed for their +ships, contrived means for stopping it and putting it out, and checking +the flames and the nearer approach of the merchantman, thus escaped the +danger. + +After this the Syracusans set up a trophy for the sea-fight and for the +heavy infantry whom they had cut off up at the lines, where they took +the horses; and the Athenians for the rout of the foot driven by the +Tyrrhenians into the marsh, and for their own victory with the rest of +the army. + +The Syracusans had now gained a decisive victory at sea, where until now +they had feared the reinforcement brought by Demosthenes, and deep, +in consequence, was the despondency of the Athenians, and great their +disappointment, and greater still their regret for having come on the +expedition. These were the only cities that they had yet encountered, +similar to their own in character, under democracies like themselves, +which had ships and horses, and were of considerable magnitude. They had +been unable to divide and bring them over by holding out the prospect +of changes in their governments, or to crush them by their great +superiority in force, but had failed in most of their attempts, and +being already in perplexity, had now been defeated at sea, where +defeat could never have been expected, and were thus plunged deeper in +embarrassment than ever. + +Meanwhile the Syracusans immediately began to sail freely along the +harbour, and determined to close up its mouth, so that the Athenians +might not be able to steal out in future, even if they wished. Indeed, +the Syracusans no longer thought only of saving themselves, but also how +to hinder the escape of the enemy; thinking, and thinking rightly, that +they were now much the stronger, and that to conquer the Athenians and +their allies by land and sea would win them great glory in Hellas. The +rest of the Hellenes would thus immediately be either freed or released +from apprehension, as the remaining forces of Athens would be henceforth +unable to sustain the war that would be waged against her; while they, +the Syracusans, would be regarded as the authors of this deliverance, +and would be held in high admiration, not only with all men now living +but also with posterity. Nor were these the only considerations that +gave dignity to the struggle. They would thus conquer not only the +Athenians but also their numerous allies, and conquer not alone, +but with their companions in arms, commanding side by side with the +Corinthians and Lacedaemonians, having offered their city to stand in +the van of danger, and having been in a great measure the pioneers of +naval success. + +Indeed, there were never so many peoples assembled before a single city, +if we except the grand total gathered together in this war under Athens +and Lacedaemon. The following were the states on either side who came +to Syracuse to fight for or against Sicily, to help to conquer or +defend the island. Right or community of blood was not the bond of union +between them, so much as interest or compulsion as the case might be. +The Athenians themselves being Ionians went against the Dorians of +Syracuse of their own free will; and the peoples still speaking Attic +and using the Athenian laws, the Lemnians, Imbrians, and Aeginetans, +that is to say the then occupants of Aegina, being their colonists, +went with them. To these must be also added the Hestiaeans dwelling +at Hestiaea in Euboea. Of the rest some joined in the expedition as +subjects of the Athenians, others as independent allies, others as +mercenaries. To the number of the subjects paying tribute belonged the +Eretrians, Chalcidians, Styrians, and Carystians from Euboea; the Ceans, +Andrians, and Tenians from the islands; and the Milesians, Samians, and +Chians from Ionia. The Chians, however, joined as independent allies, +paying no tribute, but furnishing ships. Most of these were Ionians and +descended from the Athenians, except the Carystians, who are Dryopes, +and although subjects and obliged to serve, were still Ionians fighting +against Dorians. Besides these there were men of Aeolic race, the +Methymnians, subjects who provided ships, not tribute, and the Tenedians +and Aenians who paid tribute. These Aeolians fought against their +Aeolian founders, the Boeotians in the Syracusan army, because they +were obliged, while the Plataeans, the only native Boeotians opposed to +Boeotians, did so upon a just quarrel. Of the Rhodians and Cytherians, +both Dorians, the latter, Lacedaemonian colonists, fought in the +Athenian ranks against their Lacedaemonian countrymen with Gylippus; +while the Rhodians, Argives by race, were compelled to bear arms against +the Dorian Syracusans and their own colonists, the Geloans, serving with +the Syracusans. Of the islanders round Peloponnese, the Cephallenians +and Zacynthians accompanied the Athenians as independent allies, +although their insular position really left them little choice in +the matter, owing to the maritime supremacy of Athens, while the +Corcyraeans, who were not only Dorians but Corinthians, were openly +serving against Corinthians and Syracusans, although colonists of the +former and of the same race as the latter, under colour of compulsion, +but really out of free will through hatred of Corinth. The Messenians, +as they are now called in Naupactus and from Pylos, then held by the +Athenians, were taken with them to the war. There were also a few +Megarian exiles, whose fate it was to be now fighting against the +Megarian Selinuntines. + +The engagement of the rest was more of a voluntary nature. It was less +the league than hatred of the Lacedaemonians and the immediate private +advantage of each individual that persuaded the Dorian Argives to join +the Ionian Athenians in a war against Dorians; while the Mantineans and +other Arcadian mercenaries, accustomed to go against the enemy pointed +out to them at the moment, were led by interest to regard the Arcadians +serving with the Corinthians as just as much their enemies as any +others. The Cretans and Aetolians also served for hire, and the Cretans +who had joined the Rhodians in founding Gela, thus came to consent to +fight for pay against, instead of for, their colonists. There were also +some Acarnanians paid to serve, although they came chiefly for love of +Demosthenes and out of goodwill to the Athenians whose allies they +were. These all lived on the Hellenic side of the Ionian Gulf. Of the +Italiots, there were the Thurians and Metapontines, dragged into +the quarrel by the stern necessities of a time of revolution; of the +Siceliots, the Naxians and the Catanians; and of the barbarians, the +Egestaeans, who called in the Athenians, most of the Sicels, and outside +Sicily some Tyrrhenian enemies of Syracuse and Iapygian mercenaries. + +Such were the peoples serving with the Athenians. Against these the +Syracusans had the Camarinaeans their neighbours, the Geloans who +live next to them; then passing over the neutral Agrigentines, the +Selinuntines settled on the farther side of the island. These inhabit +the part of Sicily looking towards Libya; the Himeraeans came from the +side towards the Tyrrhenian Sea, being the only Hellenic inhabitants in +that quarter, and the only people that came from thence to the aid of +the Syracusans. Of the Hellenes in Sicily the above peoples joined in +the war, all Dorians and independent, and of the barbarians the Sicels +only, that is to say, such as did not go over to the Athenians. Of the +Hellenes outside Sicily there were the Lacedaemonians, who provided a +Spartan to take the command, and a force of Neodamodes or Freedmen, and +of Helots; the Corinthians, who alone joined with naval and land forces, +with their Leucadian and Ambraciot kinsmen; some mercenaries sent by +Corinth from Arcadia; some Sicyonians forced to serve, and from outside +Peloponnese the Boeotians. In comparison, however, with these foreign +auxiliaries, the great Siceliot cities furnished more in every +department--numbers of heavy infantry, ships, and horses, and an immense +multitude besides having been brought together; while in comparison, +again, one may say, with all the rest put together, more was provided by +the Syracusans themselves, both from the greatness of the city and from +the fact that they were in the greatest danger. + +Such were the auxiliaries brought together on either side, all of which +had by this time joined, neither party experiencing any subsequent +accession. It was no wonder, therefore, if the Syracusans and their +allies thought that it would win them great glory if they could follow +up their recent victory in the sea-fight by the capture of the whole +Athenian armada, without letting it escape either by sea or by land. +They began at once to close up the Great Harbour by means of boats, +merchant vessels, and galleys moored broadside across its mouth, which +is nearly a mile wide, and made all their other arrangements for the +event of the Athenians again venturing to fight at sea. There was, in +fact, nothing little either in their plans or their ideas. + +The Athenians, seeing them closing up the harbour and informed of their +further designs, called a council of war. The generals and colonels +assembled and discussed the difficulties of the situation; the point +which pressed most being that they no longer had provisions for +immediate use (having sent on to Catana to tell them not to send any, in +the belief that they were going away), and that they would not have any +in future unless they could command the sea. They therefore determined +to evacuate their upper lines, to enclose with a cross wall and garrison +a small space close to the ships, only just sufficient to hold their +stores and sick, and manning all the ships, seaworthy or not, with every +man that could be spared from the rest of their land forces, to fight it +out at sea, and, if victorious, to go to Catana, if not, to burn their +vessels, form in close order, and retreat by land for the nearest +friendly place they could reach, Hellenic or barbarian. This was no +sooner settled than carried into effect; they descended gradually from +the upper lines and manned all their vessels, compelling all to go on +board who were of age to be in any way of use. They thus succeeded in +manning about one hundred and ten ships in all, on board of which they +embarked a number of archers and darters taken from the Acarnanians and +from the other foreigners, making all other provisions allowed by the +nature of their plan and by the necessities which imposed it. All was +now nearly ready, and Nicias, seeing the soldiery disheartened by their +unprecedented and decided defeat at sea, and by reason of the scarcity +of provisions eager to fight it out as soon as possible, called them all +together, and first addressed them, speaking as follows: + +"Soldiers of the Athenians and of the allies, we have all an equal +interest in the coming struggle, in which life and country are at stake +for us quite as much as they can be for the enemy; since if our fleet +wins the day, each can see his native city again, wherever that city may +be. You must not lose heart, or be like men without any experience, who +fail in a first essay and ever afterwards fearfully forebode a future +as disastrous. But let the Athenians among you who have already had +experience of many wars, and the allies who have joined us in so many +expeditions, remember the surprises of war, and with the hope that +fortune will not be always against us, prepare to fight again in a +manner worthy of the number which you see yourselves to be. + +"Now, whatever we thought would be of service against the crush of +vessels in such a narrow harbour, and against the force upon the decks +of the enemy, from which we suffered before, has all been considered +with the helmsmen, and, as far as our means allowed, provided. A number +of archers and darters will go on board, and a multitude that we should +not have employed in an action in the open sea, where our science would +be crippled by the weight of the vessels; but in the present land-fight +that we are forced to make from shipboard all this will be useful. We +have also discovered the changes in construction that we must make to +meet theirs; and against the thickness of their cheeks, which did us the +greatest mischief, we have provided grappling-irons, which will prevent +an assailant backing water after charging, if the soldiers on deck here +do their duty; since we are absolutely compelled to fight a land battle +from the fleet, and it seems to be our interest neither to back water +ourselves, nor to let the enemy do so, especially as the shore, except +so much of it as may be held by our troops, is hostile ground. + +"You must remember this and fight on as long as you can, and must not +let yourselves be driven ashore, but once alongside must make up your +minds not to part company until you have swept the heavy infantry from +the enemy's deck. I say this more for the heavy infantry than for the +seamen, as it is more the business of the men on deck; and our land +forces are even now on the whole the strongest. The sailors I advise, +and at the same time implore, not to be too much daunted by their +misfortunes, now that we have our decks better armed and greater number +of vessels. Bear in mind how well worth preserving is the pleasure felt +by those of you who through your knowledge of our language and imitation +of our manners were always considered Athenians, even though not so in +reality, and as such were honoured throughout Hellas, and had your full +share of the advantages of our empire, and more than your share in +the respect of our subjects and in protection from ill treatment. You, +therefore, with whom alone we freely share our empire, we now justly +require not to betray that empire in its extremity, and in scorn of +Corinthians, whom you have often conquered, and of Siceliots, none of +whom so much as presumed to stand against us when our navy was in its +prime, we ask you to repel them, and to show that even in sickness and +disaster your skill is more than a match for the fortune and vigour of +any other. + +"For the Athenians among you I add once more this reflection: You left +behind you no more such ships in your docks as these, no more heavy +infantry in their flower; if you do aught but conquer, our enemies here +will immediately sail thither, and those that are left of us at Athens +will become unable to repel their home assailants, reinforced by +these new allies. Here you will fall at once into the hands of the +Syracusans--I need not remind you of the intentions with which you +attacked them--and your countrymen at home will fall into those of +the Lacedaemonians. Since the fate of both thus hangs upon this single +battle, now, if ever, stand firm, and remember, each and all, that you +who are now going on board are the army and navy of the Athenians, and +all that is left of the state and the great name of Athens, in whose +defence if any man has any advantage in skill or courage, now is the +time for him to show it, and thus serve himself and save all." + +After this address Nicias at once gave orders to man the ships. +Meanwhile Gylippus and the Syracusans could perceive by the preparations +which they saw going on that the Athenians meant to fight at sea. They +had also notice of the grappling-irons, against which they specially +provided by stretching hides over the prows and much of the upper part +of their vessels, in order that the irons when thrown might slip off +without taking hold. All being now ready, the generals and Gylippus +addressed them in the following terms: + +"Syracusans and allies, the glorious character of our past achievements +and the no less glorious results at issue in the coming battle are, +we think, understood by most of you, or you would never have thrown +yourselves with such ardour into the struggle; and if there be any one +not as fully aware of the facts as he ought to be, we will declare them +to him. The Athenians came to this country first to effect the conquest +of Sicily, and after that, if successful, of Peloponnese and the rest of +Hellas, possessing already the greatest empire yet known, of present or +former times, among the Hellenes. Here for the first time they found +in you men who faced their navy which made them masters everywhere; you +have already defeated them in the previous sea-fights, and will in all +likelihood defeat them again now. When men are once checked in what they +consider their special excellence, their whole opinion of themselves +suffers more than if they had not at first believed in their +superiority, the unexpected shock to their pride causing them to give +way more than their real strength warrants; and this is probably now the +case with the Athenians. + +"With us it is different. The original estimate of ourselves which gave +us courage in the days of our unskilfulness has been strengthened, while +the conviction superadded to it that we must be the best seamen of the +time, if we have conquered the best, has given a double measure of +hope to every man among us; and, for the most part, where there is the +greatest hope, there is also the greatest ardour for action. The means +to combat us which they have tried to find in copying our armament are +familiar to our warfare, and will be met by proper provisions; while +they will never be able to have a number of heavy infantry on their +decks, contrary to their custom, and a number of darters (born landsmen, +one may say, Acarnanians and others, embarked afloat, who will not know +how to discharge their weapons when they have to keep still), without +hampering their vessels and falling all into confusion among themselves +through fighting not according to their own tactics. For they will gain +nothing by the number of their ships--I say this to those of you who may +be alarmed by having to fight against odds--as a quantity of ships in a +confined space will only be slower in executing the movements required, +and most exposed to injury from our means of offence. Indeed, if you +would know the plain truth, as we are credibly informed, the excess of +their sufferings and the necessities of their present distress have made +them desperate; they have no confidence in their force, but wish to +try their fortune in the only way they can, and either to force their +passage and sail out, or after this to retreat by land, it being +impossible for them to be worse off than they are. + +"The fortune of our greatest enemies having thus betrayed itself, and +their disorder being what I have described, let us engage in anger, +convinced that, as between adversaries, nothing is more legitimate +than to claim to sate the whole wrath of one's soul in punishing the +aggressor, and nothing more sweet, as the proverb has it, than the +vengeance upon an enemy, which it will now be ours to take. That enemies +they are and mortal enemies you all know, since they came here to +enslave our country, and if successful had in reserve for our men all +that is most dreadful, and for our children and wives all that is +most dishonourable, and for the whole city the name which conveys the +greatest reproach. None should therefore relent or think it gain if they +go away without further danger to us. This they will do just the same, +even if they get the victory; while if we succeed, as we may expect, in +chastising them, and in handing down to all Sicily her ancient freedom +strengthened and confirmed, we shall have achieved no mean triumph. And +the rarest dangers are those in which failure brings little loss and +success the greatest advantage." + +After the above address to the soldiers on their side, the Syracusan +generals and Gylippus now perceived that the Athenians were manning +their ships, and immediately proceeded to man their own also. Meanwhile +Nicias, appalled by the position of affairs, realizing the greatness and +the nearness of the danger now that they were on the point of putting +out from shore, and thinking, as men are apt to think in great crises, +that when all has been done they have still something left to do, and +when all has been said that they have not yet said enough, again called +on the captains one by one, addressing each by his father's name and by +his own, and by that of his tribe, and adjured them not to belie their +own personal renown, or to obscure the hereditary virtues for which +their ancestors were illustrious: he reminded them of their country, the +freest of the free, and of the unfettered discretion allowed in it to +all to live as they pleased; and added other arguments such as men would +use at such a crisis, and which, with little alteration, are made to +serve on all occasions alike--appeals to wives, children, and national +gods--without caring whether they are thought commonplace, but +loudly invoking them in the belief that they will be of use in the +consternation of the moment. Having thus admonished them, not, he felt, +as he would, but as he could, Nicias withdrew and led the troops to the +sea, and ranged them in as long a line as he was able, in order to aid +as far as possible in sustaining the courage of the men afloat; while +Demosthenes, Menander, and Euthydemus, who took the command on board, +put out from their own camp and sailed straight to the barrier across +the mouth of the harbour and to the passage left open, to try to force +their way out. + +The Syracusans and their allies had already put out with about the same +number of ships as before, a part of which kept guard at the outlet, and +the remainder all round the rest of the harbour, in order to attack the +Athenians on all sides at once; while the land forces held themselves in +readiness at the points at which the vessels might put into the shore. +The Syracusan fleet was commanded by Sicanus and Agatharchus, who had +each a wing of the whole force, with Pythen and the Corinthians in the +centre. When the rest of the Athenians came up to the barrier, with the +first shock of their charge they overpowered the ships stationed there, +and tried to undo the fastenings; after this, as the Syracusans and +allies bore down upon them from all quarters, the action spread from the +barrier over the whole harbour, and was more obstinately disputed than +any of the preceding ones. On either side the rowers showed great zeal +in bringing up their vessels at the boatswains' orders, and the helmsmen +great skill in manoeuvring, and great emulation one with another; while +the ships once alongside, the soldiers on board did their best not to +let the service on deck be outdone by the others; in short, every man +strove to prove himself the first in his particular department. And as +many ships were engaged in a small compass (for these were the largest +fleets fighting in the narrowest space ever known, being together little +short of two hundred), the regular attacks with the beak were few, there +being no opportunity of backing water or of breaking the line; while the +collisions caused by one ship chancing to run foul of another, either +in flying from or attacking a third, were more frequent. So long as a +vessel was coming up to the charge the men on the decks rained darts and +arrows and stones upon her; but once alongside, the heavy infantry tried +to board each other's vessel, fighting hand to hand. In many quarters +it happened, by reason of the narrow room, that a vessel was charging an +enemy on one side and being charged herself on another, and that two or +sometimes more ships had perforce got entangled round one, obliging the +helmsmen to attend to defence here, offence there, not to one thing at +once, but to many on all sides; while the huge din caused by the number +of ships crashing together not only spread terror, but made the orders +of the boatswains inaudible. The boatswains on either side in the +discharge of their duty and in the heat of the conflict shouted +incessantly orders and appeals to their men; the Athenians they urged to +force the passage out, and now if ever to show their mettle and lay hold +of a safe return to their country; to the Syracusans and their allies +they cried that it would be glorious to prevent the escape of the enemy, +and, conquering, to exalt the countries that were theirs. The generals, +moreover, on either side, if they saw any in any part of the battle +backing ashore without being forced to do so, called out to the captain +by name and asked him--the Athenians, whether they were retreating +because they thought the thrice hostile shore more their own than that +sea which had cost them so much labour to win; the Syracusans, whether +they were flying from the flying Athenians, whom they well knew to be +eager to escape in whatever way they could. + +Meanwhile the two armies on shore, while victory hung in the balance, +were a prey to the most agonizing and conflicting emotions; the natives +thirsting for more glory than they had already won, while the invaders +feared to find themselves in even worse plight than before. The all of +the Athenians being set upon their fleet, their fear for the event was +like nothing they had ever felt; while their view of the struggle was +necessarily as chequered as the battle itself. Close to the scene of +action and not all looking at the same point at once, some saw their +friends victorious and took courage and fell to calling upon heaven not +to deprive them of salvation, while others who had their eyes turned +upon the losers, wailed and cried aloud, and, although spectators, were +more overcome than the actual combatants. Others, again, were gazing +at some spot where the battle was evenly disputed; as the strife +was protracted without decision, their swaying bodies reflected the +agitation of their minds, and they suffered the worst agony of all, +ever just within reach of safety or just on the point of destruction. +In short, in that one Athenian army as long as the sea-fight remained +doubtful there was every sound to be heard at once, shrieks, cheers, "We +win," "We lose," and all the other manifold exclamations that a great +host would necessarily utter in great peril; and with the men in the +fleet it was nearly the same; until at last the Syracusans and their +allies, after the battle had lasted a long while, put the Athenians to +flight, and with much shouting and cheering chased them in open rout to +the shore. The naval force, one one way, one another, as many as were +not taken afloat now ran ashore and rushed from on board their ships +to their camp; while the army, no more divided, but carried away by one +impulse, all with shrieks and groans deplored the event, and ran down, +some to help the ships, others to guard what was left of their wall, +while the remaining and most numerous part already began to consider how +they should save themselves. Indeed, the panic of the present moment +had never been surpassed. They now suffered very nearly what they had +inflicted at Pylos; as then the Lacedaemonians with the loss of their +fleet lost also the men who had crossed over to the island, so now the +Athenians had no hope of escaping by land, without the help of some +extraordinary accident. + +The sea-fight having been a severe one, and many ships and lives having +been lost on both sides, the victorious Syracusans and their allies now +picked up their wrecks and dead, and sailed off to the city and set up +a trophy. The Athenians, overwhelmed by their misfortune, never even +thought of asking leave to take up their dead or wrecks, but wished to +retreat that very night. Demosthenes, however, went to Nicias and gave +it as his opinion that they should man the ships they had left and make +another effort to force their passage out next morning; saying that they +had still left more ships fit for service than the enemy, the Athenians +having about sixty remaining as against less than fifty of their +opponents. Nicias was quite of his mind; but when they wished to man the +vessels, the sailors refused to go on board, being so utterly overcome +by their defeat as no longer to believe in the possibility of success. + +Accordingly they all now made up their minds to retreat by land. +Meanwhile the Syracusan Hermocrates--suspecting their intention, and +impressed by the danger of allowing a force of that magnitude to retire +by land, establish itself in some other part of Sicily, and from thence +renew the war--went and stated his views to the authorities, and pointed +out to them that they ought not to let the enemy get away by night, but +that all the Syracusans and their allies should at once march out and +block up the roads and seize and guard the passes. The authorities were +entirely of his opinion, and thought that it ought to be done, but on +the other hand felt sure that the people, who had given themselves over +to rejoicing, and were taking their ease after a great battle at sea, +would not be easily brought to obey; besides, they were celebrating a +festival, having on that day a sacrifice to Heracles, and most of them +in their rapture at the victory had fallen to drinking at the festival, +and would probably consent to anything sooner than to take up their +arms and march out at that moment. For these reasons the thing appeared +impracticable to the magistrates; and Hermocrates, finding himself +unable to do anything further with them, had now recourse to the +following stratagem of his own. What he feared was that the Athenians +might quietly get the start of them by passing the most difficult places +during the night; and he therefore sent, as soon as it was dusk, some +friends of his own to the camp with some horsemen who rode up within +earshot and called out to some of the men, as though they were +well-wishers of the Athenians, and told them to tell Nicias (who had +in fact some correspondents who informed him of what went on inside the +town) not to lead off the army by night as the Syracusans were guarding +the roads, but to make his preparations at his leisure and to retreat +by day. After saying this they departed; and their hearers informed the +Athenian generals, who put off going for that night on the strength of +this message, not doubting its sincerity. + +Since after all they had not set out at once, they now determined to +stay also the following day to give time to the soldiers to pack up as +well as they could the most useful articles, and, leaving everything +else behind, to start only with what was strictly necessary for their +personal subsistence. Meanwhile the Syracusans and Gylippus marched out +and blocked up the roads through the country by which the Athenians were +likely to pass, and kept guard at the fords of the streams and rivers, +posting themselves so as to receive them and stop the army where they +thought best; while their fleet sailed up to the beach and towed off the +ships of the Athenians. Some few were burned by the Athenians themselves +as they had intended; the rest the Syracusans lashed on to their own +at their leisure as they had been thrown up on shore, without any one +trying to stop them, and conveyed to the town. + +After this, Nicias and Demosthenes now thinking that enough had been +done in the way of preparation, the removal of the army took place +upon the second day after the sea-fight. It was a lamentable scene, +not merely from the single circumstance that they were retreating after +having lost all their ships, their great hopes gone, and themselves and +the state in peril; but also in leaving the camp there were things most +grievous for every eye and heart to contemplate. The dead lay unburied, +and each man as he recognized a friend among them shuddered with grief +and horror; while the living whom they were leaving behind, wounded or +sick, were to the living far more shocking than the dead, and more to +be pitied than those who had perished. These fell to entreating and +bewailing until their friends knew not what to do, begging them to take +them and loudly calling to each individual comrade or relative whom they +could see, hanging upon the necks of their tent-fellows in the act of +departure, and following as far as they could, and, when their bodily +strength failed them, calling again and again upon heaven and shrieking +aloud as they were left behind. So that the whole army being filled with +tears and distracted after this fashion found it not easy to go, even +from an enemy's land, where they had already suffered evils too great +for tears and in the unknown future before them feared to suffer more. +Dejection and self-condemnation were also rife among them. Indeed they +could only be compared to a starved-out town, and that no small one, +escaping; the whole multitude upon the march being not less than forty +thousand men. All carried anything they could which might be of use, +and the heavy infantry and troopers, contrary to their wont, while under +arms carried their own victuals, in some cases for want of servants, in +others through not trusting them; as they had long been deserting and +now did so in greater numbers than ever. Yet even thus they did not +carry enough, as there was no longer food in the camp. Moreover their +disgrace generally, and the universality of their sufferings, however to +a certain extent alleviated by being borne in company, were still +felt at the moment a heavy burden, especially when they contrasted the +splendour and glory of their setting out with the humiliation in which +it had ended. For this was by far the greatest reverse that ever befell +an Hellenic army. They had come to enslave others, and were departing in +fear of being enslaved themselves: they had sailed out with prayer +and paeans, and now started to go back with omens directly contrary; +travelling by land instead of by sea, and trusting not in their fleet +but in their heavy infantry. Nevertheless the greatness of the danger +still impending made all this appear tolerable. + +Nicias seeing the army dejected and greatly altered, passed along the +ranks and encouraged and comforted them as far as was possible under the +circumstances, raising his voice still higher and higher as he went from +one company to another in his earnestness, and in his anxiety that the +benefit of his words might reach as many as possible: + +"Athenians and allies, even in our present position we must still hope +on, since men have ere now been saved from worse straits than this; +and you must not condemn yourselves too severely either because of your +disasters or because of your present unmerited sufferings. I myself who +am not superior to any of you in strength--indeed you see how I am in +my sickness--and who in the gifts of fortune am, I think, whether in +private life or otherwise, the equal of any, am now exposed to the same +danger as the meanest among you; and yet my life has been one of much +devotion toward the gods, and of much justice and without offence toward +men. I have, therefore, still a strong hope for the future, and our +misfortunes do not terrify me as much as they might. Indeed we may hope +that they will be lightened: our enemies have had good fortune enough; +and if any of the gods was offended at our expedition, we have been +already amply punished. Others before us have attacked their neighbours +and have done what men will do without suffering more than they could +bear; and we may now justly expect to find the gods more kind, for we +have become fitter objects for their pity than their jealousy. And +then look at yourselves, mark the numbers and efficiency of the heavy +infantry marching in your ranks, and do not give way too much to +despondency, but reflect that you are yourselves at once a city wherever +you sit down, and that there is no other in Sicily that could easily +resist your attack, or expel you when once established. The safety and +order of the march is for yourselves to look to; the one thought of +each man being that the spot on which he may be forced to fight must +be conquered and held as his country and stronghold. Meanwhile we shall +hasten on our way night and day alike, as our provisions are scanty; +and if we can reach some friendly place of the Sicels, whom fear of the +Syracusans still keeps true to us, you may forthwith consider yourselves +safe. A message has been sent on to them with directions to meet us with +supplies of food. To sum up, be convinced, soldiers, that you must be +brave, as there is no place near for your cowardice to take refuge in, +and that if you now escape from the enemy, you may all see again what +your hearts desire, while those of you who are Athenians will raise up +again the great power of the state, fallen though it be. Men make the +city and not walls or ships without men in them." + +As he made this address, Nicias went along the ranks, and brought back +to their place any of the troops that he saw straggling out of the line; +while Demosthenes did as much for his part of the army, addressing them +in words very similar. The army marched in a hollow square, the division +under Nicias leading, and that of Demosthenes following, the heavy +infantry being outside and the baggage-carriers and the bulk of the army +in the middle. When they arrived at the ford of the river Anapus there +they found drawn up a body of the Syracusans and allies, and routing +these, made good their passage and pushed on, harassed by the charges of +the Syracusan horse and by the missiles of their light troops. On that +day they advanced about four miles and a half, halting for the night +upon a certain hill. On the next they started early and got on about +two miles further, and descended into a place in the plain and there +encamped, in order to procure some eatables from the houses, as the +place was inhabited, and to carry on with them water from thence, as for +many furlongs in front, in the direction in which they were going, it +was not plentiful. The Syracusans meanwhile went on and fortified the +pass in front, where there was a steep hill with a rocky ravine on +each side of it, called the Acraean cliff. The next day the Athenians +advancing found themselves impeded by the missiles and charges of the +horse and darters, both very numerous, of the Syracusans and allies; +and after fighting for a long while, at length retired to the same camp, +where they had no longer provisions as before, it being impossible to +leave their position by reason of the cavalry. + +Early next morning they started afresh and forced their way to the +hill, which had been fortified, where they found before them the enemy's +infantry drawn up many shields deep to defend the fortification, the +pass being narrow. The Athenians assaulted the work, but were greeted +by a storm of missiles from the hill, which told with the greater +effect through its being a steep one, and unable to force the passage, +retreated again and rested. Meanwhile occurred some claps of thunder and +rain, as often happens towards autumn, which still further disheartened +the Athenians, who thought all these things to be omens of their +approaching ruin. While they were resting, Gylippus and the Syracusans +sent a part of their army to throw up works in their rear on the way by +which they had advanced; however, the Athenians immediately sent some +of their men and prevented them; after which they retreated more towards +the plain and halted for the night. When they advanced the next day the +Syracusans surrounded and attacked them on every side, and disabled many +of them, falling back if the Athenians advanced and coming on if they +retired, and in particular assaulting their rear, in the hope of routing +them in detail, and thus striking a panic into the whole army. For a +long while the Athenians persevered in this fashion, but after advancing +for four or five furlongs halted to rest in the plain, the Syracusans +also withdrawing to their own camp. + +During the night Nicias and Demosthenes, seeing the wretched condition +of their troops, now in want of every kind of necessary, and numbers of +them disabled in the numerous attacks of the enemy, determined to light +as many fires as possible, and to lead off the army, no longer by the +same route as they had intended, but towards the sea in the opposite +direction to that guarded by the Syracusans. The whole of this route was +leading the army not to Catana but to the other side of Sicily, towards +Camarina, Gela, and the other Hellenic and barbarian towns in that +quarter. They accordingly lit a number of fires and set out by night. +Now all armies, and the greatest most of all, are liable to fears and +alarms, especially when they are marching by night through an enemy's +country and with the enemy near; and the Athenians falling into one of +these panics, the leading division, that of Nicias, kept together and +got on a good way in front, while that of Demosthenes, comprising rather +more than half the army, got separated and marched on in some disorder. +By morning, however, they reached the sea, and getting into the Helorine +road, pushed on in order to reach the river Cacyparis, and to follow the +stream up through the interior, where they hoped to be met by the Sicels +whom they had sent for. Arrived at the river, they found there also a +Syracusan party engaged in barring the passage of the ford with a wall +and a palisade, and forcing this guard, crossed the river and went on to +another called the Erineus, according to the advice of their guides. + +Meanwhile, when day came and the Syracusans and allies found that the +Athenians were gone, most of them accused Gylippus of having let them +escape on purpose, and hastily pursuing by the road which they had +no difficulty in finding that they had taken, overtook them about +dinner-time. They first came up with the troops under Demosthenes, who +were behind and marching somewhat slowly and in disorder, owing to the +night panic above referred to, and at once attacked and engaged them, +the Syracusan horse surrounding them with more ease now that they were +separated from the rest and hemming them in on one spot. The division of +Nicias was five or six miles on in front, as he led them more rapidly, +thinking that under the circumstances their safety lay not in staying +and fighting, unless obliged, but in retreating as fast as possible, and +only fighting when forced to do so. On the other hand, Demosthenes was, +generally speaking, harassed more incessantly, as his post in the rear +left him the first exposed to the attacks of the enemy; and now, finding +that the Syracusans were in pursuit, he omitted to push on, in order to +form his men for battle, and so lingered until he was surrounded by +his pursuers and himself and the Athenians with him placed in the most +distressing position, being huddled into an enclosure with a wall all +round it, a road on this side and on that, and olive-trees in great +number, where missiles were showered in upon them from every quarter. +This mode of attack the Syracusans had with good reason adopted in +preference to fighting at close quarters, as to risk a struggle with +desperate men was now more for the advantage of the Athenians than for +their own; besides, their success had now become so certain that they +began to spare themselves a little in order not to be cut off in the +moment of victory, thinking too that, as it was, they would be able in +this way to subdue and capture the enemy. + +In fact, after plying the Athenians and allies all day long from every +side with missiles, they at length saw that they were worn out with +their wounds and other sufferings; and Gylippus and the Syracusans and +their allies made a proclamation, offering their liberty to any of the +islanders who chose to come over to them; and some few cities went +over. Afterwards a capitulation was agreed upon for all the rest with +Demosthenes, to lay down their arms on condition that no one was to +be put to death either by violence or imprisonment or want of the +necessaries of life. Upon this they surrendered to the number of six +thousand in all, laying down all the money in their possession, which +filled the hollows of four shields, and were immediately conveyed by the +Syracusans to the town. + +Meanwhile Nicias with his division arrived that day at the river +Erineus, crossed over, and posted his army upon some high ground upon +the other side. The next day the Syracusans overtook him and told him +that the troops under Demosthenes had surrendered, and invited him to +follow their example. Incredulous of the fact, Nicias asked for a truce +to send a horseman to see, and upon the return of the messenger with +the tidings that they had surrendered, sent a herald to Gylippus and the +Syracusans, saying that he was ready to agree with them on behalf of the +Athenians to repay whatever money the Syracusans had spent upon the war +if they would let his army go; and offered until the money was paid to +give Athenians as hostages, one for every talent. The Syracusans and +Gylippus rejected this proposition, and attacked this division as they +had the other, standing all round and plying them with missiles until +the evening. Food and necessaries were as miserably wanting to the +troops of Nicias as they had been to their comrades; nevertheless they +watched for the quiet of the night to resume their march. But as they +were taking up their arms the Syracusans perceived it and raised their +paean, upon which the Athenians, finding that they were discovered, laid +them down again, except about three hundred men who forced their way +through the guards and went on during the night as they were able. + +As soon as it was day Nicias put his army in motion, pressed, as before, +by the Syracusans and their allies, pelted from every side by their +missiles, and struck down by their javelins. The Athenians pushed on for +the Assinarus, impelled by the attacks made upon them from every side +by a numerous cavalry and the swarm of other arms, fancying that they +should breathe more freely if once across the river, and driven on also +by their exhaustion and craving for water. Once there they rushed in, +and all order was at an end, each man wanting to cross first, and the +attacks of the enemy making it difficult to cross at all; forced to +huddle together, they fell against and trod down one another, some dying +immediately upon the javelins, others getting entangled together and +stumbling over the articles of baggage, without being able to rise +again. Meanwhile the opposite bank, which was steep, was lined by the +Syracusans, who showered missiles down upon the Athenians, most of them +drinking greedily and heaped together in disorder in the hollow bed +of the river. The Peloponnesians also came down and butchered them, +especially those in the water, which was thus immediately spoiled, but +which they went on drinking just the same, mud and all, bloody as it +was, most even fighting to have it. + +At last, when many dead now lay piled one upon another in the stream, +and part of the army had been destroyed at the river, and the few that +escaped from thence cut off by the cavalry, Nicias surrendered himself +to Gylippus, whom he trusted more than he did the Syracusans, and told +him and the Lacedaemonians to do what they liked with him, but to stop +the slaughter of the soldiers. Gylippus, after this, immediately gave +orders to make prisoners; upon which the rest were brought together +alive, except a large number secreted by the soldiery, and a party +was sent in pursuit of the three hundred who had got through the guard +during the night, and who were now taken with the rest. The number of +the enemy collected as public property was not considerable; but +that secreted was very large, and all Sicily was filled with them, +no convention having been made in their case as for those taken with +Demosthenes. Besides this, a large portion were killed outright, the +carnage being very great, and not exceeded by any in this Sicilian war. +In the numerous other encounters upon the march, not a few also had +fallen. Nevertheless many escaped, some at the moment, others served as +slaves, and then ran away subsequently. These found refuge at Catana. + +The Syracusans and their allies now mustered and took up the spoils and +as many prisoners as they could, and went back to the city. The rest of +their Athenian and allied captives were deposited in the quarries, this +seeming the safest way of keeping them; but Nicias and Demosthenes were +butchered, against the will of Gylippus, who thought that it would +be the crown of his triumph if he could take the enemy's generals to +Lacedaemon. One of them, as it happened, Demosthenes, was one of her +greatest enemies, on account of the affair of the island and of Pylos; +while the other, Nicias, was for the same reasons one of her greatest +friends, owing to his exertions to procure the release of the prisoners +by persuading the Athenians to make peace. For these reasons the +Lacedaemonians felt kindly towards him; and it was in this that Nicias +himself mainly confided when he surrendered to Gylippus. But some of the +Syracusans who had been in correspondence with him were afraid, it was +said, of his being put to the torture and troubling their success by his +revelations; others, especially the Corinthians, of his escaping, as he +was wealthy, by means of bribes, and living to do them further mischief; +and these persuaded the allies and put him to death. This or the like +was the cause of the death of a man who, of all the Hellenes in my time, +least deserved such a fate, seeing that the whole course of his life had +been regulated with strict attention to virtue. + +The prisoners in the quarries were at first hardly treated by the +Syracusans. Crowded in a narrow hole, without any roof to cover them, +the heat of the sun and the stifling closeness of the air tormented them +during the day, and then the nights, which came on autumnal and chilly, +made them ill by the violence of the change; besides, as they had to do +everything in the same place for want of room, and the bodies of those +who died of their wounds or from the variation in the temperature, +or from similar causes, were left heaped together one upon another, +intolerable stenches arose; while hunger and thirst never ceased to +afflict them, each man during eight months having only half a pint of +water and a pint of corn given him daily. In short, no single suffering +to be apprehended by men thrust into such a place was spared them. For +some seventy days they thus lived all together, after which all, except +the Athenians and any Siceliots or Italiots who had joined in the +expedition, were sold. The total number of prisoners taken it would be +difficult to state exactly, but it could not have been less than seven +thousand. + +This was the greatest Hellenic achievement of any in thig war, or, in my +opinion, in Hellenic history; at once most glorious to the victors, and +most calamitous to the conquered. They were beaten at all points and +altogether; all that they suffered was great; they were destroyed, +as the saying is, with a total destruction, their fleet, their army, +everything was destroyed, and few out of many returned home. Such were +the events in Sicily. + + + + +BOOK VIII + +CHAPTER XXIV + +_Nineteenth and Twentieth Years of the War--Revolt of Ionia-- +Intervention of Persia--The War in Ionia_ + +When the news was brought to Athens, for a long while they disbelieved +even the most respectable of the soldiers who had themselves escaped +from the scene of action and clearly reported the matter, a destruction +so complete not being thought credible. When the conviction was forced +upon them, they were angry with the orators who had joined in promoting +the expedition, just as if they had not themselves voted it, and were +enraged also with the reciters of oracles and soothsayers, and all +other omen-mongers of the time who had encouraged them to hope that +they should conquer Sicily. Already distressed at all points and in all +quarters, after what had now happened, they were seized by a fear and +consternation quite without example. It was grievous enough for the +state and for every man in his proper person to lose so many heavy +infantry, cavalry, and able-bodied troops, and to see none left to +replace them; but when they saw, also, that they had not sufficient +ships in their docks, or money in the treasury, or crews for the ships, +they began to despair of salvation. They thought that their enemies in +Sicily would immediately sail with their fleet against Piraeus, inflamed +by so signal a victory; while their adversaries at home, redoubling +all their preparations, would vigorously attack them by sea and land at +once, aided by their own revolted confederates. Nevertheless, with +such means as they had, it was determined to resist to the last, and to +provide timber and money, and to equip a fleet as they best could, to +take steps to secure their confederates and above all Euboea, to reform +things in the city upon a more economical footing, and to elect a board +of elders to advise upon the state of affairs as occasion should arise. +In short, as is the way of a democracy, in the panic of the moment they +were ready to be as prudent as possible. + +These resolves were at once carried into effect. Summer was now over. +The winter ensuing saw all Hellas stirring under the impression of +the great Athenian disaster in Sicily. Neutrals now felt that even if +uninvited they ought no longer to stand aloof from the war, but should +volunteer to march against the Athenians, who, as they severally +reflected, would probably have come against them if the Sicilian +campaign had succeeded. Besides, they considered that the war would now +be short, and that it would be creditable for them to take part in it. +Meanwhile the allies of the Lacedaemonians felt all more anxious than +ever to see a speedy end to their heavy labours. But above all, the +subjects of the Athenians showed a readiness to revolt even beyond their +ability, judging the circumstances with passion, and refusing even to +hear of the Athenians being able to last out the coming summer. Beyond +all this, Lacedaemon was encouraged by the near prospect of being joined +in great force in the spring by her allies in Sicily, lately forced by +events to acquire their navy. With these reasons for confidence in every +quarter, the Lacedaemonians now resolved to throw themselves without +reserve into the war, considering that, once it was happily terminated, +they would be finally delivered from such dangers as that which would +have threatened them from Athens, if she had become mistress of Sicily, +and that the overthrow of the Athenians would leave them in quiet +enjoyment of the supremacy over all Hellas. + +Their king, Agis, accordingly set out at once during this winter with +some troops from Decelea, and levied from the allies contributions for +the fleet, and turning towards the Malian Gulf exacted a sum of money +from the Oetaeans by carrying off most of their cattle in reprisal for +their old hostility, and, in spite of the protests and opposition of the +Thessalians, forced the Achaeans of Phthiotis and the other subjects +of the Thessalians in those parts to give him money and hostages, and +deposited the hostages at Corinth, and tried to bring their countrymen +into the confederacy. The Lacedaemonians now issued a requisition to the +cities for building a hundred ships, fixing their own quota and that +of the Boeotians at twenty-five each; that of the Phocians and Locrians +together at fifteen; that of the Corinthians at fifteen; that of the +Arcadians, Pellenians, and Sicyonians together at ten; and that of the +Megarians, Troezenians, Epidaurians, and Hermionians together at +ten also; and meanwhile made every other preparation for commencing +hostilities by the spring. + +In the meantime the Athenians were not idle. During this same winter, +as they had determined, they contributed timber and pushed on their +ship-building, and fortified Sunium to enable their corn-ships to round +it in safety, and evacuated the fort in Laconia which they had built on +their way to Sicily; while they also, for economy, cut down any other +expenses that seemed unnecessary, and above all kept a careful look-out +against the revolt of their confederates. + +While both parties were thus engaged, and were as intent upon preparing +for the war as they had been at the outset, the Euboeans first of all +sent envoys during this winter to Agis to treat of their revolting from +Athens. Agis accepted their proposals, and sent for Alcamenes, son of +Sthenelaidas, and Melanthus from Lacedaemon, to take the command in +Euboea. These accordingly arrived with some three hundred Neodamodes, +and Agis began to arrange for their crossing over. But in the meanwhile +arrived some Lesbians, who also wished to revolt; and these being +supported by the Boeotians, Agis was persuaded to defer acting in the +matter of Euboea, and made arrangements for the revolt of the Lesbians, +giving them Alcamenes, who was to have sailed to Euboea, as governor, +and himself promising them ten ships, and the Boeotians the same number. +All this was done without instructions from home, as Agis while at +Decelea with the army that he commanded had power to send troops to +whatever quarter he pleased, and to levy men and money. During this +period, one might say, the allies obeyed him much more than they did the +Lacedaemonians in the city, as the force he had with him made him feared +at once wherever he went. While Agis was engaged with the Lesbians, the +Chians and Erythraeans, who were also ready to revolt, applied, not to +him but at Lacedaemon; where they arrived accompanied by an ambassador +from Tissaphernes, the commander of King Darius, son of Artaxerxes, in +the maritime districts, who invited the Peloponnesians to come over, and +promised to maintain their army. The King had lately called upon him +for the tribute from his government, for which he was in arrears, being +unable to raise it from the Hellenic towns by reason of the Athenians; +and he therefore calculated that by weakening the Athenians he should +get the tribute better paid, and should also draw the Lacedaemonians +into alliance with the King; and by this means, as the King had +commanded him, take alive or dead Amorges, the bastard son of +Pissuthnes, who was in rebellion on the coast of Caria. + +While the Chians and Tissaphernes thus joined to effect the same +object, about the same time Calligeitus, son of Laophon, a Megarian, +and Timagoras, son of Athenagoras, a Cyzicene, both of them exiles from +their country and living at the court of Pharnabazus, son of Pharnaces, +arrived at Lacedaemon upon a mission from Pharnabazus, to procure a +fleet for the Hellespont; by means of which, if possible, he might +himself effect the object of Tissaphernes' ambition and cause the cities +in his government to revolt from the Athenians, and so get the +tribute, and by his own agency obtain for the King the alliance of the +Lacedaemonians. + +The emissaries of Pharnabazus and Tissaphernes treating apart, a keen +competition now ensued at Lacedaemon as to whether a fleet and army +should be sent first to Ionia and Chios, or to the Hellespont. The +Lacedaemonians, however, decidedly favoured the Chians and Tissaphernes, +who were seconded by Alcibiades, the family friend of Endius, one of the +ephors for that year. Indeed, this is how their house got its Laconic +name, Alcibiades being the family name of Endius. Nevertheless the +Lacedaemonians first sent to Chios Phrynis, one of the Perioeci, to +see whether they had as many ships as they said, and whether their city +generally was as great as was reported; and upon his bringing word that +they had been told the truth, immediately entered into alliance with the +Chians and Erythraeans, and voted to send them forty ships, there being +already, according to the statement of the Chians, not less than sixty +in the island. At first the Lacedaemonians meant to send ten of these +forty themselves, with Melanchridas their admiral; but afterwards, +an earthquake having occurred, they sent Chalcideus instead of +Melanchridas, and instead of the ten ships equipped only five in +Laconia. And the winter ended, and with it ended also the nineteenth +year of this war of which Thucydides is the historian. + +At the beginning of the next summer the Chians were urging that the +fleet should be sent off, being afraid that the Athenians, from whom all +these embassies were kept a secret, might find out what was going on, +and the Lacedaemonians at once sent three Spartans to Corinth to haul +the ships as quickly as possible across the Isthmus from the other sea +to that on the side of Athens, and to order them all to sail to Chios, +those which Agis was equipping for Lesbos not excepted. The number of +ships from the allied states was thirty-nine in all. + +Meanwhile Calligeitus and Timagoras did not join on behalf of +Pharnabazus in the expedition to Chios or give the money--twenty-five +talents--which they had brought with them to help in dispatching +a force, but determined to sail afterwards with another force by +themselves. Agis, on the other hand, seeing the Lacedaemonians bent upon +going to Chios first, himself came in to their views; and the allies +assembled at Corinth and held a council, in which they decided to sail +first to Chios under the command of Chalcideus, who was equipping the +five vessels in Laconia, then to Lesbos, under the command of Alcamenes, +the same whom Agis had fixed upon, and lastly to go to the Hellespont, +where the command was given to Clearchus, son of Ramphias. Meanwhile +they would take only half the ships across the Isthmus first, and let +those sail off at once, in order that the Athenians might attend less to +the departing squadron than to those to be taken across afterwards, as +no care had been taken to keep this voyage secret through contempt of +the impotence of the Athenians, who had as yet no fleet of any account +upon the sea. Agreeably to this determination, twenty-one vessels were +at once conveyed across the Isthmus. + +They were now impatient to set sail, but the Corinthians were not +willing to accompany them until they had celebrated the Isthmian +festival, which fell at that time. Upon this Agis proposed to them to +save their scruples about breaking the Isthmian truce by taking the +expedition upon himself. The Corinthians not consenting to this, a delay +ensued, during which the Athenians conceived suspicions of what was +preparing at Chios, and sent Aristocrates, one of their generals, and +charged them with the fact, and, upon the denial of the Chians, ordered +them to send with them a contingent of ships, as faithful confederates. +Seven were sent accordingly. The reason of the dispatch of the ships +lay in the fact that the mass of the Chians were not privy to the +negotiations, while the few who were in the secret did not wish to break +with the multitude until they had something positive to lean upon, +and no longer expected the Peloponnesians to arrive by reason of their +delay. + +In the meantime the Isthmian games took place, and the Athenians, who +had been also invited, went to attend them, and now seeing more clearly +into the designs of the Chians, as soon as they returned to Athens took +measures to prevent the fleet putting out from Cenchreae without +their knowledge. After the festival the Peloponnesians set sail +with twenty-one ships for Chios, under the command of Alcamenes. The +Athenians first sailed against them with an equal number, drawing off +towards the open sea. The enemy, however, turning back before he had +followed them far, the Athenians returned also, not trusting the seven +Chian ships which formed part of their number, and afterwards manned +thirty-seven vessels in all and chased him on his passage alongshore +into Spiraeum, a desert Corinthian port on the edge of the Epidaurian +frontier. After losing one ship out at sea, the Peloponnesians got the +rest together and brought them to anchor. The Athenians now attacked not +only from the sea with their fleet, but also disembarked upon the coast; +and a melee ensued of the most confused and violent kind, in which the +Athenians disabled most of the enemy's vessels and killed Alcamenes +their commander, losing also a few of their own men. + +After this they separated, and the Athenians, detaching a sufficient +number of ships to blockade those of the enemy, anchored with the rest +at the islet adjacent, upon which they proceeded to encamp, and sent to +Athens for reinforcements; the Peloponnesians having been joined on the +day after the battle by the Corinthians, who came to help the ships, and +by the other inhabitants in the vicinity not long afterwards. These +saw the difficulty of keeping guard in a desert place, and in their +perplexity at first thought of burning the ships, but finally resolved +to haul them up on shore and sit down and guard them with their land +forces until a convenient opportunity for escaping should present +itself. Agis also, on being informed of the disaster, sent them a +Spartan of the name of Thermon. The Lacedaemonians first received the +news of the fleet having put out from the Isthmus, Alcamenes having been +ordered by the ephors to send off a horseman when this took place, +and immediately resolved to dispatch their own five vessels under +Chalcideus, and Alcibiades with him. But while they were full of this +resolution came the second news of the fleet having taken refuge in +Spiraeum; and disheartened at their first step in the Ionian war proving +a failure, they laid aside the idea of sending the ships from their own +country, and even wished to recall some that had already sailed. + +Perceiving this, Alcibiades again persuaded Endius and the other ephors +to persevere in the expedition, saying that the voyage would be made +before the Chians heard of the fleet's misfortune, and that as soon as +he set foot in Ionia, he should, by assuring them of the weakness of the +Athenians and the zeal of Lacedaemon, have no difficulty in persuading +the cities to revolt, as they would readily believe his testimony. He +also represented to Endius himself in private that it would be glorious +for him to be the means of making Ionia revolt and the King become the +ally of Lacedaemon, instead of that honour being left to Agis (Agis, +it must be remembered, was the enemy of Alcibiades); and Endius and his +colleagues thus persuaded, he put to sea with the five ships and the +Lacedaemonian Chalcideus, and made all haste upon the voyage. + +About this time the sixteen Peloponnesian ships from Sicily, which had +served through the war with Gylippus, were caught on their return off +Leucadia and roughly handled by the twenty-seven Athenian vessels under +Hippocles, son of Menippus, on the lookout for the ships from Sicily. +After losing one of their number, the rest escaped from the Athenians +and sailed into Corinth. + +Meanwhile Chalcideus and Alcibiades seized all they met with on their +voyage, to prevent news of their coming, and let them go at Corycus, +the first point which they touched at in the continent. Here they were +visited by some of their Chian correspondents and, being urged by them +to sail up to the town without announcing their coming, arrived suddenly +before Chios. The many were amazed and confounded, while the few had +so arranged that the council should be sitting at the time; and after +speeches from Chalcideus and Alcibiades stating that many more ships +were sailing up, but saying nothing of the fleet being blockaded in +Spiraeum, the Chians revolted from the Athenians, and the Erythraeans +immediately afterwards. After this three vessels sailed over to +Clazomenae, and made that city revolt also; and the Clazomenians +immediately crossed over to the mainland and began to fortify Polichna, +in order to retreat there, in case of necessity, from the island where +they dwelt. + +While the revolted places were all engaged in fortifying and preparing +for the war, news of Chios speedily reached Athens. The Athenians +thought the danger by which they were now menaced great and +unmistakable, and that the rest of their allies would not consent to +keep quiet after the secession of the greatest of their number. In the +consternation of the moment they at once took off the penalty attaching +to whoever proposed or put to the vote a proposal for using the thousand +talents which they had jealously avoided touching throughout the whole +war, and voted to employ them to man a large number of ships, and +to send off at once under Strombichides, son of Diotimus, the eight +vessels, forming part of the blockading fleet at Spiraeum, which +had left the blockade and had returned after pursuing and failing to +overtake the vessels with Chalcideus. These were to be followed +shortly afterwards by twelve more under Thrasycles, also taken from the +blockade. They also recalled the seven Chian vessels, forming part of +their squadron blockading the fleet in Spiraeum, and giving the slaves +on board their liberty, put the freemen in confinement, and speedily +manned and sent out ten fresh ships to blockade the Peloponnesians in +the place of all those that had departed, and decided to man thirty +more. Zeal was not wanting, and no effort was spared to send relief to +Chios. + +In the meantime Strombichides with his eight ships arrived at Samos, +and, taking one Samian vessel, sailed to Teos and required them to +remain quiet. Chalcideus also set sail with twenty-three ships for Teos +from Chios, the land forces of the Clazomenians and Erythraeans moving +alongshore to support him. Informed of this in time, Strombichides put +out from Teos before their arrival, and while out at sea, seeing the +number of the ships from Chios, fled towards Samos, chased by the enemy. +The Teians at first would not receive the land forces, but upon the +flight of the Athenians took them into the town. There they waited for +some time for Chalcideus to return from the pursuit, and as time went on +without his appearing, began themselves to demolish the wall which the +Athenians had built on the land side of the city of the Teians, being +assisted by a few of the barbarians who had come up under the command of +Stages, the lieutenant of Tissaphernes. + +Meanwhile Chalcideus and Alcibiades, after chasing Strombichides into +Samos, armed the crews of the ships from Peloponnese and left them at +Chios, and filling their places with substitutes from Chios and manning +twenty others, sailed off to effect the revolt of Miletus. The wish of +Alcibiades, who had friends among the leading men of the Milesians, was +to bring over the town before the arrival of the ships from Peloponnese, +and thus, by causing the revolt of as many cities as possible with the +help of the Chian power and of Chalcideus, to secure the honour for the +Chians and himself and Chalcideus, and, as he had promised, for Endius +who had sent them out. Not discovered until their voyage was nearly +completed, they arrived a little before Strombichides and Thrasycles +(who had just come with twelve ships from Athens, and had joined +Strombichides in pursuing them), and occasioned the revolt of Miletus. +The Athenians sailing up close on their heels with nineteen ships found +Miletus closed against them, and took up their station at the +adjacent island of Lade. The first alliance between the King and the +Lacedaemonians was now concluded immediately upon the revolt of the +Milesians, by Tissaphernes and Chalcideus, and was as follows: + +The Lacedaemonians and their allies made a treaty with the King and +Tissaphernes upon the terms following: + +1. Whatever country or cities the King has, or the King's ancestors had, +shall be the king's: and whatever came in to the Athenians from these +cities, either money or any other thing, the King and the Lacedaemonians +and their allies shall jointly hinder the Athenians from receiving +either money or any other thing. + +2. The war with the Athenians shall be carried on jointly by the King +and by the Lacedaemonians and their allies: and it shall not be lawful +to make peace with the Athenians except both agree, the King on his side +and the Lacedaemonians and their allies on theirs. + +3. If any revolt from the King, they shall be the enemies of +the Lacedaemonians and their allies. And if any revolt from the +Lacedaemonians and their allies, they shall be the enemies of the King +in like manner. + +This was the alliance. After this the Chians immediately manned ten more +vessels and sailed for Anaia, in order to gain intelligence of those +in Miletus, and also to make the cities revolt. A message, however, +reaching them from Chalcideus to tell them to go back again, and that +Amorges was at hand with an army by land, they sailed to the temple of +Zeus, and there sighting ten more ships sailing up with which Diomedon +had started from Athens after Thrasycles, fled, one ship to Ephesus, +the rest to Teos. The Athenians took four of their ships empty, the men +finding time to escape ashore; the rest took refuge in the city of the +Teians; after which the Athenians sailed off to Samos, while the Chians +put to sea with their remaining vessels, accompanied by the land forces, +and caused Lebedos to revolt, and after it Erae. After this they both +returned home, the fleet and the army. + +About the same time the twenty ships of the Peloponnesians in Spiraeum, +which we left chased to land and blockaded by an equal number of +Athenians, suddenly sallied out and defeated the blockading squadron, +took four of their ships, and, sailing back to Cenchreae, prepared again +for the voyage to Chios and Ionia. Here they were joined by Astyochus +as high admiral from Lacedaemon, henceforth invested with the supreme +command at sea. The land forces now withdrawing from Teos, Tissaphernes +repaired thither in person with an army and completed the demolition of +anything that was left of the wall, and so departed. Not long after his +departure Diomedon arrived with ten Athenian ships, and, having made +a convention by which the Teians admitted him as they had the enemy, +coasted along to Erae, and, failing in an attempt upon the town, sailed +back again. + +About this time took place the rising of the commons at Samos against +the upper classes, in concert with some Athenians, who were there in +three vessels. The Samian commons put to death some two hundred in all +of the upper classes, and banished four hundred more, and themselves +took their land and houses; after which the Athenians decreed their +independence, being now sure of their fidelity, and the commons +henceforth governed the city, excluding the landholders from all share +in affairs, and forbidding any of the commons to give his daughter in +marriage to them or to take a wife from them in future. + +After this, during the same summer, the Chians, whose zeal continued as +active as ever, and who even without the Peloponnesians found themselves +in sufficient force to effect the revolt of the cities and also wished +to have as many companions in peril as possible, made an expedition with +thirteen ships of their own to Lesbos; the instructions from Lacedaemon +being to go to that island next, and from thence to the Hellespont. +Meanwhile the land forces of the Peloponnesians who were with the Chians +and of the allies on the spot, moved alongshore for Clazomenae and Cuma, +under the command of Eualas, a Spartan; while the fleet under Diniadas, +one of the Perioeci, first sailed up to Methymna and caused it to +revolt, and, leaving four ships there, with the rest procured the revolt +of Mitylene. + +In the meantime Astyochus, the Lacedaemonian admiral, set sail from +Cenchreae with four ships, as he had intended, and arrived at Chios. +On the third day after his arrival, the Athenian ships, twenty-five in +number, sailed to Lesbos under Diomedon and Leon, who had lately arrived +with a reinforcement of ten ships from Athens. Late in the same day +Astyochus put to sea, and taking one Chian vessel with him sailed to +Lesbos to render what assistance he could. Arrived at Pyrrha, and from +thence the next day at Eresus, he there learned that Mitylene had been +taken, almost without a blow, by the Athenians, who had sailed up and +unexpectedly put into the harbour, had beaten the Chian ships, and +landing and defeating the troops opposed to them had become masters of +the city. Informed of this by the Eresians and the Chian ships, which +had been left with Eubulus at Methymna, and had fled upon the capture of +Mitylene, and three of which he now fell in with, one having been taken +by the Athenians, Astyochus did not go on to Mitylene, but raised and +armed Eresus, and, sending the heavy infantry from his own ships by land +under Eteonicus to Antissa and Methymna, himself proceeded alongshore +thither with the ships which he had with him and with the three Chians, +in the hope that the Methymnians upon seeing them would be encouraged to +persevere in their revolt. As, however, everything went against him +in Lesbos, he took up his own force and sailed back to Chios; the land +forces on board, which were to have gone to the Hellespont, being also +conveyed back to their different cities. After this six of the allied +Peloponnesian ships at Cenchreae joined the forces at Chios. The +Athenians, after restoring matters to their old state in Lesbos, set +sail from thence and took Polichna, the place that the Clazomenians were +fortifying on the continent, and carried the inhabitants back to their +town upon the island, except the authors of the revolt, who withdrew to +Daphnus; and thus Clazomenae became once more Athenian. + +The same summer the Athenians in the twenty ships at Lade, blockading +Miletus, made a descent at Panormus in the Milesian territory, and +killed Chalcideus the Lacedaemonian commander, who had come with a +few men against them, and the third day after sailed over and set up +a trophy, which, as they were not masters of the country, was however +pulled down by the Milesians. Meanwhile Leon and Diomedon with the +Athenian fleet from Lesbos issuing from the Oenussae, the isles off +Chios, and from their forts of Sidussa and Pteleum in the Erythraeid, +and from Lesbos, carried on the war against the Chians from the ships, +having on board heavy infantry from the rolls pressed to serve as +marines. Landing in Cardamyle and in Bolissus they defeated with heavy +loss the Chians that took the field against them and, laying desolate +the places in that neighbourhood, defeated the Chians again in another +battle at Phanae, and in a third at Leuconium. After this the Chians +ceased to meet them in the field, while the Athenians devastated the +country, which was beautifully stocked and had remained uninjured ever +since the Median wars. Indeed, after the Lacedaemonians, the Chians are +the only people that I have known who knew how to be wise in prosperity, +and who ordered their city the more securely the greater it grew. Nor +was this revolt, in which they might seem to have erred on the side of +rashness, ventured upon until they had numerous and gallant allies to +share the danger with them, and until they perceived the Athenians +after the Sicilian disaster themselves no longer denying the thoroughly +desperate state of their affairs. And if they were thrown out by one +of the surprises which upset human calculations, they found out their +mistake in company with many others who believed, like them, in the +speedy collapse of the Athenian power. While they were thus blockaded +from the sea and plundered by land, some of the citizens undertook to +bring the city over to the Athenians. Apprised of this the authorities +took no action themselves, but brought Astyochus, the admiral, from +Erythrae, with four ships that he had with him, and considered how they +could most quietly, either by taking hostages or by some other means, +put an end to the conspiracy. + +While the Chians were thus engaged, a thousand Athenian heavy infantry +and fifteen hundred Argives (five hundred of whom were light troops +furnished with armour by the Athenians), and one thousand of the allies, +towards the close of the same summer sailed from Athens in forty-eight +ships, some of which were transports, under the command of Phrynichus, +Onomacles, and Scironides, and putting into Samos crossed over and +encamped at Miletus. Upon this the Milesians came out to the number of +eight hundred heavy infantry, with the Peloponnesians who had come with +Chalcideus, and some foreign mercenaries of Tissaphernes, Tissaphernes +himself and his cavalry, and engaged the Athenians and their allies. +While the Argives rushed forward on their own wing with the careless +disdain of men advancing against Ionians who would never stand their +charge, and were defeated by the Milesians with a loss little short of +three hundred men, the Athenians first defeated the Peloponnesians, and +driving before them the barbarians and the ruck of the army, without +engaging the Milesians, who after the rout of the Argives retreated into +the town upon seeing their comrades worsted, crowned their victory by +grounding their arms under the very walls of Miletus. Thus, in this +battle, the Ionians on both sides overcame the Dorians, the Athenians +defeating the Peloponnesians opposed to them, and the Milesians the +Argives. After setting up a trophy, the Athenians prepared to draw a +wall round the place, which stood upon an isthmus; thinking that, if +they could gain Miletus, the other towns also would easily come over to +them. + +Meanwhile about dusk tidings reached them that the fifty-five ships +from Peloponnese and Sicily might be instantly expected. Of these the +Siceliots, urged principally by the Syracusan Hermocrates to join +in giving the finishing blow to the power of Athens, furnished +twenty-two--twenty from Syracuse, and two from Silenus; and the ships +that we left preparing in Peloponnese being now ready, both squadrons +had been entrusted to Therimenes, a Lacedaemonian, to take to Astyochus, +the admiral. They now put in first at Leros the island off Miletus, and +from thence, discovering that the Athenians were before the town, sailed +into the Iasic Gulf, in order to learn how matters stood at Miletus. +Meanwhile Alcibiades came on horseback to Teichiussa in the Milesian +territory, the point of the gulf at which they had put in for the night, +and told them of the battle in which he had fought in person by the side +of the Milesians and Tissaphernes, and advised them, if they did not +wish to sacrifice Ionia and their cause, to fly to the relief of Miletus +and hinder its investment. + +Accordingly they resolved to relieve it the next morning. Meanwhile +Phrynichus, the Athenian commander, had received precise intelligence of +the fleet from Leros, and when his colleagues expressed a wish to keep +the sea and fight it out, flatly refused either to stay himself or to +let them or any one else do so if he could help it. Where they could +hereafter contend, after full and undisturbed preparation, with an exact +knowledge of the number of the enemy's fleet and of the force which they +could oppose to him, he would never allow the reproach of disgrace to +drive him into a risk that was unreasonable. It was no disgrace for an +Athenian fleet to retreat when it suited them: put it as they would, it +would be more disgraceful to be beaten, and to expose the city not only +to disgrace, but to the most serious danger. After its late misfortunes +it could hardly be justified in voluntarily taking the offensive even +with the strongest force, except in a case of absolute necessity: +much less then without compulsion could it rush upon peril of its own +seeking. He told them to take up their wounded as quickly as they could +and the troops and stores which they had brought with them, and leaving +behind what they had taken from the enemy's country, in order to lighten +the ships, to sail off to Samos, and there concentrating all their ships +to attack as opportunity served. As he spoke so he acted; and thus not +now more than afterwards, nor in this alone but in all that he had to do +with, did Phrynichus show himself a man of sense. In this way that +very evening the Athenians broke up from before Miletus, leaving their +victory unfinished, and the Argives, mortified at their disaster, +promptly sailed off home from Samos. + +As soon as it was morning the Peloponnesians weighed from Teichiussa and +put into Miletus after the departure of the Athenians; they stayed one +day, and on the next took with them the Chian vessels originally chased +into port with Chalcideus, and resolved to sail back for the tackle +which they had put on shore at Teichiussa. Upon their arrival +Tissaphernes came to them with his land forces and induced them to sail +to Iasus, which was held by his enemy Amorges. Accordingly they suddenly +attacked and took Iasus, whose inhabitants never imagined that the ships +could be other than Athenian. The Syracusans distinguished themselves +most in the action. Amorges, a bastard of Pissuthnes and a rebel from +the King, was taken alive and handed over to Tissaphernes, to carry to +the King, if he chose, according to his orders: Iasus was sacked by the +army, who found a very great booty there, the place being wealthy from +ancient date. The mercenaries serving with Amorges the Peloponnesians +received and enrolled in their army without doing them any harm, +since most of them came from Peloponnese, and handed over the town to +Tissaphernes with all the captives, bond or free, at the stipulated +price of one Doric stater a head; after which they returned to Miletus. +Pedaritus, son of Leon, who had been sent by the Lacedaemonians to take +the command at Chios, they dispatched by land as far as Erythrae with +the mercenaries taken from Amorges; appointing Philip to remain as +governor of Miletus. + +Summer was now over. The winter following, Tissaphernes put Iasus in a +state of defence, and passing on to Miletus distributed a month's pay to +all the ships as he had promised at Lacedaemon, at the rate of an Attic +drachma a day for each man. In future, however, he was resolved not to +give more than three obols, until he had consulted the King; when if the +King should so order he would give, he said, the full drachma. However, +upon the protest of the Syracusan general Hermocrates (for as Therimenes +was not admiral, but only accompanied them in order to hand over the +ships to Astyochus, he made little difficulty about the pay), it was +agreed that the amount of five ships' pay should be given over and above +the three obols a day for each man; Tissaphernes paying thirty talents +a month for fifty-five ships, and to the rest, for as many ships as they +had beyond that number, at the same rate. + +The same winter the Athenians in Samos, having been joined by +thirty-five more vessels from home under Charminus, Strombichides, and +Euctemon, called in their squadron at Chios and all the rest, intending +to blockade Miletus with their navy, and to send a fleet and an army +against Chios; drawing lots for the respective services. This intention +they carried into effect; Strombichides, Onamacles, and Euctemon sailing +against Chios, which fell to their lot, with thirty ships and a part +of the thousand heavy infantry, who had been to Miletus, in transports; +while the rest remained masters of the sea with seventy-four ships at +Samos, and advanced upon Miletus. + +Meanwhile Astyochus, whom we left at Chios collecting the hostages +required in consequence of the conspiracy, stopped upon learning that +the fleet with Therimenes had arrived, and that the affairs of the +league were in a more flourishing condition, and putting out to sea with +ten Peloponnesian and as many Chian vessels, after a futile attack upon +Pteleum, coasted on to Clazomenae, and ordered the Athenian party to +remove inland to Daphnus, and to join the Peloponnesians, an order in +which also joined Tamos the king's lieutenant in Ionia. This order being +disregarded, Astyochus made an attack upon the town, which was unwalled, +and having failed to take it was himself carried off by a strong gale +to Phocaea and Cuma, while the rest of the ships put in at the islands +adjacent to Clazomenae--Marathussa, Pele, and Drymussa. Here they were +detained eight days by the winds, and, plundering and consuming all the +property of the Clazomenians there deposited, put the rest on shipboard +and sailed off to Phocaea and Cuma to join Astyochus. + +While he was there, envoys arrived from the Lesbians who wished to +revolt again. With Astyochus they were successful; but the Corinthians +and the other allies being averse to it by reason of their former +failure, he weighed anchor and set sail for Chios, where they eventually +arrived from different quarters, the fleet having been scattered by a +storm. After this Pedaritus, whom we left marching along the coast from +Miletus, arrived at Erythrae, and thence crossed over with his army to +Chios, where he found also about five hundred soldiers who had been left +there by Chalcideus from the five ships with their arms. Meanwhile some +Lesbians making offers to revolt, Astyochus urged upon Pedaritus and the +Chians that they ought to go with their ships and effect the revolt +of Lesbos, and so increase the number of their allies, or, if not +successful, at all events harm the Athenians. The Chians, however, +turned a deaf ear to this, and Pedaritus flatly refused to give up to +him the Chian vessels. + +Upon this Astyochus took five Corinthian and one Megarian vessel, +with another from Hermione, and the ships which had come with him from +Laconia, and set sail for Miletus to assume his command as admiral; +after telling the Chians with many threats that he would certainly +not come and help them if they should be in need. At Corycus in the +Erythraeid he brought to for the night; the Athenian armament sailing +from Samos against Chios being only separated from him by a hill, upon +the other side of which it brought to; so that neither perceived the +other. But a letter arriving in the night from Pedaritus to say that +some liberated Erythraean prisoners had come from Samos to betray +Erythrae, Astyochus at once put back to Erythrae, and so just escaped +falling in with the Athenians. Here Pedaritus sailed over to join him; +and after inquiry into the pretended treachery, finding that the whole +story had been made up to procure the escape of the men from Samos, they +acquitted them of the charge, and sailed away, Pedaritus to Chios and +Astyochus to Miletus as he had intended. + +Meanwhile the Athenian armament sailing round Corycus fell in with three +Chian men-of-war off Arginus, and gave immediate chase. A great storm +coming on, the Chians with difficulty took refuge in the harbour; the +three Athenian vessels most forward in the pursuit being wrecked +and thrown up near the city of Chios, and the crews slain or taken +prisoners. The rest of the Athenian fleet took refuge in the harbour +called Phoenicus, under Mount Mimas, and from thence afterwards put into +Lesbos and prepared for the work of fortification. + +The same winter the Lacedaemonian Hippocrates sailed out from +Peloponnese with ten Thurian ships under the command of Dorieus, son of +Diagoras, and two colleagues, one Laconian and one Syracusan vessel, +and arrived at Cnidus, which had already revolted at the instigation of +Tissaphernes. When their arrival was known at Miletus, orders came to +them to leave half their squadron to guard Cnidus, and with the rest to +cruise round Triopium and seize all the merchantmen arriving from Egypt. +Triopium is a promontory of Cnidus and sacred to Apollo. This coming to +the knowledge of the Athenians, they sailed from Samos and captured +the six ships on the watch at Triopium, the crews escaping out of them. +After this the Athenians sailed into Cnidus and made an assault upon +the town, which was unfortified, and all but took it; and the next +day assaulted it again, but with less effect, as the inhabitants had +improved their defences during the night, and had been reinforced by the +crews escaped from the ships at Triopium. The Athenians now withdrew, +and after plundering the Cnidian territory sailed back to Samos. + +About the same time Astyochus came to the fleet at Miletus. The +Peloponnesian camp was still plentifully supplied, being in receipt of +sufficient pay, and the soldiers having still in hand the large booty +taken at Iasus. The Milesians also showed great ardour for the war. +Nevertheless the Peloponnesians thought the first convention with +Tissaphernes, made with Chalcideus, defective, and more advantageous +to him than to them, and consequently while Therimenes was still there +concluded another, which was as follows: + +The convention of the Lacedaemonians and the allies with King Darius and +the sons of the King, and with Tissaphernes for a treaty and friendship, +as follows: + +1. Neither the Lacedaemonians nor the allies of the Lacedaemonians shall +make war against or otherwise injure any country or cities that belong +to King Darius or did belong to his father or to his ancestors; neither +shall the Lacedaemonians nor the allies of the Lacedaemonians exact +tribute from such cities. Neither shall King Darius nor any of +the subjects of the King make war against or otherwise injure the +Lacedaemonians or their allies. + +2. If the Lacedaemonians or their allies should require any assistance +from the King, or the King from the Lacedaemonians or their allies, +whatever they both agree upon they shall be right in doing. + +3. Both shall carry on jointly the war against the Athenians and their +allies: and if they make peace, both shall do so jointly. + +4. The expense of all troops in the King's country, sent for by the +King, shall be borne by the King. + +5. If any of the states comprised in this convention with the King +attack the King's country, the rest shall stop them and aid the King +to the best of their power. And if any in the King's country or in the +countries under the King's rule attack the country of the Lacedaemonians +or their allies, the King shall stop it and help them to the best of his +power. + +After this convention Therimenes handed over the fleet to Astyochus, +sailed off in a small boat, and was lost. The Athenian armament had +now crossed over from Lesbos to Chios, and being master by sea and land +began to fortify Delphinium, a place naturally strong on the land side, +provided with more than one harbour, and also not far from the city of +Chios. Meanwhile the Chians remained inactive. Already defeated in +so many battles, they were now also at discord among themselves; the +execution of the party of Tydeus, son of Ion, by Pedaritus upon the +charge of Atticism, followed by the forcible imposition of an oligarchy +upon the rest of the city, having made them suspicious of one another; +and they therefore thought neither themselves not the mercenaries under +Pedaritus a match for the enemy. They sent, however, to Miletus to beg +Astyochus to assist them, which he refused to do, and was accordingly +denounced at Lacedaemon by Pedaritus as a traitor. Such was the state of +the Athenian affairs at Chios; while their fleet at Samos kept sailing +out against the enemy in Miletus, until they found that he would not +accept their challenge, and then retired again to Samos and remained +quiet. + +In the same winter the twenty-seven ships equipped by the Lacedaemonians +for Pharnabazus through the agency of the Megarian Calligeitus, and the +Cyzicene Timagoras, put out from Peloponnese and sailed for Ionia about +the time of the solstice, under the command of Antisthenes, a Spartan. +With them the Lacedaemonians also sent eleven Spartans as advisers to +Astyochus; Lichas, son of Arcesilaus, being among the number. Arrived at +Miletus, their orders were to aid in generally superintending the good +conduct of the war; to send off the above ships or a greater or less +number to the Hellespont to Pharnabazus, if they thought proper, +appointing Clearchus, son of Ramphias, who sailed with them, to the +command; and further, if they thought proper, to make Antisthenes +admiral, dismissing Astyochus, whom the letters of Pedaritus had caused +to be regarded with suspicion. Sailing accordingly from Malea across +the open sea, the squadron touched at Melos and there fell in with ten +Athenian ships, three of which they took empty and burned. After this, +being afraid that the Athenian vessels escaped from Melos might, as +they in fact did, give information of their approach to the Athenians at +Samos, they sailed to Crete, and having lengthened their voyage by +way of precaution made land at Caunus in Asia, from whence considering +themselves in safety they sent a message to the fleet at Miletus for a +convoy along the coast. + +Meanwhile the Chians and Pedaritus, undeterred by the backwardness of +Astyochus, went on sending messengers pressing him to come with all +the fleet to assist them against their besiegers, and not to leave the +greatest of the allied states in Ionia to be shut up by sea and overrun +and pillaged by land. There were more slaves at Chios than in any one +other city except Lacedaemon, and being also by reason of their numbers +punished more rigorously when they offended, most of them, when they saw +the Athenian armament firmly established in the island with a fortified +position, immediately deserted to the enemy, and through their knowledge +of the country did the greatest mischief. The Chians therefore urged +upon Astyochus that it was his duty to assist them, while there was +still a hope and a possibility of stopping the enemy's progress, while +Delphinium was still in process of fortification and unfinished, and +before the completion of a higher rampart which was being added to +protect the camp and fleet of their besiegers. Astyochus now saw that +the allies also wished it and prepared to go, in spite of his intention +to the contrary owing to the threat already referred to. + +In the meantime news came from Caunus of the arrival of the twenty-seven +ships with the Lacedaemonian commissioners; and Astyochus, postponing +everything to the duty of convoying a fleet of that importance, in +order to be more able to command the sea, and to the safe conduct of the +Lacedaemonians sent as spies over his behaviour, at once gave up going +to Chios and set sail for Caunus. As he coasted along he landed at the +Meropid Cos and sacked the city, which was unfortified and had been +lately laid in ruins by an earthquake, by far the greatest in living +memory, and, as the inhabitants had fled to the mountains, overran the +country and made booty of all it contained, letting go, however, the +free men. From Cos arriving in the night at Cnidus he was constrained by +the representations of the Cnidians not to disembark the sailors, but to +sail as he was straight against the twenty Athenian vessels, which with +Charminus, one of the commanders at Samos, were on the watch for the +very twenty-seven ships from Peloponnese which Astyochus was himself +sailing to join; the Athenians in Samos having heard from Melos of their +approach, and Charminus being on the look-out off Syme, Chalce, Rhodes, +and Lycia, as he now heard that they were at Caunus. + +Astyochus accordingly sailed as he was to Syme, before he was heard of, +in the hope of catching the enemy somewhere out at sea. Rain, however, +and foggy weather encountered him, and caused his ships to straggle +and get into disorder in the dark. In the morning his fleet had parted +company and was most of it still straggling round the island, and the +left wing only in sight of Charminus and the Athenians, who took it for +the squadron which they were watching for from Caunus, and hastily put +out against it with part only of their twenty vessels, and attacking +immediately sank three ships and disabled others, and had the advantage +in the action until the main body of the fleet unexpectedly hove in +sight, when they were surrounded on every side. Upon this they took to +flight, and after losing six ships with the rest escaped to Teutlussa +or Beet Island, and from thence to Halicarnassus. After this the +Peloponnesians put into Cnidus and, being joined by the twenty-seven +ships from Caunus, sailed all together and set up a trophy in Syme, and +then returned to anchor at Cnidus. + +As soon as the Athenians knew of the sea-fight, they sailed with all the +ships at Samos to Syme, and, without attacking or being attacked by the +fleet at Cnidus, took the ships' tackle left at Syme, and touching at +Lorymi on the mainland sailed back to Samos. Meanwhile the Peloponnesian +ships, being now all at Cnidus, underwent such repairs as were +needed; while the eleven Lacedaemonian commissioners conferred with +Tissaphernes, who had come to meet them, upon the points which did not +satisfy them in the past transactions, and upon the best and mutually +most advantageous manner of conducting the war in future. The severest +critic of the present proceedings was Lichas, who said that neither +of the treaties could stand, neither that of Chalcideus, nor that of +Therimenes; it being monstrous that the King should at this date pretend +to the possession of all the country formerly ruled by himself or by his +ancestors--a pretension which implicitly put back under the yoke all the +islands--Thessaly, Locris, and everything as far as Boeotia--and made +the Lacedaemonians give to the Hellenes instead of liberty a Median +master. He therefore invited Tissaphernes to conclude another and a +better treaty, as they certainly would not recognize those existing +and did not want any of his pay upon such conditions. This offended +Tissaphernes so much that he went away in a rage without settling +anything. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +_Twentieth and Twenty-first Years of the War--Intrigues of +Alcibiades--Withdrawal of the Persian Subsidies--Oligarchical Coup +d'Etat at Athens--Patriotism of the Army at Samos_ + +The Peloponnesians now determined to sail to Rhodes, upon the invitation +of some of the principal men there, hoping to gain an island powerful by +the number of its seamen and by its land forces, and also thinking that +they would be able to maintain their fleet from their own confederacy, +without having to ask for money from Tissaphernes. They accordingly +at once set sail that same winter from Cnidus, and first put in with +ninety-four ships at Camirus in the Rhodian country, to the great alarm +of the mass of the inhabitants, who were not privy to the intrigue, and +who consequently fled, especially as the town was unfortified. They were +afterwards, however, assembled by the Lacedaemonians together with +the inhabitants of the two other towns of Lindus and Ialysus; and the +Rhodians were persuaded to revolt from the Athenians and the island went +over to the Peloponnesians. Meanwhile the Athenians had received the +alarm and set sail with the fleet from Samos to forestall them, and came +within sight of the island, but being a little too late sailed off for +the moment to Chalce, and from thence to Samos, and subsequently waged +war against Rhodes, issuing from Chalce, Cos, and Samos. + +The Peloponnesians now levied a contribution of thirty-two talents from +the Rhodians, after which they hauled their ships ashore and for eighty +days remained inactive. During this time, and even earlier, before they +removed to Rhodes, the following intrigues took place. After the +death of Chalcideus and the battle at Miletus, Alcibiades began to be +suspected by the Peloponnesians; and Astyochus received from Lacedaemon +an order from them to put him to death, he being the personal enemy of +Agis, and in other respects thought unworthy of confidence. Alcibiades +in his alarm first withdrew to Tissaphernes, and immediately began to +do all he could with him to injure the Peloponnesian cause. Henceforth +becoming his adviser in everything, he cut down the pay from an Attic +drachma to three obols a day, and even this not paid too regularly; and +told Tissaphernes to say to the Peloponnesians that the Athenians, whose +maritime experience was of an older date than their own, only gave their +men three obols, not so much from poverty as to prevent their seamen +being corrupted by being too well off, and injuring their condition by +spending money upon enervating indulgences, and also paid their crews +irregularly in order to have a security against their deserting in the +arrears which they would leave behind them. He also told Tissaphernes +to bribe the captains and generals of the cities, and so to obtain their +connivance--an expedient which succeeded with all except the Syracusans, +Hermocrates alone opposing him on behalf of the whole confederacy. +Meanwhile the cities asking for money Alcibiades sent off, by roundly +telling them in the name of Tissaphernes that it was great impudence +in the Chians, the richest people in Hellas, not content with being +defended by a foreign force, to expect others to risk not only their +lives but their money as well in behalf of their freedom; while the +other cities, he said, had had to pay largely to Athens before their +rebellion, and could not justly refuse to contribute as much or even +more now for their own selves. He also pointed out that Tissaphernes was +at present carrying on the war at his own charges, and had good cause +for economy, but that as soon as he received remittances from the king +he would give them their pay in full and do what was reasonable for the +cities. + +Alcibiades further advised Tissaphernes not to be in too great a +hurry to end the war, or to let himself be persuaded to bring up the +Phoenician fleet which he was equipping, or to provide pay for more +Hellenes, and thus put the power by land and sea into the same hands; +but to leave each of the contending parties in possession of one +element, thus enabling the king when he found one troublesome to call +in the other. For if the command of the sea and land were united in one +hand, he would not know where to turn for help to overthrow the dominant +power; unless he at last chose to stand up himself, and go through with +the struggle at great expense and hazard. The cheapest plan was to let +the Hellenes wear each other out, at a small share of the expense and +without risk to himself. Besides, he would find the Athenians the most +convenient partners in empire as they did not aim at conquests on +shore, and carried on the war upon principles and with a practice most +advantageous to the King; being prepared to combine to conquer the sea +for Athens, and for the King all the Hellenes inhabiting his country, +whom the Peloponnesians, on the contrary, had come to liberate. Now it +was not likely that the Lacedaemonians would free the Hellenes from the +Hellenic Athenians, without freeing them also from the barbarian Mede, +unless overthrown by him in the meanwhile. Alcibiades therefore urged +him to wear them both out at first, and, after docking the Athenian +power as much as he could, forthwith to rid the country of the +Peloponnesians. In the main Tissaphernes approved of this policy, so far +at least as could be conjectured from his behaviour; since he now gave +his confidence to Alcibiades in recognition of his good advice, and kept +the Peloponnesians short of money, and would not let them fight at sea, +but ruined their cause by pretending that the Phoenician fleet would +arrive, and that they would thus be enabled to contend with the odds in +their favour, and so made their navy lose its efficiency, which had been +very remarkable, and generally betrayed a coolness in the war that was +too plain to be mistaken. + +Alcibiades gave this advice to Tissaphernes and the King, with whom he +then was, not merely because he thought it really the best, but because +he was studying means to effect his restoration to his country, well +knowing that if he did not destroy it he might one day hope to persuade +the Athenians to recall him, and thinking that his best chance of +persuading them lay in letting them see that he possessed the favour of +Tissaphernes. The event proved him to be right. When the Athenians at +Samos found that he had influence with Tissaphernes, principally of +their own motion (though partly also through Alcibiades himself sending +word to their chief men to tell the best men in the army that, if there +were only an oligarchy in the place of the rascally democracy that had +banished him, he would be glad to return to his country and to make +Tissaphernes their friend), the captains and chief men in the armament +at once embraced the idea of subverting the democracy. + +The design was first mooted in the camp, and afterwards from thence +reached the city. Some persons crossed over from Samos and had an +interview with Alcibiades, who immediately offered to make first +Tissaphernes, and afterwards the King, their friend, if they would give +up the democracy and make it possible for the King to trust them. +The higher class, who also suffered most severely from the war, now +conceived great hopes of getting the government into their own hands, +and of triumphing over the enemy. Upon their return to Samos the +emissaries formed their partisans into a club, and openly told the mass +of the armament that the King would be their friend, and would +provide them with money, if Alcibiades were restored and the democracy +abolished. The multitude, if at first irritated by these intrigues, were +nevertheless kept quiet by the advantageous prospect of the pay from the +King; and the oligarchical conspirators, after making this communication +to the people, now re-examined the proposals of Alcibiades among +themselves, with most of their associates. Unlike the rest, who thought +them advantageous and trustworthy, Phrynichus, who was still general, +by no means approved of the proposals. Alcibiades, he rightly thought, +cared no more for an oligarchy than for a democracy, and only sought to +change the institutions of his country in order to get himself recalled +by his associates; while for themselves their one object should be +to avoid civil discord. It was not the King's interest, when the +Peloponnesians were now their equals at sea, and in possession of some +of the chief cities in his empire, to go out of his way to side with +the Athenians whom he did not trust, when he might make friends of the +Peloponnesians who had never injured him. And as for the allied states +to whom oligarchy was now offered, because the democracy was to be put +down at Athens, he well knew that this would not make the rebels come in +any the sooner, or confirm the loyal in their allegiance; as the allies +would never prefer servitude with an oligarchy or democracy to freedom +with the constitution which they actually enjoyed, to whichever type it +belonged. Besides, the cities thought that the so-called better classes +would prove just as oppressive as the commons, as being those who +originated, proposed, and for the most part benefited from the acts of +the commons injurious to the confederates. Indeed, if it depended on the +better classes, the confederates would be put to death without trial and +with violence; while the commons were their refuge and the chastiser +of these men. This he positively knew that the cities had learned +by experience, and that such was their opinion. The propositions of +Alcibiades, and the intrigues now in progress, could therefore never +meet with his approval. + +However, the members of the club assembled, agreeably to their original +determination, accepted what was proposed, and prepared to send Pisander +and others on an embassy to Athens to treat for the restoration of +Alcibiades and the abolition of the democracy in the city, and thus to +make Tissaphernes the friend of the Athenians. + +Phrynichus now saw that there would be a proposal to restore Alcibiades, +and that the Athenians would consent to it; and fearing after what he +had said against it that Alcibiades, if restored, would revenge himself +upon him for his opposition, had recourse to the following expedient. +He sent a secret letter to the Lacedaemonian admiral Astyochus, who was +still in the neighbourhood of Miletus, to tell him that Alcibiades was +ruining their cause by making Tissaphernes the friend of the Athenians, +and containing an express revelation of the rest of the intrigue, +desiring to be excused if he sought to harm his enemy even at the +expense of the interests of his country. However, Astyochus, instead +of thinking of punishing Alcibiades, who, besides, no longer ventured +within his reach as formerly, went up to him and Tissaphernes at +Magnesia, communicated to them the letter from Samos, and turned +informer, and, if report may be trusted, became the paid creature +of Tissaphernes, undertaking to inform him as to this and all other +matters; which was also the reason why he did not remonstrate more +strongly against the pay not being given in full. Upon this Alcibiades +instantly sent to the authorities at Samos a letter against Phrynichus, +stating what he had done, and requiring that he should be put to +death. Phrynichus distracted, and placed in the utmost peril by the +denunciation, sent again to Astyochus, reproaching him with having so +ill kept the secret of his previous letter, and saying that he was now +prepared to give them an opportunity of destroying the whole Athenian +armament at Samos; giving a detailed account of the means which he +should employ, Samos being unfortified, and pleading that, being in +danger of his life on their account, he could not now be blamed for +doing this or anything else to escape being destroyed by his mortal +enemies. This also Astyochus revealed to Alcibiades. + +Meanwhile Phrynichus having had timely notice that he was playing him +false, and that a letter on the subject was on the point of arriving +from Alcibiades, himself anticipated the news, and told the army that +the enemy, seeing that Samos was unfortified and the fleet not all +stationed within the harbour, meant to attack the camp, that he could +be certain of this intelligence, and that they must fortify Samos as +quickly as possible, and generally look to their defences. It will be +remembered that he was general, and had himself authority to carry out +these measures. Accordingly they addressed themselves to the work +of fortification, and Samos was thus fortified sooner than it +would otherwise have been. Not long afterwards came the letter from +Alcibiades, saying that the army was betrayed by Phrynichus, and the +enemy about to attack it. Alcibiades, however, gained no credit, it +being thought that he was in the secret of the enemy's designs, and had +tried to fasten them upon Phrynichus, and to make out that he was their +accomplice, out of hatred; and consequently far from hurting him he +rather bore witness to what he had said by this intelligence. + +After this Alcibiades set to work to persuade Tissaphernes to become +the friend of the Athenians. Tissaphernes, although afraid of the +Peloponnesians because they had more ships in Asia than the Athenians, +was yet disposed to be persuaded if he could, especially after +his quarrel with the Peloponnesians at Cnidus about the treaty of +Therimenes. The quarrel had already taken place, as the Peloponnesians +were by this time actually at Rhodes; and in it the original argument +of Alcibiades touching the liberation of all the towns by the +Lacedaemonians had been verified by the declaration of Lichas that it +was impossible to submit to a convention which made the King master of +all the states at any former time ruled by himself or by his fathers. + +While Alcibiades was besieging the favour of Tissaphernes with an +earnestness proportioned to the greatness of the issue, the Athenian +envoys who had been dispatched from Samos with Pisander arrived at +Athens, and made a speech before the people, giving a brief summary +of their views, and particularly insisting that, if Alcibiades were +recalled and the democratic constitution changed, they could have the +King as their ally, and would be able to overcome the Peloponnesians. +A number of speakers opposed them on the question of the democracy, the +enemies of Alcibiades cried out against the scandal of a restoration to +be effected by a violation of the constitution, and the Eumolpidae +and Ceryces protested in behalf of the mysteries, the cause of his +banishment, and called upon the gods to avert his recall; when Pisander, +in the midst of much opposition and abuse, came forward, and taking each +of his opponents aside asked him the following question: In the face +of the fact that the Peloponnesians had as many ships as their own +confronting them at sea, more cities in alliance with them, and the King +and Tissaphernes to supply them with money, of which the Athenians had +none left, had he any hope of saving the state, unless someone could +induce the King to come over to their side? Upon their replying that +they had not, he then plainly said to them: "This we cannot have unless +we have a more moderate form of government, and put the offices into +fewer hands, and so gain the King's confidence, and forthwith restore +Alcibiades, who is the only man living that can bring this about. The +safety of the state, not the form of its government, is for the moment +the most pressing question, as we can always change afterwards whatever +we do not like." + +The people were at first highly irritated at the mention of an +oligarchy, but upon understanding clearly from Pisander that this was +the only resource left, they took counsel of their fears, and promised +themselves some day to change the government again, and gave way. They +accordingly voted that Pisander should sail with ten others and make the +best arrangement that they could with Tissaphernes and Alcibiades. At +the same time the people, upon a false accusation of Pisander, dismissed +Phrynichus from his post together with his colleague Scironides, sending +Diomedon and Leon to replace them in the command of the fleet. The +accusation was that Phrynichus had betrayed Iasus and Amorges; and +Pisander brought it because he thought him a man unfit for the business +now in hand with Alcibiades. Pisander also went the round of all the +clubs already existing in the city for help in lawsuits and elections, +and urged them to draw together and to unite their efforts for the +overthrow of the democracy; and after taking all other measures required +by the circumstances, so that no time might be lost, set off with his +ten companions on his voyage to Tissaphernes. + +In the same winter Leon and Diomedon, who had by this time joined the +fleet, made an attack upon Rhodes. The ships of the Peloponnesians they +found hauled up on shore, and, after making a descent upon the coast and +defeating the Rhodians who appeared in the field against them, withdrew +to Chalce and made that place their base of operations instead of Cos, +as they could better observe from thence if the Peloponnesian fleet +put out to sea. Meanwhile Xenophantes, a Laconian, came to Rhodes +from Pedaritus at Chios, with the news that the fortification of the +Athenians was now finished, and that, unless the whole Peloponnesian +fleet came to the rescue, the cause in Chios must be lost. Upon this +they resolved to go to his relief. In the meantime Pedaritus, with the +mercenaries that he had with him and the whole force of the Chians, made +an assault upon the work round the Athenian ships and took a portion +of it, and got possession of some vessels that were hauled up on shore, +when the Athenians sallied out to the rescue, and first routing the +Chians, next defeated the remainder of the force round Pedaritus, who +was himself killed, with many of the Chians, a great number of arms +being also taken. + +After this the Chians were besieged even more straitly than before +by land and sea, and the famine in the place was great. Meanwhile the +Athenian envoys with Pisander arrived at the court of Tissaphernes, and +conferred with him about the proposed agreement. However, Alcibiades, +not being altogether sure of Tissaphernes (who feared the Peloponnesians +more than the Athenians, and besides wished to wear out both parties, +as Alcibiades himself had recommended), had recourse to the following +stratagem to make the treaty between the Athenians and Tissaphernes +miscarry by reason of the magnitude of his demands. In my opinion +Tissaphernes desired this result, fear being his motive; while +Alcibiades, who now saw that Tissaphernes was determined not to treat +on any terms, wished the Athenians to think, not that he was unable to +persuade Tissaphernes, but that after the latter had been persuaded and +was willing to join them, they had not conceded enough to him. For the +demands of Alcibiades, speaking for Tissaphernes, who was present, were +so extravagant that the Athenians, although for a long while they agreed +to whatever he asked, yet had to bear the blame of failure: he required +the cession of the whole of Ionia, next of the islands adjacent, besides +other concessions, and these passed without opposition; at last, in the +third interview, Alcibiades, who now feared a complete discovery of his +inability, required them to allow the King to build ships and sail along +his own coast wherever and with as many as he pleased. Upon this the +Athenians would yield no further, and concluding that there was nothing +to be done, but that they had been deceived by Alcibiades, went away in +a passion and proceeded to Samos. + +Tissaphernes immediately after this, in the same winter, proceeded +along shore to Caunus, desiring to bring the Peloponnesian fleet back +to Miletus, and to supply them with pay, making a fresh convention upon +such terms as he could get, in order not to bring matters to an absolute +breach between them. He was afraid that if many of their ships were left +without pay they would be compelled to engage and be defeated, or that +their vessels being left without hands the Athenians would attain +their objects without his assistance. Still more he feared that the +Peloponnesians might ravage the continent in search of supplies. Having +calculated and considered all this, agreeably to his plan of keeping the +two sides equal, he now sent for the Peloponnesians and gave them pay, +and concluded with them a third treaty in words following: + +In the thirteenth year of the reign of Darius, while Alexippidas was +ephor at Lacedaemon, a convention was concluded in the plain of the +Maeander by the Lacedaemonians and their allies with Tissaphernes, +Hieramenes, and the sons of Pharnaces, concerning the affairs of the +King and of the Lacedaemonians and their allies. + +1. The country of the King in Asia shall be the King's, and the King +shall treat his own country as he pleases. + +2. The Lacedaemonians and their allies shall not invade or injure the +King's country: neither shall the King invade or injure that of the +Lacedaemonians or of their allies. If any of the Lacedaemonians or of +their allies invade or injure the King's country, the Lacedaemonians and +their allies shall prevent it: and if any from the King's country invade +or injure the country of the Lacedaemonians or of their allies, the King +shall prevent it. + +3. Tissaphernes shall provide pay for the ships now present, according +to the agreement, until the arrival of the King's vessels: but after the +arrival of the King's vessels the Lacedaemonians and their allies may +pay their own ships if they wish it. If, however, they choose to receive +the pay from Tissaphernes, Tissaphernes shall furnish it: and the +Lacedaemonians and their allies shall repay him at the end of the war +such moneys as they shall have received. + +4. After the vessels have arrived, the ships of the Lacedaemonians and +of their allies and those of the King shall carry on the war jointly, +according as Tissaphernes and the Lacedaemonians and their allies shall +think best. If they wish to make peace with the Athenians, they shall +make peace also jointly. + +This was the treaty. After this Tissaphernes prepared to bring up the +Phoenician fleet according to agreement, and to make good his other +promises, or at all events wished to make it appear that he was so +preparing. + +Winter was now drawing towards its close, when the Boeotians took Oropus +by treachery, though held by an Athenian garrison. Their accomplices in +this were some of the Eretrians and of the Oropians themselves, who +were plotting the revolt of Euboea, as the place was exactly opposite +Eretria, and while in Athenian hands was necessarily a source of great +annoyance to Eretria and the rest of Euboea. Oropus being in their +hands, the Eretrians now came to Rhodes to invite the Peloponnesians +into Euboea. The latter, however, were rather bent on the relief of the +distressed Chians, and accordingly put out to sea and sailed with all +their ships from Rhodes. Off Triopium they sighted the Athenian fleet +out at sea sailing from Chalce, and, neither attacking the other, +arrived, the latter at Samos, the Peloponnesians at Miletus, seeing that +it was no longer possible to relieve Chios without a battle. And this +winter ended, and with it ended the twentieth year of this war of which +Thucydides is the historian. + +Early in the spring of the summer following, Dercyllidas, a Spartan, was +sent with a small force by land to the Hellespont to effect the revolt +of Abydos, which is a Milesian colony; and the Chians, while Astyochus +was at a loss how to help them, were compelled to fight at sea by the +pressure of the siege. While Astyochus was still at Rhodes they had +received from Miletus, as their commander after the death of Pedaritus, +a Spartan named Leon, who had come out with Antisthenes, and twelve +vessels which had been on guard at Miletus, five of which were Thurian, +four Syracusans, one from Anaia, one Milesian, and one Leon's own. +Accordingly the Chians marched out in mass and took up a strong +position, while thirty-six of their ships put out and engaged thirty-two +of the Athenians; and after a tough fight, in which the Chians and their +allies had rather the best of it, as it was now late, retired to their +city. + +Immediately after this Dercyllidas arrived by land from Miletus; and +Abydos in the Hellespont revolted to him and Pharnabazus, and Lampsacus +two days later. Upon receipt of this news Strombichides hastily sailed +from Chios with twenty-four Athenian ships, some transports carrying +heavy infantry being of the number, and defeating the Lampsacenes who +came out against him, took Lampsacus, which was unfortified, at the +first assault, and making prize of the slaves and goods restored the +freemen to their homes, and went on to Abydos. The inhabitants, however, +refusing to capitulate, and his assaults failing to take the place, he +sailed over to the coast opposite, and appointed Sestos, the town in the +Chersonese held by the Medes at a former period in this history, as the +centre for the defence of the whole Hellespont. + +In the meantime the Chians commanded the sea more than before; and the +Peloponnesians at Miletus and Astyochus, hearing of the sea-fight and +of the departure of the squadron with Strombichides, took fresh courage. +Coasting along with two vessels to Chios, Astyochus took the ships from +that place, and now moved with the whole fleet upon Samos, from whence, +however, he sailed back to Miletus, as the Athenians did not put out +against him, owing to their suspicions of one another. For it was about +this time, or even before, that the democracy was put down at Athens. +When Pisander and the envoys returned from Tissaphernes to Samos they at +once strengthened still further their interest in the army itself, and +instigated the upper class in Samos to join them in establishing an +oligarchy, the very form of government which a party of them had +lately risen to avoid. At the same time the Athenians at Samos, after a +consultation among themselves, determined to let Alcibiades alone, since +he refused to join them, and besides was not the man for an oligarchy; +and now that they were once embarked, to see for themselves how they +could best prevent the ruin of their cause, and meanwhile to sustain the +war, and to contribute without stint money and all else that might be +required from their own private estates, as they would henceforth labour +for themselves alone. + +After encouraging each other in these resolutions, they now at once +sent off half the envoys and Pisander to do what was necessary at Athens +(with instructions to establish oligarchies on their way in all the +subject cities which they might touch at), and dispatched the other half +in different directions to the other dependencies. Diitrephes also, who +was in the neighbourhood of Chios, and had been elected to the command +of the Thracian towns, was sent off to his government, and arriving +at Thasos abolished the democracy there. Two months, however, had not +elapsed after his departure before the Thasians began to fortify their +town, being already tired of an aristocracy with Athens, and in daily +expectation of freedom from Lacedaemon. Indeed there was a party of them +(whom the Athenians had banished), with the Peloponnesians, who with +their friends in the town were already making every exertion to bring +a squadron, and to effect the revolt of Thasos; and this party thus saw +exactly what they most wanted done, that is to say, the reformation of +the government without risk, and the abolition of the democracy which +would have opposed them. Things at Thasos thus turned out just the +contrary to what the oligarchical conspirators at Athens expected; and +the same in my opinion was the case in many of the other dependencies; +as the cities no sooner got a moderate government and liberty of action, +than they went on to absolute freedom without being at all seduced by +the show of reform offered by the Athenians. + +Pisander and his colleagues on their voyage alongshore abolished, as had +been determined, the democracies in the cities, and also took some heavy +infantry from certain places as their allies, and so came to Athens. +Here they found most of the work already done by their associates. Some +of the younger men had banded together, and secretly assassinated one +Androcles, the chief leader of the commons, and mainly responsible for +the banishment of Alcibiades; Androcles being singled out both because +he was a popular leader and because they sought by his death to +recommend themselves to Alcibiades, who was, as they supposed, to be +recalled, and to make Tissaphernes their friend. There were also some +other obnoxious persons whom they secretly did away with in the same +manner. Meanwhile their cry in public was that no pay should be given +except to persons serving in the war, and that not more than five +thousand should share in the government, and those such as were most +able to serve the state in person and in purse. + +But this was a mere catchword for the multitude, as the authors of the +revolution were really to govern. However, the Assembly and the Council +of the Bean still met notwithstanding, although they discussed nothing +that was not approved of by the conspirators, who both supplied the +speakers and reviewed in advance what they were to say. Fear, and the +sight of the numbers of the conspirators, closed the mouths of the rest; +or if any ventured to rise in opposition, he was presently put to death +in some convenient way, and there was neither search for the murderers +nor justice to be had against them if suspected; but the people remained +motionless, being so thoroughly cowed that men thought themselves lucky +to escape violence, even when they held their tongues. An exaggerated +belief in the numbers of the conspirators also demoralized the people, +rendered helpless by the magnitude of the city, and by their want of +intelligence with each other, and being without means of finding out +what those numbers really were. For the same reason it was impossible +for any one to open his grief to a neighbour and to concert measures to +defend himself, as he would have had to speak either to one whom he +did not know, or whom he knew but did not trust. Indeed all the popular +party approached each other with suspicion, each thinking his neighbour +concerned in what was going on, the conspirators having in their ranks +persons whom no one could ever have believed capable of joining an +oligarchy; and these it was who made the many so suspicious, and so +helped to procure impunity for the few, by confirming the commons in +their mistrust of one another. + +At this juncture arrived Pisander and his colleagues, who lost no time +in doing the rest. First they assembled the people, and moved to elect +ten commissioners with full powers to frame a constitution, and that +when this was done they should on an appointed day lay before the people +their opinion as to the best mode of governing the city. Afterwards, +when the day arrived, the conspirators enclosed the assembly in Colonus, +a temple of Poseidon, a little more than a mile outside the city; when +the commissioners simply brought forward this single motion, that any +Athenian might propose with impunity whatever measure he pleased, heavy +penalties being imposed upon any who should indict for illegality, or +otherwise molest him for so doing. The way thus cleared, it was now +plainly declared that all tenure of office and receipt of pay under the +existing institutions were at an end, and that five men must be elected +as presidents, who should in their turn elect one hundred, and each +of the hundred three apiece; and that this body thus made up to four +hundred should enter the council chamber with full powers and govern +as they judged best, and should convene the five thousand whenever they +pleased. + +The man who moved this resolution was Pisander, who was throughout +the chief ostensible agent in putting down the democracy. But he who +concerted the whole affair, and prepared the way for the catastrophe, +and who had given the greatest thought to the matter, was Antiphon, +one of the best men of his day in Athens; who, with a head to contrive +measures and a tongue to recommend them, did not willingly come forward +in the assembly or upon any public scene, being ill looked upon by the +multitude owing to his reputation for talent; and who yet was the one +man best able to aid in the courts, or before the assembly, the suitors +who required his opinion. Indeed, when he was afterwards himself tried +for his life on the charge of having been concerned in setting up this +very government, when the Four Hundred were overthrown and hardly dealt +with by the commons, he made what would seem to be the best defence of +any known up to my time. Phrynichus also went beyond all others in his +zeal for the oligarchy. Afraid of Alcibiades, and assured that he was +no stranger to his intrigues with Astyochus at Samos, he held that +no oligarchy was ever likely to restore him, and once embarked in the +enterprise, proved, where danger was to be faced, by far the staunchest +of them all. Theramenes, son of Hagnon, was also one of the foremost of +the subverters of the democracy--a man as able in council as in debate. +Conducted by so many and by such sagacious heads, the enterprise, great +as it was, not unnaturally went forward; although it was no light matter +to deprive the Athenian people of its freedom, almost a hundred years +after the deposition of the tyrants, when it had been not only not +subject to any during the whole of that period, but accustomed during +more than half of it to rule over subjects of its own. + +The assembly ratified the proposed constitution, without a single +opposing voice, and was then dissolved; after which the Four Hundred +were brought into the council chamber in the following way. On account +of the enemy at Decelea, all the Athenians were constantly on the wall +or in the ranks at the various military posts. On that day the persons +not in the secret were allowed to go home as usual, while orders were +given to the accomplices of the conspirators to hang about, without +making any demonstration, at some little distance from the posts, and in +case of any opposition to what was being done, to seize the arms and +put it down. There were also some Andrians and Tenians, three hundred +Carystians, and some of the settlers in Aegina come with their own arms +for this very purpose, who had received similar instructions. These +dispositions completed, the Four Hundred went, each with a dagger +concealed about his person, accompanied by one hundred and twenty +Hellenic youths, whom they employed wherever violence was needed, and +appeared before the Councillors of the Bean in the council chamber, and +told them to take their pay and be gone; themselves bringing it for the +whole of the residue of their term of office, and giving it to them as +they went out. + +Upon the Council withdrawing in this way without venturing any +objection, and the rest of the citizens making no movement, the Four +Hundred entered the council chamber, and for the present contented +themselves with drawing lots for their Prytanes, and making their +prayers and sacrifices to the gods upon entering office, but afterwards +departed widely from the democratic system of government, and except +that on account of Alcibiades they did not recall the exiles, ruled the +city by force; putting to death some men, though not many, whom they +thought it convenient to remove, and imprisoning and banishing others. +They also sent to Agis, the Lacedaemonian king, at Decelea, to say +that they desired to make peace, and that he might reasonably be more +disposed to treat now that he had them to deal with instead of the +inconstant commons. + +Agis, however, did not believe in the tranquillity of the city, or that +the commons would thus in a moment give up their ancient liberty, +but thought that the sight of a large Lacedaemonian force would be +sufficient to excite them if they were not already in commotion, of +which he was by no means certain. He accordingly gave to the envoys of +the Four Hundred an answer which held out no hopes of an accommodation, +and sending for large reinforcements from Peloponnese, not long +afterwards, with these and his garrison from Decelea, descended to the +very walls of Athens; hoping either that civil disturbances might help +to subdue them to his terms, or that, in the confusion to be expected +within and without the city, they might even surrender without a blow +being struck; at all events he thought he would succeed in seizing the +Long Walls, bared of their defenders. However, the Athenians saw him +come close up, without making the least disturbance within the city; and +sending out their cavalry, and a number of their heavy infantry, light +troops, and archers, shot down some of his soldiers who approached too +near, and got possession of some arms and dead. Upon this Agis, at last +convinced, led his army back again and, remaining with his own troops in +the old position at Decelea, sent the reinforcement back home, after a +few days' stay in Attica. After this the Four Hundred persevering sent +another embassy to Agis, and now meeting with a better reception, at his +suggestion dispatched envoys to Lacedaemon to negotiate a treaty, being +desirous of making peace. + +They also sent ten men to Samos to reassure the army, and to explain +that the oligarchy was not established for the hurt of the city or the +citizens, but for the salvation of the country at large; and that there +were five thousand, not four hundred only, concerned; although, what +with their expeditions and employments abroad, the Athenians had never +yet assembled to discuss a question important enough to bring five +thousand of them together. The emissaries were also told what to say +upon all other points, and were so sent off immediately after the +establishment of the new government, which feared, as it turned out +justly, that the mass of seamen would not be willing to remain under the +oligarchical constitution, and, the evil beginning there, might be the +means of their overthrow. + +Indeed at Samos the question of the oligarchy had already entered upon a +new phase, the following events having taken place just at the time that +the Four Hundred were conspiring. That part of the Samian population +which has been mentioned as rising against the upper class, and as +being the democratic party, had now turned round, and yielding to the +solicitations of Pisander during his visit, and of the Athenians in +the conspiracy at Samos, had bound themselves by oaths to the number +of three hundred, and were about to fall upon the rest of their fellow +citizens, whom they now in their turn regarded as the democratic party. +Meanwhile they put to death one Hyperbolus, an Athenian, a pestilent +fellow that had been ostracized, not from fear of his influence or +position, but because he was a rascal and a disgrace to the city; being +aided in this by Charminus, one of the generals, and by some of the +Athenians with them, to whom they had sworn friendship, and with whom +they perpetrated other acts of the kind, and now determined to attack +the people. The latter got wind of what was coming, and told two of the +generals, Leon and Diomedon, who, on account of the credit which they +enjoyed with the commons, were unwilling supporters of the oligarchy; +and also Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus, the former a captain of a galley, +the latter serving with the heavy infantry, besides certain others who +had ever been thought most opposed to the conspirators, entreating them +not to look on and see them destroyed, and Samos, the sole remaining +stay of their empire, lost to the Athenians. Upon hearing this, the +persons whom they addressed now went round the soldiers one by one, and +urged them to resist, especially the crew of the Paralus, which was made +up entirely of Athenians and freemen, and had from time out of mind been +enemies of oligarchy, even when there was no such thing existing; and +Leon and Diomedon left behind some ships for their protection in case +of their sailing away anywhere themselves. Accordingly, when the Three +Hundred attacked the people, all these came to the rescue, and foremost +of all the crew of the Paralus; and the Samian commons gained the +victory, and putting to death some thirty of the Three Hundred, and +banishing three others of the ringleaders, accorded an amnesty to the +rest, and lived together under a democratic government for the future. + +The ship Paralus, with Chaereas, son of Archestratus, on board, an +Athenian who had taken an active part in the revolution, was now without +loss of time sent off by the Samians and the army to Athens to report +what had occurred; the fact that the Four Hundred were in power +not being yet known. When they sailed into harbour the Four Hundred +immediately arrested two or three of the Parali and, taking the vessel +from the rest, shifted them into a troopship and set them to keep guard +round Euboea. Chaereas, however, managed to secrete himself as soon as +he saw how things stood, and returning to Samos, drew a picture to the +soldiers of the horrors enacting at Athens, in which everything was +exaggerated; saying that all were punished with stripes, that no one +could say a word against the holders of power, that the soldiers' wives +and children were outraged, and that it was intended to seize and +shut up the relatives of all in the army at Samos who were not of +the government's way of thinking, to be put to death in case of their +disobedience; besides a host of other injurious inventions. + +On hearing this the first thought of the army was to fall upon the chief +authors of the oligarchy and upon all the rest concerned. Eventually, +however, they desisted from this idea upon the men of moderate views +opposing it and warning them against ruining their cause, with the enemy +close at hand and ready for battle. After this, Thrasybulus, son of +Lycus, and Thrasyllus, the chief leaders in the revolution, now wishing +in the most public manner to change the government at Samos to a +democracy, bound all the soldiers by the most tremendous oaths, and +those of the oligarchical party more than any, to accept a democratic +government, to be united, to prosecute actively the war with the +Peloponnesians, and to be enemies of the Four Hundred, and to hold no +communication with them. The same oath was also taken by all the Samians +of full age; and the soldiers associated the Samians in all their +affairs and in the fruits of their dangers, having the conviction that +there was no way of escape for themselves or for them, but that the +success of the Four Hundred or of the enemy at Miletus must be their +ruin. + +The struggle now was between the army trying to force a democracy upon +the city, and the Four Hundred an oligarchy upon the camp. Meanwhile the +soldiers forthwith held an assembly, in which they deposed the former +generals and any of the captains whom they suspected, and chose +new captains and generals to replace them, besides Thrasybulus and +Thrasyllus, whom they had already. They also stood up and encouraged one +another, and among other things urged that they ought not to lose heart +because the city had revolted from them, as the party seceding was +smaller and in every way poorer in resources than themselves. They had +the whole fleet with which to compel the other cities in their empire to +give them money just as if they had their base in the capital, having a +city in Samos which, so far from wanting strength, had when at war been +within an ace of depriving the Athenians of the command of the sea, +while as far as the enemy was concerned they had the same base of +operations as before. Indeed, with the fleet in their hands, they were +better able to provide themselves with supplies than the government +at home. It was their advanced position at Samos which had throughout +enabled the home authorities to command the entrance into Piraeus; and +if they refused to give them back the constitution, they would now find +that the army was more in a position to exclude them from the sea than +they were to exclude the army. Besides, the city was of little or no use +towards enabling them to overcome the enemy; and they had lost nothing +in losing those who had no longer either money to send them (the +soldiers having to find this for themselves), or good counsel, which +entitles cities to direct armies. On the contrary, even in this the +home government had done wrong in abolishing the institutions of their +ancestors, while the army maintained the said institutions, and would +try to force the home government to do so likewise. So that even in +point of good counsel the camp had as good counsellors as the city. +Moreover, they had but to grant him security for his person and his +recall, and Alcibiades would be only too glad to procure them the +alliance of the King. And above all if they failed altogether, with the +navy which they possessed, they had numbers of places to retire to in +which they would find cities and lands. + +Debating together and comforting themselves after this manner, they +pushed on their war measures as actively as ever; and the ten envoys +sent to Samos by the Four Hundred, learning how matters stood while they +were still at Delos, stayed quiet there. About this time a cry arose a + Peloponnesian fleet at Miletus that Astyochus and Tissaphernes +were ruining their cause. Astyochus had not been willing to fight at +sea--either before, while they were still in full vigour and the +fleet of the Athenians small, or now, when the enemy was, as they were +informed, in a state of sedition and his ships not yet united--but kept +them waiting for the Phoenician fleet from Tissaphernes, which had only +a nominal existence, at the risk of wasting away in inactivity. While +Tissaphernes not only did not bring up the fleet in question, but was +ruining their navy by payments made irregularly, and even then not made +in full. They must therefore, they insisted, delay no longer, but fight +a decisive naval engagement. The Syracusans were the most urgent of any. + +The confederates and Astyochus, aware of these murmurs, had already +decided in council to fight a decisive battle; and when the news reached +them of the disturbance at Samos, they put to sea with all their ships, +one hundred and ten in number, and, ordering the Milesians to move by +land upon Mycale, set sail thither. The Athenians with the eighty-two +ships from Samos were at the moment lying at Glauce in Mycale, a +point where Samos approaches near to the continent; and, seeing the +Peloponnesian fleet sailing against them, retired into Samos, not +thinking themselves numerically strong enough to stake their all upon a +battle. Besides, they had notice from Miletus of the wish of the enemy +to engage, and were expecting to be joined from the Hellespont by +Strombichides, to whom a messenger had been already dispatched, with +the ships that had gone from Chios to Abydos. The Athenians accordingly +withdrew to Samos, and the Peloponnesians put in at Mycale, and +encamped with the land forces of the Milesians and the people of the +neighbourhood. The next day they were about to sail against Samos, when +tidings reached them of the arrival of Strombichides with the squadron +from the Hellespont, upon which they immediately sailed back to Miletus. +The Athenians, thus reinforced, now in their turn sailed against Miletus +with a hundred and eight ships, wishing to fight a decisive battle, but, +as no one put out to meet them, sailed back to Samos. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +_Twenty-first Year of the War--Recall of Alcibiades to Samos--Revolt of +Euboea and Downfall of the Four Hundred--Battle of Cynossema_ + +In the same summer, immediately after this, the Peloponnesians +having refused to fight with their fleet united, through not thinking +themselves a match for the enemy, and being at a loss where to look for +money for such a number of ships, especially as Tissaphernes proved so +bad a paymaster, sent off Clearchus, son of Ramphias, with forty ships +to Pharnabazus, agreeably to the original instructions from Peloponnese; +Pharnabazus inviting them and being prepared to furnish pay, and +Byzantium besides sending offers to revolt to them. These Peloponnesian +ships accordingly put out into the open sea, in order to escape the +observation of the Athenians, and being overtaken by a storm, the +majority with Clearchus got into Delos, and afterwards returned to +Miletus, whence Clearchus proceeded by land to the Hellespont to take +the command: ten, however, of their number, under the Megarian Helixus, +made good their passage to the Hellespont, and effected the revolt of +Byzantium. After this, the commanders at Samos were informed of it, and +sent a squadron against them to guard the Hellespont; and an encounter +took place before Byzantium between eight vessels on either side. + +Meanwhile the chiefs at Samos, and especially Thrasybulus, who from the +moment that he had changed the government had remained firmly resolved +to recall Alcibiades, at last in an assembly brought over the mass of +the soldiery, and upon their voting for his recall and amnesty, sailed +over to Tissaphernes and brought Alcibiades to Samos, being convinced +that their only chance of salvation lay in his bringing over +Tissaphernes from the Peloponnesians to themselves. An assembly was +then held in which Alcibiades complained of and deplored his private +misfortune in having been banished, and speaking at great length +upon public affairs, highly incited their hopes for the future, and +extravagantly magnified his own influence with Tissaphernes. His object +in this was to make the oligarchical government at Athens afraid of him, +to hasten the dissolution of the clubs, to increase his credit with the +army at Samos and heighten their own confidence, and lastly to prejudice +the enemy as strongly as possible against Tissaphernes, and blast the +hopes which they entertained. Alcibiades accordingly held out to the +army such extravagant promises as the following: that Tissaphernes had +solemnly assured him that if he could only trust the Athenians they +should never want for supplies while he had anything left, no, not even +if he should have to coin his own silver couch, and that he would bring +the Phoenician fleet now at Aspendus to the Athenians instead of to the +Peloponnesians; but that he could only trust the Athenians if Alcibiades +were recalled to be his security for them. + +Upon hearing this and much more besides, the Athenians at once elected +him general together with the former ones, and put all their affairs +into his hands. There was now not a man in the army who would have +exchanged his present hopes of safety and vengeance upon the Four +Hundred for any consideration whatever; and after what they had been +told they were now inclined to disdain the enemy before them, and to +sail at once for Piraeus. To the plan of sailing for Piraeus, leaving +their more immediate enemies behind them, Alcibiades opposed the most +positive refusal, in spite of the numbers that insisted upon it, +saying that now that he had been elected general he would first sail +to Tissaphernes and concert with him measures for carrying on the +war. Accordingly, upon leaving this assembly, he immediately took +his departure in order to have it thought that there was an entire +confidence between them, and also wishing to increase his consideration +with Tissaphernes, and to show that he had now been elected general and +was in a position to do him good or evil as he chose; thus managing +to frighten the Athenians with Tissaphernes and Tissaphernes with the +Athenians. + +Meanwhile the Peloponnesians at Miletus heard of the recall of +Alcibiades and, already distrustful of Tissaphernes, now became far more +disgusted with him than ever. Indeed after their refusal to go out +and give battle to the Athenians when they appeared before Miletus, +Tissaphernes had grown slacker than ever in his payments; and even +before this, on account of Alcibiades, his unpopularity had been on +the increase. Gathering together, just as before, the soldiers and some +persons of consideration besides the soldiery began to reckon up how +they had never yet received their pay in full; that what they did +receive was small in quantity, and even that paid irregularly, and that +unless they fought a decisive battle or removed to some station where +they could get supplies, the ships' crews would desert; and that it +was all the fault of Astyochus, who humoured Tissaphernes for his own +private advantage. + +The army was engaged in these reflections, when the following +disturbance took place about the person of Astyochus. Most of the +Syracusan and Thurian sailors were freemen, and these the freest crews +in the armament were likewise the boldest in setting upon Astyochus and +demanding their pay. The latter answered somewhat stiffly and threatened +them, and when Dorieus spoke up for his own sailors even went so far +as to lift his baton against him; upon seeing which the mass of men, in +sailor fashion, rushed in a fury to strike Astyochus. He, however, saw +them in time and fled for refuge to an altar; and they were thus parted +without his being struck. Meanwhile the fort built by Tissaphernes in +Miletus was surprised and taken by the Milesians, and the garrison in +it turned out--an act which met with the approval of the rest of the +allies, and in particular of the Syracusans, but which found no favour +with Lichas, who said moreover that the Milesians and the rest in the +King's country ought to show a reasonable submission to Tissaphernes and +to pay him court, until the war should be happily settled. The Milesians +were angry with him for this and for other things of the kind, and upon +his afterwards dying of sickness, would not allow him to be buried where +the Lacedaemonians with the army desired. + +The discontent of the army with Astyochus and Tissaphernes had reached +this pitch, when Mindarus arrived from Lacedaemon to succeed Astyochus +as admiral, and assumed the command. Astyochus now set sail for home; +and Tissaphernes sent with him one of his confidants, Gaulites, a +Carian, who spoke the two languages, to complain of the Milesians for +the affair of the fort, and at the same time to defend himself against +the Milesians, who were, as he was aware, on their way to Sparta chiefly +to denounce his conduct, and had with them Hermocrates, who was to +accuse Tissaphernes of joining with Alcibiades to ruin the Peloponnesian +cause and of playing a double game. Indeed Hermocrates had always +been at enmity with him about the pay not being restored in full; +and eventually when he was banished from Syracuse, and new +commanders--Potamis, Myscon, and Demarchus--had come out to Miletus to +the ships of the Syracusans, Tissaphernes, pressed harder than ever upon +him in his exile, and among other charges against him accused him of +having once asked him for money, and then given himself out as his enemy +because he failed to obtain it. + +While Astyochus and the Milesians and Hermocrates made sail for +Lacedaemon, Alcibiades had now crossed back from Tissaphernes to Samos. +After his return the envoys of the Four Hundred sent, as has been +mentioned above, to pacify and explain matters to the forces at Samos, +arrived from Delos; and an assembly was held in which they attempted to +speak. The soldiers at first would not hear them, and cried out to +put to death the subverters of the democracy, but at last, after some +difficulty, calmed down and gave them a hearing. Upon this the envoys +proceeded to inform them that the recent change had been made to save +the city, and not to ruin it or to deliver it over to the enemy, for +they had already had an opportunity of doing this when he invaded the +country during their government; that all the Five Thousand would have +their proper share in the government; and that their hearers' relatives +had neither outrage, as Chaereas had slanderously reported, nor other +ill treatment to complain of, but were all in undisturbed enjoyment of +their property just as they had left them. Besides these they made a +number of other statements which had no better success with their angry +auditors; and amid a host of different opinions the one which found most +favour was that of sailing to Piraeus. Now it was that Alcibiades for +the first time did the state a service, and one of the most signal kind. +For when the Athenians at Samos were bent upon sailing against their +countrymen, in which case Ionia and the Hellespont would most certainly +at once have passed into possession of the enemy, Alcibiades it was who +prevented them. At that moment, when no other man would have been able +to hold back the multitude, he put a stop to the intended expedition, +and rebuked and turned aside the resentment felt, on personal grounds, +against the envoys; he dismissed them with an answer from himself, +to the effect that he did not object to the government of the Five +Thousand, but insisted that the Four Hundred should be deposed and the +Council of Five Hundred reinstated in power: meanwhile any retrenchments +for economy, by which pay might be better found for the armament, met +with his entire approval. Generally, he bade them hold out and show a +bold face to the enemy, since if the city were saved there was good hope +that the two parties might some day be reconciled, whereas if either +were once destroyed, that at Samos, or that at Athens, there would no +longer be any one to be reconciled to. Meanwhile arrived envoys from the +Argives, with offers of support to the Athenian commons at Samos: these +were thanked by Alcibiades, and dismissed with a request to come when +called upon. The Argives were accompanied by the crew of the Paralus, +whom we left placed in a troopship by the Four Hundred with orders to +cruise round Euboea, and who being employed to carry to Lacedaemon some +Athenian envoys sent by the Four Hundred--Laespodias, Aristophon, +and Melesias--as they sailed by Argos laid hands upon the envoys, and +delivering them over to the Argives as the chief subverters of the +democracy, themselves, instead of returning to Athens, took the Argive +envoys on board, and came to Samos in the galley which had been confided +to them. + +The same summer at the time that the return of Alcibiades coupled +with the general conduct of Tissaphernes had carried to its height the +discontent of the Peloponnesians, who no longer entertained any doubt of +his having joined the Athenians, Tissaphernes wishing, it would seem, +to clear himself to them of these charges, prepared to go after the +Phoenician fleet to Aspendus, and invited Lichas to go with him; saying +that he would appoint Tamos as his lieutenant to provide pay for the +armament during his own absence. Accounts differ, and it is not easy to +ascertain with what intention he went to Aspendus, and did not bring the +fleet after all. That one hundred and forty-seven Phoenician ships came +as far as Aspendus is certain; but why they did not come on has been +variously accounted for. Some think that he went away in pursuance +of his plan of wasting the Peloponnesian resources, since at any +rate Tamos, his lieutenant, far from being any better, proved a worse +paymaster than himself: others that he brought the Phoenicians to +Aspendus to exact money from them for their discharge, having never +intended to employ them: others again that it was in view of the outcry +against him at Lacedaemon, in order that it might be said that he was +not in fault, but that the ships were really manned and that he had +certainly gone to fetch them. To myself it seems only too evident that +he did not bring up the fleet because he wished to wear out and paralyse +the Hellenic forces, that is, to waste their strength by the time lost +during his journey to Aspendus, and to keep them evenly balanced by not +throwing his weight into either scale. Had he wished to finish the war, +he could have done so, assuming of course that he made his appearance in +a way which left no room for doubt; as by bringing up the fleet he would +in all probability have given the victory to the Lacedaemonians, whose +navy, even as it was, faced the Athenian more as an equal than as an +inferior. But what convicts him most clearly, is the excuse which he put +forward for not bringing the ships. He said that the number assembled +was less than the King had ordered; but surely it would only have +enhanced his credit if he spent little of the King's money and effected +the same end at less cost. In any case, whatever was his intention, +Tissaphernes went to Aspendus and saw the Phoenicians; and the +Peloponnesians at his desire sent a Lacedaemonian called Philip with two +galleys to fetch the fleet. + +Alcibiades finding that Tissaphernes had gone to Aspendus, himself +sailed thither with thirteen ships, promising to do a great and +certain service to the Athenians at Samos, as he would either bring the +Phoenician fleet to the Athenians, or at all events prevent its +joining the Peloponnesians. In all probability he had long known that +Tissaphernes never meant to bring the fleet at all, and wished to +compromise him as much as possible in the eyes of the Peloponnesians +through his apparent friendship for himself and the Athenians, and thus +in a manner to oblige him to join their side. + +While Alcibiades weighed anchor and sailed eastward straight for +Phaselis and Caunus, the envoys sent by the Four Hundred to Samos +arrived at Athens. Upon their delivering the message from Alcibiades, +telling them to hold out and to show a firm front to the enemy, and +saying that he had great hopes of reconciling them with the army and +of overcoming the Peloponnesians, the majority of the members of the +oligarchy, who were already discontented and only too much inclined to +be quit of the business in any safe way that they could, were at once +greatly strengthened in their resolve. These now banded together and +strongly criticized the administration, their leaders being some of +the principal generals and men in office under the oligarchy, such as +Theramenes, son of Hagnon, Aristocrates, son of Scellias, and others; +who, although among the most prominent members of the government (being +afraid, as they said, of the army at Samos, and most especially of +Alcibiades, and also lest the envoys whom they had sent to Lacedaemon +might do the state some harm without the authority of the people), +without insisting on objections to the excessive concentration of power +in a few hands, yet urged that the Five Thousand must be shown to exist +not merely in name but in reality, and the constitution placed upon +a fairer basis. But this was merely their political cry; most of them +being driven by private ambition into the line of conduct so surely +fatal to oligarchies that arise out of democracies. For all at once +pretend to be not only equals but each the chief and master of his +fellows; while under a democracy a disappointed candidate accepts his +defeat more easily, because he has not the humiliation of being beaten +by his equals. But what most clearly encouraged the malcontents was the +power of Alcibiades at Samos, and their own disbelief in the stability +of the oligarchy; and it was now a race between them as to which should +first become the leader of the commons. + +Meanwhile the leaders and members of the Four Hundred most opposed to a +democratic form of government--Phrynichus who had had the quarrel with +Alcibiades during his command at Samos, Aristarchus the bitter and +inveterate enemy of the commons, and Pisander and Antiphon and others +of the chiefs who already as soon as they entered upon power, and again +when the army at Samos seceded from them and declared for a democracy, +had sent envoys from their own body to Lacedaemon and made every effort +for peace, and had built the wall in Eetionia--now redoubled their +exertions when their envoys returned from Samos, and they saw not only +the people but their own most trusted associates turning against them. +Alarmed at the state of things at Athens as at Samos, they now sent off +in haste Antiphon and Phrynichus and ten others with injunctions to make +peace with Lacedaemon upon any terms, no matter what, that should be at +all tolerable. Meanwhile they pushed on more actively than ever with the +wall in Eetionia. Now the meaning of this wall, according to Theramenes +and his supporters, was not so much to keep out the army of Samos, in +case of its trying to force its way into Piraeus, as to be able to let +in, at pleasure, the fleet and army of the enemy. For Eetionia is a mole +of Piraeus, close alongside of the entrance of the harbour, and was now +fortified in connection with the wall already existing on the land side, +so that a few men placed in it might be able to command the entrance; +the old wall on the land side and the new one now being built within on +the side of the sea, both ending in one of the two towers standing at +the narrow mouth of the harbour. They also walled off the largest porch +in Piraeus which was in immediate connection with this wall, and kept +it in their own hands, compelling all to unload there the corn that came +into the harbour, and what they had in stock, and to take it out from +thence when they sold it. + +These measures had long provoked the murmurs of Theramenes, and when +the envoys returned from Lacedaemon without having effected any general +pacification, he affirmed that this wall was like to prove the ruin of +the state. At this moment forty-two ships from Peloponnese, including +some Siceliot and Italiot vessels from Locri and Tarentum, had been +invited over by the Euboeans and were already riding off Las in Laconia +preparing for the voyage to Euboea, under the command of Agesandridas, +son of Agesander, a Spartan. Theramenes now affirmed that this squadron +was destined not so much to aid Euboea as the party fortifying Eetionia, +and that unless precautions were speedily taken the city would be +surprised and lost. This was no mere calumny, there being really some +such plan entertained by the accused. Their first wish was to have the +oligarchy without giving up the empire; failing this to keep their ships +and walls and be independent; while, if this also were denied them, +sooner than be the first victims of the restored democracy, they were +resolved to call in the enemy and make peace, give up their walls and +ships, and at all costs retain possession of the government, if their +lives were only assured to them. + +For this reason they pushed forward the construction of their work with +posterns and entrances and means of introducing the enemy, being eager +to have it finished in time. Meanwhile the murmurs against them were at +first confined to a few persons and went on in secret, until Phrynichus, +after his return from the embassy to Lacedaemon, was laid wait for and +stabbed in full market by one of the Peripoli, falling down dead before +he had gone far from the council chamber. The assassin escaped; but +his accomplice, an Argive, was taken and put to the torture by the Four +Hundred, without their being able to extract from him the name of his +employer, or anything further than that he knew of many men who used +to assemble at the house of the commander of the Peripoli and at +other houses. Here the matter was allowed to drop. This so emboldened +Theramenes and Aristocrates and the rest of their partisans in the Four +Hundred and out of doors, that they now resolved to act. For by this +time the ships had sailed round from Las, and anchoring at Epidaurus had +overrun Aegina; and Theramenes asserted that, being bound for Euboea, +they would never have sailed in to Aegina and come back to anchor at +Epidaurus, unless they had been invited to come to aid in the designs +of which he had always accused the government. Further inaction +had therefore now become impossible. In the end, after a great many +seditious harangues and suspicions, they set to work in real earnest. +The heavy infantry in Piraeus building the wall in Eetionia, among +whom was Aristocrates, a colonel, with his own tribe, laid hands upon +Alexicles, a general under the oligarchy and the devoted adherent of the +cabal, and took him into a house and confined him there. In this they +were assisted by one Hermon, commander of the Peripoli in Munychia, +and others, and above all had with them the great bulk of the heavy +infantry. As soon as the news reached the Four Hundred, who happened to +be sitting in the council chamber, all except the disaffected wished at +once to go to the posts where the arms were, and menaced Theramenes +and his party. Theramenes defended himself, and said that he was ready +immediately to go and help to rescue Alexicles; and taking with him one +of the generals belonging to his party, went down to Piraeus, followed +by Aristarchus and some young men of the cavalry. All was now panic and +confusion. Those in the city imagined that Piraeus was already taken and +the prisoner put to death, while those in Piraeus expected every moment +to be attacked by the party in the city. The older men, however, stopped +the persons running up and down the town and making for the stands of +arms; and Thucydides the Pharsalian, proxenus of the city, came forward +and threw himself in the way of the rival factions, and appealed to them +not to ruin the state, while the enemy was still at hand waiting for his +opportunity, and so at length succeeded in quieting them and in keeping +their hands off each other. Meanwhile Theramenes came down to Piraeus, +being himself one of the generals, and raged and stormed against the +heavy infantry, while Aristarchus and the adversaries of the people were +angry in right earnest. Most of the heavy infantry, however, went on +with the business without faltering, and asked Theramenes if he thought +the wall had been constructed for any good purpose, and whether it would +not be better that it should be pulled down. To this he answered that if +they thought it best to pull it down, he for his part agreed with them. +Upon this the heavy infantry and a number of the people in Piraeus +immediately got up on the fortification and began to demolish it. Now +their cry to the multitude was that all should join in the work who +wished the Five Thousand to govern instead of the Four Hundred. For +instead of saying in so many words "all who wished the commons to +govern," they still disguised themselves under the name of the Five +Thousand; being afraid that these might really exist, and that they +might be speaking to one of their number and get into trouble through +ignorance. Indeed this was why the Four Hundred neither wished the Five +Thousand to exist, nor to have it known that they did not exist; being +of opinion that to give themselves so many partners in empire would be +downright democracy, while the mystery in question would make the people +afraid of one another. + +The next day the Four Hundred, although alarmed, nevertheless assembled +in the council chamber, while the heavy infantry in Piraeus, +after having released their prisoner Alexicles and pulled down the +fortification, went with their arms to the theatre of Dionysus, close to +Munychia, and there held an assembly in which they decided to march into +the city, and setting forth accordingly halted in the Anaceum. Here they +were joined by some delegates from the Four Hundred, who reasoned +with them one by one, and persuaded those whom they saw to be the most +moderate to remain quiet themselves, and to keep in the rest; saying +that they would make known the Five Thousand, and have the Four Hundred +chosen from them in rotation, as should be decided by the Five Thousand, +and meanwhile entreated them not to ruin the state or drive it into the +arms of the enemy. After a great many had spoken and had been spoken to, +the whole body of heavy infantry became calmer than before, absorbed +by their fears for the country at large, and now agreed to hold upon an +appointed day an assembly in the theatre of Dionysus for the restoration +of concord. + +When the day came for the assembly in the theatre, and they were upon +the point of assembling, news arrived that the forty-two ships under +Agesandridas were sailing from Megara along the coast of Salamis. The +people to a man now thought that it was just what Theramenes and +his party had so often said, that the ships were sailing to the +fortification, and concluded that they had done well to demolish it. +But though it may possibly have been by appointment that Agesandridas +hovered about Epidaurus and the neighbourhood, he would also naturally +be kept there by the hope of an opportunity arising out of the +troubles in the town. In any case the Athenians, on receipt of the news +immediately ran down in mass to Piraeus, seeing themselves threatened +by the enemy with a worse war than their war among themselves, not at +a distance, but close to the harbour of Athens. Some went on board the +ships already afloat, while others launched fresh vessels, or ran to +defend the walls and the mouth of the harbour. + +Meanwhile the Peloponnesian vessels sailed by, and rounding Sunium +anchored between Thoricus and Prasiae, and afterwards arrived at Oropus. +The Athenians, with revolution in the city, and unwilling to lose a +moment in going to the relief of their most important possession (for +Euboea was everything to them now that they were shut out from Attica), +were compelled to put to sea in haste and with untrained crews, and sent +Thymochares with some vessels to Eretria. These upon their arrival, with +the ships already in Euboea, made up a total of thirty-six vessels, and +were immediately forced to engage. For Agesandridas, after his crews had +dined, put out from Oropus, which is about seven miles from Eretria by +sea; and the Athenians, seeing him sailing up, immediately began to man +their vessels. The sailors, however, instead of being by their ships, as +they supposed, were gone away to purchase provisions for their dinner +in the houses in the outskirts of the town; the Eretrians having so +arranged that there should be nothing on sale in the marketplace, in +order that the Athenians might be a long time in manning their ships, +and, the enemy's attack taking them by surprise, might be compelled to +put to sea just as they were. A signal also was raised in Eretria to +give them notice in Oropus when to put to sea. The Athenians, forced +to put out so poorly prepared, engaged off the harbour of Eretria, and +after holding their own for some little while notwithstanding, were at +length put to flight and chased to the shore. Such of their number as +took refuge in Eretria, which they presumed to be friendly to them, +found their fate in that city, being butchered by the inhabitants; while +those who fled to the Athenian fort in the Eretrian territory, and the +vessels which got to Chalcis, were saved. The Peloponnesians, after +taking twenty-two Athenian ships, and killing or making prisoners of the +crews, set up a trophy, and not long afterwards effected the revolt +of the whole of Euboea (except Oreus, which was held by the Athenians +themselves), and made a general settlement of the affairs of the island. + +When the news of what had happened in Euboea reached Athens, a panic +ensued such as they had never before known. Neither the disaster in +Sicily, great as it seemed at the time, nor any other had ever so much +alarmed them. The camp at Samos was in revolt; they had no more ships or +men to man them; they were at discord among themselves and might at any +moment come to blows; and a disaster of this magnitude coming on the top +of all, by which they lost their fleet, and worst of all Euboea, which +was of more value to them than Attica, could not occur without throwing +them into the deepest despondency. Meanwhile their greatest and most +immediate trouble was the possibility that the enemy, emboldened by his +victory, might make straight for them and sail against Piraeus, which +they had no longer ships to defend; and every moment they expected him +to arrive. This, with a little more courage, he might easily have done, +in which case he would either have increased the dissensions of the city +by his presence, or, if he had stayed to besiege it, have compelled the +fleet from Ionia, although the enemy of the oligarchy, to come to the +rescue of their country and of their relatives, and in the meantime +would have become master of the Hellespont, Ionia, the islands, and of +everything as far as Euboea, or, to speak roundly, of the whole Athenian +empire. But here, as on so many other occasions, the Lacedaemonians +proved the most convenient people in the world for the Athenians to +be at war with. The wide difference between the two characters, the +slowness and want of energy of the Lacedaemonians as contrasted with the +dash and enterprise of their opponents, proved of the greatest service, +especially to a maritime empire like Athens. Indeed this was shown by +the Syracusans, who were most like the Athenians in character, and also +most successful in combating them. + +Nevertheless, upon receipt of the news, the Athenians manned twenty +ships and called immediately a first assembly in the Pnyx, where they +had been used to meet formerly, and deposed the Four Hundred and voted +to hand over the government to the Five Thousand, of which body all who +furnished a suit of armour were to be members, decreeing also that no +one should receive pay for the discharge of any office, or if he did +should be held accursed. Many other assemblies were held afterwards, +in which law-makers were elected and all other measures taken to form a +constitution. It was during the first period of this constitution that +the Athenians appear to have enjoyed the best government that they ever +did, at least in my time. For the fusion of the high and the low was +effected with judgment, and this was what first enabled the state to +raise up her head after her manifold disasters. They also voted for the +recall of Alcibiades and of other exiles, and sent to him and to the +camp at Samos, and urged them to devote themselves vigorously to the +war. + +Upon this revolution taking place, the party of Pisander and Alexicles +and the chiefs of the oligarchs immediately withdrew to Decelea, with +the single exception of Aristarchus, one of the generals, who hastily +took some of the most barbarian of the archers and marched to Oenoe. +This was a fort of the Athenians upon the Boeotian border, at that +moment besieged by the Corinthians, irritated by the loss of a party +returning from Decelea, who had been cut off by the garrison. The +Corinthians had volunteered for this service, and had called upon the +Boeotians to assist them. After communicating with them, Aristarchus +deceived the garrison in Oenoe by telling them that their countrymen +in the city had compounded with the Lacedaemonians, and that one of the +terms of the capitulation was that they must surrender the place to the +Boeotians. The garrison believed him as he was general, and besides knew +nothing of what had occurred owing to the siege, and so evacuated the +fort under truce. In this way the Boeotians gained possession of Oenoe, +and the oligarchy and the troubles at Athens ended. + +To return to the Peloponnesians in Miletus. No pay was forthcoming from +any of the agents deputed by Tissaphernes for that purpose upon his +departure for Aspendus; neither the Phoenician fleet nor Tissaphernes +showed any signs of appearing, and Philip, who had been sent with him, +and another Spartan, Hippocrates, who was at Phaselis, wrote word to +Mindarus, the admiral, that the ships were not coming at all, and that +they were being grossly abused by Tissaphernes. Meanwhile Pharnabazus +was inviting them to come, and making every effort to get the fleet and, +like Tissaphernes, to cause the revolt of the cities in his government +still subject to Athens, founding great hopes on his success; until at +length, at about the period of the summer which we have now reached, +Mindarus yielded to his importunities, and, with great order and at a +moment's notice, in order to elude the enemy at Samos, weighed anchor +with seventy-three ships from Miletus and set sail for the Hellespont. +Thither sixteen vessels had already preceded him in the same summer, and +had overrun part of the Chersonese. Being caught in a storm, Mindarus +was compelled to run in to Icarus and, after being detained five or six +days there by stress of weather, arrived at Chios. + +Meanwhile Thrasyllus had heard of his having put out from Miletus, +and immediately set sail with fifty-five ships from Samos, in haste to +arrive before him in the Hellespont. But learning that he was at Chios, +and expecting that he would stay there, he posted scouts in Lesbos +and on the continent opposite to prevent the fleet moving without his +knowing it, and himself coasted along to Methymna, and gave orders to +prepare meal and other necessaries, in order to attack them from +Lesbos in the event of their remaining for any length of time at Chios. +Meanwhile he resolved to sail against Eresus, a town in Lesbos which +had revolted, and, if he could, to take it. For some of the principal +Methymnian exiles had carried over about fifty heavy infantry, their +sworn associates, from Cuma, and hiring others from the continent, so as +to make up three hundred in all, chose Anaxander, a Theban, to command +them, on account of the community of blood existing between the Thebans +and the Lesbians, and first attacked Methymna. Balked in this attempt by +the advance of the Athenian guards from Mitylene, and repulsed a second +time in a battle outside the city, they then crossed the mountain and +effected the revolt of Eresus. Thrasyllus accordingly determined to go +there with all his ships and to attack the place. Meanwhile Thrasybulus +had preceded him thither with five ships from Samos, as soon as he heard +that the exiles had crossed over, and coming too late to save Eresus, +went on and anchored before the town. Here they were joined also by two +vessels on their way home from the Hellespont, and by the ships of the +Methymnians, making a grand total of sixty-seven vessels; and the forces +on board now made ready with engines and every other means available to +do their utmost to storm Eresus. + +In the meantime Mindarus and the Peloponnesian fleet at Chios, after +taking provisions for two days and receiving three Chian pieces of money +for each man from the Chians, on the third day put out in haste from the +island; in order to avoid falling in with the ships at Eresus, they did +not make for the open sea, but keeping Lesbos on their left, sailed for +the continent. After touching at the port of Carteria, in the Phocaeid, +and dining, they went on along the Cumaean coast and supped at +Arginusae, on the continent over against Mitylene. From thence they +continued their voyage along the coast, although it was late in the +night, and arriving at Harmatus on the continent opposite Methymna, +dined there; and swiftly passing Lectum, Larisa, Hamaxitus, and the +neighbouring towns, arrived a little before midnight at Rhoeteum. Here +they were now in the Hellespont. Some of the ships also put in at Sigeum +and at other places in the neighbourhood. + +Meanwhile the warnings of the fire signals and the sudden increase in +the number of fires on the enemy's shore informed the eighteen Athenian +ships at Sestos of the approach of the Peloponnesian fleet. That very +night they set sail in haste just as they were, and, hugging the shore +of the Chersonese, coasted along to Elaeus, in order to sail out into +the open sea away from the fleet of the enemy. + +After passing unobserved the sixteen ships at Abydos, which had +nevertheless been warned by their approaching friends to be on the +alert to prevent their sailing out, at dawn they sighted the fleet of +Mindarus, which immediately gave chase. All had not time to get away; +the greater number however escaped to Imbros and Lemnos, while four +of the hindmost were overtaken off Elaeus. One of these was stranded +opposite to the temple of Protesilaus and taken with its crew, two +others without their crews; the fourth was abandoned on the shore of +Imbros and burned by the enemy. + +After this the Peloponnesians were joined by the squadron from Abydos, +which made up their fleet to a grand total of eighty-six vessels; they +spent the day in unsuccessfully besieging Elaeus, and then sailed back +to Abydos. Meanwhile the Athenians, deceived by their scouts, and never +dreaming of the enemy's fleet getting by undetected, were tranquilly +besieging Eresus. As soon as they heard the news they instantly +abandoned Eresus, and made with all speed for the Hellespont, and after +taking two of the Peloponnesian ships which had been carried out too +far into the open sea in the ardour of the pursuit and now fell in their +way, the next day dropped anchor at Elaeus, and, bringing back the +ships that had taken refuge at Imbros, during five days prepared for the +coming engagement. + +After this they engaged in the following way. The Athenians formed in +column and sailed close alongshore to Sestos; upon perceiving which the +Peloponnesians put out from Abydos to meet them. Realizing that a battle +was now imminent, both combatants extended their flank; the Athenians +along the Chersonese from Idacus to Arrhiani with seventy-six ships; +the Peloponnesians from Abydos to Dardanus with eighty-six. The +Peloponnesian right wing was occupied by the Syracusans, their left by +Mindarus in person with the best sailers in the navy; the Athenian left +by Thrasyllus, their right by Thrasybulus, the other commanders being +in different parts of the fleet. The Peloponnesians hastened to engage +first, and outflanking with their left the Athenian right sought to cut +them off, if possible, from sailing out of the straits, and to drive +their centre upon the shore, which was not far off. The Athenians +perceiving their intention extended their own wing and outsailed them, +while their left had by this time passed the point of Cynossema. This, +however, obliged them to thin and weaken their centre, especially +as they had fewer ships than the enemy, and as the coast round Point +Cynossema formed a sharp angle which prevented their seeing what was +going on on the other side of it. + +The Peloponnesians now attacked their centre and drove ashore the ships +of the Athenians, and disembarked to follow up their victory. No help +could be given to the centre either by the squadron of Thrasybulus on +the right, on account of the number of ships attacking him, or by that +of Thrasyllus on the left, from whom the point of Cynossema hid what +was going on, and who was also hindered by his Syracusan and other +opponents, whose numbers were fully equal to his own. At length, +however, the Peloponnesians in the confidence of victory began to +scatter in pursuit of the ships of the enemy, and allowed a considerable +part of their fleet to get into disorder. On seeing this the squadron +of Thrasybulus discontinued their lateral movement and, facing about, +attacked and routed the ships opposed to them, and next fell roughly +upon the scattered vessels of the victorious Peloponnesian division, and +put most of them to flight without a blow. The Syracusans also had by +this time given way before the squadron of Thrasyllus, and now openly +took to flight upon seeing the flight of their comrades. + +The rout was now complete. Most of the Peloponnesians fled for refuge +first to the river Midius, and afterwards to Abydos. Only a few +ships were taken by the Athenians; as owing to the narrowness of the +Hellespont the enemy had not far to go to be in safety. Nevertheless +nothing could have been more opportune for them than this victory. Up to +this time they had feared the Peloponnesian fleet, owing to a number +of petty losses and to the disaster in Sicily; but they now ceased +to mistrust themselves or any longer to think their enemies good for +anything at sea. Meanwhile they took from the enemy eight Chian +vessels, five Corinthian, two Ambraciot, two Boeotian, one Leucadian, +Lacedaemonian, Syracusan, and Pellenian, losing fifteen of their own. +After setting up a trophy upon Point Cynossema, securing the wrecks, and +restoring to the enemy his dead under truce, they sent off a galley to +Athens with the news of their victory. The arrival of this vessel with +its unhoped-for good news, after the recent disasters of Euboea, and +in the revolution at Athens, gave fresh courage to the Athenians, and +caused them to believe that if they put their shoulders to the wheel +their cause might yet prevail. + +On the fourth day after the sea-fight the Athenians in Sestos having +hastily refitted their ships sailed against Cyzicus, which had revolted. +Off Harpagium and Priapus they sighted at anchor the eight vessels from +Byzantium, and, sailing up and routing the troops on shore, took the +ships, and then went on and recovered the town of Cyzicus, which was +unfortified, and levied money from the citizens. In the meantime the +Peloponnesians sailed from Abydos to Elaeus, and recovered such of their +captured galleys as were still uninjured, the rest having been burned by +the Elaeusians, and sent Hippocrates and Epicles to Euboea to fetch the +squadron from that island. + +About the same time Alcibiades returned with his thirteen ships from +Caunus and Phaselis to Samos, bringing word that he had prevented +the Phoenician fleet from joining the Peloponnesians, and had made +Tissaphernes more friendly to the Athenians than before. Alcibiades +now manned nine more ships, and levied large sums of money from the +Halicarnassians, and fortified Cos. After doing this and placing a +governor in Cos, he sailed back to Samos, autumn being now at hand. +Meanwhile Tissaphernes, upon hearing that the Peloponnesian fleet had +sailed from Miletus to the Hellespont, set off again back from Aspendus, +and made all sail for Ionia. While the Peloponnesians were in the +Hellespont, the Antandrians, a people of Aeolic extraction, conveyed by +land across Mount Ida some heavy infantry from Abydos, and introduced +them into the town; having been ill-treated by Arsaces, the Persian +lieutenant of Tissaphernes. This same Arsaces had, upon pretence of +a secret quarrel, invited the chief men of the Delians to undertake +military service (these were Delians who had settled at Atramyttium +after having been driven from their homes by the Athenians for the sake +of purifying Delos); and after drawing them out from their town as his +friends and allies, had laid wait for them at dinner, and surrounded +them and caused them to be shot down by his soldiers. This deed made the +Antandrians fear that he might some day do them some mischief; and as +he also laid upon them burdens too heavy for them to bear, they expelled +his garrison from their citadel. + +Tissaphernes, upon hearing of this act of the Peloponnesians in addition +to what had occurred at Miletus and Cnidus, where his garrisons had been +also expelled, now saw that the breach between them was serious; and +fearing further injury from them, and being also vexed to think that +Pharnabazus should receive them, and in less time and at less cost +perhaps succeed better against Athens than he had done, determined to +rejoin them in the Hellespont, in order to complain of the events at +Antandros and excuse himself as best he could in the matter of the +Phoenician fleet and of the other charges against him. Accordingly he +went first to Ephesus and offered sacrifice to Artemis.... + +[When the winter after this summer is over the twenty-first year of this +war will be completed. ] + +THE END + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The History of the Peloponnesian War, by Thucydides + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PELOPONNESIAN WAR *** + +***** This file should be named 7142.txt or 7142.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/1/4/7142/ + +Produced by Albert Imrie + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |