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diff --git a/732-h/732-h.htm b/732-h/732-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f76c10 --- /dev/null +++ b/732-h/732-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,40538 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Volume 2 by Edward Gibbon</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + p { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +p.letter {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +</style> +</head> +<body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire<br /> + Volume 2</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Edward Gibbon</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Commentator: H. H. Milman</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November, 1996 [eBook #732]<br /> +[Most recently updated: September 23, 2023]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: David Reed and David Widger</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE ***</div> + +<h1>HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE</h1> + +<h2>Edward Gibbon, Esq.</h2> + +<h2>With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman</h2> + +<h3>Vol. 2</h3> + +<h4>1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised)</h4> + +<hr /> + +<h2>Contents</h2> + +<h3><a href="#vol02">VOLUME TWO</a></h3> + +<p> +<a href="#chap16.1">Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, +From Nero To Constantine.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Conduct Of The Roman Government Towards The Christians, +From The Reign Of Nero To That Of Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap16.2">Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, +From Nero To Constantine.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap16.3">Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, +From Nero To Constantine.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap16.4">Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, +From Nero To Constantine.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap16.5">Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, +From Nero To Constantine.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap16.6">Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, +From Nero To Constantine.—Part VI. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap16.7">Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, +From Nero To Constantine.—Part VII. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap16.8">Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, +From Nero To Constantine.—Part VIII. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap17.1">Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part +I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Foundation Of Constantinople.—Political System Constantine, +And His Successors.—Military Discipline.—The Palace.—The +Finances. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap17.2">Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part +II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap17.3">Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part +III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap17.4">Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part +IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap17.5">Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part +V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap17.6">Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part +VI. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap18.1">Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And +His Sons.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Character Of Constantine.—Gothic War.—Death Of +Constantine.—Division Of The Empire Among His Three Sons.— +Persian War.—Tragic Deaths Of Constantine The Younger And +Constans.—Usurpation Of Magnentius.—Civil War.—Victory Of +Constantius. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap18.2">Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And +His Sons.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap18.3">Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And +His Sons.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap18.4">Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And +His Sons.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap19.1">Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part +I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Constantius Sole Emperor.—Elevation And Death Of Gallus.— +Danger And Elevation Of Julian.—Sarmatian And Persian +Wars.—Victories Of Julian In Gaul. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap19.2">Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part +II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap19.3">Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part +III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap19.4">Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part +IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap20.1">Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part +I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Motives, Progress, And Effects Of The Conversion Of +Constantine.—Legal Establishment And Constitution Of The +Christian Or Catholic Church. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap20.2">Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part +II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap20.3">Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part +III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap20.4">Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part +IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap21.1">Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of +The Church.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Persecution Of Heresy.—The Schism Of The Donatists.—The +Arian Controversy.—Athanasius.—Distracted State Of The +Church And Empire Under Constantine And His Sons.— +Toleration Of Paganism. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap21.2">Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of +The Church.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap21.3">Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of +The Church.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap21.4">Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of +The Church.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap21.5">Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of +The Church.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap21.6">Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of +The Church.—Part VI. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap21.7">Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of +The Church.—Part VII. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap22.1">Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part +I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Julian Is Declared Emperor By The Legions Of Gaul.—His +March And Success.—The Death Of Constantius.—Civil +Administration Of Julian. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap22.2">Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part +II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap22.3">Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part +III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap22.4">Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part +IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap23.1">Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part I. +</a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Religion Of Julian.—Universal Toleration.—He Attempts +To Restore And Reform The Pagan Worship—To Rebuild The +Temple Of Jerusalem—His Artful Persecution Of The +Christians.—Mutual Zeal And Injustice. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap23.2">Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part +II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap23.3">Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part +III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap23.4">Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part +IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap23.5">Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part V. +</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap24.1">Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of +Julian.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Residence Of Julian At Antioch.—His Successful Expedition +Against The Persians.—Passage Of The Tigris—The Retreat +And Death Of Julian.—Election Of Jovian.—He Saves The +Roman Army By A Disgraceful Treaty. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap24.2">Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of +Julian.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap24.3">Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of +Julian.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap24.4">Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of +Julian.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap24.5">Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of +Julian.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap25.1">Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And +Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Government And Death Of Jovian.—Election Of +Valentinian, Who Associates His Brother Valens, And Makes +The Final Division Of The Eastern And Western Empires.— +Revolt Of Procopius.—Civil And Ecclesiastical +Administration.—Germany.—Britain.—Africa.—The East.— +The Danube.—Death Of Valentinian.—His Two Sons, Gratian +And Valentinian II., Succeed To The Western Empire. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap25.2">Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And +Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap25.3">Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And +Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap25.4">Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And +Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap25.5">Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And +Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap25.6">Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And +Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part VI. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap25.7">Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And +Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part VII. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap26.1">Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part +I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Manners Of The Pastoral Nations.—Progress Of The Huns, From +China To Europe.—Flight Of The Goths.—They Pass The +Danube.—Gothic War.—Defeat And Death Of Valens.—Gratian +Invests Theodosius With The Eastern Empire.—His Character +And Success.—Peace And Settlement Of The Goths. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap26.2">Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part +II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap26.3">Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part +III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap26.4">Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part +IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap26.5">Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part +V. </a> +</p> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="vol02"></a> + VOLUME TWO + </h2> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap16.1"></a> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Conduct Of The Roman Government Towards The Christians, + From The Reign Of Nero To That Of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-16.1111" + name="linknoteref-16.1111" id="linknoteref-16.1111">1111</a> +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1111" id="linknote-16.1111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1111 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1111">return</a>)<br /> [ The sixteenth chapter + I cannot help considering as a very ingenious and specious, but very + disgraceful extenuation of the cruelties perpetrated by the Roman + magistrates against the Christians. It is written in the most contemptibly + factious spirit of prejudice against the sufferers; it is unworthy of a + philosopher and of humanity. Let the narrative of Cyprian’s death be + examined. He had to relate the murder of an innocent man of advanced age, + and in a station deemed venerable by a considerable body of the + provincials of Africa, put to death because he refused to sacrifice to + Jupiter. Instead of pointing the indignation of posterity against such an + atrocious act of tyranny, he dwells, with visible art, on the small + circumstances of decorum and politeness which attended this murder, and + which he relates with as much parade as if they were the most important + particulars of the event. Dr. Robertson has been the subject of much blame + for his real or supposed lenity towards the Spanish murderers and tyrants + in America. That the sixteenth chapter of Mr. G. did not excite the same + or greater disapprobation, is a proof of the unphilosophical and indeed + fanatical animosity against Christianity, which was so prevalent during + the latter part of the eighteenth century.—<i>Mackintosh:</i> see Life, i. + p. 244, 245.] + </p> + <p> + If we seriously consider the purity of the Christian religion, the + sanctity of its moral precepts, and the innocent as well as austere lives + of the greater number of those who during the first ages embraced the + faith of the gospel, we should naturally suppose, that so benevolent a + doctrine would have been received with due reverence, even by the + unbelieving world; that the learned and the polite, however they may + deride the miracles, would have esteemed the virtues, of the new sect; and + that the magistrates, instead of persecuting, would have protected an + order of men who yielded the most passive obedience to the laws, though + they declined the active cares of war and government. If, on the other + hand, we recollect the universal toleration of Polytheism, as it was + invariably maintained by the faith of the people, the incredulity of + philosophers, and the policy of the Roman senate and emperors, we are at a + loss to discover what new offence the Christians had committed, what new + provocation could exasperate the mild indifference of antiquity, and what + new motives could urge the Roman princes, who beheld without concern a + thousand forms of religion subsisting in peace under their gentle sway, to + inflict a severe punishment on any part of their subjects, who had chosen + for themselves a singular but an inoffensive mode of faith and worship. + </p> + <p> + The religious policy of the ancient world seems to have assumed a more + stern and intolerant character, to oppose the progress of Christianity. + About fourscore years after the death of Christ, his innocent disciples + were punished with death by the sentence of a proconsul of the most + amiable and philosophic character, and according to the laws of an emperor + distinguished by the wisdom and justice of his general administration. The + apologies which were repeatedly addressed to the successors of Trajan are + filled with the most pathetic complaints, that the Christians, who obeyed + the dictates, and solicited the liberty, of conscience, were alone, among + all the subjects of the Roman empire, excluded from the common benefits of + their auspicious government. The deaths of a few eminent martyrs have been + recorded with care; and from the time that Christianity was invested with + the supreme power, the governors of the church have been no less + diligently employed in displaying the cruelty, than in imitating the + conduct, of their Pagan adversaries. To separate (if it be possible) a few + authentic as well as interesting facts from an undigested mass of fiction + and error, and to relate, in a clear and rational manner, the causes, the + extent, the duration, and the most important circumstances of the + persecutions to which the first Christians were exposed, is the design of + the present chapter. <a href="#linknote-16.1222" name="linknoteref-16.1222" + id="linknoteref-16.1222">1222</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1222" id="linknote-16.1222"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1222 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1222">return</a>)<br /> [ The history of the + first age of Christianity is only found in the Acts of the Apostles, and + in order to speak of the first persecutions experienced by the Christians, + that book should naturally have been consulted; those persecutions, then + limited to individuals and to a narrow sphere, interested only the + persecuted, and have been related by them alone. Gibbon making the + persecutions ascend no higher than Nero, has entirely omitted those which + preceded this epoch, and of which St. Luke has preserved the memory. The + only way to justify this omission was, to attack the authenticity of the + Acts of the Apostles; for, if authentic, they must necessarily be + consulted and quoted. Now, antiquity has left very few works of which the + authenticity is so well established as that of the Acts of the Apostles. + (See Lardner’s Cred. of Gospel Hist. part iii.) It is therefore, without + sufficient reason, that Gibbon has maintained silence concerning the + narrative of St. Luke, and this omission is not without importance.—G.] + </p> + <p> + The sectaries of a persecuted religion, depressed by fear animated with + resentment, and perhaps heated by enthusiasm, are seldom in a proper + temper of mind calmly to investigate, or candidly to appreciate, the + motives of their enemies, which often escape the impartial and discerning + view even of those who are placed at a secure distance from the flames of + persecution. A reason has been assigned for the conduct of the emperors + towards the primitive Christians, which may appear the more specious and + probable as it is drawn from the acknowledged genius of Polytheism. It has + already been observed, that the religious concord of the world was + principally supported by the implicit assent and reverence which the + nations of antiquity expressed for their respective traditions and + ceremonies. It might therefore be expected, that they would unite with + indignation against any sect or people which should separate itself from + the communion of mankind, and claiming the exclusive possession of divine + knowledge, should disdain every form of worship, except its own, as + impious and idolatrous. The rights of toleration were held by mutual + indulgence: they were justly forfeited by a refusal of the accustomed + tribute. As the payment of this tribute was inflexibly refused by the + Jews, and by them alone, the consideration of the treatment which they + experienced from the Roman magistrates, will serve to explain how far + these speculations are justified by facts, and will lead us to discover + the true causes of the persecution of Christianity. + </p> + <p> + Without repeating what has already been mentioned of the reverence of the + Roman princes and governors for the temple of Jerusalem, we shall only + observe, that the destruction of the temple and city was accompanied and + followed by every circumstance that could exasperate the minds of the + conquerors, and authorize religious persecution by the most specious + arguments of political justice and the public safety. From the reign of + Nero to that of Antoninus Pius, the Jews discovered a fierce impatience of + the dominion of Rome, which repeatedly broke out in the most furious + massacres and insurrections. Humanity is shocked at the recital of the + horrid cruelties which they committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, + and of Cyrene, where they dwelt in treacherous friendship with the + unsuspecting natives; <a href="#linknote-16.1" name="linknoteref-16.1" + id="linknoteref-16.1">1</a> and we are tempted to applaud the severe + retaliation which was exercised by the arms of the legions against a race + of fanatics, whose dire and credulous superstition seemed to render them + the implacable enemies not only of the Roman government, but of human + kind. <a href="#linknote-16.2" name="linknoteref-16.2" id="linknoteref-16.2">2</a> + The enthusiasm of the Jews was supported by the opinion, that it was + unlawful for them to pay taxes to an idolatrous master; and by the + flattering promise which they derived from their ancient oracles, that a + conquering Messiah would soon arise, destined to break their fetters, and + to invest the favorites of heaven with the empire of the earth. It was by + announcing himself as their long-expected deliverer, and by calling on all + the descendants of Abraham to assert the hope of Israel, that the famous + Barchochebas collected a formidable army, with which he resisted during + two years the power of the emperor Hadrian. <a href="#linknote-16.3" + name="linknoteref-16.3" id="linknoteref-16.3">3</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1" id="linknote-16.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1">return</a>)<br /> [ In Cyrene, they massacred + 220,000 Greeks; in Cyprus, 240,000; in Egypt, a very great multitude. Many + of these unhappy victims were sawn asunder, according to a precedent to + which David had given the sanction of his example. The victorious Jews + devoured the flesh, licked up the blood, and twisted the entrails like a + girdle round their bodies. See Dion Cassius, l. lxviii. p. 1145. * Note: + Some commentators, among them Reimar, in his notes on Dion Cassius think + that the hatred of the Romans against the Jews has led the historian to + exaggerate the cruelties committed by the latter. Don. Cass. lxviii. p. + 1146.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.2" id="linknote-16.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.2">return</a>)<br /> [ Without repeating the + well-known narratives of Josephus, we may learn from Dion, (l. lxix. p. + 1162,) that in Hadrian’s war 580,000 Jews were cut off by the sword, + besides an infinite number which perished by famine, by disease, and by + fire.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.3" id="linknote-16.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.3">return</a>)<br /> [ For the sect of the + Zealots, see Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, l. i. c. 17; for the characters + of the Messiah, according to the Rabbis, l. v. c. 11, 12, 13; for the + actions of Barchochebas, l. vii. c. 12. (Hist. of Jews iii. 115, &c.)—M.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these repeated provocations, the resentment of the Roman + princes expired after the victory; nor were their apprehensions continued + beyond the period of war and danger. By the general indulgence of + polytheism, and by the mild temper of Antoninus Pius, the Jews were + restored to their ancient privileges, and once more obtained the + permission of circumcising their children, with the easy restraint, that + they should never confer on any foreign proselyte that distinguishing mark + of the Hebrew race. <a href="#linknote-16.4" name="linknoteref-16.4" + id="linknoteref-16.4">4</a> The numerous remains of that people, though they + were still excluded from the precincts of Jerusalem, were permitted to + form and to maintain considerable establishments both in Italy and in the + provinces, to acquire the freedom of Rome, to enjoy municipal honors, and + to obtain at the same time an exemption from the burdensome and expensive + offices of society. The moderation or the contempt of the Romans gave a + legal sanction to the form of ecclesiastical police which was instituted + by the vanquished sect. The patriarch, who had fixed his residence at + Tiberias, was empowered to appoint his subordinate ministers and apostles, + to exercise a domestic jurisdiction, and to receive from his dispersed + brethren an annual contribution. <a href="#linknote-16.5" name="linknoteref-16.5" + id="linknoteref-16.5">5</a> New synagogues were frequently erected in the + principal cities of the empire; and the sabbaths, the fasts, and the + festivals, which were either commanded by the Mosaic law, or enjoined by + the traditions of the Rabbis, were celebrated in the most solemn and + public manner. <a href="#linknote-16.6" name="linknoteref-16.6" + id="linknoteref-16.6">6</a> Such gentle treatment insensibly assuaged the + stern temper of the Jews. Awakened from their dream of prophecy and + conquest, they assumed the behavior of peaceable and industrious subjects. + Their irreconcilable hatred of mankind, instead of flaming out in acts of + blood and violence, evaporated in less dangerous gratifications. They + embraced every opportunity of overreaching the idolaters in trade; and + they pronounced secret and ambiguous imprecations against the haughty + kingdom of Edom. <a href="#linknote-16.7" name="linknoteref-16.7" + id="linknoteref-16.7">7</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.4" id="linknote-16.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.4">return</a>)<br /> [ It is to Modestinus, a + Roman lawyer (l. vi. regular.) that we are indebted for a distinct + knowledge of the Edict of Antoninus. See Casaubon ad Hist. August. p. 27.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.5" id="linknote-16.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.5">return</a>)<br /> [ See Basnage, Histoire des + Juifs, l. iii. c. 2, 3. The office of Patriarch was suppressed by + Theodosius the younger.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.6" id="linknote-16.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.6">return</a>)<br /> [ We need only mention the + Purim, or deliverance of the Jews from he rage of Haman, which, till the + reign of Theodosius, was celebrated with insolent triumph and riotous + intemperance. Basnage, Hist. des Juifs, l. vi. c. 17, l. viii. c. 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.7" id="linknote-16.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.7">return</a>)<br /> [ According to the false + Josephus, Tsepho, the grandson of Esau, conducted into Italy the army of + Eneas, king of Carthage. Another colony of Idumæans, flying from the + sword of David, took refuge in the dominions of Romulus. For these, or for + other reasons of equal weight, the name of Edom was applied by the Jews to + the Roman empire. * Note: The false Josephus is a romancer of very modern + date, though some of these legends are probably more ancient. It may be + worth considering whether many of the stories in the Talmud are not + history in a figurative disguise, adopted from prudence. The Jews might + dare to say many things of Rome, under the significant appellation of + Edom, which they feared to utter publicly. Later and more ignorant ages + took literally, and perhaps embellished, what was intelligible among the + generation to which it was addressed. Hist. of Jews, iii. 131. ——The + false Josephus has the inauguration of the emperor, with the seven + electors and apparently the pope assisting at the coronation! Pref. page + xxvi.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Since the Jews, who rejected with abhorrence the deities adored by their + sovereign and by their fellow-subjects, enjoyed, however, the free + exercise of their unsocial religion, there must have existed some other + cause, which exposed the disciples of Christ to those severities from + which the posterity of Abraham was exempt. The difference between them is + simple and obvious; but, according to the sentiments of antiquity, it was + of the highest importance. The Jews were a <i>nation;</i> the Christians were a + <i>sect:</i> and if it was natural for every community to respect the sacred + institutions of their neighbors, it was incumbent on them to persevere in + those of their ancestors. The voice of oracles, the precepts of + philosophers, and the authority of the laws, unanimously enforced this + national obligation. By their lofty claim of superior sanctity the Jews + might provoke the Polytheists to consider them as an odious and impure + race. By disdaining the intercourse of other nations, they might deserve + their contempt. The laws of Moses might be for the most part frivolous or + absurd; yet, since they had been received during many ages by a large + society, his followers were justified by the example of mankind; and it + was universally acknowledged, that they had a right to practise what it + would have been criminal in them to neglect. But this principle, which + protected the Jewish synagogue, afforded not any favor or security to the + primitive church. By embracing the faith of the gospel, the Christians + incurred the supposed guilt of an unnatural and unpardonable offence. They + dissolved the sacred ties of custom and education, violated the religious + institutions of their country, and presumptuously despised whatever their + fathers had believed as true, or had reverenced as sacred. Nor was this + apostasy (if we may use the expression) merely of a partial or local kind; + since the pious deserter who withdrew himself from the temples of Egypt or + Syria, would equally disdain to seek an asylum in those of Athens or + Carthage. Every Christian rejected with contempt the superstitions of his + family, his city, and his province. The whole body of Christians + unanimously refused to hold any communion with the gods of Rome, of the + empire, and of mankind. It was in vain that the oppressed believer + asserted the inalienable rights of conscience and private judgment. Though + his situation might excite the pity, his arguments could never reach the + understanding, either of the philosophic or of the believing part of the + Pagan world. To their apprehensions, it was no less a matter of surprise, + that any individuals should entertain scruples against complying with the + established mode of worship, than if they had conceived a sudden + abhorrence to the manners, the dress, <a href="#linknote-16.8111" + name="linknoteref-16.8111" id="linknoteref-16.8111">8111</a> or the language of + their native country. <a href="#linknote-16.8" name="linknoteref-16.8" + id="linknoteref-16.8">8</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.8" id="linknote-16.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.8">return</a>)<br /> [ From the arguments of + Celsus, as they are represented and refuted by Origen, (l. v. p. 247—259,) + we may clearly discover the distinction that was made between the Jewish + <i>people</i> and the Christian <i>sect</i>. See, in the Dialogue of Minucius Felix, (c. + 5, 6,) a fair and not inelegant description of the popular sentiments, + with regard to the desertion of the established worship.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.8111" id="linknote-16.8111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8111 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.8111">return</a>)<br /> [ In all this there is + doubtless much truth; yet does not the more important difference lie on + the surface? The Christians made many converts the Jews but few. Had the + Jewish been equally a proselyting religion would it not have encountered + as violent persecution?—M.] + </p> + <p> + The surprise of the Pagans was soon succeeded by resentment; and the most + pious of men were exposed to the unjust but dangerous imputation of + impiety. Malice and prejudice concurred in representing the Christians as + a society of atheists, who, by the most daring attack on the religious + constitution of the empire, had merited the severest animadversion of the + civil magistrate. They had separated themselves (they gloried in the + confession) from every mode of superstition which was received in any part + of the globe by the various temper of polytheism: but it was not + altogether so evident what deity, or what form of worship, they had + substituted to the gods and temples of antiquity. The pure and sublime + idea which they entertained of the Supreme Being escaped the gross + conception of the Pagan multitude, who were at a loss to discover a + spiritual and solitary God, that was neither represented under any + corporeal figure or visible symbol, nor was adored with the accustomed + pomp of libations and festivals, of altars and sacrifices. <a + href="#linknote-16.9" name="linknoteref-16.9" id="linknoteref-16.9">9</a> The sages + of Greece and Rome, who had elevated their minds to the contemplation of + the existence and attributes of the First Cause, were induced by reason or + by vanity to reserve for themselves and their chosen disciples the + privilege of this philosophical devotion. <a href="#linknote-16.10" + name="linknoteref-16.10" id="linknoteref-16.10">10</a> They were far from + admitting the prejudices of mankind as the standard of truth, but they + considered them as flowing from the original disposition of human nature; + and they supposed that any popular mode of faith and worship which + presumed to disclaim the assistance of the senses, would, in proportion as + it receded from superstition, find itself incapable of restraining the + wanderings of the fancy, and the visions of fanaticism. The careless + glance which men of wit and learning condescended to cast on the Christian + revelation, served only to confirm their hasty opinion, and to persuade + them that the principle, which they might have revered, of the Divine + Unity, was defaced by the wild enthusiasm, and annihilated by the airy + speculations, of the new sectaries. The author of a celebrated dialogue, + which has been attributed to Lucian, whilst he affects to treat the + mysterious subject of the Trinity in a style of ridicule and contempt, + betrays his own ignorance of the weakness of human reason, and of the + inscrutable nature of the divine perfections. <a href="#linknote-16.11" + name="linknoteref-16.11" id="linknoteref-16.11">11</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.9" id="linknote-16.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Cur nullas aras habent? + templa nulla? nulla nota simulacra!—Unde autem, vel quis ille, aut + ubi, Deus unicus, solitarius, desti tutus? Minucius Felix, c. 10. The + Pagan interlocutor goes on to make a distinction in favor of the Jews, who + had once a temple, altars, victims, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.10" id="linknote-16.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.10">return</a>)<br /> [ It is difficult (says + Plato) to attain, and dangerous to publish, the knowledge of the true God. + See the Theologie des Philosophes, in the Abbé d’Olivet’s French + translation of Tully de Naturâ Deorum, tom. i. p. 275.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.11" id="linknote-16.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.11">return</a>)<br /> [ The author of the + Philopatris perpetually treats the Christians as a company of dreaming + enthusiasts, &c.; and in one place he manifestly alludes to the vision + in which St. Paul was transported to the third heaven. In another place, + Triephon, who personates a Christian, after deriding the gods of Paganism, + proposes a mysterious oath.] + </p> + <p> + It might appear less surprising, that the founder of Christianity should + not only be revered by his disciples as a sage and a prophet, but that he + should be adored as a God. The Polytheists were disposed to adopt every + article of faith, which seemed to offer any resemblance, however distant + or imperfect, with the popular mythology; and the legends of Bacchus, of + Hercules, and of Æsculapius, had, in some measure, prepared their + imagination for the appearance of the Son of God under a human form. <a + href="#linknote-16.12" name="linknoteref-16.12" id="linknoteref-16.12">12</a> But + they were astonished that the Christians should abandon the temples of + those ancient heroes, who, in the infancy of the world, had invented arts, + instituted laws, and vanquished the tyrants or monsters who infested the + earth, in order to choose for the exclusive object of their religious + worship an obscure teacher, who, in a recent age, and among a barbarous + people, had fallen a sacrifice either to the malice of his own countrymen, + or to the jealousy of the Roman government. The Pagan multitude, reserving + their gratitude for temporal benefits alone, rejected the inestimable + present of life and immortality, which was offered to mankind by Jesus of + Nazareth. His mild constancy in the midst of cruel and voluntary + sufferings, his universal benevolence, and the sublime simplicity of his + actions and character, were insufficient, in the opinion of those carnal + men, to compensate for the want of fame, of empire, and of success; and + whilst they refused to acknowledge his stupendous triumph over the powers + of darkness and of the grave, they misrepresented, or they insulted, the + equivocal birth, wandering life, and ignominious death, of the divine + Author of Christianity. <a href="#linknote-16.13" name="linknoteref-16.13" + id="linknoteref-16.13">13</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.12" id="linknote-16.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.12">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Justin + Martyr, (Apolog. Major, c. 70-85,) the dæmon who had gained some + imperfect knowledge of the prophecies, purposely contrived this + resemblance, which might deter, though by different means, both the people + and the philosophers from embracing the faith of Christ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.13" id="linknote-16.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.13">return</a>)<br /> [ In the first and second + books of Origen, Celsus treats the birth and character of our Savior with + the most impious contempt. The orator Libanius praises Porphyry and Julian + for confuting the folly of a sect., which styles a dead man of Palestine, + God, and the Son of God. Socrates, Hist. Ecclesiast. iii. 23.] + </p> + <p> + The personal guilt which every Christian had contracted, in thus + preferring his private sentiment to the national religion, was aggravated + in a very high degree by the number and union of the criminals. It is well + known, and has been already observed, that Roman policy viewed with the + utmost jealousy and distrust any association among its subjects; and that + the privileges of private corporations, though formed for the most + harmless or beneficial purposes, were bestowed with a very sparing hand. + <a href="#linknote-16.14" name="linknoteref-16.14" id="linknoteref-16.14">14</a> + The religious assemblies of the Christians who had separated themselves + from the public worship, appeared of a much less innocent nature; they + were illegal in their principle, and in their consequences might become + dangerous; nor were the emperors conscious that they violated the laws of + justice, when, for the peace of society, they prohibited those secret and + sometimes nocturnal meetings. <a href="#linknote-16.15" name="linknoteref-16.15" + id="linknoteref-16.15">15</a> The pious disobedience of the Christians made + their conduct, or perhaps their designs, appear in a much more serious and + criminal light; and the Roman princes, who might perhaps have suffered + themselves to be disarmed by a ready submission, deeming their honor + concerned in the execution of their commands, sometimes attempted, by + rigorous punishments, to subdue this independent spirit, which boldly + acknowledged an authority superior to that of the magistrate. The extent + and duration of this spiritual conspiracy seemed to render it everyday + more deserving of his animadversion. We have already seen that the active + and successful zeal of the Christians had insensibly diffused them through + every province and almost every city of the empire. The new converts + seemed to renounce their family and country, that they might connect + themselves in an indissoluble band of union with a peculiar society, which + every where assumed a different character from the rest of mankind. Their + gloomy and austere aspect, their abhorrence of the common business and + pleasures of life, and their frequent predictions of impending calamities, + <a href="#linknote-16.16" name="linknoteref-16.16" id="linknoteref-16.16">16</a> + inspired the Pagans with the apprehension of some danger, which would + arise from the new sect, the more alarming as it was the more obscure. + “Whatever,” says Pliny, “may be the principle of their conduct, their + inflexible obstinacy appeared deserving of punishment.” <a + href="#linknote-16.17" name="linknoteref-16.17" id="linknoteref-16.17">17</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.14" id="linknote-16.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.14">return</a>)<br /> [ The emperor Trajan + refused to incorporate a company of 150 firemen, for the use of the city + of Nicomedia. He disliked all associations. See Plin. Epist. x. 42, 43.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.15" id="linknote-16.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.15">return</a>)<br /> [ The proconsul Pliny had + published a general edict against unlawful meetings. The prudence of the + Christians suspended their Agapæ; but it was impossible for them to omit + the exercise of public worship.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.16" id="linknote-16.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.16">return</a>)<br /> [ As the prophecies of the + Antichrist, approaching conflagration, &c., provoked those Pagans whom + they did not convert, they were mentioned with caution and reserve; and + the Montanists were censured for disclosing too freely the dangerous + secret. See Mosheim, 413.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.17" id="linknote-16.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Neque enim dubitabam, + quodcunque esset quod faterentur, (such are the words of Pliny,) + pervicacian certe et inflexibilem obstinationem lebere puniri.] + </p> + <p> + The precautions with which the disciples of Christ performed the offices + of religion were at first dictated by fear and necessity; but they were + continued from choice. By imitating the awful secrecy which reigned in the + Eleusinian mysteries, the Christians had flattered themselves that they + should render their sacred institutions more respectable in the eyes of + the Pagan world. <a href="#linknote-16.18" name="linknoteref-16.18" + id="linknoteref-16.18">18</a> But the event, as it often happens to the + operations of subtile policy, deceived their wishes and their + expectations. It was concluded, that they only concealed what they would + have blushed to disclose. Their mistaken prudence afforded an opportunity + for malice to invent, and for suspicious credulity to believe, the horrid + tales which described the Christians as the most wicked of human kind, who + practised in their dark recesses every abomination that a depraved fancy + could suggest, and who solicited the favor of their unknown God by the + sacrifice of every moral virtue. There were many who pretended to confess + or to relate the ceremonies of this abhorred society. It was asserted, + “that a new-born infant, entirely covered over with flour, was presented, + like some mystic symbol of initiation, to the knife of the proselyte, who + unknowingly inflicted many a secret and mortal wound on the innocent + victim of his error; that as soon as the cruel deed was perpetrated, the + sectaries drank up the blood, greedily tore asunder the quivering members, + and pledged themselves to eternal secrecy, by a mutual consciousness of + guilt. It was as confidently affirmed, that this inhuman sacrifice was + succeeded by a suitable entertainment, in which intemperance served as a + provocative to brutal lust; till, at the appointed moment, the lights were + suddenly extinguished, shame was banished, nature was forgotten; and, as + accident might direct, the darkness of the night was polluted by the + incestuous commerce of sisters and brothers, of sons and of mothers.” <a + href="#linknote-16.19" name="linknoteref-16.19" id="linknoteref-16.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.18" id="linknote-16.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.18">return</a>)<br /> [ See Mosheim’s + Ecclesiastical History, vol. i. p. 101, and Spanheim, Remarques sur les + Cæsars de Julien, p. 468, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.19" id="linknote-16.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.19">return</a>)<br /> [ See Justin Martyr, + Apolog. i. 35, ii. 14. Athenagoras, in Legation, c. 27. Tertullian, + Apolog. c. 7, 8, 9. Minucius Felix, c. 9, 10, 80, 31. The last of these + writers relates the accusation in the most elegant and circumstantial + manner. The answer of Tertullian is the boldest and most vigorous.] + </p> + <p> + But the perusal of the ancient apologies was sufficient to remove even the + slightest suspicion from the mind of a candid adversary. The Christians, + with the intrepid security of innocence, appeal from the voice of rumor to + the equity of the magistrates. They acknowledge, that if any proof can be + produced of the crimes which calumny has imputed to them, they are worthy + of the most severe punishment. They provoke the punishment, and they + challenge the proof. At the same time they urge, with equal truth and + propriety, that the charge is not less devoid of probability, than it is + destitute of evidence; they ask, whether any one can seriously believe + that the pure and holy precepts of the gospel, which so frequently + restrain the use of the most lawful enjoyments, should inculcate the + practice of the most abominable crimes; that a large society should + resolve to dishonor itself in the eyes of its own members; and that a + great number of persons of either sex, and every age and character, + insensible to the fear of death or infamy, should consent to violate those + principles which nature and education had imprinted most deeply in their + minds. <a href="#linknote-16.20" name="linknoteref-16.20" id="linknoteref-16.20">20</a> + Nothing, it should seem, could weaken the force or destroy the effect of + so unanswerable a justification, unless it were the injudicious conduct of + the apologists themselves, who betrayed the common cause of religion, to + gratify their devout hatred to the domestic enemies of the church. It was + sometimes faintly insinuated, and sometimes boldly asserted, that the same + bloody sacrifices, and the same incestuous festivals, which were so + falsely ascribed to the orthodox believers, were in reality celebrated by + the Marcionites, by the Carpocratians, and by several other sects of the + Gnostics, who, notwithstanding they might deviate into the paths of + heresy, were still actuated by the sentiments of men, and still governed + by the precepts of Christianity. <a href="#linknote-16.21" + name="linknoteref-16.21" id="linknoteref-16.21">21</a> Accusations of a similar + kind were retorted upon the church by the schismatics who had departed + from its communion, <a href="#linknote-16.22" name="linknoteref-16.22" + id="linknoteref-16.22">22</a> and it was confessed on all sides, that the + most scandalous licentiousness of manners prevailed among great numbers of + those who affected the name of Christians. A Pagan magistrate, who + possessed neither leisure nor abilities to discern the almost + imperceptible line which divides the orthodox faith from heretical + pravity, might easily have imagined that their mutual animosity had + extorted the discovery of their common guilt. It was fortunate for the + repose, or at least for the reputation, of the first Christians, that the + magistrates sometimes proceeded with more temper and moderation than is + usually consistent with religious zeal, and that they reported, as the + impartial result of their judicial inquiry, that the sectaries, who had + deserted the established worship, appeared to them sincere in their + professions, and blameless in their manners; however they might incur, by + their absurd and excessive superstition, the censure of the laws. <a + href="#linknote-16.23" name="linknoteref-16.23" id="linknoteref-16.23">23</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.20" id="linknote-16.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.20">return</a>)<br /> [ In the persecution of + Lyons, some Gentile slaves were compelled, by the fear of tortures, to + accuse their Christian master. The church of Lyons, writing to their + brethren of Asia, treat the horrid charge with proper indignation and + contempt. Euseb. Hist. Eccles. v. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.21" id="linknote-16.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.21">return</a>)<br /> [ See Justin Martyr, + Apolog. i. 35. Irenæus adv. Hæres. i. 24. Clemens. Alexandrin. Stromat. + l. iii. p. 438. Euseb. iv. 8. It would be tedious and disgusting to relate + all that the succeeding writers have imagined, all that Epiphanius has + received, and all that Tillemont has copied. M. de Beausobre (Hist. du + Manicheisme, l. ix. c. 8, 9) has exposed, with great spirit, the + disingenuous arts of Augustin and Pope Leo I.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.22" id="linknote-16.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.22">return</a>)<br /> [ When Tertullian became a + Montanist, he aspersed the morals of the church which he had so resolutely + defended. “Sed majoris est Agape, quia per hanc adolescentes tui cum + sororibus dormiunt, appendices scilicet gulæ lascivia et luxuria.” De + Jejuniis c. 17. The 85th canon of the council of Illiberis provides + against the scandals which too often polluted the vigils of the church, + and disgraced the Christian name in the eyes of unbelievers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.23" id="linknote-16.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.23">return</a>)<br /> [ Tertullian (Apolog. c. 2) + expatiates on the fair and honorable testimony of Pliny, with much reason + and some declamation.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap16.2"></a> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + History, which undertakes to record the transactions of the past, for the + instruction of future ages, would ill deserve that honorable office, if + she condescended to plead the cause of tyrants, or to justify the maxims + of persecution. It must, however, be acknowledged, that the conduct of the + emperors who appeared the least favorable to the primitive church, is by + no means so criminal as that of modern sovereigns, who have employed the + arm of violence and terror against the religious opinions of any part of + their subjects. From their reflections, or even from their own feelings, a + Charles V. or a Lewis XIV. might have acquired a just knowledge of the + rights of conscience, of the obligation of faith, and of the innocence of + error. But the princes and magistrates of ancient Rome were strangers to + those principles which inspired and authorized the inflexible obstinacy of + the Christians in the cause of truth, nor could they themselves discover + in their own breasts any motive which would have prompted them to refuse a + legal, and as it were a natural, submission to the sacred institutions of + their country. The same reason which contributes to alleviate the guilt, + must have tended to abate the vigor, of their persecutions. As they were + actuated, not by the furious zeal of bigots, but by the temperate policy + of legislators, contempt must often have relaxed, and humanity must + frequently have suspended, the execution of those laws which they enacted + against the humble and obscure followers of Christ. From the general view + of their character and motives we might naturally conclude: I. That a + considerable time elapsed before they considered the new sectaries as an + object deserving of the attention of government. II. That in the + conviction of any of their subjects who were accused of so very singular a + crime, they proceeded with caution and reluctance. III. That they were + moderate in the use of punishments; and, IV. That the afflicted church + enjoyed many intervals of peace and tranquility. Notwithstanding the + careless indifference which the most copious and the most minute of the + Pagan writers have shown to the affairs of the Christians, <a + href="#linknote-16.24" name="linknoteref-16.24" id="linknoteref-16.24">24</a> it + may still be in our power to confirm each of these probable suppositions, + by the evidence of authentic facts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.24" id="linknote-16.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.24">return</a>)<br /> [ In the various + compilation of the Augustan History, (a part of which was composed under + the reign of Constantine,) there are not six lines which relate to the + Christians; nor has the diligence of Xiphilin discovered their name in the + large history of Dion Cassius. * Note: The greater part of the Augustan + History is dedicated to Diocletian. This may account for the silence of + its authors concerning Christianity. The notices that occur are almost all + in the lives composed under the reign of Constantine. It may fairly be + concluded, from the language which he had into the mouth of Mæcenas, that + Dion was an enemy to all innovations in religion. (See Gibbon, <i>infra</i>, note + 105.) In fact, when the silence of Pagan historians is noticed, it should + be remembered how meagre and mutilated are all the extant histories of the + period—M.] + </p> + <p> + 1. By the wise dispensation of Providence, a mysterious veil was cast over + the infancy of the church, which, till the faith of the Christians was + matured, and their numbers were multiplied, served to protect them not + only from the malice but even from the knowledge of the Pagan world. The + slow and gradual abolition of the Mosaic ceremonies afforded a safe and + innocent disguise to the more early proselytes of the gospel. As they + were, for the greater part, of the race of Abraham, they were + distinguished by the peculiar mark of circumcision, offered up their + devotions in the Temple of Jerusalem till its final destruction, and + received both the Law and the Prophets as the genuine inspirations of the + Deity. The Gentile converts, who by a spiritual adoption had been + associated to the hope of Israel, were likewise confounded under the garb + and appearance of Jews, <a href="#linknote-16.25" name="linknoteref-16.25" + id="linknoteref-16.25">25</a> and as the Polytheists paid less regard to + articles of faith than to the external worship, the new sect, which + carefully concealed, or faintly announced, its future greatness and + ambition, was permitted to shelter itself under the general toleration + which was granted to an ancient and celebrated people in the Roman empire. + It was not long, perhaps, before the Jews themselves, animated with a + fiercer zeal and a more jealous faith, perceived the gradual separation of + their Nazarene brethren from the doctrine of the synagogue; and they would + gladly have extinguished the dangerous heresy in the blood of its + adherents. But the decrees of Heaven had already disarmed their malice; + and though they might sometimes exert the licentious privilege of + sedition, they no longer possessed the administration of criminal justice; + nor did they find it easy to infuse into the calm breast of a Roman + magistrate the rancor of their own zeal and prejudice. The provincial + governors declared themselves ready to listen to any accusation that might + affect the public safety; but as soon as they were informed that it was a + question not of facts but of words, a dispute relating only to the + interpretation of the Jewish laws and prophecies, they deemed it unworthy + of the majesty of Rome seriously to discuss the obscure differences which + might arise among a barbarous and superstitious people. The innocence of + the first Christians was protected by ignorance and contempt; and the + tribunal of the Pagan magistrate often proved their most assured refuge + against the fury of the synagogue. <a href="#linknote-16.26" + name="linknoteref-16.26" id="linknoteref-16.26">26</a> If indeed we were + disposed to adopt the traditions of a too credulous antiquity, we might + relate the distant peregrinations, the wonderful achievements, and the + various deaths of the twelve apostles: but a more accurate inquiry will + induce us to doubt, whether any of those persons who had been witnesses to + the miracles of Christ were permitted, beyond the limits of Palestine, to + seal with their blood the truth of their testimony. <a href="#linknote-16.27" + name="linknoteref-16.27" id="linknoteref-16.27">27</a> From the ordinary term of + human life, it may very naturally be presumed that most of them were + deceased before the discontent of the Jews broke out into that furious + war, which was terminated only by the ruin of Jerusalem. During a long + period, from the death of Christ to that memorable rebellion, we cannot + discover any traces of Roman intolerance, unless they are to be found in + the sudden, the transient, but the cruel persecution, which was exercised + by Nero against the Christians of the capital, thirty-five years after the + former, and only two years before the latter, of those great events. The + character of the philosophic historian, to whom we are principally + indebted for the knowledge of this singular transaction, would alone be + sufficient to recommend it to our most attentive consideration. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.25" id="linknote-16.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.25">return</a>)<br /> [ An obscure passage of + Suetonius (in Claud. c. 25) may seem to offer a proof how strangely the + Jews and Christians of Rome were confounded with each other.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.26" id="linknote-16.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.26">return</a>)<br /> [ See, in the xviiith and + xxvth chapters of the Acts of the Apostles, the behavior of Gallio, + proconsul of Achaia, and of Festus, procurator of Judea.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.27" id="linknote-16.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.27">return</a>)<br /> [ In the time of Tertullian + and Clemens of Alexandria, the glory of martyrdom was confined to St. + Peter, St. Paul, and St. James. It was gradually bestowed on the rest of + the apostles, by the more recent Greeks, who prudently selected for the + theatre of their preaching and sufferings some remote country beyond the + limits of the Roman empire. See Mosheim, p. 81; and Tillemont, Mémoires + Ecclésiastiques, tom. i. part iii.] + </p> + <p> + In the tenth year of the reign of Nero, the capital of the empire was + afflicted by a fire which raged beyond the memory or example of former + ages. <a href="#linknote-16.28" name="linknoteref-16.28" id="linknoteref-16.28">28</a> + The monuments of Grecian art and of Roman virtue, the trophies of the + Punic and Gallic wars, the most holy temples, and the most splendid + palaces, were involved in one common destruction. Of the fourteen regions + or quarters into which Rome was divided, four only subsisted entire, three + were levelled with the ground, and the remaining seven, which had + experienced the fury of the flames, displayed a melancholy prospect of + ruin and desolation. The vigilance of government appears not to have + neglected any of the precautions which might alleviate the sense of so + dreadful a calamity. The Imperial gardens were thrown open to the + distressed multitude, temporary buildings were erected for their + accommodation, and a plentiful supply of corn and provisions was + distributed at a very moderate price. <a href="#linknote-16.29" + name="linknoteref-16.29" id="linknoteref-16.29">29</a> The most generous policy + seemed to have dictated the edicts which regulated the disposition of the + streets and the construction of private houses; and as it usually happens, + in an age of prosperity, the conflagration of Rome, in the course of a few + years, produced a new city, more regular and more beautiful than the + former. But all the prudence and humanity affected by Nero on this + occasion were insufficient to preserve him from the popular suspicion. + Every crime might be imputed to the assassin of his wife and mother; nor + could the prince who prostituted his person and dignity on the theatre be + deemed incapable of the most extravagant folly. The voice of rumor accused + the emperor as the incendiary of his own capital; and as the most + incredible stories are the best adapted to the genius of an enraged + people, it was gravely reported, and firmly believed, that Nero, enjoying + the calamity which he had occasioned, amused himself with singing to his + lyre the destruction of ancient Troy. <a href="#linknote-16.30" + name="linknoteref-16.30" id="linknoteref-16.30">30</a> To divert a suspicion, + which the power of despotism was unable to suppress, the emperor resolved + to substitute in his own place some fictitious criminals. “With this + view,” continues Tacitus, “he inflicted the most exquisite tortures on + those men, who, under the vulgar appellation of Christians, were already + branded with deserved infamy. They derived their name and origin from + Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of + the procurator Pontius Pilate. <a href="#linknote-16.31" name="linknoteref-16.31" + id="linknoteref-16.31">31</a> For a while this dire superstition was checked; + but it again burst forth; <a href="#linknote-16.3111" name="linknoteref-16.3111" + id="linknoteref-16.3111">3111</a> and not only spread itself over Judæa, the + first seat of this mischievous sect, but was even introduced into Rome, + the common asylum which receives and protects whatever is impure, whatever + is atrocious. The confessions of those who were seized discovered a great + multitude of their accomplices, and they were all convicted, not so much + for the crime of setting fire to the city, as for their hatred of human + kind. <a href="#linknote-16.32" name="linknoteref-16.32" id="linknoteref-16.32">32</a> + They died in torments, and their torments were imbittered by insult and + derision. Some were nailed on crosses; others sewn up in the skins of wild + beasts, and exposed to the fury of dogs; others again, smeared over with + combustible materials, were used as torches to illuminate the darkness of + the night. The gardens of Nero were destined for the melancholy spectacle, + which was accompanied with a horse-race and honored with the presence of + the emperor, who mingled with the populace in the dress and attitude of a + charioteer. The guilt of the Christians deserved indeed the most exemplary + punishment, but the public abhorrence was changed into commiseration, from + the opinion that those unhappy wretches were sacrificed, not so much to + the public welfare, as to the cruelty of a jealous tyrant.” <a + href="#linknote-16.33" name="linknoteref-16.33" id="linknoteref-16.33">33</a> Those + who survey with a curious eye the revolutions of mankind, may observe, + that the gardens and circus of Nero on the Vatican, which were polluted + with the blood of the first Christians, have been rendered still more + famous by the triumph and by the abuse of the persecuted religion. On the + same spot, <a href="#linknote-16.34" name="linknoteref-16.34" id="linknoteref-16.34">34</a> + a temple, which far surpasses the ancient glories of the Capitol, has been + since erected by the Christian Pontiffs, who, deriving their claim of + universal dominion from an humble fisherman of Galilee, have succeeded to + the throne of the Cæsars, given laws to the barbarian conquerors of Rome, + and extended their spiritual jurisdiction from the coast of the Baltic to + the shores of the Pacific Ocean. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.28" id="linknote-16.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacit. Annal. xv. 38—44. + Sueton in Neron. c. 38. Dion Cassius, l. lxii. p. 1014. Orosius, vii. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.29" id="linknote-16.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.29">return</a>)<br /> [ The price of wheat + (probably of the <i>modius</i>,) was reduced as low as <i>terni Nummi;</i> which would + be equivalent to about fifteen shillings the English quarter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.30" id="linknote-16.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.30">return</a>)<br /> [ We may observe, that the + rumor is mentioned by Tacitus with a very becoming distrust and + hesitation, whilst it is greedily transcribed by Suetonius, and solemnly + confirmed by Dion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.31" id="linknote-16.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.31">return</a>)<br /> [ This testimony is alone + sufficient to expose the anachronism of the Jews, who place the birth of + Christ near a century sooner. (Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, l. v. c. 14, + 15.) We may learn from Josephus, (Antiquitat. xviii. 3,) that the + procuratorship of Pilate corresponded with the last ten years of Tiberius, + A. D. 27—37. As to the particular time of the death of Christ, a + very early tradition fixed it to the 25th of March, A. D. 29, under the + consulship of the two Gemini. (Tertullian adv. Judæos, c. 8.) This date, + which is adopted by Pagi, Cardinal Norris, and Le Clerc, seems at least as + probable as the vulgar æra, which is placed (I know not from what + conjectures) four years later.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.3111" id="linknote-16.3111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3111 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.3111">return</a>)<br /> [ This single phrase, + Repressa in præsens exitiabilis superstitio rursus erumpebat, proves that + the Christians had already attracted the attention of the government; and + that Nero was not the first to persecute them. I am surprised that more + stress has not been laid on the confirmation which the Acts of the + Apostles derive from these words of Tacitus, Repressa in præsens, and + rursus erumpebat.—G. ——I have been unwilling to suppress + this note, but surely the expression of Tacitus refers to the expected + extirpation of the religion by the death of its founder, Christ.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.32" id="linknote-16.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.32">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Odio humani generis + convicti</i>. These words may either signify the hatred of mankind towards the + Christians, or the hatred of the Christians towards mankind. I have + preferred the latter sense, as the most agreeable to the style of Tacitus, + and to the popular error, of which a precept of the gospel (see Luke xiv. + 26) had been, perhaps, the innocent occasion. My interpretation is + justified by the authority of Lipsius; of the Italian, the French, and the + English translators of Tacitus; of Mosheim, (p. 102,) of Le Clerc, + (Historia Ecclesiast. p. 427,) of Dr. Lardner, (Testimonies, vol. i. p. + 345,) and of the Bishop of Gloucester, (Divine Legation, vol. iii. p. 38.) + But as the word <i>convicti</i> does not unite very happily with the rest of the + sentence, James Gronovius has preferred the reading of <i>conjuncti</i>, which is + authorized by the valuable MS. of Florence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.33" id="linknote-16.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacit. Annal xv. 44.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.34" id="linknote-16.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.34">return</a>)<br /> [ Nardini Roma Antica, p. + 487. Donatus de Roma Antiqua, l. iii. p. 449.] + </p> + <p> + But it would be improper to dismiss this account of Nero’s persecution, + till we have made some observations that may serve to remove the + difficulties with which it is perplexed, and to throw some light on the + subsequent history of the church. + </p> + <p> + 1. The most sceptical criticism is obliged to respect the truth of this + extraordinary fact, and the integrity of this celebrated passage of + Tacitus. The former is confirmed by the diligent and accurate Suetonius, + who mentions the punishment which Nero inflicted on the Christians, a sect + of men who had embraced a new and criminal superstition. <a + href="#linknote-16.35" name="linknoteref-16.35" id="linknoteref-16.35">35</a> The + latter may be proved by the consent of the most ancient manuscripts; by + the inimitable character of the style of Tacitus by his reputation, which + guarded his text from the interpolations of pious fraud; and by the + purport of his narration, which accused the first Christians of the most + atrocious crimes, without insinuating that they possessed any miraculous + or even magical powers above the rest of mankind. <a href="#linknote-16.36" + name="linknoteref-16.36" id="linknoteref-16.36">36</a> 2. Notwithstanding it is + probable that Tacitus was born some years before the fire of Rome, <a + href="#linknote-16.37" name="linknoteref-16.37" id="linknoteref-16.37">37</a> he + could derive only from reading and conversation the knowledge of an event + which happened during his infancy. Before he gave himself to the public, + he calmly waited till his genius had attained its full maturity, and he + was more than forty years of age, when a grateful regard for the memory of + the virtuous Agricola extorted from him the most early of those historical + compositions which will delight and instruct the most distant posterity. + After making a trial of his strength in the life of Agricola and the + description of Germany, he conceived, and at length executed, a more + arduous work; the history of Rome, in thirty books, from the fall of Nero + to the accession of Nerva. The administration of Nerva introduced an age + of justice and propriety, which Tacitus had destined for the occupation of + his old age; <a href="#linknote-16.38" name="linknoteref-16.38" + id="linknoteref-16.38">38</a> but when he took a nearer view of his subject, + judging, perhaps, that it was a more honorable or a less invidious office + to record the vices of past tyrants, than to celebrate the virtues of a + reigning monarch, he chose rather to relate, under the form of annals, the + actions of the four immediate successors of Augustus. To collect, to + dispose, and to adorn a series of fourscore years, in an immortal work, + every sentence of which is pregnant with the deepest observations and the + most lively images, was an undertaking sufficient to exercise the genius + of Tacitus himself during the greatest part of his life. In the last years + of the reign of Trajan, whilst the victorious monarch extended the power + of Rome beyond its ancient limits, the historian was describing, in the + second and fourth books of his annals, the tyranny of Tiberius; <a + href="#linknote-16.39" name="linknoteref-16.39" id="linknoteref-16.39">39</a> and + the emperor Hadrian must have succeeded to the throne, before Tacitus, in + the regular prosecution of his work, could relate the fire of the capital, + and the cruelty of Nero towards the unfortunate Christians. At the + distance of sixty years, it was the duty of the annalist to adopt the + narratives of contemporaries; but it was natural for the philosopher to + indulge himself in the description of the origin, the progress, and the + character of the new sect, not so much according to the knowledge or + prejudices of the age of Nero, as according to those of the time of + Hadrian. 3 Tacitus very frequently trusts to the curiosity or reflection + of his readers to supply those intermediate circumstances and ideas, + which, in his extreme conciseness, he has thought proper to suppress. We + may therefore presume to imagine some probable cause which could direct + the cruelty of Nero against the Christians of Rome, whose obscurity, as + well as innocence, should have shielded them from his indignation, and + even from his notice. The Jews, who were numerous in the capital, and + oppressed in their own country, were a much fitter object for the + suspicions of the emperor and of the people: nor did it seem unlikely that + a vanquished nation, who already discovered their abhorrence of the Roman + yoke, might have recourse to the most atrocious means of gratifying their + implacable revenge. But the Jews possessed very powerful advocates in the + palace, and even in the heart of the tyrant; his wife and mistress, the + beautiful Poppæa, and a favorite player of the race of Abraham, who had + already employed their intercession in behalf of the obnoxious people. <a + href="#linknote-16.40" name="linknoteref-16.40" id="linknoteref-16.40">40</a> In + their room it was necessary to offer some other victims, and it might + easily be suggested that, although the genuine followers of Moses were + innocent of the fire of Rome, there had arisen among them a new and + pernicious sect of Galilæans, which was capable of the most horrid + crimes. Under the appellation of Galilæans, two distinctions of men were + confounded, the most opposite to each other in their manners and + principles; the disciples who had embraced the faith of Jesus of Nazareth, + <a href="#linknote-16.41" name="linknoteref-16.41" id="linknoteref-16.41">41</a> + and the zealots who had followed the standard of Judas the Gaulonite. <a + href="#linknote-16.42" name="linknoteref-16.42" id="linknoteref-16.42">42</a> The + former were the friends, the latter were the enemies, of human kind; and + the only resemblance between them consisted in the same inflexible + constancy, which, in the defence of their cause, rendered them insensible + of death and tortures. The followers of Judas, who impelled their + countrymen into rebellion, were soon buried under the ruins of Jerusalem; + whilst those of Jesus, known by the more celebrated name of Christians, + diffused themselves over the Roman empire. How natural was it for Tacitus, + in the time of Hadrian, to appropriate to the Christians the guilt and the + sufferings, <a href="#linknote-16.4211" name="linknoteref-16.4211" + id="linknoteref-16.4211">4211</a> which he might, with far greater truth and + justice, have attributed to a sect whose odious memory was almost + extinguished! 4. Whatever opinion may be entertained of this conjecture, + (for it is no more than a conjecture,) it is evident that the effect, as + well as the cause, of Nero’s persecution, was confined to the walls of + Rome, <a href="#linknote-16.43" name="linknoteref-16.43" id="linknoteref-16.43">43</a> + that the religious tenets of the Galilæans or Christians, <a + href="#linknote-16.431" name="linknoteref-16.431" id="linknoteref-16.431">431</a> + were never made a subject of punishment, or even of inquiry; and that, as + the idea of their sufferings was for a long time connected with the idea + of cruelty and injustice, the moderation of succeeding princes inclined + them to spare a sect, oppressed by a tyrant, whose rage had been usually + directed against virtue and innocence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.35" id="linknote-16.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Sueton. in Nerone, c. 16. + The epithet of <i>malefica</i>, which some sagacious commentators have translated + magical, is considered by the more rational Mosheim as only synonymous to + the <i>exitiabilis</i> of Tacitus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.36" id="linknote-16.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.36">return</a>)<br /> [ The passage concerning + Jesus Christ, which was inserted into the text of Josephus, between the + time of Origen and that of Eusebius, may furnish an example of no vulgar + forgery. The accomplishment of the prophecies, the virtues, miracles, and + resurrection of Jesus, are distinctly related. Josephus acknowledges that + he was the Messiah, and hesitates whether he should call him a man. If any + doubt can still remain concerning this celebrated passage, the reader may + examine the pointed objections of Le Fevre, (Havercamp. Joseph. tom. ii. + p. 267-273), the labored answers of Daubuz, (p. 187-232, and the masterly + reply (Bibliothèque Ancienne et Moderne, tom. vii. p. 237-288) of an + anonymous critic, whom I believe to have been the learned Abbé de + Longuerue. * Note: The modern editor of Eusebius, Heinichen, has adopted, + and ably supported, a notion, which had before suggested itself to the + editor, that this passage is not altogether a forgery, but interpolated + with many additional clauses. Heinichen has endeavored to disengage the + original text from the foreign and more recent matter.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.37" id="linknote-16.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.37">return</a>)<br /> [ See the lives of Tacitus + by Lipsius and the Abbé de la Bleterie, Dictionnaire de Bayle a l’article + Particle Tacite, and Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin tem. Latin. tom. ii. p. + 386, edit. Ernest. Ernst.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.38" id="linknote-16.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.38">return</a>)<br /> [ Principatum Divi Nervæ, + et imperium Trajani, uberiorem, securioremque materiam senectuti seposui. + Tacit. Hist. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.39" id="linknote-16.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.39">return</a>)<br /> [ See Tacit. Annal. ii. 61, + iv. 4. * Note: The perusal of this passage of Tacitus alone is sufficient, + as I have already said, to show that the Christian sect was not so obscure + as not already to have been repressed, (repressa,) and that it did not + pass for innocent in the eyes of the Romans.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.40" id="linknote-16.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.40">return</a>)<br /> [ The player’s name was + Aliturus. Through the same channel, Josephus, (de vitâ suâ, c. 2,) about + two years before, had obtained the pardon and release of some Jewish + priests, who were prisoners at Rome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.41" id="linknote-16.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.41">return</a>)<br /> [ The learned Dr. Lardner + (Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, vol ii. p. 102, 103) has proved that the + name of Galilæans was a very ancient, and perhaps the primitive + appellation of the Christians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.42" id="linknote-16.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.42">return</a>)<br /> [ Joseph. Antiquitat. + xviii. 1, 2. Tillemont, Ruine des Juifs, p. 742 The sons of Judas were + crucified in the time of Claudius. His grandson Eleazar, after Jerusalem + was taken, defended a strong fortress with 960 of his most desperate + followers. When the battering ram had made a breach, they turned their + swords against their wives their children, and at length against their own + breasts. They dies to the last man.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.4211" id="linknote-16.4211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4211 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.4211">return</a>)<br /> [ This conjecture is + entirely devoid, not merely of verisimilitude, but even of possibility. + Tacitus could not be deceived in appropriating to the Christians of Rome + the guilt and the sufferings which he might have attributed with far + greater truth to the followers of Judas the Gaulonite, for the latter + never went to Rome. Their revolt, their attempts, their opinions, their + wars, their punishment, had no other theatre but Judæa (Basn. Hist. des. + Juifs, t. i. p. 491.) Moreover the name of Christians had long been given + in Rome to the disciples of Jesus; and Tacitus affirms too positively, + refers too distinctly to its etymology, to allow us to suspect any mistake + on his part.—G. ——M. Guizot’s expressions are not in the + least too strong against this strange imagination of Gibbon; it may be + doubted whether the followers of Judas were known as a sect under the name + of Galilæans.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.43" id="linknote-16.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.43">return</a>)<br /> [ See Dodwell. Paucitat. + Mart. l. xiii. The Spanish Inscription in Gruter. p. 238, No. 9, is a + manifest and acknowledged forgery contrived by that noted imposter. + Cyriacus of Ancona, to flatter the pride and prejudices of the Spaniards. + See Ferreras, Histoire D’Espagne, tom. i. p. 192.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.431" id="linknote-16.431"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 431 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.431">return</a>)<br /> [ M. Guizot, on the + authority of Sulpicius Severus, ii. 37, and of Orosius, viii. 5, inclines + to the opinion of those who extend the persecution to the provinces. + Mosheim rather leans to that side on this much disputed question, (c. + xxxv.) Neander takes the view of Gibbon, which is in general that of the + most learned writers. There is indeed no evidence, which I can discover, + of its reaching the provinces; and the apparent security, at least as + regards his life, with which St. Paul pursued his travels during this + period, affords at least a strong inference against a rigid and general + inquisition against the Christians in other parts of the empire.—M.] + </p> + <p> + It is somewhat remarkable that the flames of war consumed, almost at the + same time, the temple of Jerusalem and the Capitol of Rome; <a + href="#linknote-16.44" name="linknoteref-16.44" id="linknoteref-16.44">44</a> and + it appears no less singular, that the tribute which devotion had destined + to the former, should have been converted by the power of an assaulting + victor to restore and adorn the splendor of the latter. <a + href="#linknote-16.45" name="linknoteref-16.45" id="linknoteref-16.45">45</a> The + emperors levied a general capitation tax on the Jewish people; and + although the sum assessed on the head of each individual was + inconsiderable, the use for which it was designed, and the severity with + which it was exacted, were considered as an intolerable grievance. <a + href="#linknote-16.46" name="linknoteref-16.46" id="linknoteref-16.46">46</a> Since + the officers of the revenue extended their unjust claim to many persons + who were strangers to the blood or religion of the Jews, it was impossible + that the Christians, who had so often sheltered themselves under the shade + of the synagogue, should now escape this rapacious persecution. Anxious as + they were to avoid the slightest infection of idolatry, their conscience + forbade them to contribute to the honor of that dæmon who had assumed the + character of the Capitoline Jupiter. As a very numerous though declining + party among the Christians still adhered to the law of Moses, their + efforts to dissemble their Jewish origin were detected by the decisive + test of circumcision; <a href="#linknote-16.47" name="linknoteref-16.47" + id="linknoteref-16.47">47</a> nor were the Roman magistrates at leisure to + inquire into the difference of their religious tenets. Among the + Christians who were brought before the tribunal of the emperor, or, as it + seems more probable, before that of the procurator of Judæa, two persons + are said to have appeared, distinguished by their extraction, which was + more truly noble than that of the greatest monarchs. These were the + grandsons of St. Jude the apostle, who himself was the brother of Jesus + Christ. <a href="#linknote-16.48" name="linknoteref-16.48" id="linknoteref-16.48">48</a> + Their natural pretensions to the throne of David might perhaps attract the + respect of the people, and excite the jealousy of the governor; but the + meanness of their garb, and the simplicity of their answers, soon + convinced him that they were neither desirous nor capable of disturbing + the peace of the Roman empire. They frankly confessed their royal origin, + and their near relation to the Messiah; but they disclaimed any temporal + views, and professed that his kingdom, which they devoutly expected, was + purely of a spiritual and angelic nature. When they were examined + concerning their fortune and occupation, they showed their hands, hardened + with daily labor, and declared that they derived their whole subsistence + from the cultivation of a farm near the village of Cocaba, of the extent + of about twenty-four English acres, <a href="#linknote-16.49" + name="linknoteref-16.49" id="linknoteref-16.49">49</a> and of the value of nine + thousand drachms, or three hundred pounds sterling. The grandsons of St. + Jude were dismissed with compassion and contempt. <a href="#linknote-16.50" + name="linknoteref-16.50" id="linknoteref-16.50">50</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.44" id="linknote-16.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.44">return</a>)<br /> [ The Capitol was burnt + during the civil war between Vitellius and Vespasian, the 19th of + December, A. D. 69. On the 10th of August, A. D. 70, the temple of + Jerusalem was destroyed by the hands of the Jews themselves, rather than + by those of the Romans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.45" id="linknote-16.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.45">return</a>)<br /> [ The new Capitol was + dedicated by Domitian. Sueton. in Domitian. c. 5. Plutarch in Poplicola, + tom. i. p. 230, edit. Bryant. The gilding alone cost 12,000 talents (above + two millions and a half.) It was the opinion of Martial, (l. ix. Epigram + 3,) that if the emperor had called in his debts, Jupiter himself, even + though he had made a general auction of Olympus, would have been unable to + pay two shillings in the pound.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.46" id="linknote-16.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.46">return</a>)<br /> [ With regard to the + tribute, see Dion Cassius, l. lxvi. p. 1082, with Reimarus’s notes. + Spanheim, de Usu Numismatum, tom. ii. p. 571; and Basnage, Histoire des + Juifs, l. vii. c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.47" id="linknote-16.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Suetonius (in Domitian. + c. 12) had seen an old man of ninety publicly examined before the + procurator’s tribunal. This is what Martial calls, Mentula tributis + damnata.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.48" id="linknote-16.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.48">return</a>)<br /> [ This appellation was at + first understood in the most obvious sense, and it was supposed, that the + brothers of Jesus were the lawful issue of Joseph and Mary. A devout + respect for the virginity of the mother of God suggested to the Gnostics, + and afterwards to the orthodox Greeks, the expedient of bestowing a second + wife on Joseph. The Latins (from the time of Jerome) improved on that + hint, asserted the perpetual celibacy of Joseph, and justified by many + similar examples the new interpretation that Jude, as well as Simon and + James, who were styled the brothers of Jesus Christ, were only his first + cousins. See Tillemont, Mém. Ecclesiast. tom. i. part iii.: and Beausobre, + Hist. Critique du Manicheisme, l. ii. c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.49" id="linknote-16.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.49">return</a>)<br /> [ Thirty-nine, squares of a + hundred feet each, which, if strictly computed, would scarcely amount to + nine acres.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.50" id="linknote-16.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.50">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, iii. 20. The + story is taken from Hegesippus.] + </p> + <p> + But although the obscurity of the house of David might protect them from + the suspicions of a tyrant, the present greatness of his own family + alarmed the pusillanimous temper of Domitian, which could only be appeased + by the blood of those Romans whom he either feared, or hated, or esteemed. + Of the two sons of his uncle Flavius Sabinus, <a href="#linknote-16.51" + name="linknoteref-16.51" id="linknoteref-16.51">51</a> the elder was soon + convicted of treasonable intentions, and the younger, who bore the name of + Flavius Clemens, was indebted for his safety to his want of courage and + ability. <a href="#linknote-16.52" name="linknoteref-16.52" id="linknoteref-16.52">52</a> + The emperor for a long time, distinguished so harmless a kinsman by his + favor and protection, bestowed on him his own niece Domitilla, adopted the + children of that marriage to the hope of the succession, and invested + their father with the honors of the consulship. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.51" id="linknote-16.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.51">return</a>)<br /> [ See the death and + character of Sabinus in Tacitus, (Hist. iii. 74 ) Sabinus was the elder + brother, and, till the accession of Vespasian, had been considered as the + principal support of the Flavium family] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.52" id="linknote-16.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Flavium Clementem + patruelem suum <i>contemptissimæ inertiæ</i>.. ex tenuissimâ suspicione + interemit. Sueton. in Domitian. c. 15.] + </p> + <p> + But he had scarcely finished the term of his annual magistracy, when, on a + slight pretence, he was condemned and executed; Domitilla was banished to + a desolate island on the coast of Campania; <a href="#linknote-16.53" + name="linknoteref-16.53" id="linknoteref-16.53">53</a> and sentences either of + death or of confiscation were pronounced against a great number of who + were involved in the same accusation. The guilt imputed to their charge + was that of <i>Atheism</i> and <i>Jewish manners;</i> <a href="#linknote-16.54" + name="linknoteref-16.54" id="linknoteref-16.54">54</a> a singular association of + ideas, which cannot with any propriety be applied except to the + Christians, as they were obscurely and imperfectly viewed by the + magistrates and by the writers of that period. On the strength of so + probable an interpretation, and too eagerly admitting the suspicions of a + tyrant as an evidence of their honorable crime, the church has placed both + Clemens and Domitilla among its first martyrs, and has branded the cruelty + of Domitian with the name of the second persecution. But this persecution + (if it deserves that epithet) was of no long duration. A few months after + the death of Clemens, and the banishment of Domitilla, Stephen, a freedman + belonging to the latter, who had enjoyed the favor, but who had not surely + embraced the faith, of his mistress, <a href="#linknote-16.5411" + name="linknoteref-16.5411" id="linknoteref-16.5411">5411</a> assassinated the + emperor in his palace. <a href="#linknote-16.55" name="linknoteref-16.55" + id="linknoteref-16.55">55</a> The memory of Domitian was condemned by the + senate; his acts were rescinded; his exiles recalled; and under the gentle + administration of Nerva, while the innocent were restored to their rank + and fortunes, even the most guilty either obtained pardon or escaped + punishment. <a href="#linknote-16.56" name="linknoteref-16.56" + id="linknoteref-16.56">56</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.53" id="linknote-16.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.53">return</a>)<br /> [ The Isle of Pandataria, + according to Dion. Bruttius Præsens (apud Euseb. iii. 18) banishes her to + that of Pontia, which was not far distant from the other. That difference, + and a mistake, either of Eusebius or of his transcribers, have given + occasion to suppose two Domitillas, the wife and the niece of Clemens. See + Tillemont, Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. ii. p. 224.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.54" id="linknote-16.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.54">return</a>)<br /> [ Dion. l. lxvii. p. 1112. + If the Bruttius Præsens, from whom it is probable that he collected this + account, was the correspondent of Pliny, (Epistol. vii. 3,) we may + consider him as a contemporary writer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.5411" id="linknote-16.5411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5411 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.5411">return</a>)<br /> [ This is an uncandid + sarcasm. There is nothing to connect Stephen with the religion of + Domitilla. He was a knave detected in the malversation of money—interceptarum + pecuniaram reus.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.55" id="linknote-16.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.55">return</a>)<br /> [ Suet. in Domit. c. 17. + Philostratus in Vit. Apollon. l. viii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.56" id="linknote-16.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.56">return</a>)<br /> [ Dion. l. lxviii. p. 1118. + Plin. Epistol. iv. 22.] + </p> + <p> + II. About ten years afterwards, under the reign of Trajan, the younger + Pliny was intrusted by his friend and master with the government of + Bithynia and Pontus. He soon found himself at a loss to determine by what + rule of justice or of law he should direct his conduct in the execution of + an office the most repugnant to his humanity. Pliny had never assisted at + any judicial proceedings against the Christians, with whose name alone he + seems to be acquainted; and he was totally uninformed with regard to the + nature of their guilt, the method of their conviction, and the degree of + their punishment. In this perplexity he had recourse to his usual + expedient, of submitting to the wisdom of Trajan an impartial, and, in + some respects, a favorable account of the new superstition, requesting the + emperor, that he would condescend to resolve his doubts, and to instruct + his ignorance. <a href="#linknote-16.57" name="linknoteref-16.57" + id="linknoteref-16.57">57</a> The life of Pliny had been employed in the + acquisition of learning, and in the business of the world. + </p> + <p> + Since the age of nineteen he had pleaded with distinction in the tribunals + of Rome, <a href="#linknote-16.58" name="linknoteref-16.58" id="linknoteref-16.58">58</a> + filled a place in the senate, had been invested with the honors of the + consulship, and had formed very numerous connections with every order of + men, both in Italy and in the provinces. From <i>his</i> ignorance therefore we + may derive some useful information. We may assure ourselves, that when he + accepted the government of Bithynia, there were no general laws or decrees + of the senate in force against the Christians; that neither Trajan nor any + of his virtuous predecessors, whose edicts were received into the civil + and criminal jurisprudence, had publicly declared their intentions + concerning the new sect; and that whatever proceedings had been carried on + against the Christians, there were none of sufficient weight and authority + to establish a precedent for the conduct of a Roman magistrate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.57" id="linknote-16.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.57">return</a>)<br /> [ Plin. Epistol. x. 97. The + learned Mosheim expresses himself (p. 147, 232) with the highest + approbation of Pliny’s moderate and candid temper. Notwithstanding Dr. + Lardner’s suspicions (see Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, vol. ii. p. 46,) + I am unable to discover any bigotry in his language or proceedings. * + Note: Yet the humane Pliny put two female attendants, probably deaconesses + to the torture, in order to ascertain the real nature of these suspicious + meetings: necessarium credidi, ex duabus ancillis, quæ ministræ + dicebantor quid asset veri et <i>per tormenta</i> quærere.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.58" id="linknote-16.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.58">return</a>)<br /> [ Plin. Epist. v. 8. He + pleaded his first cause A. D. 81; the year after the famous eruptions of + Mount Vesuvius, in which his uncle lost his life.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap16.3"></a> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + The answer of Trajan, to which the Christians of the succeeding age have + frequently appealed, discovers as much regard for justice and humanity as + could be reconciled with his mistaken notions of religious policy. <a + href="#linknote-16.59" name="linknoteref-16.59" id="linknoteref-16.59">59</a> + Instead of displaying the implacable zeal of an inquisitor, anxious to + discover the most minute particles of heresy, and exulting in the number + of his victims, the emperor expresses much more solicitude to protect the + security of the innocent, than to prevent the escape of the guilty. He + acknowledged the difficulty of fixing any general plan; but he lays down + two salutary rules, which often afforded relief and support to the + distressed Christians. Though he directs the magistrates to punish such + persons as are legally convicted, he prohibits them, with a very humane + inconsistency, from making any inquiries concerning the supposed + criminals. Nor was the magistrate allowed to proceed on every kind of + information. Anonymous charges the emperor rejects, as too repugnant to + the equity of his government; and he strictly requires, for the conviction + of those to whom the guilt of Christianity is imputed, the positive + evidence of a fair and open accuser. It is likewise probable, that the + persons who assumed so invidiuous an office, were obliged to declare the + grounds of their suspicions, to specify (both in respect to time and + place) the secret assemblies, which their Christian adversary had + frequented, and to disclose a great number of circumstances, which were + concealed with the most vigilant jealousy from the eye of the profane. If + they succeeded in their prosecution, they were exposed to the resentment + of a considerable and active party, to the censure of the more liberal + portion of mankind, and to the ignominy which, in every age and country, + has attended the character of an informer. If, on the contrary, they + failed in their proofs, they incurred the severe and perhaps capital + penalty, which, according to a law published by the emperor Hadrian, was + inflicted on those who falsely attributed to their fellow-citizens the + crime of Christianity. The violence of personal or superstitious animosity + might sometimes prevail over the most natural apprehensions of disgrace + and danger but it cannot surely be imagined, <a href="#linknote-16.60" + name="linknoteref-16.60" id="linknoteref-16.60">60</a> that accusations of so + unpromising an appearance were either lightly or frequently undertaken by + the Pagan subjects of the Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-16.6011" + name="linknoteref-16.6011" id="linknoteref-16.6011">6011</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.59" id="linknote-16.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.59">return</a>)<br /> [ Plin. Epist. x. 98. + Tertullian (Apolog. c. 5) considers this rescript as a relaxation of the + ancient penal laws, “quas Trajanus exparte frustratus est:” and yet + Tertullian, in another part of his Apology, exposes the inconsistency of + prohibiting inquiries, and enjoining punishments.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.60" id="linknote-16.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.60">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius (Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. iv. c. 9) has preserved the edict of Hadrian. He has + likewise (c. 13) given us one still more favorable, under the name of + Antoninus; the authenticity of which is not so universally allowed. The + second Apology of Justin contains some curious particulars relative to the + accusations of Christians. * Note: Professor Hegelmayer has proved the + authenticity of the edict of Antoninus, in his Comm. Hist. Theol. in + Edict. Imp. Antonini. Tubing. 1777, in 4to.—G. ——Neander + doubts its authenticity, (vol. i. p. 152.) In my opinion, the internal + evidence is decisive against it.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.6011" id="linknote-16.6011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6011 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.6011">return</a>)<br /> [ The enactment of this + law affords strong presumption, that accusations of the “crime of + Christianity,” were by no means so uncommon, nor received with so much + mistrust and caution by the ruling authorities, as Gibbon would insinuate. + —M.] + </p> + <p> + The expedient which was employed to elude the prudence of the laws, + affords a sufficient proof how effectually they disappointed the + mischievous designs of private malice or superstitious zeal. In a large + and tumultuous assembly, the restraints of fear and shame, so forcible on + the minds of individuals, are deprived of the greatest part of their + influence. The pious Christian, as he was desirous to obtain, or to + escape, the glory of martyrdom, expected, either with impatience or with + terror, the stated returns of the public games and festivals. On those + occasions the inhabitants of the great cities of the empire were collected + in the circus or the theatre, where every circumstance of the place, as + well as of the ceremony, contributed to kindle their devotion, and to + extinguish their humanity. Whilst the numerous spectators, crowned with + garlands, perfumed with incense, purified with the blood of victims, and + surrounded with the altars and statues of their tutelar deities, resigned + themselves to the enjoyment of pleasures, which they considered as an + essential part of their religious worship, they recollected, that the + Christians alone abhorred the gods of mankind, and by their absence and + melancholy on these solemn festivals, seemed to insult or to lament the + public felicity. If the empire had been afflicted by any recent calamity, + by a plague, a famine, or an unsuccessful war; if the Tyber had, or if the + Nile had not, risen beyond its banks; if the earth had shaken, or if the + temperate order of the seasons had been interrupted, the superstitious + Pagans were convinced that the crimes and the impiety of the Christians, + who were spared by the excessive lenity of the government, had at length + provoked the divine justice. It was not among a licentious and exasperated + populace, that the forms of legal proceedings could be observed; it was + not in an amphitheatre, stained with the blood of wild beasts and + gladiators, that the voice of compassion could be heard. The impatient + clamors of the multitude denounced the Christians as the enemies of gods + and men, doomed them to the severest tortures, and venturing to accuse by + name some of the most distinguished of the new sectaries, required with + irresistible vehemence that they should be instantly apprehended and cast + to the lions. <a href="#linknote-16.61" name="linknoteref-16.61" + id="linknoteref-16.61">61</a> The provincial governors and magistrates who + presided in the public spectacles were usually inclined to gratify the + inclinations, and to appease the rage, of the people, by the sacrifice of + a few obnoxious victims. But the wisdom of the emperors protected the + church from the danger of these tumultuous clamors and irregular + accusations, which they justly censured as repugnant both to the firmness + and to the equity of their administration. The edicts of Hadrian and of + Antoninus Pius expressly declared, that the voice of the multitude should + never be admitted as legal evidence to convict or to punish those + unfortunate persons who had embraced the enthusiasm of the Christians. <a + href="#linknote-16.62" name="linknoteref-16.62" id="linknoteref-16.62">62</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.61" id="linknote-16.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.61">return</a>)<br /> [ See Tertullian, (Apolog. + c. 40.) The acts of the martyrdom of Polycarp exhibit a lively picture of + these tumults, which were usually fomented by the malice of the Jews.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.62" id="linknote-16.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.62">return</a>)<br /> [ These regulations are + inserted in the above mentioned document of Hadrian and Pius. See the + apology of Melito, (apud Euseb. l iv 26)] + </p> + <p> + III. Punishment was not the inevitable consequence of conviction, and the + Christians, whose guilt was the most clearly proved by the testimony of + witnesses, or even by their voluntary confession, still retained in their + own power the alternative of life or death. It was not so much the past + offence, as the actual resistance, which excited the indignation of the + magistrate. He was persuaded that he offered them an easy pardon, since, + if they consented to cast a few grains of incense upon the altar, they + were dismissed from the tribunal in safety and with applause. It was + esteemed the duty of a humane judge to endeavor to reclaim, rather than to + punish, those deluded enthusiasts. Varying his tone according to the age, + the sex, or the situation of the prisoners, he frequently condescended to + set before their eyes every circumstance which could render life more + pleasing, or death more terrible; and to solicit, nay, to entreat, them, + that they would show some compassion to themselves, to their families, and + to their friends. <a href="#linknote-16.63" name="linknoteref-16.63" + id="linknoteref-16.63">63</a> If threats and persuasions proved ineffectual, + he had often recourse to violence; the scourge and the rack were called in + to supply the deficiency of argument, and every art of cruelty was + employed to subdue such inflexible, and, as it appeared to the Pagans, + such criminal, obstinacy. The ancient apologists of Christianity have + censured, with equal truth and severity, the irregular conduct of their + persecutors who, contrary to every principle of judicial proceeding, + admitted the use of torture, in order to obtain, not a confession, but a + denial, of the crime which was the object of their inquiry. <a + href="#linknote-16.64" name="linknoteref-16.64" id="linknoteref-16.64">64</a> The + monks of succeeding ages, who, in their peaceful solitudes, entertained + themselves with diversifying the deaths and sufferings of the primitive + martyrs, have frequently invented torments of a much more refined and + ingenious nature. In particular, it has pleased them to suppose, that the + zeal of the Roman magistrates, disdaining every consideration of moral + virtue or public decency, endeavored to seduce those whom they were unable + to vanquish, and that by their orders the most brutal violence was offered + to those whom they found it impossible to seduce. It is related, that + females, who were prepared to despise death, were sometimes condemned to a + more severe trial, <a href="#linknote-16.6411" name="linknoteref-16.6411" + id="linknoteref-16.6411">6411</a> and called upon to determine whether they + set a higher value on their religion or on their chastity. The youths to + whose licentious embraces they were abandoned, received a solemn + exhortation from the judge, to exert their most strenuous efforts to + maintain the honor of Venus against the impious virgin who refused to burn + incense on her altars. Their violence, however, was commonly disappointed, + and the seasonable interposition of some miraculous power preserved the + chaste spouses of Christ from the dishonor even of an involuntary defeat. + We should not indeed neglect to remark, that the more ancient as well as + authentic memorials of the church are seldom polluted with these + extravagant and indecent fictions. <a href="#linknote-16.65" + name="linknoteref-16.65" id="linknoteref-16.65">65</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.63" id="linknote-16.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.63">return</a>)<br /> [ See the rescript of + Trajan, and the conduct of Pliny. The most authentic acts of the martyrs + abound in these exhortations. Note: Pliny’s test was the worship of the + gods, offerings to the statue of the emperor, and blaspheming Christ—præterea + maledicerent Christo.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.64" id="linknote-16.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.64">return</a>)<br /> [ In particular, see + Tertullian, (Apolog. c. 2, 3,) and Lactantius, (Institut. Divin. v. 9.) + Their reasonings are almost the same; but we may discover, that one of + these apologists had been a lawyer, and the other a rhetorician.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.6411" id="linknote-16.6411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6411 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.6411">return</a>)<br /> [ The more ancient as + well as authentic memorials of the church, relate many examples of the + fact, (of these <i>severe trials</i>,) which there is nothing to contradict. + Tertullian, among others, says, Nam proxime ad lenonem damnando + Christianam, potius quam ad leonem, confessi estis labem pudicitiæ apud + nos atrociorem omni pœna et omni morte reputari, Apol. cap. ult. Eusebius + likewise says, “Other virgins, dragged to brothels, have lost their life + rather than defile their virtue.” Euseb. Hist. Ecc. viii. 14.—G. The + miraculous interpositions were the offspring of the coarse imaginations of + the monks.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.65" id="linknote-16.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.65">return</a>)<br /> [ See two instances of this + kind of torture in the Acta Sincere Martyrum, published by Ruinart, p. + 160, 399. Jerome, in his Legend of Paul the Hermit, tells a strange story + of a young man, who was chained naked on a bed of flowers, and assaulted + by a beautiful and wanton courtesan. He quelled the rising temptation by + biting off his tongue.] + </p> + <p> + The total disregard of truth and probability in the representation of + these primitive martyrdoms was occasioned by a very natural mistake. The + ecclesiastical writers of the fourth or fifth centuries ascribed to the + magistrates of Rome the same degree of implacable and unrelenting zeal + which filled their own breasts against the heretics or the idolaters of + their own times. + </p> + <p> + It is not improbable that some of those persons who were raised to the + dignities of the empire, might have imbibed the prejudices of the + populace, and that the cruel disposition of others might occasionally be + stimulated by motives of avarice or of personal resentment. <a + href="#linknote-16.66" name="linknoteref-16.66" id="linknoteref-16.66">66</a> But + it is certain, and we may appeal to the grateful confessions of the first + Christians, that the greatest part of those magistrates who exercised in + the provinces the authority of the emperor, or of the senate, and to whose + hands alone the jurisdiction of life and death was intrusted, behaved like + men of polished manners and liberal education, who respected the rules of + justice, and who were conversant with the precepts of philosophy. They + frequently declined the odious task of persecution, dismissed the charge + with contempt, or suggested to the accused Christian some legal evasion, + by which he might elude the severity of the laws. <a href="#linknote-16.67" + name="linknoteref-16.67" id="linknoteref-16.67">67</a> Whenever they were + invested with a discretionary power, <a href="#linknote-16.68" + name="linknoteref-16.68" id="linknoteref-16.68">68</a> they used it much less + for the oppression, than for the relief and benefit of the afflicted + church. They were far from condemning all the Christians who were accused + before their tribunal, and very far from punishing with death all those + who were convicted of an obstinate adherence to the new superstition. + Contenting themselves, for the most part, with the milder chastisements of + imprisonment, exile, or slavery in the mines, <a href="#linknote-16.69" + name="linknoteref-16.69" id="linknoteref-16.69">69</a> they left the unhappy + victims of their justice some reason to hope, that a prosperous event, the + accession, the marriage, or the triumph of an emperor, might speedily + restore them, by a general pardon, to their former state. The martyrs, + devoted to immediate execution by the Roman magistrates, appear to have + been selected from the most opposite extremes. They were either bishops + and presbyters, the persons the most distinguished among the Christians by + their rank and influence, and whose example might strike terror into the + whole sect; <a href="#linknote-16.70" name="linknoteref-16.70" + id="linknoteref-16.70">70</a> or else they were the meanest and most abject + among them, particularly those of the servile condition, whose lives were + esteemed of little value, and whose sufferings were viewed by the ancients + with too careless an indifference. <a href="#linknote-16.71" + name="linknoteref-16.71" id="linknoteref-16.71">71</a> The learned Origen, who, + from his experience as well as reading, was intimately acquainted with the + history of the Christians, declares, in the most express terms, that the + number of martyrs was very inconsiderable. <a href="#linknote-16.72" + name="linknoteref-16.72" id="linknoteref-16.72">72</a> His authority would alone + be sufficient to annihilate that formidable army of martyrs, whose relics, + drawn for the most part from the catacombs of Rome, have replenished so + many churches, <a href="#linknote-16.73" name="linknoteref-16.73" + id="linknoteref-16.73">73</a> and whose marvellous achievements have been the + subject of so many volumes of Holy Romance. <a href="#linknote-16.74" + name="linknoteref-16.74" id="linknoteref-16.74">74</a> But the general assertion + of Origen may be explained and confirmed by the particular testimony of + his friend Dionysius, who, in the immense city of Alexandria, and under + the rigorous persecution of Decius, reckons only ten men and seven women + who suffered for the profession of the Christian name. <a + href="#linknote-16.75" name="linknoteref-16.75" id="linknoteref-16.75">75</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.66" id="linknote-16.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.66">return</a>)<br /> [ The conversion of his + wife provoked Claudius Herminianus, governor of Cappadocia, to treat the + Christians with uncommon severity. Tertullian ad Scapulam, c. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.67" id="linknote-16.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.67">return</a>)<br /> [ Tertullian, in his + epistle to the governor of Africa, mentions several remarkable instances + of lenity and forbearance, which had happened within his knowledge.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.68" id="linknote-16.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Neque enim in universum + aliquid quod quasi certam formam habeat, constitui potest; an expression + of Trajan, which gave a very great latitude to the governors of provinces. + * Note: Gibbon altogether forgets that Trajan fully approved of the course + pursued by Pliny. That course was, to order all who persevered in their + faith to be led to execution: perseverantes duci jussi.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.69" id="linknote-16.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.69">return</a>)<br /> [ In Metalla damnamur, in + insulas relegamur. Tertullian, Apolog. c. 12. The mines of Numidia + contained nine bishops, with a proportionable number of their clergy and + people, to whom Cyprian addressed a pious epistle of praise and comfort. + See Cyprian. Epistol. 76, 77.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.70" id="linknote-16.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Though we cannot receive + with entire confidence either the epistles, or the acts, of Ignatius, + (they may be found in the 2d volume of the Apostolic Fathers,) yet we may + quote that bishop of Antioch as one of these <i>exemplary</i> martyrs. He was + sent in chains to Rome as a public spectacle, and when he arrived at + Troas, he received the pleasing intelligence, that the persecution of + Antioch was already at an end. * Note: The acts of Ignatius are generally + received as authentic, as are seven of his letters. Eusebius and St. + Jerome mention them: there are two editions; in one, the letters are + longer, and many passages appear to have been interpolated; the other + edition is that which contains the real letters of St. Ignatius; such at + least is the opinion of the wisest and most enlightened critics. (See + Lardner. Cred. of Gospel Hist.) Less, uber dis Religion, v. i. p. 529. + Usser. Diss. de Ign. Epist. Pearson, Vindic, Ignatianæ. It should be + remarked, that it was under the reign of Trajan that the bishop Ignatius + was carried from Antioch to Rome, to be exposed to the lions in the + amphitheatre, the year of J. C. 107, according to some; of 116, according + to others.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.71" id="linknote-16.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.71">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the martyrs of + Lyons, (Euseb. l. v. c. 1,) the slave Blandina was distinguished by more + exquisite tortures. Of the five martyrs so much celebrated in the acts of + Felicitas and Perpetua, two were of a servile, and two others of a very + mean, condition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.72" id="linknote-16.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Origen. advers. Celsum, + l. iii. p. 116. His words deserve to be transcribed. * Note: The words + that follow should be quoted. “God not permitting that all his class of + men should be exterminated:” which appears to indicate that Origen thought + the number put to death inconsiderable only when compared to the numbers + who had survived. Besides this, he is speaking of the state of the + religion under Caracalla, Elagabalus, Alexander Severus, and Philip, who + had not persecuted the Christians. It was during the reign of the latter + that Origen wrote his books against Celsus.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.73" id="linknote-16.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.73">return</a>)<br /> [ If we recollect that all + the Plebeians of Rome were not Christians, and that all the Christians + were not saints and martyrs, we may judge with how much safety religious + honors can be ascribed to bones or urns, indiscriminately taken from the + public burial-place. After ten centuries of a very free and open trade, + some suspicions have arisen among the more learned Catholics. They now + require as a proof of sanctity and martyrdom, the letters B.M., a vial + full of red liquor supposed to be blood, or the figure of a palm-tree. But + the two former signs are of little weight, and with regard to the last, it + is observed by the critics, 1. That the figure, as it is called, of a + palm, is perhaps a cypress, and perhaps only a stop, the flourish of a + comma used in the monumental inscriptions. 2. That the palm was the symbol + of victory among the Pagans. 3. That among the Christians it served as the + emblem, not only of martyrdom, but in general of a joyful resurrection. + See the epistle of P. Mabillon, on the worship of unknown saints, and + Muratori sopra le Antichita Italiane, Dissertat. lviii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.74" id="linknote-16.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.74">return</a>)<br /> [ As a specimen of these + legends, we may be satisfied with 10,000 Christian soldiers crucified in + one day, either by Trajan or Hadrian on Mount Ararat. See Baronius ad + Martyrologium Romanum; Tille mont, Mém. Ecclesiast. tom. ii. part ii. p. + 438; and Geddes’s Miscellanies, vol. ii. p. 203. The abbreviation of Mil., + which may signify either <i>soldiers</i> or <i>thousands</i>, is said to have occasioned + some extraordinary mistakes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.75" id="linknote-16.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Dionysius ap. Euseb l. + vi. c. 41 One of the seventeen was likewise accused of robbery. * Note: + Gibbon ought to have said, was falsely accused of robbery, for so it is in + the Greek text. This Christian, named Nemesion, falsely accused of robbery + before the centurion, was acquitted of a crime altogether foreign to his + character, but he was led before the governor as guilty of being a + Christian, and the governor inflicted upon him a double torture. (Euseb. + loc. cit.) It must be added, that Saint Dionysius only makes particular + mention of the principal martyrs, [this is very doubtful.—M.] and + that he says, in general, that the fury of the Pagans against the + Christians gave to Alexandria the appearance of a city taken by storm. + [This refers to plunder and ill usage, not to actual slaughter.—M.] + Finally it should be observed that Origen wrote before the persecution of + the emperor Decius.—G.] + </p> + <p> + During the same period of persecution, the zealous, the eloquent, the + ambitious Cyprian governed the church, not only of Carthage, but even of + Africa. He possessed every quality which could engage the reverence of the + faithful, or provoke the suspicions and resentment of the Pagan + magistrates. His character as well as his station seemed to mark out that + holy prelate as the most distinguished object of envy and danger. <a + href="#linknote-16.76" name="linknoteref-16.76" id="linknoteref-16.76">76</a> The + experience, however, of the life of Cyprian, is sufficient to prove that + our fancy has exaggerated the perilous situation of a Christian bishop; + and the dangers to which he was exposed were less imminent than those + which temporal ambition is always prepared to encounter in the pursuit of + honors. Four Roman emperors, with their families, their favorites, and + their adherents, perished by the sword in the space of ten years, during + which the bishop of Carthage guided by his authority and eloquence the + councils of the African church. It was only in the third year of his + administration, that he had reason, during a few months, to apprehend the + severe edicts of Decius, the vigilance of the magistrate and the clamors + of the multitude, who loudly demanded, that Cyprian, the leader of the + Christians, should be thrown to the lions. Prudence suggested the + necessity of a temporary retreat, and the voice of prudence was obeyed. He + withdrew himself into an obscure solitude, from whence he could maintain a + constant correspondence with the clergy and people of Carthage; and, + concealing himself till the tempest was past, he preserved his life, + without relinquishing either his power or his reputation. His extreme + caution did not, however, escape the censure of the more rigid Christians, + who lamented, or the reproaches of his personal enemies, who insulted, a + conduct which they considered as a pusillanimous and criminal desertion of + the most sacred duty. <a href="#linknote-16.77" name="linknoteref-16.77" + id="linknoteref-16.77">77</a> The propriety of reserving himself for the + future exigencies of the church, the example of several holy bishops, <a + href="#linknote-16.78" name="linknoteref-16.78" id="linknoteref-16.78">78</a> and + the divine admonitions, which, as he declares himself, he frequently + received in visions and ecstacies, were the reasons alleged in his + justification. <a href="#linknote-16.79" name="linknoteref-16.79" + id="linknoteref-16.79">79</a> But his best apology may be found in the + cheerful resolution, with which, about eight years afterwards, he suffered + death in the cause of religion. The authentic history of his martyrdom has + been recorded with unusual candor and impartiality. A short abstract, + therefore, of its most important circumstances, will convey the clearest + information of the spirit, and of the forms, of the Roman persecutions. <a + href="#linknote-16.80" name="linknoteref-16.80" id="linknoteref-16.80">80</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.76" id="linknote-16.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.76">return</a>)<br /> [ The letters of Cyprian + exhibit a very curious and original picture both of the <i>man</i> and of the + <i>times</i>. See likewise the two lives of Cyprian, composed with equal + accuracy, though with very different views; the one by Le Clerc + (Bibliothèque Universelle, tom. xii. p. 208-378,) the other by Tillemont, + Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. iv part i. p. 76-459.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.77" id="linknote-16.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.77">return</a>)<br /> [ See the polite but severe + epistle of the clergy of Rome to the bishop of Carthage. (Cyprian. Epist. + 8, 9.) Pontius labors with the greatest care and diligence to justify his + master against the general censure.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.78" id="linknote-16.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.78">return</a>)<br /> [ In particular those of + Dionysius of Alexandria, and Gregory Thaumaturgus, of Neo-Cæsarea. See + Euseb. Hist. Ecclesiast. l. vi. c. 40; and Mémoires de Tillemont, tom. iv. + part ii. p. 685.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.79" id="linknote-16.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.79">return</a>)<br /> [ See Cyprian. Epist. 16, + and his life by Pontius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.80" id="linknote-16.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.80">return</a>)<br /> [ We have an original life + of Cyprian by the deacon Pontius, the companion of his exile, and the + spectator of his death; and we likewise possess the ancient proconsular + acts of his martyrdom. These two relations are consistent with each other, + and with probability; and what is somewhat remarkable, they are both + unsullied by any miraculous circumstances.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap16.4"></a> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + When Valerian was consul for the third, and Gallienus for the fourth time, + Paternus, proconsul of Africa, summoned Cyprian to appear in his private + council-chamber. He there acquainted him with the Imperial mandate which + he had just received, <a href="#linknote-16.81" name="linknoteref-16.81" + id="linknoteref-16.81">81</a> that those who had abandoned the Roman religion + should immediately return to the practice of the ceremonies of their + ancestors. Cyprian replied without hesitation, that he was a Christian and + a bishop, devoted to the worship of the true and only Deity, to whom he + offered up his daily supplications for the safety and prosperity of the + two emperors, his lawful sovereigns. + </p> + <p> + With modest confidence he pleaded the privilege of a citizen, in refusing + to give any answer to some invidious and indeed illegal questions which + the proconsul had proposed. A sentence of banishment was pronounced as the + penalty of Cyprian’s disobedience; and he was conducted without delay to + Curubis, a free and maritime city of Zeugitania, in a pleasant situation, + a fertile territory, and at the distance of about forty miles from + Carthage. <a href="#linknote-16.82" name="linknoteref-16.82" id="linknoteref-16.82">82</a> + The exiled bishop enjoyed the conveniences of life and the consciousness + of virtue. His reputation was diffused over Africa and Italy; an account + of his behavior was published for the edification of the Christian world; + <a href="#linknote-16.83" name="linknoteref-16.83" id="linknoteref-16.83">83</a> + and his solitude was frequently interrupted by the letters, the visits, + and the congratulations of the faithful. On the arrival of a new proconsul + in the province the fortune of Cyprian appeared for some time to wear a + still more favorable aspect. He was recalled from banishment; and though + not yet permitted to return to Carthage, his own gardens in the + neighborhood of the capital were assigned for the place of his residence. + <a href="#linknote-16.84" name="linknoteref-16.84" id="linknoteref-16.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.81" id="linknote-16.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.81">return</a>)<br /> [ It should seem that these + were circular orders, sent at the same time to all the governors. + Dionysius (ap. Euseb. l. vii. c. 11) relates the history of his own + banishment from Alexandria almost in the same manner. But as he escaped + and survived the persecution, we must account him either more or less + fortunate than Cyprian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.82" id="linknote-16.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.82">return</a>)<br /> [ See Plin. Hist. Natur. v. + 3. Cellarius, Geograph. Antiq. part iii. p. 96. Shaw’s Travels, p. 90; and + for the adjacent country, (which is terminated by Cape Bona, or the + promontory of Mercury,) l’Afrique de Marmol. tom. ii. p. 494. There are + the remains of an aqueduct near Curubis, or Curbis, at present altered + into Gurbes; and Dr. Shaw read an inscription, which styles that city + <i>Colonia Fulvia</i>. The deacon Pontius (in Vit. Cyprian. c. 12) calls it + “Apricum et competentem locum, hospitium pro voluntate secretum, et + quicquid apponi eis ante promissum est, qui regnum et justitiam Dei + quærunt.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.83" id="linknote-16.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.83">return</a>)<br /> [ See Cyprian. Epistol. 77, + edit. Fell.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.84" id="linknote-16.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Upon his conversion, he + had sold those gardens for the benefit of the poor. The indulgence of God + (most probably the liberality of some Christian friend) restored them to + Cyprian. See Pontius, c. 15.] + </p> + <p> + At length, exactly one year <a href="#linknote-16.85" name="linknoteref-16.85" + id="linknoteref-16.85">85</a> after Cyprian was first apprehended, Galerius + Maximus, proconsul of Africa, received the Imperial warrant for the + execution of the Christian teachers. The bishop of Carthage was sensible + that he should be singled out for one of the first victims; and the + frailty of nature tempted him to withdraw himself, by a secret flight, + from the danger and the honor of martyrdom; <a href="#linknote-16.8511" + name="linknoteref-16.8511" id="linknoteref-16.8511">8511</a> but soon recovering + that fortitude which his character required, he returned to his gardens, + and patiently expected the ministers of death. Two officers of rank, who + were intrusted with that commission, placed Cyprian between them in a + chariot, and as the proconsul was not then at leisure, they conducted him, + not to a prison, but to a private house in Carthage, which belonged to one + of them. An elegant supper was provided for the entertainment of the + bishop, and his Christian friends were permitted for the last time to + enjoy his society, whilst the streets were filled with a multitude of the + faithful, anxious and alarmed at the approaching fate of their spiritual + father. <a href="#linknote-16.86" name="linknoteref-16.86" id="linknoteref-16.86">86</a> + In the morning he appeared before the tribunal of the proconsul, who, + after informing himself of the name and situation of Cyprian, commanded + him to offer sacrifice, and pressed him to reflect on the consequences of + his disobedience. The refusal of Cyprian was firm and decisive; and the + magistrate, when he had taken the opinion of his council, pronounced with + some reluctance the sentence of death. It was conceived in the following + terms: “That Thascius Cyprianus should be immediately beheaded, as the + enemy of the gods of Rome, and as the chief and ringleader of a criminal + association, which he had seduced into an impious resistance against the + laws of the most holy emperors, Valerian and Gallienus.” <a + href="#linknote-16.87" name="linknoteref-16.87" id="linknoteref-16.87">87</a> The + manner of his execution was the mildest and least painful that could be + inflicted on a person convicted of any capital offence; nor was the use of + torture admitted to obtain from the bishop of Carthage either the + recantation of his principles or the discovery of his accomplices. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.85" id="linknote-16.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.85">return</a>)<br /> [ When Cyprian; a + twelvemonth before, was sent into exile, he dreamt that he should be put + to death the next day. The event made it necessary to explain that word, + as signifying a year. Pontius, c. 12.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.8511" id="linknote-16.8511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8511 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.8511">return</a>)<br /> [ This was not, as it + appears, the motive which induced St. Cyprian to conceal himself for a + short time; he was threatened to be carried to Utica; he preferred + remaining at Carthage, in order to suffer martyrdom in the midst of his + flock, and in order that his death might conduce to the edification of + those whom he had guided during life. Such, at least, is his own + explanation of his conduct in one of his letters: Cum perlatum ad nos + fuisset, fratres carissimi, frumentarios esse missos qui me Uticam per + ducerent, consilioque carissimorum persuasum est, ut de hortis interim + recederemus, justa interveniente causâ, consensi; eo quod congruat + episcopum in eâ civitate, in quâ Ecclesiæ dominicæ præest, illie. + Dominum confiteri et plebem universam præpositi præsentis confessione + clarificari Ep. 83.—G] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.86" id="linknote-16.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.86">return</a>)<br /> [ Pontius (c. 15) + acknowledges that Cyprian, with whom he supped, passed the night custodia + delicata. The bishop exercised a last and very proper act of jurisdiction, + by directing that the younger females, who watched in the streets, should + be removed from the dangers and temptations of a nocturnal crowd. Act. + Preconsularia, c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.87" id="linknote-16.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.87">return</a>)<br /> [ See the original sentence + in the Acts, c. 4; and in Pontius, c. 17 The latter expresses it in a more + rhetorical manner.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as the sentence was proclaimed, a general cry of “We will die with + him,” arose at once among the listening multitude of Christians who waited + before the palace gates. The generous effusions of their zeal and their + affection were neither serviceable to Cyprian nor dangerous to themselves. + He was led away under a guard of tribunes and centurions, without + resistance and without insult, to the place of his execution, a spacious + and level plain near the city, which was already filled with great numbers + of spectators. His faithful presbyters and deacons were permitted to + accompany their holy bishop. <a href="#linknote-16.8711" + name="linknoteref-16.8711" id="linknoteref-16.8711">8711</a> They assisted him + in laying aside his upper garment, spread linen on the ground to catch the + precious relics of his blood, and received his orders to bestow + five-and-twenty pieces of gold on the executioner. The martyr then covered + his face with his hands, and at one blow his head was separated from his + body. His corpse remained during some hours exposed to the curiosity of + the Gentiles: but in the night it was removed, and transported in a + triumphal procession, and with a splendid illumination, to the + burial-place of the Christians. The funeral of Cyprian was publicly + celebrated without receiving any interruption from the Roman magistrates; + and those among the faithful, who had performed the last offices to his + person and his memory, were secure from the danger of inquiry or of + punishment. It is remarkable, that of so great a multitude of bishops in + the province of Africa, Cyprian was the first who was esteemed worthy to + obtain the crown of martyrdom. <a href="#linknote-16.88" name="linknoteref-16.88" + id="linknoteref-16.88">88</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.8711" id="linknote-16.8711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8711 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.8711">return</a>)<br /> [ There is nothing in + the life of St. Cyprian, by Pontius, nor in the ancient manuscripts, which + can make us suppose that the presbyters and deacons in their clerical + character, and known to be such, had the permission to attend their holy + bishop. Setting aside all religious considerations, it is impossible not + to be surprised at the kind of complaisance with which the historian here + insists, in favor of the persecutors, on some mitigating circumstances + allowed at the death of a man whose only crime was maintaining his own + opinions with frankness and courage.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.88" id="linknote-16.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.88">return</a>)<br /> [ Pontius, c. 19. M. de + Tillemont (Mémoires, tom. iv. part i. p. 450, note 50) is not pleased with + so positive an exclusion of any former martyr of the episcopal rank. * + Note: M. de. Tillemont, as an honest writer, explains the difficulties + which he felt about the text of Pontius, and concludes by distinctly + stating, that without doubt there is some mistake, and that Pontius must + have meant only Africa Minor or Carthage; for St. Cyprian, in his 58th + (69th) letter addressed to Pupianus, speaks expressly of many bishops his + colleagues, qui proscripti sunt, vel apprehensi in carcere et catenis + fuerunt; aut qui in exilium relegati, illustri itinere ed Dominum profecti + sunt; aut qui quibusdam locis animadversi, cœlestes coronas de Domini + clarificatione sumpserunt.—G.] + </p> + <p> + It was in the choice of Cyprian, either to die a martyr, or to live an + apostate; but on the choice depended the alternative of honor or infamy. + Could we suppose that the bishop of Carthage had employed the profession + of the Christian faith only as the instrument of his avarice or ambition, + it was still incumbent on him to support the character he had assumed; <a + href="#linknote-16.89" name="linknoteref-16.89" id="linknoteref-16.89">89</a> and + if he possessed the smallest degree of manly fortitude, rather to expose + himself to the most cruel tortures, than by a single act to exchange the + reputation of a whole life, for the abhorrence of his Christian brethren, + and the contempt of the Gentile world. But if the zeal of Cyprian was + supported by the sincere conviction of the truth of those doctrines which + he preached, the crown of martyrdom must have appeared to him as an object + of desire rather than of terror. It is not easy to extract any distinct + ideas from the vague though eloquent declamations of the Fathers, or to + ascertain the degree of immortal glory and happiness which they + confidently promised to those who were so fortunate as to shed their blood + in the cause of religion. <a href="#linknote-16.90" name="linknoteref-16.90" + id="linknoteref-16.90">90</a> They inculcated with becoming diligence, that + the fire of martyrdom supplied every defect and expiated every sin; that + while the souls of ordinary Christians were obliged to pass through a slow + and painful purification, the triumphant sufferers entered into the + immediate fruition of eternal bliss, where, in the society of the + patriarchs, the apostles, and the prophets, they reigned with Christ, and + acted as his assessors in the universal judgment of mankind. The assurance + of a lasting reputation upon earth, a motive so congenial to the vanity of + human nature, often served to animate the courage of the martyrs. + </p> + <p> + The honors which Rome or Athens bestowed on those citizens who had fallen + in the cause of their country, were cold and unmeaning demonstrations of + respect, when compared with the ardent gratitude and devotion which the + primitive church expressed towards the victorious champions of the faith. + The annual commemoration of their virtues and sufferings was observed as a + sacred ceremony, and at length terminated in religious worship. Among the + Christians who had publicly confessed their religious principles, those + who (as it very frequently happened) had been dismissed from the tribunal + or the prisons of the Pagan magistrates, obtained such honors as were + justly due to their imperfect martyrdom and their generous resolution. The + most pious females courted the permission of imprinting kisses on the + fetters which they had worn, and on the wounds which they had received. + Their persons were esteemed holy, their decisions were admitted with + deference, and they too often abused, by their spiritual pride and + licentious manners, the preëminence which their zeal and intrepidity had + acquired. <a href="#linknote-16.91" name="linknoteref-16.91" id="linknoteref-16.91">91</a> + Distinctions like these, whilst they display the exalted merit, betray the + inconsiderable number of those who suffered, and of those who died, for + the profession of Christianity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.89" id="linknote-16.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.89">return</a>)<br /> [ Whatever opinion we may + entertain of the character or principles of Thomas Becket, we must + acknowledge that he suffered death with a constancy not unworthy of the + primitive martyrs. See Lord Lyttleton’s History of Henry II. vol. ii. p. + 592, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.90" id="linknote-16.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.90">return</a>)<br /> [ See in particular the + treatise of Cyprian de Lapsis, p. 87-98, edit. Fell. The learning of + Dodwell (Dissertat. Cyprianic. xii. xiii.,) and the ingenuity of + Middleton, (Free Inquiry, p. 162, &c.,) have left scarcely any thing + to add concerning the merit, the honors, and the motives of the martyrs.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.91" id="linknote-16.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Cyprian. Epistol. 5, 6, + 7, 22, 24; and de Unitat. Ecclesiæ. The number of pretended martyrs has + been very much multiplied, by the custom which was introduced of bestowing + that honorable name on confessors. Note: M. Guizot denies that the letters + of Cyprian, to which he refers, bear out the statement in the text. I + cannot scruple to admit the accuracy of Gibbon’s quotation. To take only + the fifth letter, we find this passage: Doleo enim quando audio quosdam + improbe et insolenter discurrere, et ad ineptian vel ad discordias vacare, + Christi membra et jam Christum confessa per concubitûs illicitos + inquinari, nec a diaconis aut presbyteris regi posse, sed id agere ut per + paucorum pravos et malos mores, multorum et bonorum confessorum gloria + honesta maculetur. Gibbon’s misrepresentation lies in the ambiguous + expression “too often.” Were the epistles arranged in a different manner + in the edition consulted by M. Guizot?—M.] + </p> + <p> + The sober discretion of the present age will more readily censure than + admire, but can more easily admire than imitate, the fervor of the first + Christians, who, according to the lively expressions of Sulpicius Severus, + desired martyrdom with more eagerness than his own contemporaries + solicited a bishopric. <a href="#linknote-16.92" name="linknoteref-16.92" + id="linknoteref-16.92">92</a> The epistles which Ignatius composed as he was + carried in chains through the cities of Asia, breathe sentiments the most + repugnant to the ordinary feelings of human nature. He earnestly beseeches + the Romans, that when he should be exposed in the amphitheatre, they would + not, by their kind but unseasonable intercession, deprive him of the crown + of glory; and he declares his resolution to provoke and irritate the wild + beasts which might be employed as the instruments of his death. <a + href="#linknote-16.93" name="linknoteref-16.93" id="linknoteref-16.93">93</a> Some + stories are related of the courage of martyrs, who actually performed what + Ignatius had intended; who exasperated the fury of the lions, pressed the + executioner to hasten his office, cheerfully leaped into the fires which + were kindled to consume them, and discovered a sensation of joy and + pleasure in the midst of the most exquisite tortures. Several examples + have been preserved of a zeal impatient of those restraints which the + emperors had provided for the security of the church. The Christians + sometimes supplied by their voluntary declaration the want of an accuser, + rudely disturbed the public service of paganism, <a href="#linknote-16.94" + name="linknoteref-16.94" id="linknoteref-16.94">94</a> and rushing in crowds + round the tribunal of the magistrates, called upon them to pronounce and + to inflict the sentence of the law. The behavior of the Christians was too + remarkable to escape the notice of the ancient philosophers; but they seem + to have considered it with much less admiration than astonishment. + Incapable of conceiving the motives which sometimes transported the + fortitude of believers beyond the bounds of prudence or reason, they + treated such an eagerness to die as the strange result of obstinate + despair, of stupid insensibility, or of superstitious frenzy. <a + href="#linknote-16.95" name="linknoteref-16.95" id="linknoteref-16.95">95</a> + “Unhappy men!” exclaimed the proconsul Antoninus to the Christians of + Asia; “unhappy men! if you are thus weary of your lives, is it so + difficult for you to find ropes and precipices?” <a href="#linknote-16.96" + name="linknoteref-16.96" id="linknoteref-16.96">96</a> He was extremely cautious + (as it is observed by a learned and picus historian) of punishing men who + had found no accusers but themselves, the Imperial laws not having made + any provision for so unexpected a case: condemning therefore a few as a + warning to their brethren, he dismissed the multitude with indignation and + contempt. <a href="#linknote-16.97" name="linknoteref-16.97" id="linknoteref-16.97">97</a> + Notwithstanding this real or affected disdain, the intrepid constancy of + the faithful was productive of more salutary effects on those minds which + nature or grace had disposed for the easy reception of religious truth. On + these melancholy occasions, there were many among the Gentiles who pitied, + who admired, and who were converted. The generous enthusiasm was + communicated from the sufferer to the spectators; and the blood of + martyrs, according to a well-known observation, became the seed of the + church. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.92" id="linknote-16.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Certatim gloriosa in + certamina ruebatur; multique avidius tum martyria gloriosis mortibus + quærebantur, quam nunc Episcopatus pravis ambitionibus appetuntur. + Sulpicius Severus, l. ii. He might have omitted the word <i>nunc</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.93" id="linknote-16.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.93">return</a>)<br /> [ See Epist. ad Roman. c. + 4, 5, ap. Patres Apostol. tom. ii. p. 27. It suited the purpose of Bishop + Pearson (see Vindiciæ Ignatianæ, part ii. c. 9) to justify, by a + profusion of examples and authorities, the sentiments of Ignatius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.94" id="linknote-16.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.94">return</a>)<br /> [ The story of Polyeuctes, + on which Corneille has founded a very beautiful tragedy, is one of the + most celebrated, though not perhaps the most authentic, instances of this + excessive zeal. We should observe, that the 60th canon of the council of + Illiberis refuses the title of martyrs to those who exposed themselves to + death, by publicly destroying the idols.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.95" id="linknote-16.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.95">return</a>)<br /> [ See Epictetus, l. iv. c. + 7, (though there is some doubt whether he alludes to the Christians.) + Marcus Antoninus de Rebus suis, l. xi. c. 3 Lucian in Peregrin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.96" id="linknote-16.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.96">return</a>)<br /> [ Tertullian ad Scapul. c. + 5. The learned are divided between three persons of the same name, who + were all proconsuls of Asia. I am inclined to ascribe this story to + Antoninus Pius, who was afterwards emperor; and who may have governed Asia + under the reign of Trajan.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.97" id="linknote-16.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.97">return</a>)<br /> [ Mosheim, de Rebus Christ, + ante Constantin. p. 235.] + </p> + <p> + But although devotion had raised, and eloquence continued to inflame, this + fever of the mind, it insensibly gave way to the more natural hopes and + fears of the human heart, to the love of life, the apprehension of pain, + and the horror of dissolution. The more prudent rulers of the church found + themselves obliged to restrain the indiscreet ardor of their followers, + and to distrust a constancy which too often abandoned them in the hour of + trial. <a href="#linknote-16.98" name="linknoteref-16.98" id="linknoteref-16.98">98</a> + As the lives of the faithful became less mortified and austere, they were + every day less ambitious of the honors of martyrdom; and the soldiers of + Christ, instead of distinguishing themselves by voluntary deeds of + heroism, frequently deserted their post, and fled in confusion before the + enemy whom it was their duty to resist. There were three methods, however, + of escaping the flames of persecution, which were not attended with an + equal degree of guilt: first, indeed, was generally allowed to be + innocent; the second was of a doubtful, or at least of a venial, nature; + but the third implied a direct and criminal apostasy from the Christian + faith. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.98" id="linknote-16.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.98">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Epistle of the + Church of Smyrna, ap. Euseb. Hist. Eccles. Liv. c. 15 * Note: The 15th + chapter of the 10th book of the Eccles. History of Eusebius treats + principally of the martyrdom of St. Polycarp, and mentions some other + martyrs. A single example of weakness is related; it is that of a Phrygian + named Quintus, who, appalled at the sight of the wild beasts and the + tortures, renounced his faith. This example proves little against the mass + of Christians, and this chapter of Eusebius furnished much stronger + evidence of their courage than of their timidity.—G——This + Quintus had, however, rashly and of his own accord appeared before the + tribunal; and the church of Smyrna condemn “<i>his indiscreet ardor</i>,” coupled + as it was with weakness in the hour of trial.—M.] + </p> + <p> + I. A modern inquisitor would hear with surprise, that whenever an + information was given to a Roman magistrate of any person within his + jurisdiction who had embraced the sect of the Christians, the charge was + communicated to the party accused, and that a convenient time was allowed + him to settle his domestic concerns, and to prepare an answer to the crime + which was imputed to him. <a href="#linknote-16.99" name="linknoteref-16.99" + id="linknoteref-16.99">99</a> If he entertained any doubt of his own + constancy, such a delay afforded him the opportunity of preserving his + life and honor by flight, of withdrawing himself into some obscure + retirement or some distant province, and of patiently expecting the return + of peace and security. A measure so consonant to reason was soon + authorized by the advice and example of the most holy prelates; and seems + to have been censured by few except by the Montanists, who deviated into + heresy by their strict and obstinate adherence to the rigor of ancient + discipline. <a href="#linknote-16.100" name="linknoteref-16.100" + id="linknoteref-16.100">100</a> + </p> + <p> + II.The provincial governors, whose zeal was less prevalent than their + avarice, had countenanced the practice of selling certificates, (or + libels, as they were called,) which attested, that the persons therein + mentioned had complied with the laws, and sacrificed to the Roman deities. + By producing these false declarations, the opulent and timid Christians + were enabled to silence the malice of an informer, and to reconcile in + some measure their safety with their religion.<a href="#linknote-16.101" + name="linknoteref-16.101" id="linknoteref-16.101">101</a> A slight penance + atoned for this profane dissimulation. <a href="#linknote-16.1011" + name="linknoteref-16.1011" id="linknoteref-16.1011">1011</a> + </p> + <p> + III. In every persecution there were great numbers of unworthy Christians + who publicly disowned or renounced the faith which they had professed; and + who confirmed the sincerity of their abjuration, by the legal acts of + burning incense or of offering sacrifices. Some of these apostates had + yielded on the first menace or exhortation of the magistrate; whilst the + patience of others had been subdued by the length and repetition of + tortures. The affrighted countenances of some betrayed their inward + remorse, while others advanced with confidence and alacrity to the altars + of the gods. <a href="#linknote-16.102" name="linknoteref-16.102" + id="linknoteref-16.102">102</a> But the disguise which fear had imposed, + subsisted no longer than the present danger. As soon as the severity of + the persecution was abated, the doors of the churches were assailed by the + returning multitude of penitents who detested their idolatrous submission, + and who solicited with equal ardor, but with various success, their + readmission into the society of Christians. <a href="#linknote-16.103" + name="linknoteref-16.103" id="linknoteref-16.103">103</a> <a + href="#linknote-16.1031" name="linknoteref-16.1031" id="linknoteref-16.1031">1031</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.99" id="linknote-16.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.99">return</a>)<br /> [ In the second apology of + Justin, there is a particular and very curious instance of this legal + delay. The same indulgence was granted to accused Christians, in the + persecution of Decius: and Cyprian (de Lapsis) expressly mentions the + “Dies negantibus præstitutus.” * Note: The examples drawn by the + historian from Justin Martyr and Cyprian relate altogether to particular + cases, and prove nothing as to the general practice adopted towards the + accused; it is evident, on the contrary, from the same apology of St. + Justin, that they hardly ever obtained delay. “A man named Lucius, himself + a Christian, present at an unjust sentence passed against a Christian by + the judge Urbicus, asked him why he thus punished a man who was neither + adulterer nor robber, nor guilty of any other crime but that of avowing + himself a Christian.” Urbicus answered only in these words: “Thou also + hast the appearance of being a Christian.” “Yes, without doubt,” replied + Lucius. The judge ordered that he should be put to death on the instant. A + third, who came up, was condemned to be beaten with rods. Here, then, are + three examples where no delay was granted.——[Surely these acts + of a single passionate and irritated judge prove the general practice as + little as those quoted by Gibbon.—M.] There exist a multitude of + others, such as those of Ptolemy, Marcellus, &c. Justin expressly + charges the judges with ordering the accused to be executed without + hearing the cause. The words of St. Cyprian are as particular, and simply + say, that he had appointed a day by which the Christians must have + renounced their faith; those who had not done it by that time were + condemned.—G. This confirms the statement in the text.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.100" id="linknote-16.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.100">return</a>)<br /> [ Tertullian considers + flight from persecution as an imperfect, but very criminal, apostasy, as + an impious attempt to elude the will of God, &c., &c. He has + written a treatise on this subject, (see p. 536—544, edit. Rigalt.,) + which is filled with the wildest fanaticism and the most incoherent + declamation. It is, however, somewhat remarkable, that Tertullian did not + suffer martyrdom himself.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.101" id="linknote-16.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.101">return</a>)<br /> [ The <i>libellatici</i>, who + are chiefly known by the writings of Cyprian, are described with the + utmost precision, in the copious commentary of Mosheim, p. 483—489.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1011" id="linknote-16.1011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1011 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1011">return</a>)<br /> [ The penance was not + so slight, for it was exactly the same with that of apostates who had + sacrificed to idols; it lasted several years. See Fleun Hist. Ecc. v. ii. + p. 171.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.102" id="linknote-16.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.102">return</a>)<br /> [ Plin. Epist. x. 97. + Dionysius Alexandrin. ap. Euseb. l. vi. c. 41. Ad prima statim verba + minantis inimici maximus fratrum numerus fidem suam prodidit: nec + prostratus est persecutionis impetu, sed voluntario lapsu seipsum + prostravit. Cyprian. Opera, p. 89. Among these deserters were many + priests, and even bishops.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.103" id="linknote-16.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.103">return</a>)<br /> [ It was on this occasion + that Cyprian wrote his treatise De Lapsis, and many of his epistles. The + controversy concerning the treatment of penitent apostates, does not occur + among the Christians of the preceding century. Shall we ascribe this to + the superiority of their faith and courage, or to our less intimate + knowledge of their history!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1031" id="linknote-16.1031"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1031 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1031">return</a>)<br /> [ Pliny says, that the + greater part of the Christians persisted in avowing themselves to be so; + the reason for his consulting Trajan was the periclitantium numerus. + Eusebius (l. vi. c. 41) does not permit us to doubt that the number of + those who renounced their faith was infinitely below the number of those + who boldly confessed it. The prefect, he says and his assessors present at + the council, were alarmed at seeing the crowd of Christians; the judges + themselves trembled. Lastly, St. Cyprian informs us, that the greater part + of those who had appeared weak brethren in the persecution of Decius, + signalized their courage in that of Gallius. Steterunt fortes, et ipso + dolore pœnitentiæ facti ad prælium fortiores Epist. lx. p. 142.—G.] + </p> + <p> + IV. Notwithstanding the general rules established for the conviction and + punishment of the Christians, the fate of those sectaries, in an extensive + and arbitrary government, must still in a great measure, have depended on + their own behavior, the circumstances of the times, and the temper of + their supreme as well as subordinate rulers. Zeal might sometimes provoke, + and prudence might sometimes avert or assuage, the superstitious fury of + the Pagans. A variety of motives might dispose the provincial governors + either to enforce or to relax the execution of the laws; and of these + motives the most forcible was their regard not only for the public edicts, + but for the secret intentions of the emperor, a glance from whose eye was + sufficient to kindle or to extinguish the flames of persecution. As often + as any occasional severities were exercised in the different parts of the + empire, the primitive Christians lamented and perhaps magnified their own + sufferings; but the celebrated number of <i>ten</i> persecutions has been + determined by the ecclesiastical writers of the fifth century, who + possessed a more distinct view of the prosperous or adverse fortunes of + the church, from the age of Nero to that of Diocletian. The ingenious + parallels of the <i>ten</i> plagues of Egypt, and of the <i>ten</i> horns of the + Apocalypse, first suggested this calculation to their minds; and in their + application of the faith of prophecy to the truth of history, they were + careful to select those reigns which were indeed the most hostile to the + Christian cause. <a href="#linknote-16.104" name="linknoteref-16.104" + id="linknoteref-16.104">104</a> But these transient persecutions served only + to revive the zeal and to restore the discipline of the faithful; and the + moments of extraordinary rigor were compensated by much longer intervals + of peace and security. The indifference of some princes, and the + indulgence of others, permitted the Christians to enjoy, though not + perhaps a legal, yet an actual and public, toleration of their religion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.104" id="linknote-16.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.104">return</a>)<br /> [ See Mosheim, p. 97. + Sulpicius Severus was the first author of this computation; though he + seemed desirous of reserving the tenth and greatest persecution for the + coming of the Antichrist.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap16.5"></a> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + V. + </h2> + <p> + The apology of Tertullian contains two very ancient, very singular, but at + the same time very suspicious, instances of Imperial clemency; the edicts + published by Tiberius, and by Marcus Antoninus, and designed not only to + protect the innocence of the Christians, but even to proclaim those + stupendous miracles which had attested the truth of their doctrine. The + first of these examples is attended with some difficulties which might + perplex a sceptical mind. <a href="#linknote-16.105" name="linknoteref-16.105" + id="linknoteref-16.105">105</a> We are required to believe, <i>that</i> Pontius + Pilate informed the emperor of the unjust sentence of death which he had + pronounced against an innocent, and, as it appeared, a divine, person; and + that, without acquiring the merit, he exposed himself to the danger of + martyrdom; <i>that</i> Tiberius, who avowed his contempt for all religion, + immediately conceived the design of placing the Jewish Messiah among the + gods of Rome; <i>that</i> his servile senate ventured to disobey the commands of + their master; <i>that</i> Tiberius, instead of resenting their refusal, contented + himself with protecting the Christians from the severity of the laws, many + years before such laws were enacted, or before the church had assumed any + distinct name or existence; and lastly, <i>that</i> the memory of this + extraordinary transaction was preserved in the most public and authentic + records, which escaped the knowledge of the historians of Greece and Rome, + and were only visible to the eyes of an African Christian, who composed + his apology one hundred and sixty years after the death of Tiberius. The + edict of Marcus Antoninus is supposed to have been the effect of his + devotion and gratitude for the miraculous deliverance which he had + obtained in the Marcomannic war. The distress of the legions, the + seasonable tempest of rain and hail, of thunder and of lightning, and the + dismay and defeat of the barbarians, have been celebrated by the eloquence + of several Pagan writers. If there were any Christians in that army, it + was natural that they should ascribe some merit to the fervent prayers, + which, in the moment of danger, they had offered up for their own and the + public safety. But we are still assured by monuments of brass and marble, + by the Imperial medals, and by the Antonine column, that neither the + prince nor the people entertained any sense of this signal obligation, + since they unanimously attribute their deliverance to the providence of + Jupiter, and to the interposition of Mercury. <a href="#linknote-16.106" + name="linknoteref-16.106" id="linknoteref-16.106">106</a> During the whole + course of his reign, Marcus despised the Christians as a philosopher, and + punished them as a sovereign. <a href="#linknote-16.1061" + name="linknoteref-16.1061" id="linknoteref-16.1061">1061</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.105" id="linknote-16.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.105">return</a>)<br /> [ The testimony given by + Pontius Pilate is first mentioned by Justin. The successive improvements + which the story acquired (as if has passed through the hands of + Tertullian, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Chrysostom, Orosius, Gregory of Tours, + and the authors of the several editions of the acts of Pilate) are very + fairly stated by Dom Calmet Dissertat. sur l’Ecriture, tom. iii. p. 651, + &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.106" id="linknote-16.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.106">return</a>)<br /> [ On this miracle, as it + is commonly called, of the thundering legion, see the admirable criticism + of Mr. Moyle, in his Works, vol. ii. p. 81—390.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1061" id="linknote-16.1061"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1061 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1061">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbon, with this + phrase, and that below, which admits the injustice of Marcus, has + dexterously glossed over one of the most remarkable facts in the early + Christian history, that the reign of the wisest and most humane of the + heathen emperors was the most fatal to the Christians. Most writers have + ascribed the persecutions under Marcus to the latent bigotry of his + character; Mosheim, to the influence of the philosophic party; but the + fact is admitted by all. A late writer (Mr. Waddington, Hist. of the + Church, p. 47) has not scrupled to assert, that “this prince polluted + every year of a long reign with innocent blood;” but the causes as well as + the date of the persecutions authorized or permitted by Marcus are equally + uncertain. Of the Asiatic edict recorded by Melito. the date is unknown, + nor is it quite clear that it was an Imperial edict. If it was the act + under which Polycarp suffered, his martyrdom is placed by Ruinart in the + sixth, by Mosheim in the ninth, year of the reign of Marcus. The martyrs + of Vienne and Lyons are assigned by Dodwell to the seventh, by most + writers to the seventeenth. In fact, the commencement of the persecutions + of the Christians appears to synchronize exactly with the period of the + breaking out of the Marcomannic war, which seems to have alarmed the whole + empire, and the emperor himself, into a paroxysm of returning piety to + their gods, of which the Christians were the victims. See Jul, Capit. + Script. Hist August. p. 181, edit. 1661. It is remarkable that Tertullian + (Apologet. c. v.) distinctly asserts that Verus (M. Aurelius) issued no + edicts against the Christians, and almost positively exempts him from the + charge of persecution.—M. This remarkable synchronism, which + explains the persecutions under M Aurelius, is shown at length in Milman’s + History of Christianity, book ii. v.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + By a singular fatality, the hardships which they had endured under the + government of a virtuous prince, immediately ceased on the accession of a + tyrant; and as none except themselves had experienced the injustice of + Marcus, so they alone were protected by the lenity of Commodus. The + celebrated Marcia, the most favored of his concubines, and who at length + contrived the murder of her Imperial lover, entertained a singular + affection for the oppressed church; and though it was impossible that she + could reconcile the practice of vice with the precepts of the gospel, she + might hope to atone for the frailties of her sex and profession by + declaring herself the patroness of the Christians. <a href="#linknote-16.107" + name="linknoteref-16.107" id="linknoteref-16.107">107</a> Under the gracious + protection of Marcia, they passed in safety the thirteen years of a cruel + tyranny; and when the empire was established in the house of Severus, they + formed a domestic but more honorable connection with the new court. The + emperor was persuaded, that in a dangerous sickness, he had derived some + benefit, either spiritual or physical, from the holy oil, with which one + of his slaves had anointed him. He always treated with peculiar + distinction several persons of both sexes who had embraced the new + religion. The nurse as well as the preceptor of Caracalla were Christians; + <a href="#linknote-16.1071" name="linknoteref-16.1071" id="linknoteref-16.1071">1071</a> + and if that young prince ever betrayed a sentiment of humanity, it was + occasioned by an incident, which, however trifling, bore some relation to + the cause of Christianity. <a href="#linknote-16.108" name="linknoteref-16.108" + id="linknoteref-16.108">108</a> Under the reign of Severus, the fury of the + populace was checked; the rigor of ancient laws was for some time + suspended; and the provincial governors were satisfied with receiving an + annual present from the churches within their jurisdiction, as the price, + or as the reward, of their moderation. <a href="#linknote-16.109" + name="linknoteref-16.109" id="linknoteref-16.109">109</a> The controversy + concerning the precise time of the celebration of Easter, armed the + bishops of Asia and Italy against each other, and was considered as the + most important business of this period of leisure and tranquillity. <a + href="#linknote-16.110" name="linknoteref-16.110" id="linknoteref-16.110">110</a> + Nor was the peace of the church interrupted, till the increasing numbers + of proselytes seem at length to have attracted the attention, and to have + alienated the mind of Severus. With the design of restraining the progress + of Christianity, he published an edict, which, though it was designed to + affect only the new converts, could not be carried into strict execution, + without exposing to danger and punishment the most zealous of their + teachers and missionaries. In this mitigated persecution we may still + discover the indulgent spirit of Rome and of Polytheism, which so readily + admitted every excuse in favor of those who practised the religious + ceremonies of their fathers. <a href="#linknote-16.111" name="linknoteref-16.111" + id="linknoteref-16.111">111</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.107" id="linknote-16.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.107">return</a>)<br /> [ Dion Cassius, or rather + his abbreviator Xiphilin, l. lxxii. p. 1206. Mr. Moyle (p. 266) has + explained the condition of the church under the reign of Commodus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1071" id="linknote-16.1071"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1071 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1071">return</a>)<br /> [ The Jews and + Christians contest the honor of having furnished a nurse is the fratricide + son of Severus Caracalla. Hist. of Jews, iii. 158.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.108" id="linknote-16.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.108">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare the life of + Caracalla in the Augustan History, with the epistle of Tertullian to + Scapula. Dr. Jortin (Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. p. 5, + &c.) considers the cure of Severus by the means of holy oil, with a + strong desire to convert it into a miracle.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.109" id="linknote-16.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Tertullian de Fuga, c. + 13. The present was made during the feast of the Saturnalia; and it is a + matter of serious concern to Tertullian, that the faithful should be + confounded with the most infamous professions which purchased the + connivance of the government.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.110" id="linknote-16.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.110">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. l. v. c. 23, 24. + Mosheim, p. 435—447.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.111" id="linknote-16.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.111">return</a>)<br /> [ Judæos fieri sub gravi + pœna vetuit. Idem etiam de Christianis sanxit. Hist. August. p. 70.] + </p> + <p> + But the laws which Severus had enacted soon expired with the authority of + that emperor; and the Christians, after this accidental tempest, enjoyed a + calm of thirty-eight years. <a href="#linknote-16.112" name="linknoteref-16.112" + id="linknoteref-16.112">112</a> Till this period they had usually held their + assemblies in private houses and sequestered places. They were now + permitted to erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purpose of + religious worship; <a href="#linknote-16.113" name="linknoteref-16.113" + id="linknoteref-16.113">113</a> to purchase lands, even at Rome itself, for + the use of the community; and to conduct the elections of their + ecclesiastical ministers in so public, but at the same time in so + exemplary a manner, as to deserve the respectful attention of the + Gentiles. <a href="#linknote-16.114" name="linknoteref-16.114" + id="linknoteref-16.114">114</a> This long repose of the church was + accompanied with dignity. The reigns of those princes who derived their + extraction from the Asiatic provinces, proved the most favorable to the + Christians; the eminent persons of the sect, instead of being reduced to + implore the protection of a slave or concubine, were admitted into the + palace in the honorable characters of priests and philosophers; and their + mysterious doctrines, which were already diffused among the people, + insensibly attracted the curiosity of their sovereign. When the empress + Mammæa passed through Antioch, she expressed a desire of conversing with + the celebrated Origen, the fame of whose piety and learning was spread + over the East. Origen obeyed so flattering an invitation, and though he + could not expect to succeed in the conversion of an artful and ambitious + woman, she listened with pleasure to his eloquent exhortations, and + honorably dismissed him to his retirement in Palestine. <a + href="#linknote-16.115" name="linknoteref-16.115" id="linknoteref-16.115">115</a> + The sentiments of Mammæa were adopted by her son Alexander, and the + philosophic devotion of that emperor was marked by a singular but + injudicious regard for the Christian religion. In his domestic chapel he + placed the statues of Abraham, of Orpheus, of Apollonius, and of Christ, + as an honor justly due to those respectable sages who had instructed + mankind in the various modes of addressing their homage to the supreme and + universal Deity. <a href="#linknote-16.116" name="linknoteref-16.116" + id="linknoteref-16.116">116</a> A purer faith, as well as worship, was openly + professed and practised among his household. Bishops, perhaps for the + first time, were seen at court; and, after the death of Alexander, when + the inhuman Maximin discharged his fury on the favorites and servants of + his unfortunate benefactor, a great number of Christians of every rank and + of both sexes, were involved in the promiscuous massacre, which, on their + account, has improperly received the name of Persecution. <a + href="#linknote-16.117" name="linknoteref-16.117" id="linknoteref-16.117">117</a> + <a href="#linknote-16.1171" name="linknoteref-16.1171" id="linknoteref-16.1171">1171</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.112" id="linknote-16.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.112">return</a>)<br /> [ Sulpicius Severus, l. + ii. p. 384. This computation (allowing for a single exception) is + confirmed by the history of Eusebius, and by the writings of Cyprian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.113" id="linknote-16.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.113">return</a>)<br /> [ The antiquity of + Christian churches is discussed by Tillemont, (Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, + tom. iii. part ii. p. 68-72,) and by Mr. Moyle, (vol. i. p. 378-398.) The + former refers the first construction of them to the peace of Alexander + Severus; the latter, to the peace of Gallienus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.114" id="linknote-16.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.114">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Augustan + History, p. 130. The emperor Alexander adopted their method of publicly + proposing the names of those persons who were candidates for ordination. + It is true that the honor of this practice is likewise attributed to the + Jews.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.115" id="linknote-16.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. vi. c. 21. Hieronym. de Script. Eccles. c. 54. Mammæa was + styled a holy and pious woman, both by the Christians and the Pagans. From + the former, therefore, it was impossible that she should deserve that + honorable epithet.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.116" id="linknote-16.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.116">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Augustan + History, p. 123. Mosheim (p. 465) seems to refine too much on the domestic + religion of Alexander. His design of building a public temple to Christ, + (Hist. August. p. 129,) and the objection which was suggested either to + him, or in similar circumstances to Hadrian, appear to have no other + foundation than an improbable report, invented by the Christians, and + credulously adopted by an historian of the age of Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.117" id="linknote-16.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.117">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. l. vi. c. 28. It + may be presumed that the success of the Christians had exasperated the + increasing bigotry of the Pagans. Dion Cassius, who composed his history + under the former reign, had most probably intended for the use of his + master those counsels of persecution, which he ascribes to a better age, + and to and to the favorite of Augustus. Concerning this oration of + Mæcenas, or rather of Dion, I may refer to my own unbiased opinion, (vol. + i. c. 1, note 25,) and to the Abbé de la Bleterie (Mémoires de l’Académie, + tom. xxiv. p. 303 tom xxv. p. 432.) * Note: If this be the case, Dion + Cassius must have known the Christians they must have been the subject of + his particular attention, since the author supposes that he wished his + master to profit by these “counsels of persecution.” How are we to + reconcile this necessary consequence with what Gibbon has said of the + ignorance of Dion Cassius even of the name of the Christians? (c. xvi. n. + 24.) (Gibbon speaks of Dion’s <i>silence</i>, not of his <i>ignorance</i>.—M) The + supposition in this note is supported by no proof; it is probable that + Dion Cassius has often designated the Christians by the name of Jews. See + Dion Cassius, l. lxvii. c 14, lxviii. l—G. On this point I should + adopt the view of Gibbon rather than that of M Guizot.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1171" id="linknote-16.1171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1171 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1171">return</a>)<br /> [ It is with good + reason that this massacre has been called a persecution, for it lasted + during the whole reign of Maximin, as may be seen in Eusebius. (l. vi. c. + 28.) Rufinus expressly confirms it: Tribus annis a Maximino persecutione + commota, in quibus finem et persecutionis fecit et vitas Hist. l. vi. c. + 19.—G.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the cruel disposition of Maximin, the effects of his + resentment against the Christians were of a very local and temporary + nature, and the pious Origen, who had been proscribed as a devoted victim, + was still reserved to convey the truths of the gospel to the ear of + monarchs. <a href="#linknote-16.118" name="linknoteref-16.118" + id="linknoteref-16.118">118</a> He addressed several edifying letters to the + emperor Philip, to his wife, and to his mother; and as soon as that + prince, who was born in the neighborhood of Palestine, had usurped the + Imperial sceptre, the Christians acquired a friend and a protector. The + public and even partial favor of Philip towards the sectaries of the new + religion, and his constant reverence for the ministers of the church, gave + some color to the suspicion, which prevailed in his own times, that the + emperor himself was become a convert to the faith; <a href="#linknote-16.119" + name="linknoteref-16.119" id="linknoteref-16.119">119</a> and afforded some + grounds for a fable which was afterwards invented, that he had been + purified by confession and penance from the guilt contracted by the murder + of his innocent predecessor. <a href="#linknote-16.120" name="linknoteref-16.120" + id="linknoteref-16.120">120</a> The fall of Philip introduced, with the + change of masters, a new system of government, so oppressive to the + Christians, that their former condition, ever since the time of Domitian, + was represented as a state of perfect freedom and security, if compared + with the rigorous treatment which they experienced under the short reign + of Decius. <a href="#linknote-16.121" name="linknoteref-16.121" + id="linknoteref-16.121">121</a> The virtues of that prince will scarcely + allow us to suspect that he was actuated by a mean resentment against the + favorites of his predecessor; and it is more reasonable to believe, that + in the prosecution of his general design to restore the purity of Roman + manners, he was desirous of delivering the empire from what he condemned + as a recent and criminal superstition. The bishops of the most + considerable cities were removed by exile or death: the vigilance of the + magistrates prevented the clergy of Rome during sixteen months from + proceeding to a new election; and it was the opinion of the Christians, + that the emperor would more patiently endure a competitor for the purple, + than a bishop in the capital. <a href="#linknote-16.122" + name="linknoteref-16.122" id="linknoteref-16.122">122</a> Were it possible to + suppose that the penetration of Decius had discovered pride under the + disguise of humility, or that he could foresee the temporal dominion which + might insensibly arise from the claims of spiritual authority, we might be + less surprised, that he should consider the successors of St. Peter, as + the most formidable rivals to those of Augustus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.118" id="linknote-16.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.118">return</a>)<br /> [ Orosius, l. vii. c. 19, + mentions Origen as the object of Maximin’s resentment; and Firmilianus, a + Cappadocian bishop of that age, gives a just and confined idea of this + persecution, (apud Cyprian Epist. 75.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.119" id="linknote-16.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.119">return</a>)<br /> [ The mention of those + princes who were publicly supposed to be Christians, as we find it in an + epistle of Dionysius of Alexandria, (ap. Euseb. l. vii. c. 10,) evidently + alludes to Philip and his family, and forms a contemporary evidence, that + such a report had prevailed; but the Egyptian bishop, who lived at an + humble distance from the court of Rome, expresses himself with a becoming + diffidence concerning the truth of the fact. The epistles of Origen (which + were extant in the time of Eusebius, see l. vi. c. 36) would most probably + decide this curious rather than important question.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.120" id="linknote-16.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.120">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. l. vi. c. 34. + The story, as is usual, has been embellished by succeeding writers, and is + confuted, with much superfluous learning, by Frederick Spanheim, (Opera + Varia, tom. ii. p. 400, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.121" id="linknote-16.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.121">return</a>)<br /> [ Lactantius, de Mortibus + Persecutorum, c. 3, 4. After celebrating the felicity and increase of the + church, under a long succession of good princes, he adds, “Extitit post + annos plurimos, execrabile animal, Decius, qui vexaret Ecclesiam.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.122" id="linknote-16.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. l. vi. c. 39. + Cyprian. Epistol. 55. The see of Rome remained vacant from the martyrdom + of Fabianus, the 20th of January, A. D. 259, till the election of + Cornelius, the 4th of June, A. D. 251 Decius had probably left Rome, since + he was killed before the end of that year.] + </p> + <p> + The administration of Valerian was distinguished by a levity and + inconstancy ill suited to the gravity of the <i>Roman Censor</i>. In the first + part of his reign, he surpassed in clemency those princes who had been + suspected of an attachment to the Christian faith. In the last three years + and a half, listening to the insinuations of a minister addicted to the + superstitions of Egypt, he adopted the maxims, and imitated the severity, + of his predecessor Decius. <a href="#linknote-16.123" name="linknoteref-16.123" + id="linknoteref-16.123">123</a> The accession of Gallienus, which increased + the calamities of the empire, restored peace to the church; and the + Christians obtained the free exercise of their religion by an edict + addressed to the bishops, and conceived in such terms as seemed to + acknowledge their office and public character. <a href="#linknote-16.124" + name="linknoteref-16.124" id="linknoteref-16.124">124</a> The ancient laws, + without being formally repealed, were suffered to sink into oblivion; and + (excepting only some hostile intentions which are attributed to the + emperor Aurelian <a href="#linknote-16.125" name="linknoteref-16.125" + id="linknoteref-16.125">125</a> the disciples of Christ passed above forty + years in a state of prosperity, far more dangerous to their virtue than + the severest trials of persecution. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.123" id="linknote-16.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.123">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. l. vii. c. 10. + Mosheim (p. 548) has very clearly shown that the præfect Macrianus, and + the Egyptian <i>Magus</i>, are one and the same person.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.124" id="linknote-16.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.124">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius (l. vii. c. + 13) gives us a Greek version of this Latin edict, which seems to have been + very concise. By another edict, he directed that the <i>Cæmeteria</i> should be + restored to the Christians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.125" id="linknote-16.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.125">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. l. vii. c. 30. + Lactantius de M. P. c. 6. Hieronym. in Chron. p. 177. Orosius, l. vii. c. + 23. Their language is in general so ambiguous and incorrect, that we are + at a loss to determine how far Aurelian had carried his intentions before + he was assassinated. Most of the moderns (except Dodwell, Dissertat. + Cyprian. vi. 64) have seized the occasion of gaining a few extraordinary + martyrs. * Note: Dr. Lardner has detailed, with his usual impartiality, + all that has come down to us relating to the persecution of Aurelian, and + concludes by saying, “Upon more carefully examining the words of Eusebius, + and observing the accounts of other authors, learned men have generally, + and, as I think, very judiciously, determined, that Aurelian not only + intended, but did actually persecute: but his persecution was short, he + having died soon after the publication of his edicts.” Heathen Test. c. + xxxvi.—Basmage positively pronounces the same opinion: Non + intentatum modo, sed executum quoque brevissimo tempore mandatum, nobis + infixum est in aniasis. Basn. Ann. 275, No. 2 and compare Pagi Ann. 272, + Nos. 4, 12, 27—G.] + </p> + <p> + The story of Paul of Samosata, who filled the metropolitan see of Antioch, + while the East was in the hands of Odenathus and Zenobia, may serve to + illustrate the condition and character of the times. The wealth of that + prelate was a sufficient evidence of his guilt, since it was neither + derived from the inheritance of his fathers, nor acquired by the arts of + honest industry. But Paul considered the service of the church as a very + lucrative profession. <a href="#linknote-16.126" name="linknoteref-16.126" + id="linknoteref-16.126">126</a> His ecclesiastical jurisdiction was venal and + rapacious; he extorted frequent contributions from the most opulent of the + faithful, and converted to his own use a considerable part of the public + revenue. By his pride and luxury, the Christian religion was rendered + odious in the eyes of the Gentiles. His council chamber and his throne, + the splendor with which he appeared in public, the suppliant crowd who + solicited his attention, the multitude of letters and petitions to which + he dictated his answers, and the perpetual hurry of business in which he + was involved, were circumstances much better suited to the state of a + civil magistrate, <a href="#linknote-16.127" name="linknoteref-16.127" + id="linknoteref-16.127">127</a> than to the humility of a primitive bishop. + When he harangued his people from the pulpit, Paul affected the figurative + style and the theatrical gestures of an Asiatic sophist, while the + cathedral resounded with the loudest and most extravagant acclamations in + the praise of his divine eloquence. Against those who resisted his power, + or refused to flatter his vanity, the prelate of Antioch was arrogant, + rigid, and inexorable; but he relaxed the discipline, and lavished the + treasures of the church on his dependent clergy, who were permitted to + imitate their master in the gratification of every sensual appetite. For + Paul indulged himself very freely in the pleasures of the table, and he + had received into the episcopal palace two young and beautiful women as + the constant companions of his leisure moments. <a href="#linknote-16.128" + name="linknoteref-16.128" id="linknoteref-16.128">128</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.126" id="linknote-16.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.126">return</a>)<br /> [ Paul was better pleased + with the title of <i>Ducenarius</i>, than with that of bishop. The <i>Ducenarius</i> was + an Imperial procurator, so called from his salary of two hundred + <i>Sestertia</i>, or 1600<i>l</i>. a year. (See Salmatius ad Hist. August. p. 124.) Some + critics suppose that the bishop of Antioch had actually obtained such an + office from Zenobia, while others consider it only as a figurative + expression of his pomp and insolence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.127" id="linknote-16.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.127">return</a>)<br /> [ Simony was not unknown + in those times; and the clergy some times bought what they intended to + sell. It appears that the bishopric of Carthage was purchased by a wealthy + matron, named Lucilla, for her servant Majorinus. The price was 400 + <i>Folles</i>. (Monument. Antiq. ad calcem Optati, p. 263.) Every <i>Follis</i> + contained 125 pieces of silver, and the whole sum may be computed at about + 2400<i>l</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.128" id="linknote-16.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.128">return</a>)<br /> [ If we are desirous of + extenuating the vices of Paul, we must suspect the assembled bishops of + the East of publishing the most malicious calumnies in circular epistles + addressed to all the churches of the empire, (ap. Euseb. l. vii. c. 30.)] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these scandalous vices, if Paul of Samosata had preserved + the purity of the orthodox faith, his reign over the capital of Syria + would have ended only with his life; and had a seasonable persecution + intervened, an effort of courage might perhaps have placed him in the rank + of saints and martyrs. <a href="#linknote-16.1281" name="linknoteref-16.1281" + id="linknoteref-16.1281">1281</a> + </p> + <p> + Some nice and subtle errors, which he imprudently adopted and obstinately + maintained, concerning the doctrine of the Trinity, excited the zeal and + indignation of the Eastern churches. <a href="#linknote-16.129" + name="linknoteref-16.129" id="linknoteref-16.129">129</a> + </p> + <p> + From Egypt to the Euxine Sea, the bishops were in arms and in motion. + Several councils were held, confutations were published, excommunications + were pronounced, ambiguous explanations were by turns accepted and + refused, treaties were concluded and violated, and at length Paul of + Samosata was degraded from his episcopal character, by the sentence of + seventy or eighty bishops, who assembled for that purpose at Antioch, and + who, without consulting the rights of the clergy or people, appointed a + successor by their own authority. The manifest irregularity of this + proceeding increased the numbers of the discontented faction; and as Paul, + who was no stranger to the arts of courts, had insinuated himself into the + favor of Zenobia, he maintained above four years the possession of the + episcopal house and office. <a href="#linknote-16.1291" + name="linknoteref-16.1291" id="linknoteref-16.1291">1291</a> The victory of + Aurelian changed the face of the East, and the two contending parties, who + applied to each other the epithets of schism and heresy, were either + commanded or permitted to plead their cause before the tribunal of the + conqueror. This public and very singular trial affords a convincing proof + that the existence, the property, the privileges, and the internal policy + of the Christians, were acknowledged, if not by the laws, at least by the + magistrates, of the empire. As a Pagan and as a soldier, it could scarcely + be expected that Aurelian should enter into the discussion, whether the + sentiments of Paul or those of his adversaries were most agreeable to the + true standard of the orthodox faith. His determination, however, was + founded on the general principles of equity and reason. He considered the + bishops of Italy as the most impartial and respectable judges among the + Christians, and as soon as he was informed that they had unanimously + approved the sentence of the council, he acquiesced in their opinion, and + immediately gave orders that Paul should be compelled to relinquish the + temporal possessions belonging to an office, of which, in the judgment of + his brethren, he had been regularly deprived. But while we applaud the + justice, we should not overlook the policy, of Aurelian, who was desirous + of restoring and cementing the dependence of the provinces on the capital, + by every means which could bind the interest or prejudices of any part of + his subjects. <a href="#linknote-16.130" name="linknoteref-16.130" + id="linknoteref-16.130">130</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1281" id="linknote-16.1281"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1281 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1281">return</a>)<br /> [ It appears, + nevertheless, that the vices and immoralities of Paul of Samosata had much + weight in the sentence pronounced against him by the bishops. The object + of the letter, addressed by the synod to the bishops of Rome and + Alexandria, was to inform them of the change in the faith of Paul, the + altercations and discussions to which it had given rise, as well as of his + morals and the whole of his conduct. Euseb. Hist. Eccl. l. vii c. xxx—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.129" id="linknote-16.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.129">return</a>)<br /> [ His heresy (like those + of Noetus and Sabellius, in the same century) tended to confound the + mysterious distinction of the divine persons. See Mosheim, p. 702, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1291" id="linknote-16.1291"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1291 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1291">return</a>)<br /> [ “Her favorite, + (Zenobia’s,) Paul of Samosata, seems to have entertained some views of + attempting a union between Judaism and Christianity; both parties rejected + the unnatural alliance.” Hist. of Jews, iii. 175, and Jost. Geschichte der + Israeliter, iv. 167. The protection of the severe Zenobia is the only + circumstance which may raise a doubt of the notorious immorality of Paul.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.130" id="linknote-16.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.130">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. vii. c. 30. We are entirely indebted to him for the curious + story of Paul of Samosata.] + </p> + <p> + Amidst the frequent revolutions of the empire, the Christians still + flourished in peace and prosperity; and notwithstanding a celebrated æra + of martyrs has been deduced from the accession of Diocletian, <a + href="#linknote-16.131" name="linknoteref-16.131" id="linknoteref-16.131">131</a> + the new system of policy, introduced and maintained by the wisdom of that + prince, continued, during more than eighteen years, to breathe the mildest + and most liberal spirit of religious toleration. The mind of Diocletian + himself was less adapted indeed to speculative inquiries, than to the + active labors of war and government. His prudence rendered him averse to + any great innovation, and though his temper was not very susceptible of + zeal or enthusiasm, he always maintained an habitual regard for the + ancient deities of the empire. But the leisure of the two empresses, of + his wife Prisca, and of Valeria, his daughter, permitted them to listen + with more attention and respect to the truths of Christianity, which in + every age has acknowledged its important obligations to female devotion. + <a href="#linknote-16.132" name="linknoteref-16.132" id="linknoteref-16.132">132</a> + The principal eunuchs, Lucian <a href="#linknote-16.133" + name="linknoteref-16.133" id="linknoteref-16.133">133</a> and Dorotheus, + Gorgonius and Andrew, who attended the person, possessed the favor, and + governed the household of Diocletian, protected by their powerful + influence the faith which they had embraced. Their example was imitated by + many of the most considerable officers of the palace, who, in their + respective stations, had the care of the Imperial ornaments, of the robes, + of the furniture, of the jewels, and even of the private treasury; and, + though it might sometimes be incumbent on them to accompany the emperor + when he sacrificed in the temple, <a href="#linknote-16.134" + name="linknoteref-16.134" id="linknoteref-16.134">134</a> they enjoyed, with + their wives, their children, and their slaves, the free exercise of the + Christian religion. Diocletian and his colleagues frequently conferred the + most important offices on those persons who avowed their abhorrence for + the worship of the gods, but who had displayed abilities proper for the + service of the state. The bishops held an honorable rank in their + respective provinces, and were treated with distinction and respect, not + only by the people, but by the magistrates themselves. Almost in every + city, the ancient churches were found insufficient to contain the + increasing multitude of proselytes; and in their place more stately and + capacious edifices were erected for the public worship of the faithful. + The corruption of manners and principles, so forcibly lamented by + Eusebius, <a href="#linknote-16.135" name="linknoteref-16.135" + id="linknoteref-16.135">135</a> may be considered, not only as a consequence, + but as a proof, of the liberty which the Christians enjoyed and abused + under the reign of Diocletian. Prosperity had relaxed the nerves of + discipline. Fraud, envy, and malice prevailed in every congregation. The + presbyters aspired to the episcopal office, which every day became an + object more worthy of their ambition. The bishops, who contended with each + other for ecclesiastical preëminence, appeared by their conduct to claim a + secular and tyrannical power in the church; and the lively faith which + still distinguished the Christians from the Gentiles, was shown much less + in their lives, than in their controversial writings. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.131" id="linknote-16.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.131">return</a>)<br /> [ The Æra of Martyrs, + which is still in use among the Copts and the Abyssinians, must be + reckoned from the 29th of August, A. D. 284; as the beginning of the + Egyptian year was nineteen days earlier than the real accession of + Diocletian. See Dissertation Preliminaire a l’Art de verifier les Dates. * + Note: On the æra of martyrs see the very curious dissertations of Mons + Letronne on some recently discovered inscriptions in Egypt and Nubis, p. + 102, &c.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.132" id="linknote-16.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.132">return</a>)<br /> [ The expression of + Lactantius, (de M. P. c. 15,) “sacrificio pollui coegit,” implies their + antecedent conversion to the faith, but does not seem to justify the + assertion of Mosheim, (p. 912,) that they had been privately baptized.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.133" id="linknote-16.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.133">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Tillemont + (Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. v. part i. p. 11, 12) has quoted from the + Spicilegium of Dom Luc d’Archeri a very curious instruction which Bishop + Theonas composed for the use of Lucian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.134" id="linknote-16.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.134">return</a>)<br /> [ Lactantius, de M. P. c. + 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.135" id="linknote-16.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.135">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. viii. c. 1. The reader who consults the original will not + accuse me of heightening the picture. Eusebius was about sixteen years of + age at the accession of the emperor Diocletian.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this seeming security, an attentive observer might discern + some symptoms that threatened the church with a more violent persecution + than any which she had yet endured. The zeal and rapid progress of the + Christians awakened the Polytheists from their supine indifference in the + cause of those deities, whom custom and education had taught them to + revere. The mutual provocations of a religious war, which had already + continued above two hundred years, exasperated the animosity of the + contending parties. The Pagans were incensed at the rashness of a recent + and obscure sect, which presumed to accuse their countrymen of error, and + to devote their ancestors to eternal misery. The habits of justifying the + popular mythology against the invectives of an implacable enemy, produced + in their minds some sentiments of faith and reverence for a system which + they had been accustomed to consider with the most careless levity. The + supernatural powers assumed by the church inspired at the same time terror + and emulation. The followers of the established religion intrenched + themselves behind a similar fortification of prodigies; invented new modes + of sacrifice, of expiation, and of initiation; <a href="#linknote-16.136" + name="linknoteref-16.136" id="linknoteref-16.136">136</a> attempted to revive + the credit of their expiring oracles; <a href="#linknote-16.137" + name="linknoteref-16.137" id="linknoteref-16.137">137</a> and listened with + eager credulity to every impostor, who flattered their prejudices by a + tale of wonders. <a href="#linknote-16.138" name="linknoteref-16.138" + id="linknoteref-16.138">138</a> Both parties seemed to acknowledge the truth + of those miracles which were claimed by their adversaries; and while they + were contented with ascribing them to the arts of magic, and to the power + of dæmons, they mutually concurred in restoring and establishing the + reign of superstition. <a href="#linknote-16.139" name="linknoteref-16.139" + id="linknoteref-16.139">139</a> Philosophy, her most dangerous enemy, was now + converted into her most useful ally. The groves of the academy, the + gardens of Epicurus, and even the portico of the Stoics, were almost + deserted, as so many different schools of scepticism or impiety; <a + href="#linknote-16.140" name="linknoteref-16.140" id="linknoteref-16.140">140</a> + and many among the Romans were desirous that the writings of Cicero should + be condemned and suppressed by the authority of the senate. <a + href="#linknote-16.141" name="linknoteref-16.141" id="linknoteref-16.141">141</a> + The prevailing sect of the new Platonicians judged it prudent to connect + themselves with the priests, whom perhaps they despised, against the + Christians, whom they had reason to fear. These fashionable Philosophers + prosecuted the design of extracting allegorical wisdom from the fictions + of the Greek poets; instituted mysterious rites of devotion for the use of + their chosen disciples; recommended the worship of the ancient gods as the + emblems or ministers of the Supreme Deity, and composed against the faith + of the gospel many elaborate treatises, <a href="#linknote-16.142" + name="linknoteref-16.142" id="linknoteref-16.142">142</a> which have since been + committed to the flames by the prudence of orthodox emperors. <a + href="#linknote-16.143" name="linknoteref-16.143" id="linknoteref-16.143">143</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.136" id="linknote-16.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.136">return</a>)<br /> [ We might quote, among a + great number of instances, the mysterious worship of Mythras, and the + Taurobolia; the latter of which became fashionable in the time of the + Antonines, (see a Dissertation of M. de Boze, in the Mémoires de + l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. ii. p. 443.) The romance of Apuleius is + as full of devotion as of satire. * Note: On the extraordinary progress of + the Mahriac rites, in the West, see De Guigniaud’s translation of Creuzer, + vol. i. p. 365, and Note 9, tom. i. part 2, p. 738, &c.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.137" id="linknote-16.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.137">return</a>)<br /> [ The impostor Alexander + very strongly recommended the oracle of Trophonius at Mallos, and those of + Apollo at Claros and Miletus, (Lucian, tom. ii. p. 236, edit. Reitz.) The + last of these, whose singular history would furnish a very curious + episode, was consulted by Diocletian before he published his edicts of + persecution, (Lactantius, de M. P. c. 11.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.138" id="linknote-16.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.138">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the ancient + stories of Pythagoras and Aristeas, the cures performed at the shrine of + Æsculapius, and the fables related of Apollonius of Tyana, were + frequently opposed to the miracles of Christ; though I agree with Dr. + Lardner, (see Testimonies, vol. iii. p. 253, 352,) that when Philostratus + composed the life of Apollonius, he had no such intention.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.139" id="linknote-16.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.139">return</a>)<br /> [ It is seriously to be + lamented, that the Christian fathers, by acknowledging the supernatural, + or, as they deem it, the infernal part of Paganism, destroy with their own + hands the great advantage which we might otherwise derive from the liberal + concessions of our adversaries.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.140" id="linknote-16.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.140">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (p. 301, edit. + Spanheim) expresses a pious joy, that the providence of the gods had + extinguished the impious sects, and for the most part destroyed the books + of the Pyrrhonians and Epicuræans, which had been very numerous, since + Epicurus himself composed no less than 300 volumes. See Diogenes Laertius, + l. x. c. 26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.141" id="linknote-16.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.141">return</a>)<br /> [ Cumque alios audiam + mussitare indignanter, et dicere opportere statui per Senatum, aboleantur + ut hæc scripta, quibus Christiana Religio comprobetur, et vetustatis + opprimatur auctoritas. Arnobius adversus Gentes, l. iii. p. 103, 104. He + adds very properly, Erroris convincite Ciceronem... nam intercipere + scripta, et publicatam velle submergere lectionem, non est Deum defendere + sed veritatis testificationem timere.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.142" id="linknote-16.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.142">return</a>)<br /> [ Lactantius (Divin. + Institut. l. v. c. 2, 3) gives a very clear and spirited account of two of + these philosophic adversaries of the faith. The large treatise of Porphyry + against the Christians consisted of thirty books, and was composed in + Sicily about the year 270.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.143" id="linknote-16.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.143">return</a>)<br /> [ See Socrates, Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. i. c. 9, and Codex Justinian. l. i. i. l. s.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap16.6"></a> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + VI. + </h2> + <p> + Although the policy of Diocletian and the humanity of Constantius inclined + them to preserve inviolate the maxims of toleration, it was soon + discovered that their two associates, Maximian and Galerius, entertained + the most implacable aversion for the name and religion of the Christians. + The minds of those princes had never been enlightened by science; + education had never softened their temper. They owed their greatness to + their swords, and in their most elevated fortune they still retained their + superstitious prejudices of soldiers and peasants. In the general + administration of the provinces they obeyed the laws which their + benefactor had established; but they frequently found occasions of + exercising within their camp and palaces a secret persecution, <a + href="#linknote-16.144" name="linknoteref-16.144" id="linknoteref-16.144">144</a> + for which the imprudent zeal of the Christians sometimes offered the most + specious pretences. A sentence of death was executed upon Maximilianus, an + African youth, who had been produced by his own father <a + href="#linknote-16.1441" name="linknoteref-16.1441" id="linknoteref-16.1441">1441</a> + before the magistrate as a sufficient and legal recruit, but who + obstinately persisted in declaring, that his conscience would not permit + him to embrace the profession of a soldier. <a href="#linknote-16.145" + name="linknoteref-16.145" id="linknoteref-16.145">145</a> It could scarcely be + expected that any government should suffer the action of Marcellus the + Centurion to pass with impunity. On the day of a public festival, that + officer threw away his belt, his arms, and the ensigns of his office, and + exclaimed with a loud voice, that he would obey none but Jesus Christ the + eternal King, and that he renounced forever the use of carnal weapons, and + the service of an idolatrous master. The soldiers, as soon as they + recovered from their astonishment, secured the person of Marcellus. He was + examined in the city of Tingi by the president of that part of Mauritania; + and as he was convicted by his own confession, he was condemned and + beheaded for the crime of desertion. <a href="#linknote-16.146" + name="linknoteref-16.146" id="linknoteref-16.146">146</a> Examples of such a + nature savor much less of religious persecution than of martial or even + civil law; but they served to alienate the mind of the emperors, to + justify the severity of Galerius, who dismissed a great number of + Christian officers from their employments; and to authorize the opinion, + that a sect of enthusiastics, which avowed principles so repugnant to the + public safety, must either remain useless, or would soon become dangerous, + subjects of the empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.144" id="linknote-16.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.144">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. + 4, c. 17. He limits the number of military martyrs, by a remarkable + expression, of which neither his Latin nor French translator have rendered + the energy. Notwithstanding the authority of Eusebius, and the silence of + Lactantius, Ambrose, Sulpicius, Orosius, &c., it has been long + believed, that the Thebæan legion, consisting of 6000 Christians, + suffered martyrdom by the order of Maximian, in the valley of the Pennine + Alps. The story was first published about the middle of the 5th century, + by Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, who received it from certain persons, who + received it from Isaac, bishop of Geneva, who is said to have received it + from Theodore, bishop of Octodurum. The abbey of St. Maurice still + subsists, a rich monument of the credulity of Sigismund, king of Burgundy. + See an excellent Dissertation in xxxvith volume of the Bibliothèque + Raisonnée, p. 427-454.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1441" id="linknote-16.1441"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1441 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1441">return</a>)<br /> [ M. Guizot criticizes + Gibbon’s account of this incident. He supposes that Maximilian was not + “produced by his father as a recruit,” but was obliged to appear by the + law, which compelled the sons of soldiers to serve at 21 years old. Was + not this a law of Constantine? Neither does this circumstance appear in + the acts. His father had clearly expected him to serve, as he had bought + him a new dress for the occasion; yet he refused to force the conscience + of his son. and when Maximilian was condemned to death, the father + returned home in joy, blessing God for having bestowed upon him such a + son.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.145" id="linknote-16.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.145">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Acta Sincera, + p. 299. The accounts of his martyrdom and that of Marcellus, bear every + mark of truth and authenticity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.146" id="linknote-16.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.146">return</a>)<br /> [ Acta Sincera, p. 302. * + Note: M. Guizot here justly observes, that it was the necessity of + sacrificing to the gods, which induced Marcellus to act in this manner.—M.] + </p> + <p> + After the success of the Persian war had raised the hopes and the + reputation of Galerius, he passed a winter with Diocletian in the palace + of Nicomedia; and the fate of Christianity became the object of their + secret consultations. <a href="#linknote-16.147" name="linknoteref-16.147" + id="linknoteref-16.147">147</a> The experienced emperor was still inclined to + pursue measures of lenity; and though he readily consented to exclude the + Christians from holding any employments in the household or the army, he + urged in the strongest terms the danger as well as cruelty of shedding the + blood of those deluded fanatics. Galerius at length extorted <a + href="#linknote-16.1471" name="linknoteref-16.1471" id="linknoteref-16.1471">1471</a> + from him the permission of summoning a council, composed of a few persons + the most distinguished in the civil and military departments of the state. + </p> + <p> + The important question was agitated in their presence, and those ambitious + courtiers easily discerned, that it was incumbent on them to second, by + their eloquence, the importunate violence of the Cæsar. It may be + presumed, that they insisted on every topic which might interest the + pride, the piety, or the fears, of their sovereign in the destruction of + Christianity. Perhaps they represented, that the glorious work of the + deliverance of the empire was left imperfect, as long as an independent + people was permitted to subsist and multiply in the heart of the + provinces. The Christians, (it might specially be alleged,) renouncing the + gods and the institutions of Rome, had constituted a distinct republic, + which might yet be suppressed before it had acquired any military force; + but which was already governed by its own laws and magistrates, was + possessed of a public treasure, and was intimately connected in all its + parts by the frequent assemblies of the bishops, to whose decrees their + numerous and opulent congregations yielded an implicit obedience. + Arguments like these may seem to have determined the reluctant mind of + Diocletian to embrace a new system of persecution; but though we may + suspect, it is not in our power to relate, the secret intrigues of the + palace, the private views and resentments, the jealousy of women or + eunuchs, and all those trifling but decisive causes which so often + influence the fate of empires, and the councils of the wisest monarchs. <a + href="#linknote-16.148" name="linknoteref-16.148" id="linknoteref-16.148">148</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.147" id="linknote-16.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.147">return</a>)<br /> [ De M. P. c. 11. + Lactantius (or whoever was the author of this little treatise) was, at + that time, an inhabitant of Nicomedia; but it seems difficult to conceive + how he could acquire so accurate a knowledge of what passed in the + Imperial cabinet. Note: * Lactantius, who was subsequently chosen by + Constantine to educate Crispus, might easily have learned these details + from Constantine himself, already of sufficient age to interest himself in + the affairs of the government, and in a position to obtain the best + information.—G. This assumes the doubtful point of the authorship of + the Treatise.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1471" id="linknote-16.1471"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1471 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1471">return</a>)<br /> [ This permission was + not extorted from Diocletian; he took the step of his own accord. + Lactantius says, in truth, Nec tamen deflectere potuit (Diocletianus) + præcipitis hominis insaniam; placuit ergo amicorum sententiam experiri. + (De Mort. Pers. c. 11.) But this measure was in accordance with the + artificial character of Diocletian, who wished to have the appearance of + doing good by his own impulse and evil by the impulse of others. Nam erat + hujus malitiæ, cum bonum quid facere decrevisse sine consilio faciebat, + ut ipse laudaretur. Cum autem malum. quoniam id reprehendendum sciebat, in + consilium multos advocabat, ut alioram culpæ adscriberetur quicquid ipse + deliquerat. Lact. ib. Eutropius says likewise, Miratus callide fuit, sagax + præterea et admodum subtilis ingenio, et qui severitatem suam aliena + invidia vellet explere. Eutrop. ix. c. 26.—G.——The + manner in which the coarse and unfriendly pencil of the author of the + Treatise de Mort. Pers. has drawn the character of Diocletian, seems + inconsistent with this profound subtilty. Many readers will perhaps agree + with Gibbon.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.148" id="linknote-16.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.148">return</a>)<br /> [ The only circumstance + which we can discover, is the devotion and jealousy of the mother of + Galerius. She is described by Lactantius, as Deorum montium cultrix; + mulier admodum superstitiosa. She had a great influence over her son, and + was offended by the disregard of some of her Christian servants. * Note: + This disregard consisted in the Christians fasting and praying instead of + participating in the banquets and sacrifices which she celebrated with the + Pagans. Dapibus sacrificabat pœne quotidie ac vicariis suis epulis + exhibebat. Christiani abstinebant, et illa cum gentibus epulante, jejuniis + hi et oratiomibus insisteban; hine concepit odium Lact de Hist. Pers. c. + 11.—G.] + </p> + <p> + The pleasure of the emperors was at length signified to the Christians, + who, during the course of this melancholy winter, had expected, with + anxiety, the result of so many secret consultations. The twenty-third of + February, which coincided with the Roman festival of the Terminalia, <a + href="#linknote-16.149" name="linknoteref-16.149" id="linknoteref-16.149">149</a> + was appointed (whether from accident or design) to set bounds to the + progress of Christianity. At the earliest dawn of day, the Prætorian + præfect, <a href="#linknote-16.150" name="linknoteref-16.150" + id="linknoteref-16.150">150</a> accompanied by several generals, tribunes, + and officers of the revenue, repaired to the principal church of + Nicomedia, which was situated on an eminence in the most populous and + beautiful part of the city. The doors were instantly broke open; they + rushed into the sanctuary; and as they searched in vain for some visible + object of worship, they were obliged to content themselves with committing + to the flames the volumes of the holy Scripture. The ministers of + Diocletian were followed by a numerous body of guards and pioneers, who + marched in order of battle, and were provided with all the instruments + used in the destruction of fortified cities. By their incessant labor, a + sacred edifice, which towered above the Imperial palace, and had long + excited the indignation and envy of the Gentiles, was in a few hours + levelled with the ground. <a href="#linknote-16.151" name="linknoteref-16.151" + id="linknoteref-16.151">151</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.149" id="linknote-16.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.149">return</a>)<br /> [ The worship and + festival of the god Terminus are elegantly illustrated by M. de Boze, Mém. + de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. i. p. 50.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.150" id="linknote-16.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.150">return</a>)<br /> [ In our only MS. of + Lactantius, we read <i>profectus;</i> but reason, and the authority of all the + critics, allow us, instead of that word, which destroys the sense of the + passage, to substitute <i>prœfectus</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.151" id="linknote-16.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.151">return</a>)<br /> [ Lactantius, de M. P. c. + 12, gives a very lively picture of the destruction of the church.] + </p> + <p> + The next day the general edict of persecution was published; <a + href="#linknote-16.152" name="linknoteref-16.152" id="linknoteref-16.152">152</a> + and though Diocletian, still averse to the effusion of blood, had + moderated the fury of Galerius, who proposed, that every one refusing to + offer sacrifice should immediately be burnt alive, the penalties inflicted + on the obstinacy of the Christians might be deemed sufficiently rigorous + and effectual. It was enacted, that their churches, in all the provinces + of the empire, should be demolished to their foundations; and the + punishment of death was denounced against all who should presume to hold + any secret assemblies for the purpose of religious worship. The + philosophers, who now assumed the unworthy office of directing the blind + zeal of persecution, had diligently studied the nature and genius of the + Christian religion; and as they were not ignorant that the speculative + doctrines of the faith were supposed to be contained in the writings of + the prophets, of the evangelists, and of the apostles, they most probably + suggested the order, that the bishops and presbyters should deliver all + their sacred books into the hands of the magistrates; who were commanded, + under the severest penalties, to burn them in a public and solemn manner. + By the same edict, the property of the church was at once confiscated; and + the several parts of which it might consist were either sold to the + highest bidder, united to the Imperial domain, bestowed on the cities and + corporations, or granted to the solicitations of rapacious courtiers. + After taking such effectual measures to abolish the worship, and to + dissolve the government of the Christians, it was thought necessary to + subject to the most intolerable hardships the condition of those perverse + individuals who should still reject the religion of nature, of Rome, and + of their ancestors. Persons of a liberal birth were declared incapable of + holding any honors or employments; slaves were forever deprived of the + hopes of freedom, and the whole body of the people were put out of the + protection of the law. The judges were authorized to hear and to determine + every action that was brought against a Christian. But the Christians were + not permitted to complain of any injury which they themselves had + suffered; and thus those unfortunate sectaries were exposed to the + severity, while they were excluded from the benefits, of public justice. + This new species of martyrdom, so painful and lingering, so obscure and + ignominious, was, perhaps, the most proper to weary the constancy of the + faithful: nor can it be doubted that the passions and interest of mankind + were disposed on this occasion to second the designs of the emperors. But + the policy of a well-ordered government must sometimes have interposed in + behalf of the oppressed Christians; <a href="#linknote-16.1521" + name="linknoteref-16.1521" id="linknoteref-16.1521">1521</a> nor was it possible + for the Roman princes entirely to remove the apprehension of punishment, + or to connive at every act of fraud and violence, without exposing their + own authority and the rest of their subjects to the most alarming dangers. + <a href="#linknote-16.153" name="linknoteref-16.153" id="linknoteref-16.153">153</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.152" id="linknote-16.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.152">return</a>)<br /> [ Mosheim, (p. 922—926,) + from man scattered passages of Lactantius and Eusebius, has collected a + very just and accurate notion of this edict though he sometimes deviates + into conjecture and refinement.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1521" id="linknote-16.1521"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1521 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1521">return</a>)<br /> [ This wants proof. The + edict of Diocletian was executed in all its right during the rest of his + reign. Euseb. Hist. Eccl. l viii. c. 13.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.153" id="linknote-16.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.153">return</a>)<br /> [ Many ages afterwards, + Edward J. practised, with great success, the same mode of persecution + against the clergy of England. See Hume’s History of England, vol. ii. p. + 300, last 4to edition.] + </p> + <p> + This edict was scarcely exhibited to the public view, in the most + conspicuous place of Nicomedia, before it was torn down by the hands of a + Christian, who expressed at the same time, by the bitterest invectives, + his contempt as well as abhorrence for such impious and tyrannical + governors. His offence, according to the mildest laws, amounted to + treason, and deserved death. And if it be true that he was a person of + rank and education, those circumstances could serve only to aggravate his + guilt. He was burnt, or rather roasted, by a slow fire; and his + executioners, zealous to revenge the personal insult which had been + offered to the emperors, exhausted every refinement of cruelty, without + being able to subdue his patience, or to alter the steady and insulting + smile which in his dying agonies he still preserved in his countenance. + The Christians, though they confessed that his conduct had not been + strictly conformable to the laws of prudence, admired the divine fervor of + his zeal; and the excessive commendations which they lavished on the + memory of their hero and martyr, contributed to fix a deep impression of + terror and hatred in the mind of Diocletian. <a href="#linknote-16.154" + name="linknoteref-16.154" id="linknoteref-16.154">154</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.154" id="linknote-16.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.154">return</a>)<br /> [ Lactantius only calls + him quidam, et si non recte, magno tamer animo, &c., c. 12. Eusebius + (l. viii. c. 5) adorns him with secular honora Neither have condescended + to mention his name; but the Greeks celebrate his memory under that of + John. See Tillemont, Memones Ecclésiastiques, tom. v. part ii. p. 320.] + </p> + <p> + His fears were soon alarmed by the view of a danger from which he very + narrowly escaped. Within fifteen days the palace of Nicomedia, and even + the bed-chamber of Diocletian, were twice in flames; and though both times + they were extinguished without any material damage, the singular + repetition of the fire was justly considered as an evident proof that it + had not been the effect of chance or negligence. The suspicion naturally + fell on the Christians; and it was suggested, with some degree of + probability, that those desperate fanatics, provoked by their present + sufferings, and apprehensive of impending calamities, had entered into a + conspiracy with their faithful brethren, the eunuchs of the palace, + against the lives of two emperors, whom they detested as the + irreconcilable enemies of the church of God. + </p> + <p> + Jealousy and resentment prevailed in every breast, but especially in that + of Diocletian. A great number of persons, distinguished either by the + offices which they had filled, or by the favor which they had enjoyed, + were thrown into prison. Every mode of torture was put in practice, and + the court, as well as city, was polluted with many bloody executions. <a + href="#linknote-16.155" name="linknoteref-16.155" id="linknoteref-16.155">155</a> + But as it was found impossible to extort any discovery of this mysterious + transaction, it seems incumbent on us either to presume the innocence, or + to admire the resolution, of the sufferers. A few days afterwards Galerius + hastily withdrew himself from Nicomedia, declaring, that if he delayed his + departure from that devoted palace, he should fall a sacrifice to the rage + of the Christians. + </p> + <p> + The ecclesiastical historians, from whom alone we derive a partial and + imperfect knowledge of this persecution, are at a loss how to account for + the fears and dangers of the emperors. Two of these writers, a prince and + a rhetorician, were eye-witnesses of the fire of Nicomedia. The one + ascribes it to lightning, and the divine wrath; the other affirms, that it + was kindled by the malice of Galerius himself. <a href="#linknote-16.156" + name="linknoteref-16.156" id="linknoteref-16.156">156</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.155" id="linknote-16.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.155">return</a>)<br /> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 13, 14. Potentissimi quondam Eunuchi necati, per quos Palatium et ipse + constabat. Eusebius (l. viii. c. 6) mentions the cruel executions of the + eunuchs, Gorgonius and Dorotheus, and of Anthimius, bishop of Nicomedia; + and both those writers describe, in a vague but tragical manner, the + horrid scenes which were acted even in the Imperial presence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.156" id="linknote-16.156"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.156">return</a>)<br /> [ See Lactantius, + Eusebius, and Constantine, ad Cœtum Sanctorum, c. xxv. Eusebius confesses + his ignorance of the cause of this fire. Note: As the history of these + times affords us no example of any attempts made by the Christians against + their persecutors, we have no reason, not the slightest probability, to + attribute to them the fire in the palace; and the authority of Constantine + and Lactantius remains to explain it. M. de Tillemont has shown how they + can be reconciled. Hist. des Empereurs, Vie de Diocletian, xix.—G. + Had it been done by a Christian, it would probably have been a fanatic, + who would have avowed and gloried in it. Tillemont’s supposition that the + fire was first caused by lightning, and fed and increased by the malice of + Galerius, seems singularly improbable.—M.] + </p> + <p> + As the edict against the Christians was designed for a general law of the + whole empire, and as Diocletian and Galerius, though they might not wait + for the consent, were assured of the concurrence, of the Western princes, + it would appear more consonant to our ideas of policy, that the governors + of all the provinces should have received secret instructions to publish, + on one and the same day, this declaration of war within their respective + departments. It was at least to be expected, that the convenience of the + public highways and established posts would have enabled the emperors to + transmit their orders with the utmost despatch from the palace of + Nicomedia to the extremities of the Roman world; and that they would not + have suffered fifty days to elapse, before the edict was published in + Syria, and near four months before it was signified to the cities of + Africa. <a href="#linknote-16.157" name="linknoteref-16.157" id="linknoteref-16.157">157</a> + </p> + <p> + This delay may perhaps be imputed to the cautious temper of Diocletian, + who had yielded a reluctant consent to the measures of persecution, and + who was desirous of trying the experiment under his more immediate eye, + before he gave way to the disorders and discontent which it must + inevitably occasion in the distant provinces. At first, indeed, the + magistrates were restrained from the effusion of blood; but the use of + every other severity was permitted, and even recommended to their zeal; + nor could the Christians, though they cheerfully resigned the ornaments of + their churches, resolve to interrupt their religious assemblies, or to + deliver their sacred books to the flames. The pious obstinacy of Felix, an + African bishop, appears to have embarrassed the subordinate ministers of + the government. The curator of his city sent him in chains to the + proconsul. The proconsul transmitted him to the Prætorian præfect of + Italy; and Felix, who disdained even to give an evasive answer, was at + length beheaded at Venusia, in Lucania, a place on which the birth of + Horace has conferred fame. <a href="#linknote-16.158" name="linknoteref-16.158" + id="linknoteref-16.158">158</a> This precedent, and perhaps some Imperial + rescript, which was issued in consequence of it, appeared to authorize the + governors of provinces, in punishing with death the refusal of the + Christians to deliver up their sacred books. There were undoubtedly many + persons who embraced this opportunity of obtaining the crown of martyrdom; + but there were likewise too many who purchased an ignominious life, by + discovering and betraying the holy Scripture into the hands of infidels. A + great number even of bishops and presbyters acquired, by this criminal + compliance, the opprobrious epithet of <i>Traditors;</i> and their offence was + productive of much present scandal and of much future discord in the + African church. <a href="#linknote-16.159" name="linknoteref-16.159" + id="linknoteref-16.159">159</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.157" id="linknote-16.157"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.157">return</a>)<br /> [ Tillemont, Mémoires + Ecclesiast. tom. v. part i. p. 43.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.158" id="linknote-16.158"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.158">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Acta Sincera of + Ruinart, p. 353; those of Felix of Thibara, or Tibiur, appear much less + corrupted than in the other editions, which afford a lively specimen of + legendary license.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.159" id="linknote-16.159"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 159 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.159">return</a>)<br /> [ See the first book of + Optatus of Milevis against the Donatiste, Paris, 1700, edit. Dupin. He + lived under the reign of Valens.] + </p> + <p> + The copies as well as the versions of Scripture, were already so + multiplied in the empire, that the most severe inquisition could no longer + be attended with any fatal consequences; and even the sacrifice of those + volumes, which, in every congregation, were preserved for public use, + required the consent of some treacherous and unworthy Christians. But the + ruin of the churches was easily effected by the authority of the + government, and by the labor of the Pagans. In some provinces, however, + the magistrates contented themselves with shutting up the places of + religious worship. In others, they more literally complied with the terms + of the edict; and after taking away the doors, the benches, and the + pulpit, which they burnt as it were in a funeral pile, they completely + demolished the remainder of the edifice. <a href="#linknote-16.160" + name="linknoteref-16.160" id="linknoteref-16.160">160</a> It is perhaps to this + melancholy occasion that we should apply a very remarkable story, which is + related with so many circumstances of variety and improbability, that it + serves rather to excite than to satisfy our curiosity. In a small town in + Phrygia, of whose name as well as situation we are left ignorant, it + should seem that the magistrates and the body of the people had embraced + the Christian faith; and as some resistance might be apprehended to the + execution of the edict, the governor of the province was supported by a + numerous detachment of legionaries. On their approach the citizens threw + themselves into the church, with the resolution either of defending by + arms that sacred edifice, or of perishing in its ruins. They indignantly + rejected the notice and permission which was given them to retire, till + the soldiers, provoked by their obstinate refusal, set fire to the + building on all sides, and consumed, by this extraordinary kind of + martyrdom, a great number of Phrygians, with their wives and children. <a + href="#linknote-16.161" name="linknoteref-16.161" id="linknoteref-16.161">161</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.160" id="linknote-16.160"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 160 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.160">return</a>)<br /> [ The ancient monuments, + published at the end of Optatus, p. 261, &c. describe, in a very + circumstantial manner, the proceedings of the governors in the destruction + of churches. They made a minute inventory of the plate, &c., which + they found in them. That of the church of Cirta, in Numidia, is still + extant. It consisted of two chalices of gold, and six of silver; six urns, + one kettle, seven lamps, all likewise of silver; besides a large quantity + of brass utensils, and wearing apparel.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.161" id="linknote-16.161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.161">return</a>)<br /> [ Lactantius (Institut. + Divin. v. 11) confines the calamity to the <i>conventiculum</i>, with its + congregation. Eusebius (viii. 11) extends it to a whole city, and + introduces something very like a regular siege. His ancient Latin + translator, Rufinus, adds the important circumstance of the permission + given to the inhabitants of retiring from thence. As Phrygia reached to + the confines of Isauria, it is possible that the restless temper of those + independent barbarians may have contributed to this misfortune. Note: + Universum populum. Lact. Inst. Div. v. 11.—G.] + </p> + <p> + Some slight disturbances, though they were suppressed almost as soon as + excited, in Syria and the frontiers of Armenia, afforded the enemies of + the church a very plausible occasion to insinuate, that those troubles had + been secretly fomented by the intrigues of the bishops, who had already + forgotten their ostentatious professions of passive and unlimited + obedience. <a href="#linknote-16.162" name="linknoteref-16.162" + id="linknoteref-16.162">162</a> + </p> + <p> + The resentment, or the fears, of Diocletian, at length transported him + beyond the bounds of moderation, which he had hitherto preserved, and he + declared, in a series of cruel edicts, <a href="#linknote-16.1621" + name="linknoteref-16.1621" id="linknoteref-16.1621">1621</a> his intention of + abolishing the Christian name. By the first of these edicts, the governors + of the provinces were directed to apprehend all persons of the + ecclesiastical order; and the prisons, destined for the vilest criminals, + were soon filled with a multitude of bishops, presbyters, deacons, + readers, and exorcists. By a second edict, the magistrates were commanded + to employ every method of severity, which might reclaim them from their + odious superstition, and oblige them to return to the established worship + of the gods. This rigorous order was extended, by a subsequent edict, to + the whole body of Christians, who were exposed to a violent and general + persecution. <a href="#linknote-16.163" name="linknoteref-16.163" + id="linknoteref-16.163">163</a> + </p> + <p> + Instead of those salutary restraints, which had required the direct and + solemn testimony of an accuser, it became the duty as well as the interest + of the Imperial officers to discover, to pursue, and to torment the most + obnoxious among the faithful. Heavy penalties were denounced against all + who should presume to save a prescribed sectary from the just indignation + of the gods, and of the emperors. Yet, notwithstanding the severity of + this law, the virtuous courage of many of the Pagans, in concealing their + friends or relations, affords an honorable proof, that the rage of + superstition had not extinguished in their minds the sentiments of nature + and humanity. <a href="#linknote-16.164" name="linknoteref-16.164" + id="linknoteref-16.164">164</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.162" id="linknote-16.162"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 162 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.162">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. + 6. M. de Valois (with some probability) thinks that he has discovered the + Syrian rebellion in an oration of Libanius; and that it was a rash attempt + of the tribune Eugenius, who with only five hundred men seized Antioch, + and might perhaps allure the Christians by the promise of religious + toleration. From Eusebius, (l. ix. c. 8,) as well as from Moses of + Chorene, (Hist. Armen. l. ii. 77, &c.,) it may be inferred, that + Christianity was already introduced into Armenia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1621" id="linknote-16.1621"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1621 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1621">return</a>)<br /> [ He had already passed + them in his first edict. It does not appear that resentment or fear had + any share in the new persecutions: perhaps they originated in + superstition, and a specious apparent respect for its ministers. The + oracle of Apollo, consulted by Diocletian, gave no answer; and said that + just men hindered it from speaking. Constantine, who assisted at the + ceremony, affirms, with an oath, that when questioned about these men, the + high priest named the Christians. “The Emperor eagerly seized on this + answer; and drew against the innocent a sword, destined only to punish the + guilty: he instantly issued edicts, written, if I may use the expression, + with a poniard; and ordered the judges to employ all their skill to invent + new modes of punishment. Euseb. Vit Constant. l. ii c 54.”—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.163" id="linknote-16.163"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 163 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.163">return</a>)<br /> [ See Mosheim, p. 938: + the text of Eusebius very plainly shows that the governors, whose powers + were enlarged, not restrained, by the new laws, could punish with death + the most obstinate Christians as an example to their brethren.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.164" id="linknote-16.164"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 164 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.164">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius, p. 833, ap. + Tillemont, Mém. Ecclesiast. tom v part i. 90.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap16.7"></a> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + VII. + </h2> + <p> + Diocletian had no sooner published his edicts against the Christians, + than, as if he had been desirous of committing to other hands the work of + persecution, he divested himself of the Imperial purple. The character and + situation of his colleagues and successors sometimes urged them to enforce + and sometimes inclined them to suspend, the execution of these rigorous + laws; nor can we acquire a just and distinct idea of this important period + of ecclesiastical history, unless we separately consider the state of + Christianity, in the different parts of the empire, during the space of + ten years, which elapsed between the first edicts of Diocletian and the + final peace of the church. + </p> + <p> + The mild and humane temper of Constantius was averse to the oppression of + any part of his subjects. The principal offices of his palace were + exercised by Christians. He loved their persons, esteemed their fidelity, + and entertained not any dislike to their religious principles. But as long + as Constantius remained in the subordinate station of Cæsar, it was not + in his power openly to reject the edicts of Diocletian, or to disobey the + commands of Maximian. His authority contributed, however, to alleviate the + sufferings which he pitied and abhorred. He consented with reluctance to + the ruin of the churches; but he ventured to protect the Christians + themselves from the fury of the populace, and from the rigor of the laws. + The provinces of Gaul (under which we may probably include those of + Britain) were indebted for the singular tranquillity which they enjoyed, + to the gentle interposition of their sovereign. <a href="#linknote-16.165" + name="linknoteref-16.165" id="linknoteref-16.165">165</a> But Datianus, the + president or governor of Spain, actuated either by zeal or policy, chose + rather to execute the public edicts of the emperors, than to understand + the secret intentions of Constantius; and it can scarcely be doubted, that + his provincial administration was stained with the blood of a few martyrs. + <a href="#linknote-16.166" name="linknoteref-16.166" id="linknoteref-16.166">166</a> + </p> + <p> + The elevation of Constantius to the supreme and independent dignity of + Augustus, gave a free scope to the exercise of his virtues, and the + shortness of his reign did not prevent him from establishing a system of + toleration, of which he left the precept and the example to his son + Constantine. His fortunate son, from the first moment of his accession, + declaring himself the protector of the church, at length deserved the + appellation of the first emperor who publicly professed and established + the Christian religion. The motives of his conversion, as they may + variously be deduced from benevolence, from policy, from conviction, or + from remorse, and the progress of the revolution, which, under his + powerful influence and that of his sons, rendered Christianity the + reigning religion of the Roman empire, will form a very interesting and + important chapter in the present volume of this history. At present it may + be sufficient to observe, that every victory of Constantine was productive + of some relief or benefit to the church. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.165" id="linknote-16.165"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 165 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.165">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. + 13. Lactantius de M. P. c. 15. Dodwell (Dissertat. Cyprian. xi. 75) + represents them as inconsistent with each other. But the former evidently + speaks of Constantius in the station of Cæsar, and the latter of the same + prince in the rank of Augustus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.166" id="linknote-16.166"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 166 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.166">return</a>)<br /> [ Datianus is mentioned, + in Gruter’s Inscriptions, as having determined the limits between the + territories of Pax Julia, and those of Ebora, both cities in the southern + part of Lusitania. If we recollect the neighborhood of those places to + Cape St. Vincent, we may suspect that the celebrated deacon and martyr of + that name had been inaccurately assigned by Prudentius, &c., to + Saragossa, or Valentia. See the pompous history of his sufferings, in the + Mémoires de Tillemont, tom. v. part ii. p. 58-85. Some critics are of + opinion, that the department of Constantius, as Cæsar, did not include + Spain, which still continued under the immediate jurisdiction of + Maximian.] + </p> + <p> + The provinces of Italy and Africa experienced a short but violent + persecution. The rigorous edicts of Diocletian were strictly and + cheerfully executed by his associate Maximian, who had long hated the + Christians, and who delighted in acts of blood and violence. In the autumn + of the first year of the persecution, the two emperors met at Rome to + celebrate their triumph; several oppressive laws appear to have issued + from their secret consultations, and the diligence of the magistrates was + animated by the presence of their sovereigns. After Diocletian had + divested himself of the purple, Italy and Africa were administered under + the name of Severus, and were exposed, without defence, to the implacable + resentment of his master Galerius. Among the martyrs of Rome, Adauctus + deserves the notice of posterity. He was of a noble family in Italy, and + had raised himself, through the successive honors of the palace, to the + important office of treasurer of the private Jemesnes. Adauctus is the + more remarkable for being the only person of rank and distinction who + appears to have suffered death, during the whole course of this general + persecution. <a href="#linknote-16.167" name="linknoteref-16.167" + id="linknoteref-16.167">167</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.167" id="linknote-16.167"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 167 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.167">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. + 11. Gruter, Inscrip. p. 1171, No. 18. Rufinus has mistaken the office of + Adauctus, as well as the place of his martyrdom. * Note: M. Guizot + suggests the powerful cunuchs of the palace. Dorotheus, Gorgonius, and + Andrew, admitted by Gibbon himself to have been put to death, p. 66.] + </p> + <p> + The revolt of Maxentius immediately restored peace to the churches of + Italy and Africa; and the same tyrant who oppressed every other class of + his subjects, showed himself just, humane, and even partial, towards the + afflicted Christians. He depended on their gratitude and affection, and + very naturally presumed, that the injuries which they had suffered, and + the dangers which they still apprehended from his most inveterate enemy, + would secure the fidelity of a party already considerable by their numbers + and opulence. <a href="#linknote-16.168" name="linknoteref-16.168" + id="linknoteref-16.168">168</a> Even the conduct of Maxentius towards the + bishops of Rome and Carthage may be considered as the proof of his + toleration, since it is probable that the most orthodox princes would + adopt the same measures with regard to their established clergy. + Marcellus, the former of these prelates, had thrown the capital into + confusion, by the severe penance which he imposed on a great number of + Christians, who, during the late persecution, had renounced or dissembled + their religion. The rage of faction broke out in frequent and violent + seditions; the blood of the faithful was shed by each other’s hands, and + the exile of Marcellus, whose prudence seems to have been less eminent + than his zeal, was found to be the only measure capable of restoring peace + to the distracted church of Rome. <a href="#linknote-16.169" + name="linknoteref-16.169" id="linknoteref-16.169">169</a> The behavior of + Mensurius, bishop of Carthage, appears to have been still more + reprehensible. A deacon of that city had published a libel against the + emperor. The offender took refuge in the episcopal palace; and though it + was somewhat early to advance any claims of ecclesiastical immunities, the + bishop refused to deliver him up to the officers of justice. For this + treasonable resistance, Mensurius was summoned to court, and instead of + receiving a legal sentence of death or banishment, he was permitted, after + a short examination, to return to his diocese. <a href="#linknote-16.170" + name="linknoteref-16.170" id="linknoteref-16.170">170</a> Such was the happy + condition of the Christian subjects of Maxentius, that whenever they were + desirous of procuring for their own use any bodies of martyrs, they were + obliged to purchase them from the most distant provinces of the East. A + story is related of Aglae, a Roman lady, descended from a consular family, + and possessed of so ample an estate, that it required the management of + seventy-three stewards. Among these Boniface was the favorite of his + mistress; and as Aglae mixed love with devotion, it is reported that he + was admitted to share her bed. Her fortune enabled her to gratify the + pious desire of obtaining some sacred relics from the East. She intrusted + Boniface with a considerable sum of gold, and a large quantity of + aromatics; and her lover, attended by twelve horsemen and three covered + chariots, undertook a remote pilgrimage, as far as Tarsus in Cilicia. <a + href="#linknote-16.171" name="linknoteref-16.171" id="linknoteref-16.171">171</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.168" id="linknote-16.168"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 168 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.168">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. + 14. But as Maxentius was vanquished by Constantine, it suited the purpose + of Lactantius to place his death among those of the persecutors. * Note: + M. Guizot directly contradicts this statement of Gibbon, and appeals to + Eusebius. Maxentius, who assumed the power in Italy, pretended at first to + be a Christian, to gain the favor of the Roman people; he ordered his + ministers to cease to persecute the Christians, affecting a hypocritical + piety, in order to appear more mild than his predecessors; but his actions + soon proved that he was very different from what they had at first hoped. + The actions of Maxentius were those of a cruel tyrant, but not those of a + persecutor: the Christians, like the rest of his subjects, suffered from + his vices, but they were not oppressed as a sect. Christian females were + exposed to his lusts, as well as to the brutal violence of his colleague + Maximian, but they were not selected as Christians.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.169" id="linknote-16.169"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 169 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.169">return</a>)<br /> [ The epitaph of + Marcellus is to be found in Gruter, Inscrip. p 1172, No. 3, and it + contains all that we know of his history. Marcellinus and Marcellus, whose + names follow in the list of popes, are supposed by many critics to be + different persons; but the learned Abbé de Longuerue was convinced that + they were one and the same.<br/><br/> + + Veridicus rector lapsis quia crimina flere<br/> + Prædixit miseris, fuit omnibus hostis amarus.<br/> + Hinc furor, hinc odium; sequitur discordia, lites,<br/> + Seditio, cædes; solvuntur fœdera pacis.<br/> + Crimen ob alterius, Christum qui in pace negavit<br/> + Finibus expulsus patriæ est feritate Tyranni.<br/> + Hæc breviter Damasus voluit comperta referre:<br/> + Marcelli populus meritum cognoscere posset.<br/><br/> + We may observe that Damasus was made Bishop of Rome, A. D. 366.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.170" id="linknote-16.170"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 170 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.170">return</a>)<br /> [ Optatus contr. + Donatist. l. i. c. 17, 18. * Note: The words of Optatus are, Profectus + (Roman) causam dixit; jussus con reverti Carthaginem; perhaps, in pleading + his cause, he exculpated himself, since he received an order to return to + Carthage.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.171" id="linknote-16.171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.171">return</a>)<br /> [ The Acts of the Passion + of St. Boniface, which abound in miracles and declamation, are published + by Ruinart, (p. 283—291,) both in Greek and Latin, from the + authority of very ancient manuscripts. Note: We are ignorant whether Aglae + and Boniface were Christians at the time of their unlawful connection. See + Tillemont. Mem, Eccles. Note on the Persecution of Domitian, tom. v. note + 82. M. de Tillemont proves also that the history is doubtful.—G. + ——Sir D. Dalrymple (Lord Hailes) calls the story of Aglae and + Boniface as of equal authority with our <i>popular</i> histories of Whittington + and Hickathrift. Christian Antiquities, ii. 64.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The sanguinary temper of Galerius, the first and principal author of the + persecution, was formidable to those Christians whom their misfortunes had + placed within the limits of his dominions; and it may fairly be presumed + that many persons of a middle rank, who were not confined by the chains + either of wealth or of poverty, very frequently deserted their native + country, and sought a refuge in the milder climate of the West. <a + href="#linknote-16.1711" name="linknoteref-16.1711" id="linknoteref-16.1711">1711</a> + As long as he commanded only the armies and provinces of Illyricum, he + could with difficulty either find or make a considerable number of + martyrs, in a warlike country, which had entertained the missionaries of + the gospel with more coldness and reluctance than any other part of the + empire. <a href="#linknote-16.172" name="linknoteref-16.172" id="linknoteref-16.172">172</a> + But when Galerius had obtained the supreme power, and the government of + the East, he indulged in their fullest extent his zeal and cruelty, not + only in the provinces of Thrace and Asia, which acknowledged his immediate + jurisdiction, but in those of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, where Maximin + gratified his own inclination, by yielding a rigorous obedience to the + stern commands of his benefactor. <a href="#linknote-16.173" + name="linknoteref-16.173" id="linknoteref-16.173">173</a> The frequent + disappointments of his ambitious views, the experience of six years of + persecution, and the salutary reflections which a lingering and painful + distemper suggested to the mind of Galerius, at length convinced him that + the most violent efforts of despotism are insufficient to extirpate a + whole people, or to subdue their religious prejudices. Desirous of + repairing the mischief that he had occasioned, he published in his own + name, and in those of Licinius and Constantine, a general edict, which, + after a pompous recital of the Imperial titles, proceeded in the following + manner:— + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1711" id="linknote-16.1711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1711 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1711">return</a>)<br /> [ A little after this, + Christianity was propagated to the north of the Roman provinces, among the + tribes of Germany: a multitude of Christians, forced by the persecutions + of the Emperors to take refuge among the Barbarians, were received with + kindness. Euseb. de Vit. Constant. ii. 53. Semler Select. cap. H. E. p. + 115. The Goths owed their first knowledge of Christianity to a young girl, + a prisoner of war; she continued in the midst of them her exercises of + piety; she fasted, prayed, and praised God day and night. When she was + asked what good would come of so much painful trouble she answered, “It is + thus that Christ, the Son of God, is to be honored.” Sozomen, ii. c. 6.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.172" id="linknote-16.172"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 172 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.172">return</a>)<br /> [ During the four first + centuries, there exist few traces of either bishops or bishoprics in the + western Illyricum. It has been thought probable that the primate of Milan + extended his jurisdiction over Sirmium, the capital of that great + province. See the Geographia Sacra of Charles de St. Paul, p. 68-76, with + the observations of Lucas Holstenius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.173" id="linknote-16.173"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 173 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.173">return</a>)<br /> [ The viiith book of + Eusebius, as well as the supplement concerning the martyrs of Palestine, + principally relate to the persecution of Galerius and Maximin. The general + lamentations with which Lactantius opens the vth book of his Divine + Institutions allude to their cruelty.] “Among the important cares which + have occupied our mind for the utility and preservation of the empire, it + was our intention to correct and reestablish all things according to the + ancient laws and public discipline of the Romans. We were particularly + desirous of reclaiming into the way of reason and nature, the deluded + Christians who had renounced the religion and ceremonies instituted by + their fathers; and presumptuously despising the practice of antiquity, had + invented extravagant laws and opinions, according to the dictates of their + fancy, and had collected a various society from the different provinces of + our empire. The edicts, which we have published to enforce the worship of + the gods, having exposed many of the Christians to danger and distress, + many having suffered death, and many more, who still persist in their + impious folly, being left destitute of <i>any</i> public exercise of religion, we + are disposed to extend to those unhappy men the effects of our wonted + clemency. We permit them therefore freely to profess their private + opinions, and to assemble in their conventicles without fear or + molestation, provided always that they preserve a due respect to the + established laws and government. By another rescript we shall signify our + intentions to the judges and magistrates; and we hope that our indulgence + will engage the Christians to offer up their prayers to the Deity whom + they adore, for our safety and prosperity for their own, and for that of + the republic.” <a href="#linknote-16.174" name="linknoteref-16.174" + id="linknoteref-16.174">174</a> It is not usually in the language of edicts + and manifestos that we should search for the real character or the secret + motives of princes; but as these were the words of a dying emperor, his + situation, perhaps, may be admitted as a pledge of his sincerity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.174" id="linknote-16.174"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 174 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.174">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius (l. viii. c. + 17) has given us a Greek version, and Lactantius (de M. P. c. 34) the + Latin original, of this memorable edict. Neither of these writers seems to + recollect how directly it contradicts whatever they have just affirmed of + the remorse and repentance of Galerius. Note: But Gibbon has answered this + by his just observation, that it is not in the language of edicts and + manifestos that we should search * * for the secre motives of princes.—M.] + </p> + <p> + When Galerius subscribed this edict of toleration, he was well assured + that Licinius would readily comply with the inclinations of his friend and + benefactor, and that any measures in favor of the Christians would obtain + the approbation of Constantine. But the emperor would not venture to + insert in the preamble the name of Maximin, whose consent was of the + greatest importance, and who succeeded a few days afterwards to the + provinces of Asia. In the first six months, however, of his new reign, + Maximin affected to adopt the prudent counsels of his predecessor; and + though he never condescended to secure the tranquillity of the church by a + public edict, Sabinus, his Prætorian præfect, addressed a circular + letter to all the governors and magistrates of the provinces, expatiating + on the Imperial clemency, acknowledging the invincible obstinacy of the + Christians, and directing the officers of justice to cease their + ineffectual prosecutions, and to connive at the secret assemblies of those + enthusiasts. In consequence of these orders, great numbers of Christians + were released from prison, or delivered from the mines. The confessors, + singing hymns of triumph, returned into their own countries; and those who + had yielded to the violence of the tempest, solicited with tears of + repentance their readmission into the bosom of the church. <a + href="#linknote-16.175" name="linknoteref-16.175" id="linknoteref-16.175">175</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.175" id="linknote-16.175"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 175 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.175">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, l. ix. c. 1. + He inserts the epistle of the præfect.] + </p> + <p> + But this treacherous calm was of short duration; nor could the Christians + of the East place any confidence in the character of their sovereign. + Cruelty and superstition were the ruling passions of the soul of Maximin. + The former suggested the means, the latter pointed out the objects of + persecution. The emperor was devoted to the worship of the gods, to the + study of magic, and to the belief of oracles. The prophets or + philosophers, whom he revered as the favorites of Heaven, were frequently + raised to the government of provinces, and admitted into his most secret + councils. They easily convinced him that the Christians had been indebted + for their victories to their regular discipline, and that the weakness of + polytheism had principally flowed from a want of union and subordination + among the ministers of religion. A system of government was therefore + instituted, which was evidently copied from the policy of the church. In + all the great cities of the empire, the temples were repaired and + beautified by the order of Maximin, and the officiating priests of the + various deities were subjected to the authority of a superior pontiff + destined to oppose the bishop, and to promote the cause of paganism. These + pontiffs acknowledged, in their turn, the supreme jurisdiction of the + metropolitans or high priests of the province, who acted as the immediate + vicegerents of the emperor himself. A white robe was the ensign of their + dignity; and these new prelates were carefully selected from the most + noble and opulent families. By the influence of the magistrates, and of + the sacerdotal order, a great number of dutiful addresses were obtained, + particularly from the cities of Nicomedia, Antioch, and Tyre, which + artfully represented the well-known intentions of the court as the general + sense of the people; solicited the emperor to consult the laws of justice + rather than the dictates of his clemency; expressed their abhorrence of + the Christians, and humbly prayed that those impious sectaries might at + least be excluded from the limits of their respective territories. The + answer of Maximin to the address which he obtained from the citizens of + Tyre is still extant. He praises their zeal and devotion in terms of the + highest satisfaction, descants on the obstinate impiety of the Christians, + and betrays, by the readiness with which he consents to their banishment, + that he considered himself as receiving, rather than as conferring, an + obligation. The priests as well as the magistrates were empowered to + enforce the execution of his edicts, which were engraved on tables of + brass; and though it was recommended to them to avoid the effusion of + blood, the most cruel and ignominious punishments were inflicted on the + refractory Christians. <a href="#linknote-16.176" name="linknoteref-16.176" + id="linknoteref-16.176">176</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.176" id="linknote-16.176"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 176 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.176">return</a>)<br /> [ See Eusebius, l. viii. + c. 14, l. ix. c. 2—8. Lactantius de M. P. c. 36. These writers agree + in representing the arts of Maximin; but the former relates the execution + of several martyrs, while the latter expressly affirms, occidi servos Dei + vetuit. * Note: It is easy to reconcile them; it is sufficient to quote + the entire text of Lactantius: Nam cum clementiam specie tenus + profiteretur, occidi servos Dei vetuit, debilitari jussit. Itaque + confessoribus effodiebantur oculi, amputabantur manus, nares vel auriculæ + desecabantur. Hæc ille moliens Constantini litteris deterretur. + Dissimulavit ergo, et tamen, si quis inciderit. mari occulte mergebatur. + This detail of torments inflicted on the Christians easily reconciles + Lactantius and Eusebius. Those who died in consequence of their tortures, + those who were plunged into the sea, might well pass for martyrs. The + mutilation of the words of Lactantius has alone given rise to the apparent + contradiction.—G. ——Eusebius. ch. vi., relates the + public martyrdom of the aged bishop of Emesa, with two others, who were + thrown to the wild beasts, the beheading of Peter, bishop of Alexandria, + with several others, and the death of Lucian, presbyter of Antioch, who + was carried to Numidia, and put to death in prison. The contradiction is + direct and undeniable, for although Eusebius may have misplaced the former + martyrdoms, it may be doubted whether the authority of Maximin extended to + Nicomedia till after the death of Galerius. The last edict of toleration + issued by Maximin and published by Eusebius himself, Eccl. Hist. ix. 9. + confirms the statement of Lactantius.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The Asiatic Christians had every thing to dread from the severity of a + bigoted monarch who prepared his measures of violence with such deliberate + policy. But a few months had scarcely elapsed before the edicts published + by the two Western emperors obliged Maximin to suspend the prosecution of + his designs: the civil war which he so rashly undertook against Licinius + employed all his attention; and the defeat and death of Maximin soon + delivered the church from the last and most implacable of her enemies. <a + href="#linknote-16.177" name="linknoteref-16.177" id="linknoteref-16.177">177</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.177" id="linknote-16.177"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 177 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.177">return</a>)<br /> [ A few days before his + death, he published a very ample edict of toleration, in which he imputes + all the severities which the Christians suffered to the judges and + governors, who had misunderstood his intentions.See the edict of Eusebius, + l. ix. c. 10.] + </p> + <p> + In this general view of the persecution, which was first authorized by the + edicts of Diocletian, I have purposely refrained from describing the + particular sufferings and deaths of the Christian martyrs. It would have + been an easy task, from the history of Eusebius, from the declamations of + Lactantius, and from the most ancient acts, to collect a long series of + horrid and disgustful pictures, and to fill many pages with racks and + scourges, with iron hooks and red-hot beds, and with all the variety of + tortures which fire and steel, savage beasts, and more savage + executioners, could inflict upon the human body. These melancholy scenes + might be enlivened by a crowd of visions and miracles destined either to + delay the death, to celebrate the triumph, or to discover the relics of + those canonized saints who suffered for the name of Christ. But I cannot + determine what I ought to transcribe, till I am satisfied how much I ought + to believe. The gravest of the ecclesiastical historians, Eusebius + himself, indirectly confesses, that he has related whatever might redound + to the glory, and that he has suppressed all that could tend to the + disgrace, of religion. <a href="#linknote-16.178" name="linknoteref-16.178" + id="linknoteref-16.178">178</a> Such an acknowledgment will naturally excite + a suspicion that a writer who has so openly violated one of the + fundamental laws of history, has not paid a very strict regard to the + observance of the other; and the suspicion will derive additional credit + from the character of Eusebius, <a href="#linknote-16.1781" + name="linknoteref-16.1781" id="linknoteref-16.1781">1781</a> which was less + tinctured with credulity, and more practised in the arts of courts, than + that of almost any of his contemporaries. On some particular occasions, + when the magistrates were exasperated by some personal motives of interest + or resentment, the rules of prudence, and perhaps of decency, to overturn + the altars, to pour out imprecations against the emperors, or to strike + the judge as he sat on his tribunal, it may be presumed, that every mode + of torture which cruelty could invent, or constancy could endure, was + exhausted on those devoted victims. <a href="#linknote-16.179" + name="linknoteref-16.179" id="linknoteref-16.179">179</a> Two circumstances, + however, have been unwarily mentioned, which insinuate that the general + treatment of the Christians, who had been apprehended by the officers of + justice, was less intolerable than it is usually imagined to have been. 1. + The confessors who were condemned to work in the mines were permitted by + the humanity or the negligence of their keepers to build chapels, and + freely to profess their religion in the midst of those dreary habitations. + <a href="#linknote-16.180" name="linknoteref-16.180" id="linknoteref-16.180">180</a> + 2. The bishops were obliged to check and to censure the forward zeal of + the Christians, who voluntarily threw themselves into the hands of the + magistrates. Some of these were persons oppressed by poverty and debts, + who blindly sought to terminate a miserable existence by a glorious death. + Others were allured by the hope that a short confinement would expiate the + sins of a whole life; and others again were actuated by the less honorable + motive of deriving a plentiful subsistence, and perhaps a considerable + profit, from the alms which the charity of the faithful bestowed on the + prisoners. <a href="#linknote-16.181" name="linknoteref-16.181" + id="linknoteref-16.181">181</a> After the church had triumphed over all her + enemies, the interest as well as vanity of the captives prompted them to + magnify the merit of their respective sufferings. A convenient distance of + time or place gave an ample scope to the progress of fiction; and the + frequent instances which might be alleged of holy martyrs, whose wounds + had been instantly healed, whose strength had been renewed, and whose lost + members had miraculously been restored, were extremely convenient for the + purpose of removing every difficulty, and of silencing every objection. + The most extravagant legends, as they conduced to the honor of the church, + were applauded by the credulous multitude, countenanced by the power of + the clergy, and attested by the suspicious evidence of ecclesiastical + history. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.178" id="linknote-16.178"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 178 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.178">return</a>)<br /> [ Such is the <i>fair</i> + deduction from two remarkable passages in Eusebius, l. viii. c. 2, and de + Martyr. Palestin. c. 12. The prudence of the historian has exposed his own + character to censure and suspicion. It was well known that he himself had + been thrown into prison; and it was suggested that he had purchased his + deliverance by some dishonorable compliance. The reproach was urged in his + lifetime, and even in his presence, at the council of Tyre. See Tillemont, + Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. viii. part i. p. 67.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1781" id="linknote-16.1781"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1781 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1781">return</a>)<br /> [ Historical criticism + does not consist in rejecting indiscriminately all the facts which do not + agree with a particular system, as Gibbon does in this chapter, in which, + except at the last extremity, he will not consent to believe a martyrdom. + Authorities are to be weighed, not excluded from examination. Now, the + Pagan historians justify in many places the detail which have been + transmitted to us by the historians of the church, concerning the tortures + endured by the Christians. Celsus reproaches the Christians with holding + their assemblies in secret, on account of the fear inspired by their + sufferings, “for when you are arrested,” he says, “you are dragged to + punishment: and, before you are put to death, you have to suffer all kinds + of tortures.” Origen cont. Cels. l. i. ii. vi. viii. passing. Libanius, + the panegyrist of Julian, says, while speaking of the Christians. “Those + who followed a corrupt religion were in continual apprehensions; they + feared lest Julian should invent tortures still more refined than those to + which they had been exposed before, as mutilation, burning alive, &c.; + for the emperors had inflicted upon them all these barbarities.” Lib. + Parent in Julian. ap. Fab. Bib. Græc. No. 9, No. 58, p. 283—G. + ——This sentence of Gibbon has given rise to several learned + dissertation: Möller, de Fide Eusebii Cæsar, &c., Havniæ, 1813. + Danzius, de Eusebio Cæs. Hist. Eccl. Scriptore, ejusque tide historica + recte æstimandâ, &c., Jenæ, 1815. Kestner Commentatio de Eusebii + Hist. Eccles. conditoris auctoritate et fide, &c. See also Reuterdahl, + de Fontibus Historiæ Eccles. Eusebianæ, Lond. Goth., 1826. Gibbon’s + inference may appear stronger than the text will warrant, yet it is + difficult, after reading the passages, to dismiss all suspicion of + partiality from the mind.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.179" id="linknote-16.179"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 179 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.179">return</a>)<br /> [ The ancient, and + perhaps authentic, account of the sufferings of Tarachus and his + companions, (Acta Sincera Ruinart, p. 419—448,) is filled with + strong expressions of resentment and contempt, which could not fail of + irritating the magistrate. The behavior of Ædesius to Hierocles, præfect + of Egypt, was still more extraordinary. Euseb. de Martyr. Palestin. c. 5. + * Note: M. Guizot states, that the acts of Tarachus and his companion + contain nothing that appears dictated by violent feelings, (sentiment + outré.) Nothing can be more painful than the constant attempt of Gibbon + throughout this discussion, to find some flaw in the virtue and heroism of + the martyrs, some extenuation for the cruelty of the persecutors. But + truth must not be sacrificed even to well-grounded moral indignation. + Though the language of these martyrs is in great part that of calm de + fiance, of noble firmness, yet there are many expressions which betray + “resentment and contempt.” “Children of Satan, worshippers of Devils,” is + their common appellation of the heathen. One of them calls the judge + another, one curses, and declares that he will curse the Emperors, as + pestilential and bloodthirsty tyrants, whom God will soon visit in his + wrath. On the other hand, though at first they speak the milder language + of persuasion, the cold barbarity of the judges and officers might surely + have called forth one sentence of abhorrence from Gibbon. On the first + unsatisfactory answer, “Break his jaw,” is the order of the judge. They + direct and witness the most excruciating tortures; the people, as M. + Guizot observers, were so much revolted by the cruelty of Maximus that + when the martyrs appeared in the amphitheatre, fear seized on all hearts, + and general murmurs against the unjust judge rank through the assembly. It + is singular, at least, that Gibbon should have quoted “as probably + authentic,” acts so much embellished with miracle as these of Tarachus + are, particularly towards the end.—M. * Note: Scarcely were the + authorities informed of this, than the president of the province, a man, + says Eusebius, harsh and cruel, banished the confessors, some to Cyprus, + others to different parts of Palestine, and ordered them to be tormented + by being set to the most painful labors. Four of them, whom he required to + abjure their faith and refused, were burnt alive. Euseb. de Mart. Palest. + c. xiii.—G. Two of these were bishops; a fifth, Silvanus, bishop of + Gaza, was the last martyr; another, named John was blinded, but used to + officiate, and recite from memory long passages of the sacred writings—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.180" id="linknote-16.180"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 180 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.180">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. de Martyr. + Palestin. c. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.181" id="linknote-16.181"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.181">return</a>)<br /> [ Augustin. Collat. + Carthagin. Dei, iii. c. 13, ap. Tillanant, Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. + v. part i. p. 46. The controversy with the Donatists, has reflected some, + though perhaps a partial, light on the history of the African church.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap16.8"></a> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + VIII. + </h2> + <p> + The vague descriptions of exile and imprisonment, of pain and torture, are + so easily exaggerated or softened by the pencil of an artful orator, <a + href="#linknote-16.1811" name="linknoteref-16.1811" id="linknoteref-16.1811">1811</a> + that we are naturally induced to inquire into a fact of a more distinct + and stubborn kind; the number of persons who suffered death in consequence + of the edicts published by Diocletian, his associates, and his successors. + The recent legendaries record whole armies and cities, which were at once + swept away by the undistinguishing rage of persecution. The more ancient + writers content themselves with pouring out a liberal effusion of loose + and tragical invectives, without condescending to ascertain the precise + number of those persons who were permitted to seal with their blood their + belief of the gospel. From the history of Eusebius, it may, however, be + collected, that only nine bishops were punished with death; and we are + assured, by his particular enumeration of the martyrs of Palestine, <a + href="#linknote-16.182" name="linknoteref-16.182" id="linknoteref-16.182">182</a> + that no more than ninety-two Christians were entitled to that honorable + appellation. <a href="#linknote-16.1821" name="linknoteref-16.1821" + id="linknoteref-16.1821">1821</a> As we are unacquainted with the degree of + episcopal zeal and courage which prevailed at that time, it is not in our + power to draw any useful inferences from the former of these facts: but + the latter may serve to justify a very important and probable conclusion. + According to the distribution of Roman provinces, Palestine may be + considered as the sixteenth part of the Eastern empire: <a + href="#linknote-16.183" name="linknoteref-16.183" id="linknoteref-16.183">183</a> + and since there were some governors, who from a real or affected clemency + had preserved their hands unstained with the blood of the faithful, <a + href="#linknote-16.184" name="linknoteref-16.184" id="linknoteref-16.184">184</a> + it is reasonable to believe, that the country which had given birth to + Christianity, produced at least the sixteenth part of the martyrs who + suffered death within the dominions of Galerius and Maximin; the whole + might consequently amount to about fifteen hundred, a number which, if it + is equally divided between the ten years of the persecution, will allow an + annual consumption of one hundred and fifty martyrs. Allotting the same + proportion to the provinces of Italy, Africa, and perhaps Spain, where, at + the end of two or three years, the rigor of the penal laws was either + suspended or abolished, the multitude of Christians in the Roman empire, + on whom a capital punishment was inflicted by a judicia, sentence, will be + reduced to somewhat less than two thousand persons. Since it cannot be + doubted that the Christians were more numerous, and their enemies more + exasperated, in the time of Diocletian, than they had ever been in any + former persecution, this probable and moderate computation may teach us to + estimate the number of primitive saints and martyrs who sacrificed their + lives for the important purpose of introducing Christianity into the + world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1811" id="linknote-16.1811"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1811 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1811">return</a>)<br /> [ Perhaps there never + was an instance of an author committing so deliberately the fault which he + reprobates so strongly in others. What is the dexterous management of the + more inartificial historians of Christianity, in exaggerating the numbers + of the martyrs, compared to the unfair address with which Gibbon here + quietly dismisses from the account all the horrible and excruciating + tortures which fell short of death? The reader may refer to the xiith + chapter (book viii.) of Eusebius for the description and for the scenes of + these tortures.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.182" id="linknote-16.182"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 182 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.182">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius de Martyr. + Palestin. c. 13. He closes his narration by assuring us that these were + the martyrdoms inflicted in Palestine, during the <i>whole</i> course of the + persecution. The 9th chapter of his viiith book, which relates to the + province of Thebais in Egypt, may seem to contradict our moderate + computation; but it will only lead us to admire the artful management of + the historian. Choosing for the scene of the most exquisite cruelty the + most remote and sequestered country of the Roman empire, he relates that + in Thebais from ten to one hundred persons had frequently suffered + martyrdom in the same day. But when he proceeds to mention his own journey + into Egypt, his language insensibly becomes more cautious and moderate. + Instead of a large, but definite number, he speaks of many Christians, and + most artfully selects two ambiguous words, which may signify either what + he had seen, or what he had heard; either the expectation, or the + execution of the punishment. Having thus provided a secure evasion, he + commits the equivocal passage to his readers and translators; justly + conceiving that their piety would induce them to prefer the most favorable + sense. There was perhaps some malice in the remark of Theodorus Metochita, + that all who, like Eusebius, had been conversant with the Egyptians, + delighted in an obscure and intricate style. (See Valesius ad loc.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1821" id="linknote-16.1821"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1821 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1821">return</a>)<br /> [ This calculation is + made from the martyrs, of whom Eusebius speaks by name; but he recognizes + a much greater number. Thus the ninth and tenth chapters of his work are + entitled, “Of Antoninus, Zebinus, Germanus, and other martyrs; of Peter + the monk. of Asclepius the Maroionite, and other martyrs.” [Are these + vague contents of chapters very good authority?—M.] Speaking of + those who suffered under Diocletian, he says, “I will only relate the + death of one of these, from which, the reader may divine what befell the + rest.” Hist. Eccl. viii. 6. [This relates only to the martyrs in the royal + household.—M.] Dodwell had made, before Gibbon, this calculation and + these objections; but Ruinart (Act. Mart. Pref p. 27, <i>et seq</i>.) has + answered him in a peremptory manner: Nobis constat Eusebium in historia + infinitos passim martyres admisisse. quamvis revera paucorum nomina + recensuerit. Nec alium Eusebii interpretem quam ipsummet Eusebium + proferimus, qui (l. iii. c. 33) ait sub Trajano plurimosa ex fidelibus + martyrii certamen subiisse (l. v. init.) sub Antonino et Vero + innumerabiles prope martyres per universum orbem enituisse affirmat. (L. + vi. c. 1.) Severum persecutionem concitasse refert, in qua per omnes + ubique locorum Ecclesias, ab athletis pro pietate certantibus, illustria + confecta fuerunt martyria. Sic de Decii, sic de Valeriani, persecutionibus + loquitur, quæ an Dodwelli faveant conjectionibus judicet æquus lector. + Even in the persecutions which Gibbon has represented as much more mild + than that of Diocletian, the number of martyrs appears much greater than + that to which he limits the martyrs of the latter: and this number is + attested by incontestable monuments. I will quote but one example. We find + among the letters of St. Cyprian one from Lucianus to Celerinus, written + from the depth of a prison, in which Lucianus names seventeen of his + brethren dead, some in the quarries, some in the midst of tortures some of + starvation in prison. Jussi sumus (he proceeds) secundum præ ceptum + imperatoris, fame et siti necari, et reclusi sumus in duabus cellis, ta ut + nos afficerent fame et siti et ignis vapore.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.183" id="linknote-16.183"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 183 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.183">return</a>)<br /> [ When Palestine was + divided into three, the præfecture of the East contained forty-eight + provinces. As the ancient distinctions of nations were long since + abolished, the Romans distributed the provinces according to a general + proportion of their extent and opulence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.184" id="linknote-16.184"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 184 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.184">return</a>)<br /> [ Ut gloriari possint + nullam se innocentium poremisse, nam et ipse audivi aloquos gloriantes, + quia administratio sua, in hac paris merit incruenta. Lactant. Institur. + Divin v. 11.] + </p> + <p> + We shall conclude this chapter by a melancholy truth, which obtrudes + itself on the reluctant mind; that even admitting, without hesitation or + inquiry, all that history has recorded, or devotion has feigned, on the + subject of martyrdoms, it must still be acknowledged, that the Christians, + in the course of their intestine dissensions, have inflicted far greater + severities on each other, than they had experienced from the zeal of + infidels. During the ages of ignorance which followed the subversion of + the Roman empire in the West, the bishops of the Imperial city extended + their dominion over the laity as well as clergy of the Latin church. The + fabric of superstition which they had erected, and which might long have + defied the feeble efforts of reason, was at length assaulted by a crowd of + daring fanatics, who from the twelfth to the sixteenth century assumed the + popular character of reformers. The church of Rome defended by violence + the empire which she had acquired by fraud; a system of peace and + benevolence was soon disgraced by proscriptions, war, massacres, and the + institution of the holy office. And as the reformers were animated by the + love of civil as well as of religious freedom, the Catholic princes + connected their own interest with that of the clergy, and enforced by fire + and the sword the terrors of spiritual censures. In the Netherlands alone, + more than one hundred thousand of the subjects of Charles V. are said to + have suffered by the hand of the executioner; and this extraordinary + number is attested by Grotius, <a href="#linknote-16.185" + name="linknoteref-16.185" id="linknoteref-16.185">185</a> a man of genius and + learning, who preserved his moderation amidst the fury of contending + sects, and who composed the annals of his own age and country, at a time + when the invention of printing had facilitated the means of intelligence, + and increased the danger of detection. + </p> + <p> + If we are obliged to submit our belief to the authority of Grotius, it + must be allowed, that the number of Protestants, who were executed in a + single province and a single reign, far exceeded that of the primitive + martyrs in the space of three centuries, and of the Roman empire. But if + the improbability of the fact itself should prevail over the weight of + evidence; if Grotius should be convicted of exaggerating the merit and + sufferings of the Reformers; <a href="#linknote-16.186" name="linknoteref-16.186" + id="linknoteref-16.186">186</a> we shall be naturally led to inquire what + confidence can be placed in the doubtful and imperfect monuments of + ancient credulity; what degree of credit can be assigned to a courtly + bishop, and a passionate declaimer, <a href="#linknote-16.1861" + name="linknoteref-16.1861" id="linknoteref-16.1861">1861</a> who, under the + protection of Constantine, enjoyed the exclusive privilege of recording + the persecutions inflicted on the Christians by the vanquished rivals or + disregarded predecessors of their gracious sovereign. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.185" id="linknote-16.185"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 185 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.185">return</a>)<br /> [ Grot. Annal. de Rebus + Belgicis, l. i. p. 12, edit. fol.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.186" id="linknote-16.186"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 186 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.186">return</a>)<br /> [ Fra Paola (Istoria del + Concilio Tridentino, l. iii.) reduces the number of the Belgic martyrs to + 50,000. In learning and moderation Fra Paola was not inferior to Grotius. + The priority of time gives some advantage to the evidence of the former, + which he loses, on the other hand, by the distance of Venice from the + Netherlands.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-16.1861" id="linknote-16.1861"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1861 (<a href="#linknoteref-16.1861">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius and the + author of the Treatise de Mortibus Persecutorum. It is deeply to be + regretted that the history of this period rest so much on the loose and, + it must be admitted, by no means scrupulous authority of Eusebius. + Ecclesiastical history is a solemn and melancholy lesson that the best, + even the most sacred, cause will eventually the least departure from + truth!—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap17.1"></a> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Foundation Of Constantinople.—Political System Constantine, + And His Successors.—Military Discipline.—The Palace.—The + Finances. +</pre> + <p> + The unfortunate Licinius was the last rival who opposed the greatness, and + the last captive who adorned the triumph, of Constantine. After a tranquil + and prosperous reign, the conquerer bequeathed to his family the + inheritance of the Roman empire; a new capital, a new policy, and a new + religion; and the innovations which he established have been embraced and + consecrated by succeeding generations. The age of the great Constantine + and his sons is filled with important events; but the historian must be + oppressed by their number and variety, unless he diligently separates from + each other the scenes which are connected only by the order of time. He + will describe the political institutions that gave strength and stability + to the empire, before he proceeds to relate the wars and revolutions which + hastened its decline. He will adopt the division unknown to the ancients + of civil and ecclesiastical affairs: the victory of the Christians, and + their intestine discord, will supply copious and distinct materials both + for edification and for scandal. + </p> + <p> + After the defeat and abdication of Licinius, his victorious rival + proceeded to lay the foundations of a city destined to reign in future + times, the mistress of the East, and to survive the empire and religion + of Constantine. The motives, whether of pride or of policy, which first + induced Diocletian to withdraw himself from the ancient seat of + government, had acquired additional weight by the example of his + successors, and the habits of forty years. Rome was insensibly confounded + with the dependent kingdoms which had once acknowledged her supremacy; + and the country of the Cæsars was viewed with cold indifference by a + martial prince, born in the neighborhood of the Danube, educated in the + courts and armies of Asia, and invested with the purple by the legions of + Britain. The Italians, who had received Constantine as their deliverer, + submissively obeyed the edicts which he sometimes condescended to address + to the senate and people of Rome; but they were seldom honored with the + presence of their new sovereign. During the vigor of his age, + Constantine, according to the various exigencies of peace and war, moved + with slow dignity, or with active diligence, along the frontiers of his + extensive dominions; and was always prepared to take the field either + against a foreign or a domestic enemy. But as he gradually reached the + summit of prosperity and the decline of life, he began to meditate the + design of fixing in a more permanent station the strength as well as + majesty of the throne. In the choice of an advantageous situation, he + preferred the confines of Europe and Asia; to curb with a powerful arm + the barbarians who dwelt between the Danube and the Tanais; to watch with + an eye of jealousy the conduct of the Persian monarch, who indignantly + supported the yoke of an ignominious treaty. With these views, Diocletian + had selected and embellished the residence of Nicomedia: but the memory + of Diocletian was justly abhorred by the protector of the church: and + Constantine was not insensible to the ambition of founding a city which + might perpetuate the glory of his own name. During the late operations of + the war against Licinius, he had sufficient opportunity to contemplate, + both as a soldier and as a statesman, the incomparable position of + Byzantium; and to observe how strongly it was guarded by nature against a + hostile attack, whilst it was accessible on every side to the benefits of + commercial intercourse. Many ages before Constantine, one of the most + judicious historians of antiquity<a href="#linknote-17.1" + name="linknoteref-17.1" id="linknoteref-17.1">1</a> had described the + advantages of a situation, from whence a feeble colony of Greeks derived + the command of the sea, and the honors of a flourishing and independent + republic. <a href="#linknote-17.2" name="linknoteref-17.2" + id="linknoteref-17.2">2</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.1" id="linknote-17.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.1">return</a>)<br /> [ Polybius, l. iv. p. + 423, edit. Casaubon. He observes that the peace of the Byzantines was + frequently disturbed, and the extent of their territory contracted, by + the inroads of the wild Thracians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.2" id="linknote-17.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.2">return</a>)<br /> [ The navigator Byzas, who + was styled the son of Neptune, founded the city 656 years before the + Christian æra. His followers were drawn from Argos and Megara. Byzantium + was afterwards rebuild and fortified by the Spartan general Pausanias. See + Scaliger Animadvers. ad Euseb. p. 81. Ducange, Constantinopolis, l. i part + i. cap 15, 16. With regard to the wars of the Byzantines against Philip, + the Gauls, and the kings of Bithynia, we should trust none but the ancient + writers who lived before the greatness of the Imperial city had excited a + spirit of flattery and fiction.] + </p> + <p> + If we survey Byzantium in the extent which it acquired with the august + name of Constantinople, the figure of the Imperial city may be represented + under that of an unequal triangle. The obtuse point, which advances + towards the east and the shores of Asia, meets and repels the waves of the + Thracian Bosphorus. The northern side of the city is bounded by the + harbor; and the southern is washed by the Propontis, or Sea of Marmara. + The basis of the triangle is opposed to the west, and terminates the + continent of Europe. But the admirable form and division of the + circumjacent land and water cannot, without a more ample explanation, be + clearly or sufficiently understood. The winding channel through which the + waters of the Euxine flow with a rapid and incessant course towards the + Mediterranean, received the appellation of Bosphorus, a name not less + celebrated in the history, than in the fables, of antiquity. <a + href="#linknote-17.3" name="linknoteref-17.3" id="linknoteref-17.3">3</a> A + crowd of temples and of votive altars, profusely scattered along its steep + and woody banks, attested the unskilfulness, the terrors, and the devotion + of the Grecian navigators, who, after the example of the Argonauts, + explored the dangers of the inhospitable Euxine. On these banks tradition + long preserved the memory of the palace of Phineus, infested by the + obscene harpies; <a href="#linknote-17.4" name="linknoteref-17.4" + id="linknoteref-17.4">4</a> and of the sylvan reign of Amycus, who defied + the son of Leda to the combat of the cestus. <a href="#linknote-17.5" + name="linknoteref-17.5" id="linknoteref-17.5">5</a> The straits of the + Bosphorus are terminated by the Cyanean rocks, which, according to the + description of the poets, had once floated on the face of the waters; and + were destined by the gods to protect the entrance of the Euxine against + the eye of profane curiosity. <a href="#linknote-17.6" + name="linknoteref-17.6" id="linknoteref-17.6">6</a> From the Cyanean rocks + to the point and harbor of Byzantium, the winding length of the Bosphorus + extends about sixteen miles, <a href="#linknote-17.7" name="linknoteref-17.7" + id="linknoteref-17.7">7</a> and its most ordinary breadth may be computed + at about one mile and a half. The new castles of Europe and Asia are + constructed, on either continent, upon the foundations of two celebrated + temples, of Serapis and of Jupiter Urius. The <i>old</i> castles, a work of the + Greek emperors, command the narrowest part of the channel in a place where + the opposite banks advance within five hundred paces of each other. These + fortresses were destroyed and strengthened by Mahomet the Second, when he + meditated the siege of Constantinople: <a href="#linknote-17.8" + name="linknoteref-17.8" id="linknoteref-17.8">8</a> but the Turkish + conqueror was most probably ignorant, that near two thousand years before + his reign, Darius had chosen the same situation to connect the two + continents by a bridge of boats. <a href="#linknote-17.9" + name="linknoteref-17.9" id="linknoteref-17.9">9</a> At a small distance from + the old castles we discover the little town of Chrysopolis, or Scutari, + which may almost be considered as the Asiatic suburb of Constantinople. + The Bosphorus, as it begins to open into the Propontis, passes between + Byzantium and Chalcedon. The latter of those cities was built by the + Greeks, a few years before the former; and the blindness of its founders, + who overlooked the superior advantages of the opposite coast, has been + stigmatized by a proverbial expression of contempt. <a + href="#linknote-17.10" name="linknoteref-17.10" id="linknoteref-17.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.3" id="linknote-17.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.3">return</a>)<br /> [ The Bosphorus has been + very minutely described by Dionysius of Byzantium, who lived in the time + of Domitian, (Hudson, Geograph Minor, tom. iii.,) and by Gilles or + Gyllius, a French traveller of the XVIth century. Tournefort (Lettre XV.) + seems to have used his own eyes, and the learning of Gyllius. Add Von + Hammer, Constantinopolis und der Bosphoros, 8vo.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.4" id="linknote-17.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.4">return</a>)<br /> [ There are very few + conjectures so happy as that of Le Clere, (Bibliotehque Universelle, tom. + i. p. 148,) who supposes that the harpies were only locusts. The Syriac or + Phœnician name of those insects, their noisy flight, the stench and + devastation which they occasion, and the north wind which drives them into + the sea, all contribute to form the striking resemblance.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.5" id="linknote-17.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.5">return</a>)<br /> [ The residence of Amycus + was in Asia, between the old and the new castles, at a place called Laurus + Insana. That of Phineus was in Europe, near the village of Mauromole and + the Black Sea. See Gyllius de Bosph. l. ii. c. 23. Tournefort, Lettre XV.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.6" id="linknote-17.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.6">return</a>)<br /> [ The deception was + occasioned by several pointed rocks, alternately sovered and abandoned by + the waves. At present there are two small islands, one towards either + shore; that of Europe is distinguished by the column of Pompey.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.7" id="linknote-17.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.7">return</a>)<br /> [ The ancients computed one + hundred and twenty stadia, or fifteen Roman miles. They measured only from + the new castles, but they carried the straits as far as the town of + Chalcedon.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.8" id="linknote-17.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Ducas. Hist. c. 34. + Leunclavius Hist. Turcica Mussulmanica, l. xv. p. 577. Under the Greek + empire these castles were used as state prisons, under the tremendous name + of Lethe, or towers of oblivion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.9" id="linknote-17.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Darius engraved in Greek + and Assyrian letters, on two marble columns, the names of his subject + nations, and the amazing numbers of his land and sea forces. The + Byzantines afterwards transported these columns into the city, and used + them for the altars of their tutelar deities. Herodotus, l. iv. c. 87.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.10" id="linknote-17.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.10">return</a>)<br /> [ Namque arctissimo inter + Europam Asiamque divortio Byzantium in extremâ Europâ posuere Greci, + quibus, Pythium Apollinem consulentibus ubi conderent urbem, redditum + oraculum est, quærerent sedem <i>cæcerum</i> terris adversam. Ea ambage + Chalcedonii monstrabantur quod priores illuc advecti, prævisâ locorum + utilitate pejora legissent Tacit. Annal. xii. 63.] + </p> + <p> + The harbor of Constantinople, which may be considered as an arm of the + Bosphorus, obtained, in a very remote period, the denomination of the + <i>Golden Horn</i>. The curve which it describes might be compared to the horn of + a stag, or as it should seem, with more propriety, to that of an ox. <a + href="#linknote-17.11" name="linknoteref-17.11" id="linknoteref-17.11">11</a> + The epithet of <i>golden</i> was expressive of the riches which every wind wafted + from the most distant countries into the secure and capacious port of + Constantinople. The River Lycus, formed by the conflux of two little + streams, pours into the harbor a perpetual supply of fresh water, which + serves to cleanse the bottom, and to invite the periodical shoals of fish + to seek their retreat in that convenient recess. As the vicissitudes of + tides are scarcely felt in those seas, the constant depth of the harbor + allows goods to be landed on the quays without the assistance of boats; + and it has been observed, that in many places the largest vessels may rest + their prows against the houses, while their sterns are floating in the + water. <a href="#linknote-17.12" name="linknoteref-17.12" + id="linknoteref-17.12">12</a> From the mouth of the Lycus to that of the + harbor, this arm of the Bosphorus is more than seven miles in length. The + entrance is about five hundred yards broad, and a strong chain could be + occasionally drawn across it, to guard the port and city from the attack + of a hostile navy. <a href="#linknote-17.13" name="linknoteref-17.13" + id="linknoteref-17.13">13</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.11" id="linknote-17.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Strabo, l. vii. p. 492, + [edit. Casaub.] Most of the antlers are now broken off; or, to speak less + figuratively, most of the recesses of the harbor are filled up. See Gill. + de Bosphoro Thracio, l. i. c. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.12" id="linknote-17.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.12">return</a>)<br /> [ Procopius de + Ædificiis, l. i. c. 5. His description is confirmed by modern travellers. + See Thevenot, part i. l. i. c. 15. Tournefort, Lettre XII. Niebuhr, Voyage + d’Arabie, p. 22.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.13" id="linknote-17.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.13">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ducange, C. P. l. + i. part i. c. 16, and his Observations sur Villehardouin, p. 289. The + chain was drawn from the Acropolis near the modern Kiosk, to the tower of + Galata; and was supported at convenient distances by large wooden piles.] + </p> + <p> + Between the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, the shores of Europe and Asia, + receding on either side, enclose the sea of Marmara, which was known to + the ancients by the denomination of Propontis. The navigation from the + issue of the Bosphorus to the entrance of the Hellespont is about one + hundred and twenty miles. + </p> + <p> + Those who steer their westward course through the middle of the Propontis, + may at once descry the high lands of Thrace and Bithynia, and never lose + sight of the lofty summit of Mount Olympus, covered with eternal snows. <a + href="#linknote-17.14" name="linknoteref-17.14" id="linknoteref-17.14">14</a> + They leave on the left a deep gulf, at the bottom of which Nicomedia was + seated, the Imperial residence of Diocletian; and they pass the small + islands of Cyzicus and Proconnesus before they cast anchor at Gallipoli; + where the sea, which separates Asia from Europe, is again contracted into + a narrow channel. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.14" id="linknote-17.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Thevenot (Voyages au + Levant, part i. l. i. c. 14) contracts the measure to 125 small Greek + miles. Belon (Observations, l. ii. c. 1.) gives a good description of the + Propontis, but contents himself with the vague expression of one day and + one night’s sail. When Sandy’s (Travels, p. 21) talks of 150 furlongs in + length, as well as breadth we can only suppose some mistake of the press + in the text of that judicious traveller.] + </p> + <p> + The geographers who, with the most skilful accuracy, have surveyed the + form and extent of the Hellespont, assign about sixty miles for the + winding course, and about three miles for the ordinary breadth of those + celebrated straits. <a href="#linknote-17.15" name="linknoteref-17.15" + id="linknoteref-17.15">15</a> But the narrowest part of the channel is + found to the northward of the old Turkish castles between the cities of + Sestus and Abydus. It was here that the adventurous Leander braved the + passage of the flood for the possession of his mistress. <a + href="#linknote-17.16" name="linknoteref-17.16" id="linknoteref-17.16">16</a> + It was here likewise, in a place where the distance between the opposite + banks cannot exceed five hundred paces, that Xerxes imposed a stupendous + bridge of boats, for the purpose of transporting into Europe a hundred and + seventy myriads of barbarians. <a href="#linknote-17.17" + name="linknoteref-17.17" id="linknoteref-17.17">17</a> A sea contracted + within such narrow limits may seem but ill to deserve the singular epithet + of <i>broad</i>, which Homer, as well as Orpheus, has frequently bestowed on the + Hellespont. <a href="#linknote-17.1711" name="linknoteref-17.1711" + id="linknoteref-17.1711">1711</a> But our ideas of greatness are of a + relative nature: the traveller, and especially the poet, who sailed along + the Hellespont, who pursued the windings of the stream, and contemplated + the rural scenery, which appeared on every side to terminate the prospect, + insensibly lost the remembrance of the sea; and his fancy painted those + celebrated straits, with all the attributes of a mighty river flowing with + a swift current, in the midst of a woody and inland country, and at + length, through a wide mouth, discharging itself into the Ægean or + Archipelago. <a href="#linknote-17.18" name="linknoteref-17.18" + id="linknoteref-17.18">18</a> Ancient Troy, <a href="#linknote-17.19" + name="linknoteref-17.19" id="linknoteref-17.19">19</a> seated on a an + eminence at the foot of Mount Ida, overlooked the mouth of the Hellespont, + which scarcely received an accession of waters from the tribute of those + immortal rivulets the Simois and Scamander. The Grecian camp had stretched + twelve miles along the shore from the Sigæan to the Rhætean promontory; + and the flanks of the army were guarded by the bravest chiefs who fought + under the banners of Agamemnon. The first of those promontories was + occupied by Achilles with his invincible myrmidons, and the dauntless Ajax + pitched his tents on the other. After Ajax had fallen a sacrifice to his + disappointed pride, and to the ingratitude of the Greeks, his sepulchre + was erected on the ground where he had defended the navy against the rage + of Jove and of Hector; and the citizens of the rising town of Rhæteum + celebrated his memory with divine honors. <a href="#linknote-17.20" + name="linknoteref-17.20" id="linknoteref-17.20">20</a> Before Constantine + gave a just preference to the situation of Byzantium, he had conceived the + design of erecting the seat of empire on this celebrated spot, from whence + the Romans derived their fabulous origin. The extensive plain which lies + below ancient Troy, towards the Rhætean promontory and the tomb of Ajax, + was first chosen for his new capital; and though the undertaking was soon + relinquished the stately remains of unfinished walls and towers attracted + the notice of all who sailed through the straits of the Hellespont. <a + href="#linknote-17.21" name="linknoteref-17.21" id="linknoteref-17.21">21</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.15" id="linknote-17.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.15">return</a>)<br /> [ See an admirable + dissertation of M. d’Anville upon the Hellespont or Dardanelles, in the + Mémoires tom. xxviii. p. 318—346. Yet even that ingenious geographer + is too fond of supposing new, and perhaps imaginary <i>measures</i>, for the + purpose of rendering ancient writers as accurate as himself. The stadia + employed by Herodotus in the description of the Euxine, the Bosphorus, + &c., (l. iv. c. 85,) must undoubtedly be all of the same species; but + it seems impossible to reconcile them either with truth or with each + other.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.16" id="linknote-17.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.16">return</a>)<br /> [ The oblique distance + between Sestus and Abydus was thirty stadia. The improbable tale of Hero + and Leander is exposed by M. Mahudel, but is defended on the authority of + poets and medals by M. de la Nauze. See the Académie des Inscriptions, + tom. vii. Hist. p. 74. elem. p. 240. Note: The practical illustration of + the possibility of Leander’s feat by Lord Byron and other English swimmers + is too well known to need particularly reference—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.17" id="linknote-17.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.17">return</a>)<br /> [ See the seventh book of + Herodotus, who has erected an elegant trophy to his own fame and to that + of his country. The review appears to have been made with tolerable + accuracy; but the vanity, first of the Persians, and afterwards of the + Greeks, was interested to magnify the armament and the victory. I should + much doubt whether the <i>invaders</i> have ever outnumbered the <i>men</i> of any + country which they attacked.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.1711" id="linknote-17.1711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1711 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.1711">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbon does not + allow greater width between the two nearest points of the shores of the + Hellespont than between those of the Bosphorus; yet all the ancient + writers speak of the Hellespontic strait as broader than the other: they + agree in giving it seven stadia in its narrowest width, (Herod. in Melp. + c. 85. Polym. c. 34. Strabo, p. 591. Plin. iv. c. 12.) which make 875 + paces. It is singular that Gibbon, who in the fifteenth note of this + chapter reproaches d’Anville with being fond of supposing new and perhaps + imaginary measures, has here adopted the peculiar measurement which + d’Anville has assigned to the stadium. This great geographer believes that + the ancients had a stadium of fifty-one toises, and it is that which he + applies to the walls of Babylon. Now, seven of these stadia are equal to + about 500 paces, 7 stadia = 2142 feet: 500 paces = 2135 feet 5 inches.—G. + See Rennell, Geog. of Herod. p. 121. Add Ukert, Geographie der Griechen + und Romer, v. i. p. 2, 71.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.18" id="linknote-17.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.18">return</a>)<br /> [ See Wood’s Observations + on Homer, p. 320. I have, with pleasure, selected this remark from an + author who in general seems to have disappointed the expectation of the + public as a critic, and still more as a traveller. He had visited the + banks of the Hellespont; and had read Strabo; he ought to have consulted + the Roman itineraries. How was it possible for him to confound Ilium and + Alexandria Troas, (Observations, p. 340, 341,) two cities which were + sixteen miles distant from each other? * Note: Compare Walpole’s Memoirs + on Turkey, v. i. p. 101. Dr. Clarke adopted Mr. Walpole’s interpretation + of the salt Hellespont. But the old interpretation is more graphic and + Homeric. Clarke’s Travels, ii. 70.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.19" id="linknote-17.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Demetrius of Scepsis + wrote sixty books on thirty lines of Homer’s catalogue. The XIIIth Book of + Strabo is sufficient for <i>our</i> curiosity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.20" id="linknote-17.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Strabo, l. xiii. p. + 595, [890, edit. Casaub.] The disposition of the ships, which were drawn + upon dry land, and the posts of Ajax and Achilles, are very clearly + described by Homer. See Iliad, ix. 220.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.21" id="linknote-17.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosim. l. ii. [c. 30,] + p. 105. Sozomen, l. ii. c. 3. Theophanes, p. 18. Nicephorus Callistus, l. + vii. p. 48. Zonaras, tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 6. Zosimus places the new city + between Ilium and Alexandria, but this apparent difference may be + reconciled by the large extent of its circumference. Before the foundation + of Constantinople, Thessalonica is mentioned by Cedrenus, (p. 283,) and + Sardica by Zonaras, as the intended capital. They both suppose with very + little probability, that the emperor, if he had not been prevented by a + prodigy, would have repeated the mistake of the <i>blind</i> Chalcedonians.] + </p> + <p> + We are at present qualified to view the advantageous position of + Constantinople; which appears to have been formed by nature for the centre + and capital of a great monarchy. Situated in the forty-first degree of + latitude, the Imperial city commanded, from her seven hills, <a + href="#linknote-17.22" name="linknoteref-17.22" id="linknoteref-17.22">22</a> + the opposite shores of Europe and Asia; the climate was healthy and + temperate, the soil fertile, the harbor secure and capacious; and the + approach on the side of the continent was of small extent and easy + defence. The Bosphorus and the Hellespont may be considered as the two + gates of Constantinople; and the prince who possessed those important + passages could always shut them against a naval enemy, and open them to + the fleets of commerce. The preservation of the eastern provinces may, in + some degree, be ascribed to the policy of Constantine, as the barbarians + of the Euxine, who in the preceding age had poured their armaments into + the heart of the Mediterranean, soon desisted from the exercise of piracy, + and despaired of forcing this insurmountable barrier. When the gates of + the Hellespont and Bosphorus were shut, the capital still enjoyed within + their spacious enclosure every production which could supply the wants, or + gratify the luxury, of its numerous inhabitants. The sea-coasts of Thrace + and Bithynia, which languish under the weight of Turkish oppression, still + exhibit a rich prospect of vineyards, of gardens, and of plentiful + harvests; and the Propontis has ever been renowned for an inexhaustible + store of the most exquisite fish, that are taken in their stated seasons, + without skill, and almost without labor. <a href="#linknote-17.23" + name="linknoteref-17.23" id="linknoteref-17.23">23</a> But when the passages + of the straits were thrown open for trade, they alternately admitted the + natural and artificial riches of the north and south, of the Euxine, and + of the Mediterranean. Whatever rude commodities were collected in the + forests of Germany and Scythia, and far as the sources of the Tanais and + the Borysthenes; whatsoever was manufactured by the skill of Europe or + Asia; the corn of Egypt, and the gems and spices of the farthest India, + were brought by the varying winds into the port of Constantinople, which + for many ages attracted the commerce of the ancient world. <a + href="#linknote-17.24" name="linknoteref-17.24" id="linknoteref-17.24">24</a> + </p> + <p> + [See Basilica Of Constantinople] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.22" id="linknote-17.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Pocock’s Description of + the East, vol. ii. part ii. p. 127. His plan of the seven hills is clear + and accurate. That traveller is seldom unsatisfactory.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.23" id="linknote-17.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.23">return</a>)<br /> [ See Belon, + Observations, c. 72—76. Among a variety of different species, the + Pelamides, a sort of Thunnies, were the most celebrated. We may learn from + Polybius, Strabo, and Tacitus, that the profits of the fishery constituted + the principal revenue of Byzantium.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.24" id="linknote-17.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.24">return</a>)<br /> [ See the eloquent + description of Busbequius, epistol. i. p. 64. Est in Europa; habet in + conspectu Asiam, Egyptum. Africamque a dextrâ: quæ tametsi contiguæ non + sunt, maris tamen navigandique commoditate veluti junguntur. A sinistra + vero Pontus est Euxinus, &c.] + </p> + <p> + The prospect of beauty, of safety, and of wealth, united in a single spot, + was sufficient to justify the choice of Constantine. But as some decent + mixture of prodigy and fable has, in every age, been supposed to reflect a + becoming majesty on the origin of great cities, <a href="#linknote-17.25" + name="linknoteref-17.25" id="linknoteref-17.25">25</a> the emperor was + desirous of ascribing his resolution, not so much to the uncertain + counsels of human policy, as to the infallible and eternal decrees of + divine wisdom. In one of his laws he has been careful to instruct + posterity, that in obedience to the commands of God, he laid the + everlasting foundations of Constantinople: <a href="#linknote-17.26" + name="linknoteref-17.26" id="linknoteref-17.26">26</a> and though he has not + condescended to relate in what manner the celestial inspiration was + communicated to his mind, the defect of his modest silence has been + liberally supplied by the ingenuity of succeeding writers; who describe + the nocturnal vision which appeared to the fancy of Constantine, as he + slept within the walls of Byzantium. The tutelar genius of the city, a + venerable matron sinking under the weight of years and infirmities, was + suddenly transformed into a blooming maid, whom his own hands adorned with + all the symbols of Imperial greatness. <a href="#linknote-17.27" + name="linknoteref-17.27" id="linknoteref-17.27">27</a> The monarch awoke, + interpreted the auspicious omen, and obeyed, without hesitation, the will + of Heaven. The day which gave birth to a city or colony was celebrated by + the Romans with such ceremonies as had been ordained by a generous + superstition; <a href="#linknote-17.28" name="linknoteref-17.28" + id="linknoteref-17.28">28</a> and though Constantine might omit some rites + which savored too strongly of their Pagan origin, yet he was anxious to + leave a deep impression of hope and respect on the minds of the + spectators. On foot, with a lance in his hand, the emperor himself led the + solemn procession; and directed the line, which was traced as the boundary + of the destined capital: till the growing circumference was observed with + astonishment by the assistants, who, at length, ventured to observe, that + he had already exceeded the most ample measure of a great city. “I shall + still advance,” replied Constantine, “till He, the invisible guide who + marches before me, thinks proper to stop.” <a href="#linknote-17.29" + name="linknoteref-17.29" id="linknoteref-17.29">29</a> Without presuming to + investigate the nature or motives of this extraordinary conductor, we + shall content ourselves with the more humble task of describing the extent + and limits of Constantinople. <a href="#linknote-17.30" + name="linknoteref-17.30" id="linknoteref-17.30">30</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.25" id="linknote-17.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Datur hæc venia + antiquitati, ut miscendo humana divinis, primordia urbium augustiora + faciat. T. Liv. in proœm.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.26" id="linknote-17.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.26">return</a>)<br /> [ He says in one of his + laws, pro commoditate urbis quam æterno nomine, jubente Deo, donavimus. + Cod. Theodos. l. xiii. tit. v. leg. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.27" id="linknote-17.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.27">return</a>)<br /> [ The Greeks, Theophanes, + Cedrenus, and the author of the Alexandrian Chronicle, confine themselves + to vague and general expressions. For a more particular account of the + vision, we are obliged to have recourse to such Latin writers as William + of Malmesbury. See Ducange, C. P. l. i. p. 24, 25.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.28" id="linknote-17.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.28">return</a>)<br /> [ See Plutarch in Romul. + tom. i. p. 49, edit. Bryan. Among other ceremonies, a large hole, which + had been dug for that purpose, was filled up with handfuls of earth, which + each of the settlers brought from the place of his birth, and thus adopted + his new country.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.29" id="linknote-17.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Philostorgius, l. ii. + c. 9. This incident, though borrowed from a suspected writer, is + characteristic and probable.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.30" id="linknote-17.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.30">return</a>)<br /> [ See in the Mémoires de + l’Académie, tom. xxxv p. 747-758, a dissertation of M. d’Anville on the + extent of Constantinople. He takes the plan inserted in the Imperium + Orientale of Banduri as the most complete; but, by a series of very nice + observations, he reduced the extravagant proportion of the scale, and + instead of 9500, determines the circumference of the city as consisting of + about 7800 French <i>toises</i>.] + </p> + <p> + In the actual state of the city, the palace and gardens of the Seraglio + occupy the eastern promontory, the first of the seven hills, and cover + about one hundred and fifty acres of our own measure. The seat of Turkish + jealousy and despotism is erected on the foundations of a Grecian + republic; but it may be supposed that the Byzantines were tempted by the + conveniency of the harbor to extend their habitations on that side beyond + the modern limits of the Seraglio. The new walls of Constantine stretched + from the port to the Propontis across the enlarged breadth of the + triangle, at the distance of fifteen stadia from the ancient + fortification; and with the city of Byzantium they enclosed five of the + seven hills, which, to the eyes of those who approach Constantinople, + appear to rise above each other in beautiful order. <a + href="#linknote-17.31" name="linknoteref-17.31" id="linknoteref-17.31">31</a> + About a century after the death of the founder, the new buildings, + extending on one side up the harbor, and on the other along the Propontis, + already covered the narrow ridge of the sixth, and the broad summit of the + seventh hill. The necessity of protecting those suburbs from the incessant + inroads of the barbarians engaged the younger Theodosius to surround his + capital with an adequate and permanent enclosure of walls. <a + href="#linknote-17.32" name="linknoteref-17.32" id="linknoteref-17.32">32</a> + From the eastern promontory to the golden gate, the extreme length of + Constantinople was about three Roman miles; <a href="#linknote-17.33" + name="linknoteref-17.33" id="linknoteref-17.33">33</a> the circumference + measured between ten and eleven; and the surface might be computed as + equal to about two thousand English acres. It is impossible to justify the + vain and credulous exaggerations of modern travellers, who have sometimes + stretched the limits of Constantinople over the adjacent villages of the + European, and even of the Asiatic coast. <a href="#linknote-17.34" + name="linknoteref-17.34" id="linknoteref-17.34">34</a> But the suburbs of + Pera and Galata, though situate beyond the harbor, may deserve to be + considered as a part of the city; <a href="#linknote-17.35" + name="linknoteref-17.35" id="linknoteref-17.35">35</a> and this addition may + perhaps authorize the measure of a Byzantine historian, who assigns + sixteen Greek (about fourteen Roman) miles for the circumference of his + native city. <a href="#linknote-17.36" name="linknoteref-17.36" + id="linknoteref-17.36">36</a> Such an extent may not seem unworthy of an + Imperial residence. Yet Constantinople must yield to Babylon and Thebes, + <a href="#linknote-17.37" name="linknoteref-17.37" id="linknoteref-17.37">37</a> + to ancient Rome, to London, and even to Paris. <a href="#linknote-17.38" + name="linknoteref-17.38" id="linknoteref-17.38">38</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.31" id="linknote-17.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.31">return</a>)<br /> [ Codinus, Antiquitat. + Const. p. 12. He assigns the church of St. Anthony as the boundary on the + side of the harbor. It is mentioned in Ducange, l. iv. c. 6; but I have + tried, without success, to discover the exact place where it was + situated.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.32" id="linknote-17.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.32">return</a>)<br /> [ The new wall of + Theodosius was constructed in the year 413. In 447 it was thrown down by + an earthquake, and rebuilt in three months by the diligence of the + præfect Cyrus. The suburb of the Blanchernæ was first taken into the + city in the reign of Heraclius Ducange, Const. l. i. c. 10, 11.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.33" id="linknote-17.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.33">return</a>)<br /> [ The measurement is + expressed in the Notitia by 14,075 feet. It is reasonable to suppose that + these were Greek feet, the proportion of which has been ingeniously + determined by M. d’Anville. He compares the 180 feet with 78 Hashemite + cubits, which in different writers are assigned for the heights of St. + Sophia. Each of these cubits was equal to 27 French inches.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.34" id="linknote-17.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.34">return</a>)<br /> [ The accurate Thevenot + (l. i. c. 15) walked in one hour and three quarters round two of the sides + of the triangle, from the Kiosk of the Seraglio to the seven towers. + D’Anville examines with care, and receives with confidence, this decisive + testimony, which gives a circumference of ten or twelve miles. The + extravagant computation of Tournefort (Lettre XI) of thirty-tour or thirty + miles, without including Scutari, is a strange departure from his usual + character.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.35" id="linknote-17.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.35">return</a>)<br /> [ The sycæ, or + fig-trees, formed the thirteenth region, and were very much embellished by + Justinian. It has since borne the names of Pera and Galata. The etymology + of the former is obvious; that of the latter is unknown. See Ducange, + Const. l. i. c. 22, and Gyllius de Byzant. l. iv. c. 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.36" id="linknote-17.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.36">return</a>)<br /> [ One hundred and eleven + stadia, which may be translated into modern Greek miles each of seven + stadia, or 660, sometimes only 600 French toises. See D’Anville, Mesures + Itineraires, p. 53.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.37" id="linknote-17.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.37">return</a>)<br /> [ When the ancient texts, + which describe the size of Babylon and Thebes, are settled, the + exaggerations reduced, and the measures ascertained, we find that those + famous cities filled the great but not incredible circumference of about + twenty-five or thirty miles. Compare D’Anville, Mém. de l’Académie, tom. + xxviii. p. 235, with his Description de l’Egypte, p. 201, 202.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.38" id="linknote-17.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.38">return</a>)<br /> [ If we divide + Constantinople and Paris into equal squares of 50 French <i>toises</i>, the + former contains 850, and the latter 1160, of those divisions.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap17.2"></a> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The master of the Roman world, who aspired to erect an eternal monument of + the glories of his reign could employ in the prosecution of that great + work, the wealth, the labor, and all that yet remained of the genius of + obedient millions. Some estimate may be formed of the expense bestowed + with Imperial liberality on the foundation of Constantinople, by the + allowance of about two millions five hundred thousand pounds for the + construction of the walls, the porticos, and the aqueducts. <a + href="#linknote-17.39" name="linknoteref-17.39" id="linknoteref-17.39">39</a> + The forests that overshadowed the shores of the Euxine, and the celebrated + quarries of white marble in the little island of Proconnesus, supplied an + inexhaustible stock of materials, ready to be conveyed, by the convenience + of a short water carriage, to the harbor of Byzantium. <a + href="#linknote-17.40" name="linknoteref-17.40" id="linknoteref-17.40">40</a> + A multitude of laborers and artificers urged the conclusion of the work + with incessant toil: but the impatience of Constantine soon discovered, + that, in the decline of the arts, the skill as well as numbers of his + architects bore a very unequal proportion to the greatness of his designs. + The magistrates of the most distant provinces were therefore directed to + institute schools, to appoint professors, and by the hopes of rewards and + privileges, to engage in the study and practice of architecture a + sufficient number of ingenious youths, who had received a liberal + education. <a href="#linknote-17.41" name="linknoteref-17.41" + id="linknoteref-17.41">41</a> The buildings of the new city were executed + by such artificers as the reign of Constantine could afford; but they were + decorated by the hands of the most celebrated masters of the age of + Pericles and Alexander. To revive the genius of Phidias and Lysippus, + surpassed indeed the power of a Roman emperor; but the immortal + productions which they had bequeathed to posterity were exposed without + defence to the rapacious vanity of a despot. By his commands the cities of + Greece and Asia were despoiled of their most valuable ornaments. <a + href="#linknote-17.42" name="linknoteref-17.42" id="linknoteref-17.42">42</a> + The trophies of memorable wars, the objects of religious veneration, the + most finished statues of the gods and heroes, of the sages and poets, of + ancient times, contributed to the splendid triumph of Constantinople; and + gave occasion to the remark of the historian Cedrenus, <a + href="#linknote-17.43" name="linknoteref-17.43" id="linknoteref-17.43">43</a> + who observes, with some enthusiasm, that nothing seemed wanting except the + souls of the illustrious men whom these admirable monuments were intended + to represent. But it is not in the city of Constantine, nor in the + declining period of an empire, when the human mind was depressed by civil + and religious slavery, that we should seek for the souls of Homer and of + Demosthenes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.39" id="linknote-17.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Six hundred + centenaries, or sixty thousand pounds’ weight of gold. This sum is taken + from Codinus, Antiquit. Const. p. 11; but unless that contemptible author + had derived his information from some purer sources, he would probably + have been unacquainted with so obsolete a mode of reckoning.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.40" id="linknote-17.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.40">return</a>)<br /> [ For the forests of the + Black Sea, consult Tournefort, Lettre XVI. for the marble quarries of + Proconnesus, see Strabo, l. xiii. p. 588, (881, edit. Casaub.) The latter + had already furnished the materials of the stately buildings of Cyzicus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.41" id="linknote-17.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.41">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Codex Theodos. + l. xiii. tit. iv. leg. 1. This law is dated in the year 334, and was + addressed to the præfect of Italy, whose jurisdiction extended over + Africa. The commentary of Godefroy on the whole title well deserves to be + consulted.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.42" id="linknote-17.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.42">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantinopolis + dedicatur pœne omnium urbium nuditate. Hieronym. Chron. p. 181. See + Codinus, p. 8, 9. The author of the Antiquitat. Const. l. iii. (apud + Banduri Imp. Orient. tom. i. p. 41) enumerates Rome, Sicily, Antioch, + Athens, and a long list of other cities. The provinces of Greece and Asia + Minor may be supposed to have yielded the richest booty.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.43" id="linknote-17.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.43">return</a>)<br /> [ Hist. Compend. p. 369. + He describes the statue, or rather bust, of Homer with a degree of taste + which plainly indicates that Cadrenus copied the style of a more fortunate + age.] + </p> + <p> + During the siege of Byzantium, the conqueror had pitched his tent on the + commanding eminence of the second hill. To perpetuate the memory of his + success, he chose the same advantageous position for the principal Forum; + <a href="#linknote-17.44" name="linknoteref-17.44" id="linknoteref-17.44">44</a> + which appears to have been of a circular, or rather elliptical form. The + two opposite entrances formed triumphal arches; the porticos, which + enclosed it on every side, were filled with statues; and the centre of the + Forum was occupied by a lofty column, of which a mutilated fragment is now + degraded by the appellation of the <i>burnt pillar</i>. This column was erected + on a pedestal of white marble twenty feet high; and was composed of ten + pieces of porphyry, each of which measured about ten feet in height, and + about thirty-three in circumference. <a href="#linknote-17.45" + name="linknoteref-17.45" id="linknoteref-17.45">45</a> On the summit of the + pillar, above one hundred and twenty feet from the ground, stood the + colossal statue of Apollo. It was a bronze, had been transported either + from Athens or from a town of Phrygia, and was supposed to be the work of + Phidias. The artist had represented the god of day, or, as it was + afterwards interpreted, the emperor Constantine himself, with a sceptre in + his right hand, the globe of the world in his left, and a crown of rays + glittering on his head. <a href="#linknote-17.46" name="linknoteref-17.46" + id="linknoteref-17.46">46</a> The Circus, or Hippodrome, was a stately + building about four hundred paces in length, and one hundred in breadth. + <a href="#linknote-17.47" name="linknoteref-17.47" id="linknoteref-17.47">47</a> + The space between the two <i>metæ</i> or goals were filled with statues and + obelisks; and we may still remark a very singular fragment of antiquity; + the bodies of three serpents, twisted into one pillar of brass. Their + triple heads had once supported the golden tripod which, after the defeat + of Xerxes, was consecrated in the temple of Delphi by the victorious + Greeks. <a href="#linknote-17.48" name="linknoteref-17.48" + id="linknoteref-17.48">48</a> The beauty of the Hippodrome has been long + since defaced by the rude hands of the Turkish conquerors; <a + href="#linknote-17.4811" name="linknoteref-17.4811" id="linknoteref-17.4811">4811</a> + but, under the similar appellation of Atmeidan, it still serves as a place + of exercise for their horses. From the throne, whence the emperor viewed + the Circensian games, a winding staircase <a href="#linknote-17.49" + name="linknoteref-17.49" id="linknoteref-17.49">49</a> descended to the + palace; a magnificent edifice, which scarcely yielded to the residence of + Rome itself, and which, together with the dependent courts, gardens, and + porticos, covered a considerable extent of ground upon the banks of the + Propontis between the Hippodrome and the church of St. Sophia. <a + href="#linknote-17.50" name="linknoteref-17.50" id="linknoteref-17.50">50</a> + We might likewise celebrate the baths, which still retained the name of + Zeuxippus, after they had been enriched, by the munificence of + Constantine, with lofty columns, various marbles, and above threescore + statues of bronze. <a href="#linknote-17.51" name="linknoteref-17.51" + id="linknoteref-17.51">51</a> But we should deviate from the design of this + history, if we attempted minutely to describe the different buildings or + quarters of the city. It may be sufficient to observe, that whatever could + adorn the dignity of a great capital, or contribute to the benefit or + pleasure of its numerous inhabitants, was contained within the walls of + Constantinople. A particular description, composed about a century after + its foundation, enumerates a capitol or school of learning, a circus, two + theatres, eight public, and one hundred and fifty-three private baths, + fifty-two porticos, five granaries, eight aqueducts or reservoirs of + water, four spacious halls for the meetings of the senate or courts of + justice, fourteen churches, fourteen palaces, and four thousand three + hundred and eighty-eight houses, which, for their size or beauty, deserved + to be distinguished from the multitude of plebeian inhabitants. <a + href="#linknote-17.52" name="linknoteref-17.52" id="linknoteref-17.52">52</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.44" id="linknote-17.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.44">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 106. + Chron. Alexandrin. vel Paschal. p. 284, Ducange, Const. l. i. c. 24. Even + the last of those writers seems to confound the Forum of Constantine with + the Augusteum, or court of the palace. I am not satisfied whether I have + properly distinguished what belongs to the one and the other.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.45" id="linknote-17.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.45">return</a>)<br /> [ The most tolerable + account of this column is given by Pocock. Description of the East, vol. + ii. part ii. p. 131. But it is still in many instances perplexed and + unsatisfactory.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.46" id="linknote-17.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Ducange, Const. l. i. + c. 24, p. 76, and his notes ad Alexiad. p. 382. The statue of Constantine + or Apollo was thrown down under the reign of Alexius Comnenus. * Note: On + this column (says M. von Hammer) Constantine, with singular shamelessness, + placed his own statue with the attributes of Apollo and Christ. He + substituted the nails of the Passion for the rays of the sun. Such is the + direct testimony of the author of the Antiquit. Constantinop. apud + Banduri. Constantine was replaced by the “great and religious” Julian, + Julian, by Theodosius. A. D. 1412, the key stone was loosened by an + earthquake. The statue fell in the reign of Alexius Comnenus, and was + replaced by the cross. The Palladium was said to be buried under the + pillar. Von Hammer, Constantinopolis und der Bosporos, i. 162.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.47" id="linknote-17.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Tournefort (Lettre + XII.) computes the Atmeidan at four hundred paces. If he means geometrical + paces of five feet each, it was three hundred <i>toises</i> in length, about + forty more than the great circus of Rome. See D’Anville, Mesures + Itineraires, p. 73.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.48" id="linknote-17.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.48">return</a>)<br /> [ The guardians of the + most holy relics would rejoice if they were able to produce such a chain + of evidence as may be alleged on this occasion. See Banduri ad Antiquitat. + Const. p. 668. Gyllius de Byzant. l. ii. c. 13. 1. The original + consecration of the tripod and pillar in the temple of Delphi may be + proved from Herodotus and Pausanias. 2. The Pagan Zosimus agrees with the + three ecclesiastical historians, Eusebius, Socrates, and Sozomen, that the + sacred ornaments of the temple of Delphi were removed to Constantinople by + the order of Constantine; and among these the serpentine pillar of the + Hippodrome is particularly mentioned. 3. All the European travellers who + have visited Constantinople, from Buondelmonte to Pocock, describe it in + the same place, and almost in the same manner; the differences between + them are occasioned only by the injuries which it has sustained from the + Turks. Mahomet the Second broke the under jaw of one of the serpents with + a stroke of his battle axe Thevenot, l. i. c. 17. * Note: See note 75, ch. + lxviii. for Dr. Clarke’s rejection of Thevenot’s authority. Von Hammer, + however, repeats the story of Thevenot without questioning its + authenticity.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.4811" id="linknote-17.4811"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4811 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.4811">return</a>)<br /> [ In 1808 the + Janizaries revolted against the vizier Mustapha Baisactar, who wished to + introduce a new system of military organization, besieged the quarter of + the Hippodrome, in which stood the palace of the viziers, and the + Hippodrome was consumed in the conflagration.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.49" id="linknote-17.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.49">return</a>)<br /> [ The Latin name <i>Cochlea</i> + was adopted by the Greeks, and very frequently occurs in the Byzantine + history. Ducange, Const. i. c. l, p. 104.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.50" id="linknote-17.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.50">return</a>)<br /> [ There are three + topographical points which indicate the situation of the palace. 1. The + staircase which connected it with the Hippodrome or Atmeidan. 2. A small + artificial port on the Propontis, from whence there was an easy ascent, by + a flight of marble steps, to the gardens of the palace. 3. The Augusteum + was a spacious court, one side of which was occupied by the front of the + palace, and another by the church of St. Sophia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.51" id="linknote-17.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.51">return</a>)<br /> [ Zeuxippus was an + epithet of Jupiter, and the baths were a part of old Byzantium. The + difficulty of assigning their true situation has not been felt by Ducange. + History seems to connect them with St. Sophia and the palace; but the + original plan inserted in Banduri places them on the other side of the + city, near the harbor. For their beauties, see Chron. Paschal. p. 285, and + Gyllius de Byzant. l. ii. c. 7. Christodorus (see Antiquitat. Const. l. + vii.) composed inscriptions in verse for each of the statues. He was a + Theban poet in genius as well as in birth:—Bæotum in crasso jurares + aëre natum. * Note: Yet, for his age, the description of the statues of + Hecuba and of Homer are by no means without merit. See Antholog. Palat. + (edit. Jacobs) i. 37—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.52" id="linknote-17.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.52">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Notitia. Rome + only reckoned 1780 large houses, <i>domus;</i> but the word must have had a more + dignified signification. No <i>insulæ</i> are mentioned at Constantinople. The + old capital consisted of 42 streets, the new of 322.] + </p> + <p> + The populousness of his favored city was the next and most serious object + of the attention of its founder. In the dark ages which succeeded the + translation of the empire, the remote and the immediate consequences of + that memorable event were strangely confounded by the vanity of the Greeks + and the credulity of the Latins. <a href="#linknote-17.53" + name="linknoteref-17.53" id="linknoteref-17.53">53</a> It was asserted, and + believed, that all the noble families of Rome, the senate, and the + equestrian order, with their innumerable attendants, had followed their + emperor to the banks of the Propontis; that a spurious race of strangers + and plebeians was left to possess the solitude of the ancient capital; and + that the lands of Italy, long since converted into gardens, were at once + deprived of cultivation and inhabitants. <a href="#linknote-17.54" + name="linknoteref-17.54" id="linknoteref-17.54">54</a> In the course of this + history, such exaggerations will be reduced to their just value: yet, + since the growth of Constantinople cannot be ascribed to the general + increase of mankind and of industry, it must be admitted that this + artificial colony was raised at the expense of the ancient cities of the + empire. Many opulent senators of Rome, and of the eastern provinces, were + probably invited by Constantine to adopt for their country the fortunate + spot, which he had chosen for his own residence. The invitations of a + master are scarcely to be distinguished from commands; and the liberality + of the emperor obtained a ready and cheerful obedience. He bestowed on his + favorites the palaces which he had built in the several quarters of the + city, assigned them lands and pensions for the support of their dignity, + <a href="#linknote-17.55" name="linknoteref-17.55" id="linknoteref-17.55">55</a> + and alienated the demesnes of Pontus and Asia to grant hereditary estates + by the easy tenure of maintaining a house in the capital. <a + href="#linknote-17.56" name="linknoteref-17.56" id="linknoteref-17.56">56</a> + But these encouragements and obligations soon became superfluous, and were + gradually abolished. Wherever the seat of government is fixed, a + considerable part of the public revenue will be expended by the prince + himself, by his ministers, by the officers of justice, and by the + domestics of the palace. The most wealthy of the provincials will be + attracted by the powerful motives of interest and duty, of amusement and + curiosity. A third and more numerous class of inhabitants will insensibly + be formed, of servants, of artificers, and of merchants, who derive their + subsistence from their own labor, and from the wants or luxury of the + superior ranks. In less than a century, Constantinople disputed with Rome + itself the preëminence of riches and numbers. New piles of buildings, + crowded together with too little regard to health or convenience, scarcely + allowed the intervals of narrow streets for the perpetual throng of men, + of horses, and of carriages. The allotted space of ground was insufficient + to contain the increasing people; and the additional foundations, which, + on either side, were advanced into the sea, might alone have composed a + very considerable city. <a href="#linknote-17.57" name="linknoteref-17.57" + id="linknoteref-17.57">57</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.53" id="linknote-17.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Liutprand, Legatio ad + Imp. Nicephornm, p. 153. The modern Greeks have strangely disfigured the + antiquities of Constantinople. We might excuse the errors of the Turkish + or Arabian writers; but it is somewhat astonishing, that the Greeks, who + had access to the authentic materials preserved in their own language, + should prefer fiction to truth, and loose tradition to genuine history. In + a single page of Codinus we may detect twelve unpardonable mistakes; the + reconciliation of Severus and Niger, the marriage of their son and + daughter, the siege of Byzantium by the Macedonians, the invasion of the + Gauls, which recalled Severus to Rome, the <i>sixty</i> years which elapsed from + his death to the foundation of Constantinople, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.54" id="linknote-17.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.54">return</a>)<br /> [ Montesquieu, Grandeur + et Décadence des Romains, c. 17.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.55" id="linknote-17.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.55">return</a>)<br /> [ Themist. Orat. iii. p. + 48, edit. Hardouin. Sozomen, l. ii. c. 3. Zosim. l. ii. p. 107. Anonym. + Valesian. p. 715. If we could credit Codinus, (p. 10,) Constantine built + houses for the senators on the exact model of their Roman palaces, and + gratified them, as well as himself, with the pleasure of an agreeable + surprise; but the whole story is full of fictions and inconsistencies.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.56" id="linknote-17.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.56">return</a>)<br /> [ The law by which the + younger Theodosius, in the year 438, abolished this tenure, may be found + among the Novellæ of that emperor at the end of the Theodosian Code, tom. + vi. nov. 12. M. de Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 371) has + evidently mistaken the nature of these estates. With a grant from the + Imperial demesnes, the same condition was accepted as a favor, which would + justly have been deemed a hardship, if it had been imposed upon private + property.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.57" id="linknote-17.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.57">return</a>)<br /> [ The passages of + Zosimus, of Eunapius, of Sozomen, and of Agathias, which relate to the + increase of buildings and inhabitants at Constantinople, are collected and + connected by Gyllius de Byzant. l. i. c. 3. Sidonius Apollinaris (in + Panegyr. Anthem. 56, p. 279, edit. Sirmond) describes the moles that were + pushed forwards into the sea, they consisted of the famous Puzzolan sand, + which hardens in the water.] + </p> + <p> + The frequent and regular distributions of wine and oil, of corn or bread, + of money or provisions, had almost exempted the poorest citizens of Rome + from the necessity of labor. The magnificence of the first Cæsars was in + some measure imitated by the founder of Constantinople: <a + href="#linknote-17.58" name="linknoteref-17.58" id="linknoteref-17.58">58</a> + but his liberality, however it might excite the applause of the people, + has incurred the censure of posterity. A nation of legislators and + conquerors might assert their claim to the harvests of Africa, which had + been purchased with their blood; and it was artfully contrived by + Augustus, that, in the enjoyment of plenty, the Romans should lose the + memory of freedom. But the prodigality of Constantine could not be excused + by any consideration either of public or private interest; and the annual + tribute of corn imposed upon Egypt for the benefit of his new capital, was + applied to feed a lazy and insolent populace, at the expense of the + husbandmen of an industrious province. <a href="#linknote-17.59" + name="linknoteref-17.59" id="linknoteref-17.59">59</a> <a + href="#linknote-17.5911" name="linknoteref-17.5911" id="linknoteref-17.5911">5911</a> + Some other regulations of this emperor are less liable to blame, but they + are less deserving of notice. He divided Constantinople into fourteen + regions or quarters, <a href="#linknote-17.60" name="linknoteref-17.60" + id="linknoteref-17.60">60</a> dignified the public council with the + appellation of senate, <a href="#linknote-17.61" name="linknoteref-17.61" + id="linknoteref-17.61">61</a> communicated to the citizens the privileges + of Italy, <a href="#linknote-17.62" name="linknoteref-17.62" + id="linknoteref-17.62">62</a> and bestowed on the rising city the title of + Colony, the first and most favored daughter of ancient Rome. The venerable + parent still maintained the legal and acknowledged supremacy, which was + due to her age, her dignity, and to the remembrance of her former + greatness. <a href="#linknote-17.63" name="linknoteref-17.63" + id="linknoteref-17.63">63</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.58" id="linknote-17.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.58">return</a>)<br /> [ Sozomen, l. ii. c. 3. + Philostorg. l. ii. c. 9. Codin. Antiquitat. Const. p. 8. It appears by + Socrates, l. ii. c. 13, that the daily allowance of the city consisted of + eight myriads of σίτου, which we may either translate, with Valesius, by the + words modii of corn, or consider us expressive of the number of loaves of + bread. * Note: At Rome the poorer citizens who received these gratuities + were inscribed in a register; they had only a personal right. Constantine + attached the right to the houses in his new capital, to engage the lower + classes of the people to build their houses with expedition. Codex + Therodos. l. xiv.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.59" id="linknote-17.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.59">return</a>)<br /> [ See Cod. Theodos. l. + xiii. and xiv., and Cod. Justinian. Edict. xii. tom. ii. p. 648, edit. + Genev. See the beautiful complaint of Rome in the poem of Claudian de + Bell. Gildonico, ver. 46-64.——Cum subiit par Roma mihi, + divisaque sumsit Æquales aurora togas; Ægyptia rura In partem cessere + novam.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.5911" id="linknote-17.5911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5911 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.5911">return</a>)<br /> [ This was also at + the expense of Rome. The emperor ordered that the fleet of Alexandria + should transport to Constantinople the grain of Egypt which it carried + before to Rome: this grain supplied Rome during four months of the year. + Claudian has described with force the famine occasioned by this measure:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Hæc nobis, hæc ante dabas; nunc pabula tantum + Roma precor: miserere tuæ; pater optime, gentis: + Extremam defende famem. Claud. de Bell. Gildon. v. 34.—G. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + It was scarcely this measure. Gildo had cut off the African as well as the + Egyptian supplies.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.60" id="linknote-17.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.60">return</a>)<br /> [ The regions of + Constantinople are mentioned in the code of Justinian, and particularly + described in the Notitia of the younger Theodosius; but as the four last + of them are not included within the wall of Constantine, it may be doubted + whether this division of the city should be referred to the founder.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.61" id="linknote-17.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Senatum constituit + secundi ordinis; <i>Claros</i> vocavit. Anonym Valesian. p. 715. The senators of + old Rome were styled <i>Clarissimi</i>. See a curious note of Valesius ad Ammian. + Marcellin. xxii. 9. From the eleventh epistle of Julian, it should seem + that the place of senator was considered as a burden, rather than as an + honor; but the Abbé de la Bleterie (Vie de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 371) has + shown that this epistle could not relate to Constantinople. Might we not + read, instead of the celebrated name of the obscure but more probable word + Bisanthe or Rhœdestus, now Rhodosto, was a small maritime city of Thrace. + See Stephan. Byz. de Urbibus, p. 225, and Cellar. Geograph. tom. i. p. + 849.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.62" id="linknote-17.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theodos. l. xiv. + 13. The commentary of Godefroy (tom. v. p. 220) is long, but perplexed; + nor indeed is it easy to ascertain in what the Jus Italicum could consist, + after the freedom of the city had been communicated to the whole empire. * + Note: “This right, (the Jus Italicum,) which by most writers is referred + with out foundation to the personal condition of the citizens, properly + related to the city as a whole, and contained two parts. First, the Roman + or quiritarian property in the soil, (commercium,) and its capability of + mancipation, usucaption, and vindication; moreover, as an inseparable + consequence of this, exemption from land-tax. Then, secondly, a free + constitution in the Italian form, with Duumvirs, Quinquennales. and + Ædiles, and especially with Jurisdiction.” Savigny, Geschichte des Rom. + Rechts i. p. 51—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.63" id="linknote-17.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.63">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (Orat. i. p. 8) + celebrates Constantinople as not less superior to all other cities than + she was inferior to Rome itself. His learned commentator (Spanheim, p. 75, + 76) justifies this language by several parallel and contemporary + instances. Zosimus, as well as Socrates and Sozomen, flourished after the + division of the empire between the two sons of Theodosius, which + established a perfect <i>equality</i> between the old and the new capital.] + </p> + <p> + As Constantine urged the progress of the work with the impatience of a + lover, the walls, the porticos, and the principal edifices were completed + in a few years, or, according to another account, in a few months; <a + href="#linknote-17.64" name="linknoteref-17.64" id="linknoteref-17.64">64</a> + but this extraordinary diligence should excite the less admiration, since + many of the buildings were finished in so hasty and imperfect a manner, + that under the succeeding reign, they were preserved with difficulty from + impending ruin. <a href="#linknote-17.65" name="linknoteref-17.65" + id="linknoteref-17.65">65</a> But while they displayed the vigor and + freshness of youth, the founder prepared to celebrate the dedication of + his city. <a href="#linknote-17.66" name="linknoteref-17.66" + id="linknoteref-17.66">66</a> The games and largesses which crowned the + pomp of this memorable festival may easily be supposed; but there is one + circumstance of a more singular and permanent nature, which ought not + entirely to be overlooked. As often as the birthday of the city returned, + the statue of Constantine, framed by his order, of gilt wood, and bearing + in his right hand a small image of the genius of the place, was erected on + a triumphal car. The guards, carrying white tapers, and clothed in their + richest apparel, accompanied the solemn procession as it moved through the + Hippodrome. When it was opposite to the throne of the reigning emperor, he + rose from his seat, and with grateful reverence adored the memory of his + predecessor. <a href="#linknote-17.67" name="linknoteref-17.67" + id="linknoteref-17.67">67</a> At the festival of the dedication, an edict, + engraved on a column of marble, bestowed the title of Second or New Rome + on the city of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-17.68" + name="linknoteref-17.68" id="linknoteref-17.68">68</a> But the name of + Constantinople <a href="#linknote-17.69" name="linknoteref-17.69" + id="linknoteref-17.69">69</a> has prevailed over that honorable epithet; + and after the revolution of fourteen centuries, still perpetuates the fame + of its author. <a href="#linknote-17.70" name="linknoteref-17.70" + id="linknoteref-17.70">70</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.64" id="linknote-17.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Codinus (Antiquitat. p. + 8) affirms, that the foundations of Constantinople were laid in the year + of the world 5837, (A. D. 329,) on the 26th of September, and that the + city was dedicated the 11th of May, 5838, (A. D. 330.) He connects those + dates with several characteristic epochs, but they contradict each other; + the authority of Codinus is of little weight, and the space which he + assigns must appear insufficient. The term of ten years is given us by + Julian, (Orat. i. p. 8;) and Spanheim labors to establish the truth of it, + (p. 69-75,) by the help of two passages from Themistius, (Orat. iv. p. + 58,) and of Philostorgius, (l. ii. c. 9,) which form a period from the + year 324 to the year 334. Modern critics are divided concerning this point + of chronology and their different sentiments are very accurately described + by Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 619-625.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.65" id="linknote-17.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Themistius. Orat. iii. + p. 47. Zosim. l. ii. p. 108. Constantine himself, in one of his laws, + (Cod. Theod. l. xv. tit. i.,) betrays his impatience.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.66" id="linknote-17.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Cedrenus and Zonaras, + faithful to the mode of superstition which prevailed in their own times, + assure us that Constantinople was consecrated to the virgin Mother of + God.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.67" id="linknote-17.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.67">return</a>)<br /> [ The earliest and most + complete account of this extraordinary ceremony may be found in the + Alexandrian Chronicle, p. 285. Tillemont, and the other friends of + Constantine, who are offended with the air of Paganism which seems + unworthy of a Christian prince, had a right to consider it as doubtful, + but they were not authorized to omit the mention of it.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.68" id="linknote-17.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Sozomen, l. ii. c. 2. + Ducange C. P. l. i. c. 6. Velut ipsius Romæ filiam, is the expression of + Augustin. de Civitat. Dei, l. v. c. 25.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.69" id="linknote-17.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Eutropius, l. x. c. 8. + Julian. Orat. i. p. 8. Ducange C. P. l. i. c. 5. The name of + Constantinople is extant on the medals of Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.70" id="linknote-17.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.70">return</a>)<br /> [ The lively Fontenelle + (Dialogues des Morts, xii.) affects to deride the vanity of human + ambition, and seems to triumph in the disappointment of Constantine, whose + immortal name is now lost in the vulgar appellation of Istambol, a Turkish + corruption of είς τήν πόλιω. Yet the original name is still preserved, 1. By the nations + of Europe. 2. By the modern Greeks. 3. By the Arabs, whose writings are + diffused over the wide extent of their conquests in Asia and Africa. See + D’Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 275. 4. By the more learned Turks, + and by the emperor himself in his public mandates Cantemir’s History of + the Othman Empire, p. 51.] + </p> + <p> + The foundation of a new capital is naturally connected with the + establishment of a new form of civil and military administration. The + distinct view of the complicated system of policy, introduced by + Diocletian, improved by Constantine, and completed by his immediate + successors, may not only amuse the fancy by the singular picture of a + great empire, but will tend to illustrate the secret and internal causes + of its rapid decay. In the pursuit of any remarkable institution, we may + be frequently led into the more early or the more recent times of the + Roman history; but the proper limits of this inquiry will be included + within a period of about one hundred and thirty years, from the accession + of Constantine to the publication of the Theodosian code; <a + href="#linknote-17.71" name="linknoteref-17.71" id="linknoteref-17.71">71</a> + from which, as well as from the <i>Notitia</i> <a href="#linknote-17.7111" + name="linknoteref-17.7111" id="linknoteref-17.7111">7111</a> of the East and + West, <a href="#linknote-17.72" name="linknoteref-17.72" + id="linknoteref-17.72">72</a> we derive the most copious and authentic + information of the state of the empire. This variety of objects will + suspend, for some time, the course of the narrative; but the interruption + will be censured only by those readers who are insensible to the + importance of laws and manners, while they peruse, with eager curiosity, + the transient intrigues of a court, or the accidental event of a battle. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.71" id="linknote-17.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.71">return</a>)<br /> [ The Theodosian code was + promulgated A. D. 438. See the Prolegomena of Godefroy, c. i. p. 185.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.7111" id="linknote-17.7111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7111 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.7111">return</a>)<br /> [ The Notitia + Dignitatum Imperii is a description of all the offices in the court and + the state, of the legions, &c. It resembles our court almanacs, (Red + Books,) with this single difference, that our almanacs name the persons in + office, the Notitia only the offices. It is of the time of the emperor + Theodosius II., that is to say, of the fifth century, when the empire was + divided into the Eastern and Western. It is probable that it was not made + for the first time, and that descriptions of the same kind existed before.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.72" id="linknote-17.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Pancirolus, in his + elaborate Commentary, assigns to the Notitia a date almost similar to that + of the Theodosian Code; but his proofs, or rather conjectures, are + extremely feeble. I should be rather inclined to place this useful work + between the final division of the empire (A. D. 395) and the successful + invasion of Gaul by the barbarians, (A. D. 407.) See Histoire des Anciens + Peuples de l’Europe, tom. vii. p. 40.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap17.3"></a> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The manly pride of the Romans, content with substantial power, had left to + the vanity of the East the forms and ceremonies of ostentatious greatness. + <a href="#linknote-17.73" name="linknoteref-17.73" id="linknoteref-17.73">73</a> + But when they lost even the semblance of those virtues which were derived + from their ancient freedom, the simplicity of Roman manners was insensibly + corrupted by the stately affectation of the courts of Asia. The + distinctions of personal merit and influence, so conspicuous in a + republic, so feeble and obscure under a monarchy, were abolished by the + despotism of the emperors; who substituted in their room a severe + subordination of rank and office from the titled slaves who were seated on + the steps of the throne, to the meanest instruments of arbitrary power. + This multitude of abject dependants was interested in the support of the + actual government from the dread of a revolution, which might at once + confound their hopes and intercept the reward of their services. In this + divine hierarchy (for such it is frequently styled) every rank was marked + with the most scrupulous exactness, and its dignity was displayed in a + variety of trifling and solemn ceremonies, which it was a study to learn, + and a sacrilege to neglect. <a href="#linknote-17.74" + name="linknoteref-17.74" id="linknoteref-17.74">74</a> The purity of the + Latin language was debased, by adopting, in the intercourse of pride and + flattery, a profusion of epithets, which Tully would scarcely have + understood, and which Augustus would have rejected with indignation. The + principal officers of the empire were saluted, even by the sovereign + himself, with the deceitful titles of your <i>Sincerity</i>, your <i>Gravity</i>, your + <i>Excellency</i>, your <i>Eminence</i>, your <i>sublime and wonderful Magnitude</i>, your + <i>illustrious and magnificent Highness</i>. <a href="#linknote-17.75" + name="linknoteref-17.75" id="linknoteref-17.75">75</a> The codicils or + patents of their office were curiously emblazoned with such emblems as + were best adapted to explain its nature and high dignity; the image or + portrait of the reigning emperors; a triumphal car; the book of mandates + placed on a table, covered with a rich carpet, and illuminated by four + tapers; the allegorical figures of the provinces which they governed; or + the appellations and standards of the troops whom they commanded. Some of + these official ensigns were really exhibited in their hall of audience; + others preceded their pompous march whenever they appeared in public; and + every circumstance of their demeanor, their dress, their ornaments, and + their train, was calculated to inspire a deep reverence for the + representatives of supreme majesty. By a philosophic observer, the system + of the Roman government might have been mistaken for a splendid theatre, + filled with players of every character and degree, who repeated the + language, and imitated the passions, of their original model. <a + href="#linknote-17.76" name="linknoteref-17.76" id="linknoteref-17.76">76</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.73" id="linknote-17.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.73">return</a>)<br /> [ Scilicet externæ + superbiæ sueto, non inerat notitia nostri, (perhaps <i>nostræ;</i>) apud quos + vis Imperii valet, inania transmittuntur. Tacit. Annal. xv. 31. The + gradation from the style of freedom and simplicity, to that of form and + servitude, may be traced in the Epistles of Cicero, of Pliny, and of + Symmachus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.74" id="linknote-17.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.74">return</a>)<br /> [ The emperor Gratian, + after confirming a law of precedency published by Valentinian, the father + of his <i>Divinity</i>, thus continues: Siquis igitur indebitum sibi locum + usurpaverit, nulla se ignoratione defendat; sitque plane <i>sacrilegii</i> reus, + qui <i>divina</i> præcepta neglexerit. Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. v. leg. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.75" id="linknote-17.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult the <i>Notitia + Dignitatum</i> at the end of the Theodosian code, tom. vi. p. 316. * Note: + Constantin, qui remplaca le grand Patriciat par une noblesse titree et qui + changea avec d’autres institutions la nature de la societe Latine, est le + veritable fondateur de la royaute moderne, dans ce quelle conserva de + Romain. Chateaubriand, Etud. Histor. Preface, i. 151. Manso, (Leben + Constantins des Grossen,) p. 153, &c., has given a lucid view of the + dignities and duties of the officers in the Imperial court.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.76" id="linknote-17.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Pancirolus ad Notitiam + utriusque Imperii, p. 39. But his explanations are obscure, and he does + not sufficiently distinguish the painted emblems from the effective + ensigns of office.] + </p> + <p> + All the magistrates of sufficient importance to find a place in the + general state of the empire, were accurately divided into three classes. + 1. The <i>Illustrious</i>. 2. The <i>Spectabiles</i>, or <i>Respectable</i>. And, 3. the + <i>Clarissimi;</i> whom we may translate by the word <i>Honorable</i>. In the times of + Roman simplicity, the last-mentioned epithet was used only as a vague + expression of deference, till it became at length the peculiar and + appropriated title of all who were members of the senate, <a + href="#linknote-17.77" name="linknoteref-17.77" id="linknoteref-17.77">77</a> + and consequently of all who, from that venerable body, were selected to + govern the provinces. The vanity of those who, from their rank and office, + might claim a superior distinction above the rest of the senatorial order, + was long afterwards indulged with the new appellation of <i>Respectable;</i> but + the title of <i>Illustrious</i> was always reserved to some eminent personages + who were obeyed or reverenced by the two subordinate classes. It was + communicated only, I. To the consuls and patricians; II. To the Prætorian + præfects, with the præfects of Rome and Constantinople; III. To the + masters-general of the cavalry and the infantry; and IV. To the seven + ministers of the palace, who exercised their <i>sacred</i> functions about the + person of the emperor. <a href="#linknote-17.78" name="linknoteref-17.78" + id="linknoteref-17.78">78</a> Among those illustrious magistrates who were + esteemed coordinate with each other, the seniority of appointment gave + place to the union of dignities. <a href="#linknote-17.79" + name="linknoteref-17.79" id="linknoteref-17.79">79</a> By the expedient of + honorary codicils, the emperors, who were fond of multiplying their + favors, might sometimes gratify the vanity, though not the ambition, of + impatient courtiers. <a href="#linknote-17.80" name="linknoteref-17.80" + id="linknoteref-17.80">80</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.77" id="linknote-17.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.77">return</a>)<br /> [ In the Pandects, which + may be referred to the reigns of the Antonines, Clarissimus is the + ordinary and legal title of a senator.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.78" id="linknote-17.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.78">return</a>)<br /> [ Pancirol. p. 12-17. I + have not taken any notice of the two inferior ranks, <i>Prefectissimus</i> and + <i>Egregius</i>, which were given to many persons who were not raised to the + senatorial dignity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.79" id="linknote-17.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theodos. l. vi. + tit. vi. The rules of precedency are ascertained with the most minute + accuracy by the emperors, and illustrated with equal prolixity by their + learned interpreter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.80" id="linknote-17.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.80">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theodos. l. vi. + tit. xxii.] + </p> + <p> + I. As long as the Roman consuls were the first magistrates of a free + state, they derived their right to power from the choice of the people. As + long as the emperors condescended to disguise the servitude which they + imposed, the consuls were still elected by the real or apparent suffrage + of the senate. From the reign of Diocletian, even these vestiges of + liberty were abolished, and the successful candidates who were invested + with the annual honors of the consulship, affected to deplore the + humiliating condition of their predecessors. The Scipios and the Catos had + been reduced to solicit the votes of plebeians, to pass through the + tedious and expensive forms of a popular election, and to expose their + dignity to the shame of a public refusal; while their own happier fate had + reserved them for an age and government in which the rewards of virtue + were assigned by the unerring wisdom of a gracious sovereign. <a + href="#linknote-17.81" name="linknoteref-17.81" id="linknoteref-17.81">81</a> + In the epistles which the emperor addressed to the two consuls elect, it + was declared, that they were created by his sole authority. <a + href="#linknote-17.82" name="linknoteref-17.82" id="linknoteref-17.82">82</a> + Their names and portraits, engraved on gilt tables of ivory, were + dispersed over the empire as presents to the provinces, the cities, the + magistrates, the senate, and the people. <a href="#linknote-17.83" + name="linknoteref-17.83" id="linknoteref-17.83">83</a> Their solemn + inauguration was performed at the place of the Imperial residence; and + during a period of one hundred and twenty years, Rome was constantly + deprived of the presence of her ancient magistrates. <a + href="#linknote-17.84" name="linknoteref-17.84" id="linknoteref-17.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.81" id="linknote-17.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Ausonius (in Gratiarum + Actione) basely expatiates on this unworthy topic, which is managed by + Mamertinus (Panegyr. Vet. xi. [x.] 16, 19) with somewhat more freedom and + ingenuity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.82" id="linknote-17.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Cum de Consulibus in + annum creandis, solus mecum volutarem.... te Consulem et designavi, et + declaravi, et priorem nuncupavi; are some of the expressions employed by + the emperor Gratian to his preceptor, the poet Ausonius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.83" id="linknote-17.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.83">return</a>)<br /> [ Immanesque... dentes + Qui secti ferro in tabulas auroque micantes, Inscripti rutilum cœlato + Consule nomen Per proceres et vulgus eant. —Claud. in ii. Cons. + Stilichon. 456. + </p> + <p> + Montfaucon has represented some of these tablets or dypticks see + Supplement à l’Antiquité expliquée, tom. iii. p. 220.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.84" id="linknote-17.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.84">return</a>)<br /> [ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Consule lætatur post plurima seculo viso + Pallanteus apex: agnoscunt rostra curules + Auditas quondam proavis: + desuetaque cingit Regius auratis + Fora fascibus Ulpia lictor. + —Claud. in vi. Cons. Honorii, 643. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + From the reign of Carus to the sixth consulship of Honorius, there was an + interval of one hundred and twenty years, during which the emperors were + always absent from Rome on the first day of January. See the Chronologie + de Tillemonte, tom. iii. iv. and v.] + </p> + <p> + On the morning of the first of January, the consuls assumed the ensigns of + their dignity. Their dress was a robe of purple, embroidered in silk and + gold, and sometimes ornamented with costly gems. <a href="#linknote-17.85" + name="linknoteref-17.85" id="linknoteref-17.85">85</a> On this solemn + occasion they were attended by the most eminent officers of the state and + army, in the habit of senators; and the useless fasces, armed with the + once formidable axes, were borne before them by the lictors. + The procession moved from the palace <a href="#linknote-17.87" + name="linknoteref-17.87" id="linknoteref-17.87">87</a> to the Forum or + principal square of the city; where the consuls ascended their tribunal, + and seated themselves in the curule chairs, which were framed after the + fashion of ancient times. They immediately exercised an act of + jurisdiction, by the manumission of a slave, who was brought before them + for that purpose; and the ceremony was intended to represent the + celebrated action of the elder Brutus, the author of liberty and of the + consulship, when he admitted among his fellow-citizens the faithful + Vindex, who had revealed the conspiracy of the Tarquins. <a + href="#linknote-17.88" name="linknoteref-17.88" id="linknoteref-17.88">88</a> + The public festival was continued during several days in all the principal + cities in Rome, from custom; in Constantinople, from imitation in + Carthage, Antioch, and Alexandria, from the love of pleasure, and the + superfluity of wealth. <a href="#linknote-17.89" name="linknoteref-17.89" + id="linknoteref-17.89">89</a> In the two capitals of the empire the annual + games of the theatre, the circus, and the amphitheatre, <a + href="#linknote-17.90" name="linknoteref-17.90" id="linknoteref-17.90">90</a> + cost four thousand pounds of gold, (about) one hundred and sixty thousand + pounds sterling: and if so heavy an expense surpassed the faculties or the + inclinations of the magistrates themselves, the sum was supplied from the + Imperial treasury. <a href="#linknote-17.91" name="linknoteref-17.91" + id="linknoteref-17.91">91</a> As soon as the consuls had discharged these + customary duties, they were at liberty to retire into the shade of private + life, and to enjoy, during the remainder of the year, the undisturbed + contemplation of their own greatness. They no longer presided in the + national councils; they no longer executed the resolutions of peace or + war. Their abilities (unless they were employed in more effective offices) + were of little moment; and their names served only as the legal date of + the year in which they had filled the chair of Marius and of Cicero. Yet + it was still felt and acknowledged, in the last period of Roman servitude, + that this empty name might be compared, and even preferred, to the + possession of substantial power. The title of consul was still the most + splendid object of ambition, the noblest reward of virtue and loyalty. The + emperors themselves, who disdained the faint shadow of the republic, were + conscious that they acquired an additional splendor and majesty as often + as they assumed the annual honors of the consular dignity. <a + href="#linknote-17.92" name="linknoteref-17.92" id="linknoteref-17.92">92</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.85" id="linknote-17.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.85">return</a>)<br /> [ See Claudian in Cons. + Prob. et Olybrii, 178, &c.; and in iv. Cons. Honorii, 585, &c.; + though in the latter it is not easy to separate the ornaments of the + emperor from those of the consul. Ausonius received from the liberality of + Gratian a <i>vestis palmata</i>, or robe of state, in which the figure of the + emperor Constantius was embroidered. Cernis et armorum proceres legumque + potentes: Patricios sumunt habitus; et more Gabino Discolor incedit legio, + positisque parumper Bellorum signis, sequitur vexilla Quirini. Lictori + cedunt aquilæ, ridetque togatus Miles, et in mediis effulget curia + castris. —Claud. in iv. Cons. Honorii, 5. —<i>strictaque</i> procul + radiare <i>secures</i>. —In Cons. Prob. 229] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.87" id="linknote-17.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.87">return</a>)<br /> [ See Valesius ad Ammian. + Marcellin. l. xxii. c. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.88" id="linknote-17.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.88">return</a>)<br /> [ Auspice mox læto + sonuit clamore tribunal; Te fastos ineunte quater; solemnia ludit Omina + libertas; deductum Vindice morem Lex servat, famulusque jugo laxatus + herili Ducitur, et grato remeat securior ictu. —Claud. in iv Cons. + Honorii, 611] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.89" id="linknote-17.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.89">return</a>)<br /> [ Celebrant quidem + solemnes istos dies omnes ubique urbes quæ sub legibus agunt; et Roma de + more, et Constantinopolis de imitatione, et Antiochia pro luxu, et + discincta Carthago, et domus fluminis Alexandria, sed Treviri Principis + beneficio. Ausonius in Grat. Actione.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.90" id="linknote-17.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Claudian (in Cons. + Mall. Theodori, 279-331) describes, in a lively and fanciful manner, the + various games of the circus, the theatre, and the amphitheatre, exhibited + by the new consul. The sanguinary combats of gladiators had already been + prohibited.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.91" id="linknote-17.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Procopius in Hist. + Arcana, c. 26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.92" id="linknote-17.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.92">return</a>)<br /> [ In Consulatu honos sine + labore suscipitur. (Mamertin. in Panegyr. Vet. xi. [x.] 2.) This exalted + idea of the consulship is borrowed from an oration (iii. p. 107) + pronounced by Julian in the servile court of Constantius. See the Abbé de + la Bleterie, (Mémoires de l’Académie, tom. xxiv. p. 289,) who delights to + pursue the vestiges of the old constitution, and who sometimes finds them + in his copious fancy] + </p> + <p> + The proudest and most perfect separation which can be found in any age or + country, between the nobles and the people, is perhaps that of the + Patricians and the Plebeians, as it was established in the first age of + the Roman republic. Wealth and honors, the offices of the state, and the + ceremonies of religion, were almost exclusively possessed by the former + who, preserving the purity of their blood with the most insulting + jealousy, <a href="#linknote-17.93" name="linknoteref-17.93" + id="linknoteref-17.93">93</a> held their clients in a condition of specious + vassalage. But these distinctions, so incompatible with the spirit of a + free people, were removed, after a long struggle, by the persevering + efforts of the Tribunes. The most active and successful of the Plebeians + accumulated wealth, aspired to honors, deserved triumphs, contracted + alliances, and, after some generations, assumed the pride of ancient + nobility. <a href="#linknote-17.94" name="linknoteref-17.94" + id="linknoteref-17.94">94</a> The Patrician families, on the other hand, + whose original number was never recruited till the end of the + commonwealth, either failed in the ordinary course of nature, or were + extinguished in so many foreign and domestic wars, or, through a want of + merit or fortune, insensibly mingled with the mass of the people. <a + href="#linknote-17.95" name="linknoteref-17.95" id="linknoteref-17.95">95</a> + Very few remained who could derive their pure and genuine origin from the + infancy of the city, or even from that of the republic, when Cæsar and + Augustus, Claudius and Vespasian, created from the body of the senate a + competent number of new Patrician families, in the hope of perpetuating an + order, which was still considered as honorable and sacred. <a + href="#linknote-17.96" name="linknoteref-17.96" id="linknoteref-17.96">96</a> + But these artificial supplies (in which the reigning house was always + included) were rapidly swept away by the rage of tyrants, by frequent + revolutions, by the change of manners, and by the intermixture of nations. + <a href="#linknote-17.97" name="linknoteref-17.97" id="linknoteref-17.97">97</a> + Little more was left when Constantine ascended the throne, than a vague + and imperfect tradition, that the Patricians had once been the first of + the Romans. To form a body of nobles, whose influence may restrain, while + it secures the authority of the monarch, would have been very inconsistent + with the character and policy of Constantine; but had he seriously + entertained such a design, it might have exceeded the measure of his power + to ratify, by an arbitrary edict, an institution which must expect the + sanction of time and of opinion. He revived, indeed, the title of + Patricians, but he revived it as a personal, not as an hereditary + distinction. They yielded only to the transient superiority of the annual + consuls; but they enjoyed the pre-eminence over all the great officers of + state, with the most familiar access to the person of the prince. This + honorable rank was bestowed on them for life; and as they were usually + favorites, and ministers who had grown old in the Imperial court, the true + etymology of the word was perverted by ignorance and flattery; and the + Patricians of Constantine were reverenced as the adopted <i>Fathers</i> of the + emperor and the republic. <a href="#linknote-17.98" name="linknoteref-17.98" + id="linknoteref-17.98">98</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.93" id="linknote-17.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.93">return</a>)<br /> [ Intermarriages between + the Patricians and Plebeians were prohibited by the laws of the XII + Tables; and the uniform operations of human nature may attest that the + custom survived the law. See in Livy (iv. 1-6) the pride of family urged + by the consul, and the rights of mankind asserted by the tribune + Canuleius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.94" id="linknote-17.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.94">return</a>)<br /> [ See the animated + picture drawn by Sallust, in the Jugurthine war, of the pride of the + nobles, and even of the virtuous Metellus, who was unable to brook the + idea that the honor of the consulship should be bestowed on the obscure + merit of his lieutenant Marius. (c. 64.) Two hundred years before, the + race of the Metelli themselves were confounded among the Plebeians of + Rome; and from the etymology of their name of <i>Cæcilius</i>, there is reason + to believe that those haughty nobles derived their origin from a sutler.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.95" id="linknote-17.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.95">return</a>)<br /> [ In the year of Rome + 800, very few remained, not only of the old Patrician families, but even + of those which had been created by Cæsar and Augustus. (Tacit. Annal. xi. + 25.) The family of Scaurus (a branch of the Patrician Æmilii) was + degraded so low that his father, who exercised the trade of a charcoal + merchant, left him only teu slaves, and somewhat less than three hundred + pounds sterling. (Valerius Maximus, l. iv. c. 4, n. 11. Aurel. Victor in + Scauro.) The family was saved from oblivion by the merit of the son.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.96" id="linknote-17.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.96">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacit. Annal. xi. 25. + Dion Cassius, l. iii. p. 698. The virtues of Agricola, who was created a + Patrician by the emperor Vespasian, reflected honor on that ancient order; + but his ancestors had not any claim beyond an Equestrian nobility.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.97" id="linknote-17.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.97">return</a>)<br /> [ This failure would have + been almost impossible if it were true, as Casaubon compels Aurelius + Victor to affirm (ad Sueton, in Cæsar v. 24. See Hist. August p. 203 and + Casaubon Comment., p. 220) that Vespasian created at once a thousand + Patrician families. But this extravagant number is too much even for the + whole Senatorial order. unless we should include all the Roman knights who + were distinguished by the permission of wearing the laticlave.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.98" id="linknote-17.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.98">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 118; + and Godefroy ad Cod. Theodos. l. vi. tit. vi.] + </p> + <p> + II. The fortunes of the Prætorian præfects were essentially different + from those of the consuls and Patricians. The latter saw their ancient + greatness evaporate in a vain title. + </p> + <p> + The former, rising by degrees from the most humble condition, were + invested with the civil and military administration of the Roman world. + From the reign of Severus to that of Diocletian, the guards and the + palace, the laws and the finances, the armies and the provinces, were + intrusted to their superintending care; and, like the Viziers of the East, + they held with one hand the seal, and with the other the standard, of the + empire. The ambition of the præfects, always formidable, and sometimes + fatal to the masters whom they served, was supported by the strength of + the Prætorian bands; but after those haughty troops had been weakened by + Diocletian, and finally suppressed by Constantine, the præfects, who + survived their fall, were reduced without difficulty to the station of + useful and obedient ministers. When they were no longer responsible for + the safety of the emperor’s person, they resigned the jurisdiction which + they had hitherto claimed and exercised over all the departments of the + palace. They were deprived by Constantine of all military command, as soon + as they had ceased to lead into the field, under their immediate orders, + the flower of the Roman troops; and at length, by a singular revolution, + the captains of the guards were transformed into the civil magistrates of + the provinces. According to the plan of government instituted by + Diocletian, the four princes had each their Prætorian præfect; and after + the monarchy was once more united in the person of Constantine, he still + continued to create the same number of Four Præfects, and intrusted to + their care the same provinces which they already administered. 1. The + præfect of the East stretched his ample jurisdiction into the three parts + of the globe which were subject to the Romans, from the cataracts of the + Nile to the banks of the Phasis, and from the mountains of Thrace to the + frontiers of Persia. 2. The important provinces of Pannonia, Dacia, + Macedonia, and Greece, once acknowledged the authority of the præfect of + Illyricum. 3. The power of the præfect of Italy was not confined to the + country from whence he derived his title; it extended over the additional + territory of Rhætia as far as the banks of the Danube, over the dependent + islands of the Mediterranean, and over that part of the continent of + Africa which lies between the confines of Cyrene and those of Tingitania. + 4. The præfect of the Gauls comprehended under that plural denomination + the kindred provinces of Britain and Spain, and his authority was obeyed + from the wall of Antoninus to the foot of Mount Atlas. <a + href="#linknote-17.99" name="linknoteref-17.99" id="linknoteref-17.99">99</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.99" id="linknote-17.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.99">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 109, + 110. If we had not fortunately possessed this satisfactory account of the + division of the power and provinces of the Prætorian præfects, we should + frequently have been perplexed amidst the copious details of the Code, and + the circumstantial minuteness of the Notitia.] + </p> + <p> + After the Prætorian præfects had been dismissed from all military + command, the civil functions which they were ordained to exercise over so + many subject nations, were adequate to the ambition and abilities of the + most consummate ministers. To their wisdom was committed the supreme + administration of justice and of the finances, the two objects which, in a + state of peace, comprehend almost all the respective duties of the + sovereign and of the people; of the former, to protect the citizens who + are obedient to the laws; of the latter, to contribute the share of their + property which is required for the expenses of the state. The coin, the + highways, the posts, the granaries, the manufactures, whatever could + interest the public prosperity, was moderated by the authority of the + Prætorian præfects. As the immediate representatives of the Imperial + majesty, they were empowered to explain, to enforce, and on some occasions + to modify, the general edicts by their discretionary proclamations. They + watched over the conduct of the provincial governors, removed the + negligent, and inflicted punishments on the guilty. From all the inferior + jurisdictions, an appeal in every matter of importance, either civil or + criminal, might be brought before the tribunal of the præfect; but <i>his</i> + sentence was final and absolute; and the emperors themselves refused to + admit any complaints against the judgment or the integrity of a magistrate + whom they honored with such unbounded confidence. <a href="#linknote-17.100" + name="linknoteref-17.100" id="linknoteref-17.100">100</a> His appointments + were suitable to his dignity; <a href="#linknote-17.101" + name="linknoteref-17.101" id="linknoteref-17.101">101</a> and if avarice was + his ruling passion, he enjoyed frequent opportunities of collecting a rich + harvest of fees, of presents, and of perquisites. Though the emperors no + longer dreaded the ambition of their præfects, they were attentive to + counterbalance the power of this great office by the uncertainty and + shortness of its duration. <a href="#linknote-17.102" + name="linknoteref-17.102" id="linknoteref-17.102">102</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.100" id="linknote-17.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.100">return</a>)<br /> [ See a law of + Constantine himself. A præfectis autem prætorio provocare, non sinimus. + Cod. Justinian. l. vii. tit. lxii. leg. 19. Charisius, a lawyer of the + time of Constantine, (Heinec. Hist. Romani, p. 349,) who admits this law + as a fundamental principle of jurisprudence, compares the Prætorian + præfects to the masters of the horse of the ancient dictators. Pandect. + l. i. tit. xi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.101" id="linknote-17.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.101">return</a>)<br /> [ When Justinian, in + the exhausted condition of the empire, instituted a Prætorian præfect + for Africa, he allowed him a salary of one hundred pounds of gold. Cod. + Justinian. l. i. tit. xxvii. leg. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.102" id="linknote-17.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.102">return</a>)<br /> [ For this, and the + other dignities of the empire, it may be sufficient to refer to the ample + commentaries of Pancirolus and Godefroy, who have diligently collected and + accurately digested in their proper order all the legal and historical + materials. From those authors, Dr. Howell (History of the World, vol. ii. + p. 24-77) has deduced a very distinct abridgment of the state of the Roman + empire] + </p> + <p> + From their superior importance and dignity, Rome and Constantinople were + alone excepted from the jurisdiction of the Prætorian præfects. The + immense size of the city, and the experience of the tardy, ineffectual + operation of the laws, had furnished the policy of Augustus with a + specious pretence for introducing a new magistrate, who alone could + restrain a servile and turbulent populace by the strong arm of arbitrary + power. <a href="#linknote-17.103" name="linknoteref-17.103" + id="linknoteref-17.103">103</a> Valerius Messalla was appointed the first + præfect of Rome, that his reputation might countenance so invidious a + measure; but, at the end of a few days, that accomplished citizen <a + href="#linknote-17.104" name="linknoteref-17.104" id="linknoteref-17.104">104</a> + resigned his office, declaring, with a spirit worthy of the friend of + Brutus, that he found himself incapable of exercising a power incompatible + with public freedom. <a href="#linknote-17.105" name="linknoteref-17.105" + id="linknoteref-17.105">105</a> As the sense of liberty became less + exquisite, the advantages of order were more clearly understood; and the + præfect, who seemed to have been designed as a terror only to slaves and + vagrants, was permitted to extend his civil and criminal jurisdiction over + the equestrian and noble families of Rome. The prætors, annually created + as the judges of law and equity, could not long dispute the possession of + the Forum with a vigorous and permanent magistrate, who was usually + admitted into the confidence of the prince. Their courts were deserted, + their number, which had once fluctuated between twelve and eighteen, <a + href="#linknote-17.106" name="linknoteref-17.106" id="linknoteref-17.106">106</a> + was gradually reduced to two or three, and their important functions were + confined to the expensive obligation <a href="#linknote-17.107" + name="linknoteref-17.107" id="linknoteref-17.107">107</a> of exhibiting + games for the amusement of the people. After the office of the Roman + consuls had been changed into a vain pageant, which was rarely displayed + in the capital, the præfects assumed their vacant place in the senate, + and were soon acknowledged as the ordinary presidents of that venerable + assembly. They received appeals from the distance of one hundred miles; + and it was allowed as a principle of jurisprudence, that all municipal + authority was derived from them alone. <a href="#linknote-17.108" + name="linknoteref-17.108" id="linknoteref-17.108">108</a> In the discharge + of his laborious employment, the governor of Rome was assisted by fifteen + officers, some of whom had been originally his equals, or even his + superiors. The principal departments were relative to the command of a + numerous watch, established as a safeguard against fires, robberies, and + nocturnal disorders; the custody and distribution of the public allowance + of corn and provisions; the care of the port, of the aqueducts, of the + common sewers, and of the navigation and bed of the Tyber; the inspection + of the markets, the theatres, and of the private as well as the public + works. Their vigilance insured the three principal objects of a regular + police, safety, plenty, and cleanliness; and as a proof of the attention + of government to preserve the splendor and ornaments of the capital, a + particular inspector was appointed for the statues; the guardian, as it + were, of that inanimate people, which, according to the extravagant + computation of an old writer, was scarcely inferior in number to the + living inhabitants of Rome. About thirty years after the foundation of + Constantinople, a similar magistrate was created in that rising + metropolis, for the same uses and with the same powers. A perfect equality + was established between the dignity of the <i>two</i> municipal, and that of the + <i>four</i> Prætorian præfects. <a href="#linknote-17.109" + name="linknoteref-17.109" id="linknoteref-17.109">109</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.103" id="linknote-17.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.103">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacit. Annal. vi. 11. + Euseb. in Chron. p. 155. Dion Cassius, in the oration of Mæcenas, (l. + lvii. p. 675,) describes the prerogatives of the præfect of the city as + they were established in his own time.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.104" id="linknote-17.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.104">return</a>)<br /> [ The fame of Messalla + has been scarcely equal to his merit. In the earliest youth he was + recommended by Cicero to the friendship of Brutus. He followed the + standard of the republic till it was broken in the fields of Philippi; he + then accepted and deserved the favor of the most moderate of the + conquerors; and uniformly asserted his freedom and dignity in the court of + Augustus. The triumph of Messalla was justified by the conquest of + Aquitain. As an orator, he disputed the palm of eloquence with Cicero + himself. Messalla cultivated every muse, and was the patron of every man + of genius. He spent his evenings in philosophic conversation with Horace; + assumed his place at table between Delia and Tibullus; and amused his + leisure by encouraging the poetical talents of young Ovid.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.105" id="linknote-17.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.105">return</a>)<br /> [ Incivilem esse + potestatem contestans, says the translator of Eusebius. Tacitus expresses + the same idea in other words; quasi nescius exercendi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.106" id="linknote-17.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.106">return</a>)<br /> [ See Lipsius, Excursus + D. ad 1 lib. Tacit. Annal.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.107" id="linknote-17.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.107">return</a>)<br /> [ Heineccii. Element. + Juris Civilis secund ordinem Pandect i. p. 70. See, likewise, Spanheim de + Usu. Numismatum, tom. ii. dissertat. x. p. 119. In the year 450, Marcian + published a law, that <i>three</i> citizens should be annually created Prætors + of Constantinople by the choice of the senate, but with their own consent. + Cod. Justinian. li. i. tit. xxxix. leg. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.108" id="linknote-17.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.108">return</a>)<br /> [ Quidquid igitur intra + urbem admittitur, ad P. U. videtur pertinere; sed et siquid intra + contesimum milliarium. Ulpian in Pandect l. i. tit. xiii. n. 1. He + proceeds to enumerate the various offices of the præfect, who, in the + code of Justinian, (l. i. tit. xxxix. leg. 3,) is declared to precede and + command all city magistrates sine injuria ac detrimento honoris alieni.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.109" id="linknote-17.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides our usual + guides, we may observe that Felix Cantelorius has written a separate + treatise, De Præfecto Urbis; and that many curious details concerning the + police of Rome and Constantinople are contained in the fourteenth book of + the Theodosian Code.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap17.4"></a> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Those who, in the imperial hierarchy, were distinguished by the title of + <i>Respectable</i>, formed an intermediate class between the <i>illustrious</i> + præfects, and the <i>honorable</i> magistrates of the provinces. In this class + the proconsuls of Asia, Achaia, and Africa, claimed a preëminence, which + was yielded to the remembrance of their ancient dignity; and the appeal + from their tribunal to that of the præfects was almost the only mark of + their dependence. <a href="#linknote-17.110" name="linknoteref-17.110" + id="linknoteref-17.110">110</a> But the civil government of the empire was + distributed into thirteen great Dioceses, each of which equalled the just + measure of a powerful kingdom. The first of these dioceses was subject to + the jurisdiction of the <i>count</i> of the east; and we may convey some idea of + the importance and variety of his functions, by observing, that six + hundred apparitors, who would be styled at present either secretaries, or + clerks, or ushers, or messengers, were employed in his immediate office. + <a href="#linknote-17.111" name="linknoteref-17.111" id="linknoteref-17.111">111</a> + The place of <i>Augustal præfect</i> of Egypt was no longer filled by a Roman + knight; but the name was retained; and the extraordinary powers which the + situation of the country, and the temper of the inhabitants, had once made + indispensable, were still continued to the governor. The eleven remaining + dioceses, of Asiana, Pontica, and Thrace; of Macedonia, Dacia, and + Pannonia, or Western Illyricum; of Italy and Africa; of Gaul, Spain, and + Britain; were governed by twelve <i>vicars</i> or <i>vice-præfects</i>, <a + href="#linknote-17.112" name="linknoteref-17.112" id="linknoteref-17.112">112</a> + whose name sufficiently explains the nature and dependence of their + office. It may be added, that the lieutenant-generals of the Roman armies, + the military counts and dukes, who will be hereafter mentioned, were + allowed the rank and title of <i>Respectable</i>. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.110" id="linknote-17.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.110">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius affirms, + that the proconsul of Asia was independent of the præfect; which must, + however, be understood with some allowance. the jurisdiction of the + vice-præfect he most assuredly disclaimed. Pancirolus, p. 161.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.111" id="linknote-17.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.111">return</a>)<br /> [ The proconsul of + Africa had four hundred apparitors; and they all received large salaries, + either from the treasury or the province See Pancirol. p. 26, and Cod. + Justinian. l. xii. tit. lvi. lvii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.112" id="linknote-17.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.112">return</a>)<br /> [ In Italy there was + likewise the <i>Vicar of Rome</i>. It has been much disputed whether his + jurisdiction measured one hundred miles from the city, or whether it + stretched over the ten thousand provinces of Italy.] + </p> + <p> + As the spirit of jealousy and ostentation prevailed in the councils of the + emperors, they proceeded with anxious diligence to divide the substance + and to multiply the titles of power. The vast countries which the Roman + conquerors had united under the same simple form of administration, were + imperceptibly crumbled into minute fragments; till at length the whole + empire was distributed into one hundred and sixteen provinces, each of + which supported an expensive and splendid establishment. Of these, three + were governed by <i>proconsuls</i>, thirty-seven by <i>consulars</i>, five by + <i>correctors</i>, and seventy-one by <i>presidents</i>. The appellations of these + magistrates were different; they ranked in successive order, and the ensigns + of and their situation, from accidental circumstances, might be more or + less agreeable or advantageous. But they were all (excepting only the + pro-consuls) alike included in the class of <i>honorable</i> persons; and they + were alike intrusted, during the pleasure of the prince, and under the + authority of the præfects or their deputies, with the administration of + justice and the finances in their respective districts. The ponderous + volumes of the Codes and Pandects <a href="#linknote-17.113" + name="linknoteref-17.113" id="linknoteref-17.113">113</a> would furnish + ample materials for a minute inquiry into the system of provincial + government, as in the space of six centuries it was approved by the wisdom + of the Roman statesmen and lawyers. + </p> + <p> + It may be sufficient for the historian to select two singular and salutary + provisions, intended to restrain the abuse of authority. + </p> + <p> + 1. For the preservation of peace and order, the governors of the provinces + were armed with the sword of justice. They inflicted corporal punishments, + and they exercised, in capital offences, the power of life and death. But + they were not authorized to indulge the condemned criminal with the choice + of his own execution, or to pronounce a sentence of the mildest and most + honorable kind of exile. These prerogatives were reserved to the + præfects, who alone could impose the heavy fine of fifty pounds of gold: + their vicegerents were confined to the trifling weight of a few ounces. <a + href="#linknote-17.114" name="linknoteref-17.114" id="linknoteref-17.114">114</a> + This distinction, which seems to grant the larger, while it denies the + smaller degree of authority, was founded on a very rational motive. The + smaller degree was infinitely more liable to abuse. The passions of a + provincial magistrate might frequently provoke him into acts of + oppression, which affected only the freedom or the fortunes of the + subject; though, from a principle of prudence, perhaps of humanity, he + might still be terrified by the guilt of innocent blood. It may likewise + be considered, that exile, considerable fines, or the choice of an easy + death, relate more particularly to the rich and the noble; and the persons + the most exposed to the avarice or resentment of a provincial magistrate, + were thus removed from his obscure persecution to the more august and + impartial tribunal of the Prætorian præfect. 2. As it was reasonably + apprehended that the integrity of the judge might be biased, if his + interest was concerned, or his affections were engaged, the strictest + regulations were established, to exclude any person, without the special + dispensation of the emperor, from the government of the province where he + was born; <a href="#linknote-17.115" name="linknoteref-17.115" + id="linknoteref-17.115">115</a> and to prohibit the governor or his son + from contracting marriage with a native, or an inhabitant; <a + href="#linknote-17.116" name="linknoteref-17.116" id="linknoteref-17.116">116</a> + or from purchasing slaves, lands, or houses, within the extent of his + jurisdiction. <a href="#linknote-17.117" name="linknoteref-17.117" + id="linknoteref-17.117">117</a> Notwithstanding these rigorous precautions, + the emperor Constantine, after a reign of twenty-five years, still + deplores the venal and oppressive administration of justice, and expresses + the warmest indignation that the audience of the judge, his despatch of + business, his seasonable delays, and his final sentence, were publicly + sold, either by himself or by the officers of his court. The continuance, + and perhaps the impunity, of these crimes, is attested by the repetition + of impotent laws and ineffectual menaces. <a href="#linknote-17.118" + name="linknoteref-17.118" id="linknoteref-17.118">118</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.113" id="linknote-17.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.113">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the works of + the celebrated Ulpian, there was one in ten books, concerning the office + of a proconsul, whose duties in the most essential articles were the same + as those of an ordinary governor of a province.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.114" id="linknote-17.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.114">return</a>)<br /> [ The presidents, or + consulars, could impose only two ounces; the vice-præfects, three; the + proconsuls, count of the east, and præfect of Egypt, six. See Heineccii + Jur. Civil. tom. i. p. 75. Pandect. l. xlviii. tit. xix. n. 8. Cod. + Justinian. l. i. tit. liv. leg. 4, 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.115" id="linknote-17.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Ut nulli patriæ suæ + administratio sine speciali principis permissu permittatur. Cod. + Justinian. l. i. tit. xli. This law was first enacted by the emperor + Marcus, after the rebellion of Cassius. (Dion. l. lxxi.) The same + regulation is observed in China, with equal strictness, and with equal + effect.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.116" id="linknote-17.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.116">return</a>)<br /> [ Pandect. l. xxiii. + tit. ii. n. 38, 57, 63.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.117" id="linknote-17.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.117">return</a>)<br /> [ In jure continetur, + ne quis in administratione constitutus aliquid compararet. Cod. Theod. l. + viii. tit. xv. leg. l. This maxim of common law was enforced by a series + of edicts (see the remainder of the title) from Constantine to Justin. + From this prohibition, which is extended to the meanest officers of the + governor, they except only clothes and provisions. The purchase within + five years may be recovered; after which on information, it devolves to + the treasury.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.118" id="linknote-17.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.118">return</a>)<br /> [ Cessent rapaces jam + nunc officialium manus; cessent, inquam nam si moniti non cessaverint, + gladiis præcidentur, &c. Cod. Theod. l. i. tit. vii. leg. l. Zeno + enacted that all governors should remain in the province, to answer any + accusations, fifty days after the expiration of their power. Cod + Justinian. l. ii. tit. xlix. leg. l.] + </p> + <p> + All the civil magistrates were drawn from the profession of the law. The + celebrated Institutes of Justinian are addressed to the youth of his + dominions, who had devoted themselves to the study of Roman jurisprudence; + and the sovereign condescends to animate their diligence, by the assurance + that their skill and ability would in time be rewarded by an adequate + share in the government of the republic. <a href="#linknote-17.119" + name="linknoteref-17.119" id="linknoteref-17.119">119</a> The rudiments of + this lucrative science were taught in all the considerable cities of the + east and west; but the most famous school was that of Berytus, <a + href="#linknote-17.120" name="linknoteref-17.120" id="linknoteref-17.120">120</a> + on the coast of Phœnicia; which flourished above three centuries from the + time of Alexander Severus, the author perhaps of an institution so + advantageous to his native country. After a regular course of education, + which lasted five years, the students dispersed themselves through the + provinces, in search of fortune and honors; nor could they want an + inexhaustible supply of business in a great empire already corrupted by + the multiplicity of laws, of arts, and of vices. The court of the + Prætorian præfect of the east could alone furnish employment for one + hundred and fifty advocates, sixty-four of whom were distinguished by + peculiar privileges, and two were annually chosen, with a salary of sixty + pounds of gold, to defend the causes of the treasury. The first experiment + was made of their judicial talents, by appointing them to act occasionally + as assessors to the magistrates; from thence they were often raised to + preside in the tribunals before which they had pleaded. They obtained the + government of a province; and, by the aid of merit, of reputation, or of + favor, they ascended, by successive steps, to the <i>illustrious</i> dignities of + the state. <a href="#linknote-17.121" name="linknoteref-17.121" + id="linknoteref-17.121">121</a> In the practice of the bar, these men had + considered reason as the instrument of dispute; they interpreted the laws + according to the dictates of private interest and the same pernicious + habits might still adhere to their characters in the public administration + of the state. The honor of a liberal profession has indeed been vindicated + by ancient and modern advocates, who have filled the most important + stations, with pure integrity and consummate wisdom: but in the decline of + Roman jurisprudence, the ordinary promotion of lawyers was pregnant with + mischief and disgrace. The noble art, which had once been preserved as the + sacred inheritance of the patricians, was fallen into the hands of + freedmen and plebeians, <a href="#linknote-17.122" name="linknoteref-17.122" + id="linknoteref-17.122">122</a> who, with cunning rather than with skill, + exercised a sordid and pernicious trade. Some of them procured admittance + into families for the purpose of fomenting differences, of encouraging + suits, and of preparing a harvest of gain for themselves or their + brethren. Others, recluse in their chambers, maintained the dignity of + legal professors, by furnishing a rich client with subtleties to confound + the plainest truths, and with arguments to color the most unjustifiable + pretensions. The splendid and popular class was composed of the advocates, + who filled the Forum with the sound of their turgid and loquacious + rhetoric. Careless of fame and of justice, they are described, for the + most part, as ignorant and rapacious guides, who conducted their clients + through a maze of expense, of delay, and of disappointment; from whence, + after a tedious series of years, they were at length dismissed, when their + patience and fortune were almost exhausted. <a href="#linknote-17.123" + name="linknoteref-17.123" id="linknoteref-17.123">123</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.119" id="linknote-17.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.119">return</a>)<br /> [ Summâ igitur ope, et + alacri studio has leges nostras accipite; et vosmetipsos sic eruditos + ostendite, ut spes vos pulcherrima foveat; toto legitimo opere perfecto, + posse etiam nostram rempublicam in par tibus ejus vobis credendis + gubernari. Justinian in proem. Institutionum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.120" id="linknote-17.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.120">return</a>)<br /> [ The splendor of the + school of Berytus, which preserved in the east the language and + jurisprudence of the Romans, may be computed to have lasted from the third + to the middle of the sixth century Heinecc. Jur. Rom. Hist. p. 351-356.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.121" id="linknote-17.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.121">return</a>)<br /> [ As in a former period + I have traced the civil and military promotion of Pertinax, I shall here + insert the civil honors of Mallius Theodorus. 1. He was distinguished by + his eloquence, while he pleaded as an advocate in the court of the + Prætorian præfect. 2. He governed one of the provinces of Africa, either + as president or consular, and deserved, by his administration, the honor + of a brass statue. 3. He was appointed vicar, or vice-præfect, of + Macedonia. 4. Quæstor. 5. Count of the sacred largesses. 6. Prætorian + præfect of the Gauls; whilst he might yet be represented as a young man. + 7. After a retreat, perhaps a disgrace of many years, which Mallius + (confounded by some critics with the poet Manilius; see Fabricius + Bibliothec. Latin. Edit. Ernest. tom. i.c. 18, p. 501) employed in the + study of the Grecian philosophy he was named Prætorian præfect of Italy, + in the year 397. 8. While he still exercised that great office, he was + created, it the year 399, consul for the West; and his name, on account of + the infamy of his colleague, the eunuch Eutropius, often stands alone in + the Fasti. 9. In the year 408, Mallius was appointed a second time + Prætorian præfect of Italy. Even in the venal panegyric of Claudian, we + may discover the merit of Mallius Theodorus, who, by a rare felicity, was + the intimate friend, both of Symmachus and of St. Augustin. See Tillemont, + Hist. des Emp. tom. v. p. 1110-1114.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.122" id="linknote-17.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Mamertinus in + Panegyr. Vet. xi. [x.] 20. Asterius apud Photium, p. 1500.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.123" id="linknote-17.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.123">return</a>)<br /> [ The curious passage + of Ammianus, (l. xxx. c. 4,) in which he paints the manners of + contemporary lawyers, affords a strange mixture of sound sense, false + rhetoric, and extravagant satire. Godefroy (Prolegom. ad. Cod. Theod. c. + i. p. 185) supports the historian by similar complaints and authentic + facts. In the fourth century, many camels might have been laden with + law-books. Eunapius in Vit. Ædesii, p. 72.] + </p> + <p> + III. In the system of policy introduced by Augustus, the governors, those + at least of the Imperial provinces, were invested with the full powers of + the sovereign himself. Ministers of peace and war, the distribution of + rewards and punishments depended on them alone, and they successively + appeared on their tribunal in the robes of civil magistracy, and in + complete armor at the head of the Roman legions. <a href="#linknote-17.124" + name="linknoteref-17.124" id="linknoteref-17.124">124</a> The influence of + the revenue, the authority of law, and the command of a military force, + concurred to render their power supreme and absolute; and whenever they + were tempted to violate their allegiance, the loyal province which they + involved in their rebellion was scarcely sensible of any change in its + political state. From the time of Commodus to the reign of Constantine, + near one hundred governors might be enumerated, who, with various success, + erected the standard of revolt; and though the innocent were too often + sacrificed, the guilty might be sometimes prevented, by the suspicious + cruelty of their master. <a href="#linknote-17.125" name="linknoteref-17.125" + id="linknoteref-17.125">125</a> To secure his throne and the public + tranquillity from these formidable servants, Constantine resolved to + divide the military from the civil administration, and to establish, as a + permanent and professional distinction, a practice which had been adopted + only as an occasional expedient. The supreme jurisdiction exercised by the + Prætorian præfects over the armies of the empire, was transferred to the + two <i>masters-general</i> whom he instituted, the one for the <i>cavalry</i>, the other + for the <i>infantry;</i> and though each of these <i>illustrious</i> officers was more + peculiarly responsible for the discipline of those troops which were under + his immediate inspection, they both indifferently commanded in the field + the several bodies, whether of horse or foot, which were united in the + same army. <a href="#linknote-17.126" name="linknoteref-17.126" + id="linknoteref-17.126">126</a> Their number was soon doubled by the + division of the east and west; and as separate generals of the same rank + and title were appointed on the four important frontiers of the Rhine, of + the Upper and the Lower Danube, and of the Euphrates, the defence of the + Roman empire was at length committed to eight masters-general of the + cavalry and infantry. Under their orders, thirty-five military commanders + were stationed in the provinces: three in Britain, six in Gaul, one in + Spain, one in Italy, five on the Upper, and four on the Lower Danube; in + Asia, eight, three in Egypt, and four in Africa. The titles of <i>counts</i>, and + <i>dukes</i>, <a href="#linknote-17.127" name="linknoteref-17.127" + id="linknoteref-17.127">127</a> by which they were properly distinguished, + have obtained in modern languages so very different a sense, that the use + of them may occasion some surprise. But it should be recollected, that the + second of those appellations is only a corruption of the Latin word, which + was indiscriminately applied to any military chief. All these provincial + generals were therefore <i>dukes;</i> but no more than ten among them were + dignified with the rank of <i>counts</i> or companions, a title of honor, or + rather of favor, which had been recently invented in the court of + Constantine. A gold belt was the ensign which distinguished the office of + the counts and dukes; and besides their pay, they received a liberal + allowance sufficient to maintain one hundred and ninety servants, and one + hundred and fifty-eight horses. They were strictly prohibited from + interfering in any matter which related to the administration of justice + or the revenue; but the command which they exercised over the troops of + their department, was independent of the authority of the magistrates. + About the same time that Constantine gave a legal sanction to the + ecclesiastical order, he instituted in the Roman empire the nice balance + of the civil and the military powers. The emulation, and sometimes the + discord, which reigned between two professions of opposite interests and + incompatible manners, was productive of beneficial and of pernicious + consequences. It was seldom to be expected that the general and the civil + governor of a province should either conspire for the disturbance, or + should unite for the service, of their country. While the one delayed to + offer the assistance which the other disdained to solicit, the troops very + frequently remained without orders or without supplies; the public safety + was betrayed, and the defenceless subjects were left exposed to the fury + of the Barbarians. The divided administration which had been formed by + Constantine, relaxed the vigor of the state, while it secured the + tranquillity of the monarch. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.124" id="linknote-17.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.124">return</a>)<br /> [ See a very splendid + example in the life of Agricola, particularly c. 20, 21. The lieutenant of + Britain was intrusted with the same powers which Cicero, proconsul of + Cilicia, had exercised in the name of the senate and people.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.125" id="linknote-17.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.125">return</a>)<br /> [ The Abbé Dubos, who + has examined with accuracy (see Hist. de la Monarchie Françoise, tom. i. + p. 41-100, edit. 1742) the institutions of Augustus and of Constantine, + observes, that if Otho had been put to death the day before he executed + his conspiracy, Otho would now appear in history as innocent as Corbulo.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.126" id="linknote-17.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.126">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 110. Before the end of the reign of Constantius, the <i>magistri militum</i> were + already increased to four. See Velesius ad Ammian. l. xvi. c. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.127" id="linknote-17.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.127">return</a>)<br /> [ Though the military + counts and dukes are frequently mentioned, both in history and the codes, + we must have recourse to the Notitia for the exact knowledge of their + number and stations. For the institution, rank, privileges, &c., of + the counts in general see Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. xii.—xx., with the + commentary of Godefroy.] + </p> + <p> + The memory of Constantine has been deservedly censured for another + innovation, which corrupted military discipline and prepared the ruin of + the empire. The nineteen years which preceded his final victory over + Licinius, had been a period of license and intestine war. The rivals who + contended for the possession of the Roman world, had withdrawn the + greatest part of their forces from the guard of the general frontier; and + the principal cities which formed the boundary of their respective + dominions were filled with soldiers, who considered their countrymen as + their most implacable enemies. After the use of these internal garrisons + had ceased with the civil war, the conqueror wanted either wisdom or + firmness to revive the severe discipline of Diocletian, and to suppress a + fatal indulgence, which habit had endeared and almost confirmed to the + military order. From the reign of Constantine, a popular and even legal + distinction was admitted between the <i>Palatines</i> <a href="#linknote-17.128" + name="linknoteref-17.128" id="linknoteref-17.128">128</a> and the <i>Borderers;</i> + the troops of the court, as they were improperly styled, and the troops of + the frontier. The former, elevated by the superiority of their pay and + privileges, were permitted, except in the extraordinary emergencies of + war, to occupy their tranquil stations in the heart of the provinces. The + most flourishing cities were oppressed by the intolerable weight of + quarters. The soldiers insensibly forgot the virtues of their profession, + and contracted only the vices of civil life. They were either degraded by + the industry of mechanic trades, or enervated by the luxury of baths and + theatres. They soon became careless of their martial exercises, curious in + their diet and apparel; and while they inspired terror to the subjects of + the empire, they trembled at the hostile approach of the Barbarians. <a + href="#linknote-17.129" name="linknoteref-17.129" id="linknoteref-17.129">129</a> + The chain of fortifications which Diocletian and his colleagues had + extended along the banks of the great rivers, was no longer maintained + with the same care, or defended with the same vigilance. The numbers which + still remained under the name of the troops of the frontier, might be + sufficient for the ordinary defence; but their spirit was degraded by the + humiliating reflection, that <i>they</i> who were exposed to the hardships and + dangers of a perpetual warfare, were rewarded only with about two thirds + of the pay and emoluments which were lavished on the troops of the court. + Even the bands or legions that were raised the nearest to the level of + those unworthy favorites, were in some measure disgraced by the title of + honor which they were allowed to assume. It was in vain that Constantine + repeated the most dreadful menaces of fire and sword against the Borderers + who should dare desert their colors, to connive at the inroads of the + Barbarians, or to participate in the spoil. <a href="#linknote-17.130" + name="linknoteref-17.130" id="linknoteref-17.130">130</a> The mischiefs + which flow from injudicious counsels are seldom removed by the application + of partial severities; and though succeeding princes labored to restore + the strength and numbers of the frontier garrisons, the empire, till the + last moment of its dissolution, continued to languish under the mortal + wound which had been so rashly or so weakly inflicted by the hand of + Constantine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.128" id="linknote-17.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.128">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l ii. p. + 111. The distinction between the two classes of Roman troops, is very + darkly expressed in the historians, the laws, and the Notitia. Consult, + however, the copious <i>paratitlon</i>, or abstract, which Godefroy has drawn up + of the seventh book, de Re Militari, of the Theodosian Code, l. vii. tit. + i. leg. 18, l. viii. tit. i. leg. 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.129" id="linknote-17.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.129">return</a>)<br /> [ Ferox erat in suos + miles et rapax, ignavus vero in hostes et fractus. Ammian. l. xxii. c. 4. + He observes, that they loved downy beds and houses of marble; and that + their cups were heavier than their swords.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.130" id="linknote-17.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.130">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. vii. + tit. i. leg. 1, tit. xii. leg. i. See Howell’s Hist. of the World, vol. + ii. p. 19. That learned historian, who is not sufficiently known, labors + to justify the character and policy of Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + The same timid policy, of dividing whatever is united, of reducing + whatever is eminent, of dreading every active power, and of expecting that + the most feeble will prove the most obedient, seems to pervade the + institutions of several princes, and particularly those of Constantine. + The martial pride of the legions, whose victorious camps had so often been + the scene of rebellion, was nourished by the memory of their past + exploits, and the consciousness of their actual strength. As long as they + maintained their ancient establishment of six thousand men, they + subsisted, under the reign of Diocletian, each of them singly, a visible + and important object in the military history of the Roman empire. A few + years afterwards, these gigantic bodies were shrunk to a very diminutive + size; and when <i>seven</i> legions, with some auxiliaries, defended the city of + Amida against the Persians, the total garrison, with the inhabitants of + both sexes, and the peasants of the deserted country, did not exceed the + number of twenty thousand persons. <a href="#linknote-17.131" + name="linknoteref-17.131" id="linknoteref-17.131">131</a> From this fact, + and from similar examples, there is reason to believe, that the + constitution of the legionary troops, to which they partly owed their + valor and discipline, was dissolved by Constantine; and that the bands of + Roman infantry, which still assumed the same names and the same honors, + consisted only of one thousand or fifteen hundred men. <a + href="#linknote-17.132" name="linknoteref-17.132" id="linknoteref-17.132">132</a> + The conspiracy of so many separate detachments, each of which was awed by + the sense of its own weakness, could easily be checked; and the successors + of Constantine might indulge their love of ostentation, by issuing their + orders to one hundred and thirty-two legions, inscribed on the muster-roll + of their numerous armies. The remainder of their troops was distributed + into several hundred cohorts of infantry, and squadrons of cavalry. Their + arms, and titles, and ensigns, were calculated to inspire terror, and to + display the variety of nations who marched under the Imperial standard. + And not a vestige was left of that severe simplicity, which, in the ages + of freedom and victory, had distinguished the line of battle of a Roman + army from the confused host of an Asiatic monarch. <a + href="#linknote-17.133" name="linknoteref-17.133" id="linknoteref-17.133">133</a> + A more particular enumeration, drawn from the<i> Notitia</i>, might exercise the + diligence of an antiquary; but the historian will content himself with + observing, that the number of permanent stations or garrisons established + on the frontiers of the empire, amounted to five hundred and eighty-three; + and that, under the successors of Constantine, the complete force of the + military establishment was computed at six hundred and forty-five thousand + soldiers. <a href="#linknote-17.134" name="linknoteref-17.134" + id="linknoteref-17.134">134</a> An effort so prodigious surpassed the wants + of a more ancient, and the faculties of a later, period. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.131" id="linknote-17.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.131">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. l. xix. c. 2. + He observes, (c. 5,) that the desperate sallies of two Gallic legions were + like a handful of water thrown on a great conflagration.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.132" id="linknote-17.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Pancirolus ad + Notitiam, p. 96. Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxv. p. + 491.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.133" id="linknote-17.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.133">return</a>)<br /> [ Romana acies unius + prope formæ erat et hominum et armorum genere.—Regia acies varia + magis multis gentibus dissimilitudine armorum auxiliorumque erat. T. Liv. + l. xxxvii. c. 39, 40. Flaminius, even before the event, had compared the + army of Antiochus to a supper in which the flesh of one vile animal was + diversified by the skill of the cooks. See the Life of Flaminius in + Plutarch.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.134" id="linknote-17.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.134">return</a>)<br /> [ Agathias, l. v. p. + 157, edit. Louvre.] + </p> + <p> + In the various states of society, armies are recruited from very different + motives. Barbarians are urged by the love of war; the citizens of a free + republic may be prompted by a principle of duty; the subjects, or at least + the nobles, of a monarchy, are animated by a sentiment of honor; but the + timid and luxurious inhabitants of a declining empire must be allured into + the service by the hopes of profit, or compelled by the dread of + punishment. The resources of the Roman treasury were exhausted by the + increase of pay, by the repetition of donatives, and by the invention of + new emolument and indulgences, which, in the opinion of the provincial + youth might compensate the hardships and dangers of a military life. Yet, + although the stature was lowered, <a href="#linknote-17.135" + name="linknoteref-17.135" id="linknoteref-17.135">135</a> although slaves, + least by a tacit connivance, were indiscriminately received into the + ranks, the insurmountable difficulty of procuring a regular and adequate + supply of volunteers, obliged the emperors to adopt more effectual and + coercive methods. The lands bestowed on the veterans, as the free reward + of their valor were henceforward granted under a condition which contain + the first rudiments of the feudal tenures; that their sons, who succeeded + to the inheritance, should devote themselves to the profession of arms, as + soon as they attained the age of manhood; and their cowardly refusal was + punished by the loss of honor, of fortune, or even of life. <a + href="#linknote-17.136" name="linknoteref-17.136" id="linknoteref-17.136">136</a> + But as the annual growth of the sons of the veterans bore a very small + proportion to the demands of the service, levies of men were frequently + required from the provinces, and every proprietor was obliged either to + take up arms, or to procure a substitute, or to purchase his exemption by + the payment of a heavy fine. The sum of forty-two pieces of gold, to which + it was <i>reduced</i> ascertains the exorbitant price of volunteers, and the + reluctance with which the government admitted of this alternative. <a + href="#linknote-17.137" name="linknoteref-17.137" id="linknoteref-17.137">137</a> + Such was the horror for the profession of a soldier, which had affected + the minds of the degenerate Romans, that many of the youth of Italy and + the provinces chose to cut off the fingers of their right hand, to escape + from being pressed into the service; and this strange expedient was so + commonly practised, as to deserve the severe animadversion of the laws, <a + href="#linknote-17.138" name="linknoteref-17.138" id="linknoteref-17.138">138</a> + and a peculiar name in the Latin language. <a href="#linknote-17.139" + name="linknoteref-17.139" id="linknoteref-17.139">139</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.135" id="linknote-17.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.135">return</a>)<br /> [ Valentinian (Cod. + Theodos. l. vii. tit. xiii. leg. 3) fixes the standard at five feet seven + inches, about five feet four inches and a half, English measure. It had + formerly been five feet ten inches, and in the best corps, six Roman feet. + Sed tunc erat amplior multitude se et plures sequebantur militiam armatam. + Vegetius de Re Militari l. i. c. v.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.136" id="linknote-17.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.136">return</a>)<br /> [ See the two titles, + De Veteranis and De Filiis Veteranorum, in the seventh book of the + Theodosian Code. The age at which their military service was required, + varied from twenty-five to sixteen. If the sons of the veterans appeared + with a horse, they had a right to serve in the cavalry; two horses gave + them some valuable privileges] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.137" id="linknote-17.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.137">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. vii. + tit. xiii. leg. 7. According to the historian Socrates, (see Godefroy ad + loc.,) the same emperor Valens sometimes required eighty pieces of gold + for a recruit. In the following law it is faintly expressed, that slaves + shall not be admitted inter optimas lectissimorum militum turmas.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.138" id="linknote-17.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.138">return</a>)<br /> [ The person and + property of a Roman knight, who had mutilated his two sons, were sold at + public auction by order of Augustus. (Sueton. in August. c. 27.) The + moderation of that artful usurper proves, that this example of severity + was justified by the spirit of the times. Ammianus makes a distinction + between the effeminate Italians and the hardy Gauls. (L. xv. c. 12.) Yet + only 15 years afterwards, Valentinian, in a law addressed to the præfect + of Gaul, is obliged to enact that these cowardly deserters shall be burnt + alive. (Cod. Theod. l. vii. tit. xiii. leg. 5.) Their numbers in Illyricum + were so considerable, that the province complained of a scarcity of + recruits. (Id. leg. 10.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.139" id="linknote-17.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.139">return</a>)<br /> [ They were called + <i>Murci. Murcidus</i> is found in Plautus and Festus, to denote a lazy and + cowardly person, who, according to Arnobius and Augustin, was under the + immediate protection of the goddess <i>Murcia</i>. From this particular instance + of cowardice, <i>murcare</i> is used as synonymous to <i>mutilare</i>, by the writers of + the middle Latinity. See Linder brogius and Valesius ad Ammian. Marcellin, + l. xv. c. 12] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap17.5"></a> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The introduction of Barbarians into the Roman armies became every day more + universal, more necessary, and more fatal. The most daring of the + Scythians, of the Goths, and of the Germans, who delighted in war, and who + found it more profitable to defend than to ravage the provinces, were + enrolled, not only in the auxiliaries of their respective nations, but in + the legions themselves, and among the most distinguished of the Palatine + troops. As they freely mingled with the subjects of the empire, they + gradually learned to despise their manners, and to imitate their arts. + They abjured the implicit reverence which the pride of Rome had exacted + from their ignorance, while they acquired the knowledge and possession of + those advantages by which alone she supported her declining greatness. The + Barbarian soldiers, who displayed any military talents, were advanced, + without exception, to the most important commands; and the names of the + tribunes, of the counts and dukes, and of the generals themselves, betray + a foreign origin, which they no longer condescended to disguise. They were + often intrusted with the conduct of a war against their countrymen; and + though most of them preferred the ties of allegiance to those of blood, + they did not always avoid the guilt, or at least the suspicion, of holding + a treasonable correspondence with the enemy, of inviting his invasion, or + of sparing his retreat. The camps and the palace of the son of Constantine + were governed by the powerful faction of the Franks, who preserved the + strictest connection with each other, and with their country, and who + resented every personal affront as a national indignity. <a + href="#linknote-17.140" name="linknoteref-17.140" id="linknoteref-17.140">140</a> + When the tyrant Caligula was suspected of an intention to invest a very + extraordinary candidate with the consular robes, the sacrilegious + profanation would have scarcely excited less astonishment, if, instead of + a horse, the noblest chieftain of Germany or Britain had been the object + of his choice. The revolution of three centuries had produced so + remarkable a change in the prejudices of the people, that, with the public + approbation, Constantine showed his successors the example of bestowing + the honors of the consulship on the Barbarians, who, by their merit and + services, had deserved to be ranked among the first of the Romans. <a + href="#linknote-17.141" name="linknoteref-17.141" id="linknoteref-17.141">141</a> + But as these hardy veterans, who had been educated in the ignorance or + contempt of the laws, were incapable of exercising any civil offices, the + powers of the human mind were contracted by the irreconcilable separation + of talents as well as of professions. The accomplished citizens of the + Greek and Roman republics, whose characters could adapt themselves to the + bar, the senate, the camp, or the schools, had learned to write, to speak, + and to act with the same spirit, and with equal abilities. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.140" id="linknote-17.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.140">return</a>)<br /> [ Malarichus—adhibitis + Francis quorum ea tempestate in palatio multitudo florebat, erectius jam + loquebatur tumultuabaturque. Ammian. l. xv. c. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.141" id="linknote-17.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.141">return</a>)<br /> [ Barbaros omnium + primus, ad usque fasces auxerat et trabeas consulares. Ammian. l. xx. c. + 10. Eusebius (in Vit. Constantin. l. iv c.7) and Aurelius Victor seem to + confirm the truth of this assertion yet in the thirty-two consular Fasti + of the reign of Constantine cannot discover the name of a single + Barbarian. I should therefore interpret the liberality of that prince as + relative to the ornaments rather than to the office, of the consulship.] + </p> + <p> + IV. Besides the magistrates and generals, who at a distance from the court + diffused their delegated authority over the provinces and armies, the + emperor conferred the rank of <i>Illustrious</i> on seven of his more immediate + servants, to whose fidelity he intrusted his safety, or his counsels, or + his treasures. 1. The private apartments of the palace were governed by a + favorite eunuch, who, in the language of that age, was styled the + <i>præpositus</i>, or præfect of the sacred bed-chamber. His duty was to attend + the emperor in his hours of state, or in those of amusement, and to + perform about his person all those menial services, which can only derive + their splendor from the influence of royalty. Under a prince who deserved + to reign, the great chamberlain (for such we may call him) was a useful + and humble domestic; but an artful domestic, who improves every occasion + of unguarded confidence, will insensibly acquire over a feeble mind that + ascendant which harsh wisdom and uncomplying virtue can seldom obtain. The + degenerate grandsons of Theodosius, who were invisible to their subjects, + and contemptible to their enemies, exalted the præfects of their + bed-chamber above the heads of all the ministers of the palace; <a + href="#linknote-17.142" name="linknoteref-17.142" id="linknoteref-17.142">142</a> + and even his deputy, the first of the splendid train of slaves who waited + in the presence, was thought worthy to rank before the <i>respectable</i> + proconsuls of Greece or Asia. The jurisdiction of the chamberlain was + acknowledged by the <i>counts</i>, or superintendents, who regulated the two + important provinces of the magnificence of the wardrobe, and of the luxury + of the Imperial table. <a href="#linknote-17.143" name="linknoteref-17.143" + id="linknoteref-17.143">143</a> 2. The principal administration of public + affairs was committed to the diligence and abilities of the <i>master of the + offices</i>. <a href="#linknote-17.144" name="linknoteref-17.144" + id="linknoteref-17.144">144</a> He was the supreme magistrate of the + palace, inspected the discipline of the civil and military <i>schools</i>, and + received appeals from all parts of the empire, in the causes which related + to that numerous army of privileged persons, who, as the servants of the + court, had obtained for themselves and families a right to decline the + authority of the ordinary judges. The correspondence between the prince + and his subjects was managed by the four <i>scrinia</i>, or offices of this + minister of state. The first was appropriated to memorials, the second to + epistles, the third to petitions, and the fourth to papers and orders of a + miscellaneous kind. Each of these was directed by an <i>inferior</i> master of + <i>respectable</i> dignity, and the whole business was despatched by a hundred + and forty-eight secretaries, chosen for the most part from the profession + of the law, on account of the variety of abstracts of reports and + references which frequently occurred in the exercise of their several + functions. From a condescension, which in former ages would have been + esteemed unworthy the Roman majesty, a particular secretary was allowed + for the Greek language; and interpreters were appointed to receive the + ambassadors of the Barbarians; but the department of foreign affairs, + which constitutes so essential a part of modern policy, seldom diverted + the attention of the master of the offices. His mind was more seriously + engaged by the general direction of the posts and arsenals of the empire. + There were thirty-four cities, fifteen in the East, and nineteen in the + West, in which regular companies of workmen were perpetually employed in + fabricating defensive armor, offensive weapons of all sorts, and military + engines, which were deposited in the arsenals, and occasionally delivered + for the service of the troops. 3. In the course of nine centuries, the + office of <i>quæstor</i> had experienced a very singular revolution. In the + infancy of Rome, two inferior magistrates were annually elected by the + people, to relieve the consuls from the invidious management of the public + treasure; <a href="#linknote-17.145" name="linknoteref-17.145" + id="linknoteref-17.145">145</a> a similar assistant was granted to every + proconsul, and to every prætor, who exercised a military or provincial + command; with the extent of conquest, the two quæstors were gradually + multiplied to the number of four, of eight, of twenty, and, for a short + time, perhaps, of forty; <a href="#linknote-17.146" name="linknoteref-17.146" + id="linknoteref-17.146">146</a> and the noblest citizens ambitiously + solicited an office which gave them a seat in the senate, and a just hope + of obtaining the honors of the republic. Whilst Augustus affected to + maintain the freedom of election, he consented to accept the annual + privilege of recommending, or rather indeed of nominating, a certain + proportion of candidates; and it was his custom to select one of these + distinguished youths, to read his orations or epistles in the assemblies + of the senate. <a href="#linknote-17.147" name="linknoteref-17.147" + id="linknoteref-17.147">147</a> The practice of Augustus was imitated by + succeeding princes; the occasional commission was established as a + permanent office; and the favored quæstor, assuming a new and more + illustrious character, alone survived the suppression of his ancient and + useless colleagues. <a href="#linknote-17.148" name="linknoteref-17.148" + id="linknoteref-17.148">148</a> As the orations which he composed in the + name of the emperor, <a href="#linknote-17.149" name="linknoteref-17.149" + id="linknoteref-17.149">149</a> acquired the force, and, at length, the + form, of absolute edicts, he was considered as the representative of the + legislative power, the oracle of the council, and the original source of + the civil jurisprudence. He was sometimes invited to take his seat in the + supreme judicature of the Imperial consistory, with the Prætorian + præfects, and the master of the offices; and he was frequently requested + to resolve the doubts of inferior judges: but as he was not oppressed with + a variety of subordinate business, his leisure and talents were employed + to cultivate that dignified style of eloquence, which, in the corruption + of taste and language, still preserves the majesty of the Roman laws. <a + href="#linknote-17.150" name="linknoteref-17.150" id="linknoteref-17.150">150</a> + In some respects, the office of the Imperial quæstor may be compared with + that of a modern chancellor; but the use of a great seal, which seems to + have been adopted by the illiterate barbarians, was never introduced to + attest the public acts of the emperors. 4. The extraordinary title of + <i>count of the sacred largesses</i> was bestowed on the treasurer-general of the + revenue, with the intention perhaps of inculcating, that every payment + flowed from the voluntary bounty of the monarch. To conceive the almost + infinite detail of the annual and daily expense of the civil and military + administration in every part of a great empire, would exceed the powers of + the most vigorous imagination. + </p> + <p> + The actual account employed several hundred persons, distributed into + eleven different offices, which were artfully contrived to examine and + control their respective operations. The multitude of these agents had a + natural tendency to increase; and it was more than once thought expedient + to dismiss to their native homes the useless supernumeraries, who, + deserting their honest labors, had pressed with too much eagerness into + the lucrative profession of the finances. <a href="#linknote-17.151" + name="linknoteref-17.151" id="linknoteref-17.151">151</a> Twenty-nine + provincial receivers, of whom eighteen were honored with the title of + count, corresponded with the treasurer; and he extended his jurisdiction + over the mines from whence the precious metals were extracted, over the + mints, in which they were converted into the current coin, and over the + public treasuries of the most important cities, where they were deposited + for the service of the state. The foreign trade of the empire was + regulated by this minister, who directed likewise all the linen and + woollen manufactures, in which the successive operations of spinning, + weaving, and dyeing were executed, chiefly by women of a servile + condition, for the use of the palace and army. Twenty-six of these + institutions are enumerated in the West, where the arts had been more + recently introduced, and a still larger proportion may be allowed for the + industrious provinces of the East. <a href="#linknote-17.152" + name="linknoteref-17.152" id="linknoteref-17.152">152</a> 5. Besides the + public revenue, which an absolute monarch might levy and expend according + to his pleasure, the emperors, in the capacity of opulent citizens, + possessed a very extensive property, which was administered by the <i>count</i> + or treasurer of <i>the private estate</i>. Some part had perhaps been the ancient + demesnes of kings and republics; some accessions might be derived from the + families which were successively invested with the purple; but the most + considerable portion flowed from the impure source of confiscations and + forfeitures. The Imperial estates were scattered through the provinces, + from Mauritania to Britain; but the rich and fertile soil of Cappadocia + tempted the monarch to acquire in that country his fairest possessions, <a + href="#linknote-17.153" name="linknoteref-17.153" id="linknoteref-17.153">153</a> + and either Constantine or his successors embraced the occasion of + justifying avarice by religious zeal. They suppressed the rich temple of + Comana, where the high priest of the goddess of war supported the dignity + of a sovereign prince; and they applied to their private use the + consecrated lands, which were inhabited by six thousand subjects or slaves + of the deity and her ministers. <a href="#linknote-17.154" + name="linknoteref-17.154" id="linknoteref-17.154">154</a> But these were not + the valuable inhabitants: the plains that stretch from the foot of Mount + Argæus to the banks of the Sarus, bred a generous race of horses, + renowned above all others in the ancient world for their majestic shape + and incomparable swiftness. These <i>sacred</i> animals, destined for the service + of the palace and the Imperial games, were protected by the laws from the + profanation of a vulgar master. <a href="#linknote-17.155" + name="linknoteref-17.155" id="linknoteref-17.155">155</a> The demesnes of + Cappadocia were important enough to require the inspection of a count; <a + href="#linknote-17.156" name="linknoteref-17.156" id="linknoteref-17.156">156</a> + officers of an inferior rank were stationed in the other parts of the + empire; and the deputies of the private, as well as those of the public, + treasurer were maintained in the exercise of their independent functions, + and encouraged to control the authority of the provincial magistrates. <a + href="#linknote-17.157" name="linknoteref-17.157" id="linknoteref-17.157">157</a> + 6, 7. The chosen bands of cavalry and infantry, which guarded the person + of the emperor, were under the immediate command of the <i>two counts of the + domestics</i>. The whole number consisted of three thousand five hundred men, + divided into seven <i>schools</i>, or troops, of five hundred each; and in the + East, this honorable service was almost entirely appropriated to the + Armenians. Whenever, on public ceremonies, they were drawn up in the + courts and porticos of the palace, their lofty stature, silent order, and + splendid arms of silver and gold, displayed a martial pomp not unworthy of + the Roman majesty. <a href="#linknote-17.158" name="linknoteref-17.158" + id="linknoteref-17.158">158</a> From the seven schools two companies of + horse and foot were selected, of the <i>protectors</i>, whose advantageous + station was the hope and reward of the most deserving soldiers. They + mounted guard in the interior apartments, and were occasionally despatched + into the provinces, to execute with celerity and vigor the orders of their + master. <a href="#linknote-17.159" name="linknoteref-17.159" + id="linknoteref-17.159">159</a> The counts of the domestics had succeeded + to the office of the Prætorian præfects; like the præfects, they + aspired from the service of the palace to the command of armies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.142" id="linknote-17.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.142">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. vi. + tit. 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.143" id="linknote-17.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.143">return</a>)<br /> [ By a very singular + metaphor, borrowed from the military character of the first emperors, the + steward of their household was styled the count of their camp, (comes + castrensis.) Cassiodorus very seriously represents to him, that his own + fame, and that of the empire, must depend on the opinion which foreign + ambassadors may conceive of the plenty and magnificence of the royal + table. (Variar. l. vi. epistol. 9.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.144" id="linknote-17.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.144">return</a>)<br /> [ Gutherius (de + Officiis Domûs Augustæ, l. ii. c. 20, l. iii.) has very accurately + explained the functions of the master of the offices, and the constitution + of the subordinate <i>scrinia</i>. But he vainly attempts, on the most doubtful + authority, to deduce from the time of the Antonines, or even of Nero, the + origin of a magistrate who cannot be found in history before the reign of + Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.145" id="linknote-17.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.145">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacitus (Annal. xi. + 22) says, that the first quæstors were elected by the people, sixty-four + years after the foundation of the republic; but he is of opinion, that + they had, long before that period, been annually appointed by the consuls, + and even by the kings. But this obscure point of antiquity is contested by + other writers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.146" id="linknote-17.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.146">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacitus (Annal. xi. + 22) seems to consider twenty as the highest number of quæstors; and Dion + (l. xliii. p 374) insinuates, that if the dictator Cæsar once created + forty, it was only to facilitate the payment of an immense debt of + gratitude. Yet the augmentation which he made of prætors subsisted under + the succeeding reigns.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.147" id="linknote-17.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.147">return</a>)<br /> [ Sueton. in August. c. + 65, and Torrent. ad loc. Dion. Cas. p. 755.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.148" id="linknote-17.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.148">return</a>)<br /> [ The youth and + inexperience of the quæstors, who entered on that important office in + their twenty-fifth year, (Lips. Excurs. ad Tacit. l. iii. D.,) engaged + Augustus to remove them from the management of the treasury; and though + they were restored by Claudius, they seem to have been finally dismissed + by Nero. (Tacit Annal. xiii. 29. Sueton. in Aug. c. 36, in Claud. c. 24. + Dion, p. 696, 961, &c. Plin. Epistol. x. 20, et alibi.) In the + provinces of the Imperial division, the place of the quæstors was more + ably supplied by the <i>procurators</i>, (Dion Cas. p. 707. Tacit. in Vit. + Agricol. c. 15;) or, as they were afterwards called, <i>rationales</i>. (Hist. + August. p. 130.) But in the provinces of the senate we may still discover + a series of quæstors till the reign of Marcus Antoninus. (See the + Inscriptions of Gruter, the Epistles of Pliny, and a decisive fact in the + Augustan History, p. 64.) From Ulpian we may learn, (Pandect. l. i. tit. + 13,) that under the government of the house of Severus, their provincial + administration was abolished; and in the subsequent troubles, the annual + or triennial elections of quæstors must have naturally ceased.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.149" id="linknote-17.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.149">return</a>)<br /> [ Cum patris nomine et + epistolas ipse dictaret, et edicta conscrib eret, orationesque in senatu + recitaret, etiam quæstoris vice. Sueton, in Tit. c. 6. The office must + have acquired new dignity, which was occasionally executed by the heir + apparent of the empire. Trajan intrusted the same care to Hadrian, his + quæstor and cousin. See Dodwell, Prælection. Cambden, x. xi. p. + 362-394.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.150" id="linknote-17.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.150">return</a>)<br /> [ Terris edicta + daturus; Supplicibus responsa.—Oracula regis Eloquio crevere tuo; + nec dignius unquam Majestas meminit sese Romana locutam.——Claudian + in Consulat. Mall. Theodor. 33. See likewise Symmachus (Epistol. i. 17) + and Cassiodorus. (Variar. iv. 5.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.151" id="linknote-17.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.151">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. vi. + tit. 30. Cod. Justinian. l. xii. tit. 24.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.152" id="linknote-17.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.152">return</a>)<br /> [ In the departments of + the two counts of the treasury, the eastern part of the <i>Notitia</i> happens to + be very defective. It may be observed, that we had a treasury chest in + London, and a gyneceum or manufacture at Winchester. But Britain was not + thought worthy either of a mint or of an arsenal. Gaul alone possessed + three of the former, and eight of the latter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.153" id="linknote-17.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.153">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. vi. + tit. xxx. leg. 2, and Godefroy ad loc.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.154" id="linknote-17.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.154">return</a>)<br /> [ Strabon. Geograph. l. + xxii. p. 809, [edit. Casaub.] The other temple of Comana, in Pontus, was a + colony from that of Cappadocia, l. xii. p. 835. The President Des Brosses + (see his Saluste, tom. ii. p. 21, [edit. Causub.]) conjectures that the + deity adored in both Comanas was Beltis, the Venus of the east, the + goddess of generation; a very different being indeed from the goddess of + war.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.155" id="linknote-17.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.155">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. x. + tit. vi. de Grege Dominico. Godefroy has collected every circumstance of + antiquity relative to the Cappadocian horses. One of the finest breeds, + the Palmatian, was the forfeiture of a rebel, whose estate lay about + sixteen miles from Tyana, near the great road between Constantinople and + Antioch.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.156" id="linknote-17.156"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.156">return</a>)<br /> [ Justinian (Novell. + 30) subjected the province of the count of Cappadocia to the immediate + authority of the favorite eunuch, who presided over the sacred + bed-chamber.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.157" id="linknote-17.157"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.157">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. vi. + tit. xxx. leg. 4, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.158" id="linknote-17.158"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.158">return</a>)<br /> [ Pancirolus, p. 102, + 136. The appearance of these military domestics is described in the Latin + poem of Corippus, de Laudibus Justin. l. iii. 157-179. p. 419, 420 of the + Appendix Hist. Byzantin. Rom. 177.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.159" id="linknote-17.159"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 159 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.159">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus Marcellinus, + who served so many years, obtained only the rank of a protector. The first + ten among these honorable soldiers were <i>Clarissimi</i>.] + </p> + <p> + The perpetual intercourse between the court and the provinces was + facilitated by the construction of roads and the institution of posts. But + these beneficial establishments were accidentally connected with a + pernicious and intolerable abuse. Two or three hundred <i>agents</i> or + messengers were employed, under the jurisdiction of the master of the + offices, to announce the names of the annual consuls, and the edicts or + victories of the emperors. They insensibly assumed the license of + reporting whatever they could observe of the conduct either of magistrates + or of private citizens; and were soon considered as the eyes of the + monarch, <a href="#linknote-17.160" name="linknoteref-17.160" + id="linknoteref-17.160">160</a> and the scourge of the people. Under the + warm influence of a feeble reign, they multiplied to the incredible number + of ten thousand, disdained the mild though frequent admonitions of the + laws, and exercised in the profitable management of the posts a rapacious + and insolent oppression. These official spies, who regularly corresponded + with the palace, were encouraged by favor and reward, anxiously to watch + the progress of every treasonable design, from the faint and latent + symptoms of disaffection, to the actual preparation of an open revolt. + Their careless or criminal violation of truth and justice was covered by + the consecrated mask of zeal; and they might securely aim their poisoned + arrows at the breast either of the guilty or the innocent, who had + provoked their resentment, or refused to purchase their silence. A + faithful subject, of Syria perhaps, or of Britain, was exposed to the + danger, or at least to the dread, of being dragged in chains to the court + of Milan or Constantinople, to defend his life and fortune against the + malicious charge of these privileged informers. The ordinary + administration was conducted by those methods which extreme necessity can + alone palliate; and the defects of evidence were diligently supplied by + the use of torture. <a href="#linknote-17.161" name="linknoteref-17.161" + id="linknoteref-17.161">161</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.160" id="linknote-17.160"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 160 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.160">return</a>)<br /> [ Xenophon, Cyropæd. + l. viii. Brisson, de Regno Persico, l. i No 190, p. 264. The emperors + adopted with pleasure this Persian metaphor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.161" id="linknote-17.161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.161">return</a>)<br /> [ For the <i>Agentes in + Rebus</i>, see Ammian. l. xv. c. 3, l. xvi. c. 5, l. xxii. c. 7, with the + curious annotations of Valesius. Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. xxvii. xxviii. + xxix. Among the passages collected in the Commentary of Godefroy, the most + remarkable is one from Libanius, in his discourse concerning the death of + Julian.] + </p> + <p> + The deceitful and dangerous experiment of the criminal <i>quæstion</i>, as it is + emphatically styled, was admitted, rather than approved, in the + jurisprudence of the Romans. They applied this sanguinary mode of + examination only to servile bodies, whose sufferings were seldom weighed + by those haughty republicans in the scale of justice or humanity; but they + would never consent to violate the sacred person of a citizen, till they + possessed the clearest evidence of his guilt. <a href="#linknote-17.162" + name="linknoteref-17.162" id="linknoteref-17.162">162</a> The annals of + tyranny, from the reign of Tiberius to that of Domitian, circumstantially + relate the executions of many innocent victims; but, as long as the + faintest remembrance was kept alive of the national freedom and honor, the + last hours of a Roman were secured from the danger of ignominions torture. + <a href="#linknote-17.163" name="linknoteref-17.163" id="linknoteref-17.163">163</a> + The conduct of the provincial magistrates was not, however, regulated by + the practice of the city, or the strict maxims of the civilians. They + found the use of torture established not only among the slaves of oriental + despotism, but among the Macedonians, who obeyed a limited monarch; among + the Rhodians, who flourished by the liberty of commerce; and even among + the sage Athenians, who had asserted and adorned the dignity of human + kind. <a href="#linknote-17.164" name="linknoteref-17.164" + id="linknoteref-17.164">164</a> The acquiescence of the provincials + encouraged their governors to acquire, or perhaps to usurp, a + discretionary power of employing the rack, to extort from vagrants or + plebeian criminals the confession of their guilt, till they insensibly + proceeded to confound the distinction of rank, and to disregard the + privileges of Roman citizens. The apprehensions of the subjects urged them + to solicit, and the interest of the sovereign engaged him to grant, a + variety of special exemptions, which tacitly allowed, and even authorized, + the general use of torture. They protected all persons of illustrious or + honorable rank, bishops and their presbyters, professors of the liberal + arts, soldiers and their families, municipal officers, and their posterity + to the third generation, and all children under the age of puberty. <a + href="#linknote-17.165" name="linknoteref-17.165" id="linknoteref-17.165">165</a> + But a fatal maxim was introduced into the new jurisprudence of the empire, + that in the case of treason, which included every offence that the + subtlety of lawyers could derive from a <i>hostile intention</i> towards the + prince or republic, <a href="#linknote-17.166" name="linknoteref-17.166" + id="linknoteref-17.166">166</a> all privileges were suspended, and all + conditions were reduced to the same ignominious level. As the safety of + the emperor was avowedly preferred to every consideration of justice or + humanity, the dignity of age and the tenderness of youth were alike + exposed to the most cruel tortures; and the terrors of a malicious + information, which might select them as the accomplices, or even as the + witnesses, perhaps, of an imaginary crime, perpetually hung over the heads + of the principal citizens of the Roman world. <a href="#linknote-17.167" + name="linknoteref-17.167" id="linknoteref-17.167">167</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.162" id="linknote-17.162"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 162 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.162">return</a>)<br /> [ The Pandects (l. + xlviii. tit. xviii.) contain the sentiments of the most celebrated + civilians on the subject of torture. They strictly confine it to slaves; + and Ulpian himself is ready to acknowledge that Res est fragilis, et + periculosa, et quæ veritatem fallat.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.163" id="linknote-17.163"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 163 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.163">return</a>)<br /> [ In the conspiracy of + Piso against Nero, Epicharis (libertina mulier) was the only person + tortured; the rest were <i>intacti tormentis</i>. It would be superfluous to add + a weaker, and it would be difficult to find a stronger, example. Tacit. + Annal. xv. 57.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.164" id="linknote-17.164"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 164 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.164">return</a>)<br /> [ Dicendum... de + Institutis Atheniensium, Rhodiorum, doctissimorum hominum, apud quos etiam + (id quod acerbissimum est) liberi, civesque torquentur. Cicero, Partit. + Orat. c. 34. We may learn from the trial of Philotas the practice of the + Macedonians. (Diodor. Sicul. l. xvii. p. 604. Q. Curt. l. vi. c. 11.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.165" id="linknote-17.165"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 165 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.165">return</a>)<br /> [ Heineccius (Element. + Jur. Civil. part vii. p. 81) has collected these exemptions into one + view.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.166" id="linknote-17.166"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 166 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.166">return</a>)<br /> [ This definition of + the sage Ulpian (Pandect. l. xlviii. tit. iv.) seems to have been adapted + to the court of Caracalla, rather than to that of Alexander Severus. See + the Codes of Theodosius and ad leg. Juliam majestatis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.167" id="linknote-17.167"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 167 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.167">return</a>)<br /> [ Arcadius Charisius is + the oldest lawyer quoted to justify the universal practice of torture in + all cases of treason; but this maxim of tyranny, which is admitted by + Ammianus with the most respectful terror, is enforced by several laws of + the successors of Constantine. See Cod. Theod. l. ix. tit. xxxv. + majestatis crimine omnibus æqua est conditio.] + </p> + <p> + These evils, however terrible they may appear, were confined to the + smaller number of Roman subjects, whose dangerous situation was in some + degree compensated by the enjoyment of those advantages, either of nature + or of fortune, which exposed them to the jealousy of the monarch. The + obscure millions of a great empire have much less to dread from the + cruelty than from the avarice of their masters, and <i>their</i> humble happiness + is principally affected by the grievance of excessive taxes, which, gently + pressing on the wealthy, descend with accelerated weight on the meaner and + more indigent classes of society. An ingenious philosopher <a + href="#linknote-17.168" name="linknoteref-17.168" id="linknoteref-17.168">168</a> + has calculated the universal measure of the public impositions by the + degrees of freedom and servitude; and ventures to assert, that, according + to an invariable law of nature, it must always increase with the former, + and diminish in a just proportion to the latter. But this reflection, + which would tend to alleviate the miseries of despotism, is contradicted + at least by the history of the Roman empire; which accuses the same + princes of despoiling the senate of its authority, and the provinces of + their wealth. Without abolishing all the various customs and duties on + merchandises, which are imperceptibly discharged by the apparent choice of + the purchaser, the policy of Constantine and his successors preferred a + simple and direct mode of taxation, more congenial to the spirit of an + arbitrary government. <a href="#linknote-17.169" name="linknoteref-17.169" + id="linknoteref-17.169">169</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.168" id="linknote-17.168"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 168 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.168">return</a>)<br /> [ Montesquieu, Esprit + des Loix, l. xii. c. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.169" id="linknote-17.169"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 169 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.169">return</a>)<br /> [ Mr. Hume (Essays, + vol. i. p. 389) has seen this importance with some degree of perplexity.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap17.6"></a> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + The name and use of the <i>indictions</i>, <a href="#linknote-17.170" + name="linknoteref-17.170" id="linknoteref-17.170">170</a> which serve to + ascertain the chronology of the middle ages, were derived from the regular + practice of the Roman tributes. <a href="#linknote-17.171" + name="linknoteref-17.171" id="linknoteref-17.171">171</a> The emperor + subscribed with his own hand, and in purple ink, the solemn edict, or + indiction, which was fixed up in the principal city of each diocese, + during two months previous to the first day of September. And by a very + easy connection of ideas, the word <i>indiction</i> was transferred to the + measure of tribute which it prescribed, and to the annual term which it + allowed for the payment. This general estimate of the supplies was + proportioned to the real and imaginary wants of the state; but as often as + the expense exceeded the revenue, or the revenue fell short of the + computation, an additional tax, under the name of <i>superindiction</i>, was + imposed on the people, and the most valuable attribute of sovereignty was + communicated to the Prætorian præfects, who, on some occasions, were + permitted to provide for the unforeseen and extraordinary exigencies of + the public service. The execution of these laws (which it would be tedious + to pursue in their minute and intricate detail) consisted of two distinct + operations: the resolving the general imposition into its constituent + parts, which were assessed on the provinces, the cities, and the + individuals of the Roman world; and the collecting the separate + contributions of the individuals, the cities, and the provinces, till the + accumulated sums were poured into the Imperial treasuries. But as the + account between the monarch and the subject was perpetually open, and as + the renewal of the demand anticipated the perfect discharge of the + preceding obligation, the weighty machine of the finances was moved by the + same hands round the circle of its yearly revolution. Whatever was + honorable or important in the administration of the revenue, was committed + to the wisdom of the præfects, and their provincia. representatives; the + lucrative functions were claimed by a crowd of subordinate officers, some + of whom depended on the treasurer, others on the governor of the province; + and who, in the inevitable conflicts of a perplexed jurisdiction, had + frequent opportunities of disputing with each other the spoils of the + people. The laborious offices, which could be productive only of envy and + reproach, of expense and danger, were imposed on the <i>Decurions</i>, who formed + the corporations of the cities, and whom the severity of the Imperial laws + had condemned to sustain the burdens of civil society. <a + href="#linknote-17.172" name="linknoteref-17.172" id="linknoteref-17.172">172</a> + The whole landed property of the empire (without excepting the patrimonial + estates of the monarch) was the object of ordinary taxation; and every new + purchaser contracted the obligations of the former proprietor. An accurate + <i>census</i>, <a href="#linknote-17.173" name="linknoteref-17.173" + id="linknoteref-17.173">173</a> or survey, was the only equitable mode of + ascertaining the proportion which every citizen should be obliged to + contribute for the public service; and from the well-known period of the + indictions, there is reason to believe that this difficult and expensive + operation was repeated at the regular distance of fifteen years. The lands + were measured by surveyors, who were sent into the provinces; their + nature, whether arable or pasture, or vineyards or woods, was distinctly + reported; and an estimate was made of their common value from the average + produce of five years. The numbers of slaves and of cattle constituted an + essential part of the report; an oath was administered to the proprietors, + which bound them to disclose the true state of their affairs; and their + attempts to prevaricate, or elude the intention of the legislator, were + severely watched, and punished as a capital crime, which included the + double guilt of treason and sacrilege. <a href="#linknote-17.174" + name="linknoteref-17.174" id="linknoteref-17.174">174</a> A large portion of + the tribute was paid in money; and of the current coin of the empire, gold + alone could be legally accepted. <a href="#linknote-17.175" + name="linknoteref-17.175" id="linknoteref-17.175">175</a> The remainder of + the taxes, according to the proportions determined by the annual + indiction, was furnished in a manner still more direct, and still more + oppressive. According to the different nature of lands, their real produce + in the various articles of wine or oil, corn or barley, wood or iron, was + transported by the labor or at the expense of the provincials <a + href="#linknote-17.17511" name="linknoteref-17.17511" + id="linknoteref-17.17511">17511</a> to the Imperial magazines, from whence + they were occasionally distributed for the use of the court, of the army, + and of two capitals, Rome and Constantinople. The commissioners of the + revenue were so frequently obliged to make considerable purchases, that + they were strictly prohibited from allowing any compensation, or from + receiving in money the value of those supplies which were exacted in kind. + In the primitive simplicity of small communities, this method may be well + adapted to collect the almost voluntary offerings of the people; but it is + at once susceptible of the utmost latitude, and of the utmost strictness, + which in a corrupt and absolute monarchy must introduce a perpetual + contest between the power of oppression and the arts of fraud. <a + href="#linknote-17.176" name="linknoteref-17.176" id="linknoteref-17.176">176</a> + The agriculture of the Roman provinces was insensibly ruined, and, in the + progress of despotism which tends to disappoint its own purpose, the + emperors were obliged to derive some merit from the forgiveness of debts, + or the remission of tributes, which their subjects were utterly incapable + of paying. According to the new division of Italy, the fertile and happy + province of Campania, the scene of the early victories and of the + delicious retirements of the citizens of Rome, extended between the sea + and the Apennine, from the Tiber to the Silarus. Within sixty years after + the death of Constantine, and on the evidence of an actual survey, an + exemption was granted in favor of three hundred and thirty thousand + English acres of desert and uncultivated land; which amounted to one + eighth of the whole surface of the province. As the footsteps of the + Barbarians had not yet been seen in Italy, the cause of this amazing + desolation, which is recorded in the laws, can be ascribed only to the + administration of the Roman emperors. <a href="#linknote-17.177" + name="linknoteref-17.177" id="linknoteref-17.177">177</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.170" id="linknote-17.170"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 170 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.170">return</a>)<br /> [ The cycle of + indictions, which may be traced as high as the reign of Constantius, or + perhaps of his father, Constantine, is still employed by the Papal court; + but the commencement of the year has been very reasonably altered to the + first of January. See l’Art de Verifier les Dates, p. xi.; and + Dictionnaire Raison. de la Diplomatique, tom. ii. p. 25; two accurate + treatises, which come from the workshop of the Benedictines. —— + It does not appear that the establishment of the indiction is to be at + tributed to Constantine: it existed before he had been created <i>Augustus</i> at + Rome, and the remission granted by him to the city of Autun is the proof. + He would not have ventured while only <i>Cæsar</i>, and under the necessity of + courting popular favor, to establish such an odious impost. Aurelius + Victor and Lactantius agree in designating Diocletian as the author of + this despotic institution. Aur. Vict. de Cæs. c. 39. Lactant. de Mort. + Pers. c. 7—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.171" id="linknote-17.171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.171">return</a>)<br /> [ The first + twenty-eight titles of the eleventh book of the Theodosian Code are filled + with the circumstantial regulations on the important subject of tributes; + but they suppose a clearer knowledge of fundamental principles than it is + at present in our power to attain.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.172" id="linknote-17.172"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 172 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.172">return</a>)<br /> [ The title concerning + the Decurions (l. xii. tit. i.) is the most ample in the whole Theodosian + Code; since it contains not less than one hundred and ninety-two distinct + laws to ascertain the duties and privileges of that useful order of + citizens. * Note: The Decurions were charged with assessing, according to + the census of property prepared by the tabularii, the payment due from + each proprietor. This odious office was authoritatively imposed on the + richest citizens of each town; they had no salary, and all their + compensation was, to be exempt from certain corporal punishments, in case + they should have incurred them. The Decurionate was the ruin of all the + rich. Hence they tried every way of avoiding this dangerous honor; they + concealed themselves, they entered into military service; but their + efforts were unavailing; they were seized, they were compelled to become + Decurions, and the dread inspired by this title was termed <i>Impiety</i>.—G. + ——The Decurions were mutually responsible; they were obliged + to undertake for pieces of ground abandoned by their owners on account of + the pressure of the taxes, and, finally, to make up all deficiencies. + Savigny chichte des Rom. Rechts, i. 25.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.173" id="linknote-17.173"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 173 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.173">return</a>)<br /> [ Habemus enim et + hominum numerum qui delati sunt, et agrun modum. Eumenius in Panegyr. Vet. + viii. 6. See Cod. Theod. l. xiii. tit. x. xi., with Godefroy’s + Commentary.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.174" id="linknote-17.174"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 174 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.174">return</a>)<br /> [ Siquis sacrilegâ + vitem falce succiderit, aut feracium ramorum fœtus hebetaverit, quo + delinet fidem Censuum, et mentiatur callide paupertatis ingenium, mox + detectus capitale subibit exitium, et bona ejus in Fisci jura migrabunt. + Cod. Theod. l. xiii. tit. xi. leg. 1. Although this law is not without its + studied obscurity, it is, however clear enough to prove the minuteness of + the inquisition, and the disproportion of the penalty.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.175" id="linknote-17.175"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 175 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.175">return</a>)<br /> [ The astonishment of + Pliny would have ceased. Equidem miror P. R. victis gentibus argentum + semper imperitasse non aurum. Hist Natur. xxxiii. 15.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.17511" id="linknote-17.17511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17511 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.17511">return</a>)<br /> [ The proprietors + were not charged with the expense of this transport in the provinces + situated on the sea-shore or near the great rivers, there were companies + of boatmen, and of masters of vessels, who had this commission, and + furnished the means of transport at their own expense. In return, they + were themselves exempt, altogether, or in part, from the indiction and + other imposts. They had certain privileges; particular regulations + determined their rights and obligations. (Cod. Theod. l. xiii. tit. v. + ix.) The transports by land were made in the same manner, by the + intervention of a privileged company called Bastaga; the members were + called Bastagarii Cod. Theod. l. viii. tit. v.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.176" id="linknote-17.176"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 176 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.176">return</a>)<br /> [ Some precautions were + taken (see Cod. Theod. l. xi. tit. ii. and Cod. Justinian. l. x. tit. + xxvii. leg. 1, 2, 3) to restrain the magistrates from the abuse of their + authority, either in the exaction or in the purchase of corn: but those + who had learning enough to read the orations of Cicero against Verres, + (iii. de Frumento,) might instruct themselves in all the various arts of + oppression, with regard to the weight, the price, the quality, and the + carriage. The avarice of an unlettered governor would supply the ignorance + of precept or precedent.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.177" id="linknote-17.177"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 177 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.177">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. xi. + tit. xxviii. leg. 2, published the 24th of March, A. D. 395, by the + emperor Honorius, only two months after the death of his father, + Theodosius. He speaks of 528,042 Roman jugera, which I have reduced to the + English measure. The jugerum contained 28,800 square Roman feet.] + </p> + <p> + Either from design or from accident, the mode of assessment seemed to + unite the substance of a land tax with the forms of a capitation. <a + href="#linknote-17.178" name="linknoteref-17.178" id="linknoteref-17.178">178</a> + The returns which were sent of every province or district, expressed the + number of tributary subjects, and the amount of the public impositions. + The latter of these sums was divided by the former; and the estimate, that + such a province contained so many <i>capita</i>, or heads of tribute; and that + each <i>head</i> was rated at such a price, was universally received, not only in + the popular, but even in the legal computation. The value of a tributary + head must have varied, according to many accidental, or at least + fluctuating circumstances; but some knowledge has been preserved of a very + curious fact, the more important, since it relates to one of the richest + provinces of the Roman empire, and which now flourishes as the most + splendid of the European kingdoms. The rapacious ministers of Constantius + had exhausted the wealth of Gaul, by exacting twenty-five pieces of gold + for the annual tribute of every head. The humane policy of his successor + reduced the capitation to seven pieces. <a href="#linknote-17.179" + name="linknoteref-17.179" id="linknoteref-17.179">179</a> A moderate + proportion between these opposite extremes of extraordinary oppression and + of transient indulgence, may therefore be fixed at sixteen pieces of gold, + or about nine pounds sterling, the common standard, perhaps, of the + impositions of Gaul. <a href="#linknote-17.180" name="linknoteref-17.180" + id="linknoteref-17.180">180</a> But this calculation, or rather, indeed, + the facts from whence it is deduced, cannot fail of suggesting two + difficulties to a thinking mind, who will be at once surprised by the + <i>equality</i>, and by the <i>enormity</i>, of the capitation. An attempt to explain + them may perhaps reflect some light on the interesting subject of the + finances of the declining empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.178" id="linknote-17.178"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 178 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.178">return</a>)<br /> [ Godefroy (Cod. Theod. + tom. vi. p. 116) argues with weight and learning on the subject of the + capitation; but while he explains the <i>caput</i>, as a share or measure of + property, he too absolutely excludes the idea of a personal assessment.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.179" id="linknote-17.179"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 179 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.179">return</a>)<br /> [ Quid profuerit + (<i>Julianus</i>) anhelantibus extremâ penuriâ Gallis, hinc maxime claret, quod + primitus partes eas ingressus, pro <i>capitibus</i> singulis tributi nomine vicenos + quinos aureos reperit flagitari; discedens vero septenos tantum numera + universa complentes. Ammian. l. xvi. c. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.180" id="linknote-17.180"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 180 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.180">return</a>)<br /> [ In the calculation of + any sum of money under Constantine and his successors, we need only refer + to the excellent discourse of Mr. Greaves on the Denarius, for the proof + of the following principles; 1. That the ancient and modern Roman pound, + containing 5256 grains of Troy weight, is about one twelfth lighter than + the English pound, which is composed of 5760 of the same grains. 2. That + the pound of gold, which had once been divided into forty-eight <i>aurei</i>, was + at this time coined into seventy-two smaller pieces of the same + denomination. 3. That five of these aurei were the legal tender for a + pound of silver, and that consequently the pound of gold was exchanged for + fourteen pounds eight ounces of silver, according to the Roman, or about + thirteen pounds according to the English weight. 4. That the English pound + of silver is coined into sixty-two shillings. From these elements we may + compute the Roman pound of gold, the usual method of reckoning large sums, + at forty pounds sterling, and we may fix the currency of the <i>aureus</i> at + somewhat more than eleven shillings. * Note: See, likewise, a Dissertation + of M. Letronne, “Considerations Génerales sur l’Evaluation des Monnaies + Grecques et Romaines” Paris, 1817—M.] + </p> + <p> + I. It is obvious, that, as long as the immutable constitution of human + nature produces and maintains so unequal a division of property, the most + numerous part of the community would be deprived of their subsistence, by + the equal assessment of a tax from which the sovereign would derive a very + trifling revenue. Such indeed might be the theory of the Roman capitation; + but in the practice, this unjust equality was no longer felt, as the + tribute was collected on the principle of a <i>real</i>, not of a <i>personal</i> + imposition. <a href="#linknote-17.18011" name="linknoteref-17.18011" + id="linknoteref-17.18011">18011</a> Several indigent citizens contributed + to compose a single <i>head</i>, or share of taxation; while the wealthy + provincial, in proportion to his fortune, alone represented several of + those imaginary beings. In a poetical request, addressed to one of the + last and most deserving of the Roman princes who reigned in Gaul, Sidonius + Apollinaris personifies his tribute under the figure of a triple monster, + the Geryon of the Grecian fables, and entreats the new Hercules that he + would most graciously be pleased to save his life by cutting off three of + his heads. <a href="#linknote-17.181" name="linknoteref-17.181" + id="linknoteref-17.181">181</a> The fortune of Sidonius far exceeded the + customary wealth of a poet; but if he had pursued the allusion, he might + have painted many of the Gallic nobles with the hundred heads of the + deadly Hydra, spreading over the face of the country, and devouring the + substance of a hundred families. II. The difficulty of allowing an annual + sum of about nine pounds sterling, even for the average of the capitation + of Gaul, may be rendered more evident by the comparison of the present + state of the same country, as it is now governed by the absolute monarch + of an industrious, wealthy, and affectionate people. The taxes of France + cannot be magnified, either by fear or by flattery, beyond the annual + amount of eighteen millions sterling, which ought perhaps to be shared + among four and twenty millions of inhabitants. <a href="#linknote-17.182" + name="linknoteref-17.182" id="linknoteref-17.182">182</a> Seven millions of + these, in the capacity of fathers, or brothers, or husbands, may discharge + the obligations of the remaining multitude of women and children; yet the + equal proportion of each tributary subject will scarcely rise above fifty + shillings of our money, instead of a proportion almost four times as + considerable, which was regularly imposed on their Gallic ancestors. The + reason of this difference may be found, not so much in the relative + scarcity or plenty of gold and silver, as in the different state of + society, in ancient Gaul and in modern France. In a country where personal + freedom is the privilege of every subject, the whole mass of taxes, + whether they are levied on property or on consumption, may be fairly + divided among the whole body of the nation. But the far greater part of + the lands of ancient Gaul, as well as of the other provinces of the Roman + world, were cultivated by slaves, or by peasants, whose dependent + condition was a less rigid servitude. <a href="#linknote-17.183" + name="linknoteref-17.183" id="linknoteref-17.183">183</a> In such a state + the poor were maintained at the expense of the masters who enjoyed the + fruits of their labor; and as the rolls of tribute were filled only with + the names of those citizens who possessed the means of an honorable, or at + least of a decent subsistence, the comparative smallness of their numbers + explains and justifies the high rate of their capitation. The truth of + this assertion may be illustrated by the following example: The Ædui, one + of the most powerful and civilized tribes or <i>cities</i> of Gaul, occupied an + extent of territory, which now contains about five hundred thousand + inhabitants, in the two ecclesiastical dioceses of Autun and Nevers; <a + href="#linknote-17.184" name="linknoteref-17.184" id="linknoteref-17.184">184</a> + and with the probable accession of those of Châlons and Maçon, <a + href="#linknote-17.185" name="linknoteref-17.185" id="linknoteref-17.185">185</a> + the population would amount to eight hundred thousand souls. In the time + of Constantine, the territory of the Ædui afforded no more than + twenty-five thousand <i>heads</i> of capitation, of whom seven thousand were + discharged by that prince from the intolerable weight of tribute. <a + href="#linknote-17.186" name="linknoteref-17.186" id="linknoteref-17.186">186</a> + A just analogy would seem to countenance the opinion of an ingenious + historian, <a href="#linknote-17.187" name="linknoteref-17.187" + id="linknoteref-17.187">187</a> that the free and tributary citizens did + not surpass the number of half a million; and if, in the ordinary + administration of government, their annual payments may be computed at + about four millions and a half of our money, it would appear, that + although the share of each individual was four times as considerable, a + fourth part only of the modern taxes of France was levied on the Imperial + province of Gaul. The exactions of Constantius may be calculated at seven + millions sterling, which were reduced to two millions by the humanity or + the wisdom of Julian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.18011" id="linknote-17.18011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18011 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.18011">return</a>)<br /> [ Two masterly + dissertations of M. Savigny, in the Mem. of the Berlin Academy (1822 and + 1823) have thrown new light on the taxation system of the Empire. Gibbon, + according to M. Savigny, is mistaken in supposing that there was but one + kind of capitation tax; there was a land tax, and a capitation tax, + strictly so called. The land tax was, in its operation, a proprietor’s or + landlord’s tax. But, besides this, there was a direct capitation tax on + all who were not possessed of landed property. This tax dates from the + time of the Roman conquests; its amount is not clearly known. Gradual + exemptions released different persons and classes from this tax. One edict + exempts painters. In Syria, all under twelve or fourteen, or above + sixty-five, were exempted; at a later period, all under twenty, and all + unmarried females; still later, all under twenty-five, widows and nuns, + soldiers, veterani and clerici—whole dioceses, that of Thrace and + Illyricum. Under Galerius and Licinius, the plebs urbana became exempt; + though this, perhaps, was only an ordinance for the East. By degrees, + however, the exemption was extended to all the inhabitants of towns; and + as it was strictly capitatio plebeia, from which all possessors were + exempted it fell at length altogether on the coloni and agricultural + slaves. These were registered in the same cataster (capitastrum) with the + land tax. It was paid by the proprietor, who raised it again from his + coloni and laborers.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.181" id="linknote-17.181"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.181">return</a>)<br /> [ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Geryones nos esse puta, monstrumque tributum, + Hîc <i>capita</i> ut vivam, tu mihi tolle <i>tria</i>. + Sidon. Apollinar. Carm. xiii. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + The reputation of Father Sirmond led me to expect more satisfaction than I + have found in his note (p. 144) on this remarkable passage. The words, suo + vel <i>suorum</i> nomine, betray the perplexity of the commentator.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.182" id="linknote-17.182"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 182 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.182">return</a>)<br /> [ This assertion, + however formidable it may seem, is founded on the original registers of + births, deaths, and marriages, collected by public authority, and now + deposited in the <i>Contrôlee General</i> at Paris. The annual average of births + throughout the whole kingdom, taken in five years, (from 1770 to 1774, + both inclusive,) is 479,649 boys, and 449,269 girls, in all 928,918 + children. The province of French Hainault alone furnishes 9906 births; and + we are assured, by an actual enumeration of the people, annually repeated + from the year 1773 to the year 1776, that upon an average, Hainault + contains 257,097 inhabitants. By the rules of fair analogy, we might + infer, that the ordinary proportion of annual births to the whole people, + is about 1 to 26; and that the kingdom of France contains 24,151,868 + persons of both sexes and of every age. If we content ourselves with the + more moderate proportion of 1 to 25, the whole population will amount to + 23,222,950. From the diligent researches of the French Government, (which + are not unworthy of our own imitation,) we may hope to obtain a still + greater degree of certainty on this important subject * Note: On no + subject has so much valuable information been collected since the time of + Gibbon, as the statistics of the different countries of Europe but much is + still wanting as to our own—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.183" id="linknote-17.183"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 183 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.183">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. v. + tit. ix. x. xi. Cod. Justinian. l. xi. tit. lxiii. Coloni appellantur qui + conditionem debent genitali solo, propter agriculturum sub dominio + possessorum. Augustin. de Civitate Dei, l. x. c. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.184" id="linknote-17.184"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 184 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.184">return</a>)<br /> [ The ancient + jurisdiction of (<i>Augustodunum</i>) Autun in Burgundy, the capital of the + Ædui, comprehended the adjacent territory of (<i>Noviodunum</i>) Nevers. See + D’Anville, Notice de l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 491. The two dioceses of Autun + and Nevers are now composed, the former of 610, and the latter of 160 + parishes. The registers of births, taken during eleven years, in 476 + parishes of the same province of Burgundy, and multiplied by the moderate + proportion of 25, (see Messance Recherches sur la Population, p. 142,) may + authorizes us to assign an average number of 656 persons for each parish, + which being again multiplied by the 770 parishes of the dioceses of Nevers + and Autun, will produce the sum of 505,120 persons for the extent of + country which was once possessed by the Ædui.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.185" id="linknote-17.185"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 185 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.185">return</a>)<br /> [ We might derive an + additional supply of 301,750 inhabitants from the dioceses of Châlons + (<i>Cabillonum</i>) and of Maçon, (<i>Matisco</i>,) since they contain, the one 200, and + the other 260 parishes. This accession of territory might be justified by + very specious reasons. 1. Châlons and Maçon were undoubtedly within the + original jurisdiction of the Ædui. (See D’Anville, Notice, p. 187, 443.) + 2. In the Notitia of Gaul, they are enumerated not as <i>Civitates</i>, but + merely as <i>Castra</i>. 3. They do not appear to have been episcopal seats + before the fifth and sixth centuries. Yet there is a passage in Eumenius + (Panegyr. Vet. viii. 7) which very forcibly deters me from extending the + territory of the Ædui, in the reign of Constantine, along the beautiful + banks of the navigable Saône. * Note: In this passage of Eumenius, Savigny + supposes the original number to have been 32,000: 7000 being discharged, + there remained 25,000 liable to the tribute. See Mem. quoted above.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.186" id="linknote-17.186"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 186 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.186">return</a>)<br /> [ Eumenius in Panegyr + Vet. viii. 11.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.187" id="linknote-17.187"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 187 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.187">return</a>)<br /> [ L’Abbé du Bos, Hist. + Critique de la M. F. tom. i. p. 121] + </p> + <p> + But this tax, or capitation, on the proprietors of land, would have + suffered a rich and numerous class of free citizens to escape. With the + view of sharing that species of wealth which is derived from art or labor, + and which exists in money or in merchandise, the emperors imposed a + distinct and personal tribute on the trading part of their subjects. <a + href="#linknote-17.188" name="linknoteref-17.188" id="linknoteref-17.188">188</a> + Some exemptions, very strictly confined both in time and place, were + allowed to the proprietors who disposed of the produce of their own + estates. Some indulgence was granted to the profession of the liberal + arts: but every other branch of commercial industry was affected by the + severity of the law. The honorable merchant of Alexandria, who imported + the gems and spices of India for the use of the western world; the usurer, + who derived from the interest of money a silent and ignominious profit; + the ingenious manufacturer, the diligent mechanic, and even the most + obscure retailer of a sequestered village, were obliged to admit the + officers of the revenue into the partnership of their gain; and the + sovereign of the Roman empire, who tolerated the profession, consented to + share the infamous salary, of public prostitutes. <a + href="#linknote-17.18811" name="linknoteref-17.18811" + id="linknoteref-17.18811">18811</a> As this general tax upon industry was + collected every fourth year, it was styled the <i>Lustral Contribution:</i> and + the historian Zosimus <a href="#linknote-17.189" name="linknoteref-17.189" + id="linknoteref-17.189">189</a> laments that the approach of the fatal + period was announced by the tears and terrors of the citizens, who were + often compelled by the impending scourge to embrace the most abhorred and + unnatural methods of procuring the sum at which their property had been + assessed. The testimony of Zosimus cannot indeed be justified from the + charge of passion and prejudice; but, from the nature of this tribute it + seems reasonable to conclude, that it was arbitrary in the distribution, + and extremely rigorous in the mode of collecting. The secret wealth of + commerce, and the precarious profits of art or labor, are susceptible only + of a discretionary valuation, which is seldom disadvantageous to the + interest of the treasury; and as the person of the trader supplies the + want of a visible and permanent security, the payment of the imposition, + which, in the case of a land tax, may be obtained by the seizure of + property, can rarely be extorted by any other means than those of corporal + punishments. The cruel treatment of the insolvent debtors of the state, is + attested, and was perhaps mitigated by a very humane edict of Constantine, + who, disclaiming the use of racks and of scourges, allots a spacious and + airy prison for the place of their confinement. <a href="#linknote-17.190" + name="linknoteref-17.190" id="linknoteref-17.190">190</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.188" id="linknote-17.188"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 188 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.188">return</a>)<br /> [ See Cod. Theod. l. + xiii. tit. i. and iv.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.18811" id="linknote-17.18811"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18811 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.18811">return</a>)<br /> [ The emperor + Theodosius put an end, by a law. to this disgraceful source of revenue. + (Godef. ad Cod. Theod. xiii. tit. i. c. 1.) But before he deprived himself + of it, he made sure of some way of replacing this deficit. A rich + patrician, Florentius, indignant at this legalized licentiousness, had + made representations on the subject to the emperor. To induce him to + tolerate it no longer, he offered his own property to supply the + diminution of the revenue. The emperor had the baseness to accept his + offer—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.189" id="linknote-17.189"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 189 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.189">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 115. There is probably as much passion and prejudice in the attack of + Zosimus, as in the elaborate defence of the memory of Constantine by the + zealous Dr. Howell. Hist. of the World, vol. ii. p. 20.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.190" id="linknote-17.190"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 190 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.190">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. xi. + tit vii. leg. 3.] + </p> + <p> + These general taxes were imposed and levied by the absolute authority of + the monarch; but the occasional offerings of the <i>coronary gold</i> still + retained the name and semblance of popular consent. It was an ancient + custom that the allies of the republic, who ascribed their safety or + deliverance to the success of the Roman arms, and even the cities of + Italy, who admired the virtues of their victorious general, adorned the + pomp of his triumph by their voluntary gifts of crowns of gold, which + after the ceremony were consecrated in the temple of Jupiter, to remain a + lasting monument of his glory to future ages. The progress of zeal and + flattery soon multiplied the number, and increased the size, of these + popular donations; and the triumph of Cæsar was enriched with two + thousand eight hundred and twenty-two massy crowns, whose weight amounted + to twenty thousand four hundred and fourteen pounds of gold. This treasure + was immediately melted down by the prudent dictator, who was satisfied + that it would be more serviceable to his soldiers than to the gods: his + example was imitated by his successors; and the custom was introduced of + exchanging these splendid ornaments for the more acceptable present of the + current gold coin of the empire. <a href="#linknote-17.191" + name="linknoteref-17.191" id="linknoteref-17.191">191</a> The spontaneous + offering was at length exacted as the debt of duty; and instead of being + confined to the occasion of a triumph, it was supposed to be granted by + the several cities and provinces of the monarchy, as often as the emperor + condescended to announce his accession, his consulship, the birth of a + son, the creation of a Cæsar, a victory over the Barbarians, or any other + real or imaginary event which graced the annals of his reign. The peculiar + free gift of the senate of Rome was fixed by custom at sixteen hundred + pounds of gold, or about sixty-four thousand pounds sterling. The + oppressed subjects celebrated their own felicity, that their sovereign + should graciously consent to accept this feeble but voluntary testimony of + their loyalty and gratitude. <a href="#linknote-17.192" + name="linknoteref-17.192" id="linknoteref-17.192">192</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.191" id="linknote-17.191"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 191 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.191">return</a>)<br /> [ See Lipsius de + Magnitud. Romana, l. ii. c. 9. The Tarragonese Spain presented the emperor + Claudius with a crown of gold of seven, and Gaul with another of nine, + <i>hundred</i> pounds weight. I have followed the rational emendation of Lipsius. + * Note: This custom is of still earlier date, the Romans had borrowed it + from Greece. Who is not acquainted with the famous oration of Demosthenes + for the golden crown, which his citizens wished to bestow, and Æschines + to deprive him of?—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.192" id="linknote-17.192"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 192 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.192">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. xii. + tit. xiii. The senators were supposed to be exempt from the <i>Aurum + Coronarium;</i> but the <i>Auri Oblatio</i>, which was required at their hands, was + precisely of the same nature.] + </p> + <p> + A people elated by pride, or soured by discontent, are seldom qualified to + form a just estimate of their actual situation. The subjects of + Constantine were incapable of discerning the decline of genius and manly + virtue, which so far degraded them below the dignity of their ancestors; + but they could feel and lament the rage of tyranny, the relaxation of + discipline, and the increase of taxes. The impartial historian, who + acknowledges the justice of their complaints, will observe some favorable + circumstances which tended to alleviate the misery of their condition. The + threatening tempest of Barbarians, which so soon subverted the foundations + of Roman greatness, was still repelled, or suspended, on the frontiers. + The arts of luxury and literature were cultivated, and the elegant + pleasures of society were enjoyed, by the inhabitants of a considerable + portion of the globe. The forms, the pomp, and the expense of the civil + administration contributed to restrain the irregular license of the + soldiers; and although the laws were violated by power, or perverted by + subtlety, the sage principles of the Roman jurisprudence preserved a sense + of order and equity, unknown to the despotic governments of the East. The + rights of mankind might derive some protection from religion and + philosophy; and the name of freedom, which could no longer alarm, might + sometimes admonish, the successors of Augustus, that they did not reign + over a nation of Slaves or Barbarians. <a href="#linknote-17.193" + name="linknoteref-17.193" id="linknoteref-17.193">193</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-17.193" id="linknote-17.193"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 193 (<a href="#linknoteref-17.193">return</a>)<br /> [ The great Theodosius, + in his judicious advice to his son, (Claudian in iv. Consulat. Honorii, + 214, &c.,) distinguishes the station of a Roman prince from that of a + Parthian monarch. Virtue was necessary for the one; birth might suffice + for the other.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap18.1"></a> + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Character Of Constantine.—Gothic War.—Death Of + Constantine.—Division Of The Empire Among His Three Sons.— + Persian War.—Tragic Deaths Of Constantine The Younger And + Constans.—Usurpation Of Magnentius.—Civil War.—Victory Of + Constantius. +</pre> + <p> + The character of the prince who removed the seat of empire, and introduced + such important changes into the civil and religious constitution of his + country, has fixed the attention, and divided the opinions, of mankind. By + the grateful zeal of the Christians, the deliverer of the church has been + decorated with every attribute of a hero, and even of a saint; while the + discontent of the vanquished party has compared Constantine to the most + abhorred of those tyrants, who, by their vice and weakness, dishonored the + Imperial purple. The same passions have in some degree been perpetuated to + succeeding generations, and the character of Constantine is considered, + even in the present age, as an object either of satire or of panegyric. By + the impartial union of those defects which are confessed by his warmest + admirers, and of those virtues which are acknowledged by his + most-implacable enemies, we might hope to delineate a just portrait of + that extraordinary man, which the truth and candor of history should adopt + without a blush. <a href="#linknote-18.1" name="linknoteref-18.1" + id="linknoteref-18.1">1</a> But it would soon appear, that the vain attempt + to blend such discordant colors, and to reconcile such inconsistent + qualities, must produce a figure monstrous rather than human, unless it is + viewed in its proper and distinct lights, by a careful separation of the + different periods of the reign of Constantine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.1" id="linknote-18.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.1">return</a>)<br /> [ On ne se trompera point + sur Constantin, en croyant tout le mal ru’en dit Eusebe, et tout le bien + qu’en dit Zosime. Fleury, Hist. Ecclesiastique, tom. iii. p. 233. Eusebius + and Zosimus form indeed the two extremes of flattery and invective. The + intermediate shades are expressed by those writers, whose character or + situation variously tempered the influence of their religious zeal.] + </p> + <p> + The person, as well as the mind, of Constantine, had been enriched by + nature with her choicest endowments. His stature was lofty, his countenance + majestic, his deportment graceful; his strength and activity were + displayed in every manly exercise, and from his earliest youth, to a very + advanced season of life, he preserved the vigor of his constitution by a + strict adherence to the domestic virtues of chastity and temperance. He + delighted in the social intercourse of familiar conversation; and though + he might sometimes indulge his disposition to raillery with less reserve + than was required by the severe dignity of his station, the courtesy and + liberality of his manners gained the hearts of all who approached him. The + sincerity of his friendship has been suspected; yet he showed, on some + occasions, that he was not incapable of a warm and lasting attachment. The + disadvantage of an illiterate education had not prevented him from forming + a just estimate of the value of learning; and the arts and sciences + derived some encouragement from the munificent protection of Constantine. + In the despatch of business, his diligence was indefatigable; and the + active powers of his mind were almost continually exercised in reading, + writing, or meditating, in giving audiences to ambassadors, and in + examining the complaints of his subjects. Even those who censured the + propriety of his measures were compelled to acknowledge, that he possessed + magnanimity to conceive, and patience to execute, the most arduous + designs, without being checked either by the prejudices of education, or + by the clamors of the multitude. In the field, he infused his own intrepid + spirit into the troops, whom he conducted with the talents of a consummate + general; and to his abilities, rather than to his fortune, we may ascribe + the signal victories which he obtained over the foreign and domestic foes + of the republic. He loved glory as the reward, perhaps as the motive, of + his labors. The boundless ambition, which, from the moment of his + accepting the purple at York, appears as the ruling passion of his soul, + may be justified by the dangers of his own situation, by the character of + his rivals, by the consciousness of superior merit, and by the prospect + that his success would enable him to restore peace and order to the + distracted empire. In his civil wars against Maxentius and Licinius, he + had engaged on his side the inclinations of the people, who compared the + undissembled vices of those tyrants with the spirit of wisdom and justice + which seemed to direct the general tenor of the administration of + Constantine. <a href="#linknote-18.2" name="linknoteref-18.2" + id="linknoteref-18.2">2</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.2" id="linknote-18.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.2">return</a>)<br /> [ The virtues of + Constantine are collected for the most part from Eutropius and the younger + Victor, two sincere pagans, who wrote after the extinction of his family. + Even Zosimus, and the <i>Emperor</i> Julian, acknowledge his personal courage and + military achievements.] + </p> + <p> + Had Constantine fallen on the banks of the Tyber, or even in the plains of + Hadrianople, such is the character which, with a few exceptions, he might + have transmitted to posterity. But the conclusion of his reign (according + to the moderate and indeed tender sentence of a writer of the same age) + degraded him from the rank which he had acquired among the most deserving + of the Roman princes. <a href="#linknote-18.3" name="linknoteref-18.3" + id="linknoteref-18.3">3</a> In the life of Augustus, we behold the tyrant + of the republic, converted, almost by imperceptible degrees, into the + father of his country, and of human kind. In that of Constantine, we may + contemplate a hero, who had so long inspired his subjects with love, and + his enemies with terror, degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch, + corrupted by his fortune, or raised by conquest above the necessity of + dissimulation. The general peace which he maintained during the last + fourteen years of his reign, was a period of apparent splendor rather than + of real prosperity; and the old age of Constantine was disgraced by the + opposite yet reconcilable vices of rapaciousness and prodigality. The + accumulated treasures found in the palaces of Maxentius and Licinius, were + lavishly consumed; the various innovations introduced by the conqueror, + were attended with an increasing expense; the cost of his buildings, his + court, and his festivals, required an immediate and plentiful supply; and + the oppression of the people was the only fund which could support the + magnificence of the sovereign. <a href="#linknote-18.4" + name="linknoteref-18.4" id="linknoteref-18.4">4</a> His unworthy favorites, + enriched by the boundless liberality of their master, usurped with + impunity the privilege of rapine and corruption. <a href="#linknote-18.5" + name="linknoteref-18.5" id="linknoteref-18.5">5</a> A secret but universal + decay was felt in every part of the public administration, and the emperor + himself, though he still retained the obedience, gradually lost the + esteem, of his subjects. The dress and manners, which, towards the decline + of life, he chose to affect, served only to degrade him in the eyes of + mankind. The Asiatic pomp, which had been adopted by the pride of + Diocletian, assumed an air of softness and effeminacy in the person of + Constantine. He is represented with false hair of various colors, + laboriously arranged by the skilful artists to the times; a diadem of a + new and more expensive fashion; a profusion of gems and pearls, of collars + and bracelets, and a variegated flowing robe of silk, most curiously + embroidered with flowers of gold. In such apparel, scarcely to be excused + by the youth and folly of Elagabalus, we are at a loss to discover the + wisdom of an aged monarch, and the simplicity of a Roman veteran. <a + href="#linknote-18.6" name="linknoteref-18.6" id="linknoteref-18.6">6</a> A + mind thus relaxed by prosperity and indulgence, was incapable of rising to + that magnanimity which disdains suspicion, and dares to forgive. The + deaths of Maximian and Licinius may perhaps be justified by the maxims of + policy, as they are taught in the schools of tyrants; but an impartial + narrative of the executions, or rather murders, which sullied the + declining age of Constantine, will suggest to our most candid thoughts the + idea of a prince who could sacrifice without reluctance the laws of + justice, and the feelings of nature, to the dictates either of his + passions or of his interest. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.3" id="linknote-18.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.3">return</a>)<br /> [ See Eutropius, x. 6. In + primo Imperii tempore optimis principibus, ultimo mediis comparandus. From + the ancient Greek version of Poeanius, (edit. Havercamp. p. 697,) I am + inclined to suspect that Eutropius had originally written <i>vix</i> mediis; and + that the offensive monosyllable was dropped by the wilful inadvertency of + transcribers. Aurelius Victor expresses the general opinion by a vulgar + and indeed obscure proverb. <i>Trachala</i> decem annis præstantissimds; + duodecim sequentibus <i>latro;</i> decem novissimis <i>pupillus</i> ob immouicas + profusiones.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.4" id="linknote-18.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.4">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian, Orat. i. p. 8, in + a flattering discourse pronounced before the son of Constantine; and + Cæsares, p. 336. Zosimus, p. 114, 115. The stately buildings of + Constantinople, &c., may be quoted as a lasting and unexceptionable + proof of the profuseness of their founder.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.5" id="linknote-18.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.5">return</a>)<br /> [ The impartial Ammianus + deserves all our confidence. Proximorum fauces aperuit primus omnium + Constantinus. L. xvi. c. 8. Eusebius himself confesses the abuse, (Vit. + Constantin. l. iv. c. 29, 54;) and some of the Imperial laws feebly point + out the remedy. See above, p. 146 of this volume.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.6" id="linknote-18.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.6">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian, in the Cæsars, + attempts to ridicule his uncle. His suspicious testimony is confirmed, + however, by the learned Spanheim, with the authority of medals, (see + Commentaire, p. 156, 299, 397, 459.) Eusebius (Orat. c. 5) alleges, that + Constantine dressed for the public, not for himself. Were this admitted, + the vainest coxcomb could never want an excuse.] + </p> + <p> + The same fortune which so invariably followed the standard of Constantine, + seemed to secure the hopes and comforts of his domestic life. Those among + his predecessors who had enjoyed the longest and most prosperous reigns, + Augustus Trajan, and Diocletian, had been disappointed of posterity; and + the frequent revolutions had never allowed sufficient time for any + Imperial family to grow up and multiply under the shade of the purple. But + the royalty of the Flavian line, which had been first ennobled by the + Gothic Claudius, descended through several generations; and Constantine + himself derived from his royal father the hereditary honors which he + transmitted to his children. The emperor had been twice married. + Minervina, the obscure but lawful object of his youthful attachment, <a + href="#linknote-18.7" name="linknoteref-18.7" id="linknoteref-18.7">7</a> had + left him only one son, who was called Crispus. By Fausta, the daughter of + Maximian, he had three daughters, and three sons known by the kindred + names of Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. The unambitious brothers + of the great Constantine, Julius Constantius, Dalmatius, and + Hannibalianus, <a href="#linknote-18.8" name="linknoteref-18.8" + id="linknoteref-18.8">8</a> were permitted to enjoy the most honorable + rank, and the most affluent fortune, that could be consistent with a + private station. The youngest of the three lived without a name, and died + without posterity. His two elder brothers obtained in marriage the + daughters of wealthy senators, and propagated new branches of the Imperial + race. Gallus and Julian afterwards became the most illustrious of the + children of Julius Constantius, the <i>Patrician</i>. + The two sons of Dalmatius, who had been decorated with the vain title of + <i>Censor</i>, were named Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The two sisters of the + great Constantine, Anastasia and Eutropia, were bestowed on Optatus and + Nepotianus, two senators of noble birth and of consular dignity. His third + sister, Constantia, was distinguished by her preëminence of greatness and + of misery. She remained the widow of the vanquished Licinius; and it was + by her entreaties, that an innocent boy, the offspring of their marriage, + preserved, for some time, his life, the title of Cæsar, and a precarious + hope of the succession. Besides the females, and the allies of the Flavian + house, ten or twelve males, to whom the language of modern courts would + apply the title of princes of the blood, seemed, according to the order of + their birth, to be destined either to inherit or to support the throne of + Constantine. But in less than thirty years, this numerous and increasing + family was reduced to the persons of Constantius and Julian, who alone had + survived a series of crimes and calamities, such as the tragic poets have + deplored in the devoted lines of Pelops and of Cadmus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.7" id="linknote-18.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.7">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus and Zonaras agree + in representing Minervina as the concubine of Constantine; but Ducange has + very gallantly rescued her character, by producing a decisive passage from + one of the panegyrics: “Ab ipso fine pueritiæ te matrimonii legibus + dedisti.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.8" id="linknote-18.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Ducange (Familiæ + Byzantinæ, p. 44) bestows on him, after Zosimus, the name of Constantine; + a name somewhat unlikely, as it was already occupied by the elder brother. + That of Hannibalianus is mentioned in the Paschal Chronicle, and is + approved by Tillemont. Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 527.] + </p> + <p> + Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, and the presumptive heir of the + empire, is represented by impartial historians as an amiable and + accomplished youth. The care of his education, or at least of his studies, + was intrusted to Lactantius, the most eloquent of the Christians; a + preceptor admirably qualified to form the taste, and the excite the + virtues, of his illustrious disciple. <a href="#linknote-18.9" + name="linknoteref-18.9" id="linknoteref-18.9">9</a> At the age of seventeen, + Crispus was invested with the title of Cæsar, and the administration of + the Gallic provinces, where the inroads of the Germans gave him an early + occasion of signalizing his military prowess. In the civil war which broke + out soon afterwards, the father and son divided their powers; and this + history has already celebrated the valor as well as conduct displayed by + the latter, in forcing the straits of the Hellespont, so obstinately + defended by the superior fleet of Lacinius. This naval victory contributed + to determine the event of the war; and the names of Constantine and of + Crispus were united in the joyful acclamations of their eastern subjects; + who loudly proclaimed, that the world had been subdued, and was now + governed, by an emperor endowed with every virtue; and by his illustrious + son, a prince beloved of Heaven, and the lively image of his father’s + perfections. The public favor, which seldom accompanies old age, diffused + its lustre over the youth of Crispus. He deserved the esteem, and he + engaged the affections, of the court, the army, and the people. The + experienced merit of a reigning monarch is acknowledged by his subjects + with reluctance, and frequently denied with partial and discontented + murmurs; while, from the opening virtues of his successor, they fondly + conceive the most unbounded hopes of private as well as public felicity. + <a href="#linknote-18.10" name="linknoteref-18.10" id="linknoteref-18.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.9" id="linknote-18.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Jerom. in Chron. The + poverty of Lactantius may be applied either to the praise of the + disinterested philosopher, or to the shame of the unfeeling patron. See + Tillemont, Mém. Ecclesiast. tom. vi. part 1. p. 345. Dupin, Bibliothèque + Ecclesiast. tom. i. p. 205. Lardner’s Credibility of the Gospel History, + part ii. vol. vii. p. 66.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.10" id="linknote-18.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.10">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. x. c. 9. Eutropius (x. 6) styles him “egregium virum;” and + Julian (Orat. i.) very plainly alludes to the exploits of Crispus in the + civil war. See Spanheim, Comment. p. 92.] + </p> + <p> + This dangerous popularity soon excited the attention of Constantine, who, + both as a father and as a king, was impatient of an equal. Instead of + attempting to secure the allegiance of his son by the generous ties of + confidence and gratitude, he resolved to prevent the mischiefs which might + be apprehended from dissatisfied ambition. Crispus soon had reason to + complain, that while his infant brother Constantius was sent, with the + title of Cæsar, to reign over his peculiar department of the Gallic + provinces, <a href="#linknote-18.11" name="linknoteref-18.11" + id="linknoteref-18.11">11</a> <i>he</i>, a prince of mature years, who had + performed such recent and signal services, instead of being raised to the + superior rank of Augustus, was confined almost a prisoner to his father’s + court; and exposed, without power or defence, to every calumny which the + malice of his enemies could suggest. Under such painful circumstances, the + royal youth might not always be able to compose his behavior, or suppress + his discontent; and we may be assured, that he was encompassed by a train + of indiscreet or perfidious followers, who assiduously studied to inflame, + and who were perhaps instructed to betray, the unguarded warmth of his + resentment. An edict of Constantine, published about this time, manifestly + indicates his real or affected suspicions, that a secret conspiracy had + been formed against his person and government. By all the allurements of + honors and rewards, he invites informers of every degree to accuse without + exception his magistrates or ministers, his friends or his most intimate + favorites, protesting, with a solemn asseveration, that he himself will + listen to the charge, that he himself will revenge his injuries; and + concluding with a prayer, which discovers some apprehension of danger, + that the providence of the Supreme Being may still continue to protect the + safety of the emperor and of the empire. <a href="#linknote-18.12" + name="linknoteref-18.12" id="linknoteref-18.12">12</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.11" id="linknote-18.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Idatius and the + Paschal Chronicle, with Ammianus, (l, xiv. c. 5.) The <i>year</i> in which + Constantius was created Cæsar seems to be more accurately fixed by the + two chronologists; but the historian who lived in his court could not be + ignorant of the <i>day</i> of the anniversary. For the appointment of the new + Cæsar to the provinces of Gaul, see Julian, Orat. i. p. 12, Godefroy, + Chronol. Legum, p. 26. and Blondel, de Primauté de l’Eglise, p. 1183.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.12" id="linknote-18.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.12">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. ix. tit. + iv. Godefroy suspected the secret motives of this law. Comment. tom. iii. + p. 9.] + </p> + <p> + The informers, who complied with so liberal an invitation, were + sufficiently versed in the arts of courts to select the friends and + adherents of Crispus as the guilty persons; nor is there any reason to + distrust the veracity of the emperor, who had promised an ample measure of + revenge and punishment. The policy of Constantine maintained, however, the + same appearances of regard and confidence towards a son, whom he began to + consider as his most irreconcilable enemy. Medals were struck with the + customary vows for the long and auspicious reign of the young Cæsar; <a + href="#linknote-18.13" name="linknoteref-18.13" id="linknoteref-18.13">13</a> + and as the people, who were not admitted into the secrets of the palace, + still loved his virtues, and respected his dignity, a poet who solicits + his recall from exile, adores with equal devotion the majesty of the + father and that of the son. <a href="#linknote-18.14" + name="linknoteref-18.14" id="linknoteref-18.14">14</a> The time was now + arrived for celebrating the august ceremony of the twentieth year of the + reign of Constantine; and the emperor, for that purpose, removed his court + from Nicomedia to Rome, where the most splendid preparations had been made + for his reception. Every eye, and every tongue, affected to express their + sense of the general happiness, and the veil of ceremony and dissimulation + was drawn for a while over the darkest designs of revenge and murder. <a + href="#linknote-18.15" name="linknoteref-18.15" id="linknoteref-18.15">15</a> + In the midst of the festival, the unfortunate Crispus was apprehended by + order of the emperor, who laid aside the tenderness of a father, without + assuming the equity of a judge. The examination was short and private; <a + href="#linknote-18.16" name="linknoteref-18.16" id="linknoteref-18.16">16</a> + and as it was thought decent to conceal the fate of the young prince from + the eyes of the Roman people, he was sent under a strong guard to Pola, in + Istria, where, soon afterwards, he was put to death, either by the hand of + the executioner, or by the more gentle operations of poison. <a + href="#linknote-18.17" name="linknoteref-18.17" id="linknoteref-18.17">17</a> + The Cæsar Licinius, a youth of amiable manners, was involved in the ruin + of Crispus: <a href="#linknote-18.18" name="linknoteref-18.18" + id="linknoteref-18.18">18</a> and the stern jealousy of Constantine was + unmoved by the prayers and tears of his favorite sister, pleading for the + life of a son, whose rank was his only crime, and whose loss she did not + long survive. The story of these unhappy princes, the nature and evidence + of their guilt, the forms of their trial, and the circumstances of their + death, were buried in mysterious obscurity; and the courtly bishop, who + has celebrated in an elaborate work the virtues and piety of his hero, + observes a prudent silence on the subject of these tragic events. <a + href="#linknote-18.19" name="linknoteref-18.19" id="linknoteref-18.19">19</a> + Such haughty contempt for the opinion of mankind, whilst it imprints an + indelible stain on the memory of Constantine, must remind us of the very + different behavior of one of the greatest monarchs of the present age. The + Czar Peter, in the full possession of despotic power, submitted to the + judgment of Russia, of Europe, and of posterity, the reasons which had + compelled him to subscribe the condemnation of a criminal, or at least of + a degenerate son. <a href="#linknote-18.20" name="linknoteref-18.20" + id="linknoteref-18.20">20</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.13" id="linknote-18.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.13">return</a>)<br /> [ Ducange, Fam. Byzant. + p. 28. Tillemont, tom. iv. p. 610.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.14" id="linknote-18.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.14">return</a>)<br /> [ His name was Porphyrius + Optatianus. The date of his panegyric, written, according to the taste of + the age, in vile acrostics, is settled by Scaliger ad Euseb. p. 250, + Tillemont, tom. iv. p. 607, and Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin, l. iv. c. 1.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.15" id="linknote-18.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.15">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 103. + Godefroy, Chronol. Legum, p. 28.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.16" id="linknote-18.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.16">return</a>)<br /> [ The elder Victor, who + wrote under the next reign, speaks with becoming caution. “Natu grandior + incertum qua causa, patris judicio occidisset.” If we consult the + succeeding writers, Eutropius, the younger Victor, Orosius, Jerom, + Zosimus, Philostorgius, and Gregory of Tours, their knowledge will appear + gradually to increase, as their means of information must have diminished—a + circumstance which frequently occurs in historical disquisition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.17" id="linknote-18.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (l. xiv. c. + 11) uses the general expression of peremptum Codinus (p. 34) beheads the + young prince; but Sidonius Apollinaris (Epistol. v. 8,) for the sake + perhaps of an antithesis to Fausta’s <i>warm</i> bath, chooses to administer a + draught of <i>cold</i> poison.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.18" id="linknote-18.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Sororis filium, + commodæ indolis juvenem. Eutropius, x. 6 May I not be permitted to + conjecture that Crispus had married Helena the daughter of the emperor + Licinius, and that on the happy delivery of the princess, in the year 322, + a general pardon was granted by Constantine? See Ducange, Fam. Byzant. p. + 47, and the law (l. ix. tit. xxxvii.) of the Theodosian code, which has so + much embarrassed the interpreters. Godefroy, tom. iii. p. 267 * Note: This + conjecture is very doubtful. The obscurity of the law quoted from the + Theodosian code scarcely allows any inference, and there is extant but one + meda which can be attributed to a Helena, wife of Crispus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.19" id="linknote-18.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.19">return</a>)<br /> [ See the life of + Constantine, particularly l. ii. c. 19, 20. Two hundred and fifty years + afterwards Evagrius (l. iii. c. 41) deduced from the silence of Eusebius a + vain argument against the reality of the fact.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.20" id="linknote-18.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Histoire de Pierre le + Grand, par Voltaire, part ii. c. 10.] + </p> + <p> + The innocence of Crispus was so universally acknowledged, that the modern + Greeks, who adore the memory of their founder, are reduced to palliate the + guilt of a parricide, which the common feelings of human nature forbade + them to justify. They pretend, that as soon as the afflicted father + discovered the falsehood of the accusation by which his credulity had been + so fatally misled, he published to the world his repentance and remorse; + that he mourned forty days, during which he abstained from the use of the + bath, and all the ordinary comforts of life; and that, for the lasting + instruction of posterity, he erected a golden statue of Crispus, with this + memorable inscription: To my son, whom I unjustly condemned. <a + href="#linknote-18.21" name="linknoteref-18.21" id="linknoteref-18.21">21</a> + A tale so moral and so interesting would deserve to be supported by less + exceptionable authority; but if we consult the more ancient and authentic + writers, they will inform us, that the repentance of Constantine was + manifested only in acts of blood and revenge; and that he atoned for the + murder of an innocent son, by the execution, perhaps, of a guilty wife. + They ascribe the misfortunes of Crispus to the arts of his step-mother + Fausta, whose implacable hatred, or whose disappointed love, renewed in + the palace of Constantine the ancient tragedy of Hippolitus and of + Phædra. <a href="#linknote-18.22" name="linknoteref-18.22" + id="linknoteref-18.22">22</a> Like the daughter of Minos, the daughter of + Maximian accused her son-in-law of an incestuous attempt on the chastity + of his father’s wife; and easily obtained, from the jealousy of the + emperor, a sentence of death against a young prince, whom she considered + with reason as the most formidable rival of her own children. But Helena, + the aged mother of Constantine, lamented and revenged the untimely fate of + her grandson Crispus; nor was it long before a real or pretended discovery + was made, that Fausta herself entertained a criminal connection with a + slave belonging to the Imperial stables. <a href="#linknote-18.23" + name="linknoteref-18.23" id="linknoteref-18.23">23</a> Her condemnation and + punishment were the instant consequences of the charge; and the adulteress + was suffocated by the steam of a bath, which, for that purpose, had been + heated to an extraordinary degree. <a href="#linknote-18.24" + name="linknoteref-18.24" id="linknoteref-18.24">24</a> By some it will + perhaps be thought, that the remembrance of a conjugal union of twenty + years, and the honor of their common offspring, the destined heirs of the + throne, might have softened the obdurate heart of Constantine, and + persuaded him to suffer his wife, however guilty she might appear, to + expiate her offences in a solitary prison. But it seems a superfluous + labor to weigh the propriety, unless we could ascertain the truth, of this + singular event, which is attended with some circumstances of doubt and + perplexity. Those who have attacked, and those who have defended, the + character of Constantine, have alike disregarded two very remarkable + passages of two orations pronounced under the succeeding reign. The former + celebrates the virtues, the beauty, and the fortune of the empress Fausta, + the daughter, wife, sister, and mother of so many princes. <a + href="#linknote-18.25" name="linknoteref-18.25" id="linknoteref-18.25">25</a> + The latter asserts, in explicit terms, that the mother of the younger + Constantine, who was slain three years after his father’s death, survived + to weep over the fate of her son. <a href="#linknote-18.26" + name="linknoteref-18.26" id="linknoteref-18.26">26</a> Notwithstanding the + positive testimony of several writers of the Pagan as well as of the + Christian religion, there may still remain some reason to believe, or at + least to suspect, that Fausta escaped the blind and suspicious cruelty of + her husband. <a href="#linknote-18.2611" name="linknoteref-18.2611" + id="linknoteref-18.2611">2611</a> The deaths of a son and a nephew, with + the execution of a great number of respectable, and perhaps innocent + friends, <a href="#linknote-18.27" name="linknoteref-18.27" + id="linknoteref-18.27">27</a> who were involved in their fall, may be + sufficient, however, to justify the discontent of the Roman people, and to + explain the satirical verses affixed to the palace gate, comparing the + splendid and bloody reigns of Constantine and Nero. <a + href="#linknote-18.28" name="linknoteref-18.28" id="linknoteref-18.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.21" id="linknote-18.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.21">return</a>)<br /> [ In order to prove that + the statue was erected by Constantine, and afterwards concealed by the + malice of the Arians, Codinus very readily creates (p. 34) two witnesses, + Hippolitus, and the younger Herodotus, to whose imaginary histories he + appeals with unblushing confidence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.22" id="linknote-18.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus (l. ii. p. 103) + may be considered as our original. The ingenuity of the moderns, assisted + by a few hints from the ancients, has illustrated and improved his obscure + and imperfect narrative.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.23" id="linknote-18.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.23">return</a>)<br /> [ Philostorgius, l. ii. + c. 4. Zosimus (l. ii. p. 104, 116) imputes to Constantine the death of two + wives, of the innocent Fausta, and of an adulteress, who was the mother of + his three successors. According to Jerom, three or four years elapsed + between the death of Crispus and that of Fausta. The elder Victor is + prudently silent.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.24" id="linknote-18.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.24">return</a>)<br /> [ If Fausta was put to + death, it is reasonable to believe that the private apartments of the + palace were the scene of her execution. The orator Chrysostom indulges his + fancy by exposing the naked desert mountain to be devoured by wild + beasts.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.25" id="linknote-18.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. He + seems to call her the mother of Crispus. She might assume that title by + adoption. At least, she was not considered as his mortal enemy. Julian + compares the fortune of Fausta with that of Parysatis, the Persian queen. + A Roman would have more naturally recollected the second Agrippina: Et + moi, qui sur le trone ai suivi mes ancêtres: Moi, fille, femme,sœur, et + mere de vos maitres.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.26" id="linknote-18.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Monod. in Constantin. + Jun. c. 4, ad Calcem Eutrop. edit. Havercamp. The orator styles her the + most divine and pious of queens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.2611" id="linknote-18.2611"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2611 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.2611">return</a>)<br /> [ Manso (Leben + Constantins, p. 65) treats this inference o: Gibbon, and the authorities + to which he appeals, with too much contempt, considering the general + scantiness of proof on this curious question.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.27" id="linknote-18.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.27">return</a>)<br /> [ Interfecit numerosos + amicos. Eutrop. xx. 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.28" id="linknote-18.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Saturni aurea sæcula + quis requirat? Sunt hæc gemmea, sed Neroniana. Sidon. Apollinar. v. 8. + ——It is somewhat singular that these satirical lines should be + attributed, not to an obscure libeller, or a disappointed patriot, but to + Ablavius, prime minister and favorite of the emperor. We may now perceive + that the imprecations of the Roman people were dictated by humanity, as + well as by superstition. Zosim. l. ii. p. 105.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap18.2"></a> + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + By the death of Crispus, the inheritance of the empire seemed to devolve + on the three sons of Fausta, who have been already mentioned under the + names of Constantine, of Constantius, and of Constans. These young princes + were successively invested with the title of Cæsar; and the dates of + their promotion may be referred to the tenth, the twentieth, and the + thirtieth years of the reign of their father. <a href="#linknote-18.29" + name="linknoteref-18.29" id="linknoteref-18.29">29</a> This conduct, though + it tended to multiply the future masters of the Roman world, might be + excused by the partiality of paternal affection; but it is not so easy to + understand the motives of the emperor, when he endangered the safety both + of his family and of his people, by the unnecessary elevation of his two + nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The former was raised, by the title + of Cæsar, to an equality with his cousins. In favor of the latter, + Constantine invented the new and singular appellation of <i>Nobilissimus;</i> <a + href="#linknote-18.30" name="linknoteref-18.30" id="linknoteref-18.30">30</a> + to which he annexed the flattering distinction of a robe of purple and + gold. But of the whole series of Roman princes in any age of the empire, + Hannibalianus alone was distinguished by the title of King; a name which + the subjects of Tiberius would have detested, as the profane and cruel + insult of capricious tyranny. The use of such a title, even as it appears + under the reign of Constantine, is a strange and unconnected fact, which + can scarcely be admitted on the joint authority of Imperial medals and + contemporary writers. <a href="#linknote-18.31" name="linknoteref-18.31" + id="linknoteref-18.31">31</a> <a href="#linknote-18.3111" + name="linknoteref-18.3111" id="linknoteref-18.3111">3111</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.29" id="linknote-18.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. Orat. in + Constantin. c. 3. These dates are sufficiently correct to justify the + orator.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.30" id="linknote-18.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 117. + Under the predecessors of Constantine, <i>Nobilissimus</i> was a vague epithet, + rather than a legal and determined title.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.31" id="linknote-18.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.31">return</a>)<br /> [ Adstruunt nummi veteres + ac singulares. Spanheim de Usu Numismat. Dissertat. xii. vol. ii. p. 357. + Ammianus speaks of this Roman king (l. xiv. c. l, and Valesius ad loc.) + The Valesian fragment styles him King of kings; and the Paschal Chronicle + acquires the weight of Latin evidence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.3111" id="linknote-18.3111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3111 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.3111">return</a>)<br /> [ Hannibalianus is + always designated in these authors by the title of king. There still exist + medals struck to his honor, on which the same title is found, Fl. + Hannibaliano Regi. See Eckhel, Doct. Num. t. viii. 204. Armeniam + nationesque circum socias habebat, says Aur. Victor, p. 225. The writer + means the Lesser Armenia. Though it is not possible to question a fact + supported by such respectable authorities, Gibbon considers it + inexplicable and incredible. It is a strange abuse of the privilege of + doubting, to refuse all belief in a fact of such little importance in + itself, and attested thus formally by contemporary authors and public + monuments. St. Martin note to Le Beau i. 341.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The whole empire was deeply interested in the education of these five + youths, the acknowledged successors of Constantine. The exercise of the + body prepared them for the fatigues of war and the duties of active life. + Those who occasionally mention the education or talents of Constantius, + allow that he excelled in the gymnastic arts of leaping and running that + he was a dexterous archer, a skilful horseman, and a master of all the + different weapons used in the service either of the cavalry or of the + infantry. <a href="#linknote-18.32" name="linknoteref-18.32" + id="linknoteref-18.32">32</a> The same assiduous cultivation was bestowed, + though not perhaps with equal success, to improve the minds of the sons + and nephews of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-18.33" + name="linknoteref-18.33" id="linknoteref-18.33">33</a> The most celebrated + professors of the Christian faith, of the Grecian philosophy, and of the + Roman jurisprudence, were invited by the liberality of the emperor, who + reserved for himself the important task of instructing the royal youths in + the science of government, and the knowledge of mankind. But the genius of + Constantine himself had been formed by adversity and experience. In the + free intercourse of private life, and amidst the dangers of the court of + Galerius, he had learned to command his own passions, to encounter those + of his equals, and to depend for his present safety and future greatness + on the prudence and firmness of his personal conduct. His destined + successors had the misfortune of being born and educated in the imperial + purple. Incessantly surrounded with a train of flatterers, they passed + their youth in the enjoyment of luxury, and the expectation of a throne; + nor would the dignity of their rank permit them to descend from that + elevated station from whence the various characters of human nature appear + to wear a smooth and uniform aspect. The indulgence of Constantine + admitted them, at a very tender age, to share the administration of the + empire; and they studied the art of reigning, at the expense of the people + intrusted to their care. The younger Constantine was appointed to hold his + court in Gaul; and his brother Constantius exchanged that department, the + ancient patrimony of their father, for the more opulent, but less martial, + countries of the East. Italy, the Western Illyricum, and Africa, were + accustomed to revere Constans, the third of his sons, as the + representative of the great Constantine. He fixed Dalmatius on the Gothic + frontier, to which he annexed the government of Thrace, Macedonia, and + Greece. The city of Cæsarea was chosen for the residence of + Hannibalianus; and the provinces of Pontus, Cappadocia, and the Lesser + Armenia, were destined to form the extent of his new kingdom. For each of + these princes a suitable establishment was provided. A just proportion of + guards, of legions, and of auxiliaries, was allotted for their respective + dignity and defence. The ministers and generals, who were placed about + their persons, were such as Constantine could trust to assist, and even to + control, these youthful sovereigns in the exercise of their delegated + power. As they advanced in years and experience, the limits of their + authority were insensibly enlarged: but the emperor always reserved for + himself the title of Augustus; and while he showed the <i>Cæsars</i> to the + armies and provinces, he maintained every part of the empire in equal + obedience to its supreme head. <a href="#linknote-18.34" + name="linknoteref-18.34" id="linknoteref-18.34">34</a> The tranquillity of + the last fourteen years of his reign was scarcely interrupted by the + contemptible insurrection of a camel-driver in the Island of Cyprus, <a + href="#linknote-18.35" name="linknoteref-18.35" id="linknoteref-18.35">35</a> + or by the active part which the policy of Constantine engaged him to + assume in the wars of the Goths and Sarmatians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.32" id="linknote-18.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.32">return</a>)<br /> [ His dexterity in + martial exercises is celebrated by Julian, (Orat. i. p. 11, Orat. ii. p. + 53,) and allowed by Ammianus, (l. xxi. c. 16.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.33" id="linknote-18.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. in Vit. + Constantin. l. iv. c. 51. Julian, Orat. i. p. 11-16, with Spanheim’s + elaborate Commentary. Libanius, Orat. iii. p. 109. Constantius studied + with laudable diligence; but the dulness of his fancy prevented him from + succeeding in the art of poetry, or even of rhetoric.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.34" id="linknote-18.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.34">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, (l. iv. c. + 51, 52,) with a design of exalting the authority and glory of Constantine, + affirms, that he divided the Roman empire as a private citizen might have + divided his patrimony. His distribution of the provinces may be collected + from Eutropius, the two Victors and the Valesian fragment.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.35" id="linknote-18.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Calocerus, the obscure + leader of this rebellion, or rather tumult, was apprehended and burnt + alive in the market-place of Tarsus, by the vigilance of Dalmatius. See + the elder Victor, the Chronicle of Jerom, and the doubtful traditions of + Theophanes and Cedrenus.] + </p> + <p> + Among the different branches of the human race, the Sarmatians form a very + remarkable shade; as they seem to unite the manners of the Asiatic + barbarians with the figure and complexion of the ancient inhabitants of + Europe. According to the various accidents of peace and war, of alliance + or conquest, the Sarmatians were sometimes confined to the banks of the + Tanais; and they sometimes spread themselves over the immense plains which + lie between the Vistula and the Volga. <a href="#linknote-18.36" + name="linknoteref-18.36" id="linknoteref-18.36">36</a> The care of their + numerous flocks and herds, the pursuit of game, and the exercises of war, + or rather of rapine, directed the vagrant motions of the Sarmatians. The + movable camps or cities, the ordinary residence of their wives and + children, consisted only of large wagons drawn by oxen, and covered in the + form of tents. The military strength of the nation was composed of + cavalry; and the custom of their warriors, to lead in their hand one or + two spare horses, enabled them to advance and to retreat with a rapid + diligence, which surprised the security, and eluded the pursuit, of a + distant enemy. <a href="#linknote-18.37" name="linknoteref-18.37" + id="linknoteref-18.37">37</a> Their poverty of iron prompted their rude + industry to invent a sort of cuirass, which was capable of resisting a + sword or javelin, though it was formed only of horses’ hoofs, cut into + thin and polished slices, carefully laid over each other in the manner of + scales or feathers, and strongly sewed upon an under garment of coarse + linen. <a href="#linknote-18.38" name="linknoteref-18.38" + id="linknoteref-18.38">38</a> The offensive arms of the Sarmatians were + short daggers, long lances, and a weighty bow with a quiver of arrows. + They were reduced to the necessity of employing fish-bones for the points + of their weapons; but the custom of dipping them in a venomous liquor, + that poisoned the wounds which they inflicted, is alone sufficient to + prove the most savage manners, since a people impressed with a sense of + humanity would have abhorred so cruel a practice, and a nation skilled in + the arts of war would have disdained so impotent a resource. <a + href="#linknote-18.39" name="linknoteref-18.39" id="linknoteref-18.39">39</a> + Whenever these Barbarians issued from their deserts in quest of prey, + their shaggy beards, uncombed locks, the furs with which they were covered + from head to foot, and their fierce countenances, which seemed to express + the innate cruelty of their minds, inspired the more civilized provincials + of Rome with horror and dismay. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.36" id="linknote-18.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Cellarius has collected + the opinions of the ancients concerning the European and Asiatic Sarmatia; + and M. D’Anville has applied them to modern geography with the skill and + accuracy which always distinguish that excellent writer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.37" id="linknote-18.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.37">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. l. xvii. c. 12. + The Sarmatian horses were castrated to prevent the mischievous accidents + which might happen from the noisy and ungovernable passions of the males.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.38" id="linknote-18.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.38">return</a>)<br /> [ Pausanius, l. i. p. + 50,. edit. Kuhn. That inquisitive traveller had carefully examined a + Sarmatian cuirass, which was preserved in the temple of Æsculapius at + Athens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.39" id="linknote-18.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Aspicis et mitti sub + adunco toxica ferro, Et telum causas mortis habere duas. Ovid, ex Ponto, + l. iv. ep. 7, ver. 7.——See in the Recherches sur les + Americains, tom. ii. p. 236—271, a very curious dissertation on + poisoned darts. The venom was commonly extracted from the vegetable reign: + but that employed by the Scythians appears to have been drawn from the + viper, and a mixture of human blood.] + </p> + <p> + The use of poisoned arms, which has been spread over both worlds, never + preserved a savage tribe from the arms of a disciplined enemy. The tender + Ovid, after a youth spent in the enjoyment of fame and luxury, was + condemned to a hopeless exile on the frozen banks of the Danube, where he + was exposed, almost without defence, to the fury of these monsters of the + desert, with whose stern spirits he feared that his gentle shade might + hereafter be confounded. In his pathetic, but sometimes unmanly + lamentations, <a href="#linknote-18.40" name="linknoteref-18.40" + id="linknoteref-18.40">40</a> he describes in the most lively colors the + dress and manners, the arms and inroads, of the Getæ and Sarmatians, who + were associated for the purposes of destruction; and from the accounts of + history there is some reason to believe that these Sarmatians were the + Jazygæ, one of the most numerous and warlike tribes of the nation. The + allurements of plenty engaged them to seek a permanent establishment on + the frontiers of the empire. Soon after the reign of Augustus, they + obliged the Dacians, who subsisted by fishing on the banks of the River + Teyss or Tibiscus, to retire into the hilly country, and to abandon to the + victorious Sarmatians the fertile plains of the Upper Hungary, which are + bounded by the course of the Danube and the semicircular enclosure of the + Carpathian Mountains. <a href="#linknote-18.41" name="linknoteref-18.41" + id="linknoteref-18.41">41</a> In this advantageous position, they watched + or suspended the moment of attack, as they were provoked by injuries or + appeased by presents; they gradually acquired the skill of using more + dangerous weapons, and although the Sarmatians did not illustrate their + name by any memorable exploits, they occasionally assisted their eastern + and western neighbors, the Goths and the Germans, with a formidable body + of cavalry. They lived under the irregular aristocracy of their + chieftains: <a href="#linknote-18.42" name="linknoteref-18.42" + id="linknoteref-18.42">42</a> but after they had received into their bosom + the fugitive Vandals, who yielded to the pressure of the Gothic power, + they seem to have chosen a king from that nation, and from the illustrious + race of the Astingi, who had formerly dwelt on the hores of the northern + ocean. <a href="#linknote-18.43" name="linknoteref-18.43" + id="linknoteref-18.43">43</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.40" id="linknote-18.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.40">return</a>)<br /> [ The nine books of + Poetical Epistles which Ovid composed during the seven first years of his + melancholy exile, possess, beside the merit of elegance, a double value. + They exhibit a picture of the human mind under very singular + circumstances; and they contain many curious observations, which no Roman + except Ovid, could have an opportunity of making. Every circumstance which + tends to illustrate the history of the Barbarians, has been drawn together + by the very accurate Count de Buat. Hist. Ancienne des Peuples de + l’Europe, tom. iv. c. xvi. p. 286-317] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.41" id="linknote-18.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.41">return</a>)<br /> [ The Sarmatian Jazygæ + were settled on the banks of Pathissus or Tibiscus, when Pliny, in the + year 79, published his Natural History. See l. iv. c. 25. In the time of + Strabo and Ovid, sixty or seventy years before, they appear to have + inhabited beyond the Getæ, along the coast of the Euxine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.42" id="linknote-18.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.42">return</a>)<br /> [ Principes Sarmaturum + Jazygum penes quos civitatis regimen plebem quoque et vim equitum, qua + sola valent, offerebant. Tacit. Hist. iii. p. 5. This offer was made in + the civil war between Vitellino and Vespasian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.43" id="linknote-18.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.43">return</a>)<br /> [ This hypothesis of a + Vandal king reigning over Sarmatian subjects, seems necessary to reconcile + the Goth Jornandes with the Greek and Latin historians of Constantine. It + may be observed that Isidore, who lived in Spain under the dominion of the + Goths, gives them for enemies, not the Vandals, but the Sarmatians. See + his Chronicle in Grotius, p. 709. Note: I have already noticed the + confusion which must necessarily arise in history, when names purely + <i>geographical</i>, as this of Sarmatia, are taken for <i>historical</i> names + belonging to a single nation. We perceive it here; it has forced Gibbon to + suppose, without any reason but the necessity of extricating himself from + his perplexity, that the Sarmatians had taken a king from among the + Vandals; a supposition entirely contrary to the usages of Barbarians + Dacia, at this period, was occupied, not by Sarmatians, who have never + formed a distinct race, but by Vandals, whom the ancients have often + confounded under the general term Sarmatians. See Gatterer’s + Welt-Geschiehte p. 464—G.] + </p> + <p> + This motive of enmity must have inflamed the subjects of contention, which + perpetually arise on the confines of warlike and independent nations. The + Vandal princes were stimulated by fear and revenge; the Gothic kings + aspired to extend their dominion from the Euxine to the frontiers of + Germany; and the waters of the Maros, a small river which falls into the + Teyss, were stained with the blood of the contending Barbarians. After + some experience of the superior strength and numbers of their adversaries, + the Sarmatians implored the protection of the Roman monarch, who beheld + with pleasure the discord of the nations, but who was justly alarmed by + the progress of the Gothic arms. As soon as Constantine had declared + himself in favor of the weaker party, the haughty Araric, king of the + Goths, instead of expecting the attack of the legions, boldly passed the + Danube, and spread terror and devastation through the province of Mæsia. + </p> + <p> + To oppose the inroad of this destroying host, the aged emperor took the + field in person; but on this occasion either his conduct or his fortune + betrayed the glory which he had acquired in so many foreign and domestic + wars. He had the mortification of seeing his troops fly before an + inconsiderable detachment of the Barbarians, who pursued them to the edge + of their fortified camp, and obliged him to consult his safety by a + precipitate and ignominious retreat. <a href="#linknote-18.4311" + name="linknoteref-18.4311" id="linknoteref-18.4311">4311</a> The event of a + second and more successful action retrieved the honor of the Roman name; + and the powers of art and discipline prevailed, after an obstinate + contest, over the efforts of irregular valor. The broken army of the Goths + abandoned the field of battle, the wasted province, and the passage of the + Danube: and although the eldest of the sons of Constantine was permitted + to supply the place of his father, the merit of the victory, which + diffused universal joy, was ascribed to the auspicious counsels of the + emperor himself. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.4311" id="linknote-18.4311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4311 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.4311">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbon states, that + Constantine was defeated by the Goths in a first battle. No ancient author + mentions such an event. It is, no doubt, a mistake in Gibbon. St Martin, + note to Le Beau. i. 324.—M.] + </p> + <p> + He contributed at least to improve this advantage, by his negotiations + with the free and warlike people of Chersonesus, <a href="#linknote-18.44" + name="linknoteref-18.44" id="linknoteref-18.44">44</a> whose capital, + situate on the western coast of the Tauric or Crimæan peninsula, still + retained some vestiges of a Grecian colony, and was governed by a + perpetual magistrate, assisted by a council of senators, emphatically + styled the Fathers of the City. + </p> + <p> + The Chersonites were animated against the Goths, by the memory of the + wars, which, in the preceding century, they had maintained with unequal + forces against the invaders of their country. They were connected with the + Romans by the mutual benefits of commerce; as they were supplied from the + provinces of Asia with corn and manufactures, which they purchased with + their only productions, salt, wax, and hides. Obedient to the requisition + of Constantine, they prepared, under the conduct of their magistrate + Diogenes, a considerable army, of which the principal strength consisted + in cross-bows and military chariots. The speedy march and intrepid attack + of the Chersonites, by diverting the attention of the Goths, assisted the + operations of the Imperial generals. The Goths, vanquished on every side, + were driven into the mountains, where, in the course of a severe campaign, + above a hundred thousand were computed to have perished by cold and hunger. + Peace was at length granted to their humble supplications; the eldest son + of Araric was accepted as the most valuable hostage; and Constantine + endeavored to convince their chiefs, by a liberal distribution of honors + and rewards, how far the friendship of the Romans was preferable to their + enmity. In the expressions of his gratitude towards the faithful + Chersonites, the emperor was still more magnificent. The pride of the + nation was gratified by the splendid and almost royal decorations bestowed + on their magistrate and his successors. A perpetual exemption from all + duties was stipulated for their vessels which traded to the ports of the + Black Sea. A regular subsidy was promised, of iron, corn, oil, and of + every supply which could be useful either in peace or war. But it was + thought that the Sarmatians were sufficiently rewarded by their + deliverance from impending ruin; and the emperor, perhaps with too strict + an economy, deducted some part of the expenses of the war from the + customary gratifications which were allowed to that turbulent nation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.44" id="linknote-18.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.44">return</a>)<br /> [ I may stand in need of + some apology for having used, without scruple, the authority of + Constantine Porphyrogenitus, in all that relates to the wars and + negotiations of the Chersonites. I am aware that he was a Greek of the + tenth century, and that his accounts of ancient history are frequently + confused and fabulous. But on this occasion his narrative is, for the most + part, consistent and probable nor is there much difficulty in conceiving + that an emperor might have access to some secret archives, which had + escaped the diligence of meaner historians. For the situation and history + of Chersone, see Peyssonel, des Peuples barbares qui ont habite les Bords + du Danube, c. xvi. 84-90. ——Gibbon has confounded the + inhabitants of the city of Cherson, the ancient Chersonesus, with the + people of the Chersonesus Taurica. If he had read with more attention the + chapter of Constantius Porphyrogenitus, from which this narrative is + derived, he would have seen that the author clearly distinguishes the + republic of Cherson from the rest of the Tauric Peninsula, then possessed + by the kings of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and that the city of Cherson + alone furnished succors to the Romans. The English historian is also + mistaken in saying that the Stephanephoros of the Chersonites was a + perpetual magistrate; since it is easy to discover from the great number + of Stephanephoroi mentioned by Constantine Porphyrogenitus, that they were + annual magistrates, like almost all those which governed the Grecian + republics. St. Martin, note to Le Beau i. 326.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Exasperated by this apparent neglect, the Sarmatians soon forgot, with the + levity of barbarians, the services which they had so lately received, and + the dangers which still threatened their safety. Their inroads on the + territory of the empire provoked the indignation of Constantine to leave + them to their fate; and he no longer opposed the ambition of Geberic, a + renowned warrior, who had recently ascended the Gothic throne. Wisumar, + the Vandal king, whilst alone, and unassisted, he defended his dominions + with undaunted courage, was vanquished and slain in a decisive battle, + which swept away the flower of the Sarmatian youth. <a + href="#linknote-18.4411" name="linknoteref-18.4411" id="linknoteref-18.4411">4411</a> + The remainder of the nation embraced the desperate expedient of arming + their slaves, a hardy race of hunters and herdsmen, by whose tumultuary + aid they revenged their defeat, and expelled the invader from their + confines. But they soon discovered that they had exchanged a foreign for a + domestic enemy, more dangerous and more implacable. Enraged by their + former servitude, elated by their present glory, the slaves, under the + name of Limigantes, claimed and usurped the possession of the country + which they had saved. Their masters, unable to withstand the ungoverned + fury of the populace, preferred the hardships of exile to the tyranny of + their servants. Some of the fugitive Sarmatians solicited a less + ignominious dependence, under the hostile standard of the Goths. A more + numerous band retired beyond the Carpathian Mountains, among the Quadi, + their German allies, and were easily admitted to share a superfluous waste + of uncultivated land. But the far greater part of the distressed nation + turned their eyes towards the fruitful provinces of Rome. Imploring the + protection and forgiveness of the emperor, they solemnly promised, as + subjects in peace, and as soldiers in war, the most inviolable fidelity to + the empire which should graciously receive them into its bosom. According + to the maxims adopted by Probus and his successors, the offers of this + barbarian colony were eagerly accepted; and a competent portion of lands + in the provinces of Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Italy, were + immediately assigned for the habitation and subsistence of three hundred + thousand Sarmatians. <a href="#linknote-18.45" name="linknoteref-18.45" + id="linknoteref-18.45">45</a> <a href="#linknote-18.4511" + name="linknoteref-18.4511" id="linknoteref-18.4511">4511</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.4411" id="linknote-18.4411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4411 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.4411">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbon supposes + that this war took place because Constantine had deducted a part of the + customary gratifications, granted by his predecessors to the Sarmatians. + Nothing of this kind appears in the authors. We see, on the contrary, that + after his victory, and to punish the Sarmatia is for the ravages they had + committed, he withheld the sums which it had been the custom to bestow. + St. Martin, note to Le Beau, i. 327.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.45" id="linknote-18.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.45">return</a>)<br /> [ The Gothic and + Sarmatian wars are related in so broken and imperfect a manner, that I + have been obliged to compare the following writers, who mutually supply, + correct, and illustrate each other. Those who will take the same trouble, + may acquire a right of criticizing my narrative. Ammianus, l. xvii. c. 12. + Anonym. Valesian. p. 715. Eutropius, x. 7. Sextus Rufus de Provinciis, c. + 26. Julian Orat. i. p. 9, and Spanheim, Comment. p. 94. Hieronym. in + Chron. Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. l. iv. c. 6. Socrates, l. i. c. 18. + Sozomen, l. i. c. 8. Zosimus, l. ii. p. 108. Jornandes de Reb. Geticis, c. + 22. Isidorus in Chron. p. 709; in Hist. Gothorum Grotii. Constantin. + Porphyrogenitus de Administrat. Imperii, c. 53, p. 208, edit. Meursii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.4511" id="linknote-18.4511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4511 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.4511">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare, on this + very obscure but remarkable war, Manso, Leben Coa xantius, p. 195—M.] + </p> + <p> + By chastising the pride of the Goths, and by accepting the homage of a + suppliant nation, Constantine asserted the majesty of the Roman empire; + and the ambassadors of Æthiopia, Persia, and the most remote countries of + India, congratulated the peace and prosperity of his government. <a + href="#linknote-18.46" name="linknoteref-18.46" id="linknoteref-18.46">46</a> + If he reckoned, among the favors of fortune, the death of his eldest son, + of his nephew, and perhaps of his wife, he enjoyed an uninterrupted flow + of private as well as public felicity, till the thirtieth year of his + reign; a period which none of his predecessors, since Augustus, had been + permitted to celebrate. Constantine survived that solemn festival about + ten months; and at the mature age of sixty-four, after a short illness, he + ended his memorable life at the palace of Aquyrion, in the suburbs of + Nicomedia, whither he had retired for the benefit of the air, and with the + hope of recruiting his exhausted strength by the use of the warm baths. + The excessive demonstrations of grief, or at least of mourning, surpassed + whatever had been practised on any former occasion. Notwithstanding the + claims of the senate and people of ancient Rome, the corpse of the + deceased emperor, according to his last request, was transported to the + city, which was destined to preserve the name and memory of its founder. + The body of Constantine adorned with the vain symbols of greatness, the + purple and diadem, was deposited on a golden bed in one of the apartments + of the palace, which for that purpose had been splendidly furnished and + illuminated. The forms of the court were strictly maintained. Every day, + at the appointed hours, the principal officers of the state, the army, and + the household, approaching the person of their sovereign with bended knees + and a composed countenance, offered their respectful homage as seriously + as if he had been still alive. From motives of policy, this theatrical + representation was for some time continued; nor could flattery neglect the + opportunity of remarking that Constantine alone, by the peculiar + indulgence of Heaven, had reigned after his death. <a href="#linknote-18.47" + name="linknoteref-18.47" id="linknoteref-18.47">47</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.46" id="linknote-18.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius (in Vit. + Const. l. iv. c. 50) remarks three circumstances relative to these + Indians. 1. They came from the shores of the eastern ocean; a description + which might be applied to the coast of China or Coromandel. 2. They + presented shining gems, and unknown animals. 3. They protested their kings + had erected statues to represent the supreme majesty of Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.47" id="linknote-18.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Funus relatum in urbem + sui nominis, quod sane P. R. ægerrime tulit. Aurelius Victor. Constantine + prepared for himself a stately tomb in the church of the Holy Apostles. + Euseb. l. iv. c. 60. The best, and indeed almost the only account of the + sickness, death, and funeral of Constantine, is contained in the fourth + book of his Life by Eusebius.] + </p> + <p> + But this reign could subsist only in empty pageantry; and it was soon + discovered that the will of the most absolute monarch is seldom obeyed, + when his subjects have no longer anything to hope from his favor, or to + dread from his resentment. The same ministers and generals, who bowed with + such referential awe before the inanimate corpse of their deceased + sovereign, were engaged in secret consultations to exclude his two + nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, from the share which he had assigned + them in the succession of the empire. We are too imperfectly acquainted + with the court of Constantine to form any judgment of the real motives + which influenced the leaders of the conspiracy; unless we should suppose + that they were actuated by a spirit of jealousy and revenge against the + præfect Ablavius, a proud favorite, who had long directed the counsels + and abused the confidence of the late emperor. The arguments, by which + they solicited the concurrence of the soldiers and people, are of a more + obvious nature; and they might with decency, as well as truth, insist on + the superior rank of the children of Constantine, the danger of + multiplying the number of sovereigns, and the impending mischiefs which + threatened the republic, from the discord of so many rival princes, who + were not connected by the tender sympathy of fraternal affection. The + intrigue was conducted with zeal and secrecy, till a loud and unanimous + declaration was procured from the troops, that they would suffer none + except the sons of their lamented monarch to reign over the Roman empire. + <a href="#linknote-18.48" name="linknoteref-18.48" id="linknoteref-18.48">48</a> + The younger Dalmatius, who was united with his collateral relations by the + ties of friendship and interest, is allowed to have inherited a + considerable share of the abilities of the great Constantine; but, on this + occasion, he does not appear to have concerted any measure for supporting, + by arms, the just claims which himself and his royal brother derived from + the liberality of their uncle. Astonished and overwhelmed by the tide of + popular fury, they seem to have remained, without the power of flight or + of resistance, in the hands of their implacable enemies. Their fate was + suspended till the arrival of Constantius, the second, and perhaps the + most favored, of the sons of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-18.49" + name="linknoteref-18.49" id="linknoteref-18.49">49</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.48" id="linknote-18.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius (l. iv. c. 6) + terminates his narrative by this loyal declaration of the troops, and + avoids all the invidious circumstances of the subsequent massacre.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.49" id="linknote-18.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.49">return</a>)<br /> [ The character of + Dalmatius is advantageously, though concisely drawn by Eutropius. (x. 9.) + Dalmatius Cæsar prosperrimâ indole, neque patrou absimilis, <i>haud multo</i> + post oppressus est factione militari. As both Jerom and the Alexandrian + Chronicle mention the third year of the Cæsar, which did not commence + till the 18th or 24th of September, A. D. 337, it is certain that these + military factions continued above four months.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap18.3"></a> + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The voice of the dying emperor had recommended the care of his funeral to + the piety of Constantius; and that prince, by the vicinity of his eastern + station, could easily prevent the diligence of his brothers, who resided + in their distant government of Italy and Gaul. As soon as he had taken + possession of the palace of Constantinople, his first care was to remove + the apprehensions of his kinsmen, by a solemn oath which he pledged for + their security. His next employment was to find some specious pretence + which might release his conscience from the obligation of an imprudent + promise. The arts of fraud were made subservient to the designs of + cruelty; and a manifest forgery was attested by a person of the most + sacred character. From the hands of the Bishop of Nicomedia, Constantius + received a fatal scroll, affirmed to be the genuine testament of his + father; in which the emperor expressed his suspicions that he had been + poisoned by his brothers; and conjured his sons to revenge his death, and + to consult their own safety, by the punishment of the guilty. <a + href="#linknote-18.50" name="linknoteref-18.50" id="linknoteref-18.50">50</a> + Whatever reasons might have been alleged by these unfortunate princes to + defend their life and honor against so incredible an accusation, they were + silenced by the furious clamors of the soldiers, who declared themselves, + at once, their enemies, their judges, and their executioners. The spirit, + and even the forms of legal proceedings were repeatedly violated in a + promiscuous massacre; which involved the two uncles of Constantius, seven + of his cousins, of whom Dalmatius and Hannibalianus were the most + illustrious, the Patrician Optatus, who had married a sister of the late + emperor, and the Præfect Ablavius, whose power and riches had inspired + him with some hopes of obtaining the purple. If it were necessary to + aggravate the horrors of this bloody scene, we might add, that Constantius + himself had espoused the daughter of his uncle Julius, and that he had + bestowed his sister in marriage on his cousin Hannibalianus. These + alliances, which the policy of Constantine, regardless of the public + prejudice, <a href="#linknote-18.51" name="linknoteref-18.51" + id="linknoteref-18.51">51</a> had formed between the several branches of + the Imperial house, served only to convince mankind, that these princes + were as cold to the endearments of conjugal affection, as they were + insensible to the ties of consanguinity, and the moving entreaties of + youth and innocence. Of so numerous a family, Gallus and Julian alone, the + two youngest children of Julius Constantius, were saved from the hands of + the assassins, till their rage, satiated with slaughter, had in some + measure subsided. The emperor Constantius, who, in the absence of his + brothers, was the most obnoxious to guilt and reproach, discovered, on + some future occasions, a faint and transient remorse for those cruelties + which the perfidious counsels of his ministers, and the irresistible + violence of the troops, had extorted from his unexperienced youth. <a + href="#linknote-18.52" name="linknoteref-18.52" id="linknoteref-18.52">52</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.50" id="linknote-18.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.50">return</a>)<br /> [ I have related this + singular anecdote on the authority of Philostorgius, l. ii. c. 16. But if + such a pretext was ever used by Constantius and his adherents, it was laid + aside with contempt, as soon as it served their immediate purpose. + Athanasius (tom. i. p. 856) mention the oath which Constantius had taken + for the security of his kinsmen. ——The authority of + Philostorgius is so suspicious, as not to be sufficient to establish this + fact, which Gibbon has inserted in his history as certain, while in the + note he appears to doubt it.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.51" id="linknote-18.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.51">return</a>)<br /> [ Conjugia sobrinarum diu + ignorata, tempore addito percrebuisse. Tacit. Annal. xii. 6, and Lipsius + ad loc. The repeal of the ancient law, and the practice of five hundred + years, were insufficient to eradicate the prejudices of the Romans, who + still considered the marriages of cousins-german as a species of imperfect + incest. (Augustin de Civitate Dei, xv. 6;) and Julian, whose mind was + biased by superstition and resentment, stigmatizes these unnatural + alliances between his own cousins with the opprobrious epithet (Orat. vii. + p. 228.). The jurisprudence of the canons has since received and enforced + this prohibition, without being able to introduce it either into the civil + or the common law of Europe. See on the subject of these marriages, + Taylor’s Civil Law, p. 331. Brouer de Jure Connub. l. ii. c. 12. Hericourt + des Loix Ecclésiastiques, part iii. c. 5. Fleury, Institutions du Droit + Canonique, tom. i. p. 331. Paris, 1767, and Fra Paolo, Istoria del + Concilio Trident, l. viii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.52" id="linknote-18.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (ad S. P.. Q. + Athen. p. 270) charges his cousin Constantius with the whole guilt of a + massacre, from which he himself so narrowly escaped. His assertion is + confirmed by Athanasius, who, for reasons of a very different nature, was + not less an enemy of Constantius, (tom. i. p. 856.) Zosimus joins in the + same accusation. But the three abbreviators, Eutropius and the Victors, + use very qualifying expressions: “sinente potius quam jubente;” “incertum + quo suasore;” “vi militum.”] + </p> + <p> + The massacre of the Flavian race was succeeded by a new division of the + provinces; which was ratified in a personal interview of the three + brothers. Constantine, the eldest of the Cæsars, obtained, with a certain + preëminence of rank, the possession of the new capital, which bore his own + name and that of his father. Thrace, and the countries of the East, were + allotted for the patrimony of Constantius; and Constans was acknowledged + as the lawful sovereign of Italy, Africa, and the Western Illyricum. The + armies submitted to their hereditary right; and they condescended, after + some delay, to accept from the Roman senate the title of <i>Augustus</i>. When + they first assumed the reins of government, the eldest of these princes + was twenty-one, the second twenty, and the third only seventeen, years of + age. <a href="#linknote-18.53" name="linknoteref-18.53" id="linknoteref-18.53">53</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.53" id="linknote-18.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. in Vit. + Constantin. l. iv. c. 69. Zosimus, l. ii. p. 117. Idat. in Chron. See two + notes of Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 1086-1091. The reign + of the eldest brother at Constantinople is noticed only in the Alexandrian + Chronicle.] + </p> + <p> + While the martial nations of Europe followed the standards of his + brothers, Constantius, at the head of the effeminate troops of Asia, was + left to sustain the weight of the Persian war. At the decease of + Constantine, the throne of the East was filled by Sapor, son of Hormouz, + or Hormisdas, and grandson of Narses, who, after the victory of Galerius, + had humbly confessed the superiority of the Roman power. Although Sapor + was in the thirtieth year of his long reign, he was still in the vigor of + youth, as the date of his accession, by a very strange fatality, had + preceded that of his birth. The wife of Hormouz remained pregnant at the + time of her husband’s death; and the uncertainty of the sex, as well as of + the event, excited the ambitious hopes of the princes of the house of + Sassan. The apprehensions of civil war were at length removed, by the + positive assurance of the Magi, that the widow of Hormouz had conceived, + and would safely produce a son. Obedient to the voice of superstition, the + Persians prepared, without delay, the ceremony of his coronation. + </p> + <p> + A royal bed, on which the queen lay in state, was exhibited in the midst + of the palace; the diadem was placed on the spot, which might be supposed + to conceal the future heir of Artaxerxes, and the prostrate satraps adored + the majesty of their invisible and insensible sovereign. <a + href="#linknote-18.54" name="linknoteref-18.54" id="linknoteref-18.54">54</a> + If any credit can be given to this marvellous tale, which seems, however, + to be countenanced by the manners of the people, and by the extraordinary + duration of his reign, we must admire not only the fortune, but the + genius, of Sapor. In the soft, sequestered education of a Persian harem, + the royal youth could discover the importance of exercising the vigor of + his mind and body; and, by his personal merit, deserved a throne, on which + he had been seated, while he was yet unconscious of the duties and + temptations of absolute power. His minority was exposed to the almost + inevitable calamities of domestic discord; his capital was surprised and + plundered by Thair, a powerful king of Yemen, or Arabia; and the majesty + of the royal family was degraded by the captivity of a princess, the + sister of the deceased king. But as soon as Sapor attained the age of + manhood, the presumptuous Thair, his nation, and his country, fell beneath + the first effort of the young warrior; who used his victory with so + judicious a mixture of rigor and clemency, that he obtained from the fears + and gratitude of the Arabs the title of <i>Dhoulacnaf</i>, or protector of the + nation. <a href="#linknote-18.55" name="linknoteref-18.55" + id="linknoteref-18.55">55</a> <a href="#linknote-18.5511" + name="linknoteref-18.5511" id="linknoteref-18.5511">5511</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.54" id="linknote-18.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.54">return</a>)<br /> [ Agathias, who lived in + the sixth century, is the author of this story, (l. iv. p. 135, edit. + Louvre.) He derived his information from some extracts of the Persian + Chronicles, obtained and translated by the interpreter Sergius, during his + embassy at that country. The coronation of the mother of Sapor is likewise + mentioned by Snikard, (Tarikh. p. 116,) and D’Herbelot (Bibliothèque + Orientale, p. 703.) ——The author of the Zenut-ul-Tarikh + states, that the lady herself affirmed her belief of this from the + extraordinary liveliness of the infant, and its lying on the right side. + Those who are sage on such subjects must determine what right she had to + be positive from these symptoms. Malcolm, Hist. of Persia, i 83.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.55" id="linknote-18.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.55">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, + Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 764.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.5511" id="linknote-18.5511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5511 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.5511">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbon, according + to Sir J. Malcolm, has greatly mistaken the derivation of this name; it + means Zoolaktaf, the Lord of the Shoulders, from his directing the + shoulders of his captives to be pierced and then dislocated by a string + passed through them. Eastern authors are agreed with respect to the origin + of this title. Malcolm, i. 84. Gibbon took his derivation from D’Herbelot, + who gives both, the latter on the authority of the Leb. Tarikh.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The ambition of the Persian, to whom his enemies ascribe the virtues of a + soldier and a statesman, was animated by the desire of revenging the + disgrace of his fathers, and of wresting from the hands of the Romans the + five provinces beyond the Tigris. The military fame of Constantine, and + the real or apparent strength of his government, suspended the attack; and + while the hostile conduct of Sapor provoked the resentment, his artful + negotiations amused the patience of the Imperial court. The death of + Constantine was the signal of war, <a href="#linknote-18.56" + name="linknoteref-18.56" id="linknoteref-18.56">56</a> and the actual + condition of the Syrian and Armenian frontier seemed to encourage the + Persians by the prospect of a rich spoil and an easy conquest. The example + of the massacres of the palace diffused a spirit of licentiousness and + sedition among the troops of the East, who were no longer restrained by + their habits of obedience to a veteran commander. By the prudence of + Constantius, who, from the interview with his brothers in Pannonia, + immediately hastened to the banks of the Euphrates, the legions were + gradually restored to a sense of duty and discipline; but the season of + anarchy had permitted Sapor to form the siege of Nisibis, and to occupy + several of the mo st important fortresses of Mesopotamia. <a + href="#linknote-18.57" name="linknoteref-18.57" id="linknoteref-18.57">57</a> + In Armenia, the renowned Tiridates had long enjoyed the peace and glory + which he deserved by his valor and fidelity to the cause of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-18.5711" name="linknoteref-18.5711" id="linknoteref-18.5711">5711</a> + The firm alliance which he maintained with Constantine was productive of + spiritual as well as of temporal benefits; by the conversion of Tiridates, + the character of a saint was applied to that of a hero, the Christian + faith was preached and established from the Euphrates to the shores of the + Caspian, and Armenia was attached to the empire by the double ties of + policy and religion. But as many of the Armenian nobles still refused to + abandon the plurality of their gods and of their wives, the public + tranquillity was disturbed by a discontented faction, which insulted the + feeble age of their sovereign, and impatiently expected the hour of his + death. He died at length after a reign of fifty-six years, and the fortune + of the Armenian monarchy expired with Tiridates. His lawful heir was + driven into exile, the Christian priests were either murdered or expelled + from their churches, the barbarous tribes of Albania were solicited to + descend from their mountains; and two of the most powerful governors, + usurping the ensigns or the powers of royalty, implored the assistance of + Sapor, and opened the gates of their cities to the Persian garrisons. The + Christian party, under the guidance of the Archbishop of Artaxata, the + immediate successor of St. Gregory the Illuminator, had recourse to the + piety of Constantius. After the troubles had continued about three years, + Antiochus, one of the officers of the household, executed with success the + Imperial commission of restoring Chosroes, <a href="#linknote-18.5712" + name="linknoteref-18.5712" id="linknoteref-18.5712">5712</a> the son of + Tiridates, to the throne of his fathers, of distributing honors and + rewards among the faithful servants of the house of Arsaces, and of + proclaiming a general amnesty, which was accepted by the greater part of + the rebellious satraps. But the Romans derived more honor than advantage + from this revolution. Chosroes was a prince of a puny stature and a + pusillanimous spirit. Unequal to the fatigues of war, averse to the + society of mankind, he withdrew from his capital to a retired palace, + which he built on the banks of the River Eleutherus, and in the centre of + a shady grove; where he consumed his vacant hours in the rural sports of + hunting and hawking. To secure this inglorious ease, he submitted to the + conditions of peace which Sapor condescended to impose; the payment of an + annual tribute, and the restitution of the fertile province of Atropatene, + which the courage of Tiridates, and the victorious arms of Galerius, had + annexed to the Armenian monarchy. <a href="#linknote-18.58" + name="linknoteref-18.58" id="linknoteref-18.58">58</a> <a + href="#linknote-18.5811" name="linknoteref-18.5811" id="linknoteref-18.5811">5811</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.56" id="linknote-18.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.56">return</a>)<br /> [ Sextus Rufus, (c. 26,) + who on this occasion is no contemptible authority, affirms, that the + Persians sued in vain for peace, and that Constantine was preparing to + march against them: yet the superior weight of the testimony of Eusebius + obliges us to admit the preliminaries, if not the ratification, of the + treaty. See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 420. ——Constantine + had endeavored to allay the fury of the prosecutions, which, at the + instigation of the Magi and the Jews, Sapor had commenced against the + Christians. Euseb Vit. Hist. Theod. i. 25. Sozom. ii. c. 8, 15.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.57" id="linknote-18.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.57">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. p. + 20.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.5711" id="linknote-18.5711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5711 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.5711">return</a>)<br /> [ Tiridates had + sustained a war against Maximin. caused by the hatred of the latter + against Christianity. Armenia was the first <i>nation</i> which embraced + Christianity. About the year 276 it was the religion of the king, the + nobles, and the people of Armenia. From St. Martin, Supplement to Le Beau, + v. i. p. 78.——Compare Preface to History of Vartan by + Professor Neumann, p ix.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.5712" id="linknote-18.5712"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5712 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.5712">return</a>)<br /> [ Chosroes was + restored probably by Licinius, between 314 and 319. There was an Antiochus + who was præfectus vigilum at Rome, as appears from the Theodosian Code, + (l. iii. de inf. his quæ sub ty.,) in 326, and from a fragment of the + same work published by M. Amedee Peyron, in 319. He may before this have + been sent into Armenia. St. M. p. 407. [Is it not more probable that + Antiochus was an officer in the service of the Cæsar who ruled in the + East?—M.] Chosroes was succeeded in the year 322 by his son Diran. + Diran was a weak prince, and in the sixteenth year of his reign. A. D. + 337. was betrayed into the power of the Persians by the treachery of his + chamberlain and the Persian governor of Atropatene or Aderbidjan. He was + blinded: his wife and his son Arsaces shared his captivity, but the + princes and nobles of Armenia claimed the protection of Rome; and this was + the cause of Constantine’s declaration of war against the Persians.—The + king of Persia attempted to make himself master of Armenia; but the brave + resistance of the people, the advance of Constantius, and a defeat which + his army suffered at Oskha in Armenia, and the failure before Nisibis, + forced Shahpour to submit to terms of peace. Varaz-Shahpour, the + perfidious governor of Atropatene, was flayed alive; Diran and his son + were released from captivity; Diran refused to ascend the throne, and + retired to an obscure retreat: his son Arsaces was crowned king of + Armenia. Arsaces pursued a vacillating policy between the influence of + Rome and Persia, and the war recommenced in the year 345. At least, that + was the period of the expedition of Constantius to the East. See St. + Martin, additions to Le Beau, i. 442. The Persians have made an + extraordinary romance out of the history of Shahpour, who went as a spy to + Constantinople, was taken, harnessed like a horse, and carried to witness + the devastation of his kingdom. Malcolm. 84—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.58" id="linknote-18.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.58">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 20, + 21. Moses of Chorene, l. ii. c. 89, l. iii. c. 1—9, p. 226—240. + The perfect agreement between the vague hints of the contemporary orator, + and the circumstantial narrative of the national historian, gives light to + the former, and weight to the latter. For the credit of Moses, it may be + likewise observed, that the name of Antiochus is found a few years before + in a civil office of inferior dignity. See Godefroy, Cod. Theod. tom. vi. + p. 350.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.5811" id="linknote-18.5811"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5811 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.5811">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbon has + endeavored, in his History, to make use of the information furnished by + Moses of Chorene, the only Armenian historian then translated into Latin. + Gibbon has not perceived all the chronological difficulties which occur in + the narrative of that writer. He has not thought of all the critical + discussions which his text ought to undergo before it can be combined with + the relations of the western writers. From want of this attention, Gibbon + has made the facts which he has drawn from this source more erroneous than + they are in the original. This judgment applies to all which the English + historian has derived from the Armenian author. I have made the History of + Moses a subject of particular attention; and it is with confidence that I + offer the results, which I insert here, and which will appear in the + course of my notes. In order to form a judgment of the difference which + exists between me and Gibbon, I will content myself with remarking, that + throughout he has committed an anachronism of thirty years, from whence it + follows, that he assigns to the reign of Constantius many events which + took place during that of Constantine. He could not, therefore, discern + the true connection which exists between the Roman history and that of + Armenia, or form a correct notion of the reasons which induced + Constantine, at the close of his life, to make war upon the Persians, or + of the motives which detained Constantius so long in the East; he does not + even mention them. St. Martin, note on Le Beau, i. 406. I have inserted M. + St. Martin’s observations, but I must add, that the chronology which he + proposes, is not generally received by Armenian scholars, not, I believe, + by Professor Neumann.—M.] + </p> + <p> + During the long period of the reign of Constantius, the provinces of the + East were afflicted by the calamities of the Persian war. <a + href="#linknote-18.5813" name="linknoteref-18.5813" id="linknoteref-18.5813">5813</a> + The irregular incursions of the light troops alternately spread terror and + devastation beyond the Tigris and beyond the Euphrates, from the gates of + Ctesiphon to those of Antioch; and this active service was performed by + the Arabs of the desert, who were divided in their interest and + affections; some of their independent chiefs being enlisted in the party + of Sapor, whilst others had engaged their doubtful fidelity to the + emperor. <a href="#linknote-18.59" name="linknoteref-18.59" + id="linknoteref-18.59">59</a> The more grave and important operations of + the war were conducted with equal vigor; and the armies of Rome and Persia + encountered each other in nine bloody fields, in two of which Constantius + himself commanded in person. <a href="#linknote-18.60" + name="linknoteref-18.60" id="linknoteref-18.60">60</a> The event of the day + was most commonly adverse to the Romans, but in the battle of Singara, + their imprudent valor had almost achieved a signal and decisive victory. + The stationary troops of Singara <a href="#linknote-18.6011" + name="linknoteref-18.6011" id="linknoteref-18.6011">6011</a> retired on the + approach of Sapor, who passed the Tigris over three bridges, and occupied + near the village of Hilleh an advantageous camp, which, by the labor of + his numerous pioneers, he surrounded in one day with a deep ditch and a + lofty rampart. His formidable host, when it was drawn out in order of + battle, covered the banks of the river, the adjacent heights, and the + whole extent of a plain of above twelve miles, which separated the two + armies. Both were alike impatient to engage; but the Barbarians, after a + slight resistance, fled in disorder; unable to resist, or desirous to + weary, the strength of the heavy legions, who, fainting with heat and + thirst, pursued them across the plain, and cut in pieces a line of + cavalry, clothed in complete armor, which had been posted before the gates + of the camp to protect their retreat. Constantius, who was hurried along + in the pursuit, attempted, without effect, to restrain the ardor of his + troops, by representing to them the dangers of the approaching night, and + the certainty of completing their success with the return of day. As they + depended much more on their own valor than on the experience or the + abilities of their chief, they silenced by their clamors his timid + remonstrances; and rushing with fury to the charge, filled up the ditch, + broke down the rampart, and dispersed themselves through the tents to + recruit their exhausted strength, and to enjoy the rich harvest of their + labors. But the prudent Sapor had watched the moment of victory. His army, + of which the greater part, securely posted on the heights, had been + spectators of the action, advanced in silence, and under the shadow of the + night; and his Persian archers, guided by the illumination of the camp, + poured a shower of arrows on a disarmed and licentious crowd. The + sincerity of history <a href="#linknote-18.61" name="linknoteref-18.61" + id="linknoteref-18.61">61</a> declares, that the Romans were vanquished + with a dreadful slaughter, and that the flying remnant of the legions was + exposed to the most intolerable hardships. Even the tenderness of + panegyric, confessing that the glory of the emperor was sullied by the + disobedience of his soldiers, chooses to draw a veil over the + circumstances of this melancholy retreat. Yet one of those venal orators, + so jealous of the fame of Constantius, relates, with amazing coolness, an + act of such incredible cruelty, as, in the judgment of posterity, must + imprint a far deeper stain on the honor of the Imperial name. The son of + Sapor, the heir of his crown, had been made a captive in the Persian camp. + The unhappy youth, who might have excited the compassion of the most + savage enemy, was scourged, tortured, and publicly executed by the inhuman + Romans. <a href="#linknote-18.62" name="linknoteref-18.62" + id="linknoteref-18.62">62</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.5813" id="linknote-18.5813"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5813 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.5813">return</a>)<br /> [ It was during this + war that a bold flatterer (whose name is unknown) published the + Itineraries of Alexander and Trajan, in order to direct the <i>victorious</i> + Constantius in the footsteps of those great conquerors of the East. The + former of these has been published for the first time by M. Angelo Mai + (Milan, 1817, reprinted at Frankfort, 1818.) It adds so little to our + knowledge of Alexander’s campaigns, that it only excites our regret that + it is not the Itinerary of Trajan, of whose eastern victories we have no + distinct record—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.59" id="linknote-18.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.59">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xiv. 4) gives + a lively description of the wandering and predatory life of the Saracens, + who stretched from the confines of Assyria to the cataracts of the Nile. + It appears from the adventures of Malchus, which Jerom has related in so + entertaining a manner, that the high road between Beræa and Edessa was + infested by these robbers. See Hieronym. tom. i. p. 256.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.60" id="linknote-18.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.60">return</a>)<br /> [ We shall take from + Eutropius the general idea of the war. A Persis enim multa et gravia + perpessus, sæpe captis, oppidis, obsessis urbibus, cæsis exercitibus, + nullumque ei contra Saporem prosperum prælium fuit, nisi quod apud + Singaram, &c. This honest account is confirmed by the hints of + Ammianus, Rufus, and Jerom. The two first orations of Julian, and the + third oration of Libanius, exhibit a more flattering picture; but the + recantation of both those orators, after the death of Constantius, while + it restores us to the possession of the truth, degrades their own + character, and that of the emperor. The Commentary of Spanheim on the + first oration of Julian is profusely learned. See likewise the judicious + observations of Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 656.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.6011" id="linknote-18.6011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6011 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.6011">return</a>)<br /> [ Now Sinjar, or the + River Claboras.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.61" id="linknote-18.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Acerrimâ nocturnâ + concertatione pugnatum est, nostrorum copiis ngenti strage confossis. + Ammian. xviii. 5. See likewise Eutropius, x. 10, and S. Rufus, c. 27. + ——The Persian historians, or romancers, do not mention the + battle of Singara, but make the captive Shahpour escape, defeat, and take + prisoner, the Roman emperor. The Roman captives were forced to repair all + the ravages they had committed, even to replanting the smallest trees. + Malcolm. i. 82.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.62" id="linknote-18.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. iii. p. + 133, with Julian. Orat. i. p. 24, and Spanneism’s Commentary, p. 179.] + </p> + <p> + Whatever advantages might attend the arms of Sapor in the field, though + nine repeated victories diffused among the nations the fame of his valor + and conduct, he could not hope to succeed in the execution of his designs, + while the fortified towns of Mesopotamia, and, above all, the strong and + ancient city of Nisibis, remained in the possession of the Romans. In the + space of twelve years, Nisibis, which, since the time of Lucullus, had + been deservedly esteemed the bulwark of the East, sustained three + memorable sieges against the power of Sapor; and the disappointed monarch, + after urging his attacks above sixty, eighty, and a hundred days, was + thrice repulsed with loss and ignominy. <a href="#linknote-18.63" + name="linknoteref-18.63" id="linknoteref-18.63">63</a> This large and + populous city was situate about two days’ journey from the Tigris, in the + midst of a pleasant and fertile plain at the foot of Mount Masius. A + treble enclosure of brick walls was defended by a deep ditch; <a + href="#linknote-18.64" name="linknoteref-18.64" id="linknoteref-18.64">64</a> + and the intrepid resistance of Count Lucilianus, and his garrison, was + seconded by the desperate courage of the people. The citizens of Nisibis + were animated by the exhortations of their bishop, <a href="#linknote-18.65" + name="linknoteref-18.65" id="linknoteref-18.65">65</a> inured to arms by the + presence of danger, and convinced of the intentions of Sapor to plant a + Persian colony in their room, and to lead them away into distant and + barbarous captivity. The event of the two former sieges elated their + confidence, and exasperated the haughty spirit of the Great King, who + advanced a third time towards Nisibis, at the head of the united forces of + Persia and India. The ordinary machines, invented to batter or undermine + the walls, were rendered ineffectual by the superior skill of the Romans; + and many days had vainly elapsed, when Sapor embraced a resolution worthy + of an eastern monarch, who believed that the elements themselves were + subject to his power. At the stated season of the melting of the snows in + Armenia, the River Mygdonius, which divides the plain and the city of + Nisibis, forms, like the Nile, <a href="#linknote-18.66" + name="linknoteref-18.66" id="linknoteref-18.66">66</a> an inundation over + the adjacent country. By the labor of the Persians, the course of the + river was stopped below the town, and the waters were confined on every + side by solid mounds of earth. On this artificial lake, a fleet of armed + vessels filled with soldiers, and with engines which discharged stones of + five hundred pounds weight, advanced in order of battle, and engaged, + almost upon a level, the troops which defended the ramparts. <a + href="#linknote-18.6611" name="linknoteref-18.6611" id="linknoteref-18.6611">6611</a> + The irresistible force of the waters was alternately fatal to the + contending parties, till at length a portion of the walls, unable to + sustain the accumulated pressure, gave way at once, and exposed an ample + breach of one hundred and fifty feet. The Persians were instantly driven + to the assault, and the fate of Nisibis depended on the event of the day. + The heavy-armed cavalry, who led the van of a deep column, were + embarrassed in the mud, and great numbers were drowned in the unseen holes + which had been filled by the rushing waters. The elephants, made furious + by their wounds, increased the disorder, and trampled down thousands of + the Persian archers. The Great King, who, from an exalted throne, beheld + the misfortunes of his arms, sounded, with reluctant indignation, the + signal of the retreat, and suspended for some hours the prosecution of the + attack. But the vigilant citizens improved the opportunity of the night; + and the return of day discovered a new wall of six feet in height, rising + every moment to fill up the interval of the breach. Notwithstanding the + disappointment of his hopes, and the loss of more than twenty thousand + men, Sapor still pressed the reduction of Nisibis, with an obstinate + firmness, which could have yielded only to the necessity of defending the + eastern provinces of Persia against a formidable invasion of the + Massagetæ. <a href="#linknote-18.67" name="linknoteref-18.67" + id="linknoteref-18.67">67</a> Alarmed by this intelligence, he hastily + relinquished the siege, and marched with rapid diligence from the banks of + the Tigris to those of the Oxus. The danger and difficulties of the + Scythian war engaged him soon afterwards to conclude, or at least to + observe, a truce with the Roman emperor, which was equally grateful to + both princes; as Constantius himself, after the death of his two brothers, + was involved, by the revolutions of the West, in a civil contest, which + required and seemed to exceed the most vigorous exertion of his undivided + strength. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.63" id="linknote-18.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.63">return</a>)<br /> [ See Julian. Orat. i. p. + 27, Orat. ii. p. 62, &c., with the Commentary of Spanheim, (p. + 188-202,) who illustrates the circumstances, and ascertains the time of + the three sieges of Nisibis. Their dates are likewise examined by + Tillemont, (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 668, 671, 674.) Something is + added from Zosimus, l. iii. p. 151, and the Alexandrine Chronicle, p. + 290.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.64" id="linknote-18.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Sallust. Fragment. + lxxxiv. edit. Brosses, and Plutarch in Lucull. tom. iii. p. 184. Nisibis + is now reduced to one hundred and fifty houses: the marshy lands produce + rice, and the fertile meadows, as far as Mosul and the Tigris, are covered + with the ruins of towns and allages. See Niebuhr, Voyages, tom. ii. p. + 300-309.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.65" id="linknote-18.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.65">return</a>)<br /> [ The miracles which + Theodoret (l. ii. c. 30) ascribes to St. James, Bishop of Edessa, were at + least performed in a worthy cause, the defence of his couutry. He appeared + on the walls under the figure of the Roman emperor, and sent an army of + gnats to sting the trunks of the elephants, and to discomfit the host of + the new Sennacherib.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.66" id="linknote-18.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 27. + Though Niebuhr (tom. ii. p. 307) allows a very considerable swell to the + Mygdonius, over which he saw a bridge of <i>twelve</i> arches: it is difficult, + however, to understand this parallel of a trifling rivulet with a mighty + river. There are many circumstances obscure, and almost unintelligible, in + the description of these stupendous water-works.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.6611" id="linknote-18.6611"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6611 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.6611">return</a>)<br /> [ Macdonald Kinnier + observes on these floating batteries, “As the elevation of place is + considerably above the level of the country in its immediate vicinity, and + the Mygdonius is a very insignificant stream, it is difficult to imagine + how this work could have been accomplished, even with the wonderful + resources which the king must have had at his disposal” Geographical + Memoir. p. 262.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.67" id="linknote-18.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.67">return</a>)<br /> [ We are obliged to + Zonaras (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 11) for this invasion of the Massagetæ, + which is perfectly consistent with the general series of events to which + we are darkly led by the broken history of Ammianus.] + </p> + <p> + After the partition of the empire, three years had scarcely elapsed before + the sons of Constantine seemed impatient to convince mankind that they + were incapable of contenting themselves with the dominions which they were + unqualified to govern. The eldest of those princes soon complained, that + he was defrauded of his just proportion of the spoils of their murdered + kinsmen; and though he might yield to the superior guilt and merit of + Constantius, he exacted from Constans the cession of the African + provinces, as an equivalent for the rich countries of Macedonia and + Greece, which his brother had acquired by the death of Dalmatius. The want + of sincerity, which Constantine experienced in a tedious and fruitless + negotiation, exasperated the fierceness of his temper; and he eagerly + listened to those favorites, who suggested to him that his honor, as well + as his interest, was concerned in the prosecution of the quarrel. At the + head of a tumultuary band, suited for rapine rather than for conquest, he + suddenly broke onto the dominions of Constans, by the way of the Julian + Alps, and the country round Aquileia felt the first effects of his + resentment. The measures of Constans, who then resided in Dacia, were + directed with more prudence and ability. On the news of his brother’s + invasion, he detached a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian + troops, proposing to follow them in person, with the remainder of his + forces. But the conduct of his lieutenants soon terminated the unnatural + contest. + </p> + <p> + By the artful appearances of flight, Constantine was betrayed into an + ambuscade, which had been concealed in a wood, where the rash youth, with + a few attendants, was surprised, surrounded, and slain. His body, after it + had been found in the obscure stream of the Alsa, obtained the honors of + an Imperial sepulchre; but his provinces transferred their allegiance to + the conqueror, who, refusing to admit his elder brother Constantius to any + share in these new acquisitions, maintained the undisputed possession of + more than two thirds of the Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-18.68" + name="linknoteref-18.68" id="linknoteref-18.68">68</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.68" id="linknote-18.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.68">return</a>)<br /> [ The causes and the + events of this civil war are related with much perplexity and + contradiction. I have chiefly followed Zonaras and the younger Victor. The + monody (ad Calcem Eutrop. edit. Havercamp.) pronounced on the death of + Constantine, might have been very instructive; but prudence and false + taste engaged the orator to involve himself in vague declamation.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap18.4"></a> + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The fate of Constans himself was delayed about ten years longer, and the + revenge of his brother’s death was reserved for the more ignoble hand of a + domestic traitor. The pernicious tendency of the system introduced by + Constantine was displayed in the feeble administration of his sons; who, + by their vices and weakness, soon lost the esteem and affections of their + people. The pride assumed by Constans, from the unmerited success of his + arms, was rendered more contemptible by his want of abilities and + application. His fond partiality towards some German captives, + distinguished only by the charms of youth, was an object of scandal to the + people; <a href="#linknote-18.69" name="linknoteref-18.69" + id="linknoteref-18.69">69</a> and Magnentius, an ambitious soldier, who was + himself of Barbarian extraction, was encouraged by the public discontent + to assert the honor of the Roman name. <a href="#linknote-18.70" + name="linknoteref-18.70" id="linknoteref-18.70">70</a> The chosen bands of + Jovians and Herculians, who acknowledged Magnentius as their leader, + maintained the most respectable and important station in the Imperial + camp. The friendship of Marcellinus, count of the sacred largesses, + supplied with a liberal hand the means of seduction. The soldiers were + convinced by the most specious arguments, that the republic summoned them + to break the bonds of hereditary servitude; and, by the choice of an + active and vigilant prince, to reward the same virtues which had raised + the ancestors of the degenerate Constans from a private condition to the + throne of the world. As soon as the conspiracy was ripe for execution, + Marcellinus, under the pretence of celebrating his son’s birthday, gave a + splendid entertainment to the <i>illustrious</i> and <i>honorable</i> persons of the + court of Gaul, which then resided in the city of Autun. The intemperance + of the feast was artfully protracted till a very late hour of the night; + and the unsuspecting guests were tempted to indulge themselves in a + dangerous and guilty freedom of conversation. On a sudden the doors were + thrown open, and Magnentius, who had retired for a few moments, returned + into the apartment, invested with the diadem and purple. The conspirators + instantly saluted him with the titles of Augustus and Emperor. The + surprise, the terror, the intoxication, the ambitious hopes, and the + mutual ignorance of the rest of the assembly, prompted them to join their + voices to the general acclamation. The guards hastened to take the oath of + fidelity; the gates of the town were shut; and before the dawn of day, + Magnentius became master of the troops and treasure of the palace and city + of Autun. By his secrecy and diligence he entertained some hopes of + surprising the person of Constans, who was pursuing in the adjacent forest + his favorite amusement of hunting, or perhaps some pleasures of a more + private and criminal nature. The rapid progress of fame allowed him, + however, an instant for flight, though the desertion of his soldiers and + subjects deprived him of the power of resistance. Before he could reach a + seaport in Spain, where he intended to embark, he was overtaken near + Helena, <a href="#linknote-18.71" name="linknoteref-18.71" + id="linknoteref-18.71">71</a> at the foot of the Pyrenees, by a party of + light cavalry, whose chief, regardless of the sanctity of a temple, + executed his commission by the murder of the son of Constantine. <a + href="#linknote-18.72" name="linknoteref-18.72" id="linknoteref-18.72">72</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.69" id="linknote-18.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Quarum (<i>gentium</i>) + obsides pretio quæsitos pueros venustiore quod cultius habuerat libidine + hujusmodi arsisse <i>pro certo</i> habet. Had not the depraved taste of Constans + been publicly avowed, the elder Victor, who held a considerable office in + his brother’s reign, would not have asserted it in such positive terms.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.70" id="linknote-18.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. and + ii. Zosim. l. ii. p. 134. Victor in Epitome. There is reason to believe + that Magnentius was born in one of those Barbarian colonies which + Constantius Chlorus had established in Gaul, (see this History, vol. i. p. + 414.) His behavior may remind us of the patriot earl of Leicester, the + famous Simon de Montfort, who could persuade the good people of England, + that he, a Frenchman by birth had taken arms to deliver them from foreign + favorites.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.71" id="linknote-18.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.71">return</a>)<br /> [ This ancient city had + once flourished under the name of Illiberis (Pomponius Mela, ii. 5.) The + munificence of Constantine gave it new splendor, and his mother’s name. + Helena (it is still called Elne) became the seat of a bishop, who long + afterwards transferred his residence to Perpignan, the capital of modern + Rousillon. See D’Anville. Notice de l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 380. Longuerue, + Description de la France, p. 223, and the Marca Hispanica, l. i. c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.72" id="linknote-18.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 119, + 120. Zonaras, tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 13, and the Abbreviators.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as the death of Constans had decided this easy but important + revolution, the example of the court of Autun was imitated by the + provinces of the West. The authority of Magnentius was acknowledged + through the whole extent of the two great præfectures of Gaul and Italy; + and the usurper prepared, by every act of oppression, to collect a + treasure, which might discharge the obligation of an immense donative, and + supply the expenses of a civil war. The martial countries of Illyricum, + from the Danube to the extremity of Greece, had long obeyed the government + of Vetranio, an aged general, beloved for the simplicity of his manners, + and who had acquired some reputation by his experience and services in + war. <a href="#linknote-18.73" name="linknoteref-18.73" id="linknoteref-18.73">73</a> + Attached by habit, by duty, and by gratitude, to the house of Constantine, + he immediately gave the strongest assurances to the only surviving son of + his late master, that he would expose, with unshaken fidelity, his person + and his troops, to inflict a just revenge on the traitors of Gaul. But the + legions of Vetranio were seduced, rather than provoked, by the example of + rebellion; their leader soon betrayed a want of firmness, or a want of + sincerity; and his ambition derived a specious pretence from the + approbation of the princess Constantina. That cruel and aspiring woman, + who had obtained from the great Constantine, her father, the rank of + <i>Augusta</i>, placed the diadem with her own hands on the head of the Illyrian + general; and seemed to expect from his victory the accomplishment of those + unbounded hopes, of which she had been disappointed by the death of her + husband Hannibalianus. Perhaps it was without the consent of Constantina, + that the new emperor formed a necessary, though dishonorable, alliance + with the usurper of the West, whose purple was so recently stained with + her brother’s blood. <a href="#linknote-18.74" name="linknoteref-18.74" + id="linknoteref-18.74">74</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.73" id="linknote-18.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.73">return</a>)<br /> [ Eutropius (x. 10) + describes Vetranio with more temper, and probably with more truth, than + either of the two Victors. Vetranio was born of obscure parents in the + wildest parts of Mæsia; and so much had his education been neglected, + that, after his elevation, he studied the alphabet.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.74" id="linknote-18.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.74">return</a>)<br /> [ The doubtful, + fluctuating conduct of Vetranio is described by Julian in his first + oration, and accurately explained by Spanheim, who discusses the situation + and behavior of Constantina.] + </p> + <p> + The intelligence of these important events, which so deeply affected the + honor and safety of the Imperial house, recalled the arms of Constantius + from the inglorious prosecution of the Persian war. He recommended the + care of the East to his lieutenants, and afterwards to his cousin Gallus, + whom he raised from a prison to a throne; and marched towards Europe, with + a mind agitated by the conflict of hope and fear, of grief and + indignation. On his arrival at Heraclea in Thrace, the emperor gave + audience to the ambassadors of Magnentius and Vetranio. The first author + of the conspiracy Marcellinus, who in some measure had bestowed the purple + on his new master, boldly accepted this dangerous commission; and his + three colleagues were selected from the illustrious personages of the + state and army. These deputies were instructed to soothe the resentment, + and to alarm the fears, of Constantius. They were empowered to offer him + the friendship and alliance of the western princes, to cement their union + by a double marriage; of Constantius with the daughter of Magnentius, and + of Magnentius himself with the ambitious Constantina; and to acknowledge + in the treaty the preëminence of rank, which might justly be claimed by + the emperor of the East. Should pride and mistaken piety urge him to + refuse these equitable conditions, the ambassadors were ordered to + expatiate on the inevitable ruin which must attend his rashness, if he + ventured to provoke the sovereigns of the West to exert their superior + strength; and to employ against him that valor, those abilities, and those + legions, to which the house of Constantine had been indebted for so many + triumphs. Such propositions and such arguments appeared to deserve the + most serious attention; the answer of Constantius was deferred till the + next day; and as he had reflected on the importance of justifying a civil + war in the opinion of the people, he thus addressed his council, who + listened with real or affected credulity: “Last night,” said he, “after I + retired to rest, the shade of the great Constantine, embracing the corpse + of my murdered brother, rose before my eyes; his well-known voice awakened + me to revenge, forbade me to despair of the republic, and assured me of + the success and immortal glory which would crown the justice of my arms.” + The authority of such a vision, or rather of the prince who alleged it, + silenced every doubt, and excluded all negotiation. The ignominious terms + of peace were rejected with disdain. One of the ambassadors of the tyrant + was dismissed with the haughty answer of Constantius; his colleagues, as + unworthy of the privileges of the law of nations, were put in irons; and + the contending powers prepared to wage an implacable war. <a + href="#linknote-18.75" name="linknoteref-18.75" id="linknoteref-18.75">75</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.75" id="linknote-18.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.75">return</a>)<br /> [ See Peter the + Patrician, in the Excerpta Legationem p. 27.] + </p> + <p> + Such was the conduct, and such perhaps was the duty, of the brother of + Constans towards the perfidious usurper of Gaul. The situation and + character of Vetranio admitted of milder measures; and the policy of the + Eastern emperor was directed to disunite his antagonists, and to separate + the forces of Illyricum from the cause of rebellion. It was an easy task + to deceive the frankness and simplicity of Vetranio, who, fluctuating some + time between the opposite views of honor and interest, displayed to the + world the insincerity of his temper, and was insensibly engaged in the + snares of an artful negotiation. Constantius acknowledged him as a + legitimate and equal colleague in the empire, on condition that he would + renounce his disgraceful alliance with Magnentius, and appoint a place of + interview on the frontiers of their respective provinces; where they might + pledge their friendship by mutual vows of fidelity, and regulate by common + consent the future operations of the civil war. In consequence of this + agreement, Vetranio advanced to the city of Sardica, <a + href="#linknote-18.76" name="linknoteref-18.76" id="linknoteref-18.76">76</a> + at the head of twenty thousand horse, and of a more numerous body of + infantry; a power so far superior to the forces of Constantius, that the + Illyrian emperor appeared to command the life and fortunes of his rival, + who, depending on the success of his private negotiations, had seduced the + troops, and undermined the throne, of Vetranio. The chiefs, who had + secretly embraced the party of Constantius, prepared in his favor a public + spectacle, calculated to discover and inflame the passions of the + multitude. <a href="#linknote-18.77" name="linknoteref-18.77" + id="linknoteref-18.77">77</a> The united armies were commanded to assemble + in a large plain near the city. In the centre, according to the rules of + ancient discipline, a military tribunal, or rather scaffold, was erected, + from whence the emperors were accustomed, on solemn and important + occasions, to harangue the troops. The well-ordered ranks of Romans and + Barbarians, with drawn swords, or with erected spears, the squadrons of + cavalry, and the cohorts of infantry, distinguished by the variety of + their arms and ensigns, formed an immense circle round the tribunal; and + the attentive silence which they preserved was sometimes interrupted by + loud bursts of clamor or of applause. In the presence of this formidable + assembly, the two emperors were called upon to explain the situation of + public affairs: the precedency of rank was yielded to the royal birth of + Constantius; and though he was indifferently skilled in the arts of + rhetoric, he acquitted himself, under these difficult circumstances, with + firmness, dexterity, and eloquence. The first part of his oration seemed + to be pointed only against the tyrant of Gaul; but while he tragically + lamented the cruel murder of Constans, he insinuated, that none, except a + brother, could claim a right to the succession of his brother. He + displayed, with some complacency, the glories of his Imperial race; and + recalled to the memory of the troops the valor, the triumphs, the + liberality of the great Constantine, to whose sons they had engaged their + allegiance by an oath of fidelity, which the ingratitude of his most + favored servants had tempted them to violate. The officers, who surrounded + the tribunal, and were instructed to act their part in this extraordinary + scene, confessed the irresistible power of reason and eloquence, by + saluting the emperor Constantius as their lawful sovereign. The contagion + of loyalty and repentance was communicated from rank to rank; till the + plain of Sardica resounded with the universal acclamation of “Away with + these upstart usurpers! Long life and victory to the son of Constantine! + Under his banners alone we will fight and conquer.” The shout of + thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce clashing of their arms, + astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, who stood, amidst the + defection of his followers, in anxious and silent suspense. Instead of + embracing the last refuge of generous despair, he tamely submitted to his + fate; and taking the diadem from his head, in the view of both armies fell + prostrate at the feet of his conqueror. Constantius used his victory with + prudence and moderation; and raising from the ground the aged suppliant, + whom he affected to style by the endearing name of Father, he gave him his + hand to descend from the throne. The city of Prusa was assigned for the + exile or retirement of the abdicated monarch, who lived six years in the + enjoyment of ease and affluence. He often expressed his grateful sense of + the goodness of Constantius, and, with a very amiable simplicity, advised + his benefactor to resign the sceptre of the world, and to seek for content + (where alone it could be found) in the peaceful obscurity of a private + condition. <a href="#linknote-18.78" name="linknoteref-18.78" + id="linknoteref-18.78">78</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.76" id="linknote-18.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Zonaras, tom. ii. l. + xiii. p. 16. The position of Sardica, near the modern city of Sophia, + appears better suited to this interview than the situation of either + Naissus or Sirmium, where it is placed by Jerom, Socrates, and Sozomen.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.77" id="linknote-18.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.77">return</a>)<br /> [ See the two first + orations of Julian, particularly p. 31; and Zosimus, l. ii. p. 122. The + distinct narrative of the historian serves to illustrate the diffuse but + vague descriptions of the orator.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.78" id="linknote-18.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.78">return</a>)<br /> [ The younger Victor + assigns to his exile the emphatical appellation of “Voluptarium otium.” + Socrates (l. ii. c. 28) is the voucher for the correspondence with the + emperor, which would seem to prove that Vetranio was indeed, prope ad + stultitiam simplicissimus.] + </p> + <p> + The behavior of Constantius on this memorable occasion was celebrated with + some appearance of justice; and his courtiers compared the studied + orations which a Pericles or a Demosthenes addressed to the populace of + Athens, with the victorious eloquence which had persuaded an armed + multitude to desert and depose the object of their partial choice. <a + href="#linknote-18.79" name="linknoteref-18.79" id="linknoteref-18.79">79</a> + The approaching contest with Magnentius was of a more serious and bloody + kind. The tyrant advanced by rapid marches to encounter Constantius, at + the head of a numerous army, composed of Gauls and Spaniards, of Franks + and Saxons; of those provincials who supplied the strength of the legions, + and of those barbarians who were dreaded as the most formidable enemies of + the republic. The fertile plains <a href="#linknote-18.80" + name="linknoteref-18.80" id="linknoteref-18.80">80</a> of the Lower + Pannonia, between the Drave, the Save, and the Danube, presented a + spacious theatre; and the operations of the civil war were protracted + during the summer months by the skill or timidity of the combatants. <a + href="#linknote-18.81" name="linknoteref-18.81" id="linknoteref-18.81">81</a> + Constantius had declared his intention of deciding the quarrel in the + fields of Cibalis, a name that would animate his troops by the remembrance + of the victory, which, on the same auspicious ground, had been obtained by + the arms of his father Constantine. Yet by the impregnable fortifications + with which the emperor encompassed his camp, he appeared to decline, + rather than to invite, a general engagement. + </p> + <p> + It was the object of Magnentius to tempt or to compel his adversary to + relinquish this advantageous position; and he employed, with that view, + the various marches, evolutions, and stratagems, which the knowledge of + the art of war could suggest to an experienced officer. He carried by + assault the important town of Siscia; made an attack on the city of + Sirmium, which lay in the rear of the Imperial camp, attempted to force a + passage over the Save into the eastern provinces of Illyricum; and cut in + pieces a numerous detachment, which he had allured into the narrow passes + of Adarne. During the greater part of the summer, the tyrant of Gaul + showed himself master of the field. The troops of Constantius were + harassed and dispirited; his reputation declined in the eye of the world; + and his pride condescended to solicit a treaty of peace, which would have + resigned to the assassin of Constans the sovereignty of the provinces + beyond the Alps. These offers were enforced by the eloquence of Philip the + Imperial ambassador; and the council as well as the army of Magnentius + were disposed to accept them. But the haughty usurper, careless of the + remonstrances of his friends, gave orders that Philip should be detained + as a captive, or, at least, as a hostage; while he despatched an officer + to reproach Constantius with the weakness of his reign, and to insult him + by the promise of a pardon if he would instantly abdicate the purple. + “That he should confide in the justice of his cause, and the protection of + an avenging Deity,” was the only answer which honor permitted the emperor + to return. But he was so sensible of the difficulties of his situation, + that he no longer dared to retaliate the indignity which had been offered + to his representative. The negotiation of Philip was not, however, + ineffectual, since he determined Sylvanus the Frank, a general of merit + and reputation, to desert with a considerable body of cavalry, a few days + before the battle of Mursa. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.79" id="linknote-18.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Eum Constantius..... + facundiæ vi dejectum Imperio in pri vatum otium removit. Quæ gloria post + natum Imperium soli proces sit eloquio clementiâque, &c. Aurelius + Victor, Julian, and Themistius (Orat. iii. and iv.) adorn this exploit + with all the artificial and gaudy coloring of their rhetoric.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.80" id="linknote-18.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.80">return</a>)<br /> [ Busbequius (p. 112) + traversed the Lower Hungary and Sclavonia at a time when they were reduced + almost to a desert, by the reciprocal hostilities of the Turks and + Christians. Yet he mentions with admiration the unconquerable fertility of + the soil; and observes that the height of the grass was sufficient to + conceal a loaded wagon from his sight. See likewise Browne’s Travels, in + Harris’s Collection, vol ii. p. 762 &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.81" id="linknote-18.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus gives a very + large account of the war, and the negotiation, (l. ii. p. 123-130.) But as + he neither shows himself a soldier nor a politician, his narrative must be + weighed with attention, and received with caution.] + </p> + <p> + The city of Mursa, or Essek, celebrated in modern times for a bridge of + boats, five miles in length, over the River Drave, and the adjacent + morasses, <a href="#linknote-18.82" name="linknoteref-18.82" + id="linknoteref-18.82">82</a> has been always considered as a place of + importance in the wars of Hungary. Magnentius, directing his march towards + Mursa, set fire to the gates, and, by a sudden assault, had almost scaled + the walls of the town. The vigilance of the garrison extinguished the + flames; the approach of Constantius left him no time to continue the + operations of the siege; and the emperor soon removed the only obstacle + that could embarrass his motions, by forcing a body of troops which had + taken post in an adjoining amphitheatre. The field of battle round Mursa + was a naked and level plain: on this ground the army of Constantius + formed, with the Drave on their right; while their left, either from the + nature of their disposition, or from the superiority of their cavalry, + extended far beyond the right flank of Magnentius. <a href="#linknote-18.83" + name="linknoteref-18.83" id="linknoteref-18.83">83</a> The troops on both + sides remained under arms, in anxious expectation, during the greatest + part of the morning; and the son of Constantine, after animating his + soldiers by an eloquent speech, retired into a church at some distance + from the field of battle, and committed to his generals the conduct of + this decisive day. <a href="#linknote-18.84" name="linknoteref-18.84" + id="linknoteref-18.84">84</a> They deserved his confidence by the valor and + military skill which they exerted. They wisely began the action upon the + left; and advancing their whole wing of cavalry in an oblique line, they + suddenly wheeled it on the right flank of the enemy, which was unprepared + to resist the impetuosity of their charge. But the Romans of the West soon + rallied, by the habits of discipline; and the Barbarians of Germany + supported the renown of their national bravery. The engagement soon became + general; was maintained with various and singular turns of fortune; and + scarcely ended with the darkness of the night. The signal victory which + Constantius obtained is attributed to the arms of his cavalry. His + cuirassiers are described as so many massy statues of steel, glittering + with their scaly armor, and breaking with their ponderous lances the firm + array of the Gallic legions. As soon as the legions gave way, the lighter + and more active squadrons of the second line rode sword in hand into the + intervals, and completed the disorder. In the mean while, the huge bodies + of the Germans were exposed almost naked to the dexterity of the Oriental + archers; and whole troops of those Barbarians were urged by anguish and + despair to precipitate themselves into the broad and rapid stream of the + Drave. <a href="#linknote-18.85" name="linknoteref-18.85" + id="linknoteref-18.85">85</a> The number of the slain was computed at + fifty-four thousand men, and the slaughter of the conquerors was more + considerable than that of the vanquished; <a href="#linknote-18.86" + name="linknoteref-18.86" id="linknoteref-18.86">86</a> a circumstance which + proves the obstinacy of the contest, and justifies the observation of an + ancient writer, that the forces of the empire were consumed in the fatal + battle of Mursa, by the loss of a veteran army, sufficient to defend the + frontiers, or to add new triumphs to the glory of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-18.87" name="linknoteref-18.87" id="linknoteref-18.87">87</a> + Notwithstanding the invectives of a servile orator, there is not the least + reason to believe that the tyrant deserted his own standard in the + beginning of the engagement. He seems to have displayed the virtues of a + general and of a soldier till the day was irrecoverably lost, and his camp + in the possession of the enemy. Magnentius then consulted his safety, and + throwing away the Imperial ornaments, escaped with some difficulty from + the pursuit of the light horse, who incessantly followed his rapid flight + from the banks of the Drave to the foot of the Julian Alps. <a + href="#linknote-18.88" name="linknoteref-18.88" id="linknoteref-18.88">88</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.82" id="linknote-18.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.82">return</a>)<br /> [ This remarkable bridge, + which is flanked with towers, and supported on large wooden piles, was + constructed A. D. 1566, by Sultan Soliman, to facilitate the march of his + armies into Hungary.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.83" id="linknote-18.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.83">return</a>)<br /> [ This position, and the + subsequent evolutions, are clearly, though concisely, described by Julian, + Orat. i. p. 36.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.84" id="linknote-18.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Sulpicius Severus, l. + ii. p. 405. The emperor passed the day in prayer with Valens, the Arian + bishop of Mursa, who gained his confidence by announcing the success of + the battle. M. de Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 1110) very + properly remarks the silence of Julian with regard to the personal prowess + of Constantius in the battle of Mursa. The silence of flattery is + sometimes equal to the most positive and authentic evidence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.85" id="linknote-18.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 36, + 37; and Orat. ii. p. 59, 60. Zonaras, tom ii. l. xiii. p. 17. Zosimus, l. + ii. p. 130-133. The last of these celebrates the dexterity of the archer + Menelaus, who could discharge three arrows at the same time; an advantage + which, according to his apprehension of military affairs, materially + contributed to the victory of Constantius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.86" id="linknote-18.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.86">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Zonaras, + Constantius, out of 80,000 men, lost 30,000; and Magnentius lost 24,000 + out of 36,000. The other articles of this account seem probable and + authentic, but the numbers of the tyrant’s army must have been mistaken, + either by the author or his transcribers. Magnentius had collected the + whole force of the West, Romans and Barbarians, into one formidable body, + which cannot fairly be estimated at less than 100,000 men. Julian. Orat. + i. p. 34, 35.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.87" id="linknote-18.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.87">return</a>)<br /> [ Ingentes R. I. vires eâ + dimicatione consumptæ sunt, ad quælibet bella externa idoneæ, quæ + multum triumphorum possent securitatisque conferre. Eutropius, x. 13. The + younger Victor expresses himself to the same effect.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.88" id="linknote-18.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.88">return</a>)<br /> [ On this occasion, we + must prefer the unsuspected testimony of Zosimus and Zonaras to the + flattering assertions of Julian. The younger Victor paints the character + of Magnentius in a singular light: “Sermonis acer, animi tumidi, et + immodice timidus; artifex tamen ad occultandam audaciæ specie + formidinem.” Is it most likely that in the battle of Mursa his behavior + was governed by nature or by art should incline for the latter.] + </p> + <p> + The approach of winter supplied the indolence of Constantius with specious + reasons for deferring the prosecution of the war till the ensuing spring. + Magnentius had fixed his residence in the city of Aquileia, and showed a + seeming resolution to dispute the passage of the mountains and morasses + which fortified the confines of the Venetian province. The surprisal of a + castle in the Alps by the secret march of the Imperialists, could scarcely + have determined him to relinquish the possession of Italy, if the + inclinations of the people had supported the cause of their tyrant. <a + href="#linknote-18.89" name="linknoteref-18.89" id="linknoteref-18.89">89</a> + But the memory of the cruelties exercised by his ministers, after the + unsuccessful revolt of Nepotian, had left a deep impression of horror and + resentment on the minds of the Romans. That rash youth, the son of the + princess Eutropia, and the nephew of Constantine, had seen with + indignation the sceptre of the West usurped by a perfidious barbarian. + Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered the + feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage of + the senate, and assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned + during a tumult of twenty-eight days. The march of some regular forces put + an end to his ambitious hopes: the rebellion was extinguished in the blood + of Nepotian, of his mother Eutropia, and of his adherents; and the + proscription was extended to all who had contracted a fatal alliance with + the name and family of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-18.90" + name="linknoteref-18.90" id="linknoteref-18.90">90</a> But as soon as + Constantius, after the battle of Mursa, became master of the sea-coast of + Dalmatia, a band of noble exiles, who had ventured to equip a fleet in + some harbor of the Adriatic, sought protection and revenge in his + victorious camp. By their secret intelligence with their countrymen, Rome + and the Italian cities were persuaded to display the banners of + Constantius on their walls. The grateful veterans, enriched by the + liberality of the father, signalized their gratitude and loyalty to the + son. The cavalry, the legions, and the auxiliaries of Italy, renewed their + oath of allegiance to Constantius; and the usurper, alarmed by the general + desertion, was compelled, with the remains of his faithful troops, to + retire beyond the Alps into the provinces of Gaul. The detachments, + however, which were ordered either to press or to intercept the flight of + Magnentius, conducted themselves with the usual imprudence of success; and + allowed him, in the plains of Pavia, an opportunity of turning on his + pursuers, and of gratifying his despair by the carnage of a useless + victory. <a href="#linknote-18.91" name="linknoteref-18.91" + id="linknoteref-18.91">91</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.89" id="linknote-18.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.89">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 38, + 39. In that place, however, as well as in Oration ii. p. 97, he insinuates + the general disposition of the senate, the people, and the soldiers of + Italy, towards the party of the emperor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.90" id="linknote-18.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.90">return</a>)<br /> [ The elder Victor + describes, in a pathetic manner, the miserable condition of Rome: “Cujus + stolidum ingenium adeo P. R. patribusque exitio fuit, uti passim domus, + fora, viæ, templaque, cruore, cadaveri busque opplerentur bustorum modo.” + Athanasius (tom. i. p. 677) deplores the fate of several illustrious + victims, and Julian (Orat. ii p 58) execrates the cruelty of Marcellinus, + the implacable enemy of the house of Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.91" id="linknote-18.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 133. + Victor in Epitome. The panegyrists of Constantius, with their usual + candor, forget to mention this accidental defeat.] + </p> + <p> + The pride of Magnentius was reduced, by repeated misfortunes, to sue, and + to sue in vain, for peace. He first despatched a senator, in whose + abilities he confided, and afterwards several bishops, whose holy + character might obtain a more favorable audience, with the offer of + resigning the purple, and the promise of devoting the remainder of his + life to the service of the emperor. But Constantius, though he granted + fair terms of pardon and reconciliation to all who abandoned the standard + of rebellion, <a href="#linknote-18.92" name="linknoteref-18.92" + id="linknoteref-18.92">92</a> avowed his inflexible resolution to inflict a + just punishment on the crimes of an assassin, whom he prepared to + overwhelm on every side by the effort of his victorious arms. An Imperial + fleet acquired the easy possession of Africa and Spain, confirmed the + wavering faith of the Moorish nations, and landed a considerable force, + which passed the Pyrenees, and advanced towards Lyons, the last and fatal + station of Magnentius. <a href="#linknote-18.93" name="linknoteref-18.93" + id="linknoteref-18.93">93</a> The temper of the tyrant, which was never + inclined to clemency, was urged by distress to exercise every act of + oppression which could extort an immediate supply from the cities of Gaul. + <a href="#linknote-18.94" name="linknoteref-18.94" id="linknoteref-18.94">94</a> + Their patience was at length exhausted; and Treves, the seat of Prætorian + government, gave the signal of revolt, by shutting her gates against + Decentius, who had been raised by his brother to the rank either of Cæsar + or of Augustus. <a href="#linknote-18.95" name="linknoteref-18.95" + id="linknoteref-18.95">95</a> From Treves, Decentius was obliged to retire + to Sens, where he was soon surrounded by an army of Germans, whom the + pernicious arts of Constantius had introduced into the civil dissensions + of Rome. <a href="#linknote-18.96" name="linknoteref-18.96" + id="linknoteref-18.96">96</a> In the mean time, the Imperial troops forced + the passages of the Cottian Alps, and in the bloody combat of Mount + Seleucus irrevocably fixed the title of rebels on the party of Magnentius. + <a href="#linknote-18.97" name="linknoteref-18.97" id="linknoteref-18.97">97</a> + He was unable to bring another army into the field; the fidelity of his + guards was corrupted; and when he appeared in public to animate them by + his exhortations, he was saluted with a unanimous shout of “Long live the + emperor Constantius!” The tyrant, who perceived that they were preparing + to deserve pardon and rewards by the sacrifice of the most obnoxious + criminal, prevented their design by falling on his sword; <a + href="#linknote-18.98" name="linknoteref-18.98" id="linknoteref-18.98">98</a> + a death more easy and more honorable than he could hope to obtain from the + hands of an enemy, whose revenge would have been colored with the specious + pretence of justice and fraternal piety. The example of suicide was + imitated by Decentius, who strangled himself on the news of his brother’s + death. The author of the conspiracy, Marcellinus, had long since + disappeared in the battle of Mursa, <a href="#linknote-18.99" + name="linknoteref-18.99" id="linknoteref-18.99">99</a> and the public + tranquillity was confirmed by the execution of the surviving leaders of a + guilty and unsuccessful faction. A severe inquisition was extended over + all who, either from choice or from compulsion, had been involved in the + cause of rebellion. Paul, surnamed Catena from his superior skill in the + judicial exercise of tyranny, <a href="#linknote-18.9911" + name="linknoteref-18.9911" id="linknoteref-18.9911">9911</a> was sent to + explore the latent remains of the conspiracy in the remote province of + Britain. The honest indignation expressed by Martin, vice-præfect of the + island, was interpreted as an evidence of his own guilt; and the governor + was urged to the necessity of turning against his breast the sword with + which he had been provoked to wound the Imperial minister. The most + innocent subjects of the West were exposed to exile and confiscation, to + death and torture; and as the timid are always cruel, the mind of + Constantius was inaccessible to mercy. <a href="#linknote-18.100" + name="linknoteref-18.100" id="linknoteref-18.100">100</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.92" id="linknote-18.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Zonaras, tom. ii. l. + xiii. p. 17. Julian, in several places of the two orations, expatiates on + the clemency of Constantius to the rebels.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.93" id="linknote-18.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.93">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 133. + Julian. Orat. i. p. 40, ii. p. 74.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.94" id="linknote-18.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xv. 6. Zosim. + l. ii. p. 123. Julian, who (Orat. i. p. 40) unveighs against the cruel + effects of the tyrant’s despair, mentions (Orat. i. p. 34) the oppressive + edicts which were dictated by his necessities, or by his avarice. His + subjects were compelled to purchase the Imperial demesnes; a doubtful and + dangerous species of property, which, in case of a revolution, might be + imputed to them as a treasonable usurpation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.95" id="linknote-18.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.95">return</a>)<br /> [ The medals of + Magnentius celebrate the victories of the <i>two</i> Augusti, and of the Cæsar. + The Cæsar was another brother, named Desiderius. See Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 757.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.96" id="linknote-18.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.96">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 40, + ii. p. 74; with Spanheim, p. 263. His Commentary illustrates the + transactions of this civil war. Mons Seleuci was a small place in the + Cottian Alps, a few miles distant from Vapincum, or Gap, an episcopal city + of Dauphine. See D’Anville, Notice de la Gaule, p. 464; and Longuerue, + Description de la France, p. 327.—— The Itinerary of Antoninus + (p. 357, ed. Wess.) places Mons Seleucu twenty-four miles from Vapinicum, + (Gap,) and twenty-six from Lucus. (le Luc,) on the road to Die, (Dea + Vocontiorum.) The situation answers to Mont Saleon, a little place on the + right of the small river Buech, which falls into the Durance. Roman + antiquities have been found in this place. St. Martin. Note to Le Beau, + ii. 47.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.97" id="linknote-18.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.97">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 134. + Liban. Orat. x. p. 268, 269. The latter most vehemently arraigns this + cruel and selfish policy of Constantius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.98" id="linknote-18.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.98">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 40. + Zosimus, l. ii. p. 134. Socrates, l. ii. c. 32. Sozomen, l. iv. c. 7. The + younger Victor describes his death with some horrid circumstances: + Transfosso latere, ut erat vasti corporis, vulnere naribusque et ore + cruorem effundens, exspiravit. If we can give credit to Zonaras, the + tyrant, before he expired, had the pleasure of murdering, with his own + hand, his mother and his brother Desiderius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.99" id="linknote-18.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.99">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (Orat. i. p. 58, + 59) seems at a loss to determine, whether he inflicted on himself the + punishment of his crimes, whether he was drowned in the Drave, or whether + he was carried by the avenging dæmons from the field of battle to his + destined place of eternal tortures.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.9911" id="linknote-18.9911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9911 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.9911">return</a>)<br /> [ This is scarcely + correct, ut erat in complicandis negotiis artifex dirum made ei Catenæ + inditum est cognomentum. Amm. Mar. loc. cit.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-18.100" id="linknote-18.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-18.100">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xiv. 5, xxi. + 16.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap19.1"></a> + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Constantius Sole Emperor.—Elevation And Death Of Gallus.— + Danger And Elevation Of Julian.—Sarmatian And Persian + Wars.—Victories Of Julian In Gaul. +</pre> + <p> + The divided provinces of the empire were again united by the victory of + Constantius; but as that feeble prince was destitute of personal merit, + either in peace or war; as he feared his generals, and distrusted his + ministers; the triumph of his arms served only to establish the reign of + the <i>eunuchs</i> over the Roman world. Those unhappy beings, the ancient + production of Oriental jealousy and despotism, <a href="#linknote-19.1" + name="linknoteref-19.1" id="linknoteref-19.1">1</a> were introduced into + Greece and Rome by the contagion of Asiatic luxury. <a href="#linknote-19.2" + name="linknoteref-19.2" id="linknoteref-19.2">2</a> Their progress was + rapid; and the eunuchs, who, in the time of Augustus, had been abhorred, + as the monstrous retinue of an Egyptian queen, <a href="#linknote-19.3" + name="linknoteref-19.3" id="linknoteref-19.3">3</a> were gradually admitted + into the families of matrons, of senators, and of the emperors themselves. + <a href="#linknote-19.4" name="linknoteref-19.4" id="linknoteref-19.4">4</a> + Restrained by the severe edicts of Domitian and Nerva, cherished by the + pride of Diocletian, reduced to an humble station by the prudence of + Constantine, <a href="#linknote-19.6" name="linknoteref-19.6" + id="linknoteref-19.6">6</a> they multiplied in the palaces of his + degenerate sons, and insensibly acquired the knowledge, and at length the + direction, of the secret councils of Constantius. The aversion and + contempt which mankind had so uniformly entertained for that imperfect + species, appears to have degraded their character, and to have rendered + them almost as incapable as they were supposed to be, of conceiving any + generous sentiment, or of performing any worthy action. <a + href="#linknote-19.7" name="linknoteref-19.7" id="linknoteref-19.7">7</a> But + the eunuchs were skilled in the arts of flattery and intrigue; and they + alternately governed the mind of Constantius by his fears, his indolence, + and his vanity. <a href="#linknote-19.8" name="linknoteref-19.8" + id="linknoteref-19.8">8</a> Whilst he viewed in a deceitful mirror the fair + appearance of public prosperity, he supinely permitted them to intercept + the complaints of the injured provinces, to accumulate immense treasures + by the sale of justice and of honors; to disgrace the most important + dignities, by the promotion of those who had purchased at their hands the + powers of oppression, <a href="#linknote-19.9" name="linknoteref-19.9" + id="linknoteref-19.9">9</a> and to gratify their resentment against the few + independent spirits, who arrogantly refused to solicit the protection of + slaves. Of these slaves the most distinguished was the chamberlain + Eusebius, who ruled the monarch and the palace with such absolute sway, + that Constantius, according to the sarcasm of an impartial historian, + possessed some credit with this haughty favorite. <a href="#linknote-19.10" + name="linknoteref-19.10" id="linknoteref-19.10">10</a> By his artful + suggestions, the emperor was persuaded to subscribe the condemnation of + the unfortunate Gallus, and to add a new crime to the long list of + unnatural murders which pollute the honor of the house of Constantine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.1" id="linknote-19.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.1">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (l. xiv. c. 6) + imputes the first practice of castration to the cruel ingenuity of + Semiramis, who is supposed to have reigned above nineteen hundred years + before Christ. The use of eunuchs is of high antiquity, both in Asia and + Egypt. They are mentioned in the law of Moses, Deuteron. xxxiii. 1. See + Goguet, Origines des Loix, &c., Part i. l. i. c. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.2" id="linknote-19.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.2">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunuchum dixti velle te; + Quia solæ utuntur his reginæ—Terent. Eunuch. act i. scene 2. This + play is translated from Meander, and the original must have appeared soon + after the eastern conquests of Alexander.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.3" id="linknote-19.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Miles.... spadonibus + Servire rugosis potest. Horat. Carm. v. 9, and Dacier ad loe. By the word + <i>spado</i>, the Romans very forcibly expressed their abhorrence of this + mutilated condition. The Greek appellation of eunuchs, which insensibly + prevailed, had a milder sound, and a more ambiguous sense.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.4" id="linknote-19.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.4">return</a>)<br /> [ We need only mention + Posides, a freedman and eunuch of Claudius, in whose favor the emperor + prostituted some of the most honorable rewards of military valor. See + Sueton. in Claudio, c. 28. Posides employed a great part of his wealth in + building. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Ut <i>Spado</i> vincebat Capitolia Nostra + Posides. + Juvenal. Sat. xiv.] +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + Castrari mares vetuit. Sueton. in Domitian. c. 7. See Dion Cassius, l. + lxvii. p. 1107, l. lxviii. p. 1119.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.6" id="linknote-19.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.6">return</a>)<br /> [ There is a passage in the + Augustan History, p. 137, in which Lampridius, whilst he praises Alexander + Severus and Constantine for restraining the tyranny of the eunuchs, + deplores the mischiefs which they occasioned in other reigns. Huc accedit + quod eunuchos nec in consiliis nec in ministeriis habuit; qui soli + principes perdunt, dum eos more gentium aut regum Persarum volunt vivere; + qui a populo etiam amicissimum semovent; qui internuntii sunt, aliud quam + respondetur, referentes; claudentes principem suum, et agentes ante omnia + ne quid sciat.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.7" id="linknote-19.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.7">return</a>)<br /> [ Xenophon (Cyropædia, l. + viii. p. 540) has stated the specious reasons which engaged Cyrus to + intrust his person to the guard of eunuchs. He had observed in animals, + that although the practice of castration might tame their ungovernable + fierceness, it did not diminish their strength or spirit; and he persuaded + himself, that those who were separated from the rest of human kind, would + be more firmly attached to the person of their benefactor. But a long + experience has contradicted the judgment of Cyrus. Some particular + instances may occur of eunuchs distinguished by their fidelity, their + valor, and their abilities; but if we examine the general history of + Persia, India, and China, we shall find that the power of the eunuchs has + uniformly marked the decline and fall of every dynasty.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.8" id="linknote-19.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.8">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammianus Marcellinus, + l. xxi. c. 16, l. xxii. c. 4. The whole tenor of his impartial history + serves to justify the invectives of Mamertinus, of Libanius, and of Julian + himself, who have insulted the vices of the court of Constantius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.9" id="linknote-19.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Aurelius Victor censures + the negligence of his sovereign in choosing the governors of the + provinces, and the generals of the army, and concludes his history with a + very bold observation, as it is much more dangerous under a feeble reign + to attack the ministers than the master himself. “Uti verum absolvam + brevi, ut Imperatore ipso clarius ita apparitorum plerisque magis atrox + nihil.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.10" id="linknote-19.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.10">return</a>)<br /> [ Apud quem (si vere dici + debeat) multum Constantius potuit. Ammian. l. xviii. c. 4.] + </p> + <p> + When the two nephews of Constantine, Gallus and Julian, were saved from + the fury of the soldiers, the former was about twelve, and the latter + about six, years of age; and, as the eldest was thought to be of a sickly + constitution, they obtained with the less difficulty a precarious and + dependent life, from the affected pity of Constantius, who was sensible + that the execution of these helpless orphans would have been esteemed, by + all mankind, an act of the most deliberate cruelty. <a + href="#linknote-19.11" name="linknoteref-19.11" id="linknoteref-19.11">11</a> + Different cities of Ionia and Bithynia were assigned for the places of + their exile and education; but as soon as their growing years excited the + jealousy of the emperor, he judged it more prudent to secure those unhappy + youths in the strong castle of Macellum, near Cæsarea. The treatment + which they experienced during a six years’ confinement, was partly such as + they could hope from a careful guardian, and partly such as they might + dread from a suspicious tyrant. <a href="#linknote-19.12" + name="linknoteref-19.12" id="linknoteref-19.12">12</a> Their prison was an + ancient palace, the residence of the kings of Cappadocia; the situation + was pleasant, the buildings stately, the enclosure spacious. They + pursued their studies, and practised their exercises, under the tuition of + the most skilful masters; and the numerous household appointed to attend, + or rather to guard, the nephews of Constantine, was not unworthy of the + dignity of their birth. But they could not disguise to themselves that + they were deprived of fortune, of freedom, and of safety; secluded from + the society of all whom they could trust or esteem, and condemned to pass + their melancholy hours in the company of slaves devoted to the commands of + a tyrant who had already injured them beyond the hope of reconciliation. + At length, however, the emergencies of the state compelled the emperor, or + rather his eunuchs, to invest Gallus, in the twenty-fifth year of his age, + with the title of Cæsar, and to cement this political connection by his + marriage with the princess Constantina. After a formal interview, in which + the two princes mutually engaged their faith never to undertake any thing + to the prejudice of each other, they repaired without delay to their + respective stations. Constantius continued his march towards the West, and + Gallus fixed his residence at Antioch; from whence, with a delegated + authority, he administered the five great dioceses of the eastern + præfecture. <a href="#linknote-19.13" name="linknoteref-19.13" + id="linknoteref-19.13">13</a> In this fortunate change, the new Cæsar was + not unmindful of his brother Julian, who obtained the honors of his rank, + the appearances of liberty, and the restitution of an ample patrimony. <a + href="#linknote-19.14" name="linknoteref-19.14" id="linknoteref-19.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.11" id="linknote-19.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory Nazianzen + (Orat. iii. p. 90) reproaches the apostate with his ingratitude towards + Mark, bishop of Arethusa, who had contributed to save his life; and we + learn, though from a less respectable authority, (Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 916,) that Julian was concealed in the sanctuary of + a church. * Note: Gallus and Julian were not sons of the same mother. + Their father, Julius Constantius, had had Gallus by his first wife, named + Galla: Julian was the son of Basilina, whom he had espoused in a second + marriage. Tillemont. Hist. des Emp. Vie de Constantin. art. 3.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.12" id="linknote-19.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.12">return</a>)<br /> [ The most authentic + account of the education and adventures of Julian is contained in the + epistle or manifesto which he himself addressed to the senate and people + of Athens. Libanius, (Orat. Parentalis,) on the side of the Pagans, and + Socrates, (l. iii. c. 1,) on that of the Christians, have preserved + several interesting circumstances.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.13" id="linknote-19.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.13">return</a>)<br /> [ For the promotion of + Gallus, see Idatius, Zosimus, and the two Victors. According to + Philostorgius, (l. iv. c. 1,) Theophilus, an Arian bishop, was the + witness, and, as it were, the guarantee of this solemn engagement. He + supported that character with generous firmness; but M. de Tillemont + (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 1120) thinks it very improbable that a + heretic should have possessed such virtue.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.14" id="linknote-19.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian was at first + permitted to pursue his studies at Constantinople, but the reputation + which he acquired soon excited the jealousy of Constantius; and the young + prince was advised to withdraw himself to the less conspicuous scenes of + Bithynia and Ionia.] + </p> + <p> + The writers the most indulgent to the memory of Gallus, and even Julian + himself, though he wished to cast a veil over the frailties of his + brother, are obliged to confess that the Cæsar was incapable of reigning. + Transported from a prison to a throne, he possessed neither genius nor + application, nor docility to compensate for the want of knowledge and + experience. A temper naturally morose and violent, instead of being + corrected, was soured by solitude and adversity; the remembrance of what + he had endured disposed him to retaliation rather than to sympathy; and + the ungoverned sallies of his rage were often fatal to those who + approached his person, or were subject to his power. <a + href="#linknote-19.15" name="linknoteref-19.15" id="linknoteref-19.15">15</a> + Constantina, his wife, is described, not as a woman, but as one of the + infernal furies tormented with an insatiate thirst of human blood. <a + href="#linknote-19.16" name="linknoteref-19.16" id="linknoteref-19.16">16</a> + Instead of employing her influence to insinuate the mild counsels of + prudence and humanity, she exasperated the fierce passions of her husband; + and as she retained the vanity, though she had renounced, the gentleness + of her sex, a pearl necklace was esteemed an equivalent price for the + murder of an innocent and virtuous nobleman. <a href="#linknote-19.17" + name="linknoteref-19.17" id="linknoteref-19.17">17</a> The cruelty of Gallus + was sometimes displayed in the undissembled violence of popular or + military executions; and was sometimes disguised by the abuse of law, and + the forms of judicial proceedings. The private houses of Antioch, and the + places of public resort, were besieged by spies and informers; and the + Cæsar himself, concealed in a a plebeian habit, very frequently + condescended to assume that odious character. Every apartment of the + palace was adorned with the instruments of death and torture, and a + general consternation was diffused through the capital of Syria. The + prince of the East, as if he had been conscious how much he had to fear, + and how little he deserved to reign, selected for the objects of his + resentment the provincials accused of some imaginary treason, and his own + courtiers, whom with more reason he suspected of incensing, by their + secret correspondence, the timid and suspicious mind of Constantius. But + he forgot that he was depriving himself of his only support, the affection + of the people; whilst he furnished the malice of his enemies with the arms + of truth, and afforded the emperor the fairest pretence of exacting the + forfeit of his purple, and of his life. <a href="#linknote-19.18" + name="linknoteref-19.18" id="linknoteref-19.18">18</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.15" id="linknote-19.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.15">return</a>)<br /> [ See Julian. ad S. P. Q. + A. p. 271. Jerom. in Chron. Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, x. 14. I shall + copy the words of Eutropius, who wrote his abridgment about fifteen years + after the death of Gallus, when there was no longer any motive either to + flatter or to depreciate his character. “Multis incivilibus gestis Gallus + Cæsar.... vir natura ferox et ad tyrannidem pronior, si suo jure imperare + licuisset.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.16" id="linknote-19.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Megæra quidem + mortalis, inflammatrix sævientis assidua, humani cruoris avida, &c. + Ammian. Marcellin. l. xiv. c. 1. The sincerity of Ammianus would not + suffer him to misrepresent facts or characters, but his love of <i>ambitious</i> + ornaments frequently betrayed him into an unnatural vehemence of + expression.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.17" id="linknote-19.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.17">return</a>)<br /> [ His name was Clematius + of Alexandria, and his only crime was a refusal to gratify the desires of + his mother-in-law; who solicited his death, because she had been + disappointed of his love. Ammian. xiv. c. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.18" id="linknote-19.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.18">return</a>)<br /> [ See in Ammianus (l. + xiv. c. 1, 7) a very ample detail of the cruelties of Gallus. His brother + Julian (p. 272) insinuates, that a secret conspiracy had been formed + against him; and Zosimus names (l. ii. p. 135) the persons engaged in it; + a minister of considerable rank, and two obscure agents, who were resolved + to make their fortune.] + </p> + <p> + As long as the civil war suspended the fate of the Roman world, + Constantius dissembled his knowledge of the weak and cruel administration + to which his choice had subjected the East; and the discovery of some + assassins, secretly despatched to Antioch by the tyrant of Gaul, was + employed to convince the public, that the emperor and the Cæsar were + united by the same interest, and pursued by the same enemies. <a + href="#linknote-19.19" name="linknoteref-19.19" id="linknoteref-19.19">19</a> + But when the victory was decided in favor of Constantius, his dependent + colleague became less useful and less formidable. Every circumstance of + his conduct was severely and suspiciously examined, and it was privately + resolved, either to deprive Gallus of the purple, or at least to remove + him from the indolent luxury of Asia to the hardships and dangers of a + German war. The death of Theophilus, consular of the province of Syria, + who in a time of scarcity had been massacred by the people of Antioch, + with the connivance, and almost at the instigation, of Gallus, was justly + resented, not only as an act of wanton cruelty, but as a dangerous insult + on the supreme majesty of Constantius. Two ministers of illustrious rank, + Domitian the Oriental præfect, and Montius, quæstor of the palace, were + empowered by a special commission <a href="#linknote-19.1911" + name="linknoteref-19.1911" id="linknoteref-19.1911">1911</a> to visit and + reform the state of the East. They were instructed to behave towards + Gallus with moderation and respect, and, by the gentlest arts of + persuasion, to engage him to comply with the invitation of his brother and + colleague. The rashness of the præfect disappointed these prudent + measures, and hastened his own ruin, as well as that of his enemy. On his + arrival at Antioch, Domitian passed disdainfully before the gates of the + palace, and alleging a slight pretence of indisposition, continued several + days in sullen retirement, to prepare an inflammatory memorial, which he + transmitted to the Imperial court. Yielding at length to the pressing + solicitations of Gallus, the præfect condescended to take his seat in + council; but his first step was to signify a concise and haughty mandate, + importing that the Cæsar should immediately repair to Italy, and + threatening that he himself would punish his delay or hesitation, by + suspending the usual allowance of his household. The nephew and daughter + of Constantine, who could ill brook the insolence of a subject, expressed + their resentment by instantly delivering Domitian to the custody of a + guard. The quarrel still admitted of some terms of accommodation. They + were rendered impracticable by the imprudent behavior of Montius, a + statesman whose arts and experience were frequently betrayed by the levity + of his disposition. <a href="#linknote-19.20" name="linknoteref-19.20" + id="linknoteref-19.20">20</a> The quæstor reproached Gallus in a haughty + language, that a prince who was scarcely authorized to remove a municipal + magistrate, should presume to imprison a Prætorian præfect; convoked a + meeting of the civil and military officers; and required them, in the name + of their sovereign, to defend the person and dignity of his + representatives. By this rash declaration of war, the impatient temper of + Gallus was provoked to embrace the most desperate counsels. He ordered his + guards to stand to their arms, assembled the populace of Antioch, and + recommended to their zeal the care of his safety and revenge. His commands + were too fatally obeyed. They rudely seized the præfect and the quæstor, + and tying their legs together with ropes, they dragged them through the + streets of the city, inflicted a thousand insults and a thousand wounds on + these unhappy victims, and at last precipitated their mangled and lifeless + bodies into the stream of the Orontes. <a href="#linknote-19.21" + name="linknoteref-19.21" id="linknoteref-19.21">21</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.19" id="linknote-19.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Zonaras, l. xiii. tom. + ii. p. 17, 18. The assassins had seduced a great number of legionaries; + but their designs were discovered and revealed by an old woman in whose + cottage they lodged.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.1911" id="linknote-19.1911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1911 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.1911">return</a>)<br /> [ The commission + seems to have been granted to Domitian alone. Montius interfered to + support his authority. Amm. Marc. loc. cit.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.20" id="linknote-19.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.20">return</a>)<br /> [ In the present text of + Ammianus, we read <i>Asper</i>, quidem, sed ad <i>lenitatem</i> propensior; which forms + a sentence of contradictory nonsense. With the aid of an old manuscript, + Valesius has rectified the first of these corruptions, and we perceive a + ray of light in the substitution of the word <i>vafer</i>. If we venture to + change <i>lenitatem</i> into <i>levitatem</i>, this alteration of a single letter will + render the whole passage clear and consistent.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.21" id="linknote-19.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Instead of being + obliged to collect scattered and imperfect hints from various sources, we + now enter into the full stream of the history of Ammianus, and need only + refer to the seventh and ninth chapters of his fourteenth book. + Philostorgius, however, (l. iii. c. 28) though partial to Gallus, should + not be entirely overlooked.] + </p> + <p> + After such a deed, whatever might have been the designs of Gallus, it was + only in a field of battle that he could assert his innocence with any hope + of success. But the mind of that prince was formed of an equal mixture of + violence and weakness. Instead of assuming the title of Augustus, instead + of employing in his defence the troops and treasures of the East, he + suffered himself to be deceived by the affected tranquillity of + Constantius, who, leaving him the vain pageantry of a court, imperceptibly + recalled the veteran legions from the provinces of Asia. But as it still + appeared dangerous to arrest Gallus in his capital, the slow and safer + arts of dissimulation were practised with success. The frequent and + pressing epistles of Constantius were filled with professions of + confidence and friendship; exhorting the Cæsar to discharge the duties of + his high station, to relieve his colleague from a part of the public + cares, and to assist the West by his presence, his counsels, and his arms. + After so many reciprocal injuries, Gallus had reason to fear and to + distrust. But he had neglected the opportunities of flight and of + resistance; he was seduced by the flattering assurances of the tribune + Scudilo, who, under the semblance of a rough soldier, disguised the most + artful insinuation; and he depended on the credit of his wife Constantina, + till the unseasonable death of that princess completed the ruin in which + he had been involved by her impetuous passions. <a href="#linknote-19.22" + name="linknoteref-19.22" id="linknoteref-19.22">22</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.22" id="linknote-19.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.22">return</a>)<br /> [ She had preceded her + husband, but died of a fever on the road at a little place in Bithynia, + called Coenum Gallicanum.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap19.2"></a> + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + After a long delay, the reluctant Cæsar set forwards on his journey to + the Imperial court. From Antioch to Hadrianople, he traversed the wide + extent of his dominions with a numerous and stately train; and as he + labored to conceal his apprehensions from the world, and perhaps from + himself, he entertained the people of Constantinople with an exhibition of + the games of the circus. The progress of the journey might, however, have + warned him of the impending danger. In all the principal cities he was met + by ministers of confidence, commissioned to seize the offices of + government, to observe his motions, and to prevent the hasty sallies of + his despair. The persons despatched to secure the provinces which he left + behind, passed him with cold salutations, or affected disdain; and the + troops, whose station lay along the public road, were studiously removed + on his approach, lest they might be tempted to offer their swords for the + service of a civil war. <a href="#linknote-19.23" name="linknoteref-19.23" + id="linknoteref-19.23">23</a> After Gallus had been permitted to repose + himself a few days at Hadrianople, he received a mandate, expressed in the + most haughty and absolute style, that his splendid retinue should halt in + that city, while the Cæsar himself, with only ten post-carriages, should + hasten to the Imperial residence at Milan. + </p> + <p> + In this rapid journey, the profound respect which was due to the brother + and colleague of Constantius, was insensibly changed into rude + familiarity; and Gallus, who discovered in the countenances of the + attendants that they already considered themselves as his guards, and + might soon be employed as his executioners, began to accuse his fatal + rashness, and to recollect, with terror and remorse, the conduct by which + he had provoked his fate. The dissimulation which had hitherto been + preserved, was laid aside at Petovio, <a href="#linknote-19.2311" + name="linknoteref-19.2311" id="linknoteref-19.2311">2311</a> in Pannonia. He + was conducted to a palace in the suburbs, where the general Barbatio, with + a select band of soldiers, who could neither be moved by pity, nor + corrupted by rewards, expected the arrival of his illustrious victim. In + the close of the evening he was arrested, ignominiously stripped of the + ensigns of Cæsar, and hurried away to Pola, [23b] in Istria, a + sequestered prison, which had been so recently polluted with royal blood. + The horror which he felt was soon increased by the appearance of his + implacable enemy the eunuch Eusebius, who, with the assistance of a notary + and a tribune, proceeded to interrogate him concerning the administration + of the East. The Cæsar sank under the weight of shame and guilt, + confessed all the criminal actions and all the treasonable designs with + which he was charged; and by imputing them to the advice of his wife, + exasperated the indignation of Constantius, who reviewed with partial + prejudice the minutes of the examination. The emperor was easily + convinced, that his own safety was incompatible with the life of his + cousin: the sentence of death was signed, despatched, and executed; and + the nephew of Constantine, with his hands tied behind his back, was + beheaded in prison like the vilest malefactor. <a href="#linknote-19.24" + name="linknoteref-19.24" id="linknoteref-19.24">24</a> Those who are + inclined to palliate the cruelties of Constantius, assert that he soon + relented, and endeavored to recall the bloody mandate; but that the second + messenger, intrusted with the reprieve, was detained by the eunuchs, who + dreaded the unforgiving temper of Gallus, and were desirous of reuniting + to <i>their</i> empire the wealthy provinces of the East. <a href="#linknote-19.25" + name="linknoteref-19.25" id="linknoteref-19.25">25</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.23" id="linknote-19.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.23">return</a>)<br /> [ The Thebæan legions, + which were then quartered at Hadrianople, sent a deputation to Gallus, + with a tender of their services. Ammian. l. xiv. c. 11. The Notitia (s. 6, + 20, 38, edit. Labb.) mentions three several legions which bore the name of + Thebæan. The zeal of M. de Voltaire to destroy a despicable though + celebrated legion, has tempted him on the slightest grounds to deny the + existence of a Thebæan legion in the Roman armies. See Œuvres de + Voltaire, tom. xv. p. 414, quarto edition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.2311" id="linknote-19.2311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2311 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.2311">return</a>)<br /> [ Pettau in Styria.—M + ---- Rather to Flanonia. now Fianone, near Pola. St. Martin.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.24" id="linknote-19.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.24">return</a>)<br /> [ See the complete + narrative of the journey and death of Gallus in Ammianus, l. xiv. c. 11. + Julian complains that his brother was put to death without a trial; + attempts to justify, or at least to excuse, the cruel revenge which he had + inflicted on his enemies; but seems at last to acknowledge that he might + justly have been deprived of the purple.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.25" id="linknote-19.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Philostorgius, l. iv. + c. 1. Zonaras, l. xiii. tom. ii. p. 19. But the former was partial towards + an Arian monarch, and the latter transcribed, without choice or criticism, + whatever he found in the writings of the ancients.] + </p> + <p> + Besides the reigning emperor, Julian alone survived, of all the numerous + posterity of Constantius Chlorus. The misfortune of his royal birth + involved him in the disgrace of Gallus. From his retirement in the happy + country of Ionia, he was conveyed under a strong guard to the court of + Milan; where he languished above seven months, in the continual + apprehension of suffering the same ignominious death, which was daily + inflicted almost before his eyes, on the friends and adherents of his + persecuted family. His looks, his gestures, his silence, were scrutinized + with malignant curiosity, and he was perpetually assaulted by enemies whom + he had never offended, and by arts to which he was a stranger. <a + href="#linknote-19.26" name="linknoteref-19.26" id="linknoteref-19.26">26</a> + But in the school of adversity, Julian insensibly acquired the virtues of + firmness and discretion. He defended his honor, as well as his life, + against the insnaring subtleties of the eunuchs, who endeavored to extort + some declaration of his sentiments; and whilst he cautiously suppressed + his grief and resentment, he nobly disdained to flatter the tyrant, by any + seeming approbation of his brother’s murder. Julian most devoutly ascribes + his miraculous deliverance to the protection of the gods, who had exempted + his innocence from the sentence of destruction pronounced by their justice + against the impious house of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-19.27" + name="linknoteref-19.27" id="linknoteref-19.27">27</a> As the most effectual + instrument of their providence, he gratefully acknowledges the steady and + generous friendship of the empress Eusebia, <a href="#linknote-19.28" + name="linknoteref-19.28" id="linknoteref-19.28">28</a> a woman of beauty and + merit, who, by the ascendant which she had gained over the mind of her + husband, counterbalanced, in some measure, the powerful conspiracy of the + eunuchs. By the intercession of his patroness, Julian was admitted into + the Imperial presence: he pleaded his cause with a decent freedom, he was + heard with favor; and, notwithstanding the efforts of his enemies, who + urged the danger of sparing an avenger of the blood of Gallus, the milder + sentiment of Eusebia prevailed in the council. But the effects of a second + interview were dreaded by the eunuchs; and Julian was advised to withdraw + for a while into the neighborhood of Milan, till the emperor thought + proper to assign the city of Athens for the place of his honorable exile. + As he had discovered, from his earliest youth, a propensity, or rather + passion, for the language, the manners, the learning, and the religion of + the Greeks, he obeyed with pleasure an order so agreeable to his wishes. + Far from the tumult of arms, and the treachery of courts, he spent six + months under the groves of the academy, in a free intercourse with the + philosophers of the age, who studied to cultivate the genius, to encourage + the vanity, and to inflame the devotion of their royal pupil. Their labors + were not unsuccessful; and Julian inviolably preserved for Athens that + tender regard which seldom fails to arise in a liberal mind, from the + recollection of the place where it has discovered and exercised its + growing powers. The gentleness and affability of manners, which his temper + suggested and his situation imposed, insensibly engaged the affections of + the strangers, as well as citizens, with whom he conversed. Some of his + fellow-students might perhaps examine his behavior with an eye of + prejudice and aversion; but Julian established, in the schools of Athens, + a general prepossession in favor of his virtues and talents, which was + soon diffused over the Roman world. <a href="#linknote-19.29" + name="linknoteref-19.29" id="linknoteref-19.29">29</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.26" id="linknote-19.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.26">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammianus Marcellin. + l. xv. c. 1, 3, 8. Julian himself in his epistle to the Athenians, draws a + very lively and just picture of his own danger, and of his sentiments. He + shows, however, a tendency to exaggerate his sufferings, by insinuating, + though in obscure terms, that they lasted above a year; a period which + cannot be reconciled with the truth of chronology.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.27" id="linknote-19.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.27">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian has worked the + crimes and misfortunes of the family of Constantine into an allegorical + fable, which is happily conceived and agreeably related. It forms the + conclusion of the seventh Oration, from whence it has been detached and + translated by the Abbé de la Bleterie, Vie de Jovien, tom. ii. p. + 385-408.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.28" id="linknote-19.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.28">return</a>)<br /> [ She was a native of + Thessalonica, in Macedonia, of a noble family, and the daughter, as well + as sister, of consuls. Her marriage with the emperor may be placed in the + year 352. In a divided age, the historians of all parties agree in her + praises. See their testimonies collected by Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 750-754.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.29" id="linknote-19.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius and Gregory + Nazianzen have exhausted the arts as well as the powers of their + eloquence, to represent Julian as the first of heroes, or the worst of + tyrants. Gregory was his fellow-student at Athens; and the symptoms which + he so tragically describes, of the future wickedness of the apostate, + amount only to some bodily imperfections, and to some peculiarities in his + speech and manner. He protests, however, that he <i>then</i> foresaw and foretold + the calamities of the church and state. (Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. iv. p. + 121, 122.)] + </p> + <p> + Whilst his hours were passed in studious retirement, the empress, resolute + to achieve the generous design which she had undertaken, was not unmindful + of the care of his fortune. The death of the late Cæsar had left + Constantius invested with the sole command, and oppressed by the + accumulated weight, of a mighty empire. Before the wounds of civil discord + could be healed, the provinces of Gaul were overwhelmed by a deluge of + Barbarians. The Sarmatians no longer respected the barrier of the Danube. + The impunity of rapine had increased the boldness and numbers of the wild + Isaurians: those robbers descended from their craggy mountains to ravage + the adjacent country, and had even presumed, though without success, to + besiege the important city of Seleucia, which was defended by a garrison + of three Roman legions. Above all, the Persian monarch, elated by victory, + again threatened the peace of Asia, and the presence of the emperor was + indispensably required, both in the West and in the East. For the first + time, Constantius sincerely acknowledged, that his single strength was + unequal to such an extent of care and of dominion. <a href="#linknote-19.30" + name="linknoteref-19.30" id="linknoteref-19.30">30</a> Insensible to the + voice of flattery, which assured him that his all-powerful virtue, and + celestial fortune, would still continue to triumph over every obstacle, he + listened with complacency to the advice of Eusebia, which gratified his + indolence, without offending his suspicious pride. As she perceived that + the remembrance of Gallus dwelt on the emperor’s mind, she artfully turned + his attention to the opposite characters of the two brothers, which from + their infancy had been compared to those of Domitian and of Titus. <a + href="#linknote-19.31" name="linknoteref-19.31" id="linknoteref-19.31">31</a> + She accustomed her husband to consider Julian as a youth of a mild, + unambitious disposition, whose allegiance and gratitude might be secured + by the gift of the purple, and who was qualified to fill with honor a + subordinate station, without aspiring to dispute the commands, or to shade + the glories, of his sovereign and benefactor. After an obstinate, though + secret struggle, the opposition of the favorite eunuchs submitted to the + ascendency of the empress; and it was resolved that Julian, after + celebrating his nuptials with Helena, sister of Constantius, should be + appointed, with the title of Cæsar, to reign over the countries beyond + the Alps. <a href="#linknote-19.32" name="linknoteref-19.32" + id="linknoteref-19.32">32</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.30" id="linknote-19.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Succumbere tot + necessitatibus tamque crebris unum se, quod nunquam fecerat, aperte + demonstrans. Ammian. l. xv. c. 8. He then expresses, in their own words, + the fattering assurances of the courtiers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.31" id="linknote-19.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.31">return</a>)<br /> [ Tantum a temperatis + moribus Juliani differens fratris quantum inter Vespasiani filios fuit, + Domitianum et Titum. Ammian. l. xiv. c. 11. The circumstances and + education of the two brothers, were so nearly the same, as to afford a + strong example of the innate difference of characters.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.32" id="linknote-19.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.32">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, l. xv. c. 8. + Zosimus, l. iii. p. 137, 138.] + </p> + <p> + Although the order which recalled him to court was probably accompanied by + some intimation of his approaching greatness, he appeals to the people of + Athens to witness his tears of undissembled sorrow, when he was + reluctantly torn away from his beloved retirement. <a href="#linknote-19.33" + name="linknoteref-19.33" id="linknoteref-19.33">33</a> He trembled for his + life, for his fame, and even for his virtue; and his sole confidence was + derived from the persuasion, that Minerva inspired all his actions, and + that he was protected by an invisible guard of angels, whom for that + purpose she had borrowed from the Sun and Moon. He approached, with + horror, the palace of Milan; nor could the ingenuous youth conceal his + indignation, when he found himself accosted with false and servile respect + by the assassins of his family. Eusebia, rejoicing in the success of her + benevolent schemes, embraced him with the tenderness of a sister; and + endeavored, by the most soothing caresses, to dispel his terrors, and + reconcile him to his fortune. But the ceremony of shaving his beard, and + his awkward demeanor, when he first exchanged the cloak of a Greek + philosopher for the military habit of a Roman prince, amused, during a few + days, the levity of the Imperial court. <a href="#linknote-19.34" + name="linknoteref-19.34" id="linknoteref-19.34">34</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.33" id="linknote-19.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. ad S. P. Q. A. + p. 275, 276. Libanius, Orat. x. p. 268. Julian did not yield till the gods + had signified their will by repeated visions and omens. His piety then + forbade him to resist.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.34" id="linknote-19.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.34">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian himself relates, + (p. 274) with some humor, the circumstances of his own metamorphoses, his + downcast looks, and his perplexity at being thus suddenly transported into + a new world, where every object appeared strange and hostile.] + </p> + <p> + The emperors of the age of Constantine no longer deigned to consult with + the senate in the choice of a colleague; but they were anxious that their + nomination should be ratified by the consent of the army. On this solemn + occasion, the guards, with the other troops whose stations were in the + neighborhood of Milan, appeared under arms; and Constantius ascended his + lofty tribunal, holding by the hand his cousin Julian, who entered the + same day into the twenty-fifth year of his age. <a href="#linknote-19.35" + name="linknoteref-19.35" id="linknoteref-19.35">35</a> In a studied speech, + conceived and delivered with dignity, the emperor represented the various + dangers which threatened the prosperity of the republic, the necessity of + naming a Cæsar for the administration of the West, and his own intention, + if it was agreeable to their wishes, of rewarding with the honors of the + purple the promising virtues of the nephew of Constantine. The approbation + of the soldiers was testified by a respectful murmur; they gazed on the + manly countenance of Julian, and observed with pleasure, that the fire + which sparkled in his eyes was tempered by a modest blush, on being thus + exposed, for the first time, to the public view of mankind. As soon as the + ceremony of his investiture had been performed, Constantius addressed him + with the tone of authority which his superior age and station permitted + him to assume; and exhorting the new Cæsar to deserve, by heroic deeds, + that sacred and immortal name, the emperor gave his colleague the + strongest assurances of a friendship which should never be impaired by + time, nor interrupted by their separation into the most distant climes. As + soon as the speech was ended, the troops, as a token of applause, clashed + their shields against their knees; <a href="#linknote-19.36" + name="linknoteref-19.36" id="linknoteref-19.36">36</a> while the officers + who surrounded the tribunal expressed, with decent reserve, their sense of + the merits of the representative of Constantius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.35" id="linknote-19.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.35">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammian. Marcellin. + l. xv. c. 8. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 139. Aurelius Victor. Victor Junior in + Epitom. Eutrop. x. 14.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.36" id="linknote-19.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Militares omnes + horrendo fragore scuta genibus illidentes; quod est prosperitatis indicium + plenum; nam contra cum hastis clypei feriuntur, iræ documentum est et + doloris... ... Ammianus adds, with a nice distinction, Eumque ut potiori + reverentia servaretur, nec supra modum laudabant nec infra quam decebat.] + </p> + <p> + The two princes returned to the palace in the same chariot; and during the + slow procession, Julian repeated to himself a verse of his favorite Homer, + which he might equally apply to his fortune and to his fears. <a + href="#linknote-19.37" name="linknoteref-19.37" id="linknoteref-19.37">37</a> + The four-and-twenty days which the Cæsar spent at Milan after his + investiture, and the first months of his Gallic reign, were devoted to a + splendid but severe captivity; nor could the acquisition of honor + compensate for the loss of freedom. <a href="#linknote-19.38" + name="linknoteref-19.38" id="linknoteref-19.38">38</a> His steps were + watched, his correspondence was intercepted; and he was obliged, by + prudence, to decline the visits of his most intimate friends. Of his + former domestics, four only were permitted to attend him; two pages, his + physician, and his librarian; the last of whom was employed in the care of + a valuable collection of books, the gift of the empress, who studied the + inclinations as well as the interest of her friend. In the room of these + faithful servants, a household was formed, such indeed as became the + dignity of a Cæsar; but it was filled with a crowd of slaves, destitute, + and perhaps incapable, of any attachment for their new master, to whom, + for the most part, they were either unknown or suspected. His want of + experience might require the assistance of a wise council; but the minute + instructions which regulated the service of his table, and the + distribution of his hours, were adapted to a youth still under the + discipline of his preceptors, rather than to the situation of a prince + intrusted with the conduct of an important war. If he aspired to deserve + the esteem of his subjects, he was checked by the fear of displeasing his + sovereign; and even the fruits of his marriage-bed were blasted by the + jealous artifices of Eusebia <a href="#linknote-19.39" + name="linknoteref-19.39" id="linknoteref-19.39">39</a> herself, who, on this + occasion alone, seems to have been unmindful of the tenderness of her sex, + and the generosity of her character. The memory of his father and of his + brothers reminded Julian of his own danger, and his apprehensions were + increased by the recent and unworthy fate of Sylvanus. In the summer which + preceded his own elevation, that general had been chosen to deliver Gaul + from the tyranny of the Barbarians; but Sylvanus soon discovered that he + had left his most dangerous enemies in the Imperial court. A dexterous + informer, countenanced by several of the principal ministers, procured + from him some recommendatory letters; and erasing the whole of the + contents, except the signature, filled up the vacant parchment with + matters of high and treasonable import. By the industry and courage of his + friends, the fraud was however detected, and in a great council of the + civil and military officers, held in the presence of the emperor himself, + the innocence of Sylvanus was publicly acknowledged. But the discovery + came too late; the report of the calumny, and the hasty seizure of his + estate, had already provoked the indignant chief to the rebellion of which + he was so unjustly accused. He assumed the purple at his head- quarters of + Cologne, and his active powers appeared to menace Italy with an invasion, + and Milan with a siege. In this emergency, Ursicinus, a general of equal + rank, regained, by an act of treachery, the favor which he had lost by his + eminent services in the East. Exasperated, as he might speciously allege, + by the injuries of a similar nature, he hastened with a few followers to + join the standard, and to betray the confidence, of his too credulous + friend. After a reign of only twenty-eight days, Sylvanus was + assassinated: the soldiers who, without any criminal intention, had + blindly followed the example of their leader, immediately returned to + their allegiance; and the flatterers of Constantius celebrated the wisdom + and felicity of the monarch who had extinguished a civil war without the + hazard of a battle. <a href="#linknote-19.40" name="linknoteref-19.40" + id="linknoteref-19.40">40</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.37" id="linknote-19.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.37">return</a>)<br /> [ The word <i>purple</i> which + Homer had used as a vague but common epithet for death, was applied by + Julian to express, very aptly, the nature and object of his own + apprehensions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.38" id="linknote-19.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.38">return</a>)<br /> [ He represents, in the + most pathetic terms, (p. 277,) the distress of his new situation. The + provision for his table was, however, so elegant and sumptuous, that the + young philosopher rejected it with disdain. Quum legeret libellum assidue, + quem Constantius ut privignum ad studia mittens manû suâ conscripserat, + prælicenter disponens quid in convivio Cæsaris impendi deberit: + Phasianum, et vulvam et sumen exigi vetuit et inferri. Ammian. Marcellin. + l. xvi. c. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.39" id="linknote-19.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.39">return</a>)<br /> [ If we recollect that + Constantine, the father of Helena, died above eighteen years before, in a + mature old age, it will appear probable, that the daughter, though a + virgin, could not be very young at the time of her marriage. She was soon + afterwards delivered of a son, who died immediately, quod obstetrix + corrupta mercede, mox natum præsecto plusquam convenerat umbilico + necavit. She accompanied the emperor and empress in their journey to Rome, + and the latter, quæsitum venenum bibere per fraudem illexit, ut + quotiescunque concepisset, immaturum abjicerit partum. Ammian. l. xvi. c. + 10. Our physicians will determine whether there exists such a poison. For + my own part I am inclined to hope that the public malignity imputed the + effects of accident as the guilt of Eusebia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.40" id="linknote-19.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.40">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xv. v.) was + perfectly well informed of the conduct and fate of Sylvanus. He himself + was one of the few followers who attended Ursicinus in his dangerous + enterprise.] + </p> + <p> + The protection of the Rhætian frontier, and the persecution of the + Catholic church, detained Constantius in Italy above eighteen months after + the departure of Julian. Before the emperor returned into the East, he + indulged his pride and curiosity in a visit to the ancient capital. <a + href="#linknote-19.41" name="linknoteref-19.41" id="linknoteref-19.41">41</a> + He proceeded from Milan to Rome along the Æmilian and Flaminian ways, and + as soon as he approached within forty miles of the city, the march of a + prince who had never vanquished a foreign enemy, assumed the appearance of + a triumphal procession. His splendid train was composed of all the + ministers of luxury; but in a time of profound peace, he was encompassed + by the glittering arms of the numerous squadrons of his guards and + cuirassiers. Their streaming banners of silk, embossed with gold, and + shaped in the form of dragons, waved round the person of the emperor. + Constantius sat alone in a lofty car, resplendent with gold and precious + gems; and, except when he bowed his head to pass under the gates of the + cities, he affected a stately demeanor of inflexible, and, as it might + seem, of insensible gravity. The severe discipline of the Persian youth + had been introduced by the eunuchs into the Imperial palace; and such were + the habits of patience which they had inculcated, that during a slow and + sultry march, he was never seen to move his hand towards his face, or to + turn his eyes either to the right or to the left. He was received by the + magistrates and senate of Rome; and the emperor surveyed, with attention, + the civil honors of the republic, and the consular images of the noble + families. The streets were lined with an innumerable multitude. Their + repeated acclamations expressed their joy at beholding, after an absence + of thirty-two years, the sacred person of their sovereign, and Constantius + himself expressed, with some pleasantry, he affected surprise that the + human race should thus suddenly be collected on the same spot. The son of + Constantine was lodged in the ancient palace of Augustus: he presided in + the senate, harangued the people from the tribunal which Cicero had so + often ascended, assisted with unusual courtesy at the games of the Circus, + and accepted the crowns of gold, as well as the Panegyrics which had been + prepared for the ceremony by the deputies of the principal cities. His + short visit of thirty days was employed in viewing the monuments of art + and power which were scattered over the seven hills and the interjacent + valleys. He admired the awful majesty of the Capitol, the vast extent of + the baths of Caracalla and Diocletian, the severe simplicity of the + Pantheon, the massy greatness of the amphitheatre of Titus, the elegant + architecture of the theatre of Pompey and the Temple of Peace, and, above + all, the stately structure of the Forum and column of Trajan; + acknowledging that the voice of fame, so prone to invent and to magnify, + had made an inadequate report of the metropolis of the world. The + traveller, who has contemplated the ruins of ancient Rome, may conceive + some imperfect idea of the sentiments which they must have inspired when + they reared their heads in the splendor of unsullied beauty. + </p> + <p> + [See The Pantheon: The severe simplicity of the Pantheon] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.41" id="linknote-19.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.41">return</a>)<br /> [ For the particulars of + the visit of Constantius to Rome, see Ammianus, l. xvi. c. 10. We have + only to add, that Themistius was appointed deputy from Constantinople, and + that he composed his fourth oration for his ceremony.] + </p> + <p> + The satisfaction which Constantius had received from this journey excited + him to the generous emulation of bestowing on the Romans some memorial of + his own gratitude and munificence. His first idea was to imitate the + equestrian and colossal statue which he had seen in the Forum of Trajan; + but when he had maturely weighed the difficulties of the execution, <a + href="#linknote-19.42" name="linknoteref-19.42" id="linknoteref-19.42">42</a> + he chose rather to embellish the capital by the gift of an Egyptian + obelisk. In a remote but polished age, which seems to have preceded the + invention of alphabetical writing, a great number of these obelisks had + been erected, in the cities of Thebes and Heliopolis, by the ancient + sovereigns of Egypt, in a just confidence that the simplicity of their + form, and the hardness of their substance, would resist the injuries of + time and violence. <a href="#linknote-19.43" name="linknoteref-19.43" + id="linknoteref-19.43">43</a> Several of these extraordinary columns had + been transported to Rome by Augustus and his successors, as the most + durable monuments of their power and victory; <a href="#linknote-19.44" + name="linknoteref-19.44" id="linknoteref-19.44">44</a> but there remained + one obelisk, which, from its size or sanctity, escaped for a long time the + rapacious vanity of the conquerors. It was designed by Constantine to + adorn his new city; <a href="#linknote-19.45" name="linknoteref-19.45" + id="linknoteref-19.45">45</a> and, after being removed by his order from + the pedestal where it stood before the Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, + was floated down the Nile to Alexandria. The death of Constantine + suspended the execution of his purpose, and this obelisk was destined by + his son to the ancient capital of the empire. A vessel of uncommon + strength and capaciousness was provided to convey this enormous weight of + granite, at least a hundred and fifteen feet in length, from the banks of + the Nile to those of the Tyber. The obelisk of Constantius was landed + about three miles from the city, and elevated, by the efforts of art and + labor, in the great Circus of Rome. <a href="#linknote-19.46" + name="linknoteref-19.46" id="linknoteref-19.46">46</a> <a + href="#linknote-19.4611" name="linknoteref-19.4611" id="linknoteref-19.4611">4611</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.42" id="linknote-19.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.42">return</a>)<br /> [ Hormisdas, a fugitive + prince of Persia, observed to the emperor, that if he made such a horse, + he must think of preparing a similar stable, (the Forum of Trajan.) + Another saying of Hormisdas is recorded, “that one thing only had + <i>displeased</i> him, to find that men died at Rome as well as elsewhere.” If we + adopt this reading of the text of Ammianus, (<i>displicuisse</i>, instead of + <i>placuisse</i>,) we may consider it as a reproof of Roman vanity. The contrary + sense would be that of a misanthrope.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.43" id="linknote-19.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.43">return</a>)<br /> [ When Germanicus visited + the ancient monuments of Thebes, the eldest of the priests explained to + him the meaning of these hiero glyphics. Tacit. Annal. ii. c. 60. But it + seems probable, that before the useful invention of an alphabet, these + natural or arbitrary signs were the common characters of the Egyptian + nation. See Warburton’s Divine Legation of Moses, vol. iii. p. 69-243.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.44" id="linknote-19.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.44">return</a>)<br /> [ See Plin. Hist. Natur. + l. xxxvi. c. 14, 15.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.45" id="linknote-19.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.45">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. Marcellin l. + xvii. c. 4. He gives us a Greek interpretation of the hieroglyphics, and + his commentator Lindenbrogius adds a Latin inscription, which, in twenty + verses of the age of Constantius, contain a short history of the obelisk.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.46" id="linknote-19.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.46">return</a>)<br /> [ See Donat. Roma. + Antiqua, l. iii. c. 14, l. iv. c. 12, and the learned, though confused, + Dissertation of Bargæus on Obelisks, inserted in the fourth volume of + Grævius’s Roman Antiquities, p. 1897- 1936. This dissertation is + dedicated to Pope Sixtus V., who erected the obelisk of Constantius in the + square before the patriarchal church of at. John Lateran.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.4611" id="linknote-19.4611"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4611 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.4611">return</a>)<br /> [ It is doubtful + whether the obelisk transported by Constantius to Rome now exists. Even + from the text of Ammianus, it is uncertain whether the interpretation of + Hermapion refers to the older obelisk, (obelisco incisus est veteri quem + videmus in Circo,) raised, as he himself states, in the Circus Maximus, + long before, by Augustus, or to the one brought by Constantius. The + obelisk in the square before the church of St. John Lateran is ascribed + not to Rameses the Great but to Thoutmos II. Champollion, 1. Lettre a M. + de Blacas, p. 32.—M] + </p> + <p> + The departure of Constantius from Rome was hastened by the alarming + intelligence of the distress and danger of the Illyrian provinces. The + distractions of civil war, and the irreparable loss which the Roman + legions had sustained in the battle of Mursa, exposed those countries, + almost without defence, to the light cavalry of the Barbarians; and + particularly to the inroads of the Quadi, a fierce and powerful nation, + who seem to have exchanged the institutions of Germany for the arms and + military arts of their Sarmatian allies. <a href="#linknote-19.47" + name="linknoteref-19.47" id="linknoteref-19.47">47</a> The garrisons of the + frontiers were insufficient to check their progress; and the indolent + monarch was at length compelled to assemble, from the extremities of his + dominions, the flower of the Palatine troops, to take the field in person, + and to employ a whole campaign, with the preceding autumn and the ensuing + spring, in the serious prosecution of the war. The emperor passed the + Danube on a bridge of boats, cut in pieces all that encountered his march, + penetrated into the heart of the country of the Quadi, and severely + retaliated the calamities which they had inflicted on the Roman province. + The dismayed Barbarians were soon reduced to sue for peace: they offered + the restitution of his captive subjects as an atonement for the past, and + the noblest hostages as a pledge of their future conduct. The generous + courtesy which was shown to the first among their chieftains who implored + the clemency of Constantius, encouraged the more timid, or the more + obstinate, to imitate their example; and the Imperial camp was crowded + with the princes and ambassadors of the most distant tribes, who occupied + the plains of the Lesser Poland, and who might have deemed themselves + secure behind the lofty ridge of the Carpathian Mountains. While + Constantius gave laws to the Barbarians beyond the Danube, he + distinguished, with specious compassion, the Sarmatian exiles, who had + been expelled from their native country by the rebellion of their slaves, + and who formed a very considerable accession to the power of the Quadi. + The emperor, embracing a generous but artful system of policy, released + the Sarmatians from the bands of this humiliating dependence, and restored + them, by a separate treaty, to the dignity of a nation united under the + government of a king, the friend and ally of the republic. He declared his + resolution of asserting the justice of their cause, and of securing the + peace of the provinces by the extirpation, or at least the banishment, of + the Limigantes, whose manners were still infected with the vices of their + servile origin. The execution of this design was attended with more + difficulty than glory. The territory of the Limigantes was protected + against the Romans by the Danube, against the hostile Barbarians by the + Teyss. The marshy lands which lay between those rivers, and were often + covered by their inundations, formed an intricate wilderness, pervious + only to the inhabitants, who were acquainted with its secret paths and + inaccessible fortresses. On the approach of Constantius, the Limigantes + tried the efficacy of prayers, of fraud, and of arms; but he sternly + rejected their supplications, defeated their rude stratagems, and repelled + with skill and firmness the efforts of their irregular valor. One of their + most warlike tribes, established in a small island towards the conflux of + the Teyss and the Danube, consented to pass the river with the intention + of surprising the emperor during the security of an amicable conference. + They soon became the victims of the perfidy which they meditated. + Encompassed on every side, trampled down by the cavalry, slaughtered by + the swords of the legions, they disdained to ask for mercy; and with an + undaunted countenance, still grasped their weapons in the agonies of + death. After this victory, a considerable body of Romans was landed on the + opposite banks of the Danube; the Taifalæ, a Gothic tribe engaged in the + service of the empire, invaded the Limigantes on the side of the Teyss; + and their former masters, the free Sarmatians, animated by hope and + revenge, penetrated through the hilly country, into the heart of their + ancient possessions. A general conflagration revealed the huts of the + Barbarians, which were seated in the depth of the wilderness; and the + soldier fought with confidence on marshy ground, which it was dangerous + for him to tread. In this extremity, the bravest of the Limigantes were + resolved to die in arms, rather than to yield: but the milder sentiment, + enforced by the authority of their elders, at length prevailed; and the + suppliant crowd, followed by their wives and children, repaired to the + Imperial camp, to learn their fate from the mouth of the conqueror. After + celebrating his own clemency, which was still inclined to pardon their + repeated crimes, and to spare the remnant of a guilty nation, Constantius + assigned for the place of their exile a remote country, where they might + enjoy a safe and honorable repose. The Limigantes obeyed with reluctance; + but before they could reach, at least before they could occupy, their + destined habitations, they returned to the banks of the Danube, + exaggerating the hardships of their situation, and requesting, with + fervent professions of fidelity, that the emperor would grant them an + undisturbed settlement within the limits of the Roman provinces. Instead + of consulting his own experience of their incurable perfidy, Constantius + listened to his flatterers, who were ready to represent the honor and + advantage of accepting a colony of soldiers, at a time when it was much + easier to obtain the pecuniary contributions than the military service of + the subjects of the empire. The Limigantes were permitted to pass the + Danube; and the emperor gave audience to the multitude in a large plain + near the modern city of Buda. They surrounded the tribunal, and seemed to + hear with respect an oration full of mildness and dignity when one of the + Barbarians, casting his shoe into the air, exclaimed with a loud voice, + <i>Marha! Marha!</i> <a href="#linknote-19.4711" name="linknoteref-19.4711" + id="linknoteref-19.4711">4711</a> a word of defiance, which was received as + a signal of the tumult. They rushed with fury to seize the person of the + emperor; his royal throne and golden couch were pillaged by these rude + hands; but the faithful defence of his guards, who died at his feet, + allowed him a moment to mount a fleet horse, and to escape from the + confusion. The disgrace which had been incurred by a treacherous surprise + was soon retrieved by the numbers and discipline of the Romans; and the + combat was only terminated by the extinction of the name and nation of the + Limigantes. The free Sarmatians were reinstated in the possession of their + ancient seats; and although Constantius distrusted the levity of their + character, he entertained some hopes that a sense of gratitude might + influence their future conduct. He had remarked the lofty stature and + obsequious demeanor of Zizais, one of the noblest of their chiefs. He + conferred on him the title of King; and Zizais proved that he was not + unworthy to reign, by a sincere and lasting attachment to the interests of + his benefactor, who, after this splendid success, received the name of + <i>Sarmaticus</i> from the acclamations of his victorious army. <a + href="#linknote-19.48" name="linknoteref-19.48" id="linknoteref-19.48">48</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.47" id="linknote-19.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.47">return</a>)<br /> [ The events of this + Quadian and Sarmatian war are related by Ammianus, xvi. 10, xvii. 12, 13, + xix. 11] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.4711" id="linknote-19.4711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4711 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.4711">return</a>)<br /> [ Reinesius reads + Warrha, Warrha, Guerre, War. Wagner note as a mm. Marc xix. ll.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.48" id="linknote-19.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Genti Sarmatarum magno + decori confidens apud eos regem dedit. Aurelius Victor. In a pompous + oration pronounced by Constantius himself, he expatiates on his own + exploits with much vanity, and some truth] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap19.3"></a> + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + While the Roman emperor and the Persian monarch, at the distance of three + thousand miles, defended their extreme limits against the Barbarians of + the Danube and of the Oxus, their intermediate frontier experienced the + vicissitudes of a languid war, and a precarious truce. Two of the eastern + ministers of Constantius, the Prætorian præfect Musonian, whose + abilities were disgraced by the want of truth and integrity, and Cassian, + duke of Mesopotamia, a hardy and veteran soldier, opened a secret + negotiation with the satrap Tamsapor. <a href="#linknote-19.49" + name="linknoteref-19.49" id="linknoteref-19.49">49</a> <a + href="#linknote-19.4911" name="linknoteref-19.4911" id="linknoteref-19.4911">4911</a> + These overtures of peace, translated into the servile and flattering + language of Asia, were transmitted to the camp of the Great King; who + resolved to signify, by an ambassador, the terms which he was inclined to + grant to the suppliant Romans. Narses, whom he invested with that + character, was honorably received in his passage through Antioch and + Constantinople: he reached Sirmium after a long journey, and, at his first + audience, respectfully unfolded the silken veil which covered the haughty + epistle of his sovereign. Sapor, King of Kings, and Brother of the Sun and + Moon, (such were the lofty titles affected by Oriental vanity,) expressed + his satisfaction that his brother, Constantius Cæsar, had been taught + wisdom by adversity. As the lawful successor of Darius Hystaspes, Sapor + asserted, that the River Strymon, in Macedonia, was the true and ancient + boundary of his empire; declaring, however, that as an evidence of his + moderation, he would content himself with the provinces of Armenia and + Mesopotamia, which had been fraudulently extorted from his ancestors. He + alleged, that, without the restitution of these disputed countries, it was + impossible to establish any treaty on a solid and permanent basis; and he + arrogantly threatened, that if his ambassador returned in vain, he was + prepared to take the field in the spring, and to support the justice of + his cause by the strength of his invincible arms. Narses, who was endowed + with the most polite and amiable manners, endeavored, as far as was + consistent with his duty, to soften the harshness of the message. <a + href="#linknote-19.50" name="linknoteref-19.50" id="linknoteref-19.50">50</a> + Both the style and substance were maturely weighed in the Imperial + council, and he was dismissed with the following answer: “Constantius had + a right to disclaim the officiousness of his ministers, who had acted + without any specific orders from the throne: he was not, however, averse + to an equal and honorable treaty; but it was highly indecent, as well as + absurd, to propose to the sole and victorious emperor of the Roman world, + the same conditions of peace which he had indignantly rejected at the time + when his power was contracted within the narrow limits of the East: the + chance of arms was uncertain; and Sapor should recollect, that if the + Romans had sometimes been vanquished in battle, they had almost always + been successful in the event of the war.” A few days after the departure + of Narses, three ambassadors were sent to the court of Sapor, who was + already returned from the Scythian expedition to his ordinary residence of + Ctesiphon. A count, a notary, and a sophist, had been selected for this + important commission; and Constantius, who was secretly anxious for the + conclusion of the peace, entertained some hopes that the dignity of the + first of these ministers, the dexterity of the second, and the rhetoric of + the third, <a href="#linknote-19.51" name="linknoteref-19.51" + id="linknoteref-19.51">51</a> would persuade the Persian monarch to abate + of the rigor of his demands. But the progress of their negotiation was + opposed and defeated by the hostile arts of Antoninus, <a + href="#linknote-19.52" name="linknoteref-19.52" id="linknoteref-19.52">52</a> + a Roman subject of Syria, who had fled from oppression, and was admitted + into the councils of Sapor, and even to the royal table, where, according + to the custom of the Persians, the most important business was frequently + discussed. <a href="#linknote-19.53" name="linknoteref-19.53" + id="linknoteref-19.53">53</a> The dexterous fugitive promoted his interest + by the same conduct which gratified his revenge. He incessantly urged the + ambition of his new master to embrace the favorable opportunity when the + bravest of the Palatine troops were employed with the emperor in a distant + war on the Danube. He pressed Sapor to invade the exhausted and + defenceless provinces of the East, with the numerous armies of Persia, now + fortified by the alliance and accession of the fiercest Barbarians. The + ambassadors of Rome retired without success, and a second embassy, of a + still more honorable rank, was detained in strict confinement, and + threatened either with death or exile. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.49" id="linknote-19.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.49">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xvi. 9.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.4911" id="linknote-19.4911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4911 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.4911">return</a>)<br /> [ In Persian, + Ten-schah-pour. St. Martin, ii. 177.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.50" id="linknote-19.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.50">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xvii. 5) + transcribes the haughty letter. Themistius (Orat. iv. p. 57, edit. Petav.) + takes notice of the silken covering. Idatius and Zonaras mention the + journey of the ambassador; and Peter the Patrician (in Excerpt. Legat. p. + 58) has informed us of his behavior.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.51" id="linknote-19.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.51">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xvii. 5, and + Valesius ad loc. The sophist, or philosopher, (in that age these words + were almost synonymous,) was Eustathius the Cappadocian, the disciple of + Jamblichus, and the friend of St. Basil. Eunapius (in Vit. Ædesii, p. + 44-47) fondly attributes to this philosophic ambassador the glory of + enchanting the Barbarian king by the persuasive charms of reason and + eloquence. See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 828, 1132.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.52" id="linknote-19.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xviii. 5, 6, 8. + The decent and respectful behavior of Antoninus towards the Roman general, + sets him in a very interesting light; and Ammianus himself speaks of the + traitor with some compassion and esteem.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.53" id="linknote-19.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.53">return</a>)<br /> [ This circumstance, as + it is noticed by Ammianus, serves to prove the veracity of Herodotus, (l. + i. c. 133,) and the permanency of the Persian manners. In every age the + Persians have been addicted to intemperance, and the wines of Shiraz have + triumphed over the law of Mahomet. Brisson de Regno Pers. l. ii. p. + 462-472, and Voyages en Perse, tom, iii. p. 90.] + </p> + <p> + The military historian, <a href="#linknote-19.54" name="linknoteref-19.54" + id="linknoteref-19.54">54</a> who was himself despatched to observe the + army of the Persians, as they were preparing to construct a bridge of + boats over the Tigris, beheld from an eminence the plain of Assyria, as + far as the edge of the horizon, covered with men, with horses, and with + arms. Sapor appeared in the front, conspicuous by the splendor of his + purple. On his left hand, the place of honor among the Orientals, + Grumbates, king of the Chionites, displayed the stern countenance of an + aged and renowned warrior. The monarch had reserved a similar place on his + right hand for the king of the Albanians, who led his independent tribes + from the shores of the Caspian. <a href="#linknote-19.5411" + name="linknoteref-19.5411" id="linknoteref-19.5411">5411</a> The satraps and + generals were distributed according to their several ranks, and the whole + army, besides the numerous train of Oriental luxury, consisted of more + than one hundred thousand effective men, inured to fatigue, and selected + from the bravest nations of Asia. The Roman deserter, who in some measure + guided the councils of Sapor, had prudently advised, that, instead of + wasting the summer in tedious and difficult sieges, he should march + directly to the Euphrates, and press forwards without delay to seize the + feeble and wealthy metropolis of Syria. But the Persians were no sooner + advanced into the plains of Mesopotamia, than they discovered that every + precaution had been used which could retard their progress, or defeat + their design. The inhabitants, with their cattle, were secured in places + of strength, the green forage throughout the country was set on fire, the + fords of the rivers were fortified by sharp stakes; military engines were + planted on the opposite banks, and a seasonable swell of the waters of the + Euphrates deterred the Barbarians from attempting the ordinary passage of + the bridge of Thapsacus. Their skilful guide, changing his plan of + operations, then conducted the army by a longer circuit, but through a + fertile territory, towards the head of the Euphrates, where the infant + river is reduced to a shallow and accessible stream. Sapor overlooked, + with prudent disdain, the strength of Nisibis; but as he passed under the + walls of Amida, he resolved to try whether the majesty of his presence + would not awe the garrison into immediate submission. The sacrilegious + insult of a random dart, which glanced against the royal tiara, convinced + him of his error; and the indignant monarch listened with impatience to + the advice of his ministers, who conjured him not to sacrifice the success + of his ambition to the gratification of his resentment. The following day + Grumbates advanced towards the gates with a select body of troops, and + required the instant surrender of the city, as the only atonement which + could be accepted for such an act of rashness and insolence. His proposals + were answered by a general discharge, and his only son, a beautiful and + valiant youth, was pierced through the heart by a javelin, shot from one + of the balistæ. The funeral of the prince of the Chionites was celebrated + according to the rites of the country; and the grief of his aged father + was alleviated by the solemn promise of Sapor, that the guilty city of + Amida should serve as a funeral pile to expiate the death, and to + perpetuate the memory, of his son. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.54" id="linknote-19.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.54">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. lxviii. 6, 7, + 8, 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.5411" id="linknote-19.5411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5411 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.5411">return</a>)<br /> [ These perhaps were + the barbarous tribes who inhabit the northern part of the present + Schirwan, the Albania of the ancients. This country, now inhabited by the + Lezghis, the terror of the neighboring districts, was then occupied by the + same people, called by the ancients Legæ, by the Armenians Gheg, or Leg. + The latter represent them as constant allies of the Persians in their wars + against Armenia and the Empire. A little after this period, a certain + Schergir was their king, and it is of him doubtless Ammianus Marcellinus + speaks. St. Martin, ii. 285.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The ancient city of Amid or Amida, <a href="#linknote-19.55" + name="linknoteref-19.55" id="linknoteref-19.55">55</a> which sometimes + assumes the provincial appellation of Diarbekir, <a href="#linknote-19.56" + name="linknoteref-19.56" id="linknoteref-19.56">56</a> is advantageously + situate in a fertile plain, watered by the natural and artificial channels + of the Tigris, of which the least inconsiderable stream bends in a + semicircular form round the eastern part of the city. The emperor + Constantius had recently conferred on Amida the honor of his own name, and + the additional fortifications of strong walls and lofty towers. It was + provided with an arsenal of military engines, and the ordinary garrison + had been reenforced to the amount of seven legions, when the place was + invested by the arms of Sapor. <a href="#linknote-19.57" + name="linknoteref-19.57" id="linknoteref-19.57">57</a> His first and most + sanguine hopes depended on the success of a general assault. To the + several nations which followed his standard, their respective posts were + assigned; the south to the Vertæ; the north to the Albanians; the east to + the Chionites, inflamed with grief and indignation; the west to the + Segestans, the bravest of his warriors, who covered their front with a + formidable line of Indian elephants. <a href="#linknote-19.58" + name="linknoteref-19.58" id="linknoteref-19.58">58</a> The Persians, on + every side, supported their efforts, and animated their courage; and the + monarch himself, careless of his rank and safety, displayed, in the + prosecution of the siege, the ardor of a youthful soldier. After an + obstinate combat, the Barbarians were repulsed; they incessantly returned + to the charge; they were again driven back with a dreadful slaughter, and + two rebel legions of Gauls, who had been banished into the East, + signalized their undisciplined courage by a nocturnal sally into the heart + of the Persian camp. In one of the fiercest of these repeated assaults, + Amida was betrayed by the treachery of a deserter, who indicated to the + Barbarians a secret and neglected staircase, scooped out of the rock that + hangs over the stream of the Tigris. Seventy chosen archers of the royal + guard ascended in silence to the third story of a lofty tower, which + commanded the precipice; they elevated on high the Persian banner, the + signal of confidence to the assailants, and of dismay to the besieged; and + if this devoted band could have maintained their post a few minutes + longer, the reduction of the place might have been purchased by the + sacrifice of their lives. After Sapor had tried, without success, the + efficacy of force and of stratagem, he had recourse to the slower but more + certain operations of a regular siege, in the conduct of which he was + instructed by the skill of the Roman deserters. The trenches were opened + at a convenient distance, and the troops destined for that service + advanced under the portable cover of strong hurdles, to fill up the ditch, + and undermine the foundations of the walls. Wooden towers were at the same + time constructed, and moved forwards on wheels, till the soldiers, who + were provided with every species of missile weapons, could engage almost + on level ground with the troops who defended the rampart. Every mode of + resistance which art could suggest, or courage could execute, was employed + in the defence of Amida, and the works of Sapor were more than once + destroyed by the fire of the Romans. But the resources of a besieged city + may be exhausted. The Persians repaired their losses, and pushed their + approaches; a large preach was made by the battering-ram, and the strength + of the garrison, wasted by the sword and by disease, yielded to the fury + of the assault. The soldiers, the citizens, their wives, their children, + all who had not time to escape through the opposite gate, were involved by + the conquerors in a promiscuous massacre. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.55" id="linknote-19.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.55">return</a>)<br /> [ For the description of + Amida, see D’Herbelot, Bebliotheque Orientale, p. Bibliothèque Orientale, + p. 108. Histoire de Timur Bec, par Cherefeddin Ali, l. iii. c. 41. Ahmed + Arabsiades, tom. i. p. 331, c. 43. Voyages de Tavernier, tom. i. p. 301. + Voyages d’Otter, tom. ii. p. 273, and Voyages de Niebuhr, tom. ii. p. + 324-328. The last of these travellers, a learned and accurate Dane, has + given a plan of Amida, which illustrates the operations of the siege.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.56" id="linknote-19.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.56">return</a>)<br /> [ Diarbekir, which is + styled Amid, or Kara Amid, in the public writings of the Turks, contains + above 16,000 houses, and is the residence of a pacha with three tails. The + epithet of <i>Kara</i> is derived from the <i>blackness</i> of the stone which composes + the strong and ancient wall of Amida. ——In my Mém. Hist. sur + l’Armenie, l. i. p. 166, 173, I conceive that I have proved this city, + still called, by the Armenians, Dirkranagerd, the city of Tigranes, to be + the same with the famous Tigranocerta, of which the situation was unknown. + St. Martin, i. 432. On the siege of Amida, see St. Martin’s Notes, ii. + 290. Faustus of Byzantium, nearly a contemporary, (Armenian,) states that + the Persians, on becoming masters of it, destroyed 40,000 houses though + Ammianus describes the city as of no great extent, (civitatis ambitum non + nimium amplæ.) Besides the ordinary population, and those who took refuge + from the country, it contained 20,000 soldiers. St. Martin, ii. 290. This + interpretation is extremely doubtful. Wagner (note on Ammianus) considers + the whole population to amount only to—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.57" id="linknote-19.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.57">return</a>)<br /> [ The operations of the + siege of Amida are very minutely described by Ammianus, (xix. 1-9,) who + acted an honorable part in the defence, and escaped with difficulty when + the city was stormed by the Persians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.58" id="linknote-19.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.58">return</a>)<br /> [ Of these four nations, + the Albanians are too well known to require any description. The Segestans + [<i>Sacastenè. St. Martin.</i>] inhabited a large and level country, which still + preserves their name, to the south of Khorasan, and the west of Hindostan. + (See Geographia Nubiensis. p. 133, and D’Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale, + p. 797.) Notwithstanding the boasted victory of Bahram, (vol. i. p. 410,) + the Segestans, above fourscore years afterwards, appear as an independent + nation, the ally of Persia. We are ignorant of the situation of the Vertæ + and Chionites, but I am inclined to place them (at least the latter) + towards the confines of India and Scythia. See Ammian. ——Klaproth + considers the real Albanians the same with the ancient Alani, and quotes a + passage of the emperor Julian in support of his opinion. They are the + Ossetæ, now inhabiting part of Caucasus. Tableaux Hist. de l’Asie, p. + 179, 180.—M. ——The Vertæ are still unknown. It is + possible that the Chionites are the same as the Huns. These people were + already known; and we find from Armenian authors that they were making, at + this period, incursions into Asia. They were often at war with the + Persians. The name was perhaps pronounced differently in the East and in + the West, and this prevents us from recognizing it. St. Martin, ii. 177.—M.] + </p> + <p> + But the ruin of Amida was the safety of the Roman provinces. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the first transports of victory had subsided, Sapor was at + leisure to reflect, that to chastise a disobedient city, he had lost the + flower of his troops, and the most favorable season for conquest. <a + href="#linknote-19.59" name="linknoteref-19.59" id="linknoteref-19.59">59</a> + Thirty thousand of his veterans had fallen under the walls of Amida, + during the continuance of a siege, which lasted seventy-three days; and + the disappointed monarch returned to his capital with affected triumph and + secret mortification. It is more than probable, that the inconstancy of + his Barbarian allies was tempted to relinquish a war in which they had + encountered such unexpected difficulties; and that the aged king of the + Chionites, satiated with revenge, turned away with horror from a scene of + action where he had been deprived of the hope of his family and nation. + The strength as well as the spirit of the army with which Sapor took the + field in the ensuing spring was no longer equal to the unbounded views of + his ambition. Instead of aspiring to the conquest of the East, he was + obliged to content himself with the reduction of two fortified cities of + Mesopotamia, Singara and Bezabde; <a href="#linknote-19.60" + name="linknoteref-19.60" id="linknoteref-19.60">60</a> the one situate in + the midst of a sandy desert, the other in a small peninsula, surrounded + almost on every side by the deep and rapid stream of the Tigris. Five + Roman legions, of the diminutive size to which they had been reduced in + the age of Constantine, were made prisoners, and sent into remote + captivity on the extreme confines of Persia. After dismantling the walls + of Singara, the conqueror abandoned that solitary and sequestered place; + but he carefully restored the fortifications of Bezabde, and fixed in that + important post a garrison or colony of veterans; amply supplied with every + means of defence, and animated by high sentiments of honor and fidelity. + Towards the close of the campaign, the arms of Sapor incurred some + disgrace by an unsuccessful enterprise against Virtha, or Tecrit, a + strong, or, as it was universally esteemed till the age of Tamerlane, an + impregnable fortress of the independent Arabs. <a href="#linknote-19.61" + name="linknoteref-19.61" id="linknoteref-19.61">61</a> <a + href="#linknote-19.6111" name="linknoteref-19.6111" id="linknoteref-19.6111">6111</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.59" id="linknote-19.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.59">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus has marked the + chronology of this year by three signs, which do not perfectly coincide + with each other, or with the series of the history. 1 The corn was ripe + when Sapor invaded Mesopotamia; “Cum jam stipula flaveate turgerent;” a + circumstance, which, in the latitude of Aleppo, would naturally refer us + to the month of April or May. See Harmer’s Observations on Scripture vol. + i. p. 41. Shaw’s Travels, p. 335, edit 4to. 2. The progress of Sapor was + checked by the overflowing of the Euphrates, which generally happens in + July and August. Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 21. Viaggi di Pietro della Valle, + tom. i. p. 696. 3. When Sapor had taken Amida, after a siege of + seventy-three days, the autumn was far advanced. “Autumno præcipiti + hædorumque improbo sidere exorto.” To reconcile these apparent + contradictions, we must allow for some delay in the Persian king, some + inaccuracy in the historian, and some disorder in the seasons.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.60" id="linknote-19.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.60">return</a>)<br /> [ The account of these + sieges is given by Ammianus, xx. 6, 7. ——The Christian bishop + of Bezabde went to the camp of the king of Persia, to persuade him to + check the waste of human blood Amm. Mare xx. 7.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.61" id="linknote-19.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.61">return</a>)<br /> [ For the identity of + Virtha and Tecrit, see D’Anville, Geographie. For the siege of that castle + by Timur Bec or Tamerlane, see Cherefeddin, l. iii. c. 33. The Persian + biographer exaggerates the merit and difficulty of this exploit, which + delivered the caravans of Bagdad from a formidable gang of robbers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.6111" id="linknote-19.6111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6111 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.6111">return</a>)<br /> [ St. Martin doubts + whether it lay so much to the south. “The word Girtha means in Syriac a + castle or fortress, and might be applied to many places.”] + </p> + <p> + The defence of the East against the arms of Sapor required and would have + exercised, the abilities of the most consummate general; and it seemed + fortunate for the state, that it was the actual province of the brave + Ursicinus, who alone deserved the confidence of the soldiers and people. + In the hour of danger, <a href="#linknote-19.62" name="linknoteref-19.62" + id="linknoteref-19.62">62</a> Ursicinus was removed from his station by the + intrigues of the eunuchs; and the military command of the East was + bestowed, by the same influence, on Sabinian, a wealthy and subtle + veteran, who had attained the infirmities, without acquiring the + experience, of age. By a second order, which issued from the same jealous + and inconstant councils, Ursicinus was again despatched to the frontier of + Mesopotamia, and condemned to sustain the labors of a war, the honors of + which had been transferred to his unworthy rival. Sabinian fixed his + indolent station under the walls of Edessa; and while he amused himself + with the idle parade of military exercise, and moved to the sound of + flutes in the Pyrrhic dance, the public defence was abandoned to the + boldness and diligence of the former general of the East. But whenever + Ursicinus recommended any vigorous plan of operations; when he proposed, + at the head of a light and active army, to wheel round the foot of the + mountains, to intercept the convoys of the enemy, to harass the wide + extent of the Persian lines, and to relieve the distress of Amida; the + timid and envious commander alleged, that he was restrained by his + positive orders from endangering the safety of the troops. Amida was at + length taken; its bravest defenders, who had escaped the sword of the + Barbarians, died in the Roman camp by the hand of the executioner: and + Ursicinus himself, after supporting the disgrace of a partial inquiry, was + punished for the misconduct of Sabinian by the loss of his military rank. + But Constantius soon experienced the truth of the prediction which honest + indignation had extorted from his injured lieutenant, that as long as such + maxims of government were suffered to prevail, the emperor himself would + find it is no easy task to defend his eastern dominions from the invasion + of a foreign enemy. When he had subdued or pacified the Barbarians of the + Danube, Constantius proceeded by slow marches into the East; and after he + had wept over the smoking ruins of Amida, he formed, with a powerful army, + the siege of Becabde. The walls were shaken by the reiterated efforts of + the most enormous of the battering-rams; the town was reduced to the last + extremity; but it was still defended by the patient and intrepid valor of + the garrison, till the approach of the rainy season obliged the emperor to + raise the siege, and ingloviously to retreat into his winter quarters at + Antioch. <a href="#linknote-19.63" name="linknoteref-19.63" + id="linknoteref-19.63">63</a> The pride of Constantius, and the ingenuity + of his courtiers, were at a loss to discover any materials for panegyric + in the events of the Persian war; while the glory of his cousin Julian, to + whose military command he had intrusted the provinces of Gaul, was + proclaimed to the world in the simple and concise narrative of his + exploits. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.62" id="linknote-19.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xviii. 5, 6, + xix. 3, xx. 2) represents the merit and disgrace of Ursicinus with that + faithful attention which a soldier owed to his general. Some partiality + may be suspected, yet the whole account is consistent and probable.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.63" id="linknote-19.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.63">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xx. 11. Omisso + vano incepto, hiematurus Antiochiæ redit in Syriam ærumnosam, perpessus + et ulcerum sed et atrocia, diuque deflenda. It is <i>thus</i> that James + Gronovius has restored an obscure passage; and he thinks that this + correction alone would have deserved a new edition of his author: whose + sense may now be darkly perceived. I expected some additional light from + the recent labors of the learned Ernestus. (Lipsiæ, 1773.) * Note: The + late editor (Wagner) has nothing better to suggest, and le menta with + Gibbon, the silence of Ernesti.—M.] + </p> + <p> + In the blind fury of civil discord, Constantius had abandoned to the + Barbarians of Germany the countries of Gaul, which still acknowledged the + authority of his rival. A numerous swarm of Franks and Alemanni were + invited to cross the Rhine by presents and promises, by the hopes of + spoil, and by a perpetual grant of all the territories which they should + be able to subdue. <a href="#linknote-19.64" name="linknoteref-19.64" + id="linknoteref-19.64">64</a> But the emperor, who for a temporary service + had thus imprudently provoked the rapacious spirit of the Barbarians, soon + discovered and lamented the difficulty of dismissing these formidable + allies, after they had tasted the richness of the Roman soil. Regardless + of the nice distinction of loyalty and rebellion, these undisciplined + robbers treated as their natural enemies all the subjects of the empire, + who possessed any property which they were desirous of acquiring + Forty-five flourishing cities, Tongres, Cologne, Treves, Worms, Spires, + Strasburgh, &c., besides a far greater number of towns and villages, + were pillaged, and for the most part reduced to ashes. The Barbarians of + Germany, still faithful to the maxims of their ancestors, abhorred the + confinement of walls, to which they applied the odious names of prisons + and sepulchres; and fixing their independent habitations on the banks of + rivers, the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Meuse, they secured themselves + against the danger of a surprise, by a rude and hasty fortification of + large trees, which were felled and thrown across the roads. The Alemanni + were established in the modern countries of Alsace and Lorraine; the + Franks occupied the island of the Batavians, together with an extensive + district of Brabant, which was then known by the appellation of Toxandria, + <a href="#linknote-19.65" name="linknoteref-19.65" id="linknoteref-19.65">65</a> + and may deserve to be considered as the original seat of their Gallic + monarchy. <a href="#linknote-19.66" name="linknoteref-19.66" + id="linknoteref-19.66">66</a> From the sources, to the mouth, of the Rhine, + the conquests of the Germans extended above forty miles to the west of + that river, over a country peopled by colonies of their own name and + nation: and the scene of their devastations was three times more extensive + than that of their conquests. At a still greater distance the open towns + of Gaul were deserted, and the inhabitants of the fortified cities, who + trusted to their strength and vigilance, were obliged to content + themselves with such supplies of corn as they could raise on the vacant + land within the enclosure of their walls. The diminished legions, + destitute of pay and provisions, of arms and discipline, trembled at the + approach, and even at the name, of the Barbarians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.64" id="linknote-19.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.64">return</a>)<br /> [ The ravages of the + Germans, and the distress of Gaul, may be collected from Julian himself. + Orat. ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 277. Ammian. xv. ll. Libanius, Orat. x. + Zosimus, l. iii. p. 140. Sozomen, l. iii. c. l. (Mamertin. Grat. Art. c. + iv.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.65" id="linknote-19.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xvi. 8. This + name seems to be derived from the Toxandri of Pliny, and very frequently + occurs in the histories of the middle age. Toxandria was a country of + woods and morasses, which extended from the neighborhood of Tongres to the + conflux of the Vahal and the Rhine. See Valesius, Notit. Galliar. p. 558.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.66" id="linknote-19.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.66">return</a>)<br /> [ The paradox of P. + Daniel, that the Franks never obtained any permanent settlement on this + side of the Rhine before the time of Clovis, is refuted with much learning + and good sense by M. Biet, who has proved by a chain of evidence, their + uninterrupted possession of Toxandria, one hundred and thirty years before + the accession of Clovis. The Dissertation of M. Biet was crowned by the + Academy of Soissons, in the year 1736, and seems to have been justly + preferred to the discourse of his more celebrated competitor, the Abbé le + Bœuf, an antiquarian, whose name was happily expressive of his talents.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap19.4"></a> + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Under these melancholy circumstances, an unexperienced youth was appointed + to save and to govern the provinces of Gaul, or rather, as he expressed it + himself, to exhibit the vain image of Imperial greatness. The retired + scholastic education of Julian, in which he had been more conversant with + books than with arms, with the dead than with the living, left him in + profound ignorance of the practical arts of war and government; and when + he awkwardly repeated some military exercise which it was necessary for + him to learn, he exclaimed with a sigh, “O Plato, Plato, what a task for a + philosopher!” Yet even this speculative philosophy, which men of business + are too apt to despise, had filled the mind of Julian with the noblest + precepts and the most shining examples; had animated him with the love of + virtue, the desire of fame, and the contempt of death. The habits of + temperance recommended in the schools, are still more essential in the + severe discipline of a camp. The simple wants of nature regulated the + measure of his food and sleep. Rejecting with disdain the delicacies + provided for his table, he satisfied his appetite with the coarse and + common fare which was allotted to the meanest soldiers. During the rigor + of a Gallic winter, he never suffered a fire in his bed-chamber; and after + a short and interrupted slumber, he frequently rose in the middle of the + night from a carpet spread on the floor, to despatch any urgent business, + to visit his rounds, or to steal a few moments for the prosecution of his + favorite studies. <a href="#linknote-19.67" name="linknoteref-19.67" + id="linknoteref-19.67">67</a> The precepts of eloquence, which he had + hitherto practised on fancied topics of declamation, were more usefully + applied to excite or to assuage the passions of an armed multitude: and + although Julian, from his early habits of conversation and literature, was + more familiarly acquainted with the beauties of the Greek language, he had + attained a competent knowledge of the Latin tongue. <a + href="#linknote-19.68" name="linknoteref-19.68" id="linknoteref-19.68">68</a> + Since Julian was not originally designed for the character of a + legislator, or a judge, it is probable that the civil jurisprudence of the + Romans had not engaged any considerable share of his attention: but he + derived from his philosophic studies an inflexible regard for justice, + tempered by a disposition to clemency; the knowledge of the general + principles of equity and evidence, and the faculty of patiently + investigating the most intricate and tedious questions which could be + proposed for his discussion. The measures of policy, and the operations of + war, must submit to the various accidents of circumstance and character, + and the unpractised student will often be perplexed in the application of + the most perfect theory. + </p> + <p> + But in the acquisition of this important science, Julian was assisted by + the active vigor of his own genius, as well as by the wisdom and + experience of Sallust, and officer of rank, who soon conceived a sincere + attachment for a prince so worthy of his friendship; and whose + incorruptible integrity was adorned by the talent of insinuating the + harshest truths without wounding the delicacy of a royal ear. <a + href="#linknote-19.69" name="linknoteref-19.69" id="linknoteref-19.69">69</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.67" id="linknote-19.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.67">return</a>)<br /> [ The private life of + Julian in Gaul, and the severe discipline which he embraced, are displayed + by Ammianus, (xvi. 5,) who professes to praise, and by Julian himself, who + affects to ridicule, (Misopogon, p. 340,) a conduct, which, in a prince of + the house of Constantine, might justly excite the surprise of mankind.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.68" id="linknote-19.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Aderat Latine quoque + disserenti sufficiens sermo. Ammianus xvi. 5. But Julian, educated in the + schools of Greece, always considered the language of the Romans as a + foreign and popular dialect which he might use on necessary occasions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.69" id="linknote-19.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.69">return</a>)<br /> [ We are ignorant of the + actual office of this excellent minister, whom Julian afterwards created + præfect of Gaul. Sallust was speedly recalled by the jealousy of the + emperor; and we may still read a sensible but pedantic discourse, (p. + 240-252,) in which Julian deplores the loss of so valuable a friend, to + whom he acknowledges himself indebted for his reputation. See La Bleterie, + Preface a la Vie de lovien, p. 20.] + </p> + <p> + Immediately after Julian had received the purple at Milan, he was sent + into Gaul with a feeble retinue of three hundred and sixty soldiers. At + Vienna, where he passed a painful and anxious winter in the hands of those + ministers to whom Constantius had intrusted the direction of his conduct, + the Cæsar was informed of the siege and deliverance of Autun. That large + and ancient city, protected only by a ruined wall and pusillanimous + garrison, was saved by the generous resolution of a few veterans, who + resumed their arms for the defence of their country. In his march from + Autun, through the heart of the Gallic provinces, Julian embraced with + ardor the earliest opportunity of signalizing his courage. At the head of + a small body of archers and heavy cavalry, he preferred the shorter but + the more dangerous of two roads; <a href="#linknote-19.6911" + name="linknoteref-19.6911" id="linknoteref-19.6911">6911</a> and sometimes + eluding, and sometimes resisting, the attacks of the Barbarians, who were + masters of the field, he arrived with honor and safety at the camp near + Rheims, where the Roman troops had been ordered to assemble. The aspect of + their young prince revived the drooping spirits of the soldiers, and they + marched from Rheims in search of the enemy, with a confidence which had + almost proved fatal to them. The Alemanni, familiarized to the knowledge + of the country, secretly collected their scattered forces, and seizing the + opportunity of a dark and rainy day, poured with unexpected fury on the + rear-guard of the Romans. Before the inevitable disorder could be + remedied, two legions were destroyed; and Julian was taught by experience + that caution and vigilance are the most important lessons of the art of + war. In a second and more successful action, he recovered and established + his military fame; but as the agility of the Barbarians saved them from + the pursuit, his victory was neither bloody nor decisive. He advanced, + however, to the banks of the Rhine, surveyed the ruins of Cologne, + convinced himself of the difficulties of the war, and retreated on the + approach of winter, discontented with the court, with his army, and with + his own success. <a href="#linknote-19.70" name="linknoteref-19.70" + id="linknoteref-19.70">70</a> The power of the enemy was yet unbroken; and + the Cæsar had no sooner separated his troops, and fixed his own quarters + at Sens, in the centre of Gaul, than he was surrounded and besieged, by a + numerous host of Germans. Reduced, in this extremity, to the resources of + his own mind, he displayed a prudent intrepidity, which compensated for + all the deficiencies of the place and garrison; and the Barbarians, at the + end of thirty days, were obliged to retire with disappointed rage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.6911" id="linknote-19.6911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6911 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.6911">return</a>)<br /> [ Aliis per Arbor—quibusdam + per Sedelaucum et Coram in debere firrantibus. Amm. Marc. xvi. 2. I do not + know what place can be meant by the mutilated name Arbor. Sedelanus is + Saulieu, a small town of the department of the Cote d’Or, six leagues from + Autun. Cora answers to the village of Cure, on the river of the same name, + between Autun and Nevera 4; Martin, ii. 162.—M. ——Note: + At Brocomages, Brumat, near Strasburgh. St. Martin, ii. 184.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.70" id="linknote-19.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xvi. 2, 3) + appears much better satisfied with the success of his first campaign than + Julian himself; who very fairly owns that he did nothing of consequence, + and that he fled before the enemy.] + </p> + <p> + The conscious pride of Julian, who was indebted only to his sword for this + signal deliverance, was imbittered by the reflection, that he was + abandoned, betrayed, and perhaps devoted to destruction, by those who were + bound to assist him, by every tie of honor and fidelity. Marcellus, + master-general of the cavalry in Gaul, interpreting too strictly the + jealous orders of the court, beheld with supine indifference the distress + of Julian, and had restrained the troops under his command from marching + to the relief of Sens. If the Cæsar had dissembled in silence so + dangerous an insult, his person and authority would have been exposed to + the contempt of the world; and if an action so criminal had been suffered + to pass with impunity, the emperor would have confirmed the suspicions, + which received a very specious color from his past conduct towards the + princes of the Flavian family. Marcellus was recalled, and gently + dismissed from his office. <a href="#linknote-19.71" name="linknoteref-19.71" + id="linknoteref-19.71">71</a> In his room Severus was appointed general of + the cavalry; an experienced soldier, of approved courage and fidelity, who + could advise with respect, and execute with zeal; and who submitted, + without reluctance to the supreme command which Julian, by the inrerest of + his patroness Eusebia, at length obtained over the armies of Gaul. <a + href="#linknote-19.72" name="linknoteref-19.72" id="linknoteref-19.72">72</a> + A very judicious plan of operations was adopted for the approaching + campaign. Julian himself, at the head of the remains of the veteran bands, + and of some new levies which he had been permitted to form, boldly + penetrated into the centre of the German cantonments, and carefully + reestablished the fortifications of Saverne, in an advantageous post, + which would either check the incursions, or intercept the retreat, of the + enemy. At the same time, Barbatio, general of the infantry, advanced from + Milan with an army of thirty thousand men, and passing the mountains, + prepared to throw a bridge over the Rhine, in the neighborhood of Basil. + It was reasonable to expect that the Alemanni, pressed on either side by + the Roman arms, would soon be forced to evacuate the provinces of Gaul, + and to hasten to the defence of their native country. But the hopes of the + campaign were defeated by the incapacity, or the envy, or the secret + instructions, of Barbatio; who acted as if he had been the enemy of the + Cæsar, and the secret ally of the Barbarians. The negligence with which + he permitted a troop of pillagers freely to pass, and to return almost + before the gates of his camp, may be imputed to his want of abilities; but + the treasonable act of burning a number of boats, and a superfluous stock + of provisions, which would have been of the most essential service to the + army of Gaul, was an evidence of his hostile and criminal intentions. The + Germans despised an enemy who appeared destitute either of power or of + inclination to offend them; and the ignominious retreat of Barbatio + deprived Julian of the expected support; and left him to extricate himself + from a hazardous situation, where he could neither remain with safety, nor + retire with honor. <a href="#linknote-19.73" name="linknoteref-19.73" + id="linknoteref-19.73">73</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.71" id="linknote-19.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.71">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xvi. 7. + Libanius speaks rather more advantageously of the military talents of + Marcellus, Orat. x. p. 272. And Julian insinuates, that he would not have + been so easily recalled, unless he had given other reasons of offence to + the court, p. 278.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.72" id="linknote-19.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Severus, non discors, + non arrogans, sed longa militiæ frugalitate compertus; et eum recta + præeuntem secuturus, ut duetorem morigeran miles. Ammian xvi. 11. + Zosimus, l. iii. p. 140.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.73" id="linknote-19.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.73">return</a>)<br /> [ On the design and + failure of the cooperation between Julian and Barbatio, see Ammianus (xvi. + 11) and Libanius, (Orat. x. p. 273.) Note: Barbatio seems to have allowed + himself to be surprised and defeated—M.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as they were delivered from the fears of invasion, the Alemanni + prepared to chastise the Roman youth, who presumed to dispute the + possession of that country, which they claimed as their own by the right + of conquest and of treaties. They employed three days, and as many nights, + in transporting over the Rhine their military powers. The fierce + Chnodomar, shaking the ponderous javelin which he had victoriously wielded + against the brother of Magnentius, led the van of the Barbarians, and + moderated by his experience the martial ardor which his example inspired. + <a href="#linknote-19.74" name="linknoteref-19.74" id="linknoteref-19.74">74</a> + He was followed by six other kings, by ten princes of regal extraction, by + a long train of high-spirited nobles, and by thirty-five thousand of the + bravest warriors of the tribes of Germany. The confidence derived from the + view of their own strength, was increased by the intelligence which they + received from a deserter, that the Cæsar, with a feeble army of thirteen + thousand men, occupied a post about one-and-twenty miles from their camp + of Strasburgh. With this inadequate force, Julian resolved to seek and to + encounter the Barbarian host; and the chance of a general action was + preferred to the tedious and uncertain operation of separately engaging + the dispersed parties of the Alemanni. The Romans marched in close order, + and in two columns; the cavalry on the right, the infantry on the left; + and the day was so far spent when they appeared in sight of the enemy, + that Julian was desirous of deferring the battle till the next morning, + and of allowing his troops to recruit their exhausted strength by the + necessary refreshments of sleep and food. Yielding, however, with some + reluctance, to the clamors of the soldiers, and even to the opinion of his + council, he exhorted them to justify by their valor the eager impatience, + which, in case of a defeat, would be universally branded with the epithets + of rashness and presumption. The trumpets sounded, the military shout was + heard through the field, and the two armies rushed with equal fury to the + charge. The Cæsar, who conducted in person his right wing, depended on + the dexterity of his archers, and the weight of his cuirassiers. But his + ranks were instantly broken by an irregular mixture of light horse and of + light infantry, and he had the mortification of beholding the flight of + six hundred of his most renowned cuirassiers. <a href="#linknote-19.75" + name="linknoteref-19.75" id="linknoteref-19.75">75</a> The fugitives were + stopped and rallied by the presence and authority of Julian, who, careless + of his own safety, threw himself before them, and urging every motive of + shame and honor, led them back against the victorious enemy. The conflict + between the two lines of infantry was obstinate and bloody. The Germans + possessed the superiority of strength and stature, the Romans that of + discipline and temper; and as the Barbarians, who served under the + standard of the empire, united the respective advantages of both parties, + their strenuous efforts, guided by a skilful leader, at length determined + the event of the day. The Romans lost four tribunes, and two hundred and + forty-three soldiers, in this memorable battle of Strasburgh, so glorious + to the Cæsar, <a href="#linknote-19.76" name="linknoteref-19.76" + id="linknoteref-19.76">76</a> and so salutary to the afflicted provinces of + Gaul. Six thousand of the Alemanni were slain in the field, without + including those who were drowned in the Rhine, or transfixed with darts + while they attempted to swim across the river. <a href="#linknote-19.77" + name="linknoteref-19.77" id="linknoteref-19.77">77</a> Chnodomar himself was + surrounded and taken prisoner, with three of his brave companions, who had + devoted themselves to follow in life or death the fate of their chieftain. + Julian received him with military pomp in the council of his officers; and + expressing a generous pity for the fallen state, dissembled his inward + contempt for the abject humiliation, of his captive. Instead of exhibiting + the vanquished king of the Alemanni, as a grateful spectacle to the cities + of Gaul, he respectfully laid at the feet of the emperor this splendid + trophy of his victory. Chnodomar experienced an honorable treatment: but + the impatient Barbarian could not long survive his defeat, his + confinement, and his exile. <a href="#linknote-19.78" + name="linknoteref-19.78" id="linknoteref-19.78">78</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.74" id="linknote-19.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xvi. 12) + describes with his inflated eloquence the figure and character of + Chnodomar. Audax et fidens ingenti robore lacertorum, ubi ardor prœlii + sperabatur immanis, equo spumante sublimior, erectus in jaculum + formidandæ vastitatis, armorumque nitore conspicuus: antea strenuus et + miles, et utilis præter cæteros ductor... Decentium Cæsarem superavit + æquo marte congressus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.75" id="linknote-19.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.75">return</a>)<br /> [ After the battle, + Julian ventured to revive the rigor of ancient discipline, by exposing + these fugitives in female apparel to the derision of the whole camp. In + the next campaign, these troops nobly retrieved their honor. Zosimus, l. + iii. p. 142.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.76" id="linknote-19.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian himself (ad S. + P. Q. Athen. p. 279) speaks of the battle of Strasburgh with the modesty + of conscious merit; Zosimus compares it with the victory of Alexander over + Darius; and yet we are at a loss to discover any of those strokes of + military genius which fix the attention of ages on the conduct and success + of a single day.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.77" id="linknote-19.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.77">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xvi. 12. + Libanius adds 2000 more to the number of the slain, (Orat. x. p. 274.) But + these trifling differences disappear before the 60,000 Barbarians, whom + Zosimus has sacrificed to the glory of his hero, (l. iii. p. 141.) We + might attribute this extravagant number to the carelessness of + transcribers, if this credulous or partial historian had not swelled the + army of 35,000 Alemanni to an innumerable multitude of Barbarians,. It is + our own fault if this detection does not inspire us with proper distrust + on similar occasions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.78" id="linknote-19.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.78">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xvi. 12. + Libanius, Orat. x. p. 276.] + </p> + <p> + After Julian had repulsed the Alemanni from the provinces of the Upper + Rhine, he turned his arms against the Franks, who were seated nearer to + the ocean, on the confines of Gaul and Germany; and who, from their + numbers, and still more from their intrepid valor, had ever been esteemed + the most formidable of the Barbarians. <a href="#linknote-19.79" + name="linknoteref-19.79" id="linknoteref-19.79">79</a> Although they were + strongly actuated by the allurements of rapine, they professed a + disinterested love of war; which they considered as the supreme honor and + felicity of human nature; and their minds and bodies were so completely + hardened by perpetual action, that, according to the lively expression of + an orator, the snows of winter were as pleasant to them as the flowers of + spring. In the month of December, which followed the battle of Strasburgh, + Julian attacked a body of six hundred Franks, who had thrown themselves + into two castles on the Meuse. <a href="#linknote-19.80" + name="linknoteref-19.80" id="linknoteref-19.80">80</a> In the midst of that + severe season they sustained, with inflexible constancy, a siege of + fifty-four days; till at length, exhausted by hunger, and satisfied that + the vigilance of the enemy, in breaking the ice of the river, left them no + hopes of escape, the Franks consented, for the first time, to dispense + with the ancient law which commanded them to conquer or to die. The Cæsar + immediately sent his captives to the court of Constantius, who, accepting + them as a valuable present, <a href="#linknote-19.81" + name="linknoteref-19.81" id="linknoteref-19.81">81</a> rejoiced in the + opportunity of adding so many heroes to the choicest troops of his + domestic guards. The obstinate resistance of this handful of Franks + apprised Julian of the difficulties of the expedition which he meditated + for the ensuing spring, against the whole body of the nation. His rapid + diligence surprised and astonished the active Barbarians. Ordering his + soldiers to provide themselves with biscuit for twenty days, he suddenly + pitched his camp near Tongres, while the enemy still supposed him in his + winter quarters of Paris, expecting the slow arrival of his convoys from + Aquitain. Without allowing the Franks to unite or deliberate, he skilfully + spread his legions from Cologne to the ocean; and by the terror, as well + as by the success, of his arms, soon reduced the suppliant tribes to + implore the clemency, and to obey the commands, of their conqueror. The + Chamavians submissively retired to their former habitations beyond the + Rhine; but the Salians were permitted to possess their new establishment + of Toxandria, as the subjects and auxiliaries of the Roman empire. <a + href="#linknote-19.82" name="linknoteref-19.82" id="linknoteref-19.82">82</a> + The treaty was ratified by solemn oaths; and perpetual inspectors were + appointed to reside among the Franks, with the authority of enforcing the + strict observance of the conditions. An incident is related, interesting + enough in itself, and by no means repugnant to the character of Julian, + who ingeniously contrived both the plot and the catastrophe of the + tragedy. When the Chamavians sued for peace, he required the son of their + king, as the only hostage on whom he could rely. A mournful silence, + interrupted by tears and groans, declared the sad perplexity of the + Barbarians; and their aged chief lamented in pathetic language, that his + private loss was now imbittered by a sense of public calamity. While the + Chamavians lay prostrate at the foot of his throne, the royal captive, + whom they believed to have been slain, unexpectedly appeared before their + eyes; and as soon as the tumult of joy was hushed into attention, the + Cæsar addressed the assembly in the following terms: “Behold the son, the + prince, whom you wept. You had lost him by your fault. God and the Romans + have restored him to you. I shall still preserve and educate the youth, + rather as a monument of my own virtue, than as a pledge of your sincerity. + Should you presume to violate the faith which you have sworn, the arms of + the republic will avenge the perfidy, not on the innocent, but on the + guilty.” The Barbarians withdrew from his presence, impressed with the + warmest sentiments of gratitude and admiration. <a href="#linknote-19.83" + name="linknoteref-19.83" id="linknoteref-19.83">83</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.79" id="linknote-19.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius (Orat. iii. p. + 137) draws a very lively picture of the manners of the Franks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.80" id="linknote-19.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.80">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xvii. 2. + Libanius, Orat. x. p. 278. The Greek orator, by misapprehending a passage + of Julian, has been induced to represent the Franks as consisting of a + thousand men; and as his head was always full of the Peloponnesian war, he + compares them to the Lacedæmonians, who were besieged and taken in the + Island of Sphatoria.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.81" id="linknote-19.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. ad S. P. Q. + Athen. p. 280. Libanius, Orat. x. p. 278. According to the expression of + Libanius, the emperor, which La Bleterie understands (Vie de Julien, p. + 118) as an honest confession, and Valesius (ad Ammian. xvii. 2) as a mean + evasion, of the truth. Dom Bouquet, (Historiens de France, tom. i. p. + 733,) by substituting another word, would suppress both the difficulty and + the spirit of this passage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.82" id="linknote-19.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xvii. 8. + Zosimus, l. iii. p. 146-150, (his narrative is darkened by a mixture of + fable,) and Julian. ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 280. His expression. This + difference of treatment confirms the opinion that the Salian Franks were + permitted to retain the settlements in Toxandria. Note: A newly discovered + fragment of Eunapius, whom Zosimus probably transcribed, illustrates this + transaction. “Julian commanded the Romans to abstain from all hostile + measures against the Salians, neither to waste or ravage <i>their own</i> + country, for he called every country <i>their own</i> which was surrendered + without resistance or toil on the part of the conquerors.” Mai, Script. + Vez Nov. Collect. ii. 256, and Eunapius in Niebuhr, Byzant. Hist.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.83" id="linknote-19.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.83">return</a>)<br /> [ This interesting story, + which Zosimus has abridged, is related by Eunapius, (in Excerpt. + Legationum, p. 15, 16, 17,) with all the amplifications of Grecian + rhetoric: but the silence of Libanius, of Ammianus, and of Julian himself, + renders the truth of it extremely suspicious.] + </p> + <p> + It was not enough for Julian to have delivered the provinces of Gaul from + the Barbarians of Germany. He aspired to emulate the glory of the first + and most illustrious of the emperors; after whose example, he composed his + own commentaries of the Gallic war. <a href="#linknote-19.84" + name="linknoteref-19.84" id="linknoteref-19.84">84</a> Cæsar has related, + with conscious pride, the manner in which he <i>twice</i> passed the Rhine. + Julian could boast, that before he assumed the title of Augustus, he had + carried the Roman eagles beyond that great river in <i>three</i> successful + expeditions. <a href="#linknote-19.85" name="linknoteref-19.85" + id="linknoteref-19.85">85</a> The consternation of the Germans, after the + battle of Strasburgh, encouraged him to the first attempt; and the + reluctance of the troops soon yielded to the persuasive eloquence of a + leader, who shared the fatigues and dangers which he imposed on the + meanest of the soldiers. The villages on either side of the Meyn, which + were plentifully stored with corn and cattle, felt the ravages of an + invading army. The principal houses, constructed with some imitation of + Roman elegance, were consumed by the flames; and the Cæsar boldly + advanced about ten miles, till his progress was stopped by a dark and + impenetrable forest, undermined by subterraneous passages, which + threatened with secret snares and ambush every step of the assailants. The + ground was already covered with snow; and Julian, after repairing an + ancient castle which had been erected by Trajan, granted a truce of ten + months to the submissive Barbarians. At the expiration of the truce, + Julian undertook a second expedition beyond the Rhine, to humble the pride + of Surmar and Hortaire, two of the kings of the Alemanni, who had been + present at the battle of Strasburgh. They promised to restore all the + Roman captives who yet remained alive; and as the Cæsar had procured an + exact account from the cities and villages of Gaul, of the inhabitants + whom they had lost, he detected every attempt to deceive him, with a + degree of readiness and accuracy, which almost established the belief of + his supernatural knowledge. His third expedition was still more splendid + and important than the two former. The Germans had collected their + military powers, and moved along the opposite banks of the river, with a + design of destroying the bridge, and of preventing the passage of the + Romans. But this judicious plan of defence was disconcerted by a skilful + diversion. Three hundred light-armed and active soldiers were detached in + forty small boats, to fall down the stream in silence, and to land at some + distance from the posts of the enemy. They executed their orders with so + much boldness and celerity, that they had almost surprised the Barbarian + chiefs, who returned in the fearless confidence of intoxication from one + of their nocturnal festivals. Without repeating the uniform and disgusting + tale of slaughter and devastation, it is sufficient to observe, that + Julian dictated his own conditions of peace to six of the haughtiest kings + of the Alemanni, three of whom were permitted to view the severe + discipline and martial pomp of a Roman camp. Followed by twenty thousand + captives, whom he had rescued from the chains of the Barbarians, the + Cæsar repassed the Rhine, after terminating a war, the success of which + has been compared to the ancient glories of the Punic and Cimbric + victories. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.84" id="linknote-19.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, the friend of + Julian, clearly insinuates (Orat. ix. p. 178) that his hero had composed + the history of his Gallic campaigns But Zosimus (l. iii. p, 140) seems to + have derived his information only from the Orations and the Epistles of + Julian. The discourse which is addressed to the Athenians contains an + accurate, though general, account of the war against the Germans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.85" id="linknote-19.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.85">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammian. xvii. 1, + 10, xviii. 2, and Zosim. l. iii. p. 144. Julian ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. + 280.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as the valor and conduct of Julian had secured an interval of + peace, he applied himself to a work more congenial to his humane and + philosophic temper. The cities of Gaul, which had suffered from the + inroads of the Barbarians, he diligently repaired; and seven important + posts, between Mentz and the mouth of the Rhine, are particularly + mentioned, as having been rebuilt and fortified by the order of Julian. <a + href="#linknote-19.86" name="linknoteref-19.86" id="linknoteref-19.86">86</a> + The vanquished Germans had submitted to the just but humiliating condition + of preparing and conveying the necessary materials. The active zeal of + Julian urged the prosecution of the work; and such was the spirit which he + had diffused among the troops, that the auxiliaries themselves, waiving + their exemption from any duties of fatigue, contended in the most servile + labors with the diligence of the Roman soldiers. It was incumbent on the + Cæsar to provide for the subsistence, as well as for the safety, of the + inhabitants and of the garrisons. The desertion of the former, and the + mutiny of the latter, must have been the fatal and inevitable consequences + of famine. The tillage of the provinces of Gaul had been interrupted by + the calamities of war; but the scanty harvests of the continent were + supplied, by his paternal care, from the plenty of the adjacent island. + Six hundred large barks, framed in the forest of the Ardennes, made + several voyages to the coast of Britain; and returning from thence, laden + with corn, sailed up the Rhine, and distributed their cargoes to the + several towns and fortresses along the banks of the river. <a + href="#linknote-19.87" name="linknoteref-19.87" id="linknoteref-19.87">87</a> + The arms of Julian had restored a free and secure navigation, which + Constantinius had offered to purchase at the expense of his dignity, and + of a tributary present of two thousand pounds of silver. The emperor + parsimoniously refused to his soldiers the sums which he granted with a + lavish and trembling hand to the Barbarians. The dexterity, as well as the + firmness, of Julian was put to a severe trial, when he took the field with + a discontented army, which had already served two campaigns, without + receiving any regular pay or any extraordinary donative. <a + href="#linknote-19.88" name="linknoteref-19.88" id="linknoteref-19.88">88</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.86" id="linknote-19.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.86">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xviii. 2. + Libanius, Orat. x. p. 279, 280. Of these seven posts, four are at present + towns of some consequence; Bingen, Andernach, Bonn, and Nuyss. The other + three, Tricesimæ, Quadriburgium, and Castra Herculis, or Heraclea, no + longer subsist; but there is room to believe, that on the ground of + Quadriburgium the Dutch have constructed the fort of Schenk, a name so + offensive to the fastidious delicacy of Boileau. See D’Anville, Notice de + l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 183. Boileau, Epitre iv. and the notes. Note: + Tricesimæ, Kellen, Mannert, quoted by Wagner. Heraclea, Erkeleus in the + district of Juliers. St. Martin, ii. 311.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.87" id="linknote-19.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.87">return</a>)<br /> [ We may credit Julian + himself, (Orat. ad S. P. Q. Atheniensem, p. 280,) who gives a very + particular account of the transaction. Zosimus adds two hundred vessels + more, (l. iii. p. 145.) If we compute the 600 corn ships of Julian at only + seventy tons each, they were capable of exporting 120,000 quarters, (see + Arbuthnot’s Weights and Measures, p. 237;) and the country which could + bear so large an exportation, must already have attained an improved state + of agriculture.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.88" id="linknote-19.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.88">return</a>)<br /> [ The troops once broke + out into a mutiny, immediately before the second passage of the Rhine. + Ammian. xvii. 9.] + </p> + <p> + A tender regard for the peace and happiness of his subjects was the ruling + principle which directed, or seemed to direct, the administration of + Julian. <a href="#linknote-19.89" name="linknoteref-19.89" + id="linknoteref-19.89">89</a> He devoted the leisure of his winter quarters + to the offices of civil government; and affected to assume, with more + pleasure, the character of a magistrate than that of a general. Before he + took the field, he devolved on the provincial governors most of the public + and private causes which had been referred to his tribunal; but, on his + return, he carefully revised their proceedings, mitigated the rigor of the + law, and pronounced a second judgment on the judges themselves. Superior + to the last temptation of virtuous minds, an indiscreet and intemperate + zeal for justice, he restrained, with calmness and dignity, the warmth of + an advocate, who prosecuted, for extortion, the president of the + Narbonnese province. “Who will ever be found guilty,” exclaimed the + vehement Delphidius, “if it be enough to deny?” “And who,” replied Julian, + “will ever be innocent, if it be sufficient to affirm?” In the general + administration of peace and war, the interest of the sovereign is commonly + the same as that of his people; but Constantius would have thought himself + deeply injured, if the virtues of Julian had defrauded him of any part of + the tribute which he extorted from an oppressed and exhausted country. The + prince who was invested with the ensigns of royalty, might sometimes + presume to correct the rapacious insolence of his inferior agents, to + expose their corrupt arts, and to introduce an equal and easier mode of + collection. But the management of the finances was more safely intrusted + to Florentius, prætorian præfect of Gaul, an effeminate tyrant, + incapable of pity or remorse: and the haughty minister complained of the + most decent and gentle opposition, while Julian himself was rather + inclined to censure the weakness of his own behavior. The Cæsar had + rejected, with abhorrence, a mandate for the levy of an extraordinary tax; + a new superindiction, which the præfect had offered for his signature; + and the faithful picture of the public misery, by which he had been + obliged to justify his refusal, offended the court of Constantius. We may + enjoy the pleasure of reading the sentiments of Julian, as he expresses + them with warmth and freedom in a letter to one of his most intimate + friends. After stating his own conduct, he proceeds in the following + terms: “Was it possible for the disciple of Plato and Aristotle to act + otherwise than I have done? Could I abandon the unhappy subjects intrusted + to my care? Was I not called upon to defend them from the repeated + injuries of these unfeeling robbers? A tribune who deserts his post is + punished with death, and deprived of the honors of burial. With what + justice could I pronounce <i>his</i> sentence, if, in the hour of danger, I + myself neglected a duty far more sacred and far more important? God has + placed me in this elevated post; his providence will guard and support me. + Should I be condemned to suffer, I shall derive comfort from the testimony + of a pure and upright conscience. Would to Heaven that I still possessed a + counsellor like Sallust! If they think proper to send me a successor, I + shall submit without reluctance; and had much rather improve the short + opportunity of doing good, than enjoy a long and lasting impunity of + evil.” <a href="#linknote-19.90" name="linknoteref-19.90" + id="linknoteref-19.90">90</a> The precarious and dependent situation of + Julian displayed his virtues and concealed his defects. The young hero who + supported, in Gaul, the throne of Constantius, was not permitted to reform + the vices of the government; but he had courage to alleviate or to pity + the distress of the people. Unless he had been able to revive the martial + spirit of the Romans, or to introduce the arts of industry and refinement + among their savage enemies, he could not entertain any rational hopes of + securing the public tranquillity, either by the peace or conquest of + Germany. Yet the victories of Julian suspended, for a short time, the + inroads of the Barbarians, and delayed the ruin of the Western Empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.89" id="linknote-19.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.89">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xvi. 5, xviii. + 1. Mamertinus in Panegyr. Vet. xi. 4] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.90" id="linknote-19.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xvii. 3. + Julian. Epistol. xv. edit. Spanheim. Such a conduct almost justifies the + encomium of Mamertinus. Ita illi anni spatia divisa sunt, ut aut Barbaros + domitet, aut civibus jura restituat, perpetuum professus, aut contra + hostem, aut contra vitia, certamen.] + </p> + <p> + His salutary influence restored the cities of Gaul, which had been so long + exposed to the evils of civil discord, Barbarian war, and domestic + tyranny; and the spirit of industry was revived with the hopes of + enjoyment. Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, again flourished under + the protection of the laws; and the <i>curiæ</i>, or civil corporations, were + again filled with useful and respectable members: the youth were no longer + apprehensive of marriage; and married persons were no longer apprehensive + of posterity: the public and private festivals were celebrated with + customary pomp; and the frequent and secure intercourse of the provinces + displayed the image of national prosperity. <a href="#linknote-19.91" + name="linknoteref-19.91" id="linknoteref-19.91">91</a> A mind like that of + Julian must have felt the general happiness of which he was the author; + but he viewed, with particular satisfaction and complacency, the city of + Paris; the seat of his winter residence, and the object even of his + partial affection. <a href="#linknote-19.92" name="linknoteref-19.92" + id="linknoteref-19.92">92</a> That splendid capital, which now embraces an + ample territory on either side of the Seine, was originally confined to + the small island in the midst of the river, from whence the inhabitants + derived a supply of pure and salubrious water. The river bathed the foot + of the walls; and the town was accessible only by two wooden bridges. A + forest overspread the northern side of the Seine, but on the south, the + ground, which now bears the name of the University, was insensibly covered + with houses, and adorned with a palace and amphitheatre, baths, an + aqueduct, and a field of Mars for the exercise of the Roman troops. The + severity of the climate was tempered by the neighborhood of the ocean; and + with some precautions, which experience had taught, the vine and fig-tree + were successfully cultivated. But in remarkable winters, the Seine was + deeply frozen; and the huge pieces of ice that floated down the stream, + might be compared, by an Asiatic, to the blocks of white marble which were + extracted from the quarries of Phrygia. The licentiousness and corruption + of Antioch recalled to the memory of Julian the severe and simple manners + of his beloved Lutetia; <a href="#linknote-19.93" name="linknoteref-19.93" + id="linknoteref-19.93">93</a> where the amusements of the theatre were + unknown or despised. He indignantly contrasted the effeminate Syrians with + the brave and honest simplicity of the Gauls, and almost forgave the + intemperance, which was the only stain of the Celtic character. <a + href="#linknote-19.94" name="linknoteref-19.94" id="linknoteref-19.94">94</a> + If Julian could now revisit the capital of France, he might converse with + men of science and genius, capable of understanding and of instructing a + disciple of the Greeks; he might excuse the lively and graceful follies of + a nation, whose martial spirit has never been enervated by the indulgence + of luxury; and he must applaud the perfection of that inestimable art, + which softens and refines and embellishes the intercourse of social life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.91" id="linknote-19.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. + Parental. in Imp. Julian. c. 38, in Fabricius Bibliothec. Græc. tom. vii. + p. 263, 264.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.92" id="linknote-19.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.92">return</a>)<br /> [ See Julian. in + Misopogon, p. 340, 341. The primitive state of Paris is illustrated by + Henry Valesius, (ad Ammian. xx. 4,) his brother Hadrian Valesius, or de + Valois, and M. D’Anville, (in their respective Notitias of ancient Gaul,) + the Abbé de Longuerue, (Description de la France, tom. i. p. 12, 13,) and + M. Bonamy, (in the Mém. de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xv. p. + 656-691.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.93" id="linknote-19.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.93">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian, in Misopogon, + p. 340. Leuce tia, or Lutetia, was the ancient name of the city, which, + according to the fashion of the fourth century, assumed the territorial + appellation of <i>Parisii</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-19.94" id="linknote-19.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-19.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian in Misopogon, p. + 359, 360.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap20.1"></a>Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part I.</h2> + +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Motives, Progress, And Effects Of The Conversion Of +Constantine.—Legal Establishment And Constitution Of The Christian Or +Catholic Church. +</pre> + +<p> +The public establishment of Christianity may be considered as one of those +important and domestic revolutions which excite the most lively curiosity, and +afford the most valuable instruction. The victories and the civil policy of +Constantine no longer influence the state of Europe; but a considerable portion +of the globe still retains the impression which it received from the conversion +of that monarch; and the ecclesiastical institutions of his reign are still +connected, by an indissoluble chain, with the opinions, the passions, and the +interests of the present generation. In the consideration of a subject which +may be examined with impartiality, but cannot be viewed with indifference, a +difficulty immediately arises of a very unexpected nature; that of ascertaining +the real and precise date of the conversion of Constantine. The eloquent +Lactantius, in the midst of his court, seems impatient <a href="#linknote-20.1" +name="linknoteref-20.1" id="linknoteref-20.1">1</a> to proclaim to the world the +glorious example of the sovereign of Gaul; who, in the first moments of his +reign, acknowledged and adored the majesty of the true and only God. <a +href="#linknote-20.2" name="linknoteref-20.2" id="linknoteref-20.2">2</a> The +learned Eusebius has ascribed the faith of Constantine to the miraculous sign +which was displayed in the heavens whilst he meditated and prepared the Italian +expedition. <a href="#linknote-20.3" name="linknoteref-20.3" +id="linknoteref-20.3">3</a> The historian Zosimus maliciously asserts, that the +emperor had imbrued his hands in the blood of his eldest son, before he +publicly renounced the gods of Rome and of his ancestors. <a +href="#linknote-20.4" name="linknoteref-20.4" id="linknoteref-20.4">4</a> The +perplexity produced by these discordant authorities is derived from the +behavior of Constantine himself. According to the strictness of ecclesiastical +language, the first of the <i>Christian</i> emperors was unworthy of that name, +till the moment of his death; since it was only during his last illness that he +received, as a catechumen, the imposition of hands, <a href="#linknote-20.5" +name="linknoteref-20.5" id="linknoteref-20.5">5</a> and was afterwards admitted, +by the initiatory rites of baptism, into the number of the faithful. <a +href="#linknote-20.6" name="linknoteref-20.6" id="linknoteref-20.6">6</a> The +Christianity of Constantine must be allowed in a much more vague and qualified +sense; and the nicest accuracy is required in tracing the slow and almost +imperceptible gradations by which the monarch declared himself the protector, +and at length the proselyte, of the church. It was an arduous task to eradicate +the habits and prejudices of his education, to acknowledge the divine power of +Christ, and to understand that the truth of <i>his</i> revelation was +incompatible with the worship of the gods. The obstacles which he had probably +experienced in his own mind, instructed him to proceed with caution in the +momentous change of a national religion; and he insensibly discovered his new +opinions, as far as he could enforce them with safety and with effect. During +the whole course of his reign, the stream of Christianity flowed with a gentle, +though accelerated, motion: but its general direction was sometimes checked, +and sometimes diverted, by the accidental circumstances of the times, and by +the prudence, or possibly by the caprice, of the monarch. His ministers were +permitted to signify the intentions of their master in the various language +which was best adapted to their respective principles; <a href="#linknote-20.7" +name="linknoteref-20.7" id="linknoteref-20.7">7</a> and he artfully balanced the +hopes and fears of his subjects, by publishing in the same year two edicts; the +first of which enjoined the solemn observance of Sunday, <a +href="#linknote-20.8" name="linknoteref-20.8" id="linknoteref-20.8">8</a> and the +second directed the regular consultation of the Aruspices. <a +href="#linknote-20.9" name="linknoteref-20.9" id="linknoteref-20.9">9</a> While +this important revolution yet remained in suspense, the Christians and the +Pagans watched the conduct of their sovereign with the same anxiety, but with +very opposite sentiments. The former were prompted by every motive of zeal, as +well as vanity, to exaggerate the marks of his favor, and the evidences of his +faith. The latter, till their just apprehensions were changed into despair and +resentment, attempted to conceal from the world, and from themselves, that the +gods of Rome could no longer reckon the emperor in the number of their +votaries. The same passions and prejudices have engaged the partial writers of +the times to connect the public profession of Christianity with the most +glorious or the most ignominious æra of the reign of Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.1" id="linknote-20.1"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.1">return</a>)<br/> [ The date of the Divine +Institutions of Lactantius has been accurately discussed, difficulties have +been started, solutions proposed, and an expedient imagined of two +<i>original</i> editions; the former published during the persecution of +Diocletian, the latter under that of Licinius. See Dufresnoy, Prefat. p. v. +Tillemont, Mém. Ecclesiast. tom. vi. p. 465-470. Lardner’s Credibility, +part ii. vol. vii. p. 78-86. For my own part, I am <i>almost</i> convinced that +Lactantius dedicated his Institutions to the sovereign of Gaul, at a time when +Galerius, Maximin, and even Licinius, persecuted the Christians; that is, +between the years 306 and 311.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.2" id="linknote-20.2"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +2 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactant. Divin. Instit. i. l. +vii. 27. The first and most important of these passages is indeed wanting in +twenty-eight manuscripts; but it is found in nineteen. If we weigh the +comparative value of these manuscripts, one of 900 years old, in the king of +France’s library may be alleged in its favor; but the passage is omitted +in the correct manuscript of Bologna, which the P. de Montfaucon ascribes to +the sixth or seventh century (Diarium Italic. p. 489.) The taste of most of the +editors (except Isæus; see Lactant. edit. Dufresnoy, tom. i. p. 596) has felt +the genuine style of Lactantius.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.3" id="linknote-20.3"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +3 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Euseb. in Vit. Constant. l. i. +c. 27-32.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.4" id="linknote-20.4"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +4 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.4">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 104.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.5" id="linknote-20.5"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +5 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.5">return</a>)<br/> [ That rite was <i>always</i> +used in making a catechumen, (see Bingham’s Antiquities. l. x. c. i. p. +419. Dom Chardon, Hist. des Sacramens, tom. i. p. 62,) and Constantine received +it for the <i>first</i> time (Euseb. in Vit Constant. l. iv. c. 61) immediately +before his baptism and death. From the connection of these two facts, Valesius +(ad loc. Euseb.) has drawn the conclusion which is reluctantly admitted by +Tillemont, (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 628,) and opposed with feeble +arguments by Mosheim, (p. 968.)] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.6" id="linknote-20.6"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +6 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Euseb. in Vit. Constant. l. +iv. c. 61, 62, 63. The legend of Constantine’s baptism at Rome, thirteen +years before his death, was invented in the eighth century, as a proper motive +for his <i>donation</i>. Such has been the gradual progress of knowledge, that +a story, of which Cardinal Baronius (Annual Ecclesiast. A. D. 324, No. 43-49) +declared himself the unblushing advocate, is now feebly supported, even within +the verge of the Vatican. See the Antiquitates Christianæ, tom. ii. p. 232; a +work published with six approbations at Rome, in the year 1751 by Father +Mamachi, a learned Dominican.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.7" id="linknote-20.7"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +7 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.7">return</a>)<br/> [ The quæstor, or secretary, who +composed the law of the Theodosian Code, makes his master say with +indifference, “hominibus supradictæ religionis,” (l. xvi. tit. ii. +leg. 1.) The minister of ecclesiastical affairs was allowed a more devout and +respectful style, [**Greek] the legal, most holy, and Catholic worship.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.8" id="linknote-20.8"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +8 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Cod. Theodos. l. ii. viii. +tit. leg. 1. Cod. Justinian. l. iii. tit. xii. leg. 3. Constantine styles the +Lord’s day <i>dies solis</i>, a name which could not offend the ears of +his pagan subjects.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.9" id="linknote-20.9"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +9 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.9">return</a>)<br/> [ Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. x. +leg. l. Godefroy, in the character of a commentator, endeavors (tom. vi. p. +257) to excuse Constantine; but the more zealous Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A. D. +321, No. 17) censures his profane conduct with truth and asperity.] +</p> + +<p> +Whatever symptoms of Christian piety might transpire in the discourses or +actions of Constantine, he persevered till he was near forty years of age in +the practice of the established religion; <a href="#linknote-20.10" +name="linknoteref-20.10" id="linknoteref-20.10">10</a> and the same conduct which +in the court of Nicomedia might be imputed to his fear, could be ascribed only +to the inclination or policy of the sovereign of Gaul. His liberality restored +and enriched the temples of the gods; the medals which issued from his Imperial +mint are impressed with the figures and attributes of Jupiter and Apollo, of +Mars and Hercules; and his filial piety increased the council of Olympus by the +solemn apotheosis of his father Constantius. <a href="#linknote-20.11" +name="linknoteref-20.11" id="linknoteref-20.11">11</a> But the devotion of +Constantine was more peculiarly directed to the genius of the Sun, the Apollo +of Greek and Roman mythology; and he was pleased to be represented with the +symbols of the God of Light and Poetry. The unerring shafts of that deity, the +brightness of his eyes, his laurel wreath, immortal beauty, and elegant +accomplishments, seem to point him out as the patron of a young hero. The +altars of Apollo were crowned with the votive offerings of Constantine; and the +credulous multitude were taught to believe, that the emperor was permitted to +behold with mortal eyes the visible majesty of their tutelar deity; and that, +either walking or in a vision, he was blessed with the auspicious omens of a +long and victorious reign. The Sun was universally celebrated as the invincible +guide and protector of Constantine; and the Pagans might reasonably expect that +the insulted god would pursue with unrelenting vengeance the impiety of his +ungrateful favorite. <a href="#linknote-20.12" name="linknoteref-20.12" +id="linknoteref-20.12">12</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.10" id="linknote-20.10"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +10 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Theodoret. (l. i. c. 18) +seems to insinuate that Helena gave her son a Christian education; but we may +be assured, from the superior authority of Eusebius, (in Vit. Constant. l. iii. +c. 47,) that she herself was indebted to Constantine for the knowledge of +Christianity.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.11" id="linknote-20.11"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +11 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.11">return</a>)<br/> [ See the medals of +Constantine in Ducange and Banduri. As few cities had retained the privilege of +coining, almost all the medals of that age issued from the mint under the +sanction of the Imperial authority.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.12" id="linknote-20.12"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +12 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.12">return</a>)<br/> [ The panegyric of Eumenius, +(vii. inter Panegyr. Vet.,) which was pronounced a few months before the +Italian war, abounds with the most unexceptionable evidence of the Pagan +superstition of Constantine, and of his particular veneration for Apollo, or +the Sun; to which Julian alludes.] +</p> + +<p> +As long as Constantine exercised a limited sovereignty over the provinces of +Gaul, his Christian subjects were protected by the authority, and perhaps by +the laws, of a prince, who wisely left to the gods the care of vindicating +their own honor. If we may credit the assertion of Constantine himself, he had +been an indignant spectator of the savage cruelties which were inflicted, by +the hands of Roman soldiers, on those citizens whose religion was their only +crime. <a href="#linknote-20.13" name="linknoteref-20.13" +id="linknoteref-20.13">13</a> In the East and in the West, he had seen the +different effects of severity and indulgence; and as the former was rendered +still more odious by the example of Galerius, his implacable enemy, the latter +was recommended to his imitation by the authority and advice of a dying father. +The son of Constantius immediately suspended or repealed the edicts of +persecution, and granted the free exercise of their religious ceremonies to all +those who had already professed themselves members of the church. They were +soon encouraged to depend on the favor as well as on the justice of their +sovereign, who had imbibed a secret and sincere reverence for the name of +Christ, and for the God of the Christians. <a href="#linknote-20.14" +name="linknoteref-20.14" id="linknoteref-20.14">14</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.13" id="linknote-20.13"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +13 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Constantin. Orat. ad +Sanctos, c. 25. But it might easily be shown, that the Greek translator has +improved the sense of the Latin original; and the aged emperor might recollect +the persecution of Diocletian with a more lively abhorrence than he had +actually felt to the days of his youth and Paganism.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.14" id="linknote-20.14"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +14 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.14">return</a>)<br/> [ See Euseb. Hist. Eccles. l. +viii. 13, l. ix. 9, and in Vit. Const. l. i. c. 16, 17 Lactant. Divin. +Institut. i. l. Cæcilius de Mort. Persecut. c. 25.] +</p> + +<p> +About five months after the conquest of Italy, the emperor made a solemn and +authentic declaration of his sentiments by the celebrated edict of Milan, which +restored peace to the Catholic church. In the personal interview of the two +western princes, Constantine, by the ascendant of genius and power, obtained +the ready concurrence of his colleague, Licinius; the union of their names and +authority disarmed the fury of Maximin; and after the death of the tyrant of +the East, the edict of Milan was received as a general and fundamental law of +the Roman world. <a href="#linknote-20.15" name="linknoteref-20.15" +id="linknoteref-20.15">15</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.15" id="linknote-20.15"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +15 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæcilius (de Mort. Persecut. +c. 48) has preserved the Latin original; and Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. l. x. c. +5) has given a Greek translation of this perpetual edict, which refers to some +provisional regulations.] +</p> + +<p> +The wisdom of the emperors provided for the restitution of all the civil and +religious rights of which the Christians had been so unjustly deprived. It was +enacted that the places of worship, and public lands, which had been +confiscated, should be restored to the church, without dispute, without delay, +and without expense; and this severe injunction was accompanied with a gracious +promise, that if any of the purchasers had paid a fair and adequate price, they +should be indemnified from the Imperial treasury. The salutary regulations +which guard the future tranquillity of the faithful are framed on the +principles of enlarged and equal toleration; and such an equality must have +been interpreted by a recent sect as an advantageous and honorable distinction. +The two emperors proclaim to the world, that they have granted a free and +absolute power to the Christians, and to all others, of following the religion +which each individual thinks proper to prefer, to which he has addicted his +mind, and which he may deem the best adapted to his own use. They carefully +explain every ambiguous word, remove every exception, and exact from the +governors of the provinces a strict obedience to the true and simple meaning of +an edict, which was designed to establish and secure, without any limitation, +the claims of religious liberty. They condescend to assign two weighty reasons +which have induced them to allow this universal toleration: the humane +intention of consulting the peace and happiness of their people; and the pious +hope, that, by such a conduct, they shall appease and propitiate <i>the +Deity</i>, whose seat is in heaven. They gratefully acknowledge the many signal +proofs which they have received of the divine favor; and they trust that the +same Providence will forever continue to protect the prosperity of the prince +and people. From these vague and indefinite expressions of piety, three +suppositions may be deduced, of a different, but not of an incompatible nature. +The mind of Constantine might fluctuate between the Pagan and the Christian +religions. According to the loose and complying notions of Polytheism, he might +acknowledge the God of the Christians as <i>one</i> of the <i>many</i> deities +who compose the hierarchy of heaven. Or perhaps he might embrace the +philosophic and pleasing idea, that, notwithstanding the variety of names, of +rites, and of opinions, all the sects, and all the nations of mankind, are +united in the worship of the common Father and Creator of the universe. <a +href="#linknote-20.16" name="linknoteref-20.16" id="linknoteref-20.16">16</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.16" id="linknote-20.16"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +16 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.16">return</a>)<br/> [ A panegyric of Constantine, +pronounced seven or eight months after the edict of Milan, (see Gothofred. +Chronolog. Legum, p. 7, and Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 246,) +uses the following remarkable expression: “Summe rerum sator, cujus tot +nomina sant, quot linguas gentium esse voluisti, quem enim te ipse dici velin, +scire non possumus.” (Panegyr. Vet. ix. 26.) In explaining +Constantine’s progress in the faith, Mosheim (p. 971, &c.) is +ingenious, subtle, prolix.] +</p> + +<p> +But the counsels of princes are more frequently influenced by views of temporal +advantage, than by considerations of abstract and speculative truth. The +partial and increasing favor of Constantine may naturally be referred to the +esteem which he entertained for the moral character of the Christians; and to a +persuasion, that the propagation of the gospel would inculcate the practice of +private and public virtue. Whatever latitude an absolute monarch may assume in +his own conduct, whatever indulgence he may claim for his own passions, it is +undoubtedly his interest that all his subjects should respect the natural and +civil obligations of society. But the operation of the wisest laws is imperfect +and precarious. They seldom inspire virtue, they cannot always restrain vice. +Their power is insufficient to prohibit all that they condemn, nor can they +always punish the actions which they prohibit. The legislators of antiquity had +summoned to their aid the powers of education and of opinion. But every +principle which had once maintained the vigor and purity of Rome and Sparta, +was long since extinguished in a declining and despotic empire. Philosophy +still exercised her temperate sway over the human mind, but the cause of virtue +derived very feeble support from the influence of the Pagan superstition. Under +these discouraging circumstances, a prudent magistrate might observe with +pleasure the progress of a religion which diffused among the people a pure, +benevolent, and universal system of ethics, adapted to every duty and every +condition of life; recommended as the will and reason of the supreme Deity, and +enforced by the sanction of eternal rewards or punishments. The experience of +Greek and Roman history could not inform the world how far the system of +national manners might be reformed and improved by the precepts of a divine +revelation; and Constantine might listen with some confidence to the +flattering, and indeed reasonable, assurances of Lactantius. The eloquent +apologist seemed firmly to expect, and almost ventured to promise, <i>that</i> +the establishment of Christianity would restore the innocence and felicity of +the primitive age; <i>that</i> the worship of the true God would extinguish war +and dissension among those who mutually considered themselves as the children +of a common parent; <i>that</i> every impure desire, every angry or selfish +passion, would be restrained by the knowledge of the gospel; and <i>that</i> +the magistrates might sheath the sword of justice among a people who would be +universally actuated by the sentiments of truth and piety, of equity and +moderation, of harmony and universal love. <a href="#linknote-20.17" +name="linknoteref-20.17" id="linknoteref-20.17">17</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.17" id="linknote-20.17"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +17 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.17">return</a>)<br/> [ See the elegant description +of Lactantius, (Divin Institut. v. 8,) who is much more perspicuous and +positive than becomes a discreet prophet.] +</p> + +<p> +The passive and unresisting obedience, which bows under the yoke of authority, +or even of oppression, must have appeared, in the eyes of an absolute monarch, +the most conspicuous and useful of the evangelic virtues. <a +href="#linknote-20.18" name="linknoteref-20.18" id="linknoteref-20.18">18</a> The +primitive Christians derived the institution of civil government, not from the +consent of the people, but from the decrees of Heaven. The reigning emperor, +though he had usurped the sceptre by treason and murder, immediately assumed +the sacred character of vicegerent of the Deity. To the Deity alone he was +accountable for the abuse of his power; and his subjects were indissolubly +bound, by their oath of fidelity, to a tyrant, who had violated every law of +nature and society. The humble Christians were sent into the world as sheep +among wolves; and since they were not permitted to employ force even in the +defence of their religion, they should be still more criminal if they were +tempted to shed the blood of their fellow-creatures in disputing the vain +privileges, or the sordid possessions, of this transitory life. Faithful to the +doctrine of the apostle, who in the reign of Nero had preached the duty of +unconditional submission, the Christians of the three first centuries preserved +their conscience pure and innocent of the guilt of secret conspiracy, or open +rebellion. While they experienced the rigor of persecution, they were never +provoked either to meet their tyrants in the field, or indignantly to withdraw +themselves into some remote and sequestered corner of the globe. <a +href="#linknote-20.19" name="linknoteref-20.19" id="linknoteref-20.19">19</a> The +Protestants of France, of Germany, and of Britain, who asserted with such +intrepid courage their civil and religious freedom, have been insulted by the +invidious comparison between the conduct of the primitive and of the reformed +Christians. <a href="#linknote-20.20" name="linknoteref-20.20" +id="linknoteref-20.20">20</a> Perhaps, instead of censure, some applause may be +due to the superior sense and spirit of our ancestors, who had convinced +themselves that religion cannot abolish the unalienable rights of human nature. +<a href="#linknote-20.21" name="linknoteref-20.21" id="linknoteref-20.21">21</a> +Perhaps the patience of the primitive church may be ascribed to its weakness, +as well as to its virtue. +</p> + +<p> +A sect of unwarlike plebeians, without leaders, without arms, without +fortifications, must have encountered inevitable destruction in a rash and +fruitless resistance to the master of the Roman legions. But the Christians, +when they deprecated the wrath of Diocletian, or solicited the favor of +Constantine, could allege, with truth and confidence, that they held the +principle of passive obedience, and that, in the space of three centuries, +their conduct had always been conformable to their principles. They might add, +that the throne of the emperors would be established on a fixed and permanent +basis, if all their subjects, embracing the Christian doctrine, should learn to +suffer and to obey. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.18" id="linknote-20.18"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +18 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.18">return</a>)<br/> [ The political system of the +Christians is explained by Grotius, de Jure Belli et Pacis, l. i. c. 3, 4. +Grotius was a republican and an exile, but the mildness of his temper inclined +him to support the established powers.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.19" id="linknote-20.19"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +19 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian. Apolog. c. 32, +34, 35, 36. Tamen nunquam Albiniani, nec Nigriani vel Cassiani inveniri +potuerunt Christiani. Ad Scapulam, c. 2. If this assertion be strictly true, it +excludes the Christians of that age from all civil and military employments, +which would have compelled them to take an active part in the service of their +respective governors. See Moyle’s Works, vol. ii. p. 349.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.20" id="linknote-20.20"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +20 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.20">return</a>)<br/> [ See the artful Bossuet, +(Hist. des Variations des Eglises Protestantes, tom. iii. p. 210-258.) and the +malicious Bayle, (tom ii. p. 820.) I <i>name</i> Bayle, for he was certainly +the author of the Avis aux Refugies; consult the Dictionnaire Critique de +Chauffepié, tom. i. part ii. p. 145.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.21" id="linknote-20.21"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +21 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Buchanan is the earliest, or +at least the most celebrated, of the reformers, who has justified the theory of +resistance. See his Dialogue de Jure Regni apud Scotos, tom. ii. p. 28, 30, +edit. fol. Rudiman.] +</p> + +<p> +In the general order of Providence, princes and tyrants are considered as the +ministers of Heaven, appointed to rule or to chastise the nations of the earth. +But sacred history affords many illustrious examples of the more immediate +interposition of the Deity in the government of his chosen people. The sceptre +and the sword were committed to the hands of Moses, of Joshua, of Gideon, of +David, of the Maccabees; the virtues of those heroes were the motive or the +effect of the divine favor, the success of their arms was destined to achieve +the deliverance or the triumph of the church. If the judges of Israel were +occasional and temporary magistrates, the kings of Judah derived from the royal +unction of their great ancestor an hereditary and indefeasible right, which +could not be forfeited by their own vices, nor recalled by the caprice of their +subjects. The same extraordinary providence, which was no longer confined to +the Jewish people, might elect Constantine and his family as the protectors of +the Christian world; and the devout Lactantius announces, in a prophetic tone, +the future glories of his long and universal reign. <a href="#linknote-20.22" +name="linknoteref-20.22" id="linknoteref-20.22">22</a> Galerius and Maximin, +Maxentius and Licinius, were the rivals who shared with the favorite of heaven +the provinces of the empire. The tragic deaths of Galerius and Maximin soon +gratified the resentment, and fulfilled the sanguine expectations, of the +Christians. The success of Constantine against Maxentius and Licinius removed +the two formidable competitors who still opposed the triumph of the second +David, and his cause might seem to claim the peculiar interposition of +Providence. The character of the Roman tyrant disgraced the purple and human +nature; and though the Christians might enjoy his precarious favor, they were +exposed, with the rest of his subjects, to the effects of his wanton and +capricious cruelty. The conduct of Licinius soon betrayed the reluctance with +which he had consented to the wise and humane regulations of the edict of +Milan. The convocation of provincial synods was prohibited in his dominions; +his Christian officers were ignominiously dismissed; and if he avoided the +guilt, or rather danger, of a general persecution, his partial oppressions were +rendered still more odious by the violation of a solemn and voluntary +engagement. <a href="#linknote-20.23" name="linknoteref-20.23" +id="linknoteref-20.23">23</a> While the East, according to the lively expression +of Eusebius, was involved in the shades of infernal darkness, the auspicious +rays of celestial light warmed and illuminated the provinces of the West. The +piety of Constantine was admitted as an unexceptionable proof of the justice of +his arms; and his use of victory confirmed the opinion of the Christians, that +their hero was inspired, and conducted, by the Lord of Hosts. The conquest of +Italy produced a general edict of toleration; and as soon as the defeat of +Licinius had invested Constantine with the sole dominion of the Roman world, he +immediately, by circular letters, exhorted all his subjects to imitate, without +delay, the example of their sovereign, and to embrace the divine truth of +Christianity. <a href="#linknote-20.24" name="linknoteref-20.24" +id="linknoteref-20.24">24</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.22" id="linknote-20.22"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +22 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactant Divin. Institut. i. +l. Eusebius in the course of his history, his life, and his oration, repeatedly +inculcates the divine right of Constantine to the empire.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.23" id="linknote-20.23"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +23 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.23">return</a>)<br/> [ Our imperfect knowledge of +the persecution of Licinius is derived from Eusebius, (Hist. l. x. c. 8. Vit. +Constantin. l. i. c. 49-56, l. ii. c. 1, 2.) Aurelius Victor mentions his +cruelty in general terms.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.24" id="linknote-20.24"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +24 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Euseb. in Vit. Constant. l. +ii. c. 24-42 48-60.] +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap20.2"></a>Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part II.</h2> + +<p> +The assurance that the elevation of Constantine was intimately connected with +the designs of Providence, instilled into the minds of the Christians two +opinions, which, by very different means, assisted the accomplishment of the +prophecy. Their warm and active loyalty exhausted in his favor every resource +of human industry; and they confidently expected that their strenuous efforts +would be seconded by some divine and miraculous aid. The enemies of Constantine +have imputed to interested motives the alliance which he insensibly contracted +with the Catholic church, and which apparently contributed to the success of +his ambition. In the beginning of the fourth century, the Christians still bore +a very inadequate proportion to the inhabitants of the empire; but among a +degenerate people, who viewed the change of masters with the indifference of +slaves, the spirit and union of a religious party might assist the popular +leader, to whose service, from a principle of conscience, they had devoted +their lives and fortunes. <a href="#linknote-20.25" name="linknoteref-20.25" +id="linknoteref-20.25">25</a> The example of his father had instructed +Constantine to esteem and to reward the merit of the Christians; and in the +distribution of public offices, he had the advantage of strengthening his +government, by the choice of ministers or generals, in whose fidelity he could +repose a just and unreserved confidence. By the influence of these dignified +missionaries, the proselytes of the new faith must have multiplied in the court +and army; the Barbarians of Germany, who filled the ranks of the legions, were +of a careless temper, which acquiesced without resistance in the religion of +their commander; and when they passed the Alps, it may fairly be presumed, that +a great number of the soldiers had already consecrated their swords to the +service of Christ and of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-20.26" +name="linknoteref-20.26" id="linknoteref-20.26">26</a> The habits of mankind and +the interests of religion gradually abated the horror of war and bloodshed, +which had so long prevailed among the Christians; and in the councils which +were assembled under the gracious protection of Constantine, the authority of +the bishops was seasonably employed to ratify the obligation of the military +oath, and to inflict the penalty of excommunication on those soldiers who threw +away their arms during the peace of the church. <a href="#linknote-20.27" +name="linknoteref-20.27" id="linknoteref-20.27">27</a> While Constantine, in his +own dominions, increased the number and zeal of his faithful adherents, he +could depend on the support of a powerful faction in those provinces which were +still possessed or usurped by his rivals. A secret disaffection was diffused +among the Christian subjects of Maxentius and Licinius; and the resentment, +which the latter did not attempt to conceal, served only to engage them still +more deeply in the interest of his competitor. The regular correspondence which +connected the bishops of the most distant provinces, enabled them freely to +communicate their wishes and their designs, and to transmit without danger any +useful intelligence, or any pious contributions, which might promote the +service of Constantine, who publicly declared that he had taken up arms for the +deliverance of the church. <a href="#linknote-20.28" name="linknoteref-20.28" +id="linknoteref-20.28">28</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.25" id="linknote-20.25"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +25 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.25">return</a>)<br/> [ In the beginning of the last +century, the Papists of England were only a <i>thirtieth</i>, and the +Protestants of France only a <i>fifteenth</i>, part of the respective nations, +to whom their spirit and power were a constant object of apprehension. See the +relations which Bentivoglio (who was then nuncio at Brussels, and afterwards +cardinal) transmitted to the court of Rome, (Relazione, tom. ii. p. 211, 241.) +Bentivoglio was curious, well informed, but somewhat partial.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.26" id="linknote-20.26"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +26 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.26">return</a>)<br/> [ This careless temper of the +Germans appears almost uniformly on the history of the conversion of each of +the tribes. The legions of Constantine were recruited with Germans, (Zosimus, +l. ii. p. 86;) and the court even of his father had been filled with +Christians. See the first book of the Life of Constantine, by Eusebius.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.27" id="linknote-20.27"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +27 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.27">return</a>)<br/> [ De his qui arma projiciunt +in <i>pace</i>, placuit eos abstinere a communione. Council. Arelat. Canon. +iii. The best critics apply these words to the <i>peace of the church</i>.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.28" id="linknote-20.28"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +28 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius always considers +the second civil war against Licinius as a sort of religious crusade. At the +invitation of the tyrant, some Christian officers had resumed their +<i>zones;</i> or, in other words, had returned to the military service. Their +conduct was afterwards censured by the twelfth canon of the Council of Nice; if +this particular application may be received, instead of the lo se and general +sense of the Greek interpreters, Balsamor Zonaras, and Alexis Aristenus. See +Beveridge, Pandect. Eccles. Græc. tom. i. p. 72, tom. ii. p. 73 Annotation.] +</p> + +<p> +The enthusiasm which inspired the troops, and perhaps the emperor himself, had +sharpened their swords while it satisfied their conscience. They marched to +battle with the full assurance, that the same God, who had formerly opened a +passage to the Israelites through the waters of Jordan, and had thrown down the +walls of Jericho at the sound of the trumpets of Joshua, would display his +visible majesty and power in the victory of Constantine. The evidence of +ecclesiastical history is prepared to affirm, that their expectations were +justified by the conspicuous miracle to which the conversion of the first +Christian emperor has been almost unanimously ascribed. The real or imaginary +cause of so important an event, deserves and demands the attention of +posterity; and I shall endeavor to form a just estimate of the famous vision of +Constantine, by a distinct consideration of the <i>standard</i>, the +<i>dream</i>, and the <i>celestial sign;</i> by separating the historical, the +natural, and the marvellous parts of this extraordinary story, which, in the +composition of a specious argument, have been artfully confounded in one +splendid and brittle mass. +</p> + +<p> +I. An instrument of the tortures which were inflicted only on slaves and +strangers, became on object of horror in the eyes of a Roman citizen; and the +ideas of guilt, of pain, and of ignominy, were closely united with the idea of +the cross. <a href="#linknote-20.29" name="linknoteref-20.29" +id="linknoteref-20.29">29</a> The piety, rather than the humanity, of +Constantine soon abolished in his dominions the punishment which the Savior of +mankind had condescended to suffer; <a href="#linknote-20.30" +name="linknoteref-20.30" id="linknoteref-20.30">30</a> but the emperor had +already learned to despise the prejudices of his education, and of his people, +before he could erect in the midst of Rome his own statue, bearing a cross in +its right hand; with an inscription which referred the victory of his arms, and +the deliverance of Rome, to the virtue of that salutary sign, the true symbol +of force and courage. <a href="#linknote-20.31" name="linknoteref-20.31" +id="linknoteref-20.31">31</a> The same symbol sanctified the arms of the +soldiers of Constantine; the cross glittered on their helmet, was engraved on +their shields, was interwoven into their banners; and the consecrated emblems +which adorned the person of the emperor himself, were distinguished only by +richer materials and more exquisite workmanship. <a href="#linknote-20.32" +name="linknoteref-20.32" id="linknoteref-20.32">32</a> But the principal standard +which displayed the triumph of the cross was styled the Labarum, <a +href="#linknote-20.33" name="linknoteref-20.33" id="linknoteref-20.33">33</a> an +obscure, though celebrated name, which has been vainly derived from almost all +the languages of the world. It is described <a href="#linknote-20.34" +name="linknoteref-20.34" id="linknoteref-20.34">34</a> as a long pike intersected +by a transversal beam. The silken veil, which hung down from the beam, was +curiously inwrought with the images of the reigning monarch and his children. +The summit of the pike supported a crown of gold which enclosed the mysterious +monogram, at once expressive of the figure of the cross, and the initial +letters, of the name of Christ. <a href="#linknote-20.35" +name="linknoteref-20.35" id="linknoteref-20.35">35</a> The safety of the labarum +was intrusted to fifty guards, of approved valor and fidelity; their station +was marked by honors and emoluments; and some fortunate accidents soon +introduced an opinion, that as long as the guards of the labarum were engaged +in the execution of their office, they were secure and invulnerable amidst the +darts of the enemy. In the second civil war, Licinius felt and dreaded the +power of this consecrated banner, the sight of which, in the distress of +battle, animated the soldiers of Constantine with an invincible enthusiasm, and +scattered terror and dismay through the ranks of the adverse legions. <a +href="#linknote-20.36" name="linknoteref-20.36" id="linknoteref-20.36">36</a> The +Christian emperors, who respected the example of Constantine, displayed in all +their military expeditions the standard of the cross; but when the degenerate +successors of Theodosius had ceased to appear in person at the head of their +armies, the labarum was deposited as a venerable but useless relic in the +palace of Constantinople. <a href="#linknote-20.37" name="linknoteref-20.37" +id="linknoteref-20.37">37</a> Its honors are still preserved on the medals of +the Flavian family. Their grateful devotion has placed the monogram of Christ +in the midst of the ensigns of Rome. The solemn epithets of, safety of the +republic, glory of the army, restoration of public happiness, are equally +applied to the religious and military trophies; and there is still extant a +medal of the emperor Constantius, where the standard of the labarum is +accompanied with these memorable words, B<small>Y THIS SIGN THOU SHALT +CONQUER</small>. <a href="#linknote-20.38" name="linknoteref-20.38" +id="linknoteref-20.38">38</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.29" id="linknote-20.29"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +29 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.29">return</a>)<br/> [ Nomen ipsum <i>crucis</i> +absit non modo a corpore civium Romano rum, sed etiam a cogitatione, oculis, +auribus. Cicero pro Raberio, c. 5. The Christian writers, Justin, Minucius +Felix, Tertullian, Jerom, and Maximus of Turin, have investigated with +tolerable success the figure or likeness of a cross in almost every object of +nature or art; in the intersection of the meridian and equator, the human face, +a bird flying, a man swimming, a mast and yard, a plough, a <i>standard</i>, +&c., &c., &c. See Lipsius de Cruce, l. i. c. 9.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.30" id="linknote-20.30"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +30 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.30">return</a>)<br/> [ See Aurelius Victor, who +considers this law as one of the examples of Constantine’s piety. An +edict so honorable to Christianity deserved a place in the Theodosian Code, +instead of the indirect mention of it, which seems to result from the +comparison of the fifth and eighteenth titles of the ninth book.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.31" id="linknote-20.31"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +31 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, in Vit. +Constantin. l. i. c. 40. This statue, or at least the cross and inscription, +may be ascribed with more probability to the second, or even third, visit of +Constantine to Rome. Immediately after the defeat of Maxentius, the minds of +the senate and people were scarcely ripe for this public monument.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.32" id="linknote-20.32"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +32 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.32">return</a>)<br/> +[ Agnoscas, regina, libens mea signa necesse est;<br/> +In quibus effigies crucis aut gemmata refulget<br/> +Aut longis solido ex auro præfertur in hastis.<br/> +Hoc signo invictus, transmissis Alpibus Ultor<br/> +Servitium solvit miserabile Constantinus.<br/> +<br/> +Christus <i>purpureum</i> gemmanti textus in auro<br/> +Signabat <i>Labarum</i>, clypeorum insignia Christus<br/> +Scripserat; ardebat summis crux addita cristis.<br/> +<br/> +Prudent. in Symmachum, l. ii. 464, 486.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.33" id="linknote-20.33"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +33 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.33">return</a>)<br/> [ The derivation and meaning +of the word <i>Labarum</i> or <i>Laborum</i>, which is employed by Gregory +Nazianzen, Ambrose, Prudentius, &c., still remain totally unknown, in spite +of the efforts of the critics, who have ineffectually tortured the Latin, +Greek, Spanish, Celtic, Teutonic, Illyric, Armenian, &c., in search of an +etymology. See Ducange, in Gloss. Med. et infim. Latinitat. sub voce +<i>Labarum</i>, and Godefroy, ad Cod. Theodos. tom. ii. p. 143.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.34" id="linknote-20.34"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +34 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. +l. i. c. 30, 31. Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A. D. 312, No. 26) has engraved a +representation of the Labarum.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.35" id="linknote-20.35"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +35 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Transversâ X literâ, summo +capite circumflexo, Christum in scutis notat. Cæcilius de M. P. c. 44, Cuper, +(ad M. P. in edit. Lactant. tom. ii. p. 500,) and Baronius (A. D. 312, No. 25) +have engraved from ancient monuments several specimens (as thus of these +monograms) which became extremely fashionable in the Christian world.] +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:10%;"> +<img src="images/fig01.jpg" style="width:100%;" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.36" id="linknote-20.36"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +36 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. +l. ii. c. 7, 8, 9. He introduces the Labarum before the Italian expedition; but +his narrative seems to indicate that it was never shown at the head of an army +till Constantine above ten years afterwards, declared himself the enemy of +Licinius, and the deliverer of the church.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.37" id="linknote-20.37"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +37 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.37">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. +xxv. Sozomen, l. i. c. 2. Theophan. Chronograph. p. 11. Theophanes lived +towards the end of the eighth century, almost five hundred years after +Constantine. The modern Greeks were not inclined to display in the field the +standard of the empire and of Christianity; and though they depended on every +superstitious hope of <i>defence</i>, the promise of <i>victory</i> would have +appeared too bold a fiction.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.38" id="linknote-20.38"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +38 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.38">return</a>)<br/> [ The Abbé du Voisín, p. 103, +&c., alleges several of these medals, and quotes a particular dissertation +of a Jesuit the Père de Grainville, on this subject.] +</p> + +<p> +II. In all occasions of danger and distress, it was the practice of the +primitive Christians to fortify their minds and bodies by the sign of the +cross, which they used, in all their ecclesiastical rites, in all the daily +occurrences of life, as an infallible preservative against every species of +spiritual or temporal evil. <a href="#linknote-20.39" name="linknoteref-20.39" +id="linknoteref-20.39">39</a> The authority of the church might alone have had +sufficient weight to justify the devotion of Constantine, who in the same +prudent and gradual progress acknowledged the truth, and assumed the symbol, of +Christianity. But the testimony of a contemporary writer, who in a formal +treatise has avenged the cause of religion, bestows on the piety of the emperor +a more awful and sublime character. He affirms, with the most perfect +confidence, that in the night which preceded the last battle against Maxentius, +Constantine was admonished in a dream <a href="#linknote-20.39a" +name="linknoteref-20.39a" id="linknoteref-20.39a">39a</a> to inscribe the shields +of his soldiers with the <i>celestial sign of God</i>, the sacred monogram of +the name of Christ; that he executed the commands of Heaven, and that his valor +and obedience were rewarded by the decisive victory of the Milvian Bridge. Some +considerations might perhaps incline a sceptical mind to suspect the judgment +or the veracity of the rhetorician, whose pen, either from zeal or interest, +was devoted to the cause of the prevailing faction. <a href="#linknote-20.40" +name="linknoteref-20.40" id="linknoteref-20.40">40</a> He appears to have +published his deaths of the persecutors at Nicomedia about three years after +the Roman victory; but the interval of a thousand miles, and a thousand days, +will allow an ample latitude for the invention of declaimers, the credulity of +party, and the tacit approbation of the emperor himself who might listen +without indignation to a marvellous tale, which exalted his fame, and promoted +his designs. In favor of Licinius, who still dissembled his animosity to the +Christians, the same author has provided a similar vision, of a form of prayer, +which was communicated by an angel, and repeated by the whole army before they +engaged the legions of the tyrant Maximin. The frequent repetition of miracles +serves to provoke, where it does not subdue, the reason of mankind; <a +href="#linknote-20.41" name="linknoteref-20.41" id="linknoteref-20.41">41</a> but +if the dream of Constantine is separately considered, it may be naturally +explained either by the policy or the enthusiasm of the emperor. Whilst his +anxiety for the approaching day, which must decide the fate of the empire, was +suspended by a short and interrupted slumber, the venerable form of Christ, and +the well-known symbol of his religion, might forcibly offer themselves to the +active fancy of a prince who reverenced the name, and had perhaps secretly +implored the power, of the God of the Christians. As readily might a consummate +statesman indulge himself in the use of one of those military stratagems, one +of those pious frauds, which Philip and Sertorius had employed with such art +and effect. <a href="#linknote-20.42" name="linknoteref-20.42" +id="linknoteref-20.42">42</a> The præternatural origin of dreams was +universally admitted by the nations of antiquity, and a considerable part of +the Gallic army was already prepared to place their confidence in the salutary +sign of the Christian religion. The secret vision of Constantine could be +disproved only by the event; and the intrepid hero who had passed the Alps and +the Apennine, might view with careless despair the consequences of a defeat +under the walls of Rome. The senate and people, exulting in their own +deliverance from an odious tyrant, acknowledged that the victory of Constantine +surpassed the powers of man, without daring to insinuate that it had been +obtained by the protection of the <i>Gods</i>. The triumphal arch, which was +erected about three years after the event, proclaims, in ambiguous language, +that by the greatness of his own mind, and by an <i>instinct</i> or impulse of +the Divinity, he had saved and avenged the Roman republic. <a +href="#linknote-20.43" name="linknoteref-20.43" id="linknoteref-20.43">43</a> The +Pagan orator, who had seized an earlier opportunity of celebrating the virtues +of the conqueror, supposes that he alone enjoyed a secret and intimate commerce +with the Supreme Being, who delegated the care of mortals to his subordinate +deities; and thus assigns a very plausible reason why the subjects of +Constantine should not presume to embrace the new religion of their sovereign. +<a href="#linknote-20.44" name="linknoteref-20.44" id="linknoteref-20.44">44</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.39" id="linknote-20.39"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +39 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian de Corona, c. 3. +Athanasius, tom. i. p. 101. The learned Jesuit Petavius (Dogmata Theolog. l. +xv. c. 9, 10) has collected many similar passages on the virtues of the cross, +which in the last age embarrassed our Protestant disputants.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.39a" id="linknote-20.39a"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +39a (<a href="#linknoteref-20.39a">return</a>)<br/> [ Manso has observed, that +Gibbon ought not to have separated the vision of Constantine from the wonderful +apparition in the sky, as the two wonders are closely connected in Eusebius. +Manso, Leben Constantine, p. 82—M.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.40" id="linknote-20.40"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +40 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæcilius de M. P. c. 44. It +is certain, that this historical declamation was composed and published while +Licinius, sovereign of the East, still preserved the friendship of Constantine +and of the Christians. Every reader of taste must perceive that the style is of +a very different and inferior character to that of Lactantius; and such indeed +is the judgment of Le Clerc and Lardner, (Bibliothèque Ancienne et Moderne, +tom. iii. p. 438. Credibility of the Gospel, &c., part ii. vol. vii. p. +94.) Three arguments from the title of the book, and from the names of Donatus +and Cæcilius, are produced by the advocates for Lactantius. (See the P. +Lestocq, tom. ii. p. 46-60.) Each of these proofs is singly weak and defective; +but their concurrence has great weight. I have often fluctuated, and shall +<i>tamely</i> follow the Colbert Ms. in calling the author (whoever he was) +Cæcilius.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.41" id="linknote-20.41"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +41 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæcilius de M. P. c. 46. +There seems to be some reason in the observation of M. de Voltaire, (Œuvres, +tom. xiv. p. 307.) who ascribes to the success of Constantine the superior fame +of his Labarum above the angel of Licinius. Yet even this angel is favorably +entertained by Pagi, Tillemont, Fleury, &c., who are fond of increasing +their stock of miracles.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.42" id="linknote-20.42"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +42 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Besides these well-known +examples, Tollius (Preface to Boileau’s translation of Longinus) has +discovered a vision of Antigonus, who assured his troops that he had seen a +pentagon (the symbol of safety) with these words, “In this +conquer.” But Tollius has most inexcusably omitted to produce his +authority, and his own character, literary as well as moral, is not free from +reproach. (See Chauffepié, Dictionnaire Critique, tom. iv. p. 460.) Without +insisting on the silence of Diodorus Plutarch, Justin, &c., it may be +observed that Polyænus, who in a separate chapter (l. iv. c. 6) has collected +nineteen military stratagems of Antigonus, is totally ignorant of this +remarkable vision.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.43" id="linknote-20.43"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +43 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.43">return</a>)<br/> [ Instinctu Divinitatis, +mentis magnitudine. The inscription on the triumphal arch of Constantine, which +has been copied by Baronius, Gruter, &c., may still be perused by every +curious traveller.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.44" id="linknote-20.44"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +44 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Habes profecto aliquid cum +illa mente Divinâ secretum; quæ delegatâ nostrâ Diis Minoribus curâ uni se tibi +dignatur ostendere Panegyr. Vet. ix. 2.] +</p> + +<p> +III. The philosopher, who with calm suspicion examines the dreams and omens, +the miracles and prodigies, of profane or even of ecclesiastical history, will +probably conclude, that if the eyes of the spectators have sometimes been +deceived by fraud, the understanding of the readers has much more frequently +been insulted by fiction. Every event, or appearance, or accident, which seems +to deviate from the ordinary course of nature, has been rashly ascribed to the +immediate action of the Deity; and the astonished fancy of the multitude has +sometimes given shape and color, language and motion, to the fleeting but +uncommon meteors of the air. <a href="#linknote-20.45" name="linknoteref-20.45" +id="linknoteref-20.45">45</a> Nazarius and Eusebius are the two most celebrated +orators, who, in studied panegyrics, have labored to exalt the glory of +Constantine. Nine years after the Roman victory, Nazarius <a +href="#linknote-20.46" name="linknoteref-20.46" id="linknoteref-20.46">46</a> +describes an army of divine warriors, who seemed to fall from the sky: he marks +their beauty, their spirit, their gigantic forms, the stream of light which +beamed from their celestial armor, their patience in suffering themselves to be +heard, as well as seen, by mortals; and their declaration that they were sent, +that they flew, to the assistance of the great Constantine. For the truth of +this prodigy, the Pagan orator appeals to the whole Gallic nation, in whose +presence he was then speaking; and seems to hope that the ancient apparitions +<a href="#linknote-20.47" name="linknoteref-20.47" id="linknoteref-20.47">47</a> +would now obtain credit from this recent and public event. The Christian fable +of Eusebius, which, in the space of twenty-six years, might arise from the +original dream, is cast in a much more correct and elegant mould. In one of the +marches of Constantine, he is reported to have seen with his own eyes the +luminous trophy of the cross, placed above the meridian sun and inscribed with +the following words: B<small>Y THIS CONQUER</small>. This amazing object in the +sky astonished the whole army, as well as the emperor himself, who was yet +undetermined in the choice of a religion: but his astonishment was converted +into faith by the vision of the ensuing night. Christ appeared before his eyes; +and displaying the same celestial sign of the cross, he directed Constantine to +frame a similar standard, and to march, with an assurance of victory, against +Maxentius and all his enemies. <a href="#linknote-20.48" name="linknoteref-20.48" +id="linknoteref-20.48">48</a> The learned bishop of Cæsarea appears to be +sensible, that the recent discovery of this marvellous anecdote would excite +some surprise and distrust among the most pious of his readers. Yet, instead of +ascertaining the precise circumstances of time and place, which always serve to +detect falsehood or establish truth; <a href="#linknote-20.49" +name="linknoteref-20.49" id="linknoteref-20.49">49</a> instead of collecting and +recording the evidence of so many living witnesses who must have been +spectators of this stupendous miracle; <a href="#linknote-20.50" +name="linknoteref-20.50" id="linknoteref-20.50">50</a> Eusebius contents himself +with alleging a very singular testimony; that of the deceased Constantine, who, +many years after the event, in the freedom of conversation, had related to him +this extraordinary incident of his own life, and had attested the truth of it +by a solemn oath. The prudence and gratitude of the learned prelate forbade him +to suspect the veracity of his victorious master; but he plainly intimates, +that in a fact of such a nature, he should have refused his assent to any +meaner authority. This motive of credibility could not survive the power of the +Flavian family; and the celestial sign, which the Infidels might afterwards +deride, <a href="#linknote-20.51" name="linknoteref-20.51" +id="linknoteref-20.51">51</a> was disregarded by the Christians of the age which +immediately followed the conversion of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-20.52" +name="linknoteref-20.52" id="linknoteref-20.52">52</a> But the Catholic church, +both of the East and of the West, has adopted a prodigy which favors, or seems +to favor, the popular worship of the cross. The vision of Constantine +maintained an honorable place in the legend of superstition, till the bold and +sagacious spirit of criticism presumed to depreciate the triumph, and to +arraign the truth, of the first Christian emperor. <a href="#linknote-20.53" +name="linknoteref-20.53" id="linknoteref-20.53">53</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.45" id="linknote-20.45"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +45 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.45">return</a>)<br/> [ M. Freret (Mémoires de +l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. iv. p. 411-437) explains, by physical +causes, many of the prodigies of antiquity; and Fabricius, who is abused by +both parties, vainly tries to introduce the celestial cross of Constantine +among the solar halos. Bibliothec. Græc. tom. iv. p. 8-29. * Note: The great +difficulty in resolving it into a natural phenomenon, arises from the +inscription; even the most heated or awe-struck imagination would hardly +discover distinct and legible letters in a solar halo. But the inscription may +have been a later embellishment, or an interpretation of the meaning which the +sign was construed to convey. Compare Heirichen, Excur in locum Eusebii, and +the authors quoted.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.46" id="linknote-20.46"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +46 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Nazarius inter Panegyr. Vet. +x. 14, 15. It is unnecessary to name the moderns, whose undistinguishing and +ravenous appetite has swallowed even the Pagan bait of Nazarius.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.47" id="linknote-20.47"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +47 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.47">return</a>)<br/> [ The apparitions of Castor +and Pollux, particularly to announce the Macedonian victory, are attested by +historians and public monuments. See Cicero de Natura Deorum, ii. 2, iii. 5, 6. +Florus, ii. 12. Valerius Maximus, l. i. c. 8, No. 1. Yet the most recent of +these miracles is omitted, and indirectly denied, by Livy, (xlv. i.)] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.48" id="linknote-20.48"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +48 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.48">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, l. i. c. 28, 29, +30. The silence of the same Eusebius, in his Ecclesiastical History, is deeply +felt by those advocates for the miracle who are not absolutely callous.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.49" id="linknote-20.49"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +49 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.49">return</a>)<br/> [ The narrative of Constantine +seems to indicate, that he saw the cross in the sky before he passed the Alps +against Maxentius. The scene has been fixed by provincial vanity at Trèves, +Besançon, &c. See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 573.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.50" id="linknote-20.50"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +50 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.50">return</a>)<br/> [ The pious Tillemont (Mém. +Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1317) rejects with a sigh the useful Acts of Artemius, a +veteran and a martyr, who attests as an eye-witness to the vision of +Constantine.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.51" id="linknote-20.51"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +51 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Gelasius Cyzic. in Act. +Concil. Nicen. l. i. c. 4.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.52" id="linknote-20.52"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +52 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.52">return</a>)<br/> [ The advocates for the vision +are unable to produce a single testimony from the Fathers of the fourth and +fifth centuries, who, in their voluminous writings, repeatedly celebrate the +triumph of the church and of Constantine. As these venerable men had not any +dislike to a miracle, we may suspect, (and the suspicion is confirmed by the +ignorance of Jerom,) that they were all unacquainted with the life of +Constantine by Eusebius. This tract was recovered by the diligence of those who +translated or continued his Ecclesiastical History, and who have represented in +various colors the vision of the cross.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.53" id="linknote-20.53"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +53 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.53">return</a>)<br/> [ Godefroy was the first, who, +in the year 1643, (Not ad Philostorgium, l. i. c. 6, p. 16,) expressed any +doubt of a miracle which had been supported with equal zeal by Cardinal +Baronius, and the Centuriators of Magdeburgh. Since that time, many of the +Protestant critics have inclined towards doubt and disbelief. The objections +are urged, with great force, by M. Chauffepié, (Dictionnaire Critique, tom. iv. +p. 6–11;) and, in the year 1774, a doctor of Sorbonne, the Abbé du Voisin +published an apology, which deserves the praise of learning and moderation. * +Note: The first Excursus of Heinichen (in Vitam Constantini, p. 507) contains a +full summary of the opinions and arguments of the later writers who have +discussed this interminable subject. As to his conversion, where interest and +inclination, state policy, and, if not a sincere conviction of its truth, at +least a respect, an esteem, an awe of Christianity, thus coincided, Constantine +himself would probably have been unable to trace the actual history of the +workings of his own mind, or to assign its real influence to each concurrent +motive.—M] +</p> + +<p> +The Protestant and philosophic readers of the present age will incline to +believe, that in the account of his own conversion, Constantine attested a +wilful falsehood by a solemn and deliberate perjury. They may not hesitate to +pronounce, that in the choice of a religion, his mind was determined only by a +sense of interest; and that (according to the expression of a profane poet) <a +href="#linknote-20.54" name="linknoteref-20.54" id="linknoteref-20.54">54</a> he +used the altars of the church as a convenient footstool to the throne of the +empire. A conclusion so harsh and so absolute is not, however, warranted by our +knowledge of human nature, of Constantine, or of Christianity. In an age of +religious fervor, the most artful statesmen are observed to feel some part of +the enthusiasm which they inspire, and the most orthodox saints assume the +dangerous privilege of defending the cause of truth by the arms of deceit and +falsehood. +</p> + +<p> +Personal interest is often the standard of our belief, as well as of our +practice; and the same motives of temporal advantage which might influence the +public conduct and professions of Constantine, would insensibly dispose his +mind to embrace a religion so propitious to his fame and fortunes. His vanity +was gratified by the flattering assurance, that <i>he</i> had been chosen by +Heaven to reign over the earth; success had justified his divine title to the +throne, and that title was founded on the truth of the Christian revelation. As +real virtue is sometimes excited by undeserved applause, the specious piety of +Constantine, if at first it was only specious, might gradually, by the +influence of praise, of habit, and of example, be matured into serious faith +and fervent devotion. The bishops and teachers of the new sect, whose dress and +manners had not qualified them for the residence of a court, were admitted to +the Imperial table; they accompanied the monarch in his expeditions; and the +ascendant which one of them, an Egyptian or a Spaniard, <a +href="#linknote-20.55" name="linknoteref-20.55" id="linknoteref-20.55">55</a> +acquired over his mind, was imputed by the Pagans to the effect of magic. <a +href="#linknote-20.56" name="linknoteref-20.56" id="linknoteref-20.56">56</a> +Lactantius, who has adorned the precepts of the gospel with the eloquence of +Cicero, <a href="#linknote-20.57" name="linknoteref-20.57" +id="linknoteref-20.57">57</a> and Eusebius, who has consecrated the learning and +philosophy of the Greeks to the service of religion, <a href="#linknote-20.58" +name="linknoteref-20.58" id="linknoteref-20.58">58</a> were both received into +the friendship and familiarity of their sovereign; and those able masters of +controversy could patiently watch the soft and yielding moments of persuasion, +and dexterously apply the arguments which were the best adapted to his +character and understanding. Whatever advantages might be derived from the +acquisition of an Imperial proselyte, he was distinguished by the splendor of +his purple, rather than by the superiority of wisdom, or virtue, from the many +thousands of his subjects who had embraced the doctrines of Christianity. Nor +can it be deemed incredible, that the mind of an unlettered soldier should have +yielded to the weight of evidence, which, in a more enlightened age, has +satisfied or subdued the reason of a Grotius, a Pascal, or a Locke. In the +midst of the incessant labors of his great office, this soldier employed, or +affected to employ, the hours of the night in the diligent study of the +Scriptures, and the composition of theological discourses; which he afterwards +pronounced in the presence of a numerous and applauding audience. In a very +long discourse, which is still extant, the royal preacher expatiates on the +various proofs still extant, the royal preacher expatiates on the various +proofs of religion; but he dwells with peculiar complacency on the Sibylline +verses, <a href="#linknote-20.59" name="linknoteref-20.59" +id="linknoteref-20.59">59</a> and the fourth eclogue of Virgil. <a +href="#linknote-20.60" name="linknoteref-20.60" id="linknoteref-20.60">60</a> +Forty years before the birth of Christ, the Mantuan bard, as if inspired by the +celestial muse of Isaiah, had celebrated, with all the pomp of oriental +metaphor, the return of the Virgin, the fall of the serpent, the approaching +birth of a godlike child, the offspring of the great Jupiter, who should +expiate the guilt of human kind, and govern the peaceful universe with the +virtues of his father; the rise and appearance of a heavenly race, primitive +nation throughout the world; and the gradual restoration of the innocence and +felicity of the golden age. The poet was perhaps unconscious of the secret +sense and object of these sublime predictions, which have been so unworthily +applied to the infant son of a consul, or a triumvir; <a href="#linknote-20.61" +name="linknoteref-20.61" id="linknoteref-20.61">61</a> but if a more splendid, +and indeed specious interpretation of the fourth eclogue contributed to the +conversion of the first Christian emperor, Virgil may deserve to be ranked +among the most successful missionaries of the gospel. <a href="#linknote-20.62" +name="linknoteref-20.62" id="linknoteref-20.62">62</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.54" id="linknote-20.54"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +54 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.54">return</a>)<br/> [ + + Lors Constantin dit ces propres paroles:<br/> + J’ai renversé le culte des idoles:<br/> + Sur les debris de leurs temples fumans<br/> + Au Dieu du Ciel j’ai prodigue l’encens.<br/> + Mais tous mes soins pour sa grandeur supreme<br/> + N’eurent jamais d’autre objêt que moi-même;<br/> +<br/> + Les saints autels n’etoient à mes regards<br/> + Qu’un marchepié du trone des Césars.<br/> + L’ambition, la fureur, les delices<br/> + Etoient mes Dieux, avoient mes sacrifices.<br/> + L’or des Chrêtiens, leur intrigues, leur sang<br/> + Ont cimenté ma fortune et mon rang.<br/> +<br/> +The poem which contains these lines may be read with pleasure, but cannot be +named with decency.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.55" id="linknote-20.55"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +55 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.55">return</a>)<br/> [ This favorite was probably +the great Osius, bishop of Cordova, who preferred the pastoral care of the +whole church to the government of a particular diocese. His character is +magnificently, though concisely, expressed by Athanasius, (tom. i. p. 703.) See +Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 524-561. Osius was accused, perhaps +unjustly, of retiring from court with a very ample fortune.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.56" id="linknote-20.56"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +56 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.56">return</a>)<br/> [ See Eusebius (in Vit. +Constant. passim) and Zosimus, l. ii. p. 104.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.57" id="linknote-20.57"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +57 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.57">return</a>)<br/> [ The Christianity of +Lactantius was of a moral rather than of a mysterious cast. “Erat pæne +rudis (says the orthodox Bull) disciplinæ Christianæ, et in rhetorica melius +quam in theologia versatus.” Defensio Fidei Nicenæ, sect. ii. c. 14.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.58" id="linknote-20.58"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +58 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Fabricius, with his usual +diligence, has collected a list of between three and four hundred authors +quoted in the Evangelical Preparation of Eusebius. See Bibl. Græc. l. v. c. 4, +tom. vi. p. 37-56.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.59" id="linknote-20.59"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +59 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.59">return</a>)<br/> [ See Constantin. Orat. ad +Sanctos, c. 19 20. He chiefly depends on a mysterious acrostic, composed in the +sixth age after the Deluge, by the Erythræan Sibyl, and translated by Cicero +into Latin. The initial letters of the thirty-four Greek verses form this +prophetic sentence: Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior of the World.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.60" id="linknote-20.60"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +60 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.60">return</a>)<br/> [ In his paraphrase of Virgil, +the emperor has frequently assisted and improved the literal sense of the Latin +ext. See Blondel des Sibylles, l. i. c. 14, 15, 16.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.61" id="linknote-20.61"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +61 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.61">return</a>)<br/> [ The different claims of an +elder and younger son of Pollio, of Julia, of Drusus, of Marcellus, are found +to be incompatible with chronology, history, and the good sense of Virgil.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.62" id="linknote-20.62"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +62 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.62">return</a>)<br/> [ See Lowth de Sacra Poesi +Hebræorum Prælect. xxi. p. 289- 293. In the examination of the fourth eclogue, +the respectable bishop of London has displayed learning, taste, ingenuity, and +a temperate enthusiasm, which exalts his fancy without degrading his judgment.] +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap20.3"></a>Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part III.</h2> + +<p> +The awful mysteries of the Christian faith and worship were concealed from the +eyes of strangers, and even of catechu mens, with an affected secrecy, which +served to excite their wonder and curiosity. <a href="#linknote-20.63" +name="linknoteref-20.63" id="linknoteref-20.63">63</a> But the severe rules of +discipline which the prudence of the bishops had instituted, were relaxed by +the same prudence in favor of an Imperial proselyte, whom it was so important +to allure, by every gentle condescension, into the pale of the church; and +Constantine was permitted, at least by a tacit dispensation, to enjoy +<i>most</i> of the privileges, before he had contracted <i>any</i> of the +obligations, of a Christian. Instead of retiring from the congregation, when +the voice of the deacon dismissed the profane multitude, he prayed with the +faithful, disputed with the bishops, preached on the most sublime and intricate +subjects of theology, celebrated with sacred rites the vigil of Easter, and +publicly declared himself, not only a partaker, but, in some measure, a priest +and hierophant of the Christian mysteries. <a href="#linknote-20.64" +name="linknoteref-20.64" id="linknoteref-20.64">64</a> The pride of Constantine +might assume, and his services had deserved, some extraordinary distinction: +and ill-timed rigor might have blasted the unripened fruits of his conversion; +and if the doors of the church had been strictly closed against a prince who +had deserted the altars of the gods, the master of the empire would have been +left destitute of any form of religious worship. In his last visit to Rome, he +piously disclaimed and insulted the superstition of his ancestors, by refusing +to lead the military procession of the equestrian order, and to offer the +public vows to the Jupiter of the Capitoline Hill. <a href="#linknote-20.65" +name="linknoteref-20.65" id="linknoteref-20.65">65</a> Many years before his +baptism and death, Constantine had proclaimed to the world, that neither his +person nor his image should ever more be seen within the walls of an idolatrous +temple; while he distributed through the provinces a variety of medals and +pictures, which represented the emperor in an humble and suppliant posture of +Christian devotion. <a href="#linknote-20.66" name="linknoteref-20.66" +id="linknoteref-20.66">66</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.63" id="linknote-20.63"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +63 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.63">return</a>)<br/> [ The distinction between the +public and the secret parts of divine service, the <i>missa catechumenorum</i> +and the <i>missa fidelium</i>, and the mysterious veil which piety or policy +had cast over the latter, are very judiciously explained by Thiers, Exposition +du Saint Sacrament, l. i. c. 8- 12, p. 59-91: but as, on this subject, the +Papists may reasonably be suspected, a Protestant reader will depend with more +confidence on the learned Bingham, Antiquities, l. x. c. 5.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.64" id="linknote-20.64"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +64 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.64">return</a>)<br/> [ See Eusebius in Vit. Const. +l. iv. c. 15-32, and the whole tenor of Constantine’s Sermon. The faith +and devotion of the emperor has furnished Batonics with a specious argument in +favor of his early baptism. Note: Compare Heinichen, Excursus iv. et v., where +these questions are examined with candor and acuteness, and with constant +reference to the opinions of more modern writers.—M.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.65" id="linknote-20.65"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +65 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.65">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 105.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.66" id="linknote-20.66"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +66 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.66">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius in Vit. Constant. +l. iv. c. 15, 16.] +</p> + +<p> +The pride of Constantine, who refused the privileges of a catechumen, cannot +easily be explained or excused; but the delay of his baptism may be justified +by the maxims and the practice of ecclesiastical antiquity. The sacrament of +baptism <a href="#linknote-20.67" name="linknoteref-20.67" +id="linknoteref-20.67">67</a> was regularly administered by the bishop himself, +with his assistant clergy, in the cathedral church of the diocese, during the +fifty days between the solemn festivals of Easter and Pentecost; and this holy +term admitted a numerous band of infants and adult persons into the bosom of +the church. The discretion of parents often suspended the baptism of their +children till they could understand the obligations which they contracted: the +severity of ancient bishops exacted from the new converts a novitiate of two or +three years; and the catechumens themselves, from different motives of a +temporal or a spiritual nature, were seldom impatient to assume the character +of perfect and initiated Christians. The sacrament of baptism was supposed to +contain a full and absolute expiation of sin; and the soul was instantly +restored to its original purity, and entitled to the promise of eternal +salvation. Among the proselytes of Christianity, there are many who judged it +imprudent to precipitate a salutary rite, which could not be repeated; to throw +away an inestimable privilege, which could never be recovered. By the delay of +their baptism, they could venture freely to indulge their passions in the +enjoyments of this world, while they still retained in their own hands the +means of a sure and easy absolution. <a href="#linknote-20.68" +name="linknoteref-20.68" id="linknoteref-20.68">68</a> The sublime theory of the +gospel had made a much fainter impression on the heart than on the +understanding of Constantine himself. He pursued the great object of his +ambition through the dark and bloody paths of war and policy; and, after the +victory, he abandoned himself, without moderation, to the abuse of his fortune. +Instead of asserting his just superiority above the imperfect heroism and +profane philosophy of Trajan and the Antonines, the mature age of Constantine +forfeited the reputation which he had acquired in his youth. As he gradually +advanced in the knowledge of truth, he proportionally declined in the practice +of virtue; and the same year of his reign in which he convened the council of +Nice, was polluted by the execution, or rather murder, of his eldest son. This +date is alone sufficient to refute the ignorant and malicious suggestions of +Zosimus, <a href="#linknote-20.69" name="linknoteref-20.69" +id="linknoteref-20.69">69</a> who affirms, that, after the death of Crispus, the +remorse of his father accepted from the ministers of christianity the expiation +which he had vainly solicited from the Pagan pontiffs. At the time of the death +of Crispus, the emperor could no longer hesitate in the choice of a religion; +he could no longer be ignorant that the church was possessed of an infallible +remedy, though he chose to defer the application of it till the approach of +death had removed the temptation and danger of a relapse. The bishops whom he +summoned, in his last illness, to the palace of Nicomedia, were edified by the +fervor with which he requested and received the sacrament of baptism, by the +solemn protestation that the remainder of his life should be worthy of a +disciple of Christ, and by his humble refusal to wear the Imperial purple after +he had been clothed in the white garment of a Neophyte. The example and +reputation of Constantine seemed to countenance the delay of baptism. <a +href="#linknote-20.70" name="linknoteref-20.70" id="linknoteref-20.70">70</a> +Future tyrants were encouraged to believe, that the innocent blood which they +might shed in a long reign would instantly be washed away in the waters of +regeneration; and the abuse of religion dangerously undermined the foundations +of moral virtue. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.67" id="linknote-20.67"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +67 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.67">return</a>)<br/> [ The theory and practice of +antiquity, with regard to the sacrament of baptism, have been copiously +explained by Dom Chardon, Hist. des Sacremens, tom. i. p. 3-405; Dom Martenne +de Ritibus Ecclesiæ Antiquis, tom. i.; and by Bingham, in the tenth and +eleventh books of his Christian Antiquities. One circumstance may be observed, +in which the modern churches have materially departed from the ancient custom. +The sacrament of baptism (even when it was administered to infants) was +immediately followed by confirmation and the holy communion.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.68" id="linknote-20.68"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +68 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.68">return</a>)<br/> [ The Fathers, who censured +this criminal delay, could not deny the certain and victorious efficacy even of +a death-bed baptism. The ingenious rhetoric of Chrysostom could find only three +arguments against these prudent Christians. 1. That we should love and pursue +virtue for her own sake, and not merely for the reward. 2. That we may be +surprised by death without an opportunity of baptism. 3. That although we shall +be placed in heaven, we shall only twinkle like little stars, when compared to +the suns of righteousness who have run their appointed course with labor, with +success, and with glory. Chrysos tom in Epist. ad Hebræos, Homil. xiii. apud +Chardon, Hist. des Sacremens, tom. i. p. 49. I believe that this delay of +baptism, though attended with the most pernicious consequences, was never +condemned by any general or provincial council, or by any public act or +declaration of the church. The zeal of the bishops was easily kindled on much +slighter occasion. * Note: This passage of Chrysostom, though not in his more +forcible manner, is not quite fairly represented. He is stronger in other +places, in Act. Hom. xxiii.—and Hom. i. Compare, likewise, the sermon of +Gregory of Nysea on this subject, and Gregory Nazianzen. After all, to those +who believed in the efficacy of baptism, what argument could be more +conclusive, than the danger of dying without it? Orat. xl.—M.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.69" id="linknote-20.69"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +69 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.69">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 104. For +this disingenuous falsehood he has deserved and experienced the harshest +treatment from all the ecclesiastical writers, except Cardinal Baronius, (A. D. +324, No. 15-28,) who had occasion to employ the infidel on a particular service +against the Arian Eusebius. Note: Heyne, in a valuable note on this passage of +Zosimus, has shown decisively that this malicious way of accounting for the +conversion of Constantine was not an invention of Zosimus. It appears to have +been the current calumny eagerly adopted and propagated by the exasperated +Pagan party. Reitemeter, a later editor of Zosimus, whose notes are retained in +the recent edition, in the collection of the Byzantine historians, has a +disquisition on the passage, as candid, but not more conclusive than some which +have preceded him—M.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.70" id="linknote-20.70"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +70 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.70">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, l. iv. c. 61, 62, +63. The bishop of Cæsarea supposes the salvation of Constantine with the most +perfect confidence.] +</p> + +<p> +The gratitude of the church has exalted the virtues and excused the failings of +a generous patron, who seated Christianity on the throne of the Roman world; +and the Greeks, who celebrate the festival of the Imperial saint, seldom +mention the name of Constantine without adding the title of <i>equal to the +Apostles</i>. <a href="#linknote-20.71" name="linknoteref-20.71" +id="linknoteref-20.71">71</a> Such a comparison, if it allude to the character +of those divine missionaries, must be imputed to the extravagance of impious +flattery. But if the parallel be confined to the extent and number of their +evangelic victories the success of Constantine might perhaps equal that of the +Apostles themselves. By the edicts of toleration, he removed the temporal +disadvantages which had hitherto retarded the progress of Christianity; and its +active and numerous ministers received a free permission, a liberal +encouragement, to recommend the salutary truths of revelation by every argument +which could affect the reason or piety of mankind. The exact balance of the two +religions continued but a moment; and the piercing eye of ambition and avarice +soon discovered, that the profession of Christianity might contribute to the +interest of the present, as well as of a future life. <a href="#linknote-20.72" +name="linknoteref-20.72" id="linknoteref-20.72">72</a> The hopes of wealth and +honors, the example of an emperor, his exhortations, his irresistible smiles, +diffused conviction among the venal and obsequious crowds which usually fill +the apartments of a palace. The cities which signalized a forward zeal by the +voluntary destruction of their temples, were distinguished by municipal +privileges, and rewarded with popular donatives; and the new capital of the +East gloried in the singular advantage that Constantinople was never profaned +by the worship of idols. <a href="#linknote-20.73" name="linknoteref-20.73" +id="linknoteref-20.73">73</a> As the lower ranks of society are governed by +imitation, the conversion of those who possessed any eminence of birth, of +power, or of riches, was soon followed by dependent multitudes. <a +href="#linknote-20.74" name="linknoteref-20.74" id="linknoteref-20.74">74</a> The +salvation of the common people was purchased at an easy rate, if it be true +that, in one year, twelve thousand men were baptized at Rome, besides a +proportionable number of women and children, and that a white garment, with +twenty pieces of gold, had been promised by the emperor to every convert. <a +href="#linknote-20.75" name="linknoteref-20.75" id="linknoteref-20.75">75</a> The +powerful influence of Constantine was not circumscribed by the narrow limits of +his life, or of his dominions. The education which he bestowed on his sons and +nephews secured to the empire a race of princes, whose faith was still more +lively and sincere, as they imbibed, in their earliest infancy, the spirit, or +at least the doctrine, of Christianity. War and commerce had spread the +knowledge of the gospel beyond the confines of the Roman provinces; and the +Barbarians, who had disdained as humble and proscribed sect, soon learned to +esteem a religion which had been so lately embraced by the greatest monarch, +and the most civilized nation, of the globe. <a href="#linknote-20.76" +name="linknoteref-20.76" id="linknoteref-20.76">76</a> The Goths and Germans, who +enlisted under the standard of Rome, revered the cross which glittered at the +head of the legions, and their fierce countrymen received at the same time the +lessons of faith and of humanity. The kings of Iberia and Armenia<a href="#linknote-20.76a" +name="linknoteref-20.76a" id="linknoteref-20.76a">76a</a> +worshipped the god of their protector; and their subjects, who have invariably +preserved the name of Christians, soon formed a sacred and perpetual connection +with their Roman brethren. The Christians of Persia were suspected, in time of +war, of preferring their religion to their country; but as long as peace +subsisted between the two empires, the persecuting spirit of the Magi was +effectually restrained by the interposition of Constantine. <a +href="#linknote-20.77" name="linknoteref-20.77" id="linknoteref-20.77">77</a> The +rays of the gospel illuminated the coast of India. The colonies of Jews, who +had penetrated into Arabia and Ethiopia, <a href="#linknote-20.78" +name="linknoteref-20.78" id="linknoteref-20.78">78</a> opposed the progress of +Christianity; but the labor of the missionaries was in some measure facilitated +by a previous knowledge of the Mosaic revelation; and Abyssinia still reveres +the memory of Frumentius, <a href="#linknote-20.78a" name="linknoteref-20.78a" +id="linknoteref-20.78a">78a</a> who, in the time of Constantine, devoted his +life to the conversion of those sequestered regions. Under the reign of his son +Constantius, Theophilus, <a href="#linknote-20.79" name="linknoteref-20.79" +id="linknoteref-20.79">79</a> who was himself of Indian extraction, was invested +with the double character of ambassador and bishop. He embarked on the Red Sea +with two hundred horses of the purest breed of Cappadocia, which were sent by +the emperor to the prince of the Sabæans, or Homerites. Theophilus was +intrusted with many other useful or curious presents, which might raise the +admiration, and conciliate the friendship, of the Barbarians; and he +successfully employed several years in a pastoral visit to the churches of the +torrid zone. <a href="#linknote-20.80" name="linknoteref-20.80" +id="linknoteref-20.80">80</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.71" id="linknote-20.71"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +71 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.71">return</a>)<br/> [ See Tillemont, Hist. des +Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 429. The Greeks, the Russians, and, in the darker ages, +the Latins themselves, have been desirous of placing Constantine in the +catalogue of saints.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.72" id="linknote-20.72"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +72 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.72">return</a>)<br/> [ See the third and fourth +books of his life. He was accustomed to say, that whether Christ was preached +in pretence, or in truth, he should still rejoice, (l. iii. c. 58.)] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.73" id="linknote-20.73"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +73 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.73">return</a>)<br/> [ M. de Tillemont (Hist. des +Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 374, 616) has defended, with strength and spirit, the +virgin purity of Constantinople against some malevolent insinuations of the +Pagan Zosimus.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.74" id="linknote-20.74"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +74 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.74">return</a>)<br/> [ The author of the Histoire +Politique et Philosophique des deux Indes (tom. i. p. 9) condemns a law of +Constantine, which gave freedom to all the slaves who should embrace +Christianity. The emperor did indeed publish a law, which restrained the Jews +from circumcising, perhaps from keeping, any Christian slave. (See Euseb. in +Vit. Constant. l. iv. c. 27, and Cod. Theod. l. xvi. tit. ix., with +Godefroy’s Commentary, tom. vi. p. 247.) But this imperfect exception +related only to the Jews, and the great body of slaves, who were the property +of Christian or Pagan masters, could not improve their temporal condition by +changing their religion. I am ignorant by what guides the Abbé Raynal was +deceived; as the total absence of quotations is the unpardonable blemish of his +entertaining history.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.75" id="linknote-20.75"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +75 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.75">return</a>)<br/> [ See Acta S<sup>ti</sup> +Silvestri, and Hist. Eccles. Nicephor. Callist. l. vii. c. 34, ap. Baronium +Annal. Eccles. A. D. 324, No. 67, 74. Such evidence is contemptible enough; but +these circumstances are in themselves so probable, that the learned Dr. Howell +(History of the World, vol. iii. p. 14) has not scrupled to adopt them.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.76" id="linknote-20.76"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +76 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.76">return</a>)<br/> [ The conversion of the +Barbarians under the reign of Constantine is celebrated by the ecclesiastical +historians. (See Sozomen, l. ii. c. 6, and Theodoret, l. i. c. 23, 24.) But +Rufinus, the Latin translator of Eusebius, deserves to be considered as an +original authority. His information was curiously collected from one of the +companions of the Apostle of Æthiopia, and from Bacurius, an Iberian prince, +who was count of the domestics. Father Mamachi has given an ample compilation +on the progress of Christianity, in the first and second volumes of his great +but imperfect work.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.76a" id="linknote-20.76a"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +76a (<a href="#linknoteref-20.76a">return</a>)<br/> [ According to the Georgian +chronicles, Iberia (Georgia) was converted by the virgin Nino, who effected an +extraordinary cure on the wife of the king Mihran. The temple of the god +Aramazt, or Armaz, not far from the capital Mtskitha, was destroyed, and the +cross erected in its place. Le Beau, i. 202, with St. Martin’s +Notes.—St. Martin has likewise clearly shown (St. Martin, Add. to Le +Beau, i. 291) Armenia was the first <i>nation</i> which embraced Christianity, +(Addition to Le Beau, i. 76. and Mémoire sur l’Armenie, i. 305.) Gibbon +himself suspected this truth.—“Instead of maintaining that the +conversion of Armenia was not attempted with any degree of success, till the +sceptre was in the hands of an orthodox emperor,” I ought to have said, +that the seeds of the faith were deeply sown during the season of the last and +greatest persecution, that many Roman exiles might assist the labors of +Gregory, and that the renowned Tiridates, the hero of the East, may dispute +with Constantine the honor of being the first sovereign who embraced the +Christian religion Vindication] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.77" id="linknote-20.77"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +77 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.77">return</a>)<br/> [ See, in Eusebius, (in Vit. +l. iv. c. 9,) the pressing and pathetic epistle of Constantine in favor of his +Christian brethren of Persia.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.78" id="linknote-20.78"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +78 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.78">return</a>)<br/> [ See Basnage, Hist. des +Juifs, tom. vii. p. 182, tom. viii. p. 333, tom. ix. p. 810. The curious +diligence of this writer pursues the Jewish exiles to the extremities of the +globe.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.78a" id="linknote-20.78a"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +78a (<a href="#linknoteref-20.78a">return</a>)<br/> [ Abba Salama, or +Fremonatus, is mentioned in the Tareek Negushti, chronicle of the kings of +Abyssinia. Salt’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 464.—M.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.79" id="linknote-20.79"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +79 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.79">return</a>)<br/> [ Theophilus had been given in +his infancy as a hostage by his countrymen of the Isle of Diva, and was +educated by the Romans in learning and piety. The Maldives, of which Male, or +Diva, may be the capital, are a cluster of 1900 or 2000 minute islands in the +Indian Ocean. The ancients were imperfectly acquainted with the Maldives; but +they are described in the two Mahometan travellers of the ninth century, +published by Renaudot, Geograph. Nubiensis, p. 30, 31 D’Herbelot, +Bibliothèque Orientale p. 704. Hist. Generale des Voy ages, tom. +viii.—See the dissertation of M. Letronne on this question. He conceives +that Theophilus was born in the island of Dahlak, in the Arabian Gulf. His +embassy was to Abyssinia rather than to India. Letronne, Materiaux pour +l’Hist. du Christianisme en Egypte Indie, et Abyssinie. Paris, 1832 3d +Dissert.—M.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.80" id="linknote-20.80"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +80 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.80">return</a>)<br/> [ Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 4, +5, 6, with Godefroy’s learned observations. The historical narrative is +soon lost in an inquiry concerning the seat of Paradise, strange monsters, +&c.] +</p> + +<p> +The irresistible power of the Roman emperors was displayed in the important and +dangerous change of the national religion. The terrors of a military force +silenced the faint and unsupported murmurs of the Pagans, and there was reason +to expect, that the cheerful submission of the Christian clergy, as well as +people, would be the result of conscience and gratitude. It was long since +established, as a fundamental maxim of the Roman constitution, that every rank +of citizens was alike subject to the laws, and that the care of religion was +the right as well as duty of the civil magistrate. Constantine and his +successors could not easily persuade themselves that they had forfeited, by +their conversion, any branch of the Imperial prerogatives, or that they were +incapable of giving laws to a religion which they had protected and embraced. +The emperors still continued to exercise a supreme jurisdiction over the +ecclesiastical order, and the sixteenth book of the Theodosian code represents, +under a variety of titles, the authority which they assumed in the government +of the Catholic church. But the distinction of the spiritual and temporal +powers, <a href="#linknote-20.81" name="linknoteref-20.81" +id="linknoteref-20.81">81</a> which had never been imposed on the free spirit of +Greece and Rome, was introduced and confirmed by the legal establishment of +Christianity. The office of supreme pontiff, which, from the time of Numa to +that of Augustus, had always been exercised by one of the most eminent of the +senators, was at length united to the Imperial dignity. The first magistrate of +the state, as often as he was prompted by superstition or policy, performed +with his own hands the sacerdotal functions; <a href="#linknote-20.82" +name="linknoteref-20.82" id="linknoteref-20.82">82</a> nor was there any order of +priests, either at Rome or in the provinces, who claimed a more sacred +character among men, or a more intimate communication with the gods. But in the +Christian church, which instrusts the service of the altar to a perpetual +succession of consecrated ministers, the monarch, whose spiritual rank is less +honorable than that of the meanest deacon, was seated below the rails of the +sanctuary, and confounded with the rest of the faithful multitude. <a +href="#linknote-20.83" name="linknoteref-20.83" id="linknoteref-20.83">83</a> The +emperor might be saluted as the father of his people, but he owed a filial duty +and reverence to the fathers of the church; and the same marks of respect, +which Constantine had paid to the persons of saints and confessors, were soon +exacted by the pride of the episcopal order. <a href="#linknote-20.84" +name="linknoteref-20.84" id="linknoteref-20.84">84</a> A secret conflict between +the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions embarrassed the operation of the +Roman government; and a pious emperor was alarmed by the guilt and danger of +touching with a profane hand the ark of the covenant. The separation of men +into the two orders of the clergy and of the laity was, indeed, familiar to +many nations of antiquity; and the priests of India, of Persia, of Assyria, of +Judea, of Æthiopia, of Egypt, and of Gaul, derived from a celestial origin the +temporal power and possessions which they had acquired. These venerable +institutions had gradually assimilated themselves to the manners and government +of their respective countries; <a href="#linknote-20.85" name="linknoteref-20.85" +id="linknoteref-20.85">85</a> but the opposition or contempt of the civil power +served to cement the discipline of the primitive church. The Christians had +been obliged to elect their own magistrates, to raise and distribute a peculiar +revenue, and to regulate the internal policy of their republic by a code of +laws, which were ratified by the consent of the people and the practice of +three hundred years. When Constantine embraced the faith of the Christians, he +seemed to contract a perpetual alliance with a distinct and independent +society; and the privileges granted or confirmed by that emperor, or by his +successors, were accepted, not as the precarious favors of the court, but as +the just and inalienable rights of the ecclesiastical order. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.81" id="linknote-20.81"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +81 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.81">return</a>)<br/> [ See the epistle of Osius, +ap. Athanasium, vol. i. p. 840. The public remonstrance which Osius was forced +to address to the son, contained the same principles of ecclesiastical and +civil government which he had secretly instilled into the mind of the father.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.82" id="linknote-20.82"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +82 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.82">return</a>)<br/> [ M. de la Bastiel has +evidently proved, that Augustus and his successors exercised in person all the +sacred functions of pontifex maximus, of high priest, of the Roman empire.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.83" id="linknote-20.83"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +83 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.83">return</a>)<br/> [ Something of a contrary +practice had insensibly prevailed in the church of Constantinople; but the +rigid Ambrose commanded Theodosius to retire below the rails, and taught him to +know the difference between a king and a priest. See Theodoret, l. v. c. 18.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.84" id="linknote-20.84"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +84 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.84">return</a>)<br/> [ At the table of the emperor +Maximus, Martin, bishop of Tours, received the cup from an attendant, and gave +it to the presbyter, his companion, before he allowed the emperor to drink; the +empress waited on Martin at table. Sulpicius Severus, in Vit. S<sup>ti</sup> +Martin, c. 23, and Dialogue ii. 7. Yet it may be doubted, whether these +extraordinary compliments were paid to the bishop or the saint. The honors +usually granted to the former character may be seen in Bingham’s +Antiquities, l. ii. c. 9, and Vales ad Theodoret, l. iv. c. 6. See the haughty +ceremonial which Leontius, bishop of Tripoli, imposed on the empress. +Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 754. (Patres Apostol. tom. ii. p. +179.)] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.85" id="linknote-20.85"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +85 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Plutarch, in his treatise of +Isis and Osiris, informs us that the kings of Egypt, who were not already +priests, were initiated, after their election, into the sacerdotal order.] +</p> + +<p> +The Catholic church was administered by the spiritual and legal jurisdiction of +eighteen hundred bishops; <a href="#linknote-20.86" name="linknoteref-20.86" +id="linknoteref-20.86">86</a> of whom one thousand were seated in the Greek, and +eight hundred in the Latin, provinces of the empire. The extent and boundaries +of their respective dioceses had been variously and accidentally decided by the +zeal and success of the first missionaries, by the wishes of the people, and by +the propagation of the gospel. Episcopal churches were closely planted along +the banks of the Nile, on the sea-coast of Africa, in the proconsular Asia, and +through the southern provinces of Italy. The bishops of Gaul and Spain, of +Thrace and Pontus, reigned over an ample territory, and delegated their rural +suffragans to execute the subordinate duties of the pastoral office. <a +href="#linknote-20.87" name="linknoteref-20.87" id="linknoteref-20.87">87</a> A +Christian diocese might be spread over a province, or reduced to a village; but +all the bishops possessed an equal and indelible character: they all derived +the same powers and privileges from the apostles, from the people, and from the +laws. While the <i>civil</i> and <i>military</i> professions were separated by +the policy of Constantine, a new and perpetual order of <i>ecclesiastical</i> +ministers, always respectable, sometimes dangerous, was established in the +church and state. The important review of their station and attributes may be +distributed under the following heads: I. Popular Election. II. Ordination of +the Clergy. III. Property. IV. Civil Jurisdiction. V. Spiritual censures. VI. +Exercise of public oratory. VII. Privilege of legislative assemblies. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.86" id="linknote-20.86"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +86 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.86">return</a>)<br/> [ The numbers are not +ascertained by any ancient writer or original catalogue; for the partial lists +of the eastern churches are comparatively modern. The patient diligence of +Charles a S<sup>to</sup> Paolo, of Luke Holstentius, and of Bingham, has +laboriously investigated all the episcopal sees of the Catholic church, which +was almost commensurate with the Roman empire. The ninth book of the Christian +antiquities is a very accurate map of ecclesiastical geography.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.87" id="linknote-20.87"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +87 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.87">return</a>)<br/> [ On the subject of rural +bishops, or <i>Chorepiscopi</i>, who voted in tynods, and conferred the minor +orders, See Thomassin, Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. p. 447, &c., +and Chardon, Hist. des Sacremens, tom. v. p. 395, &c. They do not appear +till the fourth century; and this equivocal character, which had excited the +jealousy of the prelates, was abolished before the end of the tenth, both in +the East and the West.] +</p> + +<p> +I. The freedom of election subsisted long after the legal establishment of +Christianity; <a href="#linknote-20.88" name="linknoteref-20.88" +id="linknoteref-20.88">88</a> and the subjects of Rome enjoyed in the church the +privilege which they had lost in the republic, of choosing the magistrates whom +they were bound to obey. As soon as a bishop had closed his eyes, the +metropolitan issued a commission to one of his suffragans to administer the +vacant see, and prepare, within a limited time, the future election. The right +of voting was vested in the inferior clergy, who were best qualified to judge +of the merit of the candidates; in the senators or nobles of the city, all +those who were distinguished by their rank or property; and finally in the +whole body of the people, who, on the appointed day, flocked in multitudes from +the most remote parts of the diocese, <a href="#linknote-20.89" +name="linknoteref-20.89" id="linknoteref-20.89">89</a> and sometimes silenced by +their tumultuous acclamations, the voice of reason and the laws of discipline. +These acclamations might accidentally fix on the head of the most deserving +competitor; of some ancient presbyter, some holy monk, or some layman, +conspicuous for his zeal and piety. But the episcopal chair was solicited, +especially in the great and opulent cities of the empire, as a temporal rather +than as a spiritual dignity. The interested views, the selfish and angry +passions, the arts of perfidy and dissimulation, the secret corruption, the +open and even bloody violence which had formerly disgraced the freedom of +election in the commonwealths of Greece and Rome, too often influenced the +choice of the successors of the apostles. While one of the candidates boasted +the honors of his family, a second allured his judges by the delicacies of a +plentiful table, and a third, more guilty than his rivals, offered to share the +plunder of the church among the accomplices of his sacrilegious hopes <a +href="#linknote-20.90" name="linknoteref-20.90" id="linknoteref-20.90">90</a> The +civil as well as ecclesiastical laws attempted to exclude the populace from +this solemn and important transaction. The canons of ancient discipline, by +requiring several episcopal qualifications, of age, station, &c., +restrained, in some measure, the indiscriminate caprice of the electors. The +authority of the provincial bishops, who were assembled in the vacant church to +consecrate the choice of the people, was interposed to moderate their passions +and to correct their mistakes. The bishops could refuse to ordain an unworthy +candidate, and the rage of contending factions sometimes accepted their +impartial mediation. The submission, or the resistance, of the clergy and +people, on various occasions, afforded different precedents, which were +insensibly converted into positive laws and provincial customs; <a +href="#linknote-20.91" name="linknoteref-20.91" id="linknoteref-20.91">91</a> but +it was every where admitted, as a fundamental maxim of religious policy, that +no bishop could be imposed on an orthodox church, without the consent of its +members. The emperors, as the guardians of the public peace, and as the first +citizens of Rome and Constantinople, might effectually declare their wishes in +the choice of a primate; but those absolute monarchs respected the freedom of +ecclesiastical elections; and while they distributed and resumed the honors of +the state and army, they allowed eighteen hundred perpetual magistrates to +receive their important offices from the free suffrages of the people. <a +href="#linknote-20.92" name="linknoteref-20.92" id="linknoteref-20.92">92</a> It +was agreeable to the dictates of justice, that these magistrates should not +desert an honorable station from which they could not be removed; but the +wisdom of councils endeavored, without much success, to enforce the residence, +and to prevent the translation, of bishops. The discipline of the West was +indeed less relaxed than that of the East; but the same passions which made +those regulations necessary, rendered them ineffectual. The reproaches which +angry prelates have so vehemently urged against each other, serve only to +expose their common guilt, and their mutual indiscretion. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.88" id="linknote-20.88"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +88 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Thomassin (Discipline de +l’Eglise, tom, ii. l. ii. c. 1-8, p. 673-721) has copiously treated of +the election of bishops during the five first centuries, both in the East and +in the West; but he shows a very partial bias in favor of the episcopal +aristocracy. Bingham, (l. iv. c. 2) is moderate; and Chardon (Hist. des +Sacremens tom. v. p. 108-128) is very clear and concise. * Note: This freedom +was extremely limited, and soon annihilated; already, from the third century, +the deacons were no longer nominated by the members of the community, but by +the bishops. Although it appears by the letters of Cyprian, that even in his +time, no priest could be elected without the consent of the community. (Ep. +68,) that election was far from being altogether free. The bishop proposed to +his parishioners the candidate whom he had chosen, and they were permitted to +make such objections as might be suggested by his conduct and morals. (St. +Cyprian, Ep. 33.) They lost this last right towards the middle of the fourth +century.—G] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.89" id="linknote-20.89"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +89 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.89">return</a>)<br/> [ Incredibilis multitudo, non +solum ex eo oppido, (<i>Tours</i>,) sed etiam ex vicinis urbibus ad suffragia +ferenda convenerat, &c. Sulpicius Severus, in Vit. Martin. c. 7. The +council of Laodicea, (canon xiii.) prohibits mobs and tumults; and Justinian +confines confined the right of election to the nobility. Novel. cxxiii. l.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.90" id="linknote-20.90"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +90 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.90">return</a>)<br/> [ The epistles of Sidonius +Apollinaris (iv. 25, vii. 5, 9) exhibit some of the scandals of the Gallican +church; and Gaul was less polished and less corrupt than the East.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.91" id="linknote-20.91"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +91 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.91">return</a>)<br/> [ A compromise was sometimes +introduced by law or by consent; either the bishops or the people chose one of +the three candidates who had been named by the other party.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.92" id="linknote-20.92"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +92 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.92">return</a>)<br/> [ All the examples quoted by +Thomassin (Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. ii. l. iii. c. vi. p. 704-714) +appear to be extraordinary acts of power, and even of oppression. The +confirmation of the bishop of Alexandria is mentioned by Philostorgius as a +more regular proceeding. (Hist Eccles. l. ii. ll.) * Note: The statement of +Planck is more consistent with history: “From the middle of the fourth +century, the bishops of some of the larger churches, particularly those of the +Imperial residence, were almost always chosen under the influence of the court, +and often directly and immediately nominated by the emperor.” Planck, +Geschichte der Christlich-kirchlichen Gesellschafteverfassung, verfassung, vol. +i p 263.—M.] +</p> + +<p> +II. The bishops alone possessed the faculty of <i>spiritual</i> generation: and +this extraordinary privilege might compensate, in some degree, for the painful +celibacy <a href="#linknote-20.93" name="linknoteref-20.93" +id="linknoteref-20.93">93</a> which was imposed as a virtue, as a duty, and at +length as a positive obligation. The religions of antiquity, which established +a separate order of priests, dedicated a holy race, a tribe or family, to the +perpetual service of the gods. <a href="#linknote-20.94" name="linknoteref-20.94" +id="linknoteref-20.94">94</a> Such institutions were founded for possession, +rather than conquest. The children of the priests enjoyed, with proud and +indolent security, their sacred inheritance; and the fiery spirit of enthusiasm +was abated by the cares, the pleasures, and the endearments of domestic life. +But the Christian sanctuary was open to every ambitious candidate, who aspired +to its heavenly promises or temporal possessions. This office of priests, like +that of soldiers or magistrates, was strenuously exercised by those men, whose +temper and abilities had prompted them to embrace the ecclesiastical +profession, or who had been selected by a discerning bishop, as the best +qualified to promote the glory and interest of the church. The bishops <a +href="#linknote-20.95" name="linknoteref-20.95" id="linknoteref-20.95">95</a> +(till the abuse was restrained by the prudence of the laws) might constrain the +reluctant, and protect the distressed; and the imposition of hands forever +bestowed some of the most valuable privileges of civil society. The whole body +of the Catholic clergy, more numerous perhaps than the legions, was exempted +[95a] by the emperors from all service, private or public, all municipal +offices, and all personal taxes and contributions, which pressed on their +fellow- citizens with intolerable weight; and the duties of their holy +profession were accepted as a full discharge of their obligations to the +republic. <a href="#linknote-20.96" name="linknoteref-20.96" +id="linknoteref-20.96">96</a> Each bishop acquired an absolute and indefeasible +right to the perpetual obedience of the clerk whom he ordained: the clergy of +each episcopal church, with its dependent parishes, formed a regular and +permanent society; and the cathedrals of Constantinople <a +href="#linknote-20.97" name="linknoteref-20.97" id="linknoteref-20.97">97</a> and +Carthage <a href="#linknote-20.98" name="linknoteref-20.98" +id="linknoteref-20.98">98</a> maintained their peculiar establishment of five +hundred ecclesiastical ministers. Their ranks <a href="#linknote-20.99" +name="linknoteref-20.99" id="linknoteref-20.99">99</a> and numbers were +insensibly multiplied by the superstition of the times, which introduced into +the church the splendid ceremonies of a Jewish or Pagan temple; and a long +train of priests, deacons, sub-deacons, acolythes, exorcists, readers, singers, +and doorkeepers, contributed, in their respective stations, to swell the pomp +and harmony of religious worship. The clerical name and privileges were +extended to many pious fraternities, who devoutly supported the ecclesiastical +throne. <a href="#linknote-20.100" name="linknoteref-20.100" +id="linknoteref-20.100">100</a> Six hundred <i>parabolani</i>, or adventurers, +visited the sick at Alexandria; eleven hundred <i>copiatæ</i>, or +grave-diggers, buried the dead at Constantinople; and the swarms of monks, who +arose from the Nile, overspread and darkened the face of the Christian world. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.93" id="linknote-20.93"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +93 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.93">return</a>)<br/> [ The celibacy of the clergy +during the first five or six centuries, is a subject of discipline, and indeed +of controversy, which has been very diligently examined. See in particular, +Thomassin, Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. l. ii. c. lx. lxi. p. 886-902, +and Bingham’s Antiquities, l. iv. c. 5. By each of these learned but +partial critics, one half of the truth is produced, and the other is +concealed.—Note: Compare Planck, (vol. i. p. 348.) This century, the +third, first brought forth the monks, or the spirit of monkery, the celibacy of +the clergy. Planck likewise observes, that from the history of Eusebius alone, +names of married bishops and presbyters may be adduced by dozens.—M.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.94" id="linknote-20.94"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +94 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.94">return</a>)<br/> [ Diodorus Siculus attests and +approves the hereditary succession of the priesthood among the Egyptians, the +Chaldeans, and the Indians, (l. i. p. 84, l. ii. p. 142, 153, edit. Wesseling.) +The magi are described by Ammianus as a very numerous family: “Per sæcula +multa ad præsens unâ eâdemque prosapiâ multitudo creata, Deorum cultibus +dedicata.” (xxiii. 6.) Ausonius celebrates the <i>Stirps Druidarum</i>, +(De Professorib. Burdigal. iv.;) but we may infer from the remark of Cæsar, +(vi. 13,) that in the Celtic hierarchy, some room was left for choice and +emulation.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.95" id="linknote-20.95"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +95 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.95">return</a>)<br/> [ The subject of the vocation, +ordination, obedience, &c., of the clergy, is laboriously discussed by +Thomassin (Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. ii. p. 1-83) and Bingham, (in the +4th book of his Antiquities, more especially the 4th, 6th, and 7th chapters.) +When the brother of St. Jerom was ordained in Cyprus, the deacons forcibly +stopped his mouth, lest he should make a solemn protestation, which might +invalidate the holy rites.] +</p> + + +<p class="foot"> +<br/> [ This exemption was very +much limited. The municipal offices were of two kinds; the one attached to the +individual in his character of inhabitant, the other in that of +<i>proprietor</i>. Constantine had exempted ecclesiastics from offices of the +first description. (Cod. Theod. xvi. t. ii. leg. 1, 2 Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. +l. x. c. vii.) They sought, also, to be exempted from those of the second, +(munera patrimoniorum.) The rich, to obtain this privilege, obtained +subordinate situations among the clergy. Constantine published in 320 an edict, +by which he prohibited the more opulent citizens (decuriones and curiales) from +embracing the ecclesiastical profession, and the bishops from admitting new +ecclesiastics, before a place should be vacant by the death of the occupant, +(Godefroy ad Cod. Theod.t. xii. t. i. de Decur.) Valentinian the First, by a +rescript still more general enacted that no rich citizen should obtain a +situation in the church, (De Episc 1. lxvii.) He also enacted that +ecclesiastics, who wished to be exempt from offices which they were bound to +discharge as proprietors, should be obliged to give up their property to their +relations. Cod Theodos l. xii t. i. leb. 49—G.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.96" id="linknote-20.96"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +96 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.96">return</a>)<br/> [ The charter of immunities, +which the clergy obtained from the Christian emperors, is contained in the 16th +book of the Theodosian code; and is illustrated with tolerable candor by the +learned Godefroy, whose mind was balanced by the opposite prejudices of a +civilian and a Protestant.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.97" id="linknote-20.97"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +97 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.97">return</a>)<br/> [ Justinian. Novell. ciii. +Sixty presbyters, or priests, one hundred deacons, forty deaconesses, ninety +sub-deacons, one hundred and ten readers, twenty-five chanters, and one hundred +door-keepers; in all, five hundred and twenty-five. This moderate number was +fixed by the emperor to relieve the distress of the church, which had been +involved in debt and usury by the expense of a much higher establishment.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.98" id="linknote-20.98"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +98 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.98">return</a>)<br/> [ Universus clerus ecclesiæ +Carthaginiensis.... fere <i>quingenti</i> vel amplius; inter quos quamplurima +erant lectores infantuli. Victor Vitensis, de Persecut. Vandal. v. 9, p. 78, +edit. Ruinart. This remnant of a more prosperous state still subsisted under +the oppression of the Vandals.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.99" id="linknote-20.99"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +99 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.99">return</a>)<br/> [ The number of <i>seven</i> +orders has been fixed in the Latin church, exclusive of the episcopal +character. But the four inferior ranks, the minor orders, are now reduced to +empty and useless titles.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.100" id="linknote-20.100"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +100 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.100">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. +tit. ii. leg. 42, 43. Godefroy’s Commentary, and the Ecclesiastical +History of Alexandria, show the danger of these pious institutions, which often +disturbed the peace of that turbulent capital.] +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap20.4"></a>Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part IV.</h2> + +<p> +III. The edict of Milan secured the revenue as well as the peace of the church. +<a href="#linknote-20.101" name="linknoteref-20.101" +id="linknoteref-20.101">101</a> The Christians not only recovered the lands and +houses of which they had been stripped by the persecuting laws of Diocletian, +but they acquired a perfect title to all the possessions which they had +hitherto enjoyed by the connivance of the magistrate. As soon as Christianity +became the religion of the emperor and the empire, the national clergy might +claim a decent and honorable maintenance; and the payment of an annual tax +might have delivered the people from the more oppressive tribute, which +superstition imposes on her votaries. But as the wants and expenses of the +church increased with her prosperity, the ecclesiastical order was still +supported and enriched by the voluntary oblations of the faithful. Eight years +after the edict of Milan, Constantine granted to all his subjects the free and +universal permission of bequeathing their fortunes to the holy Catholic church; +<a href="#linknote-20.102" name="linknoteref-20.102" +id="linknoteref-20.102">102</a> and their devout liberality, which during their +lives was checked by luxury or avarice, flowed with a profuse stream at the +hour of their death. The wealthy Christians were encouraged by the example of +their sovereign. An absolute monarch, who is rich without patrimony, may be +charitable without merit; and Constantine too easily believed that he should +purchase the favor of Heaven, if he maintained the idle at the expense of the +industrious; and distributed among the saints the wealth of the republic. The +same messenger who carried over to Africa the head of Maxentius, might be +intrusted with an epistle to Cæcilian, bishop of Carthage. The emperor +acquaints him, that the treasurers of the province are directed to pay into his +hands the sum of three thousand <i>folles</i>, or eighteen thousand pounds +sterling, and to obey his further requisitions for the relief of the churches +of Africa, Numidia, and Mauritania. <a href="#linknote-20.103" +name="linknoteref-20.103" id="linknoteref-20.103">103</a> The liberality of +Constantine increased in a just proportion to his faith, and to his vices. He +assigned in each city a regular allowance of corn, to supply the fund of +ecclesiastical charity; and the persons of both sexes who embraced the monastic +life became the peculiar favorites of their sovereign. The Christian temples of +Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Constantinople &c., displayed the +ostentatious piety of a prince, ambitious in a declining age to equal the +perfect labors of antiquity. <a href="#linknote-20.104" name="linknoteref-20.104" +id="linknoteref-20.104">104</a> The form of these religious edifices was simple +and oblong; though they might sometimes swell into the shape of a dome, and +sometimes branch into the figure of a cross. The timbers were framed for the +most part of cedars of Libanus; the roof was covered with tiles, perhaps of +gilt brass; and the walls, the columns, the pavement, were encrusted with +variegated marbles. The most precious ornaments of gold and silver, of silk and +gems, were profusely dedicated to the service of the altar; and this specious +magnificence was supported on the solid and perpetual basis of landed property. +In the space of two centuries, from the reign of Constantine to that of +Justinian, the eighteen hundred churches of the empire were enriched by the +frequent and unalienable gifts of the prince and people. An annual income of +six hundred pounds sterling may be reasonably assigned to the bishops, who were +placed at an equal distance between riches and poverty, <a +href="#linknote-20.105" name="linknoteref-20.105" id="linknoteref-20.105">105</a> +but the standard of their wealth insensibly rose with the dignity and opulence +of the cities which they governed. An authentic but imperfect <a +href="#linknote-20.106" name="linknoteref-20.106" id="linknoteref-20.106">106</a> +rent-roll specifies some houses, shops, gardens, and farms, which belonged to +the three <i>Basilicæ</i> of Rome, St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. John Lateran, +in the provinces of Italy, Africa, and the East. They produce, besides a +reserved rent of oil, linen, paper, aromatics, &c., a clear annual revenue +of twenty-two thousand pieces of gold, or twelve thousand pounds sterling. In +the age of Constantine and Justinian, the bishops no longer possessed, perhaps +they no longer deserved, the unsuspecting confidence of their clergy and +people. The ecclesiastical revenues of each diocese were divided into four +parts for the respective uses of the bishop himself, of his inferior clergy, of +the poor, and of the public worship; and the abuse of this sacred trust was +strictly and repeatedly checked. <a href="#linknote-20.107" +name="linknoteref-20.107" id="linknoteref-20.107">107</a> The patrimony of the +church was still subject to all the public compositions of the state. <a +href="#linknote-20.108" name="linknoteref-20.108" id="linknoteref-20.108">108</a> +The clergy of Rome, Alexandria, Chessaionica, &c., might solicit and obtain +some partial exemptions; but the premature attempt of the great council of +Rimini, which aspired to universal freedom, was successfully resisted by the +son of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-20.109" name="linknoteref-20.109" +id="linknoteref-20.109">109</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.101" id="linknote-20.101"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +101 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.101">return</a>)<br/> [ The edict of Milan (de M. +P. c. 48) acknowledges, by reciting, that there existed a species of landed +property, ad jus corporis eorum, id est, ecclesiarum non hominum singulorum +pertinentia. Such a solemn declaration of the supreme magistrate must have been +received in all the tribunals as a maxim of civil law.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.102" id="linknote-20.102"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +102 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.102">return</a>)<br/> [ Habeat unusquisque +licentiam sanctissimo Catholicæ (<i>ecclesiæ</i>) venerabilique concilio, +decedens bonorum quod optavit relinquere. Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. ii. leg. +4. This law was published at Rome, A. D. 321, at a time when Constantine might +foresee the probability of a rupture with the emperor of the East.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.103" id="linknote-20.103"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +103 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.103">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. l. +x. 6; in Vit. Constantin. l. iv. c. 28. He repeatedly expatiates on the +liberality of the Christian hero, which the bishop himself had an opportunity +of knowing, and even of lasting.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.104" id="linknote-20.104"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +104 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.104">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. l. +x. c. 2, 3, 4. The bishop of Cæsarea who studied and gratified the taste of his +master, pronounced in public an elaborate description of the church of +Jerusalem, (in Vit Cons. l. vi. c. 46.) It no longer exists, but he has +inserted in the life of Constantine (l. iii. c. 36) a short account of the +architecture and ornaments. He likewise mentions the church of the Holy +Apostles at Constantinople, (l. iv. c. 59.)] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.105" id="linknote-20.105"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +105 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.105">return</a>)<br/> [ See Justinian. Novell. +cxxiii. 3. The revenue of the patriarchs, and the most wealthy bishops, is not +expressed: the highest annual valuation of a bishopric is stated at +<i>thirty</i>, and the lowest at <i>two</i>, pounds of gold; the medium might +be taken at <i>sixteen</i>, but these valuations are much below the real +value.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.106" id="linknote-20.106"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +106 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.106">return</a>)<br/> [ See Baronius, (Annal. +Eccles. A. D. 324, No. 58, 65, 70, 71.) Every record which comes from the +Vatican is justly suspected; yet these rent-rolls have an ancient and authentic +color; and it is at least evident, that, if forged, they were forged in a +period when <i>farms</i> not <i>kingdoms</i>, were the objects of papal +avarice.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.107" id="linknote-20.107"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +107 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.107">return</a>)<br/> [ See Thomassin, Discipline +de l’Eglise, tom. iii. l. ii. c. 13, 14, 15, p. 689-706. The legal +division of the ecclesiastical revenue does not appear to have been established +in the time of Ambrose and Chrysostom. Simplicius and Gelasius, who were +bishops of Rome in the latter part of the fifth century, mention it in their +pastoral letters as a general law, which was already confirmed by the custom of +Italy.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.108" id="linknote-20.108"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +108 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.108">return</a>)<br/> [ Ambrose, the most +strenuous assertor of ecclesiastical privileges, submits without a murmur to +the payment of the land tax. “Si tri butum petit Imperator, non negamus; +agri ecclesiæ solvunt tributum solvimus quæ sunt Cæsaris Cæsari, et quæ sunt +Dei Deo; tributum Cæsaris est; non negatur.” Baronius labors to interpret +this tribute as an act of charity rather than of duty, (Annal. Eccles. A. D. +387;) but the words, if not the intentions of Ambrose are more candidly +explained by Thomassin, Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. iii. l. i. c. 34. p. +668.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.109" id="linknote-20.109"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +109 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.109">return</a>)<br/> [ In Ariminense synodo super +ecclesiarum et clericorum privilegiis tractatu habito, usque eo dispositio +progressa est, ut juqa quæ viderentur ad ecclesiam pertinere, a publica +functione cessarent inquietudine desistente; quod nostra videtur dudum sanctio +repulsisse. Cod. Theod. l. xvi. tit. ii. leg. 15. Had the synod of Rimini +carried this point, such practical merit might have atoned for some speculative +heresies.] +</p> + +<p> +IV. The Latin clergy, who erected their tribunal on the ruins of the civil and +common law, have modestly accepted, as the gift of Constantine, <a +href="#linknote-20.110" name="linknoteref-20.110" id="linknoteref-20.110">110</a> +the independent jurisdiction, which was the fruit of time, of accident, and of +their own industry. But the liberality of the Christian emperors had actually +endowed them with some legal prerogatives, which secured and dignified the +sacerdotal character. <a href="#linknote-20.111" name="linknoteref-20.111" +id="linknoteref-20.111">111</a> 1. Under a despotic government, the bishops +alone enjoyed and asserted the inestimable privilege of being tried only by +their <i>peers</i>, and even in a capital accusation, a synod of their brethren +were the sole judges of their guilt or innocence. Such a tribunal, unless it +was inflamed by personal resentment or religious discord, might be favorable, +or even partial, to the sacerdotal order: but Constantine was satisfied, <a +href="#linknote-20.112" name="linknoteref-20.112" id="linknoteref-20.112">112</a> +that secret impunity would be less pernicious than public scandal: and the +Nicene council was edited by his public declaration, that if he surprised a +bishop in the act of adultery, he should cast his Imperial mantle over the +episcopal sinner. 2. The domestic jurisdiction of the bishops was at once a +privilege and a restraint of the ecclesiastical order, whose civil causes were +decently withdrawn from the cognizance of a secular judge. Their venial +offences were not exposed to the shame of a public trial or punishment; and the +gentle correction which the tenderness of youth may endure from its parents or +instructors, was inflicted by the temperate severity of the bishops. But if the +clergy were guilty of any crime which could not be sufficiently expiated by +their degradation from an honorable and beneficial profession, the Roman +magistrate drew the sword of justice, without any regard to ecclesiastical +immunities. 3. The arbitration of the bishops was ratified by a positive law; +and the judges were instructed to execute, without appeal or delay, the +episcopal decrees, whose validity had hitherto depended on the consent of the +parties. The conversion of the magistrates themselves, and of the whole empire, +might gradually remove the fears and scruples of the Christians. But they still +resorted to the tribunal of the bishops, whose abilities and integrity they +esteemed; and the venerable Austin enjoyed the satisfaction of complaining that +his spiritual functions were perpetually interrupted by the invidious labor of +deciding the claim or the possession of silver and gold, of lands and cattle. +4. The ancient privilege of sanctuary was transferred to the Christian temples, +and extended, by the liberal piety of the younger Theodosius, to the precincts +of consecrated ground. <a href="#linknote-20.113" name="linknoteref-20.113" +id="linknoteref-20.113">113</a> The fugitive, and even guilty suppliants,were +permitted to implore either the justice, or the mercy, of the Deity and his +ministers. The rash violence of despotism was suspended by the mild +interposition of the church; and the lives or fortunes of the most eminent +subjects might be protected by the mediation of the bishop. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.110" id="linknote-20.110"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +110 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.110">return</a>)<br/> [ From Eusebius (in Vit. +Constant. l. iv. c. 27) and Sozomen (l. i. c. 9) we are assured that the +episcopal jurisdiction was extended and confirmed by Constantine; but the +forgery of a famous edict, which was never fairly inserted in the Theodosian +Code (see at the end, tom. vi. p. 303,) is demonstrated by Godefroy in the most +satisfactory manner. It is strange that M. de Montesquieu, who was a lawyer as +well as a philosopher, should allege this edict of Constantine (Esprit des +Loix, l. xxix. c. 16) without intimating any suspicion.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.111" id="linknote-20.111"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +111 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.111">return</a>)<br/> [ The subject of +ecclesiastical jurisdiction has been involved in a mist of passion, of +prejudice, and of interest. Two of the fairest books which have fallen into my +hands, are the Institutes of Canon Law, by the Abbé de Fleury, and the Civil +History of Naples, by Giannone. Their moderation was the effect of situation as +well as of temper. Fleury was a French ecclesiastic, who respected the +authority of the parliaments; Giannone was an Italian lawyer, who dreaded the +power of the church. And here let me observe, that as the general propositions +which I advance are the result of <i>many</i> particular and imperfect facts, I +must either refer the reader to those modern authors who have expressly treated +the subject, or swell these notes disproportioned size.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.112" id="linknote-20.112"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +112 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.112">return</a>)<br/> [ Tillemont has collected +from Rufinus, Theodoret, &c., the sentiments and language of Constantine. +Mém Eccles tom. iii p. 749, 759.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.113" id="linknote-20.113"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +113 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.113">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cod. Theod. l. ix. +tit. xlv. leg. 4. In the works of Fra Paolo. (tom. iv. p. 192, &c.,) there +is an excellent discourse on the origin, claims, abuses, and limits of +sanctuaries. He justly observes, that ancient Greece might perhaps contain +fifteen or twenty <i>azyla</i> or sanctuaries; a number which at present may be +found in Italy within the walls of a single city.] +</p> + +<p> +V. The bishop was the perpetual censor of the morals of his people The +discipline of penance was digested into a system of canonical jurisprudence, <a +href="#linknote-20.114" name="linknoteref-20.114" id="linknoteref-20.114">114</a> +which accurately defined the duty of private or public confession, the rules of +evidence, the degrees of guilt, and the measure of punishment. It was +impossible to execute this spiritual censure, if the Christian pontiff, who +punished the obscure sins of the multitude, respected the conspicuous vices and +destructive crimes of the magistrate: but it was impossible to arraign the +conduct of the magistrate, without, controlling the administration of civil +government. Some considerations of religion, or loyalty, or fear, protected the +sacred persons of the emperors from the zeal or resentment of the bishops; but +they boldly censured and excommunicated the subordinate tyrants, who were not +invested with the majesty of the purple. St. Athanasius excommunicated one of +the ministers of Egypt; and the interdict which he pronounced, of fire and +water, was solemnly transmitted to the churches of Cappadocia. <a +href="#linknote-20.115" name="linknoteref-20.115" id="linknoteref-20.115">115</a> +Under the reign of the younger Theodosius, the polite and eloquent Synesius, +one of the descendants of Hercules, <a href="#linknote-20.116" +name="linknoteref-20.116" id="linknoteref-20.116">116</a> filled the episcopal +seat of Ptolemais, near the ruins of ancient Cyrene, <a href="#linknote-20.117" +name="linknoteref-20.117" id="linknoteref-20.117">117</a> and the philosophic +bishop supported with dignity the character which he had assumed with +reluctance. <a href="#linknote-20.118" name="linknoteref-20.118" +id="linknoteref-20.118">118</a> He vanquished the monster of Libya, the +president Andronicus, who abused the authority of a venal office, invented new +modes of rapine and torture, and aggravated the guilt of oppression by that of +sacrilege. <a href="#linknote-20.119" name="linknoteref-20.119" +id="linknoteref-20.119">119</a> After a fruitless attempt to reclaim the haughty +magistrate by mild and religious admonition, Synesius proceeds to inflict the +last sentence of ecclesiastical justice, <a href="#linknote-20.120" +name="linknoteref-20.120" id="linknoteref-20.120">120</a> which devotes +Andronicus, with his associates and their <i>families</i>, to the abhorrence of +earth and heaven. The impenitent sinners, more cruel than Phalaris or +Sennacherib, more destructive than war, pestilence, or a cloud of locusts, are +deprived of the name and privileges of Christians, of the participation of the +sacraments, and of the hope of Paradise. The bishop exhorts the clergy, the +magistrates, and the people, to renounce all society with the enemies of +Christ; to exclude them from their houses and tables; and to refuse them the +common offices of life, and the decent rites of burial. The church of +Ptolemais, obscure and contemptible as she may appear, addresses this +declaration to all her sister churches of the world; and the profane who reject +her decrees, will be involved in the guilt and punishment of Andronicus and his +impious followers. These spiritual terrors were enforced by a dexterous +application to the Byzantine court; the trembling president implored the mercy +of the church; and the descendants of Hercules enjoyed the satisfaction of +raising a prostrate tyrant from the ground. <a href="#linknote-20.121" +name="linknoteref-20.121" id="linknoteref-20.121">121</a> Such principles and +such examples insensibly prepared the triumph of the Roman pontiffs, who have +trampled on the necks of kings. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.114" id="linknote-20.114"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +114 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.114">return</a>)<br/> [ The penitential +jurisprudence was continually improved by the canons of the councils. But as +many cases were still left to the discretion of the bishops, they occasionally +published, after the example of the Roman Prætor, the rules of discipline which +they proposed to observe. Among the canonical epistles of the fourth century, +those of Basil the Great were the most celebrated. They are inserted in the +Pandects of Beveridge, (tom. ii. p. 47-151,) and are translated by Chardon, +Hist. des Sacremens, tom. iv. p. 219-277.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.115" id="linknote-20.115"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +115 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.115">return</a>)<br/> [ Basil, Epistol. xlvii. in +Baronius, (Annal. Eccles. A. D. 370. N. 91,) who declares that he purposely +relates it, to convince govern that they were not exempt from a sentence of +excommunication his opinion, even a royal head is not safe from the thunders of +the Vatican; and the cardinal shows himself much more consistent than the +lawyers and theologians of the Gallican church.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.116" id="linknote-20.116"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +116 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.116">return</a>)<br/> [ The long series of his +ancestors, as high as Eurysthenes, the first Doric king of Sparta, and the +fifth in lineal descent from Hercules, was inscribed in the public registers of +Cyrene, a Lacedæmonian colony. (Synes. Epist. lvii. p. 197, edit. Petav.) Such +a pure and illustrious pedigree of seventeen hundred years, without adding the +royal ancestors of Hercules, cannot be equalled in the history of mankind.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.117" id="linknote-20.117"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +117 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.117">return</a>)<br/> [ Synesius (de Regno, p. 2) +pathetically deplores the fallen and ruined state of Cyrene, [**Greek]. +Ptolemais, a new city, 82 miles to the westward of Cyrene, assumed the +metropolitan honors of the Pentapolis, or Upper Libya, which were afterwards +transferred to Sozusa.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.118" id="linknote-20.118"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +118 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.118">return</a>)<br/> [ Synesius had previously +represented his own disqualifications. He loved profane studies and profane +sports; he was incapable of supporting a life of celibacy; he disbelieved the +resurrection; and he refused to preach <i>fables</i> to the people unless he +might be permitted to <i>philosophize</i> at home. Theophilus primate of Egypt, +who knew his merit, accepted this extraordinary compromise.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.119" id="linknote-20.119"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +119 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.119">return</a>)<br/> [ The promotion of +Andronicus was illegal; since he was a native of Berenice, in the same +province. The instruments of torture are curiously specified; the press that +variously pressed on distended the fingers, the feet, the nose, the ears, and +the lips of the victims.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.120" id="linknote-20.120"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +120 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.120">return</a>)<br/> [ The sentence of +excommunication is expressed in a rhetorical style. (Synesius, Epist. lviii. p. +201-203.) The method of involving whole families, though somewhat unjust, was +improved into national interdicts.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.121" id="linknote-20.121"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +121 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.121">return</a>)<br/> [ See Synesius, Epist. +xlvii. p. 186, 187. Epist. lxxii. p. 218, 219 Epist. lxxxix. p. 230, 231.] +</p> + +<p> +VI. Every popular government has experienced the effects of rude or artificial +eloquence. The coldest nature is animated, the firmest reason is moved, by the +rapid communication of the prevailing impulse; and each hearer is affected by +his own passions, and by those of the surrounding multitude. The ruin of civil +liberty had silenced the demagogues of Athens, and the tribunes of Rome; the +custom of preaching which seems to constitute a considerable part of Christian +devotion, had not been introduced into the temples of antiquity; and the ears +of monarchs were never invaded by the harsh sound of popular eloquence, till +the pulpits of the empire were filled with sacred orators, who possessed some +advantages unknown to their profane predecessors. <a href="#linknote-20.122" +name="linknoteref-20.122" id="linknoteref-20.122">122</a> The arguments and +rhetoric of the tribune were instantly opposed with equal arms, by skilful and +resolute antagonists; and the cause of truth and reason might derive an +accidental support from the conflict of hostile passions. The bishop, or some +distinguished presbyter, to whom he cautiously delegated the powers of +preaching, harangued, without the danger of interruption or reply, a submissive +multitude, whose minds had been prepared and subdued by the awful ceremonies of +religion. Such was the strict subordination of the Catholic church, that the +same concerted sounds might issue at once from a hundred pulpits of Italy or +Egypt, if they were <i>tuned</i> <a href="#linknote-20.123" +name="linknoteref-20.123" id="linknoteref-20.123">123</a> by the master hand of +the Roman or Alexandrian primate. The design of this institution was laudable, +but the fruits were not always salutary. The preachers recommended the practice +of the social duties; but they exalted the perfection of monastic virtue, which +is painful to the individual, and useless to mankind. Their charitable +exhortations betrayed a secret wish that the clergy might be permitted to +manage the wealth of the faithful, for the benefit of the poor. The most +sublime representations of the attributes and laws of the Deity were sullied by +an idle mixture of metaphysical subleties, puerile rites, and fictitious +miracles: and they expatiated, with the most fervent zeal, on the religious +merit of hating the adversaries, and obeying the ministers of the church. When +the public peace was distracted by heresy and schism, the sacred orators +sounded the trumpet of discord, and, perhaps, of sedition. The understandings +of their congregations were perplexed by mystery, their passions were inflamed +by invectives; and they rushed from the Christian temples of Antioch or +Alexandria, prepared either to suffer or to inflict martyrdom. The corruption +of taste and language is strongly marked in the vehement declamations of the +Latin bishops; but the compositions of Gregory and Chrysostom have been +compared with the most splendid models of Attic, or at least of Asiatic, +eloquence. <a href="#linknote-20.124" name="linknoteref-20.124" +id="linknoteref-20.124">124</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.122" id="linknote-20.122"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +122 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.122">return</a>)<br/> [ See Thomassin (Discipline +de l’Eglise, tom. ii. l. iii. c. 83, p. 1761-1770,) and Bingham, +(Antiquities, vol. i. l. xiv. c. 4, p. 688- 717.) Preaching was considered as +the most important office of the bishop but this function was sometimes +intrusted to such presbyters as Chrysostom and Augustin.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.123" id="linknote-20.123"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +123 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.123">return</a>)<br/> [ Queen Elizabeth used this +expression, and practised this art whenever she wished to prepossess the minds +of her people in favor of any extraordinary measure of government. The hostile +effects of this <i>music</i> were apprehended by her successor, and severely +felt by his son. “When pulpit, drum ecclesiastic,” &c. See +Heylin’s Life of Archbishop Laud, p. 153.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.124" id="linknote-20.124"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +124 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.124">return</a>)<br/> [ Those modest orators +acknowledged, that, as they were destitute of the gift of miracles, they +endeavored to acquire the arts of eloquence.] +</p> + +<p> +VII. The representatives of the Christian republic were regularly assembled in +the spring and autumn of each year; and these synods diffused the spirit of +ecclesiastical discipline and legislation through the hundred and twenty +provinces of the Roman world. <a href="#linknote-20.125" +name="linknoteref-20.125" id="linknoteref-20.125">125</a> The archbishop or +metropolitan was empowered, by the laws, to summon the suffragan bishops of his +province; to revise their conduct, to vindicate their rights, to declare their +faith, and to examine the merits of the candidates who were elected by the +clergy and people to supply the vacancies of the episcopal college. The +primates of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, and afterwards Constantinople, +who exercised a more ample jurisdiction, convened the numerous assembly of +their dependent bishops. But the convocation of great and extraordinary synods +was the prerogative of the emperor alone. Whenever the emergencies of the +church required this decisive measure, he despatched a peremptory summons to +the bishops, or the deputies of each province, with an order for the use of +post-horses, and a competent allowance for the expenses of their journey. At an +early period, when Constantine was the protector, rather than the proselyte, of +Christianity, he referred the African controversy to the council of Arles; in +which the bishops of York of Trèves, of Milan, and of Carthage, met as friends +and brethren, to debate in their native tongue on the common interest of the +Latin or Western church. <a href="#linknote-20.126" name="linknoteref-20.126" +id="linknoteref-20.126">126</a> Eleven years afterwards, a more numerous and +celebrated assembly was convened at Nice in Bithynia, to extinguish, by their +final sentence, the subtle disputes which had arisen in Egypt on the subject of +the Trinity. Three hundred and eighteen bishops obeyed the summons of their +indulgent master; the ecclesiastics of every rank, and sect, and denomination, +have been computed at two thousand and forty-eight persons; <a +href="#linknote-20.127" name="linknoteref-20.127" id="linknoteref-20.127">127</a> +the Greeks appeared in person; and the consent of the Latins was expressed by +the legates of the Roman pontiff. The session, which lasted about two months, +was frequently honored by the presence of the emperor. Leaving his guards at +the door, he seated himself (with the permission of the council) on a low stool +in the midst of the hall. Constantine listened with patience, and spoke with +modesty: and while he influenced the debates, he humbly professed that he was +the minister, not the judge, of the successors of the apostles, who had been +established as priests and as gods upon earth. <a href="#linknote-20.128" +name="linknoteref-20.128" id="linknoteref-20.128">128</a> Such profound reverence +of an absolute monarch towards a feeble and unarmed assembly of his own +subjects, can only be compared to the respect with which the senate had been +treated by the Roman princes who adopted the policy of Augustus. Within the +space of fifty years, a philosophic spectator of the vicissitudes of human +affairs might have contemplated Tacitus in the senate of Rome, and Constantine +in the council of Nice. The fathers of the Capitol and those of the church had +alike degenerated from the virtues of their founders; but as the bishops were +more deeply rooted in the public opinion, they sustained their dignity with +more decent pride, and sometimes opposed with a manly spirit the wishes of +their sovereign. The progress of time and superstition erased the memory of the +weakness, the passion, the ignorance, which disgraced these ecclesiastical +synods; and the Catholic world has unanimously submitted <a +href="#linknote-20.129" name="linknoteref-20.129" id="linknoteref-20.129">129</a> +to the <i>infallible</i> decrees of the general councils. <a +href="#linknote-20.130" name="linknoteref-20.130" id="linknoteref-20.130">130</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.125" id="linknote-20.125"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +125 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.125">return</a>)<br/> [ The council of Nice, in +the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh canons, has made some fundamental +regulations concerning synods, metropolitan, and primates. The Nicene canons +have been variously tortured, abused, interpolated, or forged, according to the +interest of the clergy. The <i>Suburbicarian</i> churches, assigned (by +Rufinus) to the bishop of Rome, have been made the subject of vehement +controversy (See Sirmond, Opera, tom. iv. p. 1-238.)] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.126" id="linknote-20.126"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +126 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.126">return</a>)<br/> [ We have only thirty-three +or forty-seven episcopal subscriptions: but Addo, a writer indeed of small +account, reckons six hundred bishops in the council of Arles. Tillemont, Mém. +Eccles. tom. vi. p. 422.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.127" id="linknote-20.127"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +127 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.127">return</a>)<br/> [ See Tillemont, tom. vi. p. +915, and Beausobre, Hist. du Mani cheisme, tom i p. 529. The name of +<i>bishop</i>, which is given by Eusychius to the 2048 ecclesiastics, (Annal. +tom. i. p. 440, vers. Pocock,) must be extended far beyond the limits of an +orthodox or even episcopal ordination.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.128" id="linknote-20.128"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +128 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.128">return</a>)<br/> [ See Euseb. in Vit. +Constantin. l. iii. c. 6-21. Tillemont, Mém. Ecclésiastiques, tom. vi. p. +669-759.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.129" id="linknote-20.129"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +129 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.129">return</a>)<br/> [ Sancimus igitur vicem +legum obtinere, quæ a quatuor Sanctis Conciliis.... expositæ sunt act +firmatæ. Prædictarum enim quat uor synodorum dogmata sicut sanctas Scripturas +et regulas sicut leges observamus. Justinian. Novell. cxxxi. Beveridge (ad +Pandect. proleg. p. 2) remarks, that the emperors never made new laws in +ecclesiastical matters; and Giannone observes, in a very different spirit, that +they gave a legal sanction to the canons of councils. Istoria Civile di Napoli, +tom. i. p. 136.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20.130" id="linknote-20.130"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +130 (<a href="#linknoteref-20.130">return</a>)<br/> [ See the article Concile in +the Eucyclopedie, tom. iii. p. 668-879, edition de Lucques. The author, M. de +docteur Bouchaud, has discussed, according to the principles of the Gallican +church, the principal questions which relate to the form and constitution of +general, national, and provincial councils. The editors (see Preface, p. xvi.) +have reason to be proud of <i>this</i> article. Those who consult their immense +compilation, seldom depart so well satisfied.] +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap21.1"></a> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Persecution Of Heresy.—The Schism Of The Donatists.—The + Arian Controversy.—Athanasius.—Distracted State Of The + Church And Empire Under Constantine And His Sons.— + Toleration Of Paganism. +</pre> + <p> + The grateful applause of the clergy has consecrated the memory of a prince + who indulged their passions and promoted their interest. Constantine gave + them security, wealth, honors, and revenge; and the support of the + orthodox faith was considered as the most sacred and important duty of the + civil magistrate. The edict of Milan, the great charter of toleration, had + confirmed to each individual of the Roman world the privilege of choosing + and professing his own religion. But this inestimable privilege was soon + violated; with the knowledge of truth, the emperor imbibed the maxims of + persecution; and the sects which dissented from the Catholic church were + afflicted and oppressed by the triumph of Christianity. Constantine easily + believed that the Heretics, who presumed to dispute <i>his</i> opinions, or to + oppose <i>his</i> commands, were guilty of the most absurd and criminal + obstinacy; and that a seasonable application of moderate severities might + save those unhappy men from the danger of an everlasting condemnation. Not + a moment was lost in excluding the ministers and teachers of the separated + congregations from any share of the rewards and immunities which the + emperor had so liberally bestowed on the orthodox clergy. But as the + sectaries might still exist under the cloud of royal disgrace, the + conquest of the East was immediately followed by an edict which announced + their total destruction. <a href="#linknote-21.1" name="linknoteref-21.1" + id="linknoteref-21.1">1</a> After a preamble filled with passion and + reproach, Constantine absolutely prohibits the assemblies of the Heretics, + and confiscates their public property to the use either of the revenue or + of the Catholic church. The sects against whom the Imperial severity was + directed, appear to have been the adherents of Paul of Samosata; the + Montanists of Phrygia, who maintained an enthusiastic succession of + prophecy; the Novatians, who sternly rejected the temporal efficacy of + repentance; the Marcionites and Valentinians, under whose leading banners + the various Gnostics of Asia and Egypt had insensibly rallied; and perhaps + the Manichæans, who had recently imported from Persia a more artful + composition of Oriental and Christian theology. <a href="#linknote-21.2" + name="linknoteref-21.2" id="linknoteref-21.2">2</a> The design of + extirpating the name, or at least of restraining the progress, of these + odious Heretics, was prosecuted with vigor and effect. Some of the penal + regulations were copied from the edicts of Diocletian; and this method of + conversion was applauded by the same bishops who had felt the hand of + oppression, and pleaded for the rights of humanity. Two immaterial + circumstances may serve, however, to prove that the mind of Constantine + was not entirely corrupted by the spirit of zeal and bigotry. Before he + condemned the Manichæans and their kindred sects, he resolved to make an + accurate inquiry into the nature of their religious principles. As if he + distrusted the impartiality of his ecclesiastical counsellors, this + delicate commission was intrusted to a civil magistrate, whose learning + and moderation he justly esteemed, and of whose venal character he was + probably ignorant. <a href="#linknote-21.3" name="linknoteref-21.3" + id="linknoteref-21.3">3</a> The emperor was soon convinced, that he had too + hastily proscribed the orthodox faith and the exemplary morals of the + Novatians, who had dissented from the church in some articles of + discipline which were not perhaps essential to salvation. By a particular + edict, he exempted them from the general penalties of the law; <a + href="#linknote-21.4" name="linknoteref-21.4" id="linknoteref-21.4">4</a> + allowed them to build a church at Constantinople, respected the miracles + of their saints, invited their bishop Acesius to the council of Nice; and + gently ridiculed the narrow tenets of his sect by a familiar jest; which, + from the mouth of a sovereign, must have been received with applause and + gratitude. <a href="#linknote-21.5" name="linknoteref-21.5" + id="linknoteref-21.5">5</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.1" id="linknote-21.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.1">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius in Vit. + Constantin. l. iii. c. 63, 64, 65, 66.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.2" id="linknote-21.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.2">return</a>)<br /> [ After some examination of + the various opinions of Tillemont, Beausobre, Lardner, &c., I am + convinced that Manes did not propagate his sect, even in Persia, before + the year 270. It is strange, that a philosophic and foreign heresy should + have penetrated so rapidly into the African provinces; yet I cannot easily + reject the edict of Diocletian against the Manichæans, which may be found + in Baronius. (Annal Eccl. A. D. 287.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.3" id="linknote-21.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantinus enim, cum + limatius superstitionum quæroret sectas, Manichæorum et similium, &c. + Ammian. xv. 15. Strategius, who from this commission obtained the surname + of <i>Musonianus</i>, was a Christian of the Arian sect. He acted as one of the + counts at the council of Sardica. Libanius praises his mildness and + prudence. Vales. ad locum Ammian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.4" id="linknote-21.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.4">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theod. l. xvi. tit. + 5, leg. 2. As the general law is not inserted in the Theodosian Code, it + probable that, in the year 438, the sects which it had condemned were + already extinct.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.5" id="linknote-21.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.5">return</a>)<br /> [ Sozomen, l. i. c. 22. + Socrates, l. i. c. 10. These historians have been suspected, but I think + without reason, of an attachment to the Novatian doctrine. The emperor + said to the bishop, “Acesius, take a ladder, and get up to heaven by + yourself.” Most of the Christian sects have, by turns, borrowed the ladder + of Acesius.] + </p> + <p> + The complaints and mutual accusations which assailed the throne of + Constantine, as soon as the death of Maxentius had submitted Africa to his + victorious arms, were ill adapted to edify an imperfect proselyte. He + learned, with surprise, that the provinces of that great country, from the + confines of Cyrene to the columns of Hercules, were distracted with + religious discord. <a href="#linknote-21.6" name="linknoteref-21.6" + id="linknoteref-21.6">6</a> The source of the division was derived from a + double election in the church of Carthage; the second, in rank and + opulence, of the ecclesiastical thrones of the West. Cæcilian and + Majorinus were the two rival prelates of Africa; and the death of the + latter soon made room for Donatus, who, by his superior abilities and + apparent virtues, was the firmest support of his party. The advantage + which Cæcilian might claim from the priority of his ordination, was + destroyed by the illegal, or at least indecent, haste, with which it had + been performed, without expecting the arrival of the bishops of Numidia. + The authority of these bishops, who, to the number of seventy, condemned + Cæcilian, and consecrated Majorinus, is again weakened by the infamy of + some of their personal characters; and by the female intrigues, + sacrilegious bargains, and tumultuous proceedings, which are imputed to + this Numidian council. <a href="#linknote-21.7" name="linknoteref-21.7" + id="linknoteref-21.7">7</a> The bishops of the contending factions + maintained, with equal ardor and obstinacy, that their adversaries were + degraded, or at least dishonored, by the odious crime of delivering the + Holy Scriptures to the officers of Diocletian. From their mutual + reproaches, as well as from the story of this dark transaction, it may + justly be inferred, that the late persecution had imbittered the zeal, + without reforming the manners, of the African Christians. That divided + church was incapable of affording an impartial judicature; the controversy + was solemnly tried in five successive tribunals, which were appointed by + the emperor; and the whole proceeding, from the first appeal to the final + sentence, lasted above three years. A severe inquisition, which was taken + by the Prætorian vicar, and the proconsul of Africa, the report of two + episcopal visitors who had been sent to Carthage, the decrees of the + councils of Rome and of Arles, and the supreme judgment of Constantine + himself in his sacred consistory, were all favorable to the cause of + Cæcilian; and he was unanimously acknowledged by the civil and + ecclesiastical powers, as the true and lawful primate of Africa. The + honors and estates of the church were attributed to <i>his</i> suffragan bishops, + and it was not without difficulty, that Constantine was satisfied with + inflicting the punishment of exile on the principal leaders of the + Donatist faction. As their cause was examined with attention, perhaps it + was determined with justice. Perhaps their complaint was not without + foundation, that the credulity of the emperor had been abused by the + insidious arts of his favorite Osius. The influence of falsehood and + corruption might procure the condemnation of the innocent, or aggravate + the sentence of the guilty. Such an act, however, of injustice, if it + concluded an importunate dispute, might be numbered among the transient + evils of a despotic administration, which are neither felt nor remembered + by posterity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.6" id="linknote-21.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.6">return</a>)<br /> [ The best materials for + this part of ecclesiastical history may be found in the edition of Optatus + Milevitanus, published (Paris, 1700) by M. Dupin, who has enriched it with + critical notes, geographical discussions, original records, and an + accurate abridgment of the whole controversy. M. de Tillemont has bestowed + on the Donatists the greatest part of a volume, (tom. vi. part i.;) and I + am indebted to him for an ample collection of all the passages of his + favorite St. Augustin, which relate to those heretics.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.7" id="linknote-21.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.7">return</a>)<br /> [ Schisma igitur illo + tempore confusæ mulieris iracundia peperit; ambitus nutrivit; avaritia + roboravit. Optatus, l. i. c. 19. The language of Purpurius is that of a + furious madman. Dicitur te necasse lilios sororis tuæ duos. Purpurius + respondit: Putas me terreri a te.. occidi; et occido eos qui contra me + faciunt. Acta Concil. Cirtenais, ad calc. Optat. p. 274. When Cæcilian + was invited to an assembly of bishops, Purpurius said to his brethren, or + rather to his accomplices, “Let him come hither to receive our imposition + of hands, and we will break his head by way of penance.” Optat. l. i. c. + 19.] + </p> + <p> + But this incident, so inconsiderable that it scarcely deserves a place in + history, was productive of a memorable schism which afflicted the + provinces of Africa above three hundred years, and was extinguished only + with Christianity itself. The inflexible zeal of freedom and fanaticism + animated the Donatists to refuse obedience to the usurpers, whose election + they disputed, and whose spiritual powers they denied. Excluded from the + civil and religious communion of mankind, they boldly excommunicated the + rest of mankind, who had embraced the impious party of Cæcilian, and of + the Traditors, from which he derived his pretended ordination. They + asserted with confidence, and almost with exultation, that the Apostolical + succession was interrupted; that <i>all</i> the bishops of Europe and Asia were + infected by the contagion of guilt and schism; and that the prerogatives + of the Catholic church were confined to the chosen portion of the African + believers, who alone had preserved inviolate the integrity of their faith + and discipline. This rigid theory was supported by the most uncharitable + conduct. Whenever they acquired a proselyte, even from the distant + provinces of the East, they carefully repeated the sacred rites of baptism + <a href="#linknote-21.8" name="linknoteref-21.8" id="linknoteref-21.8">8</a> + and ordination; as they rejected the validity of those which he had + already received from the hands of heretics or schismatics. Bishops, + virgins, and even spotless infants, were subjected to the disgrace of a + public penance, before they could be admitted to the communion of the + Donatists. If they obtained possession of a church which had been used by + their Catholic adversaries, they purified the unhallowed building with the + same zealous care which a temple of idols might have required. They washed + the pavement, scraped the walls, burnt the altar, which was commonly of + wood, melted the consecrated plate, and cast the Holy Eucharist to the + dogs, with every circumstance of ignominy which could provoke and + perpetuate the animosity of religious factions. <a href="#linknote-21.9" + name="linknoteref-21.9" id="linknoteref-21.9">9</a> Notwithstanding this + irreconcilable aversion, the two parties, who were mixed and separated in + all the cities of Africa, had the same language and manners, the same zeal + and learning, the same faith and worship. Proscribed by the civil and + ecclesiastical powers of the empire, the Donatists still maintained in + some provinces, particularly in Numidia, their superior numbers; and four + hundred bishops acknowledged the jurisdiction of their primate. But the + invincible spirit of the sect sometimes preyed on its own vitals: and the + bosom of their schismatical church was torn by intestine divisions. A + fourth part of the Donatist bishops followed the independent standard of + the Maximianists. The narrow and solitary path which their first leaders + had marked out, continued to deviate from the great society of mankind. + Even the imperceptible sect of the Rogatians could affirm, without a + blush, that when Christ should descend to judge the earth, he would find + his true religion preserved only in a few nameless villages of the + Cæsarean Mauritania. <a href="#linknote-21.10" name="linknoteref-21.10" + id="linknoteref-21.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.8" id="linknote-21.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.8">return</a>)<br /> [ The councils of Arles, of + Nice, and of Trent, confirmed the wise and moderate practice of the church + of Rome. The Donatists, however, had the advantage of maintaining the + sentiment of Cyprian, and of a considerable part of the primitive church. + Vincentius Lirinesis (p. 532, ap. Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 138) + has explained why the Donatists are eternally burning with the Devil, + while St. Cyprian reigns in heaven with Jesus Christ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.9" id="linknote-21.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.9">return</a>)<br /> [ See the sixth book of + Optatus Milevitanus, p. 91-100.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.10" id="linknote-21.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.10">return</a>)<br /> [ Tillemont, Mém. + Ecclésiastiques, tom. vi. part i. p. 253. He laughs at their partial + credulity. He revered Augustin, the great doctor of the system of + predestination.] + </p> + <p> + The schism of the Donatists was confined to Africa: the more diffusive + mischief of the Trinitarian controversy successively penetrated into every + part of the Christian world. The former was an accidental quarrel, + occasioned by the abuse of freedom; the latter was a high and mysterious + argument, derived from the abuse of philosophy. From the age of + Constantine to that of Clovis and Theodoric, the temporal interests both + of the Romans and Barbarians were deeply involved in the theological + disputes of Arianism. The historian may therefore be permitted + respectfully to withdraw the veil of the sanctuary; and to deduce the + progress of reason and faith, of error and passion from the school of + Plato, to the decline and fall of the empire. + </p> + <p> + The genius of Plato, informed by his own meditation, or by the traditional + knowledge of the priests of Egypt, <a href="#linknote-21.11" + name="linknoteref-21.11" id="linknoteref-21.11">11</a> had ventured to + explore the mysterious nature of the Deity. When he had elevated his mind + to the sublime contemplation of the first self-existent, necessary cause + of the universe, the Athenian sage was incapable of conceiving <i>how</i> the + simple unity of his essence could admit the infinite variety of distinct + and successive ideas which compose the model of the intellectual world; + <i>how</i> a Being purely incorporeal could execute that perfect model, and mould + with a plastic hand the rude and independent chaos. The vain hope of + extricating himself from these difficulties, which must ever oppress the + feeble powers of the human mind, might induce Plato to consider the divine + nature under the threefold modification—of the first cause, the + reason, or <i>Logos</i>, and the soul or spirit of the universe. His poetical + imagination sometimes fixed and animated these metaphysical abstractions; + the three <i>archical</i> on original principles were represented in the Platonic + system as three Gods, united with each other by a mysterious and ineffable + generation; and the Logos was particularly considered under the more + accessible character of the Son of an Eternal Father, and the Creator and + Governor of the world. Such appear to have been the secret doctrines which + were cautiously whispered in the gardens of the academy; and which, + according to the more recent disciples of Plato, <a href="#linknote-21.1111" + name="linknoteref-21.1111" id="linknoteref-21.1111">1111</a> could not be + perfectly understood, till after an assiduous study of thirty years. <a + href="#linknote-21.12" name="linknoteref-21.12" id="linknoteref-21.12">12</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.11" id="linknote-21.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Plato Ægyptum + peragravit ut a sacerdotibus Barbaris numeros et <i>cælestia</i> acciperet. + Cicero de Finibus, v. 25. The Egyptians might still preserve the + traditional creed of the Patriarchs. Josephus has persuaded many of the + Christian fathers, that Plato derived a part of his knowledge from the + Jews; but this vain opinion cannot be reconciled with the obscure state + and unsocial manners of the Jewish people, whose scriptures were not + accessible to Greek curiosity till more than one hundred years after the + death of Plato. See Marsham Canon. Chron. p. 144 Le Clerc, Epistol. + Critic. vii. p. 177-194.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.1111" id="linknote-21.1111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1111 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.1111">return</a>)<br /> [ This exposition + of the doctrine of Plato appears to me contrary to the true sense of that + philosopher’s writings. The brilliant imagination which he carried + into metaphysical inquiries, his style, full of allegories and figures, + have misled those interpreters who did not seek, from the whole tenor of + his works and beyond the images which the writer employs, the system of + this philosopher. In my opinion, there is no Trinity in Plato; he has + established no mysterious generation between the three pretended + principles which he is made to distinguish. Finally, he conceives only as + <i>attributes</i> of the Deity, or of matter, those ideas, of which it is + supposed that he made <i>substances</i>, real beings.<br/> + According to Plato, God and matter existed from all eternity. Before + the creation of the world, matter had in itself a principle of motion, + but without end or laws: it is this principle which Plato calls the + irrational soul of the world, because, according to his doctrine, every + spontaneous and original principle of motion is called soul. God wished + to impress <i>form</i> upon matter, that is to say, 1. To mould matter, + and make it into a body; 2. To regulate its motion, and subject it to + some end and to certain laws. The Deity, in this operation, could not act + but according to the ideas existing in his intelligence: their union + filled this, and formed the ideal type of the world. It is this ideal + world, this divine intelligence, existing with God from all eternity, and + called by Plato which he is supposed to personify, to substantialize; + while an attentive examination is sufficient to convince us that he has + never assigned it an existence external to the Deity, (hors de la + Divinité,) and that he considered the as the aggregate of the ideas of + God, the divine understanding in its relation to the world. The contrary + opinion is irreconcilable with all his philosophy: thus he says (Timæus, + p. 348, edit. Bip.) that to the idea of the Deity is essentially united + that of intelligence, of a <i>logos</i>. He would thus have admitted a + double <i>logos;</i> one inherent in the Deity as an attribute, the other + independently existing as a substance. He affirms that the intelligence, + the principle of order cannot exist but as an attribute of a soul, the + principle of motion and of life, of which the nature is unknown to us. + How, then, according to this, could he consider the <i>logos</i> as a + substance endowed with an independent existence? In other places, he + explains it by these two words, knowledge, science, and intelligence + which signify the attributes of the Deity. When Plato separates God, the + ideal archetype of the world and matter, it is to explain how, according + to his system, God has proceeded, at the creation, to unite the principle + of order which he had within himself, his proper intelligence, the + principle of motion, to the principle of motion, the irrational soul + which was in matter. When he speaks of the place occupied by the ideal + world, it is to designate the divine intelligence, which is its cause. + Finally, in no part of his writings do we find a true personification of + the pretended beings of which he is said to have formed a trinity: and if + this personification existed, it would equally apply to many other + notions, of which might be formed many different trinities.<br/> + This error, into which many ancient as well as modern interpreters of + Plato have fallen, was very natural. Besides the snares which were + concealed in his figurative style; besides the necessity of comprehending + as a whole the system of his ideas, and not to explain isolated passages, + the nature of his doctrine itself would conduce to this error. When Plato + appeared, the uncertainty of human knowledge, and the continual illusions + of the senses, were acknowledged, and had given rise to a general + scepticism. Socrates had aimed at raising morality above the influence of + this scepticism: Plato endeavored to save metaphysics, by seeking in the + human intellect a source of certainty which the senses could not furnish. + He invented the system of innate ideas, of which the aggregate formed, + according to him, the ideal world, and affirmed that these ideas were + real attributes, not only attached to our conceptions of objects, but to + the nature of the objects themselves; a nature of which from them we + might obtain a knowledge. He gave, then, to these ideas a positive + existence as attributes; his commentators could easily give them a real + existence as substances; especially as the terms which he used to + designate them, essential beauty, essential goodness, lent themselves to + this substantialization, (hypostasis.)—G.<br/> + We have retained this view of the original philosophy of Plato, in + which there is probably much truth. The genius of Plato was rather + metaphysical than impersonative: his poetry was in his language, rather + than, like that of the Orientals, in his conceptions.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.12" id="linknote-21.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.12">return</a>)<br /> [ The modern guides who + lead me to the knowledge of the Platonic system are Cudworth, Basnage, Le + Clerc, and Brucker. As the learning of these writers was equal, and their + intention different, an inquisitive observer may derive instruction from + their disputes, and certainty from their agreement.] + </p> + <p> + The arms of the Macedonians diffused over Asia and Egypt the language and + learning of Greece; and the theological system of Plato was taught, with + less reserve, and perhaps with some improvements, in the celebrated school + of Alexandria. <a href="#linknote-21.13" name="linknoteref-21.13" + id="linknoteref-21.13">13</a> A numerous colony of Jews had been invited, + by the favor of the Ptolemies, to settle in their new capital. <a + href="#linknote-21.14" name="linknoteref-21.14" id="linknoteref-21.14">14</a> + While the bulk of the nation practised the legal ceremonies, and pursued + the lucrative occupations of commerce, a few Hebrews, of a more liberal + spirit, devoted their lives to religious and philosophical contemplation. + <a href="#linknote-21.15" name="linknoteref-21.15" id="linknoteref-21.15">15</a> + They cultivated with diligence, and embraced with ardor, the theological + system of the Athenian sage. But their national pride would have been + mortified by a fair confession of their former poverty: and they boldly + marked, as the sacred inheritance of their ancestors, the gold and jewels + which they had so lately stolen from their Egyptian masters. One hundred + years before the birth of Christ, a philosophical treatise, which + manifestly betrays the style and sentiments of the school of Plato, was + produced by the Alexandrian Jews, and unanimously received as a genuine + and valuable relic of the inspired Wisdom of Solomon. <a + href="#linknote-21.16" name="linknoteref-21.16" id="linknoteref-21.16">16</a> + A similar union of the Mosaic faith and the Grecian philosophy, + distinguishes the works of Philo, which were composed, for the most part, + under the reign of Augustus. <a href="#linknote-21.17" + name="linknoteref-21.17" id="linknoteref-21.17">17</a> The material soul of + the universe <a href="#linknote-21.18" name="linknoteref-21.18" + id="linknoteref-21.18">18</a> might offend the piety of the Hebrews: but + they applied the character of the Logos to the Jehovah of Moses and the + patriarchs; and the Son of God was introduced upon earth under a visible, + and even human appearance, to perform those familiar offices which seem + incompatible with the nature and attributes of the Universal Cause. <a + href="#linknote-21.19" name="linknoteref-21.19" id="linknoteref-21.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.13" id="linknote-21.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.13">return</a>)<br /> [ Brucker, Hist. + Philosoph. tom. i. p. 1349-1357. The Alexandrian school is celebrated by + Strabo (l. xvii.) and Ammianus, (xxii. 6.) Note: The philosophy of Plato + was not the only source of that professed in the school of Alexandria. + That city, in which Greek, Jewish, and Egyptian men of letters were + assembled, was the scene of a strange fusion of the system of these three + people. The Greeks brought a Platonism, already much changed; the Jews, + who had acquired at Babylon a great number of Oriental notions, and whose + theological opinions had undergone great changes by this intercourse, + endeavored to reconcile Platonism with their new doctrine, and disfigured + it entirely: lastly, the Egyptians, who were not willing to abandon + notions for which the Greeks themselves entertained respect, endeavored on + their side to reconcile their own with those of their neighbors. It is in + Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon that we trace the influence of + Oriental philosophy rather than that of Platonism. We find in these books, + and in those of the later prophets, as in Ezekiel, notions unknown to the + Jews before the Babylonian captivity, of which we do not discover the germ + in Plato, but which are manifestly derived from the Orientals. Thus God + represented under the image of light, and the principle of evil under that + of darkness; the history of the good and bad angels; paradise and hell, + &c., are doctrines of which the origin, or at least the positive + determination, can only be referred to the Oriental philosophy. Plato + supposed matter eternal; the Orientals and the Jews considered it as a + creation of God, who alone was eternal. It is impossible to explain the + philosophy of the Alexandrian school solely by the blending of the Jewish + theology with the Greek philosophy. The Oriental philosophy, however + little it may be known, is recognized at every instant. Thus, according to + the Zend Avesta, it is by the Word (honover) more ancient than the world, + that Ormuzd created the universe. This word is the logos of Philo, + consequently very different from that of Plato. I have shown that Plato + never personified the logos as the ideal archetype of the world: Philo + ventured this personification. The Deity, according to him, has a double + logos; the first is the ideal archetype of the world, the ideal world, the + <i>first-born</i> of the Deity; the second is the word itself of God, personified + under the image of a being acting to create the sensible world, and to + make it like to the ideal world: it is the second-born of God. Following + out his imaginations, Philo went so far as to personify anew the ideal + world, under the image of a celestial man, the primitive type of man, and + the sensible world under the image of another man less perfect than the + celestial man. Certain notions of the Oriental philosophy may have given + rise to this strange abuse of allegory, which it is sufficient to relate, + to show what alterations Platonism had already undergone, and what was + their source. Philo, moreover, of all the Jews of Alexandria, is the one + whose Platonism is the most pure. It is from this mixture of Orientalism, + Platonism, and Judaism, that Gnosticism arose, which had produced so many + theological and philosophical extravagancies, and in which Oriental + notions evidently predominate.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.14" id="linknote-21.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Joseph. Antiquitat, l. + xii. c. 1, 3. Basnage, Hist. des Juifs, l. vii. c. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.15" id="linknote-21.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.15">return</a>)<br /> [ For the origin of the + Jewish philosophy, see Eusebius, Præparat. Evangel. viii. 9, 10. + According to Philo, the Therapeutæ studied philosophy; and Brucker has + proved (Hist. Philosoph. tom. ii. p. 787) that they gave the preference to + that of Plato.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.16" id="linknote-21.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.16">return</a>)<br /> [ See Calmet, + Dissertations sur la Bible, tom. ii. p. 277. The book of the Wisdom of + Solomon was received by many of the fathers as the work of that monarch: + and although rejected by the Protestants for want of a Hebrew original, it + has obtained, with the rest of the Vulgate, the sanction of the council of + Trent.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.17" id="linknote-21.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.17">return</a>)<br /> [ The Platonism of Philo, + which was famous to a proverb, is proved beyond a doubt by Le Clerc, + (Epist. Crit. viii. p. 211-228.) Basnage (Hist. des Juifs, l. iv. c. 5) + has clearly ascertained, that the theological works of Philo were composed + before the death, and most probably before the birth, of Christ. In such a + time of darkness, the knowledge of Philo is more astonishing than his + errors. Bull, Defens. Fid. Nicen. s. i. c. i. p. 12.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.18" id="linknote-21.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Mens agitat molem, et + magno se corpore <i>miscet</i>. Besides this material soul, Cudworth has + discovered (p. 562) in Amelius, Porphyry, Plotinus, and, as he thinks, in + Plato himself, a superior, spiritual <i>upercosmian</i> soul of the universe. But + this double soul is exploded by Brucker, Basnage, and Le Clerc, as an idle + fancy of the latter Platonists.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.19" id="linknote-21.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Petav. Dogmata + Theologica, tom. ii. l. viii. c. 2, p. 791. Bull, Defens. Fid. Nicen. s. + i. c. l. p. 8, 13. This notion, till it was abused by the Arians, was + freely adopted in the Christian theology. Tertullian (adv. Praxeam, c. 16) + has a remarkable and dangerous passage. After contrasting, with indiscreet + wit, the nature of God, and the actions of Jehovah, he concludes: Scilicet + ut hæc de filio Dei non credenda fuisse, si non scripta essent; fortasse + non credenda de l’atre licet scripta. * Note: Tertullian is here arguing + against the Patripassians; those who asserted that the Father was born of + the Virgin, died and was buried.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap21.2"></a> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The eloquence of Plato, the name of Solomon, the authority of the school + of Alexandria, and the consent of the Jews and Greeks, were insufficient + to establish the truth of a mysterious doctrine, which might please, but + could not satisfy, a rational mind. A prophet, or apostle, inspired by the + Deity, can alone exercise a lawful dominion over the faith of mankind: and + the theology of Plato might have been forever confounded with the + philosophical visions of the Academy, the Porch, and the Lycæum, if the + name and divine attributes of the <i>Logos</i> had not been confirmed by the + celestial pen of the last and most sublime of the Evangelists. <a + href="#linknote-21.20" name="linknoteref-21.20" id="linknoteref-21.20">20</a> + The Christian Revelation, which was consummated under the reign of Nerva, + disclosed to the world the amazing secret, that the Logos, who was with + God from the beginning, and was God, who had made all things, and for whom + all things had been made, was incarnate in the person of Jesus of + Nazareth; who had been born of a virgin, and suffered death on the cross. + Besides the general design of fixing on a perpetual basis the divine honors + of Christ, the most ancient and respectable of the ecclesiastical writers + have ascribed to the evangelic theologian a particular intention to + confute two opposite heresies, which disturbed the peace of the primitive + church. <a href="#linknote-21.21" name="linknoteref-21.21" + id="linknoteref-21.21">21</a> I. The faith of the Ebionites, <a + href="#linknote-21.22" name="linknoteref-21.22" id="linknoteref-21.22">22</a> + perhaps of the Nazarenes, <a href="#linknote-21.23" name="linknoteref-21.23" + id="linknoteref-21.23">23</a> was gross and imperfect. They revered Jesus + as the greatest of the prophets, endowed with supernatural virtue and + power. They ascribed to his person and to his future reign all the + predictions of the Hebrew oracles which relate to the spiritual and + everlasting kingdom of the promised Messiah. <a href="#linknote-21.24" + name="linknoteref-21.24" id="linknoteref-21.24">24</a> Some of them might + confess that he was born of a virgin; but they obstinately rejected the + preceding existence and divine perfections of the <i>Logos</i>, or Son of God, + which are so clearly defined in the Gospel of St. John. About fifty years + afterwards, the Ebionites, whose errors are mentioned by Justin Martyr + with less severity than they seem to deserve, <a href="#linknote-21.25" + name="linknoteref-21.25" id="linknoteref-21.25">25</a> formed a very + inconsiderable portion of the Christian name. II. The Gnostics, who were + distinguished by the epithet of <i>Docetes</i>, deviated into the contrary + extreme; and betrayed the human, while they asserted the divine, nature of + Christ. Educated in the school of Plato, accustomed to the sublime idea of + the Logos, they readily conceived that the brightest <i>Æon</i>, or <i>Emanation</i> of + the Deity, might assume the outward shape and visible appearances of a + mortal; <a href="#linknote-21.26" name="linknoteref-21.26" + id="linknoteref-21.26">26</a> but they vainly pretended, that the + imperfections of matter are incompatible with the purity of a celestial + substance. + </p> + <p> + While the blood of Christ yet smoked on Mount Calvary, the Docetes + invented the impious and extravagant hypothesis, that, instead of issuing + from the womb of the Virgin, <a href="#linknote-21.27" + name="linknoteref-21.27" id="linknoteref-21.27">27</a> he had descended on + the banks of the Jordan in the form of perfect manhood; that he had + imposed on the senses of his enemies, and of his disciples; and that the + ministers of Pilate had wasted their impotent rage on an ury phantom, who + <i>seemed</i> to expire on the cross, and, after three days, to rise from the + dead. <a href="#linknote-21.28" name="linknoteref-21.28" + id="linknoteref-21.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.20" id="linknote-21.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.20">return</a>)<br /> [ The Platonists + admired the beginning of the Gospel of St. John as containing an exact + transcript of their own principles. Augustin de Civitat. Dei, x. 29. + Amelius apud Cyril. advers. Julian. l. viii. p. 283. But in the third and + fourth centuries, the Platonists of Alexandria might improve their + Trinity by the secret study of the Christian theology. Note: A short + discussion on the sense in which St. John has used the word Logos, will + prove that he has not borrowed it from the philosophy of Plato. The + evangelist adopts this word without previous explanation, as a term with + which his contemporaries were already familiar, and which they could at + once comprehend. To know the sense which he gave to it, we must inquire + that which it generally bore in his time. We find two: the one attached + to the word <i>logos</i> by the Jews of Palestine, the other by the + school of Alexandria, particularly by Philo. The Jews had feared at all + times to pronounce the name of Jehovah; they had formed a habit of + designating God by one of his attributes; they called him sometimes + Wisdom, sometimes the Word. <i>By the word of the Lord were the heavens + made</i>. (Psalm xxxiii. 6.) Accustomed to allegories, they often + addressed themselves to this attribute of the Deity as a real being. + Solomon makes Wisdom say “The Lord possessed me in the beginning of + his way, before his works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the + beginning, or ever the earth was.” (Prov. viii. 22, 23.) Their + residence in Persia only increased this inclination to sustained + allegories. In the Ecclesiasticus of the son of Sirach, and the Book of + Wisdom, we find allegorical descriptions of Wisdom like the following: + “I came out of the mouth of the Most High; I covered the earth as a + cloud;... I alone compassed the circuit of heaven, and walked in the + bottom of the deep... The Creator created me from the beginning, before + the world, and I shall never fail.” (Eccles. xxiv. 35- 39.) See + also the Wisdom of Solomon, c. vii. v. 9. [The latter book is clearly + Alexandrian.—M.] We see from this that the Jews understood from the + Hebrew and Chaldaic words which signify Wisdom, the Word, and which were + translated into Greek, a simple attribute of the Deity, allegorically + personified, but of which they did not make a real particular being + separate from the Deity.<br/> + The school of Alexandria, on the contrary, and Philo among the rest, + mingling Greek with Jewish and Oriental notions, and abandoning himself + to his inclination to mysticism, personified the logos, and represented + it a distinct being, created by God, and intermediate between God and + man. This is the second <i>logos</i> of Philo, that which acts from the + beginning of the world, alone in its kind, creator of the sensible world, + formed by God according to the ideal world which he had in himself, and + which was the first logos, the first- born of the Deity. The logos taken + in this sense, then, was a created being, but, anterior to the creation + of the world, near to God, and charged with his revelations to + mankind.<br/> + Which of these two senses is that which St. John intended to assign + to the word logos in the first chapter of his Gospel, and in all his + writings? St. John was a Jew, born and educated in Palestine; he had no + knowledge, at least very little, of the philosophy of the Greeks, and + that of the Grecizing Jews: he would naturally, then, attach to the word + <i>logos</i> the sense attached to it by the Jews of Palestine. If, in + fact, we compare the attributes which he assigns to the <i>logos</i> with + those which are assigned to it in Proverbs, in the Wisdom of Solomon, in + Ecclesiasticus, we shall see that they are the same. The Word was in the + world, and the world was made by him; in him was life, and the life was + the light of men, (c. i. v. 10-14.) It is impossible not to trace in this + chapter the ideas which the Jews had formed of the allegorized logos. The + evangelist afterwards really personifies that which his predecessors have + personified only poetically; for he affirms “<i>that the Word + became flesh</i>,” (v. 14.) It was to prove this that he wrote. + Closely examined, the ideas which he gives of the logos cannot agree with + those of Philo and the school of Alexandria; they correspond, on the + contrary, with those of the Jews of Palestine. Perhaps St. John, + employing a well-known term to explain a doctrine which was yet unknown, + has slightly altered the sense; it is this alteration which we appear to + discover on comparing different passages of his writings.<br/> + It is worthy of remark, that the Jews of Palestine, who did not + perceive this alteration, could find nothing extraordinary in what St. + John said of the Logos; at least they comprehended it without difficulty, + while the Greeks and Grecizing Jews, on their part, brought to it + prejudices and preconceptions easily reconciled with those of the + evangelist, who did not expressly contradict them. This circumstance must + have much favored the progress of Christianity. Thus the fathers of the + church in the two first centuries and later, formed almost all in the + school of Alexandria, gave to the Logos of St. John a sense nearly + similar to that which it received from Philo. Their doctrine approached + very near to that which in the fourth century the council of Nice + condemned in the person of Arius.—G.<br/> + M. Guizot has forgotten the long residence of St. John at Ephesus, + the centre of the mingling opinions of the East and West, which were + gradually growing up into Gnosticism. (See Matter. Hist. du Gnosticisme, + vol. i. p. 154.) St. John’s sense of the Logos seems as far removed + from the simple allegory ascribed to the Palestinian Jews as from the + Oriental impersonation of the Alexandrian. The simple truth may be that + St. John took the familiar term, and, as it were infused into it the + peculiar and Christian sense in which it is used in his + writings.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.21" id="linknote-21.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.21">return</a>)<br /> [ See Beausobre, Hist. + Critique du Manicheisme, tom. i. p. 377. The Gospel according to St. John + is supposed to have been published about seventy years after the death of + Christ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.22" id="linknote-21.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.22">return</a>)<br /> [ The sentiments of the + Ebionites are fairly stated by Mosheim (p. 331) and Le Clerc, (Hist. + Eccles. p. 535.) The Clementines, published among the apostolical fathers, + are attributed by the critics to one of these sectaries.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.23" id="linknote-21.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.23">return</a>)<br /> [ Stanch polemics, like a + Bull, (Judicium Eccles. Cathol. c. 2,) insist on the orthodoxy of the + Nazarenes; which appears less pure and certain in the eyes of Mosheim, (p. + 330.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.24" id="linknote-21.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.24">return</a>)<br /> [ The humble condition + and sufferings of Jesus have always been a stumbling-block to the Jews. + “Deus... contrariis coloribus Messiam depinxerat: futurus erat Rex, Judex, + Pastor,” &c. See Limborch et Orobio Amica Collat. p. 8, 19, 53-76, + 192-234. But this objection has obliged the believing Christians to lift + up their eyes to a spiritual and everlasting kingdom.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.25" id="linknote-21.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Justin Martyr, Dialog. + cum Tryphonte, p. 143, 144. See Le Clerc, Hist. Eccles. p. 615. Bull and + his editor Grabe (Judicium Eccles. Cathol. c. 7, and Appendix) attempt to + distort either the sentiments or the words of Justin; but their violent + correction of the text is rejected even by the Benedictine editors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.26" id="linknote-21.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.26">return</a>)<br /> [ The Arians reproached + the orthodox party with borrowing their Trinity from the Valentinians and + Marcionites. See Beausobre, Hist. de Manicheisme, l. iii. c. 5, 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.27" id="linknote-21.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.27">return</a>)<br /> [ Non dignum est ex utero + credere Deum, et Deum Christum.... non dignum est ut tanta majestas per + sordes et squalores muli eris transire credatur. The Gnostics asserted the + impurity of matter, and of marriage; and they were scandalized by the + gross interpretations of the fathers, and even of Augustin himself. See + Beausobre, tom. ii. p. 523, * Note: The greater part of the Docetæ + rejected the true divinity of Jesus Christ, as well as his human nature. + They belonged to the Gnostics, whom some philosophers, in whose party + Gibbon has enlisted, make to derive their opinions from those of Plato. + These philosophers did not consider that Platonism had undergone continual + alterations, and that those who gave it some analogy with the notions of + the Gnostics were later in their origin than most of the sects + comprehended under this name Mosheim has proved (in his Instit. Histor. + Eccles. Major. s. i. p. 136, sqq and p. 339, sqq.) that the Oriental + philosophy, combined with the cabalistical philosophy of the Jews, had + given birth to Gnosticism. The relations which exist between this doctrine + and the records which remain to us of that of the Orientals, the Chaldean + and Persian, have been the source of the errors of the Gnostic Christians, + who wished to reconcile their ancient notions with their new belief. It is + on this account that, denying the human nature of Christ, they also denied + his intimate union with God, and took him for one of the substances + (æons) created by God. As they believed in the eternity of matter, and + considered it to be the principle of evil, in opposition to the Deity, the + first cause and principle of good, they were unwilling to admit that one + of the pure substances, one of the æons which came forth from God, had, + by partaking in the material nature, allied himself to the principle of + evil; and this was their motive for rejecting the real humanity of Jesus + Christ. See Ch. G. F. Walch, Hist. of Heresies in Germ. t. i. p. 217, sqq. + Brucker, Hist. Crit. Phil. ii. p 639.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.28" id="linknote-21.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Apostolis adhuc in + sæculo superstitibus apud Judæam Christi sanguine recente, et <i>phantasma</i> + corpus Domini asserebatur. Cotelerius thinks (Patres Apostol. tom. ii. p. + 24) that those who will not allow the <i>Docetes</i> to have arisen in the time + of the Apostles, may with equal reason deny that the sun shines at + noonday. These <i>Docetes</i>, who formed the most considerable party among the + Gnostics, were so called, because they granted only a <i>seeming</i> body to + Christ. * Note: The name of Docetæ was given to these sectaries only in + the course of the second century: this name did not designate a sect, + properly so called; it applied to all the sects who taught the non- + reality of the material body of Christ; of this number were the + Valentinians, the Basilidians, the Ophites, the Marcionites, (against whom + Tertullian wrote his book, De Carne Christi,) and other Gnostics. In + truth, Clement of Alexandria (l. iii. Strom. c. 13, p. 552) makes express + mention of a sect of Docetæ, and even names as one of its heads a certain + Cassianus; but every thing leads us to believe that it was not a distinct + sect. Philastrius (de Hæres, c. 31) reproaches Saturninus with being a + Docete. Irenæus (adv. Hær. c. 23) makes the same reproach against + Basilides. Epiphanius and Philastrius, who have treated in detail on each + particular heresy, do not specially name that of the Docetæ. Serapion, + bishop of Antioch, (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. l. vi. c. 12,) and Clement of + Alexandria, (l. vii. Strom. p. 900,) appear to be the first who have used + the generic name. It is not found in any earlier record, though the error + which it points out existed even in the time of the Apostles. See Ch. G. + F. Walch, Hist. of Her. v. i. p. 283. Tillemont, Mempour servir a la Hist + Eccles. ii. p. 50. Buddæus de Eccles. Apost. c. 5 & 7—G.] + </p> + <p> + The divine sanction, which the Apostle had bestowed on the fundamental + principle of the theology of Plato, encouraged the learned proselytes of + the second and third centuries to admire and study the writings of the + Athenian sage, who had thus marvellously anticipated one of the most + surprising discoveries of the Christian revelation. The respectable name + of Plato was used by the orthodox, <a href="#linknote-21.29" + name="linknoteref-21.29" id="linknoteref-21.29">29</a> and abused by the + heretics, <a href="#linknote-21.30" name="linknoteref-21.30" + id="linknoteref-21.30">30</a> as the common support of truth and error: the + authority of his skilful commentators, and the science of dialectics, were + employed to justify the remote consequences of his opinions and to supply + the discreet silence of the inspired writers. The same subtle and profound + questions concerning the nature, the generation, the distinction, and the + equality of the three divine persons of the mysterious <i>Triad</i>, or <i>Trinity</i>, + <a href="#linknote-21.31" name="linknoteref-21.31" id="linknoteref-21.31">31</a> + were agitated in the philosophical and in the Christian schools of + Alexandria. An eager spirit of curiosity urged them to explore the secrets + of the abyss; and the pride of the professors, and of their disciples, was + satisfied with the sciences of words. But the most sagacious of the + Christian theologians, the great Athanasius himself, has candidly + confessed, <a href="#linknote-21.32" name="linknoteref-21.32" + id="linknoteref-21.32">32</a> that whenever he forced his understanding to + meditate on the divinity of the <i>Logos</i>, his toilsome and unavailing efforts + recoiled on themselves; that the more he thought, the less he + comprehended; and the more he wrote, the less capable was he of expressing + his thoughts. In every step of the inquiry, we are compelled to feel and + acknowledge the immeasurable disproportion between the size of the object + and the capacity of the human mind. We may strive to abstract the notions + of time, of space, and of matter, which so closely adhere to all the + perceptions of our experimental knowledge. But as soon as we presume to + reason of infinite substance, of spiritual generation; as often as we + deduce any positive conclusions from a negative idea, we are involved in + darkness, perplexity, and inevitable contradiction. As these difficulties + arise from the nature of the subject, they oppress, with the same + insuperable weight, the philosophic and the theological disputant; but we + may observe two essential and peculiar circumstances, which discriminated + the doctrines of the Catholic church from the opinions of the Platonic + school. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.29" id="linknote-21.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Some proofs of the + respect which the Christians entertained for the person and doctrine of + Plato may be found in De la Mothe le Vayer, tom. v. p. 135, &c., edit. + 1757; and Basnage, Hist. des Juifs tom. iv. p. 29, 79, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.30" id="linknote-21.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Doleo bona fide, + Platonem omnium heræticorum condimentarium factum. Tertullian. de Anima, + c. 23. Petavius (Dogm. Theolog. tom. iii. proleg. 2) shows that this was a + general complaint. Beausobre (tom. i. l. iii. c. 9, 10) has deduced the + Gnostic errors from Platonic principles; and as, in the school of + Alexandria, those principles were blended with the Oriental philosophy, + (Brucker, tom. i. p. 1356,) the sentiment of Beausobre may be reconciled + with the opinion of Mosheim, (General History of the Church, vol. i. p. + 37.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.31" id="linknote-21.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.31">return</a>)<br /> [ If Theophilus, bishop + of Antioch, (see Dupin, Bibliothèque Ecclesiastique, tom. i. p. 66,) was + the first who employed the word <i>Triad</i>, <i>Trinity</i>, that abstract term, which + was already familiar to the schools of philosophy, must have been + introduced into the theology of the Christians after the middle of the + second century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.32" id="linknote-21.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.32">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius, tom. i. p. + 808. His expressions have an uncommon energy; and as he was writing to + monks, there could not be any occasion for him to <i>affect</i> a rational + language.] + </p> + <p> + I. A chosen society of philosophers, men of a liberal education and + curious disposition, might silently meditate, and temperately discuss in + the gardens of Athens or the library of Alexandria, the abstruse questions + of metaphysical science. The lofty speculations, which neither convinced + the understanding, nor agitated the passions, of the Platonists + themselves, were carelessly overlooked by the idle, the busy, and even the + studious part of mankind. <a href="#linknote-21.33" name="linknoteref-21.33" + id="linknoteref-21.33">33</a> But after the <i>Logos</i> had been revealed as the + sacred object of the faith, the hope, and the religious worship of the + Christians, the mysterious system was embraced by a numerous and + increasing multitude in every province of the Roman world. Those persons + who, from their age, or sex, or occupations, were the least qualified to + judge, who were the least exercised in the habits of abstract reasoning, + aspired to contemplate the economy of the Divine Nature: and it is the + boast of Tertullian, <a href="#linknote-21.34" name="linknoteref-21.34" + id="linknoteref-21.34">34</a> that a Christian mechanic could readily + answer such questions as had perplexed the wisest of the Grecian sages. + Where the subject lies so far beyond our reach, the difference between the + highest and the lowest of human understandings may indeed be calculated as + infinitely small; yet the degree of weakness may perhaps be measured by + the degree of obstinacy and dogmatic confidence. These speculations, + instead of being treated as the amusement of a vacant hour, became the + most serious business of the present, and the most useful preparation for + a future, life. A theology, which it was incumbent to believe, which it + was impious to doubt, and which it might be dangerous, and even fatal, to + mistake, became the familiar topic of private meditation and popular + discourse. The cold indifference of philosophy was inflamed by the fervent + spirit of devotion; and even the metaphors of common language suggested + the fallacious prejudices of sense and experience. The Christians, who + abhorred the gross and impure generation of the Greek mythology, <a + href="#linknote-21.35" name="linknoteref-21.35" id="linknoteref-21.35">35</a> + were tempted to argue from the familiar analogy of the filial and paternal + relations. The character of <i>Son</i> seemed to imply a perpetual subordination + to the voluntary author of his existence; <a href="#linknote-21.36" + name="linknoteref-21.36" id="linknoteref-21.36">36</a> but as the act of + generation, in the most spiritual and abstracted sense, must be supposed + to transmit the properties of a common nature, <a href="#linknote-21.37" + name="linknoteref-21.37" id="linknoteref-21.37">37</a> they durst not + presume to circumscribe the powers or the duration of the Son of an + eternal and omnipotent Father. Fourscore years after the death of Christ, + the Christians of Bithynia, declared before the tribunal of Pliny, that + they invoked him as a god: and his divine honors have been perpetuated in + every age and country, by the various sects who assume the name of his + disciples. <a href="#linknote-21.38" name="linknoteref-21.38" + id="linknoteref-21.38">38</a> Their tender reverence for the memory of + Christ, and their horror for the profane worship of any created being, + would have engaged them to assert the equal and absolute divinity of the + <i>Logos</i>, if their rapid ascent towards the throne of heaven had not been + imperceptibly checked by the apprehension of violating the unity and sole + supremacy of the great Father of Christ and of the Universe. The suspense + and fluctuation produced in the minds of the Christians by these opposite + tendencies, may be observed in the writings of the theologians who + flourished after the end of the apostolic age, and before the origin of + the Arian controversy. Their suffrage is claimed, with equal confidence, + by the orthodox and by the heretical parties; and the most inquisitive + critics have fairly allowed, that if they had the good fortune of + possessing the Catholic verity, they have delivered their conceptions in + loose, inaccurate, and sometimes contradictory language. <a + href="#linknote-21.39" name="linknoteref-21.39" id="linknoteref-21.39">39</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.33" id="linknote-21.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.33">return</a>)<br /> [ In a treatise, which + professed to explain the opinions of the ancient philosophers concerning + the nature of the gods we might expect to discover the theological Trinity + of Plato. But Cicero very honestly confessed, that although he had + translated the Timæus, he could never understand that mysterious + dialogue. See Hieronym. præf. ad l. xii. in Isaiam, tom. v. p. 154.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.34" id="linknote-21.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.34">return</a>)<br /> [ Tertullian. in Apolog. + c. 46. See Bayle, Dictionnaire, au mot <i>Simonide</i>. His remarks on the + presumption of Tertullian are profound and interesting.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.35" id="linknote-21.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Lactantius, iv. 8. Yet + the <i>Probole</i>, or <i>Prolatio</i>, which the most orthodox divines borrowed without + scruple from the Valentinians, and illustrated by the comparisons of a + fountain and stream, the sun and its rays, &c., either meant nothing, + or favored a material idea of the divine generation. See Beausobre, tom. + i. l. iii. c. 7, p. 548.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.36" id="linknote-21.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Many of the primitive + writers have frankly confessed, that the Son owed his being to the <i>will</i> of + the Father.——See Clarke’s Scripture Trinity, p. 280-287. On + the other hand, Athanasius and his followers seem unwilling to grant what + they are afraid to deny. The schoolmen extricate themselves from this + difficulty by the distinction of a <i>preceding</i> and a <i>concomitant</i> will. + Petav. Dogm. Theolog. tom. ii. l. vi. c. 8, p. 587-603.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.37" id="linknote-21.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.37">return</a>)<br /> [ See Petav. Dogm. + Theolog. tom. ii. l. ii. c. 10, p. 159.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.38" id="linknote-21.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.38">return</a>)<br /> [ Carmenque Christo quasi + Deo dicere secum invicem. Plin. Epist. x. 97. The sense of <i>Deus, Elohim</i>, + in the ancient languages, is critically examined by Le Clerc, (Ars + Critica, p. 150-156,) and the propriety of worshipping a very excellent + creature is ably defended by the Socinian Emlyn, (Tracts, p. 29-36, + 51-145.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.39" id="linknote-21.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.39">return</a>)<br /> [ See Daille de Usu + Patrum, and Le Clerc, Bibliothèque Universelle, tom. x. p. 409. To arraign + the faith of the Ante-Nicene fathers, was the object, or at least has been + the effect, of the stupendous work of Petavius on the Trinity, (Dogm. + Theolog. tom. ii.;) nor has the deep impression been erased by the learned + defence of Bishop Bull. Note: Dr. Burton’s work on the doctrine of the + Ante-Nicene fathers must be consulted by those who wish to obtain clear + notions on this subject.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap21.3"></a> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + II. The devotion of individuals was the first circumstance which + distinguished the Christians from the Platonists: the second was the + authority of the church. The disciples of philosophy asserted the rights + of intellectual freedom, and their respect for the sentiments of their + teachers was a liberal and voluntary tribute, which they offered to + superior reason. But the Christians formed a numerous and disciplined + society; and the jurisdiction of their laws and magistrates was strictly + exercised over the minds of the faithful. The loose wanderings of the + imagination were gradually confined by creeds and confessions; <a + href="#linknote-21.40" name="linknoteref-21.40" id="linknoteref-21.40">40</a> + the freedom of private judgment submitted to the public wisdom of synods; + the authority of a theologian was determined by his ecclesiastical rank; + and the episcopal successors of the apostles inflicted the censures of the + church on those who deviated from the orthodox belief. But in an age of + religious controversy, every act of oppression adds new force to the + elastic vigor of the mind; and the zeal or obstinacy of a spiritual rebel + was sometimes stimulated by secret motives of ambition or avarice. A + metaphysical argument became the cause or pretence of political contests; + the subtleties of the Platonic school were used as the badges of popular + factions, and the distance which separated their respective tenets were + enlarged or magnified by the acrimony of dispute. As long as the dark + heresies of Praxeas and Sabellius labored to confound the <i>Father</i> with the + <i>Son</i>, <a href="#linknote-21.41" name="linknoteref-21.41" id="linknoteref-21.41">41</a> + the orthodox party might be excused if they adhered more strictly and more + earnestly to the <i>distinction</i>, than to the <i>equality</i>, of the divine persons. + But as soon as the heat of controversy had subsided, and the progress of + the Sabellians was no longer an object of terror to the churches of Rome, + of Africa, or of Egypt, the tide of theological opinion began to flow with + a gentle but steady motion towards the contrary extreme; and the most + orthodox doctors allowed themselves the use of the terms and definitions + which had been censured in the mouth of the sectaries. <a + href="#linknote-21.42" name="linknoteref-21.42" id="linknoteref-21.42">42</a> + After the edict of toleration had restored peace and leisure to the + Christians, the Trinitarian controversy was revived in the ancient seat of + Platonism, the learned, the opulent, the tumultuous city of Alexandria; + and the flame of religious discord was rapidly communicated from the + schools to the clergy, the people, the province, and the East. The + abstruse question of the eternity of the <i>Logos</i> was agitated in + ecclesiastic conferences and popular sermons; and the heterodox opinions + of Arius <a href="#linknote-21.43" name="linknoteref-21.43" + id="linknoteref-21.43">43</a> were soon made public by his own zeal, and by + that of his adversaries. His most implacable adversaries have acknowledged + the learning and blameless life of that eminent presbyter, who, in a + former election, had declared, and perhaps generously declined, his + pretensions to the episcopal throne. <a href="#linknote-21.44" + name="linknoteref-21.44" id="linknoteref-21.44">44</a> His competitor + Alexander assumed the office of his judge. The important cause was argued + before him; and if at first he seemed to hesitate, he at length pronounced + his final sentence, as an absolute rule of faith. <a href="#linknote-21.45" + name="linknoteref-21.45" id="linknoteref-21.45">45</a> The undaunted + presbyter, who presumed to resist the authority of his angry bishop, was + separated from the community of the church. But the pride of Arius was + supported by the applause of a numerous party. He reckoned among his + immediate followers two bishops of Egypt, seven presbyters, twelve + deacons, and (what may appear almost incredible) seven hundred virgins. A + large majority of the bishops of Asia appeared to support or favor his + cause; and their measures were conducted by Eusebius of Cæsarea, the most + learned of the Christian prelates; and by Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had + acquired the reputation of a statesman without forfeiting that of a saint. + Synods in Palestine and Bithynia were opposed to the synods of Egypt. The + attention of the prince and people was attracted by this theological + dispute; and the decision, at the end of six years, <a + href="#linknote-21.46" name="linknoteref-21.46" id="linknoteref-21.46">46</a> + was referred to the supreme authority of the general council of Nice. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.40" id="linknote-21.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.40">return</a>)<br /> [ The most ancient creeds + were drawn up with the greatest latitude. See Bull, (Judicium Eccles. + Cathol.,) who tries to prevent Episcopius from deriving any advantage from + this observation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.41" id="linknote-21.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.41">return</a>)<br /> [ The heresies of + Praxeas, Sabellius, &c., are accurately explained by Mosheim (p. 425, + 680-714.) Praxeas, who came to Rome about the end of the second century, + deceived, for some time, the simplicity of the bishop, and was confuted by + the pen of the angry Tertullian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.42" id="linknote-21.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.42">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates acknowledges, + that the heresy of Arius proceeded from his strong desire to embrace an + opinion the most diametrically opposite to that of Sabellius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.43" id="linknote-21.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.43">return</a>)<br /> [ The figure and manners + of Arius, the character and numbers of his first proselytes, are painted + in very lively colors by Epiphanius, (tom. i. Hæres. lxix. 3, p. 729,) + and we cannot but regret that he should soon forget the historian, to + assume the task of controversy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.44" id="linknote-21.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.44">return</a>)<br /> [ See Philostorgius (l. + i. c. 3,) and Godefroy’s ample Commentary. Yet the credibility of + Philostorgius is lessened, in the eyes of the orthodox, by his Arianism; + and in those of rational critics, by his passion, his prejudice, and his + ignorance.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.45" id="linknote-21.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.45">return</a>)<br /> [ Sozomen (l. i. c. 15) + represents Alexander as indifferent, and even ignorant, in the beginning + of the controversy; while Socrates (l. i. c. 5) ascribes the origin of the + dispute to the vain curiosity of his theological speculations. Dr. Jortin + (Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. p. 178) has censured, with + his usual freedom, the conduct of Alexander.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.46" id="linknote-21.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.46">return</a>)<br /> [ The flames of Arianism + might burn for some time in secret; but there is reason to believe that + they burst out with violence as early as the year 319. Tillemont, Mém. + Eccles. tom. vi. p. 774-780.] + </p> + <p> + When the mysteries of the Christian faith were dangerously exposed to + public debate, it might be observed, that the human understanding was + capable of forming three district, though imperfect systems, concerning + the nature of the Divine Trinity; and it was pronounced, that none of + these systems, in a pure and absolute sense, were exempt from heresy and + error. <a href="#linknote-21.47" name="linknoteref-21.47" + id="linknoteref-21.47">47</a> I. According to the first hypothesis, which + was maintained by Arius and his disciples, the <i>Logos</i> was a dependent and + spontaneous production, created from nothing by the will of the father. + The Son, by whom all things were made, <a href="#linknote-21.48" + name="linknoteref-21.48" id="linknoteref-21.48">48</a> had been begotten + before all worlds, and the longest of the astronomical periods could be + compared only as a fleeting moment to the extent of his duration; yet this + duration was not infinite, <a href="#linknote-21.49" name="linknoteref-21.49" + id="linknoteref-21.49">49</a> and there <i>had</i> been a time which preceded the + ineffable generation of the <i>Logos</i>. On this only-begotten Son, the Almighty + Father had transfused his ample spirit, and impressed the effulgence of + his glory. Visible image of invisible perfection, he saw, at an + immeasurable distance beneath his feet, the thrones of the brightest + archangels; yet he shone only with a reflected light, and, like the sons + of the Romans emperors, who were invested with the titles of Cæsar or + Augustus, <a href="#linknote-21.50" name="linknoteref-21.50" + id="linknoteref-21.50">50</a> he governed the universe in obedience to the + will of his Father and Monarch. II. In the second hypothesis, the <i>Logos</i> + possessed all the inherent, incommunicable perfections, which religion and + philosophy appropriate to the Supreme God. Three distinct and infinite + minds or substances, three coëqual and coëternal beings, composed the + Divine Essence; <a href="#linknote-21.51" name="linknoteref-21.51" + id="linknoteref-21.51">51</a> and it would have implied contradiction, that + any of them should not have existed, or that they should ever cease to + exist. <a href="#linknote-21.52" name="linknoteref-21.52" + id="linknoteref-21.52">52</a> The advocates of a system which seemed to + establish three independent Deities, attempted to preserve the unity of + the First Cause, so conspicuous in the design and order of the world, by + the perpetual concord of their administration, and the essential agreement + of their will. A faint resemblance of this unity of action may be + discovered in the societies of men, and even of animals. The causes which + disturb their harmony, proceed only from the imperfection and inequality + of their faculties; but the omnipotence which is guided by infinite wisdom + and goodness, cannot fail of choosing the same means for the + accomplishment of the same ends. III. Three beings, who, by the + self-derived necessity of their existence, possess all the divine + attributes in the most perfect degree; who are eternal in duration, + infinite in space, and intimately present to each other, and to the whole + universe; irresistibly force themselves on the astonished mind, as one and + the same being, <a href="#linknote-21.53" name="linknoteref-21.53" + id="linknoteref-21.53">53</a> who, in the economy of grace, as well as in + that of nature, may manifest himself under different forms, and be + considered under different aspects. By this hypothesis, a real substantial + trinity is refined into a trinity of names, and abstract modifications, + that subsist only in the mind which conceives them. The <i>Logos</i> is no longer + a person, but an attribute; and it is only in a figurative sense that the + epithet of Son can be applied to the eternal reason, which was with God + from the beginning, and by <i>which</i>, not by <i>whom</i>, all things were made. The + incarnation of the <i>Logos</i> is reduced to a mere inspiration of the Divine + Wisdom, which filled the soul, and directed all the actions, of the man + Jesus. Thus, after revolving around the theological circle, we are + surprised to find that the Sabellian ends where the Ebionite had begun; + and that the incomprehensible mystery which excites our adoration, eludes + our inquiry. <a href="#linknote-21.54" name="linknoteref-21.54" + id="linknoteref-21.54">54</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.47" id="linknote-21.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Quid credidit? Certe, + <i>aut</i> tria nomina audiens tres Deos esse credidit, et idololatra effectus + est; <i>aut</i> in tribus vocabulis trinominem credens Deum, in Sabellii hæresim + incurrit; <i>aut</i> edoctus ab Arianis unum esse verum Deum Patrem, filium et + spiritum sanctum credidit creaturas. Aut extra hæc quid credere potuerit + nescio. Hieronym adv. Luciferianos. Jerom reserves for the last the + orthodox system, which is more complicated and difficult.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.48" id="linknote-21.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.48">return</a>)<br /> [ As the doctrine of + absolute creation from nothing was gradually introduced among the + Christians, (Beausobre, tom. ii. p. 165- 215,) the dignity of the <i>workman</i> + very naturally rose with that of the <i>work</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.49" id="linknote-21.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.49">return</a>)<br /> [ The metaphysics of Dr. + Clarke (Scripture Trinity, p. 276-280) could digest an eternal generation + from an infinite cause.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.50" id="linknote-21.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.50">return</a>)<br /> [ This profane and absurd + simile is employed by several of the primitive fathers, particularly by + Athenagoras, in his Apology to the emperor Marcus and his son; and it is + alleged, without censure, by Bull himself. See Defens. Fid. Nicen. sect. + iii. c. 5, No. 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.51" id="linknote-21.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.51">return</a>)<br /> [ See Cudworth’s + Intellectual System, p. 559, 579. This dangerous hypothesis was + countenanced by the two Gregories, of Nyssa and Nazianzen, by Cyril of + Alexandria, John of Damascus, &c. See Cudworth, p. 603. Le Clerc, + Bibliothèque Universelle, tom xviii. p. 97-105.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.52" id="linknote-21.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Augustin seems to envy + the freedom of the Philosophers. Liberis verbis loquuntur philosophi.... + Nos autem non dicimus duo vel tria principia, duos vel tres Deos. De + Civitat. Dei, x. 23.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.53" id="linknote-21.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Boetius, who was deeply + versed in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, explains the unity of the + Trinity by the <i>indifference</i> of the three persons. See the judicious + remarks of Le Clerc, Bibliothèque Choisie, tom. xvi. p. 225, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.54" id="linknote-21.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.54">return</a>)<br /> [ If the Sabellians were + startled at this conclusion, they were driven another precipice into the + confession, that the Father was born of a virgin, that <i>he</i> had suffered on + the cross; and thus deserved the epithet of <i>Patripassians</i>, with which they + were branded by their adversaries. See the invectives of Tertullian + against Praxeas, and the temperate reflections of Mosheim, (p. 423, 681;) + and Beausobre, tom. i. l. iii. c. 6, p. 533.] + </p> + <p> + If the bishops of the council of Nice <a href="#linknote-21.55" + name="linknoteref-21.55" id="linknoteref-21.55">55</a> had been permitted to + follow the unbiased dictates of their conscience, Arius and his associates + could scarcely have flattered themselves with the hopes of obtaining a + majority of votes, in favor of an hypothesis so directly averse to the two + most popular opinions of the Catholic world. The Arians soon perceived the + danger of their situation, and prudently assumed those modest virtues, + which, in the fury of civil and religious dissensions, are seldom + practised, or even praised, except by the weaker party. They recommended + the exercise of Christian charity and moderation; urged the + incomprehensible nature of the controversy, disclaimed the use of any + terms or definitions which could not be found in the Scriptures; and + offered, by very liberal concessions, to satisfy their adversaries without + renouncing the integrity of their own principles. The victorious faction + received all their proposals with haughty suspicion; and anxiously sought + for some irreconcilable mark of distinction, the rejection of which might + involve the Arians in the guilt and consequences of heresy. A letter was + publicly read, and ignominiously torn, in which their patron, Eusebius of + Nicomedia, ingenuously confessed, that the admission of the Homoousion, or + Consubstantial, a word already familiar to the Platonists, was + incompatible with the principles of their theological system. The + fortunate opportunity was eagerly embraced by the bishops, who governed + the resolutions of the synod; and, according to the lively expression of + Ambrose, <a href="#linknote-21.56" name="linknoteref-21.56" + id="linknoteref-21.56">56</a> they used the sword, which heresy itself had + drawn from the scabbard, to cut off the head of the hated monster. The + consubstantiality of the Father and the Son was established by the council + of Nice, and has been unanimously received as a fundamental article of the + Christian faith, by the consent of the Greek, the Latin, the Oriental, and + the Protestant churches. But if the same word had not served to stigmatize + the heretics, and to unite the Catholics, it would have been inadequate to + the purpose of the majority, by whom it was introduced into the orthodox + creed. This majority was divided into two parties, distinguished by a + contrary tendency to the sentiments of the Tritheists and of the + Sabellians. But as those opposite extremes seemed to overthrow the + foundations either of natural or revealed religion, they mutually agreed + to qualify the rigor of their principles; and to disavow the just, but + invidious, consequences, which might be urged by their antagonists. The + interest of the common cause inclined them to join their numbers, and to + conceal their differences; their animosity was softened by the healing + counsels of toleration, and their disputes were suspended by the use of + the mysterious <i>Homoousion</i>, which either party was free to interpret + according to their peculiar tenets. The Sabellian sense, which, about + fifty years before, had obliged the council of Antioch <a + href="#linknote-21.57" name="linknoteref-21.57" id="linknoteref-21.57">57</a> + to prohibit this celebrated term, had endeared it to those theologians who + entertained a secret but partial affection for a nominal Trinity. But the + more fashionable saints of the Arian times, the intrepid Athanasius, the + learned Gregory Nazianzen, and the other pillars of the church, who + supported with ability and success the Nicene doctrine, appeared to + consider the expression of <i>substance</i> as if it had been synonymous with + that of <i>nature;</i> and they ventured to illustrate their meaning, by + affirming that three men, as they belong to the same common species, are + consubstantial, or homoousian to each other. <a href="#linknote-21.58" + name="linknoteref-21.58" id="linknoteref-21.58">58</a> This pure and + distinct equality was tempered, on the one hand, by the internal + connection, and spiritual penetration which indissolubly unites the divine + persons; <a href="#linknote-21.59" name="linknoteref-21.59" + id="linknoteref-21.59">59</a> and, on the other, by the preëminence of the + Father, which was acknowledged as far as it is compatible with the + independence of the Son. <a href="#linknote-21.60" name="linknoteref-21.60" + id="linknoteref-21.60">60</a> Within these limits, the almost invisible and + tremulous ball of orthodoxy was allowed securely to vibrate. On either + side, beyond this consecrated ground, the heretics and the dæmons lurked + in ambush to surprise and devour the unhappy wanderer. But as the degrees + of theological hatred depend on the spirit of the war, rather than on the + importance of the controversy, the heretics who degraded, were treated + with more severity than those who annihilated, the person of the Son. The + life of Athanasius was consumed in irreconcilable opposition to the + impious <i>madness</i> of the Arians; <a href="#linknote-21.61" + name="linknoteref-21.61" id="linknoteref-21.61">61</a> but he defended above + twenty years the Sabellianism of Marcellus of Ancyra; and when at last he + was compelled to withdraw himself from his communion, he continued to + mention, with an ambiguous smile, the venial errors of his respectable + friend. <a href="#linknote-21.62" name="linknoteref-21.62" + id="linknoteref-21.62">62</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.55" id="linknote-21.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.55">return</a>)<br /> [ The transactions of the + council of Nice are related by the ancients, not only in a partial, but in + a very imperfect manner. Such a picture as Fra Paolo would have drawn, can + never be recovered; but such rude sketches as have been traced by the + pencil of bigotry, and that of reason, may be seen in Tillemont, (Mém. + Eccles. tom. v. p. 669-759,) and in Le Clerc, (Bibliothèque Universelle, + tom. x p. 435-454.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.56" id="linknote-21.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.56">return</a>)<br /> [ We are indebted to + Ambrose (De Fide, l. iii.) knowledge of this curious anecdote. Hoc verbum + quod viderunt adversariis esse formidini; ut ipsis gladio, ipsum nefandæ + caput hæreseos.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.57" id="linknote-21.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.57">return</a>)<br /> [ See Bull, Defens. Fid. + Nicen. sect. ii. c. i. p. 25-36. He thinks it his duty to reconcile two + orthodox synods.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.58" id="linknote-21.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.58">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Aristotle, + the stars were homoousian to each other. “That <i>Homoousios</i> means of one + substance in <i>kind</i>, hath been shown by Petavius, Curcellæus, Cudworth, Le + Clerc, &c., and to prove it would be <i>actum agere</i>.” This is the just + remark of Dr. Jortin, (vol. ii p. 212,) who examines the Arian controversy + with learning, candor, and ingenuity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.59" id="linknote-21.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.59">return</a>)<br /> [ See Petavius, (Dogm. + Theolog. tom. ii. l. iv. c. 16, p. 453, &c.,) Cudworth, (p. 559,) + Bull, (sect. iv. p. 285-290, edit. Grab.) The <i>circumincessio</i>, is perhaps + the deepest and darkest he whole theological abyss.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.60" id="linknote-21.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.60">return</a>)<br /> [ The third section of + Bull’s Defence of the Nicene Faith, which some of his antagonists have + called nonsense, and others heresy, is consecrated to the supremacy of the + Father.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.61" id="linknote-21.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.61">return</a>)<br /> [ The ordinary + appellation with which Athanasius and his followers chose to compliment + the Arians, was that of <i>Ariomanites</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.62" id="linknote-21.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Epiphanius, tom i. + Hæres. lxxii. 4, p. 837. See the adventures of Marcellus, in Tillemont, + (Mém. Eccles. tom. v. i. p. 880- 899.) His work, in <i>one</i> book, of the unity + of God, was answered in the <i>three</i> books, which are still extant, of + Eusebius.——After a long and careful examination, Petavius + (tom. ii. l. i. c. 14, p. 78) has reluctantly pronounced the condemnation + of Marcellus.] + </p> + <p> + The authority of a general council, to which the Arians themselves had + been compelled to submit, inscribed on the banners of the orthodox party + the mysterious characters of the word <i>Homoousion</i>, which essentially + contributed, notwithstanding some obscure disputes, some nocturnal + combats, to maintain and perpetuate the uniformity of faith, or at least + of language. The consubstantialists, who by their success have deserved + and obtained the title of Catholics, gloried in the simplicity and + steadiness of their own creed, and insulted the repeated variations of + their adversaries, who were destitute of any certain rule of faith. The + sincerity or the cunning of the Arian chiefs, the fear of the laws or of + the people, their reverence for Christ, their hatred of Athanasius, all + the causes, human and divine, that influence and disturb the counsels of a + theological faction, introduced among the sectaries a spirit of discord + and inconstancy, which, in the course of a few years, erected eighteen + different models of religion, <a href="#linknote-21.63" + name="linknoteref-21.63" id="linknoteref-21.63">63</a> and avenged the + violated dignity of the church. The zealous Hilary, <a + href="#linknote-21.64" name="linknoteref-21.64" id="linknoteref-21.64">64</a> + who, from the peculiar hardships of his situation, was inclined to + extenuate rather than to aggravate the errors of the Oriental clergy, + declares, that in the wide extent of the ten provinces of Asia, to which + he had been banished, there could be found very few prelates who had + preserved the knowledge of the true God. <a href="#linknote-21.65" + name="linknoteref-21.65" id="linknoteref-21.65">65</a> The oppression which + he had felt, the disorders of which he was the spectator and the victim, + appeased, during a short interval, the angry passions of his soul; and in + the following passage, of which I shall transcribe a few lines, the bishop + of Poitiers unwarily deviates into the style of a Christian philosopher. + “It is a thing,” says Hilary, “equally deplorable and dangerous, that + there are as many creeds as opinions among men, as many doctrines as + inclinations, and as many sources of blasphemy as there are faults among + us; because we make creeds arbitrarily, and explain them as arbitrarily. + The Homoousion is rejected, and received, and explained away by successive + synods. The partial or total resemblance of the Father and of the Son is a + subject of dispute for these unhappy times. Every year, nay, every moon, + we make new creeds to describe invisible mysteries. We repent of what we + have done, we defend those who repent, we anathematize those whom we + defended. We condemn either the doctrine of others in ourselves, or our + own in that of others; and reciprocally tearing one another to pieces, we + have been the cause of each other’s ruin.” <a href="#linknote-21.66" + name="linknoteref-21.66" id="linknoteref-21.66">66</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.63" id="linknote-21.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.63">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius, in his + epistle concerning the Synods of Seleucia and Rimini, (tom. i. p. + 886-905,) has given an ample list of Arian creeds, which has been enlarged + and improved by the labors of the indefatigable Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. + tom. vi. p. 477.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.64" id="linknote-21.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Erasmus, with admirable + sense and freedom, has delineated the just character of Hilary. To revise + his text, to compose the annals of his life, and to justify his sentiments + and conduct, is the province of the Benedictine editors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.65" id="linknote-21.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Absque episcopo Eleusio + et paucis cum eo, ex majore parte Asianæ decem provinciæ, inter quas + consisto, vere Deum nesciunt. Atque utinam penitus nescirent! cum + procliviore enim venia ignorarent quam obtrectarent. Hilar. de Synodis, + sive de Fide Orientalium, c. 63, p. 1186, edit. Benedict. In the + celebrated parallel between atheism and superstition, the bishop of + Poitiers would have been surprised in the philosophic society of Bayle and + Plutarch.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.66" id="linknote-21.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Hilarius ad + Constantium, l. i. c. 4, 5, p. 1227, 1228. This remarkable passage + deserved the attention of Mr. Locke, who has transcribed it (vol. iii. p. + 470) into the model of his new common-place book.] + </p> + <p> + It will not be expected, it would not perhaps be endured, that I should + swell this theological digression, by a minute examination of the eighteen + creeds, the authors of which, for the most part, disclaimed the odious + name of their parent Arius. It is amusing enough to delineate the form, + and to trace the vegetation, of a singular plant; but the tedious detail + of leaves without flowers, and of branches without fruit, would soon + exhaust the patience, and disappoint the curiosity, of the laborious + student. One question, which gradually arose from the Arian controversy, + may, however, be noticed, as it served to produce and discriminate the + three sects, who were united only by their common aversion to the + Homoousion of the Nicene synod. 1. If they were asked whether the Son was + <i>like</i> unto the Father, the question was resolutely answered in the + negative, by the heretics who adhered to the principles of Arius, or + indeed to those of philosophy; which seem to establish an infinite + difference between the Creator and the most excellent of his creatures. + This obvious consequence was maintained by Ætius, <a href="#linknote-21.67" + name="linknoteref-21.67" id="linknoteref-21.67">67</a> on whom the zeal of + his adversaries bestowed the surname of the Atheist. His restless and + aspiring spirit urged him to try almost every profession of human life. He + was successively a slave, or at least a husbandman, a travelling tinker, a + goldsmith, a physician, a schoolmaster, a theologian, and at last the + apostle of a new church, which was propagated by the abilities of his + disciple Eunomius. <a href="#linknote-21.68" name="linknoteref-21.68" + id="linknoteref-21.68">68</a> Armed with texts of Scripture, and with + captious syllogisms from the logic of Aristotle, the subtle Ætius had + acquired the fame of an invincible disputant, whom it was impossible + either to silence or to convince. Such talents engaged the friendship of + the Arian bishops, till they were forced to renounce, and even to + persecute, a dangerous ally, who, by the accuracy of his reasoning, had + prejudiced their cause in the popular opinion, and offended the piety of + their most devoted followers. 2. The omnipotence of the Creator suggested + a specious and respectful solution of the <i>likeness</i> of the Father and the + Son; and faith might humbly receive what reason could not presume to deny, + that the Supreme God might communicate his infinite perfections, and + create a being similar only to himself. <a href="#linknote-21.69" + name="linknoteref-21.69" id="linknoteref-21.69">69</a> These Arians were + powerfully supported by the weight and abilities of their leaders, who had + succeeded to the management of the Eusebian interest, and who occupied the + principal thrones of the East. They detested, perhaps with some + affectation, the impiety of Ætius; they professed to believe, either + without reserve, or according to the Scriptures, that the Son was + different from all <i>other</i> creatures, and similar only to the Father. But + they denied, the he was either of the same, or of a similar substance; + sometimes boldly justifying their dissent, and sometimes objecting to the + use of the word substance, which seems to imply an adequate, or at least, + a distinct, notion of the nature of the Deity. 3. The sect which deserted + the doctrine of a similar substance, was the most numerous, at least in + the provinces of Asia; and when the leaders of both parties were assembled + in the council of Seleucia, <a href="#linknote-21.70" + name="linknoteref-21.70" id="linknoteref-21.70">70</a> <i>their</i> opinion would + have prevailed by a majority of one hundred and five to forty-three + bishops. The Greek word, which was chosen to express this mysterious + resemblance, bears so close an affinity to the orthodox symbol, that the + profane of every age have derided the furious contests which the + difference of a single diphthong excited between the Homoousians and the + Homoiousians. As it frequently happens, that the sounds and characters + which approach the nearest to each other accidentally represent the most + opposite ideas, the observation would be itself ridiculous, if it were + possible to mark any real and sensible distinction between the doctrine of + the Semi-Arians, as they were improperly styled, and that of the Catholics + themselves. The bishop of Poitiers, who in his Phrygian exile very wisely + aimed at a coalition of parties, endeavors to prove that by a pious and + faithful interpretation, <a href="#linknote-21.71" name="linknoteref-21.71" + id="linknoteref-21.71">71</a> the <i>Homoiousion</i> may be reduced to a + consubstantial sense. Yet he confesses that the word has a dark and + suspicious aspect; and, as if darkness were congenial to theological + disputes, the Semi-Arians, who advanced to the doors of the church, + assailed them with the most unrelenting fury. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.67" id="linknote-21.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.67">return</a>)<br /> [ In Philostorgius (l. + iii. c. 15) the character and adventures of Ætius appear singular enough, + though they are carefully softened by the hand of a friend. The editor, + Godefroy, (p. 153,) who was more attached to his principles than to his + author, has collected the odious circumstances which his various + adversaries have preserved or invented.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.68" id="linknote-21.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.68">return</a>)<br /> [ According to the + judgment of a man who respected both these sectaries, Ætius had been + endowed with a stronger understanding and Eunomius had acquired more art + and learning. (Philostorgius l. viii. c. 18.) The confession and apology + of Eunomius (Fabricius, Bibliot. Græc. tom. viii. p. 258-305) is one of + the few heretical pieces which have escaped.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.69" id="linknote-21.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet, according to the + opinion of Estius and Bull, (p. 297,) there is one power—that of + creation—which God <i>cannot</i> communicate to a creature. Estius, who so + accurately defined the limits of Omnipotence was a Dutchman by birth, and + by trade a scholastic divine. Dupin Bibliot. Eccles. tom. xvii. p. 45.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.70" id="linknote-21.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Sabinus ap. Socrat. (l. + ii. c. 39) had copied the acts: Athanasius and Hilary have explained the + divisions of this Arian synod; the other circumstances which are relative + to it are carefully collected by Baro and Tillemont] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.71" id="linknote-21.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.71">return</a>)<br /> [ Fideli et piâ + intelligentiâ... De Synod. c. 77, p. 1193. In his his short apologetical + notes (first published by the Benedictines from a MS. of Chartres) he + observes, that he used this cautious expression, qui intelligerum et + impiam, p. 1206. See p. 1146. Philostorgius, who saw those objects through + a different medium, is inclined to forget the difference of the important + diphthong. See in particular viii. 17, and Godefroy, p. 352.] + </p> + <p> + The provinces of Egypt and Asia, which cultivated the language and manners + of the Greeks, had deeply imbibed the venom of the Arian controversy. The + familiar study of the Platonic system, a vain and argumentative + disposition, a copious and flexible idiom, supplied the clergy and people + of the East with an inexhaustible flow of words and distinctions; and, in + the midst of their fierce contentions, they easily forgot the doubt which + is recommended by philosophy, and the submission which is enjoined by + religion. The inhabitants of the West were of a less inquisitive spirit; + their passions were not so forcibly moved by invisible objects, their + minds were less frequently exercised by the habits of dispute; and such + was the happy ignorance of the Gallican church, that Hilary himself, above + thirty years after the first general council, was still a stranger to the + Nicene creed. <a href="#linknote-21.72" name="linknoteref-21.72" + id="linknoteref-21.72">72</a> The Latins had received the rays of divine + knowledge through the dark and doubtful medium of a translation. The + poverty and stubbornness of their native tongue was not always capable of + affording just equivalents for the Greek terms, for the technical words of + the Platonic philosophy, <a href="#linknote-21.73" name="linknoteref-21.73" + id="linknoteref-21.73">73</a> which had been consecrated, by the gospel or + by the church, to express the mysteries of the Christian faith; and a + verbal defect might introduce into the Latin theology a long train of + error or perplexity. <a href="#linknote-21.74" name="linknoteref-21.74" + id="linknoteref-21.74">74</a> But as the western provincials had the good + fortune of deriving their religion from an orthodox source, they preserved + with steadiness the doctrine which they had accepted with docility; and + when the Arian pestilence approached their frontiers, they were supplied + with the seasonable preservative of the Homoousion, by the paternal care + of the Roman pontiff. Their sentiments and their temper were displayed in + the memorable synod of Rimini, which surpassed in numbers the council of + Nice, since it was composed of above four hundred bishops of Italy, + Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum. From the first debates it + appeared, that only fourscore prelates adhered to the party, though <i>they</i> + affected to anathematize the name and memory, of Arius. But this + inferiority was compensated by the advantages of skill, of experience, and + of discipline; and the minority was conducted by Valens and Ursacius, two + bishops of Illyricum, who had spent their lives in the intrigues of courts + and councils, and who had been trained under the Eusebian banner in the + religious wars of the East. By their arguments and negotiations, they + embarrassed, they confounded, they at last deceived, the honest simplicity + of the Latin bishops; who suffered the palladium of the faith to be + extorted from their hand by fraud and importunity, rather than by open + violence. The council of Rimini was not allowed to separate, till the + members had imprudently subscribed a captious creed, in which some + expressions, susceptible of an heretical sense, were inserted in the room + of the Homoousion. It was on this occasion, that, according to Jerom, the + world was surprised to find itself Arian. <a href="#linknote-21.75" + name="linknoteref-21.75" id="linknoteref-21.75">75</a> But the bishops of + the Latin provinces had no sooner reached their respective dioceses, than + they discovered their mistake, and repented of their weakness. The + ignominious capitulation was rejected with disdain and abhorrence; and the + Homoousian standard, which had been shaken but not overthrown, was more + firmly replanted in all the churches of the West. <a href="#linknote-21.76" + name="linknoteref-21.76" id="linknoteref-21.76">76</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.72" id="linknote-21.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Testor Deum cœli atque + terræ me cum neutrum audissem, semper tamen utrumque sensisse.... + Regeneratus pridem et in episcopatu aliquantisper manens fidem Nicenam + nunquam nisi exsulaturus audivi. Hilar. de Synodis, c. xci. p. 1205. The + Benedictines are persuaded that he governed the diocese of Poitiers + several years before his exile.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.73" id="linknote-21.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.73">return</a>)<br /> [ Seneca (Epist. lviii.) + complains that even the of the Platonists (the <i>ens</i> of the bolder + schoolmen) could not be expressed by a Latin noun.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.74" id="linknote-21.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.74">return</a>)<br /> [ The preference which + the fourth council of the Lateran at length gave to a <i>numerical</i> rather + than a <i>generical</i> unity (See Petav. tom. ii. l. v. c. 13, p. 424) was + favored by the Latin language: seems to excite the idea of substance, + <i>trinitas</i> of qualities.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.75" id="linknote-21.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Ingemuit totus orbis, + et Arianum se esse miratus est. Hieronym. adv. Lucifer. tom. i. p. 145.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.76" id="linknote-21.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.76">return</a>)<br /> [ The story of the + council of Rimini is very elegantly told by Sulpicius Severus, (Hist. + Sacra, l. ii. p. 419-430, edit. Lugd. Bat. 1647,) and by Jerom, in his + dialogue against the Luciferians. The design of the latter is to apologize + for the conduct of the Latin bishops, who were deceived, and who + repented.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap21.4"></a> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Such was the rise and progress, and such were the natural revolutions of + those theological disputes, which disturbed the peace of Christianity + under the reigns of Constantine and of his sons. But as those princes + presumed to extend their despotism over the faith, as well as over the + lives and fortunes, of their subjects, the weight of their suffrage + sometimes inclined the ecclesiastical balance: and the prerogatives of the + King of Heaven were settled, or changed, or modified, in the cabinet of an + earthly monarch. The unhappy spirit of discord which pervaded the + provinces of the East, interrupted the triumph of Constantine; but the + emperor continued for some time to view, with cool and careless + indifference, the object of the dispute. As he was yet ignorant of the + difficulty of appeasing the quarrels of theologians, he addressed to the + contending parties, to Alexander and to Arius, a moderating epistle; <a + href="#linknote-21.77" name="linknoteref-21.77" id="linknoteref-21.77">77</a> + which may be ascribed, with far greater reason, to the untutored sense of + a soldier and statesman, than to the dictates of any of his episcopal + counsellors. He attributes the origin of the whole controversy to a + trifling and subtle question, concerning an incomprehensible point of law, + which was foolishly asked by the bishop, and imprudently resolved by the + presbyter. He laments that the Christian people, who had the same God, the + same religion, and the same worship, should be divided by such + inconsiderable distinctions; and he seriously recommends to the clergy of + Alexandria the example of the Greek philosophers; who could maintain their + arguments without losing their temper, and assert their freedom without + violating their friendship. The indifference and contempt of the sovereign + would have been, perhaps, the most effectual method of silencing the + dispute, if the popular current had been less rapid and impetuous, and if + Constantine himself, in the midst of faction and fanaticism, could have + preserved the calm possession of his own mind. But his ecclesiastical + ministers soon contrived to seduce the impartiality of the magistrate, and + to awaken the zeal of the proselyte. He was provoked by the insults which + had been offered to his statues; he was alarmed by the real, as well as + the imaginary magnitude of the spreading mischief; and he extinguished the + hope of peace and toleration, from the moment that he assembled three + hundred bishops within the walls of the same palace. The presence of the + monarch swelled the importance of the debate; his attention multiplied the + arguments; and he exposed his person with a patient intrepidity, which + animated the valor of the combatants. Notwithstanding the applause which + has been bestowed on the eloquence and sagacity of Constantine, <a + href="#linknote-21.78" name="linknoteref-21.78" id="linknoteref-21.78">78</a> + a Roman general, whose religion might be still a subject of doubt, and + whose mind had not been enlightened either by study or by inspiration, was + indifferently qualified to discuss, in the Greek language, a metaphysical + question, or an article of faith. But the credit of his favorite Osius, + who appears to have presided in the council of Nice, might dispose the + emperor in favor of the orthodox party; and a well-timed insinuation, that + the same Eusebius of Nicomedia, who now protected the heretic, had lately + assisted the tyrant, <a href="#linknote-21.79" name="linknoteref-21.79" + id="linknoteref-21.79">79</a> might exasperate him against their + adversaries. The Nicene creed was ratified by Constantine; and his firm + declaration, that those who resisted the divine judgment of the synod, + must prepare themselves for an immediate exile, annihilated the murmurs of + a feeble opposition; which, from seventeen, was almost instantly reduced + to two, protesting bishops. Eusebius of Cæsarea yielded a reluctant and + ambiguous consent to the Homoousion; <a href="#linknote-21.80" + name="linknoteref-21.80" id="linknoteref-21.80">80</a> and the wavering + conduct of the Nicomedian Eusebius served only to delay, about three + months, his disgrace and exile. <a href="#linknote-21.81" + name="linknoteref-21.81" id="linknoteref-21.81">81</a> The impious Arius was + banished into one of the remote provinces of Illyricum; his person and + disciples were branded by law with the odious name of Porphyrians; his + writings were condemned to the flames, and a capital punishment was + denounced against those in whose possession they should be found. The + emperor had now imbibed the spirit of controversy, and the angry, + sarcastic style of his edicts was designed to inspire his subjects with + the hatred which he had conceived against the enemies of Christ. <a + href="#linknote-21.82" name="linknoteref-21.82" id="linknoteref-21.82">82</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.77" id="linknote-21.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.77">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius, in Vit. + Constant. l. ii. c. 64-72. The principles of toleration and religious + indifference, contained in this epistle, have given great offence to + Baronius, Tillemont, &c., who suppose that the emperor had some evil + counsellor, either Satan or Eusebius, at his elbow. See Cortin’s Remarks, + tom. ii. p. 183. * Note: Heinichen (Excursus xi.) quotes with approbation + the term “golden words,” applied by Ziegler to this moderate and tolerant + letter of Constantine. May an English clergyman venture to express his + regret that “the fine gold soon became dim” in the Christian church?—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.78" id="linknote-21.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.78">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius in Vit. + Constantin. l. iii. c. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.79" id="linknote-21.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Theodoret has preserved + (l. i. c. 20) an epistle from Constantine to the people of Nicomedia, in + which the monarch declares himself the public accuser of one of his + subjects; he styles Eusebius and complains of his hostile behavior during + the civil war.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.80" id="linknote-21.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.80">return</a>)<br /> [ See in Socrates, (l. i. + c. 8,) or rather in Theodoret, (l. i. c. 12,) an original letter of + Eusebius of Cæsarea, in which he attempts to justify his subscribing the + Homoousion. The character of Eusebius has always been a problem; but those + who have read the second critical epistle of Le Clerc, (Ars Critica, tom. + iii. p. 30-69,) must entertain a very unfavorable opinion of the orthodoxy + and sincerity of the bishop of Cæsarea.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.81" id="linknote-21.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius, tom. i. p. + 727. Philostorgius, l. i. c. 10, and Godefroy’s Commentary, p. 41.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.82" id="linknote-21.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates, l. i. c. 9. + In his circular letters, which were addressed to the several cities, + Constantine employed against the heretics the arms of ridicule and <i>comic</i> + raillery.] + </p> + <p> + But, as if the conduct of the emperor had been guided by passion instead + of principle, three years from the council of Nice were scarcely elapsed + before he discovered some symptoms of mercy, and even of indulgence, + towards the proscribed sect, which was secretly protected by his favorite + sister. The exiles were recalled, and Eusebius, who gradually resumed his + influence over the mind of Constantine, was restored to the episcopal + throne, from which he had been ignominiously degraded. Arius himself was + treated by the whole court with the respect which would have been due to + an innocent and oppressed man. His faith was approved by the synod of + Jerusalem; and the emperor seemed impatient to repair his injustice, by + issuing an absolute command, that he should be solemnly admitted to the + communion in the cathedral of Constantinople. On the same day, which had + been fixed for the triumph of Arius, he expired; and the strange and + horrid circumstances of his death might excite a suspicion, that the + orthodox saints had contributed more efficaciously than by their prayers, + to deliver the church from the most formidable of her enemies. <a + href="#linknote-21.83" name="linknoteref-21.83" id="linknoteref-21.83">83</a> + The three principal leaders of the Catholics, Athanasius of Alexandria, + Eustathius of Antioch, and Paul of Constantinople were deposed on various + f accusations, by the sentence of numerous councils; and were afterwards + banished into distant provinces by the first of the Christian emperors, + who, in the last moments of his life, received the rites of baptism from + the Arian bishop of Nicomedia. The ecclesiastical government of + Constantine cannot be justified from the reproach of levity and weakness. + But the credulous monarch, unskilled in the stratagems of theological + warfare, might be deceived by the modest and specious professions of the + heretics, whose sentiments he never perfectly understood; and while he + protected Arius, and persecuted Athanasius, he still considered the + council of Nice as the bulwark of the Christian faith, and the peculiar + glory of his own reign. <a href="#linknote-21.84" name="linknoteref-21.84" + id="linknoteref-21.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.83" id="linknote-21.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.83">return</a>)<br /> [ We derive the original + story from Athanasius, (tom. i. p. 670,) who expresses some reluctance to + stigmatize the memory of the dead. He might exaggerate; but the perpetual + commerce of Alexandria and Constantinople would have rendered it dangerous + to invent. Those who press the literal narrative of the death of Arius + (his bowels suddenly burst out in a privy) must make their option between + <i>poison</i> and <i>miracle</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.84" id="linknote-21.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.84">return</a>)<br /> [ The change in the + sentiments, or at least in the conduct, of Constantine, may be traced in + Eusebius, (in Vit. Constant. l. iii. c. 23, l. iv. c. 41,) Socrates, (l. + i. c. 23-39,) Sozomen, (l. ii. c. 16-34,) Theodoret, (l. i. c. 14-34,) and + Philostorgius, (l. ii. c. 1-17.) But the first of these writers was too + near the scene of action, and the others were too remote from it. It is + singular enough, that the important task of continuing the history of the + church should have been left for two laymen and a heretic.] + </p> + <p> + The sons of Constantine must have been admitted from their childhood into + the rank of catechumens; but they imitated, in the delay of their baptism, + the example of their father. Like him they presumed to pronounce their + judgment on mysteries into which they had never been regularly initiated; + <a href="#linknote-21.85" name="linknoteref-21.85" id="linknoteref-21.85">85</a> + and the fate of the Trinitarian controversy depended, in a great measure, + on the sentiments of Constantius; who inherited the provinces of the East, + and acquired the possession of the whole empire. The Arian presbyter or + bishop, who had secreted for his use the testament of the deceased + emperor, improved the fortunate occasion which had introduced him to the + familiarity of a prince, whose public counsels were always swayed by his + domestic favorites. The eunuchs and slaves diffused the spiritual poison + through the palace, and the dangerous infection was communicated by the + female attendants to the guards, and by the empress to her unsuspicious + husband. <a href="#linknote-21.86" name="linknoteref-21.86" + id="linknoteref-21.86">86</a> The partiality which Constantius always + expressed towards the Eusebian faction, was insensibly fortified by the + dexterous management of their leaders; and his victory over the tyrant + Magnentius increased his inclination, as well as ability, to employ the + arms of power in the cause of Arianism. While the two armies were engaged + in the plains of Mursa, and the fate of the two rivals depended on the + chance of war, the son of Constantine passed the anxious moments in a + church of the martyrs under the walls of the city. His spiritual + comforter, Valens, the Arian bishop of the diocese, employed the most + artful precautions to obtain such early intelligence as might secure + either his favor or his escape. A secret chain of swift and trusty + messengers informed him of the vicissitudes of the battle; and while the + courtiers stood trembling round their affrighted master, Valens assured + him that the Gallic legions gave way; and insinuated with some presence of + mind, that the glorious event had been revealed to him by an angel. The + grateful emperor ascribed his success to the merits and intercession of + the bishop of Mursa, whose faith had deserved the public and miraculous + approbation of Heaven. <a href="#linknote-21.87" name="linknoteref-21.87" + id="linknoteref-21.87">87</a> The Arians, who considered as their own the + victory of Constantius, preferred his glory to that of his father. <a + href="#linknote-21.88" name="linknoteref-21.88" id="linknoteref-21.88">88</a> + Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, immediately composed the description of a + celestial cross, encircled with a splendid rainbow; which during the + festival of Pentecost, about the third hour of the day, had appeared over + the Mount of Olives, to the edification of the devout pilgrims, and the + people of the holy city. <a href="#linknote-21.89" name="linknoteref-21.89" + id="linknoteref-21.89">89</a> The size of the meteor was gradually + magnified; and the Arian historian has ventured to affirm, that it was + conspicuous to the two armies in the plains of Pannonia; and that the + tyrant, who is purposely represented as an idolater, fled before the + auspicious sign of orthodox Christianity. <a href="#linknote-21.90" + name="linknoteref-21.90" id="linknoteref-21.90">90</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.85" id="linknote-21.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Quia etiam tum + catechumenus sacramentum fidei merito videretiu potuisse nescire. Sulp. + Sever. Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 410.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.86" id="linknote-21.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.86">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates, l. ii. c. 2. + Sozomen, l. iii. c. 18. Athanas. tom. i. p. 813, 834. He observes that the + eunuchs are the natural enemies of the <i>Son</i>. Compare Dr. Jortin’s Remarks + on Ecclesiastical History, vol. iv. p. 3 with a certain genealogy in + <i>Candide</i>, (ch. iv.,) which ends with one of the first companions of + Christopher Columbus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.87" id="linknote-21.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.87">return</a>)<br /> [ Sulpicius Severus in + Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 405, 406.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.88" id="linknote-21.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.88">return</a>)<br /> [ Cyril (apud Baron. A. + D. 353, No. 26) expressly observes that in the reign of Constantine, the + cross had been found in the bowels of the earth; but that it had appeared, + in the reign of Constantius, in the midst of the heavens. This opposition + evidently proves, that Cyril was ignorant of the stupendous miracle to + which the conversion of Constantine is attributed; and this ignorance is + the more surprising, since it was no more than twelve years after his + death that Cyril was consecrated bishop of Jerusalem, by the immediate + successor of Eusebius of Cæsarea. See Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. + p. 715.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.89" id="linknote-21.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.89">return</a>)<br /> [ It is not easy to + determine how far the ingenuity of Cyril might be assisted by some natural + appearances of a solar halo.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.90" id="linknote-21.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Philostorgius, l. iii. + c. 26. He is followed by the author of the Alexandrian Chronicle, by + Cedrenus, and by Nicephorus. (See Gothofred. Dissert. p. 188.) They could + not refuse a miracle, even from the hand of an enemy.] + </p> + <p> + The sentiments of a judicious stranger, who has impartially considered the + progress of civil or ecclesiastical discord, are always entitled to our + notice; and a short passage of Ammianus, who served in the armies, and + studied the character of Constantius, is perhaps of more value than many + pages of theological invectives. “The Christian religion, which, in + itself,” says that moderate historian, “is plain and simple, <i>he</i> confounded + by the dotage of superstition. Instead of reconciling the parties by the + weight of his authority, he cherished and promulgated, by verbal disputes, + the differences which his vain curiosity had excited. The highways were + covered with troops of bishops galloping from every side to the + assemblies, which they call synods; and while they labored to reduce the + whole sect to their own particular opinions, the public establishment of + the posts was almost ruined by their hasty and repeated journeys.” <a + href="#linknote-21.91" name="linknoteref-21.91" id="linknoteref-21.91">91</a> + Our more intimate knowledge of the ecclesiastical transactions of the + reign of Constantius would furnish an ample commentary on this remarkable + passage, which justifies the rational apprehensions of Athanasius, that + the restless activity of the clergy, who wandered round the empire in + search of the true faith, would excite the contempt and laughter of the + unbelieving world. <a href="#linknote-21.92" name="linknoteref-21.92" + id="linknoteref-21.92">92</a> As soon as the emperor was relieved from the + terrors of the civil war, he devoted the leisure of his winter quarters at + Arles, Milan, Sirmium, and Constantinople, to the amusement or toils of + controversy: the sword of the magistrate, and even of the tyrant, was + unsheathed, to enforce the reasons of the theologian; and as he opposed + the orthodox faith of Nice, it is readily confessed that his incapacity + and ignorance were equal to his presumption. <a href="#linknote-21.93" + name="linknoteref-21.93" id="linknoteref-21.93">93</a> The eunuchs, the + women, and the bishops, who governed the vain and feeble mind of the + emperor, had inspired him with an insuperable dislike to the Homoousion; + but his timid conscience was alarmed by the impiety of Ætius. The guilt + of that atheist was aggravated by the suspicious favor of the unfortunate + Gallus; and even the death of the Imperial ministers, who had been + massacred at Antioch, were imputed to the suggestions of that dangerous + sophist. The mind of Constantius, which could neither be moderated by + reason, nor fixed by faith, was blindly impelled to either side of the + dark and empty abyss, by his horror of the opposite extreme; he + alternately embraced and condemned the sentiments, he successively + banished and recalled the leaders, of the Arian and Semi-Arian factions. + <a href="#linknote-21.94" name="linknoteref-21.94" id="linknoteref-21.94">94</a> + During the season of public business or festivity, he employed whole days, + and even nights, in selecting the words, and weighing the syllables, which + composed his fluctuating creeds. The subject of his meditations still + pursued and occupied his slumbers: the incoherent dreams of the emperor + were received as celestial visions, and he accepted with complacency the + lofty title of bishop of bishops, from those ecclesiastics who forgot the + interest of their order for the gratification of their passions. The + design of establishing a uniformity of doctrine, which had engaged him to + convene so many synods in Gaul, Italy, Illyricum, and Asia, was repeatedly + baffled by his own levity, by the divisions of the Arians, and by the + resistance of the Catholics; and he resolved, as the last and decisive + effort, imperiously to dictate the decrees of a general council. The + destructive earthquake of Nicomedia, the difficulty of finding a + convenient place, and perhaps some secret motives of policy, produced an + alteration in the summons. The bishops of the East were directed to meet + at Seleucia, in Isauria; while those of the West held their deliberations + at Rimini, on the coast of the Hadriatic; and instead of two or three + deputies from each province, the whole episcopal body was ordered to + march. The Eastern council, after consuming four days in fierce and + unavailing debate, separated without any definitive conclusion. The + council of the West was protracted till the seventh month. Taurus, the + Prætorian præfect was instructed not to dismiss the prelates till they + should all be united in the same opinion; and his efforts were supported + by the power of banishing fifteen of the most refractory, and a promise of + the consulship if he achieved so difficult an adventure. His prayers and + threats, the authority of the sovereign, the sophistry of Valens and + Ursacius, the distress of cold and hunger, and the tedious melancholy of a + hopeless exile, at length extorted the reluctant consent of the bishops of + Rimini. The deputies of the East and of the West attended the emperor in + the palace of Constantinople, and he enjoyed the satisfaction of imposing + on the world a profession of faith which established the <i>likeness</i>, without + expressing the <i>consubstantiality</i>, of the Son of God. <a + href="#linknote-21.95" name="linknoteref-21.95" id="linknoteref-21.95">95</a> + But the triumph of Arianism had been preceded by the removal of the + orthodox clergy, whom it was impossible either to intimidate or to + corrupt; and the reign of Constantius was disgraced by the unjust and + ineffectual persecution of the great Athanasius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.91" id="linknote-21.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.91">return</a>)<br /> [ So curious a passage + well deserves to be transcribed. Christianam religionem absolutam et + simplicem, anili superstitione confundens; in qua scrutanda perplexius, + quam componenda gravius excitaret discidia plurima; quæ progressa fusius + aluit concertatione verborum, ut catervis antistium jumentis publicis + ultro citroque discarrentibus, per synodos (quas appellant) dum ritum + omnem ad suum sahere conantur (Valesius reads <i>conatur</i>) rei vehiculariæ + concideret servos. Ammianus, xxi. 16.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.92" id="linknote-21.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanas. tom. i. p. + 870.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.93" id="linknote-21.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.93">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates, l. ii. c. + 35-47. Sozomen, l. iv. c. 12-30. Theodore li. c. 18-32. Philostorg. l. iv. + c. 4—12, l. v. c. 1-4, l. vi. c. 1-5] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.94" id="linknote-21.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Sozomen, l. iv. c. 23. + Athanas. tom. i. p. 831. Tillemont (Mem Eccles. tom. vii. p. 947) has + collected several instances of the haughty fanaticism of Constantius from + the detached treatises of Lucifer of Cagliari. The very titles of these + treaties inspire zeal and terror; “Moriendum pro Dei Filio.” “De Regibus + Apostaticis.” “De non conveniendo cum Hæretico.” “De non parcendo in Deum + delinquentibus.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.95" id="linknote-21.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Sulp. Sever. Hist. + Sacra, l. ii. p. 418-430. The Greek historians were very ignorant of the + affairs of the West.] + </p> + <p> + We have seldom an opportunity of observing, either in active or + speculative life, what effect may be produced, or what obstacles may be + surmounted, by the force of a single mind, when it is inflexibly applied + to the pursuit of a single object. The immortal name of Athanasius <a + href="#linknote-21.96" name="linknoteref-21.96" id="linknoteref-21.96">96</a> + will never be separated from the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity, to + whose defence he consecrated every moment and every faculty of his being. + Educated in the family of Alexander, he had vigorously opposed the early + progress of the Arian heresy: he exercised the important functions of + secretary under the aged prelate; and the fathers of the Nicene council + beheld with surprise and respect the rising virtues of the young deacon. + In a time of public danger, the dull claims of age and of rank are + sometimes superseded; and within five months after his return from Nice, + the deacon Athanasius was seated on the archiepiscopal throne of Egypt. He + filled that eminent station above forty-six years, and his long + administration was spent in a perpetual combat against the powers of + Arianism. Five times was Athanasius expelled from his throne; twenty years + he passed as an exile or a fugitive: and almost every province of the + Roman empire was successively witness to his merit, and his sufferings in + the cause of the Homoousion, which he considered as the sole pleasure and + business, as the duty, and as the glory of his life. Amidst the storms of + persecution, the archbishop of Alexandria was patient of labor, jealous of + fame, careless of safety; and although his mind was tainted by the + contagion of fanaticism, Athanasius displayed a superiority of character + and abilities, which would have qualified him, far better than the + degenerate sons of Constantine, for the government of a great monarchy. + His learning was much less profound and extensive than that of Eusebius of + Cæsarea, and his rude eloquence could not be compared with the polished + oratory of Gregory of Basil; but whenever the primate of Egypt was called + upon to justify his sentiments, or his conduct, his unpremeditated style, + either of speaking or writing, was clear, forcible, and persuasive. He has + always been revered, in the orthodox school, as one of the most accurate + masters of the Christian theology; and he was supposed to possess two + profane sciences, less adapted to the episcopal character, the knowledge + of jurisprudence, <a href="#linknote-21.97" name="linknoteref-21.97" + id="linknoteref-21.97">97</a> and that of divination. <a + href="#linknote-21.98" name="linknoteref-21.98" id="linknoteref-21.98">98</a> + Some fortunate conjectures of future events, which impartial reasoners + might ascribe to the experience and judgment of Athanasius, were + attributed by his friends to heavenly inspiration, and imputed by his + enemies to infernal magic. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.96" id="linknote-21.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.96">return</a>)<br /> [ We may regret that + Gregory Nazianzen composed a panegyric instead of a life of Athanasius; + but we should enjoy and improve the advantage of drawing our most + authentic materials from the rich fund of his own epistles and apologies, + (tom. i. p. 670-951.) I shall not imitate the example of Socrates, (l. ii. + c. l.) who published the first edition of the history, without giving + himself the trouble to consult the writings of Athanasius. Yet even + Socrates, the more curious Sozomen, and the learned Theodoret, connect the + life of Athanasius with the series of ecclesiastical history. The + diligence of Tillemont, (tom. viii,) and of the Benedictine editors, has + collected every fact, and examined every difficulty] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.97" id="linknote-21.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.97">return</a>)<br /> [ Sulpicius Severus + (Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 396) calls him a lawyer, a jurisconsult. This + character cannot now be discovered either in the life or writings of + Athanasius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.98" id="linknote-21.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.98">return</a>)<br /> [ Dicebatur enim + fatidicarum sortium fidem, quæve augurales portenderent alites + scientissime callens aliquoties prædixisse futura. Ammianus, xv. 7. A + prophecy, or rather a joke, is related by Sozomen, (l. iv c. 10,) which + evidently proves (if the crows speak Latin) that Athanasius understood the + language of the crows.] + </p> + <p> + But as Athanasius was continually engaged with the prejudices and passions + of every order of men, from the monk to the emperor, the knowledge of + human nature was his first and most important science. He preserved a + distinct and unbroken view of a scene which was incessantly shifting; and + never failed to improve those decisive moments which are irrecoverably + past before they are perceived by a common eye. The archbishop of + Alexandria was capable of distinguishing how far he might boldly command, + and where he must dexterously insinuate; how long he might contend with + power, and when he must withdraw from persecution; and while he directed + the thunders of the church against heresy and rebellion, he could assume, + in the bosom of his own party, the flexible and indulgent temper of a + prudent leader. The election of Athanasius has not escaped the reproach of + irregularity and precipitation; <a href="#linknote-21.99" + name="linknoteref-21.99" id="linknoteref-21.99">99</a> but the propriety of + his behavior conciliated the affections both of the clergy and of the + people. The Alexandrians were impatient to rise in arms for the defence of + an eloquent and liberal pastor. In his distress he always derived support, + or at least consolation, from the faithful attachment of his parochial + clergy; and the hundred bishops of Egypt adhered, with unshaken zeal, to + the cause of Athanasius. In the modest equipage which pride and policy + would affect, he frequently performed the episcopal visitation of his + provinces, from the mouth of the Nile to the confines of Æthiopia; + familiarly conversing with the meanest of the populace, and humbly + saluting the saints and hermits of the desert. <a href="#linknote-21.100" + name="linknoteref-21.100" id="linknoteref-21.100">100</a> Nor was it only in + ecclesiastical assemblies, among men whose education and manners were + similar to his own, that Athanasius displayed the ascendancy of his + genius. He appeared with easy and respectful firmness in the courts of + princes; and in the various turns of his prosperous and adverse fortune he + never lost the confidence of his friends, or the esteem of his enemies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.99" id="linknote-21.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.99">return</a>)<br /> [ The irregular + ordination of Athanasius was slightly mentioned in the councils which were + held against him. See Philostorg. l. ii. c. 11, and Godefroy, p. 71; but + it can scarcely be supposed that the assembly of the bishops of Egypt + would solemnly attest a <i>public</i> falsehood. Athanas. tom. i. p. 726.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.100" id="linknote-21.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.100">return</a>)<br /> [ See the history of + the Fathers of the Desert, published by Rosweide; and Tillemont, Mém. + Eccles. tom. vii., in the lives of Antony, Pachomius, &c. Athanasius + himself, who did not disdain to compose the life of his friend Antony, has + carefully observed how often the holy monk deplored and prophesied the + mischiefs of the Arian heresy Athanas. tom. ii. p. 492, 498, &c.] + </p> + <p> + In his youth, the primate of Egypt resisted the great Constantine, who had + repeatedly signified his will, that Arius should be restored to the + Catholic communion. <a href="#linknote-21.101" name="linknoteref-21.101" + id="linknoteref-21.101">101</a> The emperor respected, and might forgive, + this inflexible resolution; and the faction who considered Athanasius as + their most formidable enemy, was constrained to dissemble their hatred, + and silently to prepare an indirect and distant assault. They scattered + rumors and suspicions, represented the archbishop as a proud and + oppressive tyrant, and boldly accused him of violating the treaty which + had been ratified in the Nicene council, with the schismatic followers of + Meletius. <a href="#linknote-21.102" name="linknoteref-21.102" + id="linknoteref-21.102">102</a> Athanasius had openly disapproved that + ignominious peace, and the emperor was disposed to believe that he had + abused his ecclesiastical and civil power, to prosecute those odious + sectaries: that he had sacrilegiously broken a chalice in one of their + churches of Mareotis; that he had whipped or imprisoned six of their + bishops; and that Arsenius, a seventh bishop of the same party, had been + murdered, or at least mutilated, by the cruel hand of the primate. <a + href="#linknote-21.103" name="linknoteref-21.103" id="linknoteref-21.103">103</a> + These charges, which affected his honor and his life, were referred by + Constantine to his brother Dalmatius the censor, who resided at Antioch; + the synods of Cæsarea and Tyre were successively convened; and the + bishops of the East were instructed to judge the cause of Athanasius, + before they proceeded to consecrate the new church of the Resurrection at + Jerusalem. The primate might be conscious of his innocence; but he was + sensible that the same implacable spirit which had dictated the + accusation, would direct the proceeding, and pronounce the sentence. He + prudently declined the tribunal of his enemies; despised the summons of + the synod of Cæsarea; and, after a long and artful delay, submitted to + the peremptory commands of the emperor, who threatened to punish his + criminal disobedience if he refused to appear in the council of Tyre. <a + href="#linknote-21.104" name="linknoteref-21.104" id="linknoteref-21.104">104</a> + Before Athanasius, at the head of fifty Egyptian prelates, sailed from + Alexandria, he had wisely secured the alliance of the Meletians; and + Arsenius himself, his imaginary victim, and his secret friend, was + privately concealed in his train. The synod of Tyre was conducted by + Eusebius of Cæsarea, with more passion, and with less art, than his + learning and experience might promise; his numerous faction repeated the + names of homicide and tyrant; and their clamors were encouraged by the + seeming patience of Athanasius, who expected the decisive moment to + produce Arsenius alive and unhurt in the midst of the assembly. The nature + of the other charges did not admit of such clear and satisfactory replies; + yet the archbishop was able to prove, that in the village, where he was + accused of breaking a consecrated chalice, neither church nor altar nor + chalice could really exist. + </p> + <p> + The Arians, who had secretly determined the guilt and condemnation of + their enemy, attempted, however, to disguise their injustice by the + imitation of judicial forms: the synod appointed an episcopal commission + of six delegates to collect evidence on the spot; and this measure which + was vigorously opposed by the Egyptian bishops, opened new scenes of + violence and perjury. <a href="#linknote-21.105" name="linknoteref-21.105" + id="linknoteref-21.105">105</a> After the return of the deputies from + Alexandria, the majority of the council pronounced the final sentence of + degradation and exile against the primate of Egypt. The decree, expressed + in the fiercest language of malice and revenge, was communicated to the + emperor and the Catholic church; and the bishops immediately resumed a + mild and devout aspect, such as became their holy pilgrimage to the + Sepulchre of Christ. <a href="#linknote-21.106" name="linknoteref-21.106" + id="linknoteref-21.106">106</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.101" id="linknote-21.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.101">return</a>)<br /> [ At first Constantine + threatened in <i>speaking</i>, but requested in <i>writing</i>. His letters gradually + assumed a menacing tone; by while he required that the entrance of the + church should be open to <i>all</i>, he avoided the odious name of Arius. + Athanasius, like a skilful politician, has accurately marked these + distinctions, (tom. i. p. 788.) which allowed him some scope for excuse + and delay] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.102" id="linknote-21.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.102">return</a>)<br /> [ The Meletians in + Egypt, like the Donatists in Africa, were produced by an episcopal quarrel + which arose from the persecution. I have not leisure to pursue the obscure + controversy, which seems to have been misrepresented by the partiality of + Athanasius and the ignorance of Epiphanius. See Mosheim’s General History + of the Church, vol. i. p. 201.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.103" id="linknote-21.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.103">return</a>)<br /> [ The treatment of the + six bishops is specified by Sozomen, (l. ii. c. 25;) but Athanasius + himself, so copious on the subject of Arsenius and the chalice, leaves + this grave accusation without a reply. Note: This grave charge, if made, + (and it rests entirely on the authority of Soz omen,) seems to have been + silently dropped by the parties themselves: it is never alluded to in the + subsequent investigations. From Sozomen himself, who gives the unfavorable + report of the commission of inquiry sent to Egypt concerning the cup. it + does not appear that they noticed this accusation of personal violence.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.104" id="linknote-21.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.104">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanas, tom. i. p. + 788. Socrates, l. i.c. 28. Sozomen, l. ii. c 25. The emperor, in his + Epistle of Convocation, (Euseb. in Vit. Constant. l. iv. c. 42,) seems to + prejudge some members of the clergy and it was more than probable that the + synod would apply those reproaches to Athanasius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.105" id="linknote-21.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.105">return</a>)<br /> [ See, in particular, + the second Apology of Athanasius, (tom. i. p. 763-808,) and his Epistles + to the Monks, (p. 808-866.) They are justified by original and authentic + documents; but they would inspire more confidence if he appeared less + innocent, and his enemies less absurd.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.106" id="linknote-21.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.106">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius in Vit. + Constantin. l. iv. c. 41-47.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap21.5"></a> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + But the injustice of these ecclesiastical judges had not been countenanced + by the submission, or even by the presence, of Athanasius. He resolved to + make a bold and dangerous experiment, whether the throne was inaccessible + to the voice of truth; and before the final sentence could be pronounced + at Tyre, the intrepid primate threw himself into a bark which was ready to + hoist sail for the Imperial city. The request of a formal audience might + have been opposed or eluded; but Athanasius concealed his arrival, watched + the moment of Constantine’s return from an adjacent villa, and boldly + encountered his angry sovereign as he passed on horseback through the + principal street of Constantinople. So strange an apparition excited his + surprise and indignation; and the guards were ordered to remove the + importunate suitor; but his resentment was subdued by involuntary respect; + and the haughty spirit of the emperor was awed by the courage and + eloquence of a bishop, who implored his justice and awakened his + conscience. <a href="#linknote-21.107" name="linknoteref-21.107" + id="linknoteref-21.107">107</a> Constantine listened to the complaints of + Athanasius with impartial and even gracious attention; the members of the + synod of Tyre were summoned to justify their proceedings; and the arts of + the Eusebian faction would have been confounded, if they had not + aggravated the guilt of the primate, by the dexterous supposition of an + unpardonable offence; a criminal design to intercept and detain the + corn-fleet of Alexandria, which supplied the subsistence of the new + capital. <a href="#linknote-21.108" name="linknoteref-21.108" + id="linknoteref-21.108">108</a> The emperor was satisfied that the peace of + Egypt would be secured by the absence of a popular leader; but he refused + to fill the vacancy of the archiepiscopal throne; and the sentence, which, + after long hesitation, he pronounced, was that of a jealous ostracism, + rather than of an ignominious exile. In the remote province of Gaul, but + in the hospitable court of Treves, Athanasius passed about twenty eight + months. The death of the emperor changed the face of public affairs and, + amidst the general indulgence of a young reign, the primate was restored + to his country by an honorable edict of the younger Constantine, who + expressed a deep sense of the innocence and merit of his venerable guest. + <a href="#linknote-21.109" name="linknoteref-21.109" id="linknoteref-21.109">109</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.107" id="linknote-21.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.107">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanas. tom. i. p. + 804. In a church dedicated to St. Athanasius this situation would afford a + better subject for a picture, than most of the stories of miracles and + martyrdoms.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.108" id="linknote-21.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.108">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanas. tom. i. p. + 729. Eunapius has related (in Vit. Sophist. p. 36, 37, edit. Commelin) a + strange example of the cruelty and credulity of Constantine on a similar + occasion. The eloquent Sopater, a Syrian philosopher, enjoyed his + friendship, and provoked the resentment of Ablavius, his Prætorian + præfect. The corn-fleet was detained for want of a south wind; the people + of Constantinople were discontented; and Sopater was beheaded, on a charge + that he had <i>bound</i> the winds by the power of magic. Suidas adds, that + Constantine wished to prove, by this execution, that he had absolutely + renounced the superstition of the Gentiles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.109" id="linknote-21.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.109">return</a>)<br /> [ In his return he saw + Constantius twice, at Viminiacum, and at Cæsarea in Cappadocia, (Athanas. + tom. i. p. 676.) Tillemont supposes that Constantine introduced him to the + meeting of the three royal brothers in Pannonia, (Mémoires Eccles. tom. + viii. p. 69.)] + </p> + <p> + The death of that prince exposed Athanasius to a second persecution; and + the feeble Constantius, the sovereign of the East, soon became the secret + accomplice of the Eusebians. Ninety bishops of that sect or faction + assembled at Antioch, under the specious pretence of dedicating the + cathedral. They composed an ambiguous creed, which is faintly tinged with + the colors of Semi-Arianism, and twenty-five canons, which still regulate + the discipline of the orthodox Greeks. <a href="#linknote-21.110" + name="linknoteref-21.110" id="linknoteref-21.110">110</a> It was decided, + with some appearance of equity, that a bishop, deprived by a synod, should + not resume his episcopal functions till he had been absolved by the + judgment of an equal synod; the law was immediately applied to the case of + Athanasius; the council of Antioch pronounced, or rather confirmed, his + degradation: a stranger, named Gregory, was seated on his throne; and + Philagrius, <a href="#linknote-21.111" name="linknoteref-21.111" + id="linknoteref-21.111">111</a> the præfect of Egypt, was instructed to + support the new primate with the civil and military powers of the + province. Oppressed by the conspiracy of the Asiatic prelates, Athanasius + withdrew from Alexandria, and passed three years <a href="#linknote-21.112" + name="linknoteref-21.112" id="linknoteref-21.112">112</a> as an exile and a + suppliant on the holy threshold of the Vatican. <a href="#linknote-21.113" + name="linknoteref-21.113" id="linknoteref-21.113">113</a> By the assiduous + study of the Latin language, he soon qualified himself to negotiate with + the western clergy; his decent flattery swayed and directed the haughty + Julius; the Roman pontiff was persuaded to consider his appeal as the + peculiar interest of the Apostolic see: and his innocence was unanimously + declared in a council of fifty bishops of Italy. At the end of three + years, the primate was summoned to the court of Milan by the emperor + Constans, who, in the indulgence of unlawful pleasures, still professed a + lively regard for the orthodox faith. The cause of truth and justice was + promoted by the influence of gold, <a href="#linknote-21.114" + name="linknoteref-21.114" id="linknoteref-21.114">114</a> and the ministers + of Constans advised their sovereign to require the convocation of an + ecclesiastical assembly, which might act as the representatives of the + Catholic church. Ninety-four bishops of the West, seventy-six bishops of + the East, encountered each other at Sardica, on the verge of the two + empires, but in the dominions of the protector of Athanasius. Their + debates soon degenerated into hostile altercations; the Asiatics, + apprehensive for their personal safety, retired to Philippopolis in + Thrace; and the rival synods reciprocally hurled their spiritual thunders + against their enemies, whom they piously condemned as the enemies of the + true God. Their decrees were published and ratified in their respective + provinces: and Athanasius, who in the West was revered as a saint, was + exposed as a criminal to the abhorrence of the East. <a + href="#linknote-21.115" name="linknoteref-21.115" id="linknoteref-21.115">115</a> + The council of Sardica reveals the first symptoms of discord and schism + between the Greek and Latin churches which were separated by the + accidental difference of faith, and the permanent distinction of language. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.110" id="linknote-21.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.110">return</a>)<br /> [ See Beveridge, + Pandect. tom. i. p. 429-452, and tom. ii. Annotation. p. 182. Tillemont, + Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 310-324. St. Hilary of Poitiers has mentioned + this synod of Antioch with too much favor and respect. He reckons + ninety-seven bishops.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.111" id="linknote-21.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.111">return</a>)<br /> [ This magistrate, so + odious to Athanasius, is praised by Gregory Nazianzen, tom. i. Orat. xxi. + p. 390, 391. + </p> + <p> + Sæpe premente Deo fert Deus alter opem. + </p> + <p> + For the credit of human nature, I am always pleased to discover some good + qualities in those men whom party has represented as tyrants and + monsters.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.112" id="linknote-21.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.112">return</a>)<br /> [ The chronological + difficulties which perplex the residence of Athanasius at Rome, are + strenuously agitated by Valesius (Observat ad Calcem, tom. ii. Hist. + Eccles. l. i. c. 1-5) and Tillemont, (Men: Eccles. tom. viii. p. 674, + &c.) I have followed the simple hypothesis of Valesius, who allows + only one journey, after the intrusion Gregory.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.113" id="linknote-21.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.113">return</a>)<br /> [ I cannot forbear + transcribing a judicious observation of Wetstein, (Prolegomen. N.S. p. 19: + ) Si tamen Historiam Ecclesiasticam velimus consulere, patebit jam inde a + seculo quarto, cum, ortis controversiis, ecclesiæ Græciæ doctores in + duas partes scinderentur, ingenio, eloquentia, numero, tantum non + æquales, eam partem quæ vincere cupiebat Romam confugisse, majestatemque + pontificis comiter coluisse, eoque pacto oppressis per pontificem et + episcopos Latinos adversariis prævaluisse, atque orthodoxiam in conciliis + stabilivisse. Eam ob causam Athanasius, non sine comitatu, Roman petiit, + pluresque annos ibi hæsit.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.114" id="linknote-21.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.114">return</a>)<br /> [ Philostorgius, l. + iii. c. 12. If any corruption was used to promote the interest of + religion, an advocate of Athanasius might justify or excuse this + questionable conduct, by the example of Cato and Sidney; the former of + whom is <i>said</i> to have given, and the latter to have received, a bribe in + the cause of liberty.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.115" id="linknote-21.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.115">return</a>)<br /> [ The canon which + allows appeals to the Roman pontiffs, has almost raised the council of + Sardica to the dignity of a general council; and its acts have been + ignorantly or artfully confounded with those of the Nicene synod. See + Tillemont, tom. vii. p. 689, and Geddos’s Tracts, vol. ii. p. 419-460.] + </p> + <p> + During his second exile in the West, Athanasius was frequently admitted to + the Imperial presence; at Capua, Lodi, Milan, Verona, Padua, Aquileia, and + Treves. The bishop of the diocese usually assisted at these interviews; + the master of the offices stood before the veil or curtain of the sacred + apartment; and the uniform moderation of the primate might be attested by + these respectable witnesses, to whose evidence he solemnly appeals. <a + href="#linknote-21.116" name="linknoteref-21.116" id="linknoteref-21.116">116</a> + Prudence would undoubtedly suggest the mild and respectful tone that + became a subject and a bishop. In these familiar conferences with the + sovereign of the West, Athanasius might lament the error of Constantius, + but he boldly arraigned the guilt of his eunuchs and his Arian prelates; + deplored the distress and danger of the Catholic church; and excited + Constans to emulate the zeal and glory of his father. The emperor declared + his resolution of employing the troops and treasures of Europe in the + orthodox cause; and signified, by a concise and peremptory epistle to his + brother Constantius, that unless he consented to the immediate restoration + of Athanasius, he himself, with a fleet and army, would seat the + archbishop on the throne of Alexandria. <a href="#linknote-21.117" + name="linknoteref-21.117" id="linknoteref-21.117">117</a> But this religious + war, so horrible to nature, was prevented by the timely compliance of + Constantius; and the emperor of the East condescended to solicit a + reconciliation with a subject whom he had injured. Athanasius waited with + decent pride, till he had received three successive epistles full of the + strongest assurances of the protection, the favor, and the esteem of his + sovereign; who invited him to resume his episcopal seat, and who added the + humiliating precaution of engaging his principal ministers to attest the + sincerity of his intentions. They were manifested in a still more public + manner, by the strict orders which were despatched into Egypt to recall + the adherents of Athanasius, to restore their privileges, to proclaim + their innocence, and to erase from the public registers the illegal + proceedings which had been obtained during the prevalence of the Eusebian + faction. After every satisfaction and security had been given, which + justice or even delicacy could require, the primate proceeded, by slow + journeys, through the provinces of Thrace, Asia, and Syria; and his + progress was marked by the abject homage of the Oriental bishops, who + excited his contempt without deceiving his penetration. <a + href="#linknote-21.118" name="linknoteref-21.118" id="linknoteref-21.118">118</a> + At Antioch he saw the emperor Constantius; sustained, with modest + firmness, the embraces and protestations of his master, and eluded the + proposal of allowing the Arians a single church at Alexandria, by + claiming, in the other cities of the empire, a similar toleration for his + own party; a reply which might have appeared just and moderate in the + mouth of an independent prince. The entrance of the archbishop into his + capital was a triumphal procession; absence and persecution had endeared + him to the Alexandrians; his authority, which he exercised with rigor, was + more firmly established; and his fame was diffused from Æthiopia to + Britain, over the whole extent of the Christian world. <a + href="#linknote-21.119" name="linknoteref-21.119" id="linknoteref-21.119">119</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.116" id="linknote-21.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.116">return</a>)<br /> [ As Athanasius + dispersed secret invectives against Constantius, (see the Epistle to the + Monks,) at the same time that he assured him of his profound respect, we + might distrust the professions of the archbishop. Tom. i. p. 677.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.117" id="linknote-21.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.117">return</a>)<br /> [ Notwithstanding the + discreet silence of Athanasius, and the manifest forgery of a letter + inserted by Socrates, these menaces are proved by the unquestionable + evidence of Lucifer of Cagliari, and even of Constantius himself. See + Tillemont, tom. viii. p. 693] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.118" id="linknote-21.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.118">return</a>)<br /> [ I have always + entertained some doubts concerning the retraction of Ursacius and Valens, + (Athanas. tom. i. p. 776.) Their epistles to Julius, bishop of Rome, and + to Athanasius himself, are of so different a cast from each other, that + they cannot both be genuine. The one speaks the language of criminals who + confess their guilt and infamy; the other of enemies, who solicit on equal + terms an honorable reconciliation. * Note: I cannot quite comprehend the + ground of Gibbon’s doubts. Athanasius distinctly asserts the fact of their + retractation. (Athan. Op. i. p. 124, edit. Benedict.) The epistles are + apparently translations from the Latin, if, in fact, more than the + substance of the epistles. That to Athanasius is brief, almost abrupt. + Their retractation is likewise mentioned in the address of the orthodox + bishops of Rimini to Constantius. Athan. de Synodis, Op t. i. p 723-M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.119" id="linknote-21.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.119">return</a>)<br /> [ The circumstances of + his second return may be collected from Athanasius himself, tom. i. p. + 769, and 822, 843. Socrates, l. ii. c. 18, Sozomen, l. iii. c. 19. + Theodoret, l. ii. c. 11, 12. Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 12.] + </p> + <p> + But the subject who has reduced his prince to the necessity of + dissembling, can never expect a sincere and lasting forgiveness; and the + tragic fate of Constans soon deprived Athanasius of a powerful and + generous protector. The civil war between the assassin and the only + surviving brother of Constans, which afflicted the empire above three + years, secured an interval of repose to the Catholic church; and the two + contending parties were desirous to conciliate the friendship of a bishop, + who, by the weight of his personal authority, might determine the + fluctuating resolutions of an important province. He gave audience to the + ambassadors of the tyrant, with whom he was afterwards accused of holding + a secret correspondence; <a href="#linknote-21.120" name="linknoteref-21.120" + id="linknoteref-21.120">120</a> and the emperor Constantius repeatedly + assured his dearest father, the most reverend Athanasius, that, + notwithstanding the malicious rumors which were circulated by their common + enemies, he had inherited the sentiments, as well as the throne, of his + deceased brother. <a href="#linknote-21.121" name="linknoteref-21.121" + id="linknoteref-21.121">121</a> Gratitude and humanity would have disposed + the primate of Egypt to deplore the untimely fate of Constans, and to + abhor the guilt of Magnentius; but as he clearly understood that the + apprehensions of Constantius were his only safeguard, the fervor of his + prayers for the success of the righteous cause might perhaps be somewhat + abated. The ruin of Athanasius was no longer contrived by the obscure + malice of a few bigoted or angry bishops, who abused the authority of a + credulous monarch. The monarch himself avowed the resolution, which he had + so long suppressed, of avenging his private injuries; <a + href="#linknote-21.122" name="linknoteref-21.122" id="linknoteref-21.122">122</a> + and the first winter after his victory, which he passed at Arles, was + employed against an enemy more odious to him than the vanquished tyrant of + Gaul. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.120" id="linknote-21.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.120">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius (tom. i. + p. 677, 678) defends his innocence by pathetic complaints, solemn + assertions, and specious arguments. He admits that letters had been forged + in his name, but he requests that his own secretaries and those of the + tyrant might be examined, whether those letters had been written by the + former, or received by the latter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.121" id="linknote-21.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.121">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanas. tom. i. p. + 825-844.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.122" id="linknote-21.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanas. tom. i. p. + 861. Theodoret, l. ii. c. 16. The emperor declared that he was more + desirous to subdue Athanasius, than he had been to vanquish Magnentius or + Sylvanus.] + </p> + <p> + If the emperor had capriciously decreed the death of the most eminent and + virtuous citizen of the republic, the cruel order would have been executed + without hesitation, by the ministers of open violence or of specious + injustice. The caution, the delay, the difficulty with which he proceeded + in the condemnation and punishment of a popular bishop, discovered to the + world that the privileges of the church had already revived a sense of + order and freedom in the Roman government. The sentence which was + pronounced in the synod of Tyre, and subscribed by a large majority of the + Eastern bishops, had never been expressly repealed; and as Athanasius had + been once degraded from his episcopal dignity by the judgment of his + brethren, every subsequent act might be considered as irregular, and even + criminal. But the memory of the firm and effectual support which the + primate of Egypt had derived from the attachment of the Western church, + engaged Constantius to suspend the execution of the sentence till he had + obtained the concurrence of the Latin bishops. Two years were consumed in + ecclesiastical negotiations; and the important cause between the emperor + and one of his subjects was solemnly debated, first in the synod of Arles, + and afterwards in the great council of Milan, <a href="#linknote-21.123" + name="linknoteref-21.123" id="linknoteref-21.123">123</a> which consisted of + above three hundred bishops. Their integrity was gradually undermined by + the arguments of the Arians, the dexterity of the eunuchs, and the + pressing solicitations of a prince who gratified his revenge at the + expense of his dignity, and exposed his own passions, whilst he influenced + those of the clergy. Corruption, the most infallible symptom of + constitutional liberty, was successfully practised; honors, gifts, and + immunities were offered and accepted as the price of an episcopal vote; <a + href="#linknote-21.124" name="linknoteref-21.124" id="linknoteref-21.124">124</a> + and the condemnation of the Alexandrian primate was artfully represented + as the only measure which could restore the peace and union of the + Catholic church. The friends of Athanasius were not, however, wanting to + their leader, or to their cause. With a manly spirit, which the sanctity + of their character rendered less dangerous, they maintained, in public + debate, and in private conference with the emperor, the eternal obligation + of religion and justice. They declared, that neither the hope of his + favor, nor the fear of his displeasure, should prevail on them to join in + the condemnation of an absent, an innocent, a respectable brother. <a + href="#linknote-21.125" name="linknoteref-21.125" id="linknoteref-21.125">125</a> + They affirmed, with apparent reason, that the illegal and obsolete decrees + of the council of Tyre had long since been tacitly abolished by the + Imperial edicts, the honorable reestablishment of the archbishop of + Alexandria, and the silence or recantation of his most clamorous + adversaries. They alleged, that his innocence had been attested by the + unanimous bishops of Egypt, and had been acknowledged in the councils of + Rome and Sardica, <a href="#linknote-21.126" name="linknoteref-21.126" + id="linknoteref-21.126">126</a> by the impartial judgment of the Latin + church. They deplored the hard condition of Athanasius, who, after + enjoying so many years his seat, his reputation, and the seeming + confidence of his sovereign, was again called upon to confute the most + groundless and extravagant accusations. Their language was specious; their + conduct was honorable: but in this long and obstinate contest, which fixed + the eyes of the whole empire on a single bishop, the ecclesiastical + factions were prepared to sacrifice truth and justice to the more + interesting object of defending or removing the intrepid champion of the + Nicene faith. The Arians still thought it prudent to disguise, in + ambiguous language, their real sentiments and designs; but the orthodox + bishops, armed with the favor of the people, and the decrees of a general + council, insisted on every occasion, and particularly at Milan, that their + adversaries should purge themselves from the suspicion of heresy, before + they presumed to arraign the conduct of the great Athanasius. <a + href="#linknote-21.127" name="linknoteref-21.127" id="linknoteref-21.127">127</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.123" id="linknote-21.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.123">return</a>)<br /> [ The affairs of the + council of Milan are so imperfectly and erroneously related by the Greek + writers, that we must rejoice in the supply of some letters of Eusebius, + extracted by Baronius from the archives of the church of Vercellæ, and of + an old life of Dionysius of Milan, published by Bollandus. See Baronius, + A.D. 355, and Tillemont, tom. vii. p. 1415.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.124" id="linknote-21.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.124">return</a>)<br /> [ The honors, presents, + feasts, which seduced so many bishops, are mentioned with indignation by + those who were too pure or too proud to accept them. “We combat (says + Hilary of Poitiers) against Constantius the Antichrist; who strokes the + belly instead of scourging the back;” qui non dorsa cædit; sed ventrem + palpat. Hilarius contra Constant c. 5, p. 1240.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.125" id="linknote-21.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.125">return</a>)<br /> [ Something of this + opposition is mentioned by Ammianus (x. 7,) who had a very dark and + superficial knowledge of ecclesiastical history. Liberius... perseveranter + renitebatur, nec visum hominem, nec auditum damnare, nefas ultimum sæpe + exclamans; aperte scilicet recalcitrans Imperatoris arbitrio. Id enim ille + Athanasio semper infestus, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.126" id="linknote-21.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.126">return</a>)<br /> [ More properly by the + orthodox part of the council of Sardica. If the bishops of both parties + had fairly voted, the division would have been 94 to 76. M. de Tillemont + (see tom. viii. p. 1147-1158) is justly surprised that so small a majority + should have proceeded as vigorously against their adversaries, the + principal of whom they immediately deposed.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.127" id="linknote-21.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.127">return</a>)<br /> [ Sulp. Severus in + Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 412.] + </p> + <p> + But the voice of reason (if reason was indeed on the side of Athanasius) + was silenced by the clamors of a factious or venal majority; and the + councils of Arles and Milan were not dissolved, till the archbishop of + Alexandria had been solemnly condemned and deposed by the judgment of the + Western, as well as of the Eastern, church. The bishops who had opposed, + were required to subscribe, the sentence, and to unite in religious + communion with the suspected leaders of the adverse party. A formulary of + consent was transmitted by the messengers of state to the absent bishops: + and all those who refused to submit their private opinion to the public + and inspired wisdom of the councils of Arles and Milan, were immediately + banished by the emperor, who affected to execute the decrees of the + Catholic church. Among those prelates who led the honorable band of + confessors and exiles, Liberius of Rome, Osius of Cordova, Paulinus of + Treves, Dionysius of Milan, Eusebius of Vercellæ, Lucifer of Cagliari and + Hilary of Poitiers, may deserve to be particularly distinguished. The + eminent station of Liberius, who governed the capital of the empire; the + personal merit and long experience of the venerable Osius, who was revered + as the favorite of the great Constantine, and the father of the Nicene + faith, placed those prelates at the head of the Latin church: and their + example, either of submission or resistance, would probable be imitated by + the episcopal crowd. But the repeated attempts of the emperor to seduce or + to intimidate the bishops of Rome and Cordova, were for some time + ineffectual. The Spaniard declared himself ready to suffer under + Constantius, as he had suffered threescore years before under his + grandfather Maximian. The Roman, in the presence of his sovereign, + asserted the innocence of Athanasius and his own freedom. When he was + banished to Beræa in Thrace, he sent back a large sum which had been + offered for the accommodation of his journey; and insulted the court of + Milan by the haughty remark, that the emperor and his eunuchs might want + that gold to pay their soldiers and their bishops. <a + href="#linknote-21.128" name="linknoteref-21.128" id="linknoteref-21.128">128</a> + The resolution of Liberius and Osius was at length subdued by the + hardships of exile and confinement. The Roman pontiff purchased his return + by some criminal compliances; and afterwards expiated his guilt by a + seasonable repentance. Persuasion and violence were employed to extort the + reluctant signature of the decrepit bishop of Cordova, whose strength was + broken, and whose faculties were perhaps impaired by the weight of a + hundred years; and the insolent triumph of the Arians provoked some of the + orthodox party to treat with inhuman severity the character, or rather the + memory, of an unfortunate old man, to whose former services Christianity + itself was so deeply indebted. <a href="#linknote-21.129" + name="linknoteref-21.129" id="linknoteref-21.129">129</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.128" id="linknote-21.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.128">return</a>)<br /> [ The exile of Liberius + is mentioned by Ammianus, xv. 7. See Theodoret, l. ii. c. 16. Athanas. + tom. i. p. 834-837. Hilar. Fragment l.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.129" id="linknote-21.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.129">return</a>)<br /> [ The life of Osius is + collected by Tillemont, (tom. vii. p. 524-561,) who in the most + extravagant terms first admires, and then reprobates, the bishop of + Cordova. In the midst of their lamentations on his fall, the prudence of + Athanasius may be distinguished from the blind and intemperate zeal of + Hilary.] + </p> + <p> + The fall of Liberius and Osius reflected a brighter lustre on the firmness + of those bishops who still adhered, with unshaken fidelity, to the cause + of Athanasius and religious truth. The ingenious malice of their enemies + had deprived them of the benefit of mutual comfort and advice, separated + those illustrious exiles into distant provinces, and carefully selected + the most inhospitable spots of a great empire. <a href="#linknote-21.130" + name="linknoteref-21.130" id="linknoteref-21.130">130</a> Yet they soon + experienced that the deserts of Libya, and the most barbarous tracts of + Cappadocia, were less inhospitable than the residence of those cities in + which an Arian bishop could satiate, without restraint, the exquisite + rancor of theological hatred. <a href="#linknote-21.131" + name="linknoteref-21.131" id="linknoteref-21.131">131</a> Their consolation + was derived from the consciousness of rectitude and independence, from the + applause, the visits, the letters, and the liberal alms of their + adherents, <a href="#linknote-21.132" name="linknoteref-21.132" + id="linknoteref-21.132">132</a> and from the satisfaction which they soon + enjoyed of observing the intestine divisions of the adversaries of the + Nicene faith. Such was the nice and capricious taste of the emperor + Constantius; and so easily was he offended by the slightest deviation from + his imaginary standard of Christian truth, that he persecuted, with equal + zeal, those who defended the <i>consubstantiality</i>, those who asserted the + <i>similar substance</i>, and those who denied the <i>likeness</i> of the Son of God. + Three bishops, degraded and banished for those adverse opinions, might + possibly meet in the same place of exile; and, according to the difference + of their temper, might either pity or insult the blind enthusiasm of their + antagonists, whose present sufferings would never be compensated by future + happiness. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.130" id="linknote-21.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.130">return</a>)<br /> [ The confessors of the + West were successively banished to the deserts of Arabia or Thebais, the + lonely places of Mount Taurus, the wildest parts of Phrygia, which were in + the possession of the impious Montanists, &c. When the heretic Ætius + was too favorably entertained at Mopsuestia in Cilicia, the place of his + exile was changed, by the advice of Acacius, to Amblada, a district + inhabited by savages and infested by war and pestilence. Philostorg. l. v. + c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.131" id="linknote-21.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.131">return</a>)<br /> [ See the cruel + treatment and strange obstinacy of Eusebius, in his own letters, published + by Baronius, A.D. 356, No. 92-102.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.132" id="linknote-21.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Cæterum exules satis + constat, totius orbis studiis celebratos pecuniasque eis in sumptum + affatim congestas, legationibus quoque plebis Catholicæ ex omnibus fere + provinciis frequentatos. Sulp. Sever Hist. Sacra, p. 414. Athanas. tom. i. + p. 836, 840.] + </p> + <p> + The disgrace and exile of the orthodox bishops of the West were designed + as so many preparatory steps to the ruin of Athanasius himself. <a + href="#linknote-21.133" name="linknoteref-21.133" id="linknoteref-21.133">133</a> + Six-and-twenty months had elapsed, during which the Imperial court + secretly labored, by the most insidious arts, to remove him from + Alexandria, and to withdraw the allowance which supplied his popular + liberality. But when the primate of Egypt, deserted and proscribed by the + Latin church, was left destitute of any foreign support, Constantius + despatched two of his secretaries with a verbal commission to announce and + execute the order of his banishment. As the justice of the sentence was + publicly avowed by the whole party, the only motive which could restrain + Constantius from giving his messengers the sanction of a written mandate, + must be imputed to his doubt of the event; and to a sense of the danger to + which he might expose the second city, and the most fertile province, of + the empire, if the people should persist in the resolution of defending, + by force of arms, the innocence of their spiritual father. Such extreme + caution afforded Athanasius a specious pretence respectfully to dispute + the truth of an order, which he could not reconcile, either with the + equity, or with the former declarations, of his gracious master. The civil + powers of Egypt found themselves inadequate to the task of persuading or + compelling the primate to abdicate his episcopal throne; and they were + obliged to conclude a treaty with the popular leaders of Alexandria, by + which it was stipulated, that all proceedings and all hostilities should + be suspended till the emperor’s pleasure had been more distinctly + ascertained. By this seeming moderation, the Catholics were deceived into + a false and fatal security; while the legions of the Upper Egypt, and of + Libya, advanced, by secret orders and hasty marches, to besiege, or rather + to surprise, a capital habituated to sedition, and inflamed by religious + zeal. <a href="#linknote-21.134" name="linknoteref-21.134" + id="linknoteref-21.134">134</a> The position of Alexandria, between the sea + and the Lake Mareotis, facilitated the approach and landing of the troops; + who were introduced into the heart of the city, before any effectual + measures could be taken either to shut the gates or to occupy the + important posts of defence. At the hour of midnight, twenty-three days + after the signature of the treaty, Syrianus, duke of Egypt, at the head of + five thousand soldiers, armed and prepared for an assault, unexpectedly + invested the church of St. Theonas, where the archbishop, with a part of + his clergy and people, performed their nocturnal devotions. The doors of + the sacred edifice yielded to the impetuosity of the attack, which was + accompanied with every horrid circumstance of tumult and bloodshed; but, + as the bodies of the slain, and the fragments of military weapons, + remained the next day an unexceptionable evidence in the possession of the + Catholics, the enterprise of Syrianus may be considered as a successful + irruption rather than as an absolute conquest. The other churches of the + city were profaned by similar outrages; and, during at least four months, + Alexandria was exposed to the insults of a licentious army, stimulated by + the ecclesiastics of a hostile faction. Many of the faithful were killed; + who may deserve the name of martyrs, if their deaths were neither provoked + nor revenged; bishops and presbyters were treated with cruel ignominy; + consecrated virgins were stripped naked, scourged and violated; the houses + of wealthy citizens were plundered; and, under the mask of religious zeal, + lust, avarice, and private resentment were gratified with impunity, and + even with applause. The Pagans of Alexandria, who still formed a numerous + and discontented party, were easily persuaded to desert a bishop whom they + feared and esteemed. The hopes of some peculiar favors, and the + apprehension of being involved in the general penalties of rebellion, + engaged them to promise their support to the destined successor of + Athanasius, the famous George of Cappadocia. The usurper, after receiving + the consecration of an Arian synod, was placed on the episcopal throne by + the arms of Sebastian, who had been appointed Count of Egypt for the + execution of that important design. In the use, as well as in the + acquisition, of power, the tyrant, George disregarded the laws of + religion, of justice, and of humanity; and the same scenes of violence and + scandal which had been exhibited in the capital, were repeated in more + than ninety episcopal cities of Egypt. Encouraged by success, Constantius + ventured to approve the conduct of his minister. By a public and + passionate epistle, the emperor congratulates the deliverance of + Alexandria from a popular tyrant, who deluded his blind votaries by the + magic of his eloquence; expatiates on the virtues and piety of the most + reverend George, the elected bishop; and aspires, as the patron and + benefactor of the city to surpass the fame of Alexander himself. But he + solemnly declares his unalterable resolution to pursue with fire and sword + the seditious adherents of the wicked Athanasius, who, by flying from + justice, has confessed his guilt, and escaped the ignominious death which + he had so often deserved. <a href="#linknote-21.135" + name="linknoteref-21.135" id="linknoteref-21.135">135</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.133" id="linknote-21.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.133">return</a>)<br /> [ Ample materials for + the history of this third persecution of Athanasius may be found in his + own works. See particularly his very able Apology to Constantius, (tom. i. + p. 673,) his first Apology for his flight (p. 701,) his prolix Epistle to + the Solitaries, (p. 808,) and the original protest of the people of + Alexandria against the violences committed by Syrianus, (p. 866.) Sozomen + (l. iv. c. 9) has thrown into the narrative two or three luminous and + important circumstances.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.134" id="linknote-21.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.134">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius had lately + sent for Antony, and some of his chosen monks. They descended from their + mountains, announced to the Alexandrians the sanctity of Athanasius, and + were honorably conducted by the archbishop as far as the gates of the + city. Athanas tom. ii. p. 491, 492. See likewise Rufinus, iii. 164, in + Vit. Patr. p. 524.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.135" id="linknote-21.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.135">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanas. tom. i. p. + 694. The emperor, or his Arian secretaries while they express their + resentment, betray their fears and esteem of Athanasius.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap21.6"></a> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + Athanasius had indeed escaped from the most imminent dangers; and the + adventures of that extraordinary man deserve and fix our attention. On the + memorable night when the church of St. Theonas was invested by the troops + of Syrianus, the archbishop, seated on his throne, expected, with calm and + intrepid dignity, the approach of death. While the public devotion was + interrupted by shouts of rage and cries of terror, he animated his + trembling congregation to express their religious confidence, by chanting + one of the psalms of David which celebrates the triumph of the God of + Israel over the haughty and impious tyrant of Egypt. The doors were at + length burst open: a cloud of arrows was discharged among the people; the + soldiers, with drawn swords, rushed forwards into the sanctuary; and the + dreadful gleam of their arms was reflected by the holy luminaries which + burnt round the altar. <a href="#linknote-21.136" name="linknoteref-21.136" + id="linknoteref-21.136">136</a> Athanasius still rejected the pious + importunity of the monks and presbyters, who were attached to his person; + and nobly refused to desert his episcopal station, till he had dismissed + in safety the last of the congregation. The darkness and tumult of the + night favored the retreat of the archbishop; and though he was oppressed + by the waves of an agitated multitude, though he was thrown to the ground, + and left without sense or motion, he still recovered his undaunted + courage, and eluded the eager search of the soldiers, who were instructed + by their Arian guides, that the head of Athanasius would be the most + acceptable present to the emperor. From that moment the primate of Egypt + disappeared from the eyes of his enemies, and remained above six years + concealed in impenetrable obscurity. <a href="#linknote-21.137" + name="linknoteref-21.137" id="linknoteref-21.137">137</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.136" id="linknote-21.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.136">return</a>)<br /> [ These minute + circumstances are curious, as they are literally transcribed from the + protest, which was publicly presented three days afterwards by the + Catholics of Alexandria. See Athanas. tom. l. n. 867] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.137" id="linknote-21.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.137">return</a>)<br /> [ The Jansenists have + often compared Athanasius and Arnauld, and have expatiated with pleasure + on the faith and zeal, the merit and exile, of those celebrated doctors. + This concealed parallel is very dexterously managed by the Abbé de la + Bleterie, Vie de Jovien, tom. i. p. 130.] + </p> + <p> + The despotic power of his implacable enemy filled the whole extent of the + Roman world; and the exasperated monarch had endeavored, by a very + pressing epistle to the Christian princes of Ethiopia, <a + href="#linknote-21.13711" name="linknoteref-21.13711" + id="linknoteref-21.13711">13711</a> to exclude Athanasius from the most + remote and sequestered regions of the earth. Counts, præfects, tribunes, + whole armies, were successively employed to pursue a bishop and a + fugitive; the vigilance of the civil and military powers was excited by + the Imperial edicts; liberal rewards were promised to the man who should + produce Athanasius, either alive or dead; and the most severe penalties + were denounced against those who should dare to protect the public enemy. + <a href="#linknote-21.138" name="linknoteref-21.138" id="linknoteref-21.138">138</a> + But the deserts of Thebais were now peopled by a race of wild, yet + submissive fanatics, who preferred the commands of their abbot to the laws + of their sovereign. The numerous disciples of Antony and Pachonnus + received the fugitive primate as their father, admired the patience and + humility with which he conformed to their strictest institutions, + collected every word which dropped from his lips as the genuine effusions + of inspired wisdom; and persuaded themselves that their prayers, their + fasts, and their vigils, were less meritorious than the zeal which they + expressed, and the dangers which they braved, in the defence of truth and + innocence. <a href="#linknote-21.139" name="linknoteref-21.139" + id="linknoteref-21.139">139</a> The monasteries of Egypt were seated in + lonely and desolate places, on the summit of mountains, or in the islands + of the Nile; and the sacred horn or trumpet of Tabenne was the well-known + signal which assembled several thousand robust and determined monks, who, + for the most part, had been the peasants of the adjacent country. When + their dark retreats were invaded by a military force, which it was + impossible to resist, they silently stretched out their necks to the + executioner; and supported their national character, that tortures could + never wrest from an Egyptian the confession of a secret which he was + resolved not to disclose. <a href="#linknote-21.140" + name="linknoteref-21.140" id="linknoteref-21.140">140</a> The archbishop of + Alexandria, for whose safety they eagerly devoted their lives, was lost + among a uniform and well-disciplined multitude; and on the nearer approach + of danger, he was swiftly removed, by their officious hands, from one + place of concealment to another, till he reached the formidable deserts, + which the gloomy and credulous temper of superstition had peopled with + dæmons and savage monsters. The retirement of Athanasius, which ended + only with the life of Constantius, was spent, for the most part, in the + society of the monks, who faithfully served him as guards, as secretaries, + and as messengers; but the importance of maintaining a more intimate + connection with the Catholic party tempted him, whenever the diligence of + the pursuit was abated, to emerge from the desert, to introduce himself + into Alexandria, and to trust his person to the discretion of his friends + and adherents. His various adventures might have furnished the subject of + a very entertaining romance. He was once secreted in a dry cistern, which + he had scarcely left before he was betrayed by the treachery of a female + slave; <a href="#linknote-21.141" name="linknoteref-21.141" + id="linknoteref-21.141">141</a> and he was once concealed in a still more + extraordinary asylum, the house of a virgin, only twenty years of age, and + who was celebrated in the whole city for her exquisite beauty. At the hour + of midnight, as she related the story many years afterwards, she was + surprised by the appearance of the archbishop in a loose undress, who, + advancing with hasty steps, conjured her to afford him the protection + which he had been directed by a celestial vision to seek under her + hospitable roof. The pious maid accepted and preserved the sacred pledge + which was intrusted to her prudence and courage. Without imparting the + secret to any one, she instantly conducted Athanasius into her most secret + chamber, and watched over his safety with the tenderness of a friend and + the assiduity of a servant. As long as the danger continued, she regularly + supplied him with books and provisions, washed his feet, managed his + correspondence, and dexterously concealed from the eye of suspicion this + familiar and solitary intercourse between a saint whose character required + the most unblemished chastity, and a female whose charms might excite the + most dangerous emotions. <a href="#linknote-21.142" name="linknoteref-21.142" + id="linknoteref-21.142">142</a> During the six years of persecution and + exile, Athanasius repeated his visits to his fair and faithful companion; + and the formal declaration, that he <i>saw</i> the councils of Rimini and + Seleucia, <a href="#linknote-21.143" name="linknoteref-21.143" + id="linknoteref-21.143">143</a> forces us to believe that he was secretly + present at the time and place of their convocation. The advantage of + personally negotiating with his friends, and of observing and improving + the divisions of his enemies, might justify, in a prudent statesman, so + bold and dangerous an enterprise: and Alexandria was connected by trade + and navigation with every seaport of the Mediterranean. From the depth of + his inaccessible retreat the intrepid primate waged an incessant and + offensive war against the protector of the Arians; and his seasonable + writings, which were diligently circulated and eagerly perused, + contributed to unite and animate the orthodox party. In his public + apologies, which he addressed to the emperor himself, he sometimes + affected the praise of moderation; whilst at the same time, in secret and + vehement invectives, he exposed Constantius as a weak and wicked prince, + the executioner of his family, the tyrant of the republic, and the + Antichrist of the church. In the height of his prosperity, the victorious + monarch, who had chastised the rashness of Gallus, and suppressed the + revolt of Sylvanus, who had taken the diadem from the head of Vetranio, + and vanquished in the field the legions of Magnentius, received from an + invisible hand a wound, which he could neither heal nor revenge; and the + son of Constantine was the first of the Christian princes who experienced + the strength of those principles, which, in the cause of religion, could + resist the most violent exertions <a href="#linknote-21.144" + name="linknoteref-21.144" id="linknoteref-21.144">144</a> of the civil + power. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.13711" id="linknote-21.13711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13711 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.13711">return</a>)<br /> [ These princes + were called Aeizanas and Saiazanas. Athanasius calls them the kings of + Axum. In the superscription of his letter, Constantius gives them no + title. Mr. Salt, during his first journey in Ethiopia, (in 1806,) + discovered, in the ruins of Axum, a long and very interesting inscription + relating to these princes. It was erected to commemorate the victory of + Aeizanas over the Bougaitæ, (St. Martin considers them the Blemmyes, + whose true name is Bedjah or Bodjah.) Aeizanas is styled king of the + Axumites, the Homerites, of Raeidan, of the Ethiopians, of the Sabsuites, + of Silea, of Tiamo, of the Bougaites, and of Kaei. It appears that at this + time the king of the Ethiopians ruled over the Homerites, the inhabitants + of Yemen. He was not yet a Christian, as he calls himself son of the + invincible Mars. Another brother besides Saiazanas, named Adephas, is + mentioned, though Aeizanas seems to have been sole king. See St. Martin, + note on Le Beau, ii. 151. Salt’s Travels. De Sacy, note in Annales des + Voyages, xii. p. 53.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.138" id="linknote-21.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.138">return</a>)<br /> [ Hinc jam toto orbe + profugus Athanasius, nec ullus ci tutus ad latendum supererat locus. + Tribuni, Præfecti, Comites, exercitus quoque ad pervestigandum cum + moventur edictis Imperialibus; præmia dela toribus proponuntur, si quis + eum vivum, si id minus, caput certe Atha casii detulisset. Rufin. l. i. c. + 16.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.139" id="linknote-21.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.139">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregor. Nazianzen. + tom. i. Orat. xxi. p. 384, 385. See Tillemont Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. + 176-410, 820-830.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.140" id="linknote-21.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.140">return</a>)<br /> [ Et nulla tormentorum + vis inveneri, adhuc potuit, quæ obdurato illius tractus latroni invito + elicere potuit, ut nomen proprium dicat Ammian. xxii. 16, and Valesius ad + locum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.141" id="linknote-21.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.141">return</a>)<br /> [ Rufin. l. i. c. 18. + Sozomen, l. iv. c. 10. This and the following story will be rendered + impossible, if we suppose that Athanasius always inhabited the asylum + which he accidentally or occasionally had used.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.142" id="linknote-21.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.142">return</a>)<br /> [ Paladius, (Hist. + Lausiac. c. 136, in Vit. Patrum, p. 776,) the original author of this + anecdote, had conversed with the damsel, who in her old age still + remembered with pleasure so pious and honorable a connection. I cannot + indulge the delicacy of Baronius, Valesius, Tillemont, &c., who almost + reject a story so unworthy, as they deem it, of the gravity of + ecclesiastical history.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.143" id="linknote-21.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.143">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanas. tom. i. p. + 869. I agree with Tillemont, (tom. iii. p. 1197,) that his expressions + imply a personal, though perhaps secret visit to the synods.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.144" id="linknote-21.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.144">return</a>)<br /> [ The epistle of + Athanasius to the monks is filled with reproaches, which the public must + feel to be true, (vol. i. p. 834, 856;) and, in compliment to his readers, + he has introduced the comparisons of Pharaoh, Ahab, Belshazzar, &c. + The boldness of Hilary was attended with less danger, if he published his + invective in Gaul after the revolt of Julian; but Lucifer sent his libels + to Constantius, and almost challenged the reward of martyrdom. See + Tillemont, tom. vii. p. 905.] + </p> + <p> + The persecution of Athanasius, and of so many respectable bishops, who + suffered for the truth of their opinions, or at least for the integrity of + their conscience, was a just subject of indignation and discontent to all + Christians, except those who were blindly devoted to the Arian faction. + The people regretted the loss of their faithful pastors, whose banishment + was usually followed by the intrusion of a stranger <a + href="#linknote-21.145" name="linknoteref-21.145" id="linknoteref-21.145">145</a> + into the episcopal chair; and loudly complained, that the right of + election was violated, and that they were condemned to obey a mercenary + usurper, whose person was unknown, and whose principles were suspected. + The Catholics might prove to the world, that they were not involved in the + guilt and heresy of their ecclesiastical governor, by publicly testifying + their dissent, or by totally separating themselves from his communion. The + first of these methods was invented at Antioch, and practised with such + success, that it was soon diffused over the Christian world. The doxology + or sacred hymn, which celebrates the <i>glory</i> of the Trinity, is susceptible + of very nice, but material, inflections; and the substance of an orthodox, + or an heretical, creed, may be expressed by the difference of a + disjunctive, or a copulative, particle. Alternate responses, and a more + regular psalmody, <a href="#linknote-21.146" name="linknoteref-21.146" + id="linknoteref-21.146">146</a> were introduced into the public service by + Flavianus and Diodorus, two devout and active laymen, who were attached to + the Nicene faith. Under their conduct a swarm of monks issued from the + adjacent desert, bands of well-disciplined singers were stationed in the + cathedral of Antioch, the Glory to the Father, And the Son, And the Holy + Ghost, <a href="#linknote-21.147" name="linknoteref-21.147" + id="linknoteref-21.147">147</a> was triumphantly chanted by a full chorus + of voices; and the Catholics insulted, by the purity of their doctrine, + the Arian prelate, who had usurped the throne of the venerable Eustathius. + The same zeal which inspired their songs prompted the more scrupulous + members of the orthodox party to form separate assemblies, which were + governed by the presbyters, till the death of their exiled bishop allowed + the election and consecration of a new episcopal pastor. <a + href="#linknote-21.148" name="linknoteref-21.148" id="linknoteref-21.148">148</a> + The revolutions of the court multiplied the number of pretenders; and the + same city was often disputed, under the reign of Constantius, by two, or + three, or even four, bishops, who exercised their spiritual jurisdiction + over their respective followers, and alternately lost and regained the + temporal possessions of the church. The abuse of Christianity introduced + into the Roman government new causes of tyranny and sedition; the bands of + civil society were torn asunder by the fury of religious factions; and the + obscure citizen, who might calmly have surveyed the elevation and fall of + successive emperors, imagined and experienced, that his own life and + fortune were connected with the interests of a popular ecclesiastic. The + example of the two capitals, Rome and Constantinople, may serve to + represent the state of the empire, and the temper of mankind, under the + reign of the sons of Constantine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.145" id="linknote-21.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.145">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius (tom. i. + p. 811) complains in general of this practice, which he afterwards + exemplifies (p. 861) in the pretended election of Fælix. Three eunuchs + represented the Roman people, and three prelates, who followed the court, + assumed the functions of the bishops of the Suburbicarian provinces.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.146" id="linknote-21.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.146">return</a>)<br /> [ Thomassin (Discipline + de l’Eglise, tom. i. l. ii. c. 72, 73, p. 966-984) has collected many + curious facts concerning the origin and progress of church singing, both + in the East and West. * Note: Arius appears to have been the first who + availed himself of this means of impressing his doctrines on the popular + ear: he composed songs for sailors, millers, and travellers, and set them + to common airs; “beguiling the ignorant, by the sweetness of his music, + into the impiety of his doctrines.” Philostorgius, ii. 2. Arian singers + used to parade the streets of Constantinople by night, till Chrysostom + arrayed against them a band of orthodox choristers. Sozomen, viii. 8.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.147" id="linknote-21.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.147">return</a>)<br /> [ Philostorgius, l. + iii. c. 13. Godefroy has examined this subject with singular accuracy, (p. + 147, &c.) There were three heterodox forms: “To the Father <i>by</i> the Son, + <i>and</i> in the Holy Ghost.” “To the Father, <i>and</i> the Son <i>in</i> the Holy Ghost;” + and “To the Father <i>in</i> the Son <i>and</i> the Holy Ghost.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.148" id="linknote-21.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.148">return</a>)<br /> [ After the exile of + Eustathius, under the reign of Constantine, the rigid party of the + orthodox formed a separation which afterwards degenerated into a schism, + and lasted about fourscore years. See Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. + 35-54, 1137-1158, tom. viii. p. 537-632, 1314-1332. In many churches, the + Arians and Homoousians, who had renounced each other’s <i>communion</i>, + continued for some time to join in prayer. Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 14.] + </p> + <p> + I. The Roman pontiff, as long as he maintained his station and his + principles, was guarded by the warm attachment of a great people; and + could reject with scorn the prayers, the menaces, and the oblations of an + heretical prince. When the eunuchs had secretly pronounced the exile of + Liberius, the well-grounded apprehension of a tumult engaged them to use + the utmost precautions in the execution of the sentence. The capital was + invested on every side, and the præfect was commanded to seize the person + of the bishop, either by stratagem or by open force. The order was obeyed, + and Liberius, with the greatest difficulty, at the hour of midnight, was + swiftly conveyed beyond the reach of the Roman people, before their + consternation was turned into rage. As soon as they were informed of his + banishment into Thrace, a general assembly was convened, and the clergy of + Rome bound themselves, by a public and solemn oath, never to desert their + bishop, never to acknowledge the usurper Fælix; who, by the influence of + the eunuchs, had been irregularly chosen and consecrated within the walls + of a profane palace. At the end of two years, their pious obstinacy + subsisted entire and unshaken; and when Constantius visited Rome, he was + assailed by the importunate solicitations of a people, who had preserved, + as the last remnant of their ancient freedom, the right of treating their + sovereign with familiar insolence. The wives of many of the senators and + most honorable citizens, after pressing their husbands to intercede in + favor of Liberius, were advised to undertake a commission, which in their + hands would be less dangerous, and might prove more successful. The + emperor received with politeness these female deputies, whose wealth and + dignity were displayed in the magnificence of their dress and ornaments: + he admired their inflexible resolution of following their beloved pastor + to the most distant regions of the earth; and consented that the two + bishops, Liberius and Fælix, should govern in peace their respective + congregations. But the ideas of toleration were so repugnant to the + practice, and even to the sentiments, of those times, that when the answer + of Constantius was publicly read in the Circus of Rome, so reasonable a + project of accommodation was rejected with contempt and ridicule. The + eager vehemence which animated the spectators in the decisive moment of a + horse-race, was now directed towards a different object; and the Circus + resounded with the shout of thousands, who repeatedly exclaimed, “One God, + One Christ, One Bishop!” The zeal of the Roman people in the cause of + Liberius was not confined to words alone; and the dangerous and bloody + sedition which they excited soon after the departure of Constantius + determined that prince to accept the submission of the exiled prelate, and + to restore him to the undivided dominion of the capital. After some + ineffectual resistance, his rival was expelled from the city by the + permission of the emperor and the power of the opposite faction; the + adherents of Fælix were inhumanly murdered in the streets, in the public + places, in the baths, and even in the churches; and the face of Rome, upon + the return of a Christian bishop, renewed the horrid image of the + massacres of Marius, and the proscriptions of Sylla. <a + href="#linknote-21.149" name="linknoteref-21.149" id="linknoteref-21.149">149</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.149" id="linknote-21.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.149">return</a>)<br /> [ See, on this + ecclesiastical revolution of Rome, Ammianus, xv. 7 Athanas. tom. i. p. + 834, 861. Sozomen, l. iv. c. 15. Theodoret, l. ii c. 17. Sulp. Sever. + Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 413. Hieronym. Chron. Marcellin. et Faustin. + Libell. p. 3, 4. Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p.] + </p> + <p> + II. Notwithstanding the rapid increase of Christians under the reign of + the Flavian family, Rome, Alexandria, and the other great cities of the + empire, still contained a strong and powerful faction of Infidels, who + envied the prosperity, and who ridiculed, even in their theatres, the + theological disputes of the church. Constantinople alone enjoyed the + advantage of being born and educated in the bosom of the faith. The + capital of the East had never been polluted by the worship of idols; and + the whole body of the people had deeply imbibed the opinions, the virtues, + and the passions, which distinguished the Christians of that age from the + rest of mankind. After the death of Alexander, the episcopal throne was + disputed by Paul and Macedonius. By their zeal and abilities they both + deserved the eminent station to which they aspired; and if the moral + character of Macedonius was less exceptionable, his competitor had the + advantage of a prior election and a more orthodox doctrine. His firm + attachment to the Nicene creed, which has given Paul a place in the + calendar among saints and martyrs, exposed him to the resentment of the + Arians. In the space of fourteen years he was five times driven from his + throne; to which he was more frequently restored by the violence of the + people, than by the permission of the prince; and the power of Macedonius + could be secured only by the death of his rival. The unfortunate Paul was + dragged in chains from the sandy deserts of Mesopotamia to the most + desolate places of Mount Taurus, <a href="#linknote-21.150" + name="linknoteref-21.150" id="linknoteref-21.150">150</a> confined in a dark + and narrow dungeon, left six days without food, and at length strangled, + by the order of Philip, one of the principal ministers of the emperor + Constantius. <a href="#linknote-21.151" name="linknoteref-21.151" + id="linknoteref-21.151">151</a> The first blood which stained the new + capital was spilt in this ecclesiastical contest; and many persons were + slain on both sides, in the furious and obstinate seditions of the people. + The commission of enforcing a sentence of banishment against Paul had been + intrusted to Hermogenes, the master-general of the cavalry; but the + execution of it was fatal to himself. The Catholics rose in the defence of + their bishop; the palace of Hermogenes was consumed; the first military + officer of the empire was dragged by the heels through the streets of + Constantinople, and, after he expired, his lifeless corpse was exposed to + their wanton insults. <a href="#linknote-21.152" name="linknoteref-21.152" + id="linknoteref-21.152">152</a> The fate of Hermogenes instructed Philip, + the Prætorian præfect, to act with more precaution on a similar + occasion. In the most gentle and honorable terms, he required the + attendance of Paul in the baths of Xeuxippus, which had a private + communication with the palace and the sea. A vessel, which lay ready at + the garden stairs, immediately hoisted sail; and, while the people were + still ignorant of the meditated sacrilege, their bishop was already + embarked on his voyage to Thessalonica. They soon beheld, with surprise + and indignation, the gates of the palace thrown open, and the usurper + Macedonius seated by the side of the præfect on a lofty chariot, which + was surrounded by troops of guards with drawn swords. The military + procession advanced towards the cathedral; the Arians and the Catholics + eagerly rushed to occupy that important post; and three thousand one + hundred and fifty persons lost their lives in the confusion of the tumult. + Macedonius, who was supported by a regular force, obtained a decisive + victory; but his reign was disturbed by clamor and sedition; and the + causes which appeared the least connected with the subject of dispute, + were sufficient to nourish and to kindle the flame of civil discord. As + the chapel in which the body of the great Constantine had been deposited + was in a ruinous condition, the bishop transported those venerable remains + into the church of St. Acacius. This prudent and even pious measure was + represented as a wicked profanation by the whole party which adhered to + the Homoousian doctrine. The factions immediately flew to arms, the + consecrated ground was used as their field of battle; and one of the + ecclesiastical historians has observed, as a real fact, not as a figure of + rhetoric, that the well before the church overflowed with a stream of + blood, which filled the porticos and the adjacent courts. The writer who + should impute these tumults solely to a religious principle, would betray + a very imperfect knowledge of human nature; yet it must be confessed that + the motive which misled the sincerity of zeal, and the pretence which + disguised the licentiousness of passion, suppressed the remorse which, in + another cause, would have succeeded to the rage of the Christians at + Constantinople. <a href="#linknote-21.153" name="linknoteref-21.153" + id="linknoteref-21.153">153</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.150" id="linknote-21.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.150">return</a>)<br /> [ Cucusus was the last + stage of his life and sufferings. The situation of that lonely town, on + the confines of Cappadocia, Cilicia, and the Lesser Armenia, has + occasioned some geographical perplexity; but we are directed to the true + spot by the course of the Roman road from Cæsarea to Anazarbus. See + Cellarii Geograph. tom. ii. p. 213. Wesseling ad Itinerar. p. 179, 703.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.151" id="linknote-21.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.151">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius (tom. i. + p. 703, 813, 814) affirms, in the most positive terms, that Paul was + murdered; and appeals, not only to common fame, but even to the + unsuspicious testimony of Philagrius, one of the Arian persecutors. Yet he + acknowledges that the heretics attributed to disease the death of the + bishop of Constantinople. Athanasius is servilely copied by Socrates, (l. + ii. c. 26;) but Sozomen, who discovers a more liberal temper. presumes (l. + iv. c. 2) to insinuate a prudent doubt.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.152" id="linknote-21.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.152">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xiv. 10) + refers to his own account of this tragic event. But we no longer possess + that part of his history. Note: The murder of Hermogenes took place at the + first expulsion of Paul from the see of Constantinople.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.153" id="linknote-21.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.153">return</a>)<br /> [ See Socrates, l. ii. + c. 6, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 26, 27, 38, and Sozomen, l. iii. 3, 4, 7, 9, l. + iv. c. ii. 21. The acts of St. Paul of Constantinople, of which Photius + has made an abstract, (Phot. Bibliot. p. 1419-1430,) are an indifferent + copy of these historians; but a modern Greek, who could write the life of + a saint without adding fables and miracles, is entitled to some + commendation.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap21.7"></a> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part VII. + </h2> + <p> + The cruel and arbitrary disposition of Constantius, which did not always + require the provocations of guilt and resistance, was justly exasperated + by the tumults of his capital, and the criminal behavior of a faction, + which opposed the authority and religion of their sovereign. The ordinary + punishments of death, exile, and confiscation, were inflicted with partial + vigor; and the Greeks still revere the holy memory of two clerks, a + reader, and a sub-deacon, who were accused of the murder of Hermogenes, + and beheaded at the gates of Constantinople. By an edict of Constantius + against the Catholics which has not been judged worthy of a place in the + Theodosian code, those who refused to communicate with the Arian bishops, + and particularly with Macedonius, were deprived of the immunities of + ecclesiastics, and of the rights of Christians; they were compelled to + relinquish the possession of the churches; and were strictly prohibited + from holding their assemblies within the walls of the city. The execution + of this unjust law, in the provinces of Thrace and Asia Minor, was + committed to the zeal of Macedonius; the civil and military powers were + directed to obey his commands; and the cruelties exercised by this Semi- + Arian tyrant in the support of the <i>Homoiousion</i>, exceeded the commission, + and disgraced the reign, of Constantius. The sacraments of the church were + administered to the reluctant victims, who denied the vocation, and + abhorred the principles, of Macedonius. The rites of baptism were + conferred on women and children, who, for that purpose, had been torn from + the arms of their friends and parents; the mouths of the communicants were + held open by a wooden engine, while the consecrated bread was forced down + their throat; the breasts of tender virgins were either burnt with red-hot + egg-shells, or inhumanly compressed betweens harp and heavy boards. <a + href="#linknote-21.154" name="linknoteref-21.154" id="linknoteref-21.154">154</a> + The Novatians of Constantinople and the adjacent country, by their firm + attachment to the Homoousian standard, deserved to be confounded with the + Catholics themselves. Macedonius was informed, that a large district of + Paphlagonia <a href="#linknote-21.155" name="linknoteref-21.155" + id="linknoteref-21.155">155</a> was almost entirely inhabited by those + sectaries. He resolved either to convert or to extirpate them; and as he + distrusted, on this occasion, the efficacy of an ecclesiastical mission, + he commanded a body of four thousand legionaries to march against the + rebels, and to reduce the territory of Mantinium under his spiritual + dominion. The Novatian peasants, animated by despair and religious fury, + boldly encountered the invaders of their country; and though many of the + Paphlagonians were slain, the Roman legions were vanquished by an + irregular multitude, armed only with scythes and axes; and, except a few + who escaped by an ignominious flight, four thousand soldiers were left + dead on the field of battle. The successor of Constantius has expressed, + in a concise but lively manner, some of the theological calamities which + afflicted the empire, and more especially the East, in the reign of a + prince who was the slave of his own passions, and of those of his eunuchs: + “Many were imprisoned, and persecuted, and driven into exile. Whole troops + of those who are styled heretics, were massacred, particularly at Cyzicus, + and at Samosata. In Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Galatia, and in many other + provinces, towns and villages were laid waste, and utterly destroyed.” <a + href="#linknote-21.156" name="linknoteref-21.156" id="linknoteref-21.156">156</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.154" id="linknote-21.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.154">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates, l. ii. c. + 27, 38. Sozomen, l. iv. c. 21. The principal assistants of Macedonius, in + the work of persecution, were the two bishops of Nicomedia and Cyzicus, + who were esteemed for their virtues, and especially for their charity. I + cannot forbear reminding the reader, that the difference between the + <i>Homoousion</i> and <i>Homoiousion</i>, is almost invisible to the nicest theological + eye.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.155" id="linknote-21.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.155">return</a>)<br /> [ We are ignorant of + the precise situation of Mantinium. In speaking of these four bands of + legionaries, Socrates, Sozomen, and the author of the acts of St. Paul, + use the indefinite terms of, which Nicephorus very properly translates + thousands. Vales. ad Socrat. l. ii. c. 38.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.156" id="linknote-21.156"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.156">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Epist. lii. + p. 436, edit. Spanheim.] + </p> + <p> + While the flames of the Arian controversy consumed the vitals of the + empire, the African provinces were infested by their peculiar enemies, the + savage fanatics, who, under the name of <i>Circumcellions</i>, formed the + strength and scandal of the Donatist party. <a href="#linknote-21.157" + name="linknoteref-21.157" id="linknoteref-21.157">157</a> The severe + execution of the laws of Constantine had excited a spirit of discontent + and resistance, the strenuous efforts of his son Constans, to restore the + unity of the church, exasperated the sentiments of mutual hatred, which + had first occasioned the separation; and the methods of force and + corruption employed by the two Imperial commissioners, Paul and Macarius, + furnished the schismatics with a specious contrast between the maxims of + the apostles and the conduct of their pretended successors. <a + href="#linknote-21.158" name="linknoteref-21.158" id="linknoteref-21.158">158</a> + The peasants who inhabited the villages of Numidia and Mauritania, were a + ferocious race, who had been imperfectly reduced under the authority of + the Roman laws; who were imperfectly converted to the Christian faith; but + who were actuated by a blind and furious enthusiasm in the cause of their + Donatist teachers. They indignantly supported the exile of their bishops, + the demolition of their churches, and the interruption of their secret + assemblies. The violence of the officers of justice, who were usually + sustained by a military guard, was sometimes repelled with equal violence; + and the blood of some popular ecclesiastics, which had been shed in the + quarrel, inflamed their rude followers with an eager desire of revenging + the death of these holy martyrs. By their own cruelty and rashness, the + ministers of persecution sometimes provoked their fate; and the guilt of + an accidental tumult precipitated the criminals into despair and + rebellion. Driven from their native villages, the Donatist peasants + assembled in formidable gangs on the edge of the Getulian desert; and + readily exchanged the habits of labor for a life of idleness and rapine, + which was consecrated by the name of religion, and faintly condemned by + the doctors of the sect. The leaders of the Circumcellions assumed the + title of captains of the saints; their principal weapon, as they were + indifferently provided with swords and spears, was a huge and weighty + club, which they termed an <i>Israelite;</i> and the well-known sound of “Praise + be to God,” which they used as their cry of war, diffused consternation + over the unarmed provinces of Africa. At first their depredations were + colored by the plea of necessity; but they soon exceeded the measure of + subsistence, indulged without control their intemperance and avarice, + burnt the villages which they had pillaged, and reigned the licentious + tyrants of the open country. The occupations of husbandry, and the + administration of justice, were interrupted; and as the Circumcellions + pretended to restore the primitive equality of mankind, and to reform the + abuses of civil society, they opened a secure asylum for the slaves and + debtors, who flocked in crowds to their holy standard. When they were not + resisted, they usually contented themselves with plunder, but the + slightest opposition provoked them to acts of violence and murder; and + some Catholic priests, who had imprudently signalized their zeal, were + tortured by the fanatics with the most refined and wanton barbarity. The + spirit of the Circumcellions was not always exerted against their + defenceless enemies; they engaged, and sometimes defeated, the troops of + the province; and in the bloody action of Bagai, they attacked in the open + field, but with unsuccessful valor, an advanced guard of the Imperial + cavalry. The Donatists who were taken in arms, received, and they soon + deserved, the same treatment which might have been shown to the wild + beasts of the desert. The captives died, without a murmur, either by the + sword, the axe, or the fire; and the measures of retaliation were + multiplied in a rapid proportion, which aggravated the horrors of + rebellion, and excluded the hope of mutual forgiveness. In the beginning + of the present century, the example of the Circumcellions has been renewed + in the persecution, the boldness, the crimes, and the enthusiasm of the + Camisards; and if the fanatics of Languedoc surpassed those of Numidia, by + their military achievements, the Africans maintained their fierce + independence with more resolution and perseverance. <a + href="#linknote-21.159" name="linknoteref-21.159" id="linknoteref-21.159">159</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.157" id="linknote-21.157"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.157">return</a>)<br /> [ See Optatus + Milevitanus, (particularly iii. 4,) with the Donatis history, by M. Dupin, + and the original pieces at the end of his edition. The numerous + circumstances which Augustin has mentioned, of the fury of the + Circumcellions against others, and against themselves, have been + laboriously collected by Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 147-165; and + he has often, though without design, exposed injuries which had provoked + those fanatics.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.158" id="linknote-21.158"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.158">return</a>)<br /> [ It is amusing enough + to observe the language of opposite parties, when they speak of the same + men and things. Gratus, bishop of Carthage, begins the acclamations of an + orthodox synod, “Gratias Deo omnipotenti et Christu Jesu... qui imperavit + religiosissimo Constanti Imperatori, ut votum gereret unitatis, et + mitteret ministros sancti operis <i>famulos Dei</i> Paulum et Macarium.” + Monument. Vet. ad Calcem Optati, p. 313. “Ecce subito,” (says the Donatist + author of the Passion of Marculus), “de Constantis regif tyrannica domo.. + pollutum Macarianæ persecutionis murmur increpuit, et <i>duabus bestiis</i> ad + Africam missis, eodem scilicet Macario et Paulo, execrandum prorsus ac + dirum ecclesiæ certamen indictum est; ut populus Christianus ad unionem + cum traditoribus faciendam, nudatis militum gladiis et draconum + præsentibus signis, et tubarum vocibus cogeretur.” Monument. p. 304.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.159" id="linknote-21.159"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 159 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.159">return</a>)<br /> [ The Histoire des + Camisards, in 3 vols. 12mo. Villefranche, 1760 may be recommended as + accurate and impartial. It requires some attention to discover the + religion of the author.] + </p> + <p> + Such disorders are the natural effects of religious tyranny, but the rage + of the Donatists was inflamed by a frenzy of a very extraordinary kind; + and which, if it really prevailed among them in so extravagant a degree, + cannot surely be paralleled in any country or in any age. Many of these + fanatics were possessed with the horror of life, and the desire of + martyrdom; and they deemed it of little moment by what means, or by what + hands, they perished, if their conduct was sanctified by the intention of + devoting themselves to the glory of the true faith, and the hope of + eternal happiness. <a href="#linknote-21.160" name="linknoteref-21.160" + id="linknoteref-21.160">160</a> Sometimes they rudely disturbed the + festivals, and profaned the temples of Paganism, with the design of + exciting the most zealous of the idolaters to revenge the insulted honor + of their gods. They sometimes forced their way into the courts of justice, + and compelled the affrighted judge to give orders for their immediate + execution. They frequently stopped travellers on the public highways, and + obliged them to inflict the stroke of martyrdom, by the promise of a + reward, if they consented, and by the threat of instant death, if they + refused to grant so very singular a favor. When they were disappointed of + every other resource, they announced the day on which, in the presence of + their friends and brethren, they should cast themselves headlong from some + lofty rock; and many precipices were shown, which had acquired fame by the + number of religious suicides. In the actions of these desperate + enthusiasts, who were admired by one party as the martyrs of God, and + abhorred by the other as the victims of Satan, an impartial philosopher + may discover the influence and the last abuse of that inflexible spirit + which was originally derived from the character and principles of the + Jewish nation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.160" id="linknote-21.160"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 160 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.160">return</a>)<br /> [ The Donatist suicides + alleged in their justification the example of Razias, which is related in + the 14th chapter of the second book of the Maccabees.] + </p> + <p> + The simple narrative of the intestine divisions, which distracted the + peace, and dishonored the triumph, of the church, will confirm the remark + of a Pagan historian, and justify the complaint of a venerable bishop. The + experience of Ammianus had convinced him, that the enmity of the + Christians towards each other, surpassed the fury of savage beasts against + man; <a href="#linknote-21.161" name="linknoteref-21.161" + id="linknoteref-21.161">161</a> and Gregory Nazianzen most pathetically + laments, that the kingdom of heaven was converted, by discord, into the + image of chaos, of a nocturnal tempest, and of hell itself. <a + href="#linknote-21.162" name="linknoteref-21.162" id="linknoteref-21.162">162</a> + The fierce and partial writers of the times, ascribing <i>all</i> virtue to + themselves, and imputing <i>all</i> guilt to their adversaries, have painted the + battle of the angels and dæmons. Our calmer reason will reject such pure + and perfect monsters of vice or sanctity, and will impute an equal, or at + least an indiscriminate, measure of good and evil to the hostile + sectaries, who assumed and bestowed the appellations of orthodox and + heretics. They had been educated in the same religion and the same civil + society. Their hopes and fears in the present, or in a future life, were + balanced in the same proportion. On either side, the error might be + innocent, the faith sincere, the practice meritorious or corrupt. Their + passions were excited by similar objects; and they might alternately abuse + the favor of the court, or of the people. The metaphysical opinions of the + Athanasians and the Arians could not influence their moral character; and + they were alike actuated by the intolerant spirit which has been extracted + from the pure and simple maxims of the gospel. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.161" id="linknote-21.161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.161">return</a>)<br /> [ Nullus infestas + hominibus bestias, ut sunt sibi ferales plerique Christianorum, expertus. + Ammian. xxii. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.162" id="linknote-21.162"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 162 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.162">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregor, Nazianzen, + Orav. i. p. 33. See Tillemont, tom vi. p. 501, qua to edit.] + </p> + <p> + A modern writer, who, with a just confidence, has prefixed to his own + history the honorable epithets of political and philosophical, <a + href="#linknote-21.163" name="linknoteref-21.163" id="linknoteref-21.163">163</a> + accuses the timid prudence of Montesquieu, for neglecting to enumerate, + among the causes of the decline of the empire, a law of Constantine, by + which the exercise of the Pagan worship was absolutely suppressed, and a + considerable part of his subjects was left destitute of priests, of + temples, and of any public religion. The zeal of the philosophic historian + for the rights of mankind, has induced him to acquiesce in the ambiguous + testimony of those ecclesiastics, who have too lightly ascribed to their + favorite hero the <i>merit</i> of a general persecution. <a href="#linknote-21.164" + name="linknoteref-21.164" id="linknoteref-21.164">164</a> Instead of + alleging this imaginary law, which would have blazed in the front of the + Imperial codes, we may safely appeal to the original epistle, which + Constantine addressed to the followers of the ancient religion; at a time + when he no longer disguised his conversion, nor dreaded the rivals of his + throne. He invites and exhorts, in the most pressing terms, the subjects + of the Roman empire to imitate the example of their master; but he + declares, that those who still refuse to open their eyes to the celestial + light, may freely enjoy their temples and their fancied gods. A report, + that the ceremonies of paganism were suppressed, is formally contradicted + by the emperor himself, who wisely assigns, as the principle of his + moderation, the invincible force of habit, of prejudice, and of + superstition. <a href="#linknote-21.165" name="linknoteref-21.165" + id="linknoteref-21.165">165</a> Without violating the sanctity of his + promise, without alarming the fears of the Pagans, the artful monarch + advanced, by slow and cautious steps, to undermine the irregular and + decayed fabric of polytheism. The partial acts of severity which he + occasionally exercised, though they were secretly promoted by a Christian + zeal, were colored by the fairest pretences of justice and the public + good; and while Constantine designed to ruin the foundations, he seemed to + reform the abuses, of the ancient religion. After the example of the + wisest of his predecessors, he condemned, under the most rigorous + penalties, the occult and impious arts of divination; which excited the + vain hopes, and sometimes the criminal attempts, of those who were + discontented with their present condition. An ignominious silence was + imposed on the oracles, which had been publicly convicted of fraud and + falsehood; the effeminate priests of the Nile were abolished; and + Constantine discharged the duties of a Roman censor, when he gave orders + for the demolition of several temples of Phœnicia; in which every mode of + prostitution was devoutly practised in the face of day, and to the honor + of Venus. <a href="#linknote-21.166" name="linknoteref-21.166" + id="linknoteref-21.166">166</a> The Imperial city of Constantinople was, in + some measure, raised at the expense, and was adorned with the spoils, of + the opulent temples of Greece and Asia; the sacred property was + confiscated; the statues of gods and heroes were transported, with rude + familiarity, among a people who considered them as objects, not of + adoration, but of curiosity; the gold and silver were restored to + circulation; and the magistrates, the bishops, and the eunuchs, improved + the fortunate occasion of gratifying, at once, their zeal, their avarice, + and their resentment. But these depredations were confined to a small part + of the Roman world; and the provinces had been long since accustomed to + endure the same sacrilegious rapine, from the tyranny of princes and + proconsuls, who could not be suspected of any design to subvert the + established religion. <a href="#linknote-21.167" name="linknoteref-21.167" + id="linknoteref-21.167">167</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.163" id="linknote-21.163"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 163 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.163">return</a>)<br /> [ Histoire Politique et + Philosophique des Etablissemens des Europeens dans les deux Indes, tom. i. + p. 9.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.164" id="linknote-21.164"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 164 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.164">return</a>)<br /> [ According to + Eusebius, (in Vit. Constantin. l. ii. c. 45,) the emperor prohibited, both + in cities and in the country, the abominable acts or parts of idolatry. l + Socrates (l. i. c. 17) and Sozomen (l. ii. c. 4, 5) have represented the + conduct of Constantine with a just regard to truth and history; which has + been neglected by Theodoret (l. v. c. 21) and Orosius, (vii. 28.) Tum + deinde (says the latter) primus Constantinus <i>justo</i> ordine et <i>pio</i> vicem + vertit edicto; siquidem statuit citra ullam hominum cædem, paganorum + templa claudi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.165" id="linknote-21.165"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 165 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.165">return</a>)<br /> [ See Eusebius in Vit. + Constantin. l. ii. c. 56, 60. In the sermon to the assembly of saints, + which the emperor pronounced when he was mature in years and piety, he + declares to the idolaters (c. xii.) that they are permitted to offer + sacrifices, and to exercise every part of their religious worship.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.166" id="linknote-21.166"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 166 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.166">return</a>)<br /> [ See Eusebius, in Vit. + Constantin. l. iii. c. 54-58, and l. iv. c. 23, 25. These acts of + authority may be compared with the suppression of the Bacchanals, and the + demolition of the temple of Isis, by the magistrates of Pagan Rome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.167" id="linknote-21.167"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 167 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.167">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius (in Vit. + Constan. l. iii. c. 54-58) and Libanius (Orat. pro Templis, p. 9, 10, + edit. Gothofred) both mention the pious sacrilege of Constantine, which + they viewed in very different lights. The latter expressly declares, that + “he made use of the sacred money, but made no alteration in the legal + worship; the temples indeed were impoverished, but the sacred rites were + performed there.” Lardner’s Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. p. + 140.] + </p> + <p> + The sons of Constantine trod in the footsteps of their father, with more + zeal, and with less discretion. The pretences of rapine and oppression + were insensibly multiplied; <a href="#linknote-21.168" + name="linknoteref-21.168" id="linknoteref-21.168">168</a> every indulgence + was shown to the illegal behavior of the Christians; every doubt was + explained to the disadvantage of Paganism; and the demolition of the + temples was celebrated as one of the auspicious events of the reign of + Constans and Constantius. <a href="#linknote-21.169" + name="linknoteref-21.169" id="linknoteref-21.169">169</a> The name of + Constantius is prefixed to a concise law, which might have superseded the + necessity of any future prohibitions. “It is our pleasure, that in all + places, and in all cities, the temples be immediately shut, and carefully + guarded, that none may have the power of offending. It is likewise our + pleasure, that all our subjects should abstain from sacrifices. If any one + should be guilty of such an act, let him feel the sword of vengeance, and + after his execution, let his property be confiscated to the public use. We + denounce the same penalties against the governors of the provinces, if + they neglect to punish the criminals.” <a href="#linknote-21.170" + name="linknoteref-21.170" id="linknoteref-21.170">170</a> But there is the + strongest reason to believe, that this formidable edict was either + composed without being published, or was published without being executed. + The evidence of facts, and the monuments which are still extant of brass + and marble, continue to prove the public exercise of the Pagan worship + during the whole reign of the sons of Constantine. In the East, as well as + in the West, in cities, as well as in the country, a great number of + temples were respected, or at least were spared; and the devout multitude + still enjoyed the luxury of sacrifices, of festivals, and of processions, + by the permission, or by the connivance, of the civil government. About + four years after the supposed date of this bloody edict, Constantius + visited the temples of Rome; and the decency of his behavior is + recommended by a pagan orator as an example worthy of the imitation of + succeeding princes. “That emperor,” says Symmachus, “suffered the + privileges of the vestal virgins to remain inviolate; he bestowed the + sacerdotal dignities on the nobles of Rome, granted the customary + allowance to defray the expenses of the public rites and sacrifices; and, + though he had embraced a different religion, he never attempted to deprive + the empire of the sacred worship of antiquity.” <a href="#linknote-21.171" + name="linknoteref-21.171" id="linknoteref-21.171">171</a> The senate still + presumed to consecrate, by solemn decrees, the <i>divine</i> memory of their + sovereigns; and Constantine himself was associated, after his death, to + those gods whom he had renounced and insulted during his life. The title, + the ensigns, the prerogatives, of sovereign pontiff, which had been + instituted by Numa, and assumed by Augustus, were accepted, without + hesitation, by seven Christian emperors; who were invested with a more + absolute authority over the religion which they had deserted, than over + that which they professed. <a href="#linknote-21.172" + name="linknoteref-21.172" id="linknoteref-21.172">172</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.168" id="linknote-21.168"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 168 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.168">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxii. 4) + speaks of some court eunuchs who were spoliis templorum pasti. Libanius + says (Orat. pro Templ. p. 23) that the emperor often gave away a temple, + like a dog, or a horse, or a slave, or a gold cup; but the devout + philosopher takes care to observe that these sacrilegious favorites very + seldom prospered.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.169" id="linknote-21.169"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 169 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.169">return</a>)<br /> [ See Gothofred. Cod. + Theodos. tom. vi. p. 262. Liban. Orat. Parental c. x. in Fabric. Bibl. + Græc. tom. vii. p. 235.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.170" id="linknote-21.170"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 170 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.170">return</a>)<br /> [ Placuit omnibus locis + atque urbibus universis claudi protinus empla, et accessu vetitis omnibus + licentiam delinquendi perditis abnegari. Volumus etiam cunctos a + sacrificiis abstinere. Quod siquis aliquid forte hujusmodi perpetraverit, + gladio sternatur: facultates etiam perempti fisco decernimus vindicari: et + similiter adfligi rectores provinciarum si facinora vindicare neglexerint. + Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. x. leg. 4. Chronology has discovered some + contradiction in the date of this extravagant law; the only one, perhaps, + by which the negligence of magistrates is punished by death and + confiscation. M. de la Bastie (Mém. de l’Académie, tom. xv. p. 98) + conjectures, with a show of reason, that this was no more than the minutes + of a law, the heads of an intended bill, which were found in Scriniis + Memoriæ among the papers of Constantius, and afterwards inserted, as a + worthy model, in the Theodosian Code.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.171" id="linknote-21.171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.171">return</a>)<br /> [ Symmach. Epistol. x. + 54.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.172" id="linknote-21.172"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 172 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.172">return</a>)<br /> [ The fourth + Dissertation of M. de la Bastie, sur le Souverain Pontificat des Empereurs + Romains, (in the Mém. de l’Acad. tom. xv. p. 75- 144,) is a very learned + and judicious performance, which explains the state, and prove the + toleration, of Paganism from Constantino to Gratian. The assertion of + Zosimus, that Gratian was the first who refused the pontifical robe, is + confirmed beyond a doubt; and the murmurs of bigotry on that subject are + almost silenced.] + </p> + <p> + The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of <i>Paganism;</i> <a + href="#linknote-21.173" name="linknoteref-21.173" id="linknoteref-21.173">173</a> + and the holy war against the infidels was less vigorously prosecuted by + princes and bishops, who were more immediately alarmed by the guilt and + danger of domestic rebellion. The extirpation of <i>idolatry</i> <a + href="#linknote-21.174" name="linknoteref-21.174" id="linknoteref-21.174">174</a> + might have been justified by the established principles of intolerance: + but the hostile sects, which alternately reigned in the Imperial court + were mutually apprehensive of alienating, and perhaps exasperating, the + minds of a powerful, though declining faction. Every motive of authority + and fashion, of interest and reason, now militated on the side of + Christianity; but two or three generations elapsed, before their + victorious influence was universally felt. The religion which had so long + and so lately been established in the Roman empire was still revered by a + numerous people, less attached indeed to speculative opinion, than to + ancient custom. The honors of the state and army were indifferently + bestowed on all the subjects of Constantine and Constantius; and a + considerable portion of knowledge and wealth and valor was still engaged + in the service of polytheism. The superstition of the senator and of the + peasant, of the poet and the philosopher, was derived from very different + causes, but they met with equal devotion in the temples of the gods. Their + zeal was insensibly provoked by the insulting triumph of a proscribed + sect; and their hopes were revived by the well-grounded confidence, that + the presumptive heir of the empire, a young and valiant hero, who had + delivered Gaul from the arms of the Barbarians, had secretly embraced the + religion of his ancestors. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.173" id="linknote-21.173"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 173 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.173">return</a>)<br /> [ As I have freely + anticipated the use of <i>pagans</i> and <i>paganism</i>, I shall now trace the singular + revolutions of those celebrated words. 1. in the Doric dialect, so + familiar to the Italians, signifies a fountain; and the rural + neighborhood, which frequented the same fountain, derived the common + appellation of <i>pagus</i> and <i>pagans</i>. (Festus sub voce, and Servius ad Virgil. + Georgic. ii. 382.) 2. By an easy extension of the word, pagan and rural + became almost synonymous, (Plin. Hist. Natur. xxviii. 5;) and the meaner + rustics acquired that name, which has been corrupted into <i>peasants</i> in the + modern languages of Europe. 3. The amazing increase of the military order + introduced the necessity of a correlative term, (Hume’s Essays, vol. i. p. + 555;) and all the <i>people</i> who were not enlisted in the service of the + prince were branded with the contemptuous epithets of pagans. (Tacit. + Hist. iii. 24, 43, 77. Juvenal. Satir. 16. Tertullian de Pallio, c. 4.) 4. + The Christians were the soldiers of Christ; their adversaries, who refused + his <i>sacrament</i>, or military oath of baptism might deserve the metaphorical + name of pagans; and this popular reproach was introduced as early as the + reign of Valentinian (A. D. 365) into Imperial laws (Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. + tit. ii. leg. 18) and theological writings. 5. Christianity gradually + filled the cities of the empire: the old religion, in the time of + Prudentius (advers. Symmachum, l. i. ad fin.) and Orosius, (in Præfat. + Hist.,) retired and languished in obscure villages; and the word <i>pagans</i>, + with its new signification, reverted to its primitive origin. 6. Since the + worship of Jupiter and his family has expired, the vacant title of pagans + has been successively applied to all the idolaters and polytheists of the + old and new world. 7. The Latin Christians bestowed it, without scruple, + on their mortal enemies, the Mahometans; and the purest <i>Unitarians</i> were + branded with the unjust reproach of idolatry and paganism. See Gerard + Vossius, Etymologicon Linguæ Latinæ, in his works, tom. i. p. 420; + Godefroy’s Commentary on the Theodosian Code, tom. vi. p. 250; and + Ducange, Mediæ et Infimæ Latinitat. Glossar.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-21.174" id="linknote-21.174"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 174 (<a href="#linknoteref-21.174">return</a>)<br /> [ In the pure language + of Ionia and Athens were ancient and familiar words. The former expressed + a likeness, an apparition (Homer. Odys. xi. 601,) a representation, an + <i>image</i>, created either by fancy or art. The latter denoted any sort of + <i>service</i> or slavery. The Jews of Egypt, who translated the Hebrew + Scriptures, restrained the use of these words (Exod. xx. 4, 5) to the + religious worship of an image. The peculiar idiom of the Hellenists, or + Grecian Jews, has been adopted by the sacred and ecclesiastical writers + and the reproach of <i>idolatry</i> has stigmatized that visible and abject mode + of superstition, which some sects of Christianity should not hastily + impute to the polytheists of Greece and Rome.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap22.1"></a> + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Julian Is Declared Emperor By The Legions Of Gaul.—His + March And Success.—The Death Of Constantius.—Civil + Administration Of Julian. +</pre> + <p> + While the Romans languished under the ignominious tyranny of eunuchs and + bishops, the praises of Julian were repeated with transport in every part + of the empire, except in the palace of Constantius. The barbarians of + Germany had felt, and still dreaded, the arms of the young Cæsar; his + soldiers were the companions of his victory; the grateful provincials + enjoyed the blessings of his reign; but the favorites, who had opposed his + elevation, were offended by his virtues; and they justly considered the + friend of the people as the enemy of the court. As long as the fame of + Julian was doubtful, the buffoons of the palace, who were skilled in the + language of satire, tried the efficacy of those arts which they had so + often practised with success. They easily discovered, that his simplicity + was not exempt from affectation: the ridiculous epithets of a hairy + savage, of an ape invested with the purple, were applied to the dress and + person of the philosophic warrior; and his modest despatches were + stigmatized as the vain and elaborate fictions of a loquacious Greek, a + speculative soldier, who had studied the art of war amidst the groves of + the academy. <a href="#linknote-22.1" name="linknoteref-22.1" + id="linknoteref-22.1">1</a> The voice of malicious folly was at length + silenced by the shouts of victory; the conqueror of the Franks and + Alemanni could no longer be painted as an object of contempt; and the + monarch himself was meanly ambitious of stealing from his lieutenant the + honorable reward of his labors. In the letters crowned with laurel, which, + according to ancient custom, were addressed to the provinces, the name of + Julian was omitted. “Constantius had made his dispositions in person; <i>he</i> + had signalized his valor in the foremost ranks; <i>his</i> military conduct had + secured the victory; and the captive king of the barbarians was presented + to <i>him</i> on the field of battle,” from which he was at that time distant + about forty days’ journey. <a href="#linknote-22.2" name="linknoteref-22.2" + id="linknoteref-22.2">2</a> So extravagant a fable was incapable, however, + of deceiving the public credulity, or even of satisfying the pride of the + emperor himself. Secretly conscious that the applause and favor of the + Romans accompanied the rising fortunes of Julian, his discontented mind + was prepared to receive the subtle poison of those artful sycophants, who + colored their mischievous designs with the fairest appearances of truth + and candor. <a href="#linknote-22.3" name="linknoteref-22.3" + id="linknoteref-22.3">3</a> Instead of depreciating the merits of Julian, + they acknowledged, and even exaggerated, his popular fame, superior + talents, and important services. But they darkly insinuated, that the + virtues of the Cæsar might instantly be converted into the most dangerous + crimes, if the inconstant multitude should prefer their inclinations to + their duty; or if the general of a victorious army should be tempted from + his allegiance by the hopes of revenge and independent greatness. The + personal fears of Constantius were interpreted by his council as a + laudable anxiety for the public safety; whilst in private, and perhaps in + his own breast, he disguised, under the less odious appellation of fear, + the sentiments of hatred and envy, which he had secretly conceived for the + inimitable virtues of Julian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.1" id="linknote-22.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.1">return</a>)<br /> [ Omnes qui plus poterant + in palatio, adulandi professores jam docti, recte consulta, prospereque + completa vertebant in deridiculum: talia sine modo strepentes insulse; in + odium venit cum victoriis suis; capella, non homo; ut hirsutum Julianum + carpentes, appellantesque loquacem talpam, et purpuratam simiam, et + litterionem Græcum: et his congruentia plurima atque vernacula principi + resonantes, audire hæc taliaque gestienti, virtutes ejus obruere verbis + impudentibus conabantur, et segnem incessentes et timidum et umbratilem, + gestaque secus verbis comptioribus exornantem. Ammianus, s. xvii. 11. * + Note: The philosophers retaliated on the courtiers. Marius (says Eunapius + in a newly-discovered fragment) was wont to call his antagonist Sylla a + beast half lion and half fox. Constantius had nothing of the lion, but was + surrounded by a whole litter of foxes. Mai. Script. Byz. Nov. Col. ii. + 238. Niebuhr. Byzant. Hist. 66.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.2" id="linknote-22.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.2">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xvi. 12. The + orator Themistius (iv. p. 56, 57) believed whatever was contained in the + Imperial letters, which were addressed to the senate of Constantinople + Aurelius Victor, who published his Abridgment in the last year of + Constantius, ascribes the German victories to the <i>wisdom</i> of the emperor, + and the <i>fortune</i> of the Cæsar. Yet the historian, soon afterwards, was + indebted to the favor or esteem of Julian for the honor of a brass statue, + and the important offices of consular of the second Pannonia, and præfect + of the city, Ammian. xxi. 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.3" id="linknote-22.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Callido nocendi + artificio, accusatoriam diritatem laudum titulis peragebant. .. Hæ voces + fuerunt ad inflammanda odia probria omnibus potentiores. See Mamertin, in + Actione Gratiarum in Vet Panegyr. xi. 5, 6.] + </p> + <p> + The apparent tranquillity of Gaul, and the imminent danger of the eastern + provinces, offered a specious pretence for the design which was artfully + concerted by the Imperial ministers. They resolved to disarm the Cæsar; + to recall those faithful troops who guarded his person and dignity; and to + employ, in a distant war against the Persian monarch, the hardy veterans + who had vanquished, on the banks of the Rhine, the fiercest nations of + Germany. While Julian used the laborious hours of his winter quarters at + Paris in the administration of power, which, in his hands, was the + exercise of virtue, he was surprised by the hasty arrival of a tribune and + a notary, with positive orders, from the emperor, which <i>they</i> were directed + to execute, and <i>he</i> was commanded not to oppose. Constantius signified his + pleasure, that four entire legions, the Celtæ, and Petulants, the Heruli, + and the Batavians, should be separated from the standard of Julian, under + which they had acquired their fame and discipline; that in each of the + remaining bands three hundred of the bravest youths should be selected; + and that this numerous detachment, the strength of the Gallic army, should + instantly begin their march, and exert their utmost diligence to arrive, + before the opening of the campaign, on the frontiers of Persia. <a + href="#linknote-22.4" name="linknoteref-22.4" id="linknoteref-22.4">4</a> The + Cæsar foresaw and lamented the consequences of this fatal mandate. Most + of the auxiliaries, who engaged their voluntary service, had stipulated, + that they should never be obliged to pass the Alps. The public faith of + Rome, and the personal honor of Julian, had been pledged for the + observance of this condition. Such an act of treachery and oppression + would destroy the confidence, and excite the resentment, of the + independent warriors of Germany, who considered truth as the noblest of + their virtues, and freedom as the most valuable of their possessions. The + legionaries, who enjoyed the title and privileges of Romans, were enlisted + for the general defence of the republic; but those mercenary troops heard + with cold indifference the antiquated names of the republic and of Rome. + Attached, either from birth or long habit, to the climate and manners of + Gaul, they loved and admired Julian; they despised, and perhaps hated, the + emperor; they dreaded the laborious march, the Persian arrows, and the + burning deserts of Asia. They claimed as their own the country which they + had saved; and excused their want of spirit, by pleading the sacred and + more immediate duty of protecting their families and friends. + </p> + <p> + The apprehensions of the Gauls were derived from the knowledge of the + impending and inevitable danger. As soon as the provinces were exhausted + of their military strength, the Germans would violate a treaty which had + been imposed on their fears; and notwithstanding the abilities and valor + of Julian, the general of a nominal army, to whom the public calamities + would be imputed, must find himself, after a vain resistance, either a + prisoner in the camp of the barbarians, or a criminal in the palace of + Constantius. If Julian complied with the orders which he had received, he + subscribed his own destruction, and that of a people who deserved his + affection. But a positive refusal was an act of rebellion, and a + declaration of war. The inexorable jealousy of the emperor, the + peremptory, and perhaps insidious, nature of his commands, left not any + room for a fair apology, or candid interpretation; and the dependent + station of the Cæsar scarcely allowed him to pause or to deliberate. + Solitude increased the perplexity of Julian; he could no longer apply to + the faithful counsels of Sallust, who had been removed from his office by + the judicious malice of the eunuchs: he could not even enforce his + representations by the concurrence of the ministers, who would have been + afraid or ashamed to approve the ruin of Gaul. The moment had been chosen, + when Lupicinus, <a href="#linknote-22.5" name="linknoteref-22.5" + id="linknoteref-22.5">5</a> the general of the cavalry, was despatched into + Britain, to repulse the inroads of the Scots and Picts; and Florentius was + occupied at Vienna by the assessment of the tribute. The latter, a crafty + and corrupt statesman, declining to assume a responsible part on this + dangerous occasion, eluded the pressing and repeated invitations of + Julian, who represented to him, that in every important measure, the + presence of the præfect was indispensable in the council of the prince. + In the mean while the Cæsar was oppressed by the rude and importunate + solicitations of the Imperial messengers, who presumed to suggest, that if + he expected the return of his ministers, he would charge himself with the + guilt of the delay, and reserve for them the merit of the execution. + Unable to resist, unwilling to comply, Julian expressed, in the most + serious terms, his wish, and even his intention, of resigning the purple, + which he could not preserve with honor, but which he could not abdicate + with safety. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.4" id="linknote-22.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.4">return</a>)<br /> [ The minute interval, + which may be interposed, between the <i>hyeme adultâ</i> and the <i>primo vere</i> of + Ammianus, (xx. l. 4,) instead of allowing a sufficient space for a march + of three thousand miles, would render the orders of Constantius as + extravagant as they were unjust. The troops of Gaul could not have reached + Syria till the end of autumn. The memory of Ammianus must have been + inaccurate, and his language incorrect. * Note: The late editor of + Ammianus attempts to vindicate his author from the charge of inaccuracy. + “It is clear, from the whole course of the narrative, that Constantius + entertained this design of demanding his troops from Julian, immediately + after the taking of Amida, in the autumn of the preceding year, and had + transmitted his orders into Gaul, before it was known that Lupicinus had + gone into Britain with the Herulians and Batavians.” Wagner, note to Amm. + xx. 4. But it seems also clear that the troops were in winter quarters + (hiemabant) when the orders arrived. Ammianus can scarcely be acquitted of + incorrectness in his language at least.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.5" id="linknote-22.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.5">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xx. l. The + valor of Lupicinus, and his military skill, are acknowledged by the + historian, who, in his affected language, accuses the general of exalting + the horns of his pride, bellowing in a tragic tone, and exciting a doubt + whether he was more cruel or avaricious. The danger from the Scots and + Picts was so serious that Julian himself had some thoughts of passing over + into the island.] + </p> + <p> + After a painful conflict, Julian was compelled to acknowledge, that + obedience was the virtue of the most eminent subject, and that the + sovereign alone was entitled to judge of the public welfare. He issued the + necessary orders for carrying into execution the commands of Constantius; + a part of the troops began their march for the Alps; and the detachments + from the several garrisons moved towards their respective places of + assembly. They advanced with difficulty through the trembling and + affrighted crowds of provincials, who attempted to excite their pity by + silent despair, or loud lamentations, while the wives of the soldiers, + holding their infants in their arms, accused the desertion of their + husbands, in the mixed language of grief, of tenderness, and of + indignation. This scene of general distress afflicted the humanity of the + Cæsar; he granted a sufficient number of post-wagons to transport the + wives and families of the soldiers, <a href="#linknote-22.6" + name="linknoteref-22.6" id="linknoteref-22.6">6</a> endeavored to alleviate + the hardships which he was constrained to inflict, and increased, by the + most laudable arts, his own popularity, and the discontent of the exiled + troops. The grief of an armed multitude is soon converted into rage; their + licentious murmurs, which every hour were communicated from tent to tent + with more boldness and effect, prepared their minds for the most daring + acts of sedition; and by the connivance of their tribunes, a seasonable + libel was secretly dispersed, which painted in lively colors the disgrace + of the Cæsar, the oppression of the Gallic army, and the feeble vices of + the tyrant of Asia. The servants of Constantius were astonished and + alarmed by the progress of this dangerous spirit. They pressed the Cæsar + to hasten the departure of the troops; but they imprudently rejected the + honest and judicious advice of Julian; who proposed that they should not + march through Paris, and suggested the danger and temptation of a last + interview. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.6" id="linknote-22.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.6">return</a>)<br /> [ He granted them the + permission of the <i>cursus clavularis</i>, or <i>clabularis</i>. These post-wagons are + often mentioned in the Code, and were supposed to carry fifteen hundred + pounds weight. See Vales. ad Ammian. xx. 4.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as the approach of the troops was announced, the Cæsar went out + to meet them, and ascended his tribunal, which had been erected in a plain + before the gates of the city. After distinguishing the officers and + soldiers, who by their rank or merit deserved a peculiar attention, Julian + addressed himself in a studied oration to the surrounding multitude: he + celebrated their exploits with grateful applause; encouraged them to + accept, with alacrity, the honor of serving under the eye of a powerful + and liberal monarch; and admonished them, that the commands of Augustus + required an instant and cheerful obedience. The soldiers, who were + apprehensive of offending their general by an indecent clamor, or of + belying their sentiments by false and venal acclamations, maintained an + obstinate silence; and after a short pause, were dismissed to their + quarters. The principal officers were entertained by the Cæsar, who + professed, in the warmest language of friendship, his desire and his + inability to reward, according to their deserts, the brave companions of + his victories. They retired from the feast, full of grief and perplexity; + and lamented the hardship of their fate, which tore them from their + beloved general and their native country. The only expedient which could + prevent their separation was boldly agitated and approved; the popular + resentment was insensibly moulded into a regular conspiracy; their just + reasons of complaint were heightened by passion, and their passions were + inflamed by wine; as, on the eve of their departure, the troops were + indulged in licentious festivity. At the hour of midnight, the impetuous + multitude, with swords, and bows, and torches in their hands, rushed into + the suburbs; encompassed the palace; <a href="#linknote-22.7" + name="linknoteref-22.7" id="linknoteref-22.7">7</a> and, careless of future + dangers, pronounced the fatal and irrevocable words, Julian Augustus! The + prince, whose anxious suspense was interrupted by their disorderly + acclamations, secured the doors against their intrusion; and as long as it + was in his power, secluded his person and dignity from the accidents of a + nocturnal tumult. At the dawn of day, the soldiers, whose zeal was + irritated by opposition, forcibly entered the palace, seized, with + respectful violence, the object of their choice, guarded Julian with drawn + swords through the streets of Paris, placed him on the tribunal, and with + repeated shouts saluted him as their emperor. Prudence, as well as + loyalty, inculcated the propriety of resisting their treasonable designs; + and of preparing, for his oppressed virtue, the excuse of violence. + Addressing himself by turns to the multitude and to individuals, he + sometimes implored their mercy, and sometimes expressed his indignation; + conjured them not to sully the fame of their immortal victories; and + ventured to promise, that if they would immediately return to their + allegiance, he would undertake to obtain from the emperor not only a free + and gracious pardon, but even the revocation of the orders which had + excited their resentment. But the soldiers, who were conscious of their + guilt, chose rather to depend on the gratitude of Julian, than on the + clemency of the emperor. Their zeal was insensibly turned into impatience, + and their impatience into rage. The inflexible Cæsar sustained, till the + third hour of the day, their prayers, their reproaches, and their menaces; + nor did he yield, till he had been repeatedly assured, that if he wished + to live, he must consent to reign. He was exalted on a shield in the + presence, and amidst the unanimous acclamations, of the troops; a rich + military collar, which was offered by chance, supplied the want of a + diadem; <a href="#linknote-22.8" name="linknoteref-22.8" id="linknoteref-22.8">8</a> + the ceremony was concluded by the promise of a moderate donative; and the + new emperor, overwhelmed with real or affected grief retired into the most + secret recesses of his apartment. <a href="#linknote-22.10" + name="linknoteref-22.10" id="linknoteref-22.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.7" id="linknote-22.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.7">return</a>)<br /> [ Most probably the palace + of the baths, (<i>Thermarum</i>,) of which a solid and lofty hall still subsists + in the <i>Rue de la Harpe</i>. The buildings covered a considerable space of the + modern quarter of the university; and the gardens, under the Merovingian + kings, communicated with the abbey of St. Germain des Prez. By the + injuries of time and the Normans, this ancient palace was reduced, in the + twelfth century, to a maze of ruins, whose dark recesses were the scene of + licentious love. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Explicat aula sinus montemque amplectitur alis; + Multiplici latebra scelerum tersura ruborem. + .... pereuntis sæpe pudoris Celatura nefas, + Venerisque accommoda furtis. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + (These lines are quoted from the Architrenius, l. iv. c. 8, a poetical + work of John de Hauteville, or Hanville, a monk of St. Alban’s, about the + year 1190. See Warton’s History of English Poetry, vol. i. dissert. ii.) + Yet such <i>thefts</i> might be less pernicious to mankind than the theological + disputes of the Sorbonne, which have been since agitated on the same + ground. Bonamy, Mém. de l’Académie, tom. xv. p. 678-632] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.8" id="linknote-22.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Even in this tumultuous + moment, Julian attended to the forms of superstitious ceremony, and + obstinately refused the inauspicious use of a female necklace, or a horse + collar, which the impatient soldiers would have employed in the room of a + diadem. ----An equal proportion of gold and silver, five pieces of the + former one pound of the latter; the whole amounting to about five pounds + ten shillings of our money.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.10" id="linknote-22.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.10">return</a>)<br /> [ For the whole narrative + of this revolt, we may appeal to authentic and original materials; Julian + himself, (ad S. P. Q. Atheniensem, p. 282, 283, 284,) Libanius, (Orat. + Parental. c. 44-48, in Fabricius, Bibliot. Græc. tom. vii. p. 269-273,) + Ammianus, (xx. 4,) and Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 151, 152, 153.) who, in the + reign of Julian, appears to follow the more respectable authority of + Eunapius. With such guides we <i>might</i> neglect the abbreviators and + ecclesiastical historians.] + </p> + <p> + The grief of Julian could proceed only from his innocence; out his + innocence must appear extremely doubtful <a href="#linknote-22.11" + name="linknoteref-22.11" id="linknoteref-22.11">11</a> in the eyes of those + who have learned to suspect the motives and the professions of princes. + His lively and active mind was susceptible of the various impressions of + hope and fear, of gratitude and revenge, of duty and of ambition, of the + love of fame, and of the fear of reproach. But it is impossible for us to + calculate the respective weight and operation of these sentiments; or to + ascertain the principles of action which might escape the observation, + while they guided, or rather impelled, the steps of Julian himself. The + discontent of the troops was produced by the malice of his enemies; their + tumult was the natural effect of interest and of passion; and if Julian + had tried to conceal a deep design under the appearances of chance, he + must have employed the most consummate artifice without necessity, and + probably without success. He solemnly declares, in the presence of + Jupiter, of the Sun, of Mars, of Minerva, and of all the other deities, + that till the close of the evening which preceded his elevation, he was + utterly ignorant of the designs of the soldiers; <a href="#linknote-22.12" + name="linknoteref-22.12" id="linknoteref-22.12">12</a> and it may seem + ungenerous to distrust the honor of a hero and the truth of a philosopher. + Yet the superstitious confidence that Constantius was the enemy, and that + he himself was the favorite, of the gods, might prompt him to desire, to + solicit, and even to hasten the auspicious moment of his reign, which was + predestined to restore the ancient religion of mankind. When Julian had + received the intelligence of the conspiracy, he resigned himself to a + short slumber; and afterwards related to his friends that he had seen the + genius of the empire waiting with some impatience at his door, pressing + for admittance, and reproaching his want of spirit and ambition. <a + href="#linknote-22.13" name="linknoteref-22.13" id="linknoteref-22.13">13</a> + Astonished and perplexed, he addressed his prayers to the great Jupiter, + who immediately signified, by a clear and manifest omen, that he should + submit to the will of heaven and of the army. The conduct which disclaims + the ordinary maxims of reason, excites our suspicion and eludes our + inquiry. Whenever the spirit of fanaticism, at once so credulous and so + crafty, has insinuated itself into a noble mind, it insensibly corrodes + the vital principles of virtue and veracity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.11" id="linknote-22.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Eutropius, a + respectable witness, uses a doubtful expression, “consensu militum.” (x. + 15.) Gregory Nazianzen, whose ignorance night excuse his fanaticism, + directly charges the apostate with presumption, madness, and impious + rebellion, Orat. iii. p. 67.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.12" id="linknote-22.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.12">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. ad S. P. Q. + Athen. p. 284. The <i>devout</i> Abbé de la Bleterie (Vie de Julien, p. 159) is + almost inclined to respect the <i>devout</i> protestations of a Pagan.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.13" id="linknote-22.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.13">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xx. 5, with the + note of Lindenbrogius on the Genius of the empire. Julian himself, in a + confidential letter to his friend and physician, Oribasius, (Epist. xvii. + p. 384,) mentions another dream, to which, before the event, he gave + credit; of a stately tree thrown to the ground, of a small plant striking + a deep root into the earth. Even in his sleep, the mind of the Cæsar must + have been agitated by the hopes and fears of his fortune. Zosimus (l. iii. + p. 155) relates a subsequent dream.] + </p> + <p> + To moderate the zeal of his party, to protect the persons of his enemies, + <a href="#linknote-22.14" name="linknoteref-22.14" id="linknoteref-22.14">14</a> + to defeat and to despise the secret enterprises which were formed against + his life and dignity, were the cares which employed the first days of the + reign of the new emperor. Although he was firmly resolved to maintain the + station which he had assumed, he was still desirous of saving his country + from the calamities of civil war, of declining a contest with the superior + forces of Constantius, and of preserving his own character from the + reproach of perfidy and ingratitude. Adorned with the ensigns of military + and imperial pomp, Julian showed himself in the field of Mars to the + soldiers, who glowed with ardent enthusiasm in the cause of their pupil, + their leader, and their friend. He recapitulated their victories, lamented + their sufferings, applauded their resolution, animated their hopes, and + checked their impetuosity; nor did he dismiss the assembly, till he had + obtained a solemn promise from the troops, that if the emperor of the East + would subscribe an equitable treaty, they would renounce any views of + conquest, and satisfy themselves with the tranquil possession of the + Gallic provinces. On this foundation he composed, in his own name, and in + that of the army, a specious and moderate epistle, <a href="#linknote-22.15" + name="linknoteref-22.15" id="linknoteref-22.15">15</a> which was delivered + to Pentadius, his master of the offices, and to his chamberlain Eutherius; + two ambassadors whom he appointed to receive the answer, and observe the + dispositions of Constantius. This epistle is inscribed with the modest + appellation of Cæsar; but Julian solicits in a peremptory, though + respectful, manner, the confirmation of the title of Augustus. He + acknowledges the irregularity of his own election, while he justifies, in + some measure, the resentment and violence of the troops which had extorted + his reluctant consent. He allows the supremacy of his brother Constantius; + and engages to send him an annual present of Spanish horses, to recruit + his army with a select number of barbarian youths, and to accept from his + choice a Prætorian præfect of approved discretion and fidelity. But he + reserves for himself the nomination of his other civil and military + officers, with the troops, the revenue, and the sovereignty of the + provinces beyond the Alps. He admonishes the emperor to consult the + dictates of justice; to distrust the arts of those venal flatterers, who + subsist only by the discord of princes; and to embrace the offer of a fair + and honorable treaty, equally advantageous to the republic and to the + house of Constantine. In this negotiation Julian claimed no more than he + already possessed. The delegated authority which he had long exercised + over the provinces of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, was still obeyed under a + name more independent and august. The soldiers and the people rejoiced in + a revolution which was not stained even with the blood of the guilty. + Florentius was a fugitive; Lupicinus a prisoner. The persons who were + disaffected to the new government were disarmed and secured; and the + vacant offices were distributed, according to the recommendation of merit, + by a prince who despised the intrigues of the palace, and the clamors of + the soldiers. <a href="#linknote-22.16" name="linknoteref-22.16" + id="linknoteref-22.16">16</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.14" id="linknote-22.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.14">return</a>)<br /> [ The difficult situation + of the prince of a rebellious army is finely described by Tacitus, (Hist. + 1, 80-85.) But Otho had much more guilt, and much less abilities, than + Julian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.15" id="linknote-22.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.15">return</a>)<br /> [ To this ostensible + epistle he added, says Ammianus, private letters, objurgatorias et + mordaces, which the historian had not seen, and would not have published. + Perhaps they never existed.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.16" id="linknote-22.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.16">return</a>)<br /> [ See the first + transactions of his reign, in Julian. ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 285, 286. + Ammianus, xx. 5, 8. Liban. Orat. Parent. c. 49, 50, p. 273-275.] + </p> + <p> + The negotiations of peace were accompanied and supported by the most + vigorous preparations for war. The army, which Julian held in readiness + for immediate action, was recruited and augmented by the disorders of the + times. The cruel persecutions of the faction of Magnentius had filled Gaul + with numerous bands of outlaws and robbers. They cheerfully accepted the + offer of a general pardon from a prince whom they could trust, submitted + to the restraints of military discipline, and retained only their + implacable hatred to the person and government of Constantius. <a + href="#linknote-22.17" name="linknoteref-22.17" id="linknoteref-22.17">17</a> + As soon as the season of the year permitted Julian to take the field, he + appeared at the head of his legions; threw a bridge over the Rhine in the + neighborhood of Cleves; and prepared to chastise the perfidy of the + Attuarii, a tribe of Franks, who presumed that they might ravage, with + impunity, the frontiers of a divided empire. The difficulty, as well as + glory, of this enterprise, consisted in a laborious march; and Julian had + conquered, as soon as he could penetrate into a country, which former + princes had considered as inaccessible. After he had given peace to the + Barbarians, the emperor carefully visited the fortifications along the + Qhine from Cleves to Basil; surveyed, with peculiar attention, the + territories which he had recovered from the hands of the Alemanni, passed + through Besançon, <a href="#linknote-22.18" name="linknoteref-22.18" + id="linknoteref-22.18">18</a> which had severely suffered from their fury, + and fixed his headquarters at Vienna for the ensuing winter. The barrier + of Gaul was improved and strengthened with additional fortifications; and + Julian entertained some hopes that the Germans, whom he had so often + vanquished, might, in his absence, be restrained by the terror of his + name. Vadomair <a href="#linknote-22.19" name="linknoteref-22.19" + id="linknoteref-22.19">19</a> was the only prince of the Alemanni whom he + esteemed or feared and while the subtle Barbarian affected to observe the + faith of treaties, the progress of his arms threatened the state with an + unseasonable and dangerous war. The policy of Julian condescended to + surprise the prince of the Alemanni by his own arts: and Vadomair, who, in + the character of a friend, had incautiously accepted an invitation from + the Roman governors, was seized in the midst of the entertainment, and + sent away prisoner into the heart of Spain. Before the Barbarians were + recovered from their amazement, the emperor appeared in arms on the banks + of the Rhine, and, once more crossing the river, renewed the deep + impressions of terror and respect which had been already made by four + preceding expeditions. <a href="#linknote-22.20" name="linknoteref-22.20" + id="linknoteref-22.20">20</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.17" id="linknote-22.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Liban. Orat. Parent. c. + 50, p. 275, 276. A strange disorder, since it continued above seven years. + In the factions of the Greek republics, the exiles amounted to 20,000 + persons; and Isocrates assures Philip, that it would be easier to raise an + army from the vagabonds than from the cities. See Hume’s Essays, tom. i. + p. 426, 427.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.18" id="linknote-22.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (Epist. xxxviii. + p. 414) gives a short description of Vesontio, or Besançon; a rocky + peninsula almost encircled by the River Doux; once a magnificent city, + filled with temples, &c., now reduced to a small town, emerging, + however, from its ruins.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.19" id="linknote-22.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Vadomair entered into + the Roman service, and was promoted from a barbarian kingdom to the + military rank of duke of Phœnicia. He still retained the same artful + character, (Ammian. xxi. 4;) but under the reign of Valens, he signalized + his valor in the Armenian war, (xxix. 1.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.20" id="linknote-22.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xx. 10, xxi. 3, + 4. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 155.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap22.2"></a> + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The ambassadors of Julian had been instructed to execute, with the utmost + diligence, their important commission. But, in their passage through Italy + and Illyricum, they were detained by the tedious and affected delays of + the provincial governors; they were conducted by slow journeys from + Constantinople to Cæsarea in Cappadocia; and when at length they were + admitted to the presence of Constantius, they found that he had already + conceived, from the despatches of his own officers, the most unfavorable + opinion of the conduct of Julian, and of the Gallic army. The letters were + heard with impatience; the trembling messengers were dismissed with + indignation and contempt; and the looks, gestures, the furious language of + the monarch, expressed the disorder of his soul. The domestic connection, + which might have reconciled the brother and the husband of Helena, was + recently dissolved by the death of that princess, whose pregnancy had been + several times fruitless, and was at last fatal to herself. <a + href="#linknote-22.21" name="linknoteref-22.21" id="linknoteref-22.21">21</a> + The empress Eusebia had preserved, to the last moment of her life, the + warm, and even jealous, affection which she had conceived for Julian; and + her mild influence might have moderated the resentment of a prince, who, + since her death, was abandoned to his own passions, and to the arts of his + eunuchs. But the terror of a foreign invasion obliged him to suspend the + punishment of a private enemy: he continued his march towards the confines + of Persia, and thought it sufficient to signify the conditions which might + entitle Julian and his guilty followers to the clemency of their offended + sovereign. He required, that the presumptuous Cæsar should expressly + renounce the appellation and rank of Augustus, which he had accepted from + the rebels; that he should descend to his former station of a limited and + dependent minister; that he should vest the powers of the state and army + in the hands of those officers who were appointed by the Imperial court; + and that he should trust his safety to the assurances of pardon, which + were announced by Epictetus, a Gallic bishop, and one of the Arian + favorites of Constantius. Several months were ineffectually consumed in a + treaty which was negotiated at the distance of three thousand miles + between Paris and Antioch; and, as soon as Julian perceived that his + modest and respectful behavior served only to irritate the pride of an + implacable adversary, he boldly resolved to commit his life and fortune to + the chance of a civil war. He gave a public and military audience to the + quæstor Leonas: the haughty epistle of Constantius was read to the + attentive multitude; and Julian protested, with the most flattering + deference, that he was ready to resign the title of Augustus, if he could + obtain the consent of those whom he acknowledged as the authors of his + elevation. The faint proposal was impetuously silenced; and the + acclamations of “Julian Augustus, continue to reign, by the authority of + the army, of the people, of the republic which you have saved,” thundered + at once from every part of the field, and terrified the pale ambassador of + Constantius. A part of the letter was afterwards read, in which the + emperor arraigned the ingratitude of Julian, whom he had invested with the + honors of the purple; whom he had educated with so much care and + tenderness; whom he had preserved in his infancy, when he was left a + helpless orphan. + </p> + <p> + “An orphan!” interrupted Julian, who justified his cause by indulging his + passions: “does the assassin of my family reproach me that I was left an + orphan? He urges me to revenge those injuries which I have long studied to + forget.” The assembly was dismissed; and Leonas, who, with some + difficulty, had been protected from the popular fury, was sent back to his + master with an epistle, in which Julian expressed, in a strain of the most + vehement eloquence, the sentiments of contempt, of hatred, and of + resentment, which had been suppressed and imbittered by the dissimulation + of twenty years. After this message, which might be considered as a signal + of irreconcilable war, Julian, who, some weeks before, had celebrated the + Christian festival of the Epiphany, <a href="#linknote-22.22" + name="linknoteref-22.22" id="linknoteref-22.22">22</a> made a public + declaration that he committed the care of his safety to the Immortal Gods; + and thus publicly renounced the religion as well as the friendship of + Constantius. <a href="#linknote-22.23" name="linknoteref-22.23" + id="linknoteref-22.23">23</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.21" id="linknote-22.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Her remains were sent + to Rome, and interred near those of her sister Constantina, in the suburb + of the <i>Via Nomentana</i>. Ammian. xxi. 1. Libanius has composed a very weak + apology, to justify his hero from a very absurd charge of poisoning his + wife, and rewarding her physician with his mother’s jewels. (See the + seventh of seventeen new orations, published at Venice, 1754, from a MS. + in St. Mark’s Library, p. 117-127.) Elpidius, the Prætorian præfect of + the East, to whose evidence the accuser of Julian appeals, is arraigned by + Libanius, as <i>effeminate</i> and ungrateful; yet the religion of Elpidius is + praised by Jerom, (tom. i. p. 243,) and his Ammianus (xxi. 6.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.22" id="linknote-22.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Feriarum die quem + celebrantes mense Januario, Christiani <i>Epiphania</i> dictitant, progressus in + eorum ecclesiam, solemniter numine orato discessit. Ammian. xxi. 2. + Zonaras observes, that it was on Christmas day, and his assertion is not + inconsistent; since the churches of Egypt, Asia, and perhaps Gaul, + celebrated on the same day (the sixth of January) the nativity and the + baptism of their Savior. The Romans, as ignorant as their brethren of the + real date of his birth, fixed the solemn festival to the 25th of December, + the <i>Brumalia</i>, or winter solstice, when the Pagans annually celebrated the + birth of the sun. See Bingham’s Antiquities of the Christian Church, l. + xx. c. 4, and Beausobre, Hist. Critique du Manicheismo tom. ii. p. + 690-700.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.23" id="linknote-22.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.23">return</a>)<br /> [ The public and secret + negotiations between Constantius and Julian must be extracted, with some + caution, from Julian himself. (Orat. ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 286.) Libanius, + (Orat. Parent. c. 51, p. 276,) Ammianus, (xx. 9,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. + 154,) and even Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 20, 21, 22,) who, on this + occasion, appears to have possessed and used some valuable materials.] + </p> + <p> + The situation of Julian required a vigorous and immediate resolution. He + had discovered, from intercepted letters, that his adversary, sacrificing + the interest of the state to that of the monarch, had again excited the + Barbarians to invade the provinces of the West. The position of two + magazines, one of them collected on the banks of the Lake of Constance, + the other formed at the foot of the Cottian Alps, seemed to indicate the + march of two armies; and the size of those magazines, each of which + consisted of six hundred thousand quarters of wheat, or rather flour, <a + href="#linknote-22.24" name="linknoteref-22.24" id="linknoteref-22.24">24</a> + was a threatening evidence of the strength and numbers of the enemy who + prepared to surround him. But the Imperial legions were still in their + distant quarters of Asia; the Danube was feebly guarded; and if Julian + could occupy, by a sudden incursion, the important provinces of Illyricum, + he might expect that a people of soldiers would resort to his standard, + and that the rich mines of gold and silver would contribute to the + expenses of the civil war. He proposed this bold enterprise to the + assembly of the soldiers; inspired them with a just confidence in their + general, and in themselves; and exhorted them to maintain their reputation + of being terrible to the enemy, moderate to their fellow-citizens, and + obedient to their officers. His spirited discourse was received with the + loudest acclamations, and the same troops which had taken up arms against + Constantius, when he summoned them to leave Gaul, now declared with + alacrity, that they would follow Julian to the farthest extremities of + Europe or Asia. The oath of fidelity was administered; and the soldiers, + clashing their shields, and pointing their drawn swords to their throats, + devoted themselves, with horrid imprecations, to the service of a leader + whom they celebrated as the deliverer of Gaul and the conqueror of the + Germans. <a href="#linknote-22.25" name="linknoteref-22.25" + id="linknoteref-22.25">25</a> This solemn engagement, which seemed to be + dictated by affection rather than by duty, was singly opposed by + Nebridius, who had been admitted to the office of Prætorian præfect. + That faithful minister, alone and unassisted, asserted the rights of + Constantius, in the midst of an armed and angry multitude, to whose fury + he had almost fallen an honorable, but useless sacrifice. After losing one + of his hands by the stroke of a sword, he embraced the knees of the prince + whom he had offended. Julian covered the præfect with his Imperial + mantle, and, protecting him from the zeal of his followers, dismissed him + to his own house, with less respect than was perhaps due to the virtue of + an enemy. <a href="#linknote-22.26" name="linknoteref-22.26" + id="linknoteref-22.26">26</a> The high office of Nebridius was bestowed on + Sallust; and the provinces of Gaul, which were now delivered from the + intolerable oppression of taxes, enjoyed the mild and equitable + administration of the friend of Julian, who was permitted to practise + those virtues which he had instilled into the mind of his pupil. <a + href="#linknote-22.27" name="linknoteref-22.27" id="linknoteref-22.27">27</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.24" id="linknote-22.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Three hundred myriads, + or three millions of <i>medimni</i>, a corn measure familiar to the Athenians, + and which contained six Roman <i>modii</i>. Julian explains, like a soldier and a + statesman, the danger of his situation, and the necessity and advantages + of an offensive war, (ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 286, 287.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.25" id="linknote-22.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.25">return</a>)<br /> [ See his oration, and + the behavior of the troops, in Ammian. xxi. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.26" id="linknote-22.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.26">return</a>)<br /> [ He sternly refused his + hand to the suppliant præfect, whom he sent into Tuscany. (Ammian. xxi. + 5.) Libanius, with savage fury, insults Nebridius, applauds the soldiers, + and almost censures the humanity of Julian. (Orat. Parent. c. 53, p. + 278.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.27" id="linknote-22.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.27">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxi. 8. In this + promotion, Julian obeyed the law which he publicly imposed on himself. + Neque civilis quisquam judex nec militaris rector, alio quodam præter + merita suffragante, ad potiorem veniat gradum. (Ammian. xx. 5.) Absence + did not weaken his regard for Sallust, with whose name (A. D. 363) he + honored the consulship.] + </p> + <p> + The hopes of Julian depended much less on the number of his troops, than + on the celerity of his motions. In the execution of a daring enterprise, + he availed himself of every precaution, as far as prudence could suggest; + and where prudence could no longer accompany his steps, he trusted the + event to valor and to fortune. In the neighborhood of Basil he assembled + and divided his army. <a href="#linknote-22.28" name="linknoteref-22.28" + id="linknoteref-22.28">28</a> One body, which consisted of ten thousand + men, was directed under the command of Nevitta, general of the cavalry, to + advance through the midland parts of Rhætia and Noricum. A similar + division of troops, under the orders of Jovius and Jovinus, prepared to + follow the oblique course of the highways, through the Alps, and the + northern confines of Italy. The instructions to the generals were + conceived with energy and precision: to hasten their march in close and + compact columns, which, according to the disposition of the ground, might + readily be changed into any order of battle; to secure themselves against + the surprises of the night by strong posts and vigilant guards; to prevent + resistance by their unexpected arrival; to elude examination by their + sudden departure; to spread the opinion of their strength, and the terror + of his name; and to join their sovereign under the walls of Sirmium. For + himself Julian had reserved a more difficult and extraordinary part. He + selected three thousand brave and active volunteers, resolved, like their + leader, to cast behind them every hope of a retreat; at the head of this + faithful band, he fearlessly plunged into the recesses of the Marcian, or + Black Forest, which conceals the sources of the Danube; <a + href="#linknote-22.29" name="linknoteref-22.29" id="linknoteref-22.29">29</a> + and, for many days, the fate of Julian was unknown to the world. The + secrecy of his march, his diligence, and vigor, surmounted every obstacle; + he forced his way over mountains and morasses, occupied the bridges or + swam the rivers, pursued his direct course, <a href="#linknote-22.30" + name="linknoteref-22.30" id="linknoteref-22.30">30</a> without reflecting + whether he traversed the territory of the Romans or of the Barbarians, and + at length emerged, between Ratisbon and Vienna, at the place where he + designed to embark his troops on the Danube. By a well-concerted + stratagem, he seized a fleet of light brigantines, <a href="#linknote-22.31" + name="linknoteref-22.31" id="linknoteref-22.31">31</a> as it lay at anchor; + secured a apply of coarse provisions sufficient to satisfy the indelicate, + and voracious, appetite of a Gallic army; and boldly committed himself to + the stream of the Danube. The labors of the mariners, who plied their oars + with incessant diligence, and the steady continuance of a favorable wind, + carried his fleet above seven hundred miles in eleven days; <a + href="#linknote-22.32" name="linknoteref-22.32" id="linknoteref-22.32">32</a> + and he had already disembarked his troops at Bononia, <a + href="#linknote-22.3211" name="linknoteref-22.3211" id="linknoteref-22.3211">3211</a> + only nineteen miles from Sirmium, before his enemies could receive any + certain intelligence that he had left the banks of the Rhine. In the + course of this long and rapid navigation, the mind of Julian was fixed on + the object of his enterprise; and though he accepted the deputations of + some cities, which hastened to claim the merit of an early submission, he + passed before the hostile stations, which were placed along the river, + without indulging the temptation of signalizing a useless and ill-timed + valor. The banks of the Danube were crowded on either side with + spectators, who gazed on the military pomp, anticipated the importance of + the event, and diffused through the adjacent country the fame of a young + hero, who advanced with more than mortal speed at the head of the + innumerable forces of the West. Lucilian, who, with the rank of general of + the cavalry, commanded the military powers of Illyricum, was alarmed and + perplexed by the doubtful reports, which he could neither reject nor + believe. He had taken some slow and irresolute measures for the purpose of + collecting his troops, when he was surprised by Dagalaiphus, an active + officer, whom Julian, as soon as he landed at Bononia, had pushed forwards + with some light infantry. The captive general, uncertain of his life or + death, was hastily thrown upon a horse, and conducted to the presence of + Julian; who kindly raised him from the ground, and dispelled the terror + and amazement which seemed to stupefy his faculties. But Lucilian had no + sooner recovered his spirits, than he betrayed his want of discretion, by + presuming to admonish his conqueror that he had rashly ventured, with a + handful of men, to expose his person in the midst of his enemies. “Reserve + for your master Constantius these timid remonstrances,” replied Julian, + with a smile of contempt: “when I gave you my purple to kiss, I received + you not as a counsellor, but as a suppliant.” Conscious that success alone + could justify his attempt, and that boldness only could command success, + he instantly advanced, at the head of three thousand soldiers, to attack + the strongest and most populous city of the Illyrian provinces. As he + entered the long suburb of Sirmium, he was received by the joyful + acclamations of the army and people; who, crowned with flowers, and + holding lighted tapers in their hands, conducted their acknowledged + sovereign to his Imperial residence. Two days were devoted to the public + joy, which was celebrated by the games of the circus; but, early on the + morning of the third day, Julian marched to occupy the narrow pass of + Succi, in the defiles of Mount Hæmus; which, almost in the midway between + Sirmium and Constantinople, separates the provinces of Thrace and Dacia, + by an abrupt descent towards the former, and a gentle declivity on the + side of the latter. <a href="#linknote-22.33" name="linknoteref-22.33" + id="linknoteref-22.33">33</a> The defence of this important post was + intrusted to the brave Nevitta; who, as well as the generals of the + Italian division, successfully executed the plan of the march and junction + which their master had so ably conceived. <a href="#linknote-22.34" + name="linknoteref-22.34" id="linknoteref-22.34">34</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.28" id="linknote-22.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxi. 8) + ascribes the same practice, and the same motive, to Alexander the Great + and other skilful generals.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.29" id="linknote-22.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.29">return</a>)<br /> [ This wood was a part of + the great Hercynian forest, which, is the time of Cæsar, stretched away + from the country of the Rauraci (Basil) into the boundless regions of the + north. See Cluver, Germania Antiqua. l. iii. c. 47.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.30" id="linknote-22.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Libanius, Orat. + Parent. c. 53, p. 278, 279, with Gregory Nazianzen, Orat. iii. p. 68. Even + the saint admires the speed and secrecy of this march. A modern divine + might apply to the progress of Julian the lines which were originally + designed for another apostate:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —So eagerly the fiend, + O’er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, + With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, + And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.31" id="linknote-22.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.31">return</a>)<br /> [ In that interval the + <i>Notitia</i> places two or three fleets, the Lauriacensis, (at Lauriacum, or + Lorch,) the Arlapensis, the Maginensis; and mentions five legions, or + cohorts, of Libernarii, who should be a sort of marines. Sect. lviii. + edit. Labb.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.32" id="linknote-22.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.32">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus alone (l. iii. + p. 156) has specified this interesting circumstance. Mamertinus, (in + Panegyr. Vet. xi. 6, 7, 8,) who accompanied Julian, as count of the sacred + largesses, describes this voyage in a florid and picturesque manner, + challenges Triptolemus and the Argonauts of Greece, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.3211" id="linknote-22.3211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3211 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.3211">return</a>)<br /> [ Banostar. <i>Mannert</i>.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.33" id="linknote-22.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.33">return</a>)<br /> [ The description of + Ammianus, which might be supported by collateral evidence, ascertains the + precise situation of the <i>Angustiæ Succorum</i>, or passes of <i>Succi</i>. M. + d’Anville, from the trifling resemblance of names, has placed them between + Sardica and Naissus. For my own justification I am obliged to mention the + <i>only</i> error which I have discovered in the maps or writings of that + admirable geographer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.34" id="linknote-22.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.34">return</a>)<br /> [ Whatever circumstances + we may borrow elsewhere, Ammianus (xx. 8, 9, 10) still supplies the series + of the narrative.] + </p> + <p> + The homage which Julian obtained, from the fears or the inclination of the + people, extended far beyond the immediate effect of his arms. <a + href="#linknote-22.35" name="linknoteref-22.35" id="linknoteref-22.35">35</a> + The præfectures of Italy and Illyricum were administered by Taurus and + Florentius, who united that important office with the vain honors of the + consulship; and as those magistrates had retired with precipitation to the + court of Asia, Julian, who could not always restrain the levity of his + temper, stigmatized their flight by adding, in all the Acts of the Year, + the epithet of <i>fugitive</i> to the names of the two consuls. The provinces + which had been deserted by their first magistrates acknowledged the + authority of an emperor, who, conciliating the qualities of a soldier with + those of a philosopher, was equally admired in the camps of the Danube and + in the cities of Greece. From his palace, or, more properly, from his + head-quarters of Sirmium and Naissus, he distributed to the principal + cities of the empire, a labored apology for his own conduct; published the + secret despatches of Constantius; and solicited the judgment of mankind + between two competitors, the one of whom had expelled, and the other had + invited, the Barbarians. <a href="#linknote-22.36" name="linknoteref-22.36" + id="linknoteref-22.36">36</a> Julian, whose mind was deeply wounded by the + reproach of ingratitude, aspired to maintain, by argument as well as by + arms, the superior merits of his cause; and to excel, not only in the arts + of war, but in those of composition. His epistle to the senate and people + of Athens <a href="#linknote-22.37" name="linknoteref-22.37" + id="linknoteref-22.37">37</a> seems to have been dictated by an elegant + enthusiasm; which prompted him to submit his actions and his motives to + the degenerate Athenians of his own times, with the same humble deference + as if he had been pleading, in the days of Aristides, before the tribunal + of the Areopagus. His application to the senate of Rome, which was still + permitted to bestow the titles of Imperial power, was agreeable to the + forms of the expiring republic. An assembly was summoned by Tertullus, + præfect of the city; the epistle of Julian was read; and, as he appeared + to be master of Italy his claims were admitted without a dissenting voice. + His oblique censure of the innovations of Constantine, and his passionate + invective against the vices of Constantius, were heard with less + satisfaction; and the senate, as if Julian had been present, unanimously + exclaimed, “Respect, we beseech you, the author of your own fortune.” <a + href="#linknote-22.38" name="linknoteref-22.38" id="linknoteref-22.38">38</a> + An artful expression, which, according to the chance of war, might be + differently explained; as a manly reproof of the ingratitude of the + usurper, or as a flattering confession, that a single act of such benefit + to the state ought to atone for all the failings of Constantius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.35" id="linknote-22.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxi. 9, 10. + Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 54, p. 279, 280. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 156, 157.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.36" id="linknote-22.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (ad S. P. Q. + Athen. p. 286) positively asserts, that he intercepted the letters of + Constantius to the Barbarians; and Libanius as positively affirms, that he + read them on his march to the troops and the cities. Yet Ammianus (xxi. 4) + expresses himself with cool and candid hesitation, si <i>famæ solius</i> + admittenda est fides. He specifies, however, an intercepted letter from + Vadomair to Constantius, which supposes an intimate correspondence between + them. “disciplinam non habet.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.37" id="linknote-22.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.37">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus mentions his + epistles to the Athenians, the Corinthians, and the Lacedæmonians. The + substance was probably the same, though the address was properly varied. + The epistle to the Athenians is still extant, (p. 268-287,) and has + afforded much valuable information. It deserves the praises of the Abbé de + la Bleterie, (Pref. a l’Histoire de Jovien, p. 24, 25,) and is one of the + best manifestoes to be found in any language.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.38" id="linknote-22.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.38">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Auctori tuo reverentiam + rogamus</i>. Ammian. xxi. 10. It is amusing enough to observe the secret + conflicts of the senate between flattery and fear. See Tacit. Hist. i. + 85.] + </p> + <p> + The intelligence of the march and rapid progress of Julian was speedily + transmitted to his rival, who, by the retreat of Sapor, had obtained some + respite from the Persian war. Disguising the anguish of his soul under the + semblance of contempt, Constantius professed his intention of returning + into Europe, and of giving chase to Julian; for he never spoke of his + military expedition in any other light than that of a hunting party. <a + href="#linknote-22.39" name="linknoteref-22.39" id="linknoteref-22.39">39</a> + In the camp of Hierapolis, in Syria, he communicated this design to his + army; slightly mentioned the guilt and rashness of the Cæsar; and + ventured to assure them, that if the mutineers of Gaul presumed to meet + them in the field, they would be unable to sustain the fire of their eyes, + and the irresistible weight of their shout of onset. The speech of the + emperor was received with military applause, and Theodotus, the president + of the council of Hierapolis, requested, with tears of adulation, that <i>his</i> + city might be adorned with the head of the vanquished rebel. <a + href="#linknote-22.40" name="linknoteref-22.40" id="linknoteref-22.40">40</a> + A chosen detachment was despatched away in post-wagons, to secure, if it + were yet possible, the pass of Succi; the recruits, the horses, the arms, + and the magazines, which had been prepared against Sapor, were + appropriated to the service of the civil war; and the domestic victories + of Constantius inspired his partisans with the most sanguine assurances of + success. The notary Gaudentius had occupied in his name the provinces of + Africa; the subsistence of Rome was intercepted; and the distress of + Julian was increased by an unexpected event, which might have been + productive of fatal consequences. Julian had received the submission of + two legions and a cohort of archers, who were stationed at Sirmium; but he + suspected, with reason, the fidelity of those troops which had been + distinguished by the emperor; and it was thought expedient, under the + pretence of the exposed state of the Gallic frontier, to dismiss them from + the most important scene of action. They advanced, with reluctance, as far + as the confines of Italy; but as they dreaded the length of the way, and + the savage fierceness of the Germans, they resolved, by the instigation of + one of their tribunes, to halt at Aquileia, and to erect the banners of + Constantius on the walls of that impregnable city. The vigilance of Julian + perceived at once the extent of the mischief, and the necessity of + applying an immediate remedy. By his order, Jovinus led back a part of the + army into Italy; and the siege of Aquileia was formed with diligence, and + prosecuted with vigor. But the legionaries, who seemed to have rejected + the yoke of discipline, conducted the defence of the place with skill and + perseverance; vited the rest of Italy to imitate the example of their + courage and loyalty; and threatened the retreat of Julian, if he should be + forced to yield to the superior numbers of the armies of the East. <a + href="#linknote-22.41" name="linknoteref-22.41" id="linknoteref-22.41">41</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.39" id="linknote-22.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Tanquam venaticiam + prædam caperet: hoc enim ad Jeniendum suorum metum subinde prædicabat. + Ammian. xxii. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.40" id="linknote-22.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.40">return</a>)<br /> [ See the speech and + preparations in Ammianus, xxi. 13. The vile Theodotus afterwards implored + and obtained his pardon from the merciful conqueror, who signified his + wish of diminishing his enemies and increasing the numbers of his friends, + (xxii. 14.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.41" id="linknote-22.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.41">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxi. 7, 11, 12. + He seems to describe, with superfluous labor, the operations of the siege + of Aquileia, which, on this occasion, maintained its impregnable fame. + Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. iii. p. 68) ascribes this accidental revolt to + the wisdom of Constantius, whose assured victory he announces with some + appearance of truth. Constantio quem credebat procul dubio fore victorem; + nemo enim omnium tunc ab hac constanti sententia discrepebat. Ammian. xxi. + 7.] + </p> + <p> + But the humanity of Julian was preserved from the cruel alternative which + he pathetically laments, of destroying or of being himself destroyed: and + the seasonable death of Constantius delivered the Roman empire from the + calamities of civil war. The approach of winter could not detain the + monarch at Antioch; and his favorites durst not oppose his impatient + desire of revenge. A slight fever, which was perhaps occasioned by the + agitation of his spirits, was increased by the fatigues of the journey; + and Constantius was obliged to halt at the little town of Mopsucrene, + twelve miles beyond Tarsus, where he expired, after a short illness, in + the forty-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-fourth of his reign. <a + href="#linknote-22.42" name="linknoteref-22.42" id="linknoteref-22.42">42</a> + His genuine character, which was composed of pride and weakness, of + superstition and cruelty, has been fully displayed in the preceding + narrative of civil and ecclesiastical events. The long abuse of power + rendered him a considerable object in the eyes of his contemporaries; but + as personal merit can alone deserve the notice of posterity, the last of + the sons of Constantine may be dismissed from the world, with the remark, + that he inherited the defects, without the abilities, of his father. + Before Constantius expired, he is said to have named Julian for his + successor; nor does it seem improbable, that his anxious concern for the + fate of a young and tender wife, whom he left with child, may have + prevailed, in his last moments, over the harsher passions of hatred and + revenge. Eusebius, and his guilty associates, made a faint attempt to + prolong the reign of the eunuchs, by the election of another emperor; but + their intrigues were rejected with disdain, by an army which now abhorred + the thought of civil discord; and two officers of rank were instantly + despatched, to assure Julian, that every sword in the empire would be + drawn for his service. The military designs of that prince, who had formed + three different attacks against Thrace, were prevented by this fortunate + event. Without shedding the blood of his fellow-citizens, he escaped the + dangers of a doubtful conflict, and acquired the advantages of a complete + victory. Impatient to visit the place of his birth, and the new capital of + the empire, he advanced from Naissus through the mountains of Hæmus, and + the cities of Thrace. When he reached Heraclea, at the distance of sixty + miles, all Constantinople was poured forth to receive him; and he made his + triumphal entry amidst the dutiful acclamations of the soldiers, the + people, and the senate. An innumerable multitude pressed around him with + eager respect and were perhaps disappointed when they beheld the small + stature and simple garb of a hero, whose unexperienced youth had + vanquished the Barbarians of Germany, and who had now traversed, in a + successful career, the whole continent of Europe, from the shores of the + Atlantic to those of the Bosphorus. <a href="#linknote-22.43" + name="linknoteref-22.43" id="linknoteref-22.43">43</a> A few days + afterwards, when the remains of the deceased emperor were landed in the + harbor, the subjects of Julian applauded the real or affected humanity of + their sovereign. On foot, without his diadem, and clothed in a mourning + habit, he accompanied the funeral as far as the church of the Holy + Apostles, where the body was deposited: and if these marks of respect may + be interpreted as a selfish tribute to the birth and dignity of his + Imperial kinsman, the tears of Julian professed to the world that he had + forgot the injuries, and remembered only the obligations, which he had + received from Constantius. <a href="#linknote-22.44" name="linknoteref-22.44" + id="linknoteref-22.44">44</a> As soon as the legions of Aquileia were + assured of the death of the emperor, they opened the gates of the city, + and, by the sacrifice of their guilty leaders, obtained an easy pardon + from the prudence or lenity of Julian; who, in the thirty-second year of + his age, acquired the undisputed possession of the Roman empire. <a + href="#linknote-22.45" name="linknoteref-22.45" id="linknoteref-22.45">45</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.42" id="linknote-22.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.42">return</a>)<br /> [ His death and character + are faithfully delineated by Ammianus, (xxi. 14, 15, 16;) and we are + authorized to despise and detest the foolish calumny of Gregory, (Orat. + iii. p. 68,) who accuses Julian of contriving the death of his benefactor. + The private repentance of the emperor, that he had spared and promoted + Julian, (p. 69, and Orat. xxi. p. 389,) is not improbable in itself, nor + incompatible with the public verbal testament which prudential + considerations might dictate in the last moments of his life. Note: Wagner + thinks this sudden change of sentiment altogether a fiction of the + attendant courtiers and chiefs of the army. who up to this time had been + hostile to Julian. Note in loco Ammian.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.43" id="linknote-22.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.43">return</a>)<br /> [ In describing the + triumph of Julian, Ammianus (xxii. l, 2) assumes the lofty tone of an + orator or poet; while Libanius (Orat. Parent, c. 56, p. 281) sinks to the + grave simplicity of an historian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.44" id="linknote-22.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.44">return</a>)<br /> [ The funeral of + Constantius is described by Ammianus, (xxi. 16.) Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. + iv. p. 119,) Mamertinus, in (Panegyr. Vet. xi. 27,) Libanius, (Orat. + Parent. c. lvi. p. 283,) and Philostorgius, (l. vi. c. 6, with Godefroy’s + Dissertations, p. 265.) These writers, and their followers, Pagans, + Catholics, Arians, beheld with very different eyes both the dead and the + living emperor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.45" id="linknote-22.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.45">return</a>)<br /> [ The day and year of the + birth of Julian are not perfectly ascertained. The day is probably the + sixth of November, and the year must be either 331 or 332. Tillemont, + Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 693. Ducange, Fam. Byzantin. p. 50. I + have preferred the earlier date.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap22.3"></a> + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + Philosophy had instructed Julian to compare the advantages of action and + retirement; but the elevation of his birth, and the accidents of his life, + never allowed him the freedom of choice. He might perhaps sincerely have + preferred the groves of the academy, and the society of Athens; but he was + constrained, at first by the will, and afterwards by the injustice, of + Constantius, to expose his person and fame to the dangers of Imperial + greatness; and to make himself accountable to the world, and to posterity, + for the happiness of millions. <a href="#linknote-22.46" + name="linknoteref-22.46" id="linknoteref-22.46">46</a> Julian recollected + with terror the observation of his master Plato, <a href="#linknote-22.47" + name="linknoteref-22.47" id="linknoteref-22.47">47</a> that the government + of our flocks and herds is always committed to beings of a superior + species; and that the conduct of nations requires and deserves the + celestial powers of the gods or of the genii. From this principle he + justly concluded, that the man who presumes to reign, should aspire to the + perfection of the divine nature; that he should purify his soul from her + mortal and terrestrial part; that he should extinguish his appetites, + enlighten his understanding, regulate his passions, and subdue the wild + beast, which, according to the lively metaphor of Aristotle, <a + href="#linknote-22.48" name="linknoteref-22.48" id="linknoteref-22.48">48</a> + seldom fails to ascend the throne of a despot. The throne of Julian, which + the death of Constantius fixed on an independent basis, was the seat of + reason, of virtue, and perhaps of vanity. He despised the honors, + renounced the pleasures, and discharged with incessant diligence the + duties, of his exalted station; and there were few among his subjects who + would have consented to relieve him from the weight of the diadem, had + they been obliged to submit their time and their actions to the rigorous + laws which that philosophic emperor imposed on himself. One of his most + intimate friends, <a href="#linknote-22.49" name="linknoteref-22.49" + id="linknoteref-22.49">49</a> who had often shared the frugal simplicity of + his table, has remarked, that his light and sparing diet (which was + usually of the vegetable kind) left his mind and body always free and + active, for the various and important business of an author, a pontiff, a + magistrate, a general, and a prince. In one and the same day, he gave + audience to several ambassadors, and wrote, or dictated, a great number of + letters to his generals, his civil magistrates, his private friends, and + the different cities of his dominions. He listened to the memorials which + had been received, considered the subject of the petitions, and signified + his intentions more rapidly than they could be taken in short-hand by the + diligence of his secretaries. He possessed such flexibility of thought, + and such firmness of attention, that he could employ his hand to write, + his ear to listen, and his voice to dictate; and pursue at once three + several trains of ideas without hesitation, and without error. While his + ministers reposed, the prince flew with agility from one labor to another, + and, after a hasty dinner, retired into his library, till the public + business, which he had appointed for the evening, summoned him to + interrupt the prosecution of his studies. The supper of the emperor was + still less substantial than the former meal; his sleep was never clouded + by the fumes of indigestion; and except in the short interval of a + marriage, which was the effect of policy rather than love, the chaste + Julian never shared his bed with a female companion. <a + href="#linknote-22.50" name="linknoteref-22.50" id="linknoteref-22.50">50</a> + He was soon awakened by the entrance of fresh secretaries, who had slept + the preceding day; and his servants were obliged to wait alternately while + their indefatigable master allowed himself scarcely any other refreshment + than the change of occupation. The predecessors of Julian, his uncle, his + brother, and his cousin, indulged their puerile taste for the games of the + Circus, under the specious pretence of complying with the inclinations of + the people; and they frequently remained the greatest part of the day as + idle spectators, and as a part of the splendid spectacle, till the + ordinary round of twenty-four races <a href="#linknote-22.51" + name="linknoteref-22.51" id="linknoteref-22.51">51</a> was completely + finished. On solemn festivals, Julian, who felt and professed an + unfashionable dislike to these frivolous amusements, condescended to + appear in the Circus; and after bestowing a careless glance at five or six + of the races, he hastily withdrew with the impatience of a philosopher, + who considered every moment as lost that was not devoted to the advantage + of the public or the improvement of his own mind. <a href="#linknote-22.52" + name="linknoteref-22.52" id="linknoteref-22.52">52</a> By this avarice of + time, he seemed to protract the short duration of his reign; and if the + dates were less securely ascertained, we should refuse to believe, that + only sixteen months elapsed between the death of Constantius and the + departure of his successor for the Persian war. The actions of Julian can + only be preserved by the care of the historian; but the portion of his + voluminous writings, which is still extant, remains as a monument of the + application, as well as of the genius, of the emperor. The Misopogon, the + Cæsars, several of his orations, and his elaborate work against the + Christian religion, were composed in the long nights of the two winters, + the former of which he passed at Constantinople, and the latter at + Antioch. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.46" id="linknote-22.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian himself (p. + 253-267) has expressed these philosophical ideas with much eloquence and + some affectation, in a very elaborate epistle to Themistius. The Abbé de + la Bleterie, (tom. ii. p. 146-193,) who has given an elegant translation, + is inclined to believe that it was the celebrated Themistius, whose + orations are still extant.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.47" id="linknote-22.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. ad Themist. p. + 258. Petavius (not. p. 95) observes that this passage is taken from the + fourth book De Legibus; but either Julian quoted from memory, or his MSS. + were different from ours Xenophon opens the Cyropædia with a similar + reflection.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.48" id="linknote-22.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Aristot. ap. Julian. p. + 261. The MS. of Vossius, unsatisfied with the single beast, affords the + stronger reading of which the experience of despotism may warrant.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.49" id="linknote-22.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.49">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius (Orat. + Parentalis, c. lxxxiv. lxxxv. p. 310, 311, 312) has given this interesting + detail of the private life of Julian. He himself (in Misopogon, p. 350) + mentions his vegetable diet, and upbraids the gross and sensual appetite + of the people of Antioch.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.50" id="linknote-22.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.50">return</a>)<br /> [ Lectulus... Vestalium + toris purior, is the praise which Mamertinus (Panegyr. Vet. xi. 13) + addresses to Julian himself. Libanius affirms, in sober peremptory + language, that Julian never knew a woman before his marriage, or after the + death of his wife, (Orat. Parent. c. lxxxviii. p. 313.) The chastity of + Julian is confirmed by the impartial testimony of Ammianus, (xxv. 4,) and + the partial silence of the Christians. Yet Julian ironically urges the + reproach of the people of Antioch, that he <i>almost always</i> (in Misopogon, p. + 345) lay alone. This suspicious expression is explained by the Abbé de la + Bleterie (Hist. de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 103-109) with candor and + ingenuity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.51" id="linknote-22.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.51">return</a>)<br /> [ See Salmasius ad Sueton + in Claud. c. xxi. A twenty-fifth race, or <i>missus</i>, was added, to complete + the number of one hundred chariots, four of which, the four colors, + started each heat. + </p> + <p> + Centum quadrijugos agitabo ad flumina currus. + </p> + <p> + It appears, that they ran five or seven times round the <i>Meta</i> (Sueton. in + Domitian. c. 4;) and (from the measure of the Circus Maximus at Rome, the + Hippodrome at Constantinople, &c.) it might be about a four mile + course.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.52" id="linknote-22.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. in Misopogon, + p. 340. Julius Cæsar had offended the Roman people by reading his + despatches during the actual race. Augustus indulged their taste, or his + own, by his constant attention to the important business of the Circus, + for which he professed the warmest inclination. Sueton. in August. c. + xlv.] + </p> + <p> + The reformation of the Imperial court was one of the first and most + necessary acts of the government of Julian. <a href="#linknote-22.53" + name="linknoteref-22.53" id="linknoteref-22.53">53</a> Soon after his + entrance into the palace of Constantinople, he had occasion for the + service of a barber. An officer, magnificently dressed, immediately + presented himself. “It is a barber,” exclaimed the prince, with affected + surprise, “that I want, and not a receiver-general of the finances.” <a + href="#linknote-22.54" name="linknoteref-22.54" id="linknoteref-22.54">54</a> + He questioned the man concerning the profits of his employment and was + informed, that besides a large salary, and some valuable perquisites, he + enjoyed a daily allowance for twenty servants, and as many horses. A + thousand barbers, a thousand cup-bearers, a thousand cooks, were + distributed in the several offices of luxury; and the number of eunuchs + could be compared only with the insects of a summer’s day. The monarch who + resigned to his subjects the superiority of merit and virtue, was + distinguished by the oppressive magnificence of his dress, his table, his + buildings, and his train. The stately palaces erected by Constantine and + his sons, were decorated with many colored marbles, and ornaments of massy + gold. The most exquisite dainties were procured, to gratify their pride, + rather than their taste; birds of the most distant climates, fish from the + most remote seas, fruits out of their natural season, winter roses, and + summer snows. <a href="#linknote-22.56" name="linknoteref-22.56" + id="linknoteref-22.56">56</a> The domestic crowd of the palace surpassed + the expense of the legions; yet the smallest part of this costly multitude + was subservient to the use, or even to the splendor, of the throne. The + monarch was disgraced, and the people was injured, by the creation and + sale of an infinite number of obscure, and even titular employments; and + the most worthless of mankind might purchase the privilege of being + maintained, without the necessity of labor, from the public revenue. The + waste of an enormous household, the increase of fees and perquisites, + which were soon claimed as a lawful debt, and the bribes which they + extorted from those who feared their enmity, or solicited their favor, + suddenly enriched these haughty menials. They abused their fortune, + without considering their past, or their future, condition; and their + rapine and venality could be equalled only by the extravagance of their + dissipations. Their silken robes were embroidered with gold, their tables + were served with delicacy and profusion; the houses which they built for + their own use, would have covered the farm of an ancient consul; and the + most honorable citizens were obliged to dismount from their horses, and + respectfully to salute a eunuch whom they met on the public highway. The + luxury of the palace excited the contempt and indignation of Julian, who + usually slept on the ground, who yielded with reluctance to the + indispensable calls of nature; and who placed his vanity, not in + emulating, but in despising, the pomp of royalty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.53" id="linknote-22.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.53">return</a>)<br /> [ The reformation of the + palace is described by Ammianus, (xxii. 4,) Libanius, Orat. (Parent. c. + lxii. p. 288, &c.,) Mamertinus, in Panegyr. (Vet. xi. 11,) Socrates, + (l. iii. c. l.,) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 24.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.54" id="linknote-22.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.54">return</a>)<br /> [ Ego non <i>rationalem</i> + jussi sed tonsorem acciri. Zonaras uses the less natural image of a + senator. Yet an officer of the finances, who was satisfied with wealth, + might desire and obtain the honors of the senate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.56" id="linknote-22.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.56">return</a>)<br /> [ The expressions of + Mamertinus are lively and forcible. Quis etiam prandiorum et cænarum + laboratas magnitudines Romanus populus sensit; cum quæsitissimæ dapes + non gustu sed difficultatibus æstimarentur; miracula avium, longinqui + maris pisces, aheni temporis poma, æstivæ nives, hybernæ rosæ] + </p> + <p> + By the total extirpation of a mischief which was magnified even beyond its + real extent, he was impatient to relieve the distress, and to appease the + murmurs of the people; who support with less uneasiness the weight of + taxes, if they are convinced that the fruits of their industry are + appropriated to the service of the state. But in the execution of this + salutary work, Julian is accused of proceeding with too much haste and + inconsiderate severity. By a single edict, he reduced the palace of + Constantinople to an immense desert, and dismissed with ignominy the whole + train of slaves and dependants, <a href="#linknote-22.57" + name="linknoteref-22.57" id="linknoteref-22.57">57</a> without providing any + just, or at least benevolent, exceptions, for the age, the services, or + the poverty, of the faithful domestics of the Imperial family. Such indeed + was the temper of Julian, who seldom recollected the fundamental maxim of + Aristotle, that true virtue is placed at an equal distance between the + opposite vices. + </p> + <p> + The splendid and effeminate dress of the Asiatics, the curls and paint, + the collars and bracelets, which had appeared so ridiculous in the person + of Constantine, were consistently rejected by his philosophic successor. + But with the fopperies, Julian affected to renounce the decencies of + dress; and seemed to value himself for his neglect of the laws of + cleanliness. In a satirical performance, which was designed for the public + eye, the emperor descants with pleasure, and even with pride, on the + length of his nails, and the inky blackness of his hands; protests, that + although the greatest part of his body was covered with hair, the use of + the razor was confined to his head alone; and celebrates, with visible + complacency, the shaggy and <i>populous</i> <a href="#linknote-22.58" + name="linknoteref-22.58" id="linknoteref-22.58">58</a> beard, which he + fondly cherished, after the example of the philosophers of Greece. Had + Julian consulted the simple dictates of reason, the first magistrate of + the Romans would have scorned the affectation of Diogenes, as well as that + of Darius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.57" id="linknote-22.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.57">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet Julian himself was + accused of bestowing whole towns on the eunuchs, (Orat. vii. against + Polyclet. p. 117-127.) Libanius contents himself with a cold but positive + denial of the fact, which seems indeed to belong more properly to + Constantius. This charge, however, may allude to some unknown + circumstance.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.58" id="linknote-22.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.58">return</a>)<br /> [ In the Misopogon (p. + 338, 339) he draws a very singular picture of himself, and the following + words are strangely characteristic. The friends of the Abbé de la Bleterie + adjured him, in the name of the French nation, not to translate this + passage, so offensive to their delicacy, (Hist. de Jovien, tom. ii. p. + 94.) Like him, I have contented myself with a transient allusion; but the + little animal which Julian <i>names</i>, is a beast familiar to man, and + signifies love.] + </p> + <p> + But the work of public reformation would have remained imperfect, if + Julian had only corrected the abuses, without punishing the crimes, of his + predecessor’s reign. “We are now delivered,” says he, in a familiar letter + to one of his intimate friends, “we are now surprisingly delivered from + the voracious jaws of the Hydra. <a href="#linknote-22.59" + name="linknoteref-22.59" id="linknoteref-22.59">59</a> I do not mean to + apply the epithet to my brother Constantius. He is no more; may the earth + lie light on his head! But his artful and cruel favorites studied to + deceive and exasperate a prince, whose natural mildness cannot be praised + without some efforts of adulation. It is not, however, my intention, that + even those men should be oppressed: they are accused, and they shall enjoy + the benefit of a fair and impartial trial.” To conduct this inquiry, + Julian named six judges of the highest rank in the state and army; and as + he wished to escape the reproach of condemning his personal enemies, he + fixed this extraordinary tribunal at Chalcedon, on the Asiatic side of the + Bosphorus; and transferred to the commissioners an absolute power to + pronounce and execute their final sentence, without delay, and without + appeal. The office of president was exercised by the venerable præfect of + the East, a <i>second</i> Sallust, <a href="#linknote-22.60" + name="linknoteref-22.60" id="linknoteref-22.60">60</a> whose virtues + conciliated the esteem of Greek sophists, and of Christian bishops. He was + assisted by the eloquent Mamertinus, <a href="#linknote-22.61" + name="linknoteref-22.61" id="linknoteref-22.61">61</a> one of the consuls + elect, whose merit is loudly celebrated by the doubtful evidence of his + own applause. But the civil wisdom of two magistrates was overbalanced by + the ferocious violence of four generals, Nevitta, Agilo, Jovinus, and + Arbetio. Arbetio, whom the public would have seen with less surprise at + the bar than on the bench, was supposed to possess the secret of the + commission; the armed and angry leaders of the Jovian and Herculian bands + encompassed the tribunal; and the judges were alternately swayed by the + laws of justice, and by the clamors of faction. <a href="#linknote-22.62" + name="linknoteref-22.62" id="linknoteref-22.62">62</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.59" id="linknote-22.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.59">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian, epist. xxiii. + p. 389. He uses the words in writing to his friend Hermogenes, who, like + himself, was conversant with the Greek poets.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.60" id="linknote-22.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.60">return</a>)<br /> [ The two Sallusts, the + præfect of Gaul, and the præfect of the East, must be carefully + distinguished, (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 696.) I have used the + surname of <i>Secundus</i>, as a convenient epithet. The second Sallust extorted + the esteem of the Christians themselves; and Gregory Nazianzen, who + condemned his religion, has celebrated his virtues, (Orat. iii. p. 90.) + See a curious note of the Abbé de la Bleterie, Vie de Julien, p. 363. + Note: Gibbonus secundum habet pro numero, quod tamen est viri agnomen + Wagner, nota in loc. Amm. It is not a mistake; it is rather an error in + taste. Wagner inclines to transfer the chief guilt to Arbetio.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.61" id="linknote-22.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Mamertinus praises the + emperor (xi. l.) for bestowing the offices of Treasurer and Præfect on a + man of wisdom, firmness, integrity, &c., like himself. Yet Ammianus + ranks him (xxi. l.) among the ministers of Julian, quorum merita norat et + fidem.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.62" id="linknote-22.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.62">return</a>)<br /> [ The proceedings of this + chamber of justice are related by Ammianus, (xxii. 3,) and praised by + Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 74, p. 299, 300.)] + </p> + <p> + The chamberlain Eusebius, who had so long abused the favor of Constantius, + expiated, by an ignominious death, the insolence, the corruption, and + cruelty of his servile reign. The executions of Paul and Apodemius (the + former of whom was burnt alive) were accepted as an inadequate atonement + by the widows and orphans of so many hundred Romans, whom those legal + tyrants had betrayed and murdered. But justice herself (if we may use the + pathetic expression of Ammianus) <a href="#linknote-22.63" + name="linknoteref-22.63" id="linknoteref-22.63">63</a> appeared to weep over + the fate of Ursulus, the treasurer of the empire; and his blood accused + the ingratitude of Julian, whose distress had been seasonably relieved by + the intrepid liberality of that honest minister. The rage of the soldiers, + whom he had provoked by his indiscretion, was the cause and the excuse of + his death; and the emperor, deeply wounded by his own reproaches and those + of the public, offered some consolation to the family of Ursulus, by the + restitution of his confiscated fortunes. Before the end of the year in + which they had been adorned with the ensigns of the prefecture and + consulship, <a href="#linknote-22.64" name="linknoteref-22.64" + id="linknoteref-22.64">64</a> Taurus and Florentius were reduced to implore + the clemency of the inexorable tribunal of Chalcedon. The former was + banished to Vercellæ in Italy, and a sentence of death was pronounced + against the latter. A wise prince should have rewarded the crime of + Taurus: the faithful minister, when he was no longer able to oppose the + progress of a rebel, had taken refuge in the court of his benefactor and + his lawful sovereign. But the guilt of Florentius justified the severity + of the judges; and his escape served to display the magnanimity of Julian, + who nobly checked the interested diligence of an informer, and refused to + learn what place concealed the wretched fugitive from his just resentment. + <a href="#linknote-22.65" name="linknoteref-22.65" id="linknoteref-22.65">65</a> + Some months after the tribunal of Chalcedon had been dissolved, the + prætorian vicegerent of Africa, the notary Gaudentius, and Artemius <a + href="#linknote-22.66" name="linknoteref-22.66" id="linknoteref-22.66">66</a> + duke of Egypt, were executed at Antioch. Artemius had reigned the cruel + and corrupt tyrant of a great province; Gaudentius had long practised the + arts of calumny against the innocent, the virtuous, and even the person of + Julian himself. Yet the circumstances of their trial and condemnation were + so unskillfully managed, that these wicked men obtained, in the public + opinion, the glory of suffering for the obstinate loyalty with which they + had supported the cause of Constantius. The rest of his servants were + protected by a general act of oblivion; and they were left to enjoy with + impunity the bribes which they had accepted, either to defend the + oppressed, or to oppress the friendless. This measure, which, on the + soundest principles of policy, may deserve our approbation, was executed + in a manner which seemed to degrade the majesty of the throne. Julian was + tormented by the importunities of a multitude, particularly of Egyptians, + who loudly redemanded the gifts which they had imprudently or illegally + bestowed; he foresaw the endless prosecution of vexatious suits; and he + engaged a promise, which ought always to have been sacred, that if they + would repair to Chalcedon, he would meet them in person, to hear and + determine their complaints. But as soon as they were landed, he issued an + absolute order, which prohibited the watermen from transporting any + Egyptian to Constantinople; and thus detained his disappointed clients on + the Asiatic shore till, their patience and money being utterly exhausted, + they were obliged to return with indignant murmurs to their native + country. <a href="#linknote-22.67" name="linknoteref-22.67" + id="linknoteref-22.67">67</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.63" id="linknote-22.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.63">return</a>)<br /> [ Ursuli vero necem ipsa + mihi videtur flesse justitia. Libanius, who imputes his death to the + soldiers, attempts to criminate the court of the largesses.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.64" id="linknote-22.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Such respect was still + entertained for the venerable names of the commonwealth, that the public + was surprised and scandalized to hear Taurus summoned as a criminal under + the consulship of Taurus. The summons of his colleague Florentius was + probably delayed till the commencement of the ensuing year.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.65" id="linknote-22.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xx. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.66" id="linknote-22.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.66">return</a>)<br /> [ For the guilt and + punishment of Artemius, see Julian (Epist. x. p. 379) and Ammianus, (xxii. + 6, and Vales, ad hoc.) The merit of Artemius, who demolished temples, and + was put to death by an apostate, has tempted the Greek and Latin churches + to honor him as a martyr. But as ecclesiastical history attests that he + was not only a tyrant, but an Arian, it is not altogether easy to justify + this indiscreet promotion. Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1319.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.67" id="linknote-22.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.67">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammian. xxii. 6, + and Vales, ad locum; and the Codex Theodosianus, l. ii. tit. xxxix. leg. + i.; and Godefroy’s Commentary, tom. i. p. 218, ad locum.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap22.4"></a> + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The numerous army of spies, of agents, and informers enlisted by + Constantius to secure the repose of one man, and to interrupt that of + millions, was immediately disbanded by his generous successor. Julian was + slow in his suspicions, and gentle in his punishments; and his contempt of + treason was the result of judgment, of vanity, and of courage. Conscious + of superior merit, he was persuaded that few among his subjects would dare + to meet him in the field, to attempt his life, or even to seat themselves + on his vacant throne. The philosopher could excuse the hasty sallies of + discontent; and the hero could despise the ambitious projects which + surpassed the fortune or the abilities of the rash conspirators. A citizen + of Ancyra had prepared for his own use a purple garment; and this + indiscreet action, which, under the reign of Constantius, would have been + considered as a capital offence, <a href="#linknote-22.68" + name="linknoteref-22.68" id="linknoteref-22.68">68</a> was reported to + Julian by the officious importunity of a private enemy. The monarch, after + making some inquiry into the rank and character of his rival, despatched + the informer with a present of a pair of purple slippers, to complete the + magnificence of his Imperial habit. A more dangerous conspiracy was formed + by ten of the domestic guards, who had resolved to assassinate Julian in + the field of exercise near Antioch. Their intemperance revealed their + guilt; and they were conducted in chains to the presence of their injured + sovereign, who, after a lively representation of the wickedness and folly + of their enterprise, instead of a death of torture, which they deserved + and expected, pronounced a sentence of exile against the two principal + offenders. The only instance in which Julian seemed to depart from his + accustomed clemency, was the execution of a rash youth, who, with a feeble + hand, had aspired to seize the reins of empire. But that youth was the son + of Marcellus, the general of cavalry, who, in the first campaign of the + Gallic war, had deserted the standard of the Cæsar and the republic. + Without appearing to indulge his personal resentment, Julian might easily + confound the crime of the son and of the father; but he was reconciled by + the distress of Marcellus, and the liberality of the emperor endeavored to + heal the wound which had been inflicted by the hand of justice. <a + href="#linknote-22.69" name="linknoteref-22.69" id="linknoteref-22.69">69</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.68" id="linknote-22.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.68">return</a>)<br /> [ The president + Montesquieu (Considerations sur la Grandeur, &c., des Romains, c. xiv. + in his works, tom. iii. p. 448, 449,) excuses this minute and absurd + tyranny, by supposing that actions the most indifferent in our eyes might + excite, in a Roman mind, the idea of guilt and danger. This strange + apology is supported by a strange misapprehension of the English laws, + “chez une nation.... où il est défendu de boire à la santé d’une certaine + personne.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.69" id="linknote-22.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.69">return</a>)<br /> [ The clemency of Julian, + and the conspiracy which was formed against his life at Antioch, are + described by Ammianus (xxii. 9, 10, and Vales, ad loc.) and Libanius, + (Orat. Parent. c. 99, p. 323.)] + </p> + <p> + Julian was not insensible of the advantages of freedom. <a + href="#linknote-22.70" name="linknoteref-22.70" id="linknoteref-22.70">70</a> + From his studies he had imbibed the spirit of ancient sages and heroes; + his life and fortunes had depended on the caprice of a tyrant; and when he + ascended the throne, his pride was sometimes mortified by the reflection, + that the slaves who would not dare to censure his defects were not worthy + to applaud his virtues. <a href="#linknote-22.71" name="linknoteref-22.71" + id="linknoteref-22.71">71</a> He sincerely abhorred the system of Oriental + despotism, which Diocletian, Constantine, and the patient habits of + fourscore years, had established in the empire. A motive of superstition + prevented the execution of the design, which Julian had frequently + meditated, of relieving his head from the weight of a costly diadem; <a + href="#linknote-22.72" name="linknoteref-22.72" id="linknoteref-22.72">72</a> + but he absolutely refused the title of <i>Dominus</i>, or <i>Lord</i>, <a + href="#linknote-22.73" name="linknoteref-22.73" id="linknoteref-22.73">73</a> + a word which was grown so familiar to the ears of the Romans, that they no + longer remembered its servile and humiliating origin. The office, or + rather the name, of consul, was cherished by a prince who contemplated + with reverence the ruins of the republic; and the same behavior which had + been assumed by the prudence of Augustus was adopted by Julian from choice + and inclination. On the calends of January, at break of day, the new + consuls, Mamertinus and Nevitta, hastened to the palace to salute the + emperor. As soon as he was informed of their approach, he leaped from his + throne, eagerly advanced to meet them, and compelled the blushing + magistrates to receive the demonstrations of his affected humility. From + the palace they proceeded to the senate. The emperor, on foot, marched + before their litters; and the gazing multitude admired the image of + ancient times, or secretly blamed a conduct, which, in their eyes, + degraded the majesty of the purple. <a href="#linknote-22.74" + name="linknoteref-22.74" id="linknoteref-22.74">74</a> But the behavior of + Julian was uniformly supported. During the games of the Circus, he had, + imprudently or designedly, performed the manumission of a slave in the + presence of the consul. The moment he was reminded that he had trespassed + on the jurisdiction of <i>another</i> magistrate, he condemned himself to pay a + fine of ten pounds of gold; and embraced this public occasion of declaring + to the world, that he was subject, like the rest of his fellow-citizens, + to the laws, <a href="#linknote-22.75" name="linknoteref-22.75" + id="linknoteref-22.75">75</a> and even to the forms, of the republic. The + spirit of his administration, and his regard for the place of his + nativity, induced Julian to confer on the senate of Constantinople the + same honors, privileges, and authority, which were still enjoyed by the + senate of ancient Rome. <a href="#linknote-22.76" name="linknoteref-22.76" + id="linknoteref-22.76">76</a> A legal fiction was introduced, and gradually + established, that one half of the national council had migrated into the + East; and the despotic successors of Julian, accepting the title of + Senators, acknowledged themselves the members of a respectable body, which + was permitted to represent the majesty of the Roman name. From + Constantinople, the attention of the monarch was extended to the municipal + senates of the provinces. He abolished, by repeated edicts, the unjust and + pernicious exemptions which had withdrawn so many idle citizens from the + services of their country; and by imposing an equal distribution of public + duties, he restored the strength, the splendor, or, according to the + glowing expression of Libanius, <a href="#linknote-22.77" + name="linknoteref-22.77" id="linknoteref-22.77">77</a> the soul of the + expiring cities of his empire. The venerable age of Greece excited the + most tender compassion in the mind of Julian, which kindled into rapture + when he recollected the gods, the heroes, and the men superior to heroes + and to gods, who have bequeathed to the latest posterity the monuments of + their genius, or the example of their virtues. He relieved the distress, + and restored the beauty, of the cities of Epirus and Peloponnesus. <a + href="#linknote-22.78" name="linknoteref-22.78" id="linknoteref-22.78">78</a> + Athens acknowledged him for her benefactor; Argos, for her deliverer. The + pride of Corinth, again rising from her ruins with the honors of a Roman + colony, exacted a tribute from the adjacent republics, for the purpose of + defraying the games of the Isthmus, which were celebrated in the + amphitheatre with the hunting of bears and panthers. From this tribute the + cities of Elis, of Delphi, and of Argos, which had inherited from their + remote ancestors the sacred office of perpetuating the Olympic, the + Pythian, and the Nemean games, claimed a just exemption. The immunity of + Elis and Delphi was respected by the Corinthians; but the poverty of Argos + tempted the insolence of oppression; and the feeble complaints of its + deputies were silenced by the decree of a provincial magistrate, who seems + to have consulted only the interest of the capital in which he resided. + Seven years after this sentence, Julian <a href="#linknote-22.79" + name="linknoteref-22.79" id="linknoteref-22.79">79</a> allowed the cause to + be referred to a superior tribunal; and his eloquence was interposed, most + probably with success, in the defence of a city, which had been the royal + seat of Agamemnon, <a href="#linknote-22.80" name="linknoteref-22.80" + id="linknoteref-22.80">80</a> and had given to Macedonia a race of kings + and conquerors. <a href="#linknote-22.81" name="linknoteref-22.81" + id="linknoteref-22.81">81</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.70" id="linknote-22.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.70">return</a>)<br /> [ According to some, says + Aristotle, (as he is quoted by Julian ad Themist. p. 261,) the form of + absolute government is contrary to nature. Both the prince and the + philosopher choose, how ever to involve this eternal truth in artful and + labored obscurity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.71" id="linknote-22.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.71">return</a>)<br /> [ That sentiment is + expressed almost in the words of Julian himself. Ammian. xxii. 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.72" id="linknote-22.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, (Orat. + Parent. c. 95, p. 320,) who mentions the wish and design of Julian, + insinuates, in mysterious language that the emperor was restrained by some + particular revelation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.73" id="linknote-22.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.73">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian in Misopogon, p. + 343. As he never abolished, by any public law, the proud appellations of + <i>Despot</i>, or <i>Dominus</i>, they are still extant on his medals, (Ducange, Fam. + Byzantin. p. 38, 39;) and the private displeasure which he affected to + express, only gave a different tone to the servility of the court. The + Abbé de la Bleterie (Hist. de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 99-102) has curiously + traced the origin and progress of the word <i>Dominus</i> under the Imperial + government.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.74" id="linknote-22.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxii. 7. The + consul Mamertinus (in Panegyr. Vet. xi. 28, 29, 30) celebrates the + auspicious day, like an elegant slave, astonished and intoxicated by the + condescension of his master.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.75" id="linknote-22.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Personal satire was + condemned by the laws of the twelve tables: Si male condiderit in quem + quis carmina, jus est Judiciumque—Horat. Sat. ii. 1. 82. ——Julian + (in Misopogon, p. 337) owns himself subject to the law; and the Abbé de la + Bleterie (Hist. de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 92) has eagerly embraced a + declaration so agreeable to his own system, and, indeed, to the true + spirit of the Imperial constitution.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.76" id="linknote-22.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. iii. p. + 158.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.77" id="linknote-22.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.77">return</a>)<br /> [ See Libanius, (Orat. + Parent. c. 71, p. 296,) Ammianus, (xxii. 9,) and the Theodosian Code (l. + xii. tit. i. leg. 50-55.) with Godefroy’s Commentary, (tom. iv. p. + 390-402.) Yet the whole subject of the <i>Curia</i>, notwithstanding very ample + materials, still remains the most obscure in the legal history of the + empire.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.78" id="linknote-22.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.78">return</a>)<br /> [ Quæ paulo ante arida + et siti anhelantia visebantur, ea nunc perlui, mundari, madere; Fora, + Deambulacra, Gymnasia, lætis et gaudentibus populis frequentari; dies + festos, et celebrari veteres, et novos in honorem principis consecrari, + (Mamertin. xi. 9.) He particularly restored the city of Nicopolis and the + Actiac games, which had been instituted by Augustus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.79" id="linknote-22.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Epist. xxxv. p. + 407-411. This epistle, which illustrates the declining age of Greece, is + omitted by the Abbé de la Bleterie, and strangely disfigured by the Latin + translator, who, by rendering <i>tributum</i>, and <i>populus</i>, directly contradicts + the sense of the original.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.80" id="linknote-22.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.80">return</a>)<br /> [ He reigned in Mycenæ + at the distance of fifty stadia, or six miles from Argos: but these + cities, which alternately flourished, are confounded by the Greek poets. + Strabo, l. viii. p. 579, edit. Amstel. 1707.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.81" id="linknote-22.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Marsham, Canon. Chron. + p. 421. This pedigree from Temenus and Hercules may be suspicious; yet it + was allowed, after a strict inquiry, by the judges of the Olympic games, + (Herodot. l. v. c. 22,) at a time when the Macedonian kings were obscure + and unpopular in Greece. When the Achæan league declared against Philip, + it was thought decent that the deputies of Argos should retire, (T. Liv. + xxxii. 22.)] + </p> + <p> + The laborious administration of military and civil affairs, which were + multiplied in proportion to the extent of the empire, exercised the + abilities of Julian; but he frequently assumed the two characters of + Orator <a href="#linknote-22.82" name="linknoteref-22.82" + id="linknoteref-22.82">82</a> and of Judge, <a href="#linknote-22.83" + name="linknoteref-22.83" id="linknoteref-22.83">83</a> which are almost + unknown to the modern sovereigns of Europe. The arts of persuasion, so + diligently cultivated by the first Cæsars, were neglected by the military + ignorance and Asiatic pride of their successors; and if they condescended + to harangue the soldiers, whom they feared, they treated with silent + disdain the senators, whom they despised. The assemblies of the senate, + which Constantius had avoided, were considered by Julian as the place + where he could exhibit, with the most propriety, the maxims of a + republican, and the talents of a rhetorician. He alternately practised, as + in a school of declamation, the several modes of praise, of censure, of + exhortation; and his friend Libanius has remarked, that the study of Homer + taught him to imitate the simple, concise style of Menelaus, the + copiousness of Nestor, whose words descended like the flakes of a winter’s + snow, or the pathetic and forcible eloquence of Ulysses. The functions of + a judge, which are sometimes incompatible with those of a prince, were + exercised by Julian, not only as a duty, but as an amusement; and although + he might have trusted the integrity and discernment of his Prætorian + præfects, he often placed himself by their side on the seat of judgment. + The acute penetration of his mind was agreeably occupied in detecting and + defeating the chicanery of the advocates, who labored to disguise the + truths of facts, and to pervert the sense of the laws. He sometimes forgot + the gravity of his station, asked indiscreet or unseasonable questions, + and betrayed, by the loudness of his voice, and the agitation of his body, + the earnest vehemence with which he maintained his opinion against the + judges, the advocates, and their clients. But his knowledge of his own + temper prompted him to encourage, and even to solicit, the reproof of his + friends and ministers; and whenever they ventured to oppose the irregular + sallies of his passions, the spectators could observe the shame, as well + as the gratitude, of their monarch. The decrees of Julian were almost + always founded on the principles of justice; and he had the firmness to + resist the two most dangerous temptations, which assault the tribunal of a + sovereign, under the specious forms of compassion and equity. He decided + the merits of the cause without weighing the circumstances of the parties; + and the poor, whom he wished to relieve, were condemned to satisfy the + just demands of a wealthy and noble adversary. He carefully distinguished + the judge from the legislator; <a href="#linknote-22.84" + name="linknoteref-22.84" id="linknoteref-22.84">84</a> and though he + meditated a necessary reformation of the Roman jurisprudence, he + pronounced sentence according to the strict and literal interpretation of + those laws, which the magistrates were bound to execute, and the subjects + to obey. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.82" id="linknote-22.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.82">return</a>)<br /> [ His eloquence is + celebrated by Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 75, 76, p. 300, 301,) who + distinctly mentions the orators of Homer. Socrates (l. iii. c. 1) has + rashly asserted that Julian was the only prince, since Julius Cæsar, who + harangued the senate. All the predecessors of Nero, (Tacit. Annal. xiii. + 3,) and many of his successors, possessed the faculty of speaking in + public; and it might be proved by various examples, that they frequently + exercised it in the senate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.83" id="linknote-22.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.83">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxi. 10) has + impartially stated the merits and defects of his judicial proceedings. + Libanius (Orat. Parent. c. 90, 91, p. 315, &c.) has seen only the fair + side, and his picture, if it flatters the person, expresses at least the + duties, of the judge. Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. p. 120,) who + suppresses the virtues, and exaggerates even the venial faults of the + Apostate, triumphantly asks, whether such a judge was fit to be seated + between Minos and Rhadamanthus, in the Elysian Fields.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.84" id="linknote-22.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Of the laws which + Julian enacted in a reign of sixteen months, fifty-four have been admitted + into the codes of Theodosius and Justinian. (Gothofred. Chron. Legum, p. + 64-67.) The Abbé de la Bleterie (tom. ii. p. 329-336) has chosen one of + these laws to give an idea of Julian’s Latin style, which is forcible and + elaborate, but less pure than his Greek.] + </p> + <p> + The generality of princes, if they were stripped of their purple, and cast + naked into the world, would immediately sink to the lowest rank of + society, without a hope of emerging from their obscurity. But the personal + merit of Julian was, in some measure, independent of his fortune. Whatever + had been his choice of life, by the force of intrepid courage, lively wit, + and intense application, he would have obtained, or at least he would have + deserved, the highest honors of his profession; and Julian might have + raised himself to the rank of minister, or general, of the state in which + he was born a private citizen. If the jealous caprice of power had + disappointed his expectations, if he had prudently declined the paths of + greatness, the employment of the same talents in studious solitude would + have placed beyond the reach of kings his present happiness and his + immortal fame. When we inspect, with minute, or perhaps malevolent + attention, the portrait of Julian, something seems wanting to the grace + and perfection of the whole figure. His genius was less powerful and + sublime than that of Cæsar; nor did he possess the consummate prudence of + Augustus. The virtues of Trajan appear more steady and natural, and the + philosophy of Marcus is more simple and consistent. Yet Julian sustained + adversity with firmness, and prosperity with moderation. After an interval + of one hundred and twenty years from the death of Alexander Severus, the + Romans beheld an emperor who made no distinction between his duties and + his pleasures; who labored to relieve the distress, and to revive the + spirit, of his subjects; and who endeavored always to connect authority + with merit, and happiness with virtue. Even faction, and religious + faction, was constrained to acknowledge the superiority of his genius, in + peace as well as in war, and to confess, with a sigh, that the apostate + Julian was a lover of his country, and that he deserved the empire of the + world. <a href="#linknote-22.85" name="linknoteref-22.85" + id="linknoteref-22.85">85</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-22.85" id="linknote-22.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-22.85">return</a>)<br /> [ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ... Ductor fortissimus armis; + Conditor et legum celeberrimus; ore manûque + Consultor patriæ; sed non consultor habendæ + Religionis; amans tercentum millia Divûm. + Pertidus ille Deo, sed non et perfidus orbi. + Prudent. Apotheosis, 450, &c. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + The consciousness of a generous sentiment seems to have raised the + Christian post above his usual mediocrity.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap23.1"></a> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Religion Of Julian.—Universal Toleration.—He Attempts + To Restore And Reform The Pagan Worship—To Rebuild The + Temple Of Jerusalem—His Artful Persecution Of The + Christians.—Mutual Zeal And Injustice. +</pre> + <p> + The character of Apostate has injured the reputation of Julian; and the + enthusiasm which clouded his virtues has exaggerated the real and apparent + magnitude of his faults. Our partial ignorance may represent him as a + philosophic monarch, who studied to protect, with an equal hand, the + religious factions of the empire; and to allay the theological fever which + had inflamed the minds of the people, from the edicts of Diocletian to the + exile of Athanasius. A more accurate view of the character and conduct of + Julian will remove this favorable prepossession for a prince who did not + escape the general contagion of the times. We enjoy the singular advantage + of comparing the pictures which have been delineated by his fondest + admirers and his implacable enemies. The actions of Julian are faithfully + related by a judicious and candid historian, the impartial spectator of + his life and death. The unanimous evidence of his contemporaries is + confirmed by the public and private declarations of the emperor himself; + and his various writings express the uniform tenor of his religious + sentiments, which policy would have prompted him to dissemble rather than + to affect. A devout and sincere attachment for the gods of Athens and Rome + constituted the ruling passion of Julian; <a href="#linknote-23.1" + name="linknoteref-23.1" id="linknoteref-23.1">1</a> the powers of an + enlightened understanding were betrayed and corrupted by the influence of + superstitious prejudice; and the phantoms which existed only in the mind + of the emperor had a real and pernicious effect on the government of the + empire. The vehement zeal of the Christians, who despised the worship, and + overturned the altars of those fabulous deities, engaged their votary in a + state of irreconcilable hostility with a very numerous party of his + subjects; and he was sometimes tempted by the desire of victory, or the + shame of a repulse, to violate the laws of prudence, and even of justice. + The triumph of the party, which he deserted and opposed, has fixed a stain + of infamy on the name of Julian; and the unsuccessful apostate has been + overwhelmed with a torrent of pious invectives, of which the signal was + given by the sonorous trumpet <a href="#linknote-23.2" + name="linknoteref-23.2" id="linknoteref-23.2">2</a> of Gregory Nazianzen. <a + href="#linknote-23.3" name="linknoteref-23.3" id="linknoteref-23.3">3</a> The + interesting nature of the events which were crowded into the short reign + of this active emperor, deserve a just and circumstantial narrative. His + motives, his counsels, and his actions, as far as they are connected with + the history of religion, will be the subject of the present chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.1" id="linknote-23.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.1">return</a>)<br /> [ I shall transcribe some + of his own expressions from a short religious discourse which the Imperial + pontiff composed to censure the bold impiety of a Cynic. Orat. vii. p. + 212. The variety and copiousness of the Greek tongue seem inadequate to + the fervor of his devotion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.2" id="linknote-23.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.2">return</a>)<br /> [ The orator, with some + eloquence, much enthusiasm, and more vanity, addresses his discourse to + heaven and earth, to men and angels, to the living and the dead; and above + all, to the great Constantius, an odd Pagan expression. He concludes with + a bold assurance, that he has erected a monument not less durable, and + much more portable, than the columns of Hercules. See Greg. Nazianzen, + Orat. iii. p. 50, iv. p. 134.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.3" id="linknote-23.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.3">return</a>)<br /> [ See this long invective, + which has been injudiciously divided into two orations in Gregory’s works, + tom. i. p. 49-134, Paris, 1630. It was published by Gregory and his friend + Basil, (iv. p. 133,) about six months after the death of Julian, when his + remains had been carried to Tarsus, (iv. p. 120;) but while Jovian was + still on the throne, (iii. p. 54, iv. p. 117) I have derived much + assistance from a French version and remarks, printed at Lyons, 1735.] + </p> + <p> + The cause of his strange and fatal apostasy may be derived from the early + period of his life, when he was left an orphan in the hands of the + murderers of his family. The names of Christ and of Constantius, the ideas + of slavery and of religion, were soon associated in a youthful + imagination, which was susceptible of the most lively impressions. The + care of his infancy was intrusted to Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, <a + href="#linknote-23.4" name="linknoteref-23.4" id="linknoteref-23.4">4</a> who + was related to him on the side of his mother; and till Julian reached the + twentieth year of his age, he received from his Christian preceptors the + education, not of a hero, but of a saint. The emperor, less jealous of a + heavenly than of an earthly crown, contented himself with the imperfect + character of a catechumen, while he bestowed the advantages of baptism <a + href="#linknote-23.5" name="linknoteref-23.5" id="linknoteref-23.5">5</a> on + the nephews of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-23.6" name="linknoteref-23.6" + id="linknoteref-23.6">6</a> They were even admitted to the inferior offices + of the ecclesiastical order; and Julian publicly read the Holy Scriptures + in the church of Nicomedia. The study of religion, which they assiduously + cultivated, appeared to produce the fairest fruits of faith and devotion. + <a href="#linknote-23.7" name="linknoteref-23.7" id="linknoteref-23.7">7</a> + They prayed, they fasted, they distributed alms to the poor, gifts to the + clergy, and oblations to the tombs of the martyrs; and the splendid + monument of St. Mamas, at Cæsarea, was erected, or at least was + undertaken, by the joint labor of Gallus and Julian. <a + href="#linknote-23.8" name="linknoteref-23.8" id="linknoteref-23.8">8</a> + They respectfully conversed with the bishops, who were eminent for + superior sanctity, and solicited the benediction of the monks and hermits, + who had introduced into Cappadocia the voluntary hardships of the ascetic + life. <a href="#linknote-23.9" name="linknoteref-23.9" id="linknoteref-23.9">9</a> + As the two princes advanced towards the years of manhood, they discovered, + in their religious sentiments, the difference of their characters. The + dull and obstinate understanding of Gallus embraced, with implicit zeal, + the doctrines of Christianity; which never influenced his conduct, or + moderated his passions. The mild disposition of the younger brother was + less repugnant to the precepts of the gospel; and his active curiosity + might have been gratified by a theological system, which explains the + mysterious essence of the Deity, and opens the boundless prospect of + invisible and future worlds. But the independent spirit of Julian refused + to yield the passive and unresisting obedience which was required, in the + name of religion, by the haughty ministers of the church. Their + speculative opinions were imposed as positive laws, and guarded by the + terrors of eternal punishments; but while they prescribed the rigid + formulary of the thoughts, the words, and the actions of the young prince; + whilst they silenced his objections, and severely checked the freedom of + his inquiries, they secretly provoked his impatient genius to disclaim the + authority of his ecclesiastical guides. He was educated in the Lesser + Asia, amidst the scandals of the Arian controversy. <a + href="#linknote-23.10" name="linknoteref-23.10" id="linknoteref-23.10">10</a> + The fierce contests of the Eastern bishops, the incessant alterations of + their creeds, and the profane motives which appeared to actuate their + conduct, insensibly strengthened the prejudice of Julian, that they + neither understood nor believed the religion for which they so fiercely + contended. Instead of listening to the proofs of Christianity with that + favorable attention which adds weight to the most respectable evidence, he + heard with suspicion, and disputed with obstinacy and acuteness, the + doctrines for which he already entertained an invincible aversion. + Whenever the young princes were directed to compose declamations on the + subject of the prevailing controversies, Julian always declared himself + the advocate of Paganism; under the specious excuse that, in the defence + of the weaker cause, his learning and ingenuity might be more + advantageously exercised and displayed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.4" id="linknote-23.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.4">return</a>)<br /> [ Nicomediæ ab Eusebio + educatus Episcopo, quem genere longius contingebat, (Ammian. xxii. 9.) + Julian never expresses any gratitude towards that Arian prelate; but he + celebrates his preceptor, the eunuch Mardonius, and describes his mode of + education, which inspired his pupil with a passionate admiration for the + genius, and perhaps the religion of Homer. Misopogon, p. 351, 352.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.5" id="linknote-23.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.5">return</a>)<br /> [ Greg. Naz. iii. p. 70. He + labored to effect that holy mark in the blood, perhaps of a Taurobolium. + Baron. Annal. Eccles. A. D. 361, No. 3, 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.6" id="linknote-23.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.6">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian himself (Epist. + li. p. 454) assures the Alexandrians that he had been a Christian (he must + mean a sincere one) till the twentieth year of his age.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.7" id="linknote-23.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.7">return</a>)<br /> [ See his Christian, and + even ecclesiastical education, in Gregory, (iii. p. 58,) Socrates, (l. + iii. c. 1,) and Sozomen, (l. v. c. 2.) He escaped very narrowly from being + a bishop, and perhaps a saint.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.8" id="linknote-23.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.8">return</a>)<br /> [ The share of the work + which had been allotted to Gallus, was prosecuted with vigor and success; + but the earth obstinately rejected and subverted the structures which were + imposed by the sacrilegious hand of Julian. Greg. iii. p. 59, 60, 61. Such + a partial earthquake, attested by many living spectators, would form one + of the clearest miracles in ecclesiastical story.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.9" id="linknote-23.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.9">return</a>)<br /> [ The <i>philosopher</i> + (Fragment, p. 288,) ridicules the iron chains, &c, of these solitary + fanatics, (see Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. ix. p. 661, 632,) who had + forgot that man is by nature a gentle and social animal. The <i>Pagan</i> + supposes, that because they had renounced the gods, they were possessed + and tormented by evil dæmons.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.10" id="linknote-23.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.10">return</a>)<br /> [ See Julian apud Cyril, + l. vi. p. 206, l. viii. p. 253, 262. “You persecute,” says he, “those + heretics who do not mourn the dead man precisely in the way which you + approve.” He shows himself a tolerable theologian; but he maintains that + the Christian Trinity is not derived from the doctrine of Paul, of Jesus, + or of Moses.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as Gallus was invested with the honors of the purple, Julian was + permitted to breathe the air of freedom, of literature, and of Paganism. + <a href="#linknote-23.11" name="linknoteref-23.11" id="linknoteref-23.11">11</a> + The crowd of sophists, who were attracted by the taste and liberality of + their royal pupil, had formed a strict alliance between the learning and + the religion of Greece; and the poems of Homer, instead of being admired + as the original productions of human genius, were seriously ascribed to + the heavenly inspiration of Apollo and the muses. The deities of Olympus, + as they are painted by the immortal bard, imprint themselves on the minds + which are the least addicted to superstitious credulity. Our familiar + knowledge of their names and characters, their forms and attributes, <i>seems</i> + to bestow on those airy beings a real and substantial existence; and the + pleasing enchantment produces an imperfect and momentary assent of the + imagination to those fables, which are the most repugnant to our reason + and experience. In the age of Julian, every circumstance contributed to + prolong and fortify the illusion; the magnificent temples of Greece and + Asia; the works of those artists who had expressed, in painting or in + sculpture, the divine conceptions of the poet; the pomp of festivals and + sacrifices; the successful arts of divination; the popular traditions of + oracles and prodigies; and the ancient practice of two thousand years. The + weakness of polytheism was, in some measure, excused by the moderation of + its claims; and the devotion of the Pagans was not incompatible with the + most licentious scepticism. <a href="#linknote-23.12" + name="linknoteref-23.12" id="linknoteref-23.12">12</a> Instead of an + indivisible and regular system, which occupies the whole extent of the + believing mind, the mythology of the Greeks was composed of a thousand + loose and flexible parts, and the servant of the gods was at liberty to + define the degree and measure of his religious faith. The creed which + Julian adopted for his own use was of the largest dimensions; and, by + strange contradiction, he disdained the salutary yoke of the gospel, + whilst he made a voluntary offering of his reason on the altars of Jupiter + and Apollo. One of the orations of Julian is consecrated to the honor of + Cybele, the mother of the gods, who required from her effeminate priests + the bloody sacrifice, so rashly performed by the madness of the Phrygian + boy. The pious emperor condescends to relate, without a blush, and without + a smile, the voyage of the goddess from the shores of Pergamus to the + mouth of the Tyber, and the stupendous miracle, which convinced the senate + and people of Rome that the lump of clay, which their ambassadors had + transported over the seas, was endowed with life, and sentiment, and + divine power. <a href="#linknote-23.13" name="linknoteref-23.13" + id="linknoteref-23.13">13</a> For the truth of this prodigy he appeals to + the public monuments of the city; and censures, with some acrimony, the + sickly and affected taste of those men, who impertinently derided the + sacred traditions of their ancestors. <a href="#linknote-23.14" + name="linknoteref-23.14" id="linknoteref-23.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.11" id="linknote-23.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. + Parentalis, c. 9, 10, p. 232, &c. Greg. Nazianzen. Orat. iii. p 61. + Eunap. Vit. Sophist. in Maximo, p. 68, 69, 70, edit Commelin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.12" id="linknote-23.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.12">return</a>)<br /> [ A modern philosopher + has ingeniously compared the different operation of theism and polytheism, + with regard to the doubt or conviction which they produce in the human + mind. See Hume’s Essays vol. ii. p. 444- 457, in 8vo. edit. 1777.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.13" id="linknote-23.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.13">return</a>)<br /> [ The Idæan mother + landed in Italy about the end of the second Punic war. The miracle of + Claudia, either virgin or matron, who cleared her fame by disgracing the + graver modesty of the Roman Indies, is attested by a cloud of witnesses. + Their evidence is collected by Drakenborch, (ad Silium Italicum, xvii. + 33;) but we may observe that Livy (xxix. 14) slides over the transaction + with discreet ambiguity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.14" id="linknote-23.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.14">return</a>)<br /> [ I cannot refrain from + transcribing the emphatical words of Julian: Orat. v. p. 161. Julian + likewise declares his firm belief in the ancilia, the holy shields, which + dropped from heaven on the Quirinal hill; and pities the strange blindness + of the Christians, who preferred the cross to these celestial trophies. + Apud Cyril. l. vi. p. 194.] + </p> + <p> + But the devout philosopher, who sincerely embraced, and warmly encouraged, + the superstition of the people, reserved for himself the privilege of a + liberal interpretation; and silently withdrew from the foot of the altars + into the sanctuary of the temple. The extravagance of the Grecian + mythology proclaimed, with a clear and audible voice, that the pious + inquirer, instead of being scandalized or satisfied with the literal + sense, should diligently explore the occult wisdom, which had been + disguised, by the prudence of antiquity, under the mask of folly and of + fable. <a href="#linknote-23.15" name="linknoteref-23.15" + id="linknoteref-23.15">15</a> The philosophers of the Platonic school, <a + href="#linknote-23.16" name="linknoteref-23.16" id="linknoteref-23.16">16</a> + Plotinus, Porphyry, and the divine Iamblichus, were admired as the most + skilful masters of this allegorical science, which labored to soften and + harmonize the deformed features of Paganism. Julian himself, who was + directed in the mysterious pursuit by Ædesius, the venerable successor of + Iamblichus, aspired to the possession of a treasure, which he esteemed, if + we may credit his solemn asseverations, far above the empire of the world. + <a href="#linknote-23.17" name="linknoteref-23.17" id="linknoteref-23.17">17</a> + It was indeed a treasure, which derived its value only from opinion; and + every artist who flattered himself that he had extracted the precious ore + from the surrounding dross, claimed an equal right of stamping the name + and figure the most agreeable to his peculiar fancy. The fable of Atys and + Cybele had been already explained by Porphyry; but his labors served only + to animate the pious industry of Julian, who invented and published his + own allegory of that ancient and mystic tale. This freedom of + interpretation, which might gratify the pride of the Platonists, exposed + the vanity of their art. Without a tedious detail, the modern reader could + not form a just idea of the strange allusions, the forced etymologies, the + solemn trifling, and the impenetrable obscurity of these sages, who + professed to reveal the system of the universe. As the traditions of Pagan + mythology were variously related, the sacred interpreters were at liberty + to select the most convenient circumstances; and as they translated an + arbitrary cipher, they could extract from <i>any</i> fable <i>any</i> sense which was + adapted to their favorite system of religion and philosophy. The + lascivious form of a naked Venus was tortured into the discovery of some + moral precept, or some physical truth; and the castration of Atys + explained the revolution of the sun between the tropics, or the separation + of the human soul from vice and error. <a href="#linknote-23.18" + name="linknoteref-23.18" id="linknoteref-23.18">18</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.15" id="linknote-23.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.15">return</a>)<br /> [ See the principles of + allegory, in Julian, (Orat. vii. p. 216, 222.) His reasoning is less + absurd than that of some modern theologians, who assert that an + extravagant or contradictory doctrine must be divine; since no man alive + could have thought of inventing it.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.16" id="linknote-23.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius has made these + sophists the subject of a partial and fanatical history; and the learned + Brucker (Hist. Philosoph. tom. ii. p. 217-303) has employed much labor to + illustrate their obscure lives and incomprehensible doctrines.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.17" id="linknote-23.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian, Orat. vii p + 222. He swears with the most fervent and enthusiastic devotion; and + trembles, lest he should betray too much of these holy mysteries, which + the profane might deride with an impious Sardonic laugh.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.18" id="linknote-23.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.18">return</a>)<br /> [ See the fifth oration + of Julian. But all the allegories which ever issued from the Platonic + school are not worth the short poem of Catullus on the same extraordinary + subject. The transition of Atys, from the wildest enthusiasm to sober, + pathetic complaint, for his irretrievable loss, must inspire a man with + pity, a eunuch with despair.] + </p> + <p> + The theological system of Julian appears to have contained the sublime and + important principles of natural religion. But as the faith, which is not + founded on revelation, must remain destitute of any firm assurance, the + disciple of Plato imprudently relapsed into the habits of vulgar + superstition; and the popular and philosophic notion of the Deity seems to + have been confounded in the practice, the writings, and even in the mind + of Julian. <a href="#linknote-23.19" name="linknoteref-23.19" + id="linknoteref-23.19">19</a> The pious emperor acknowledged and adored the + Eternal Cause of the universe, to whom he ascribed all the perfections of + an infinite nature, invisible to the eyes and inaccessible to the + understanding, of feeble mortals. The Supreme God had created, or rather, + in the Platonic language, had generated, the gradual succession of + dependent spirits, of gods, of dæmons, of heroes, and of men; and every + being which derived its existence immediately from the First Cause, + received the inherent gift of immortality. That so precious an advantage + might not be lavished upon unworthy objects, the Creator had intrusted to the + skill and power of the inferior gods the office of forming the human body, + and of arranging the beautiful harmony of the animal, the vegetable, and + the mineral kingdoms. To the conduct of these divine ministers he + delegated the temporal government of this lower world; but their imperfect + administration is not exempt from discord or error. The earth and its + inhabitants are divided among them, and the characters of Mars or Minerva, + of Mercury or Venus, may be distinctly traced in the laws and manners of + their peculiar votaries. As long as our immortal souls are confined in a + mortal prison, it is our interest, as well as our duty, to solicit the + favor, and to deprecate the wrath, of the powers of heaven; whose pride is + gratified by the devotion of mankind; and whose grosser parts may be + supposed to derive some nourishment from the fumes of sacrifice. <a + href="#linknote-23.20" name="linknoteref-23.20" id="linknoteref-23.20">20</a> + The inferior gods might sometimes condescend to animate the statues, and + to inhabit the temples, which were dedicated to their honor. They might + occasionally visit the earth, but the heavens were the proper throne and + symbol of their glory. The invariable order of the sun, moon, and stars, + was hastily admitted by Julian, as a proof of their <i>eternal</i> duration; and + their eternity was a sufficient evidence that they were the workmanship, + not of an inferior deity, but of the Omnipotent King. In the system of + Platonists, the visible was a type of the invisible world. The celestial + bodies, as they were informed by a divine spirit, might be considered as + the objects the most worthy of religious worship. The Sun, whose genial + influence pervades and sustains the universe, justly claimed the adoration + of mankind, as the bright representative of the Logos, the lively, the + rational, the beneficent image of the intellectual Father. <a + href="#linknote-23.21" name="linknoteref-23.21" id="linknoteref-23.21">21</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.19" id="linknote-23.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.19">return</a>)<br /> [ The true religion of + Julian may be deduced from the Cæsars, p. 308, with Spanheim’s notes and + illustrations, from the fragments in Cyril, l. ii. p. 57, 58, and + especially from the theological oration in Solem Regem, p. 130-158, + addressed in the confidence of friendship, to the præfect Sallust.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.20" id="linknote-23.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian adopts this + gross conception by ascribing to his favorite Marcus Antoninus, (Cæsares, + p. 333.) The Stoics and Platonists hesitated between the analogy of bodies + and the purity of spirits; yet the gravest philosophers inclined to the + whimsical fancy of Aristophanes and Lucian, that an unbelieving age might + starve the immortal gods. See Observations de Spanheim, p. 284, 444, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.21" id="linknote-23.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Epist. li. In + another place, (apud Cyril. l. ii. p. 69,) he calls the Sun God, and the + throne of God. Julian believed the Platonician Trinity; and only blames + the Christians for preferring a mortal to an immortal <i>Logos</i>.] + </p> + <p> + In every age, the absence of genuine inspiration is supplied by the strong + illusions of enthusiasm, and the mimic arts of imposture. If, in the time + of Julian, these arts had been practised only by the pagan priests, for + the support of an expiring cause, some indulgence might perhaps be allowed + to the interest and habits of the sacerdotal character. But it may appear + a subject of surprise and scandal, that the philosophers themselves should + have contributed to abuse the superstitious credulity of mankind, <a + href="#linknote-23.22" name="linknoteref-23.22" id="linknoteref-23.22">22</a> + and that the Grecian mysteries should have been supported by the magic or + theurgy of the modern Platonists. They arrogantly pretended to control the + order of nature, to explore the secrets of futurity, to command the + service of the inferior dæmons, to enjoy the view and conversation of the + superior gods, and by disengaging the soul from her material bands, to + reunite that immortal particle with the Infinite and Divine Spirit. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.22" id="linknote-23.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.22">return</a>)<br /> [ The sophists of + Eunapias perform as many miracles as the saints of the desert; and the + only circumstance in their favor is, that they are of a less gloomy + complexion. Instead of devils with horns and tails, Iamblichus evoked the + genii of love, Eros and Anteros, from two adjacent fountains. Two + beautiful boys issued from the water, fondly embraced him as their father, + and retired at his command, p. 26, 27.] + </p> + <p> + The devout and fearless curiosity of Julian tempted the philosophers with + the hopes of an easy conquest; which, from the situation of their young + proselyte, might be productive of the most important consequences. <a + href="#linknote-23.23" name="linknoteref-23.23" id="linknoteref-23.23">23</a> + Julian imbibed the first rudiments of the Platonic doctrines from the + mouth of Ædesius, who had fixed at Pergamus his wandering and persecuted + school. But as the declining strength of that venerable sage was unequal + to the ardor, the diligence, the rapid conception of his pupil, two of his + most learned disciples, Chrysanthes and Eusebius, supplied, at his own + desire, the place of their aged master. These philosophers seem to have + prepared and distributed their respective parts; and they artfully + contrived, by dark hints and affected disputes, to excite the impatient + hopes of the <i>aspirant</i>, till they delivered him into the hands of their + associate, Maximus, the boldest and most skilful master of the Theurgic + science. By his hands, Julian was secretly initiated at Ephesus, in the + twentieth year of his age. His residence at Athens confirmed this + unnatural alliance of philosophy and superstition. + </p> + <p> + He obtained the privilege of a solemn initiation into the mysteries of + Eleusis, which, amidst the general decay of the Grecian worship, still + retained some vestiges of their primæval sanctity; and such was the zeal + of Julian, that he afterwards invited the Eleusinian pontiff to the court + of Gaul, for the sole purpose of consummating, by mystic rites and + sacrifices, the great work of his sanctification. As these ceremonies were + performed in the depth of caverns, and in the silence of the night, and as + the inviolable secret of the mysteries was preserved by the discretion of + the initiated, I shall not presume to describe the horrid sounds, and + fiery apparitions, which were presented to the senses, or the imagination, + of the credulous aspirant, <a href="#linknote-23.24" name="linknoteref-23.24" + id="linknoteref-23.24">24</a> till the visions of comfort and knowledge + broke upon him in a blaze of celestial light. <a href="#linknote-23.25" + name="linknoteref-23.25" id="linknoteref-23.25">25</a> In the caverns of + Ephesus and Eleusis, the mind of Julian was penetrated with sincere, deep, + and unalterable enthusiasm; though he might sometimes exhibit the + vicissitudes of pious fraud and hypocrisy, which may be observed, or at + least suspected, in the characters of the most conscientious fanatics. + From that moment he consecrated his life to the service of the gods; and + while the occupations of war, of government, and of study, seemed to claim + the whole measure of his time, a stated portion of the hours of the night + was invariably reserved for the exercise of private devotion. The + temperance which adorned the severe manners of the soldier and the + philosopher was connected with some strict and frivolous rules of + religious abstinence; and it was in honor of Pan or Mercury, of Hecate or + Isis, that Julian, on particular days, denied himself the use of some + particular food, which might have been offensive to his tutelar deities. + By these voluntary fasts, he prepared his senses and his understanding for + the frequent and familiar visits with which he was honored by the + celestial powers. Notwithstanding the modest silence of Julian himself, we + may learn from his faithful friend, the orator Libanius, that he lived in + a perpetual intercourse with the gods and goddesses; that they descended + upon earth to enjoy the conversation of their favorite hero; that they + gently interrupted his slumbers by touching his hand or his hair; that + they warned him of every impending danger, and conducted him, by their + infallible wisdom, in every action of his life; and that he had acquired + such an intimate knowledge of his heavenly guests, as readily to + distinguish the voice of Jupiter from that of Minerva, and the form of + Apollo from the figure of Hercules. <a href="#linknote-23.26" + name="linknoteref-23.26" id="linknoteref-23.26">26</a> These sleeping or + waking visions, the ordinary effects of abstinence and fanaticism, would + almost degrade the emperor to the level of an Egyptian monk. But the + useless lives of Antony or Pachomius were consumed in these vain + occupations. Julian could break from the dream of superstition to arm + himself for battle; and after vanquishing in the field the enemies of + Rome, he calmly retired into his tent, to dictate the wise and salutary + laws of an empire, or to indulge his genius in the elegant pursuits of + literature and philosophy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.23" id="linknote-23.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.23">return</a>)<br /> [ The dexterous + management of these sophists, who played their credulous pupil into each + other’s hands, is fairly told by Eunapius (p. 69- 79) with unsuspecting + simplicity. The Abbé de la Bleterie understands, and neatly describes, the + whole comedy, (Vie de Julian, p. 61-67.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.24" id="linknote-23.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.24">return</a>)<br /> [ When Julian, in a + momentary panic, made the sign of the cross the dæmons instantly + disappeared, (Greg. Naz. Orat. iii. p. 71.) Gregory supposes that they + were frightened, but the priests declared that they were indignant. The + reader, according to the measure of his faith, will determine this + profound question.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.25" id="linknote-23.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.25">return</a>)<br /> [ A dark and distant view + of the terrors and joys of initiation is shown by Dion Chrysostom, + Themistius, Proclus, and Stobæus. The learned author of the Divine + Legation has exhibited their words, (vol. i. p. 239, 247, 248, 280, edit. + 1765,) which he dexterously or forcibly applies to his own hypothesis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.26" id="linknote-23.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian’s modesty + confined him to obscure and occasional hints: but Libanius expiates with + pleasure on the facts and visions of the religious hero. (Legat. ad + Julian. p. 157, and Orat. Parental. c. lxxxiii. p. 309, 310.)] + </p> + <p> + The important secret of the apostasy of Julian was intrusted to the + fidelity of the <i>initiated</i>, with whom he was united by the sacred ties of + friendship and religion. <a href="#linknote-23.27" name="linknoteref-23.27" + id="linknoteref-23.27">27</a> The pleasing rumor was cautiously circulated + among the adherents of the ancient worship; and his future greatness + became the object of the hopes, the prayers, and the predictions of the + Pagans, in every province of the empire. From the zeal and virtues of + their royal proselyte, they fondly expected the cure of every evil, and + the restoration of every blessing; and instead of disapproving of the + ardor of their pious wishes, Julian ingenuously confessed, that he was + ambitious to attain a situation in which he might be useful to his country + and to his religion. But this religion was viewed with a hostile eye by + the successor of Constantine, whose capricious passions altercately saved + and threatened the life of Julian. The arts of magic and divination were + strictly prohibited under a despotic government, which condescended to + fear them; and if the Pagans were reluctantly indulged in the exercise of + their superstition, the rank of Julian would have excepted him from the + general toleration. The apostate soon became the presumptive heir of the + monarchy, and his death could alone have appeased the just apprehensions + of the Christians. <a href="#linknote-23.28" name="linknoteref-23.28" + id="linknoteref-23.28">28</a> But the young prince, who aspired to the + glory of a hero rather than of a martyr, consulted his safety by + dissembling his religion; and the easy temper of polytheism permitted him + to join in the public worship of a sect which he inwardly despised. + Libanius has considered the hypocrisy of his friend as a subject, not of + censure, but of praise. “As the statues of the gods,” says that orator, + “which have been defiled with filth, are again placed in a magnificent + temple, so the beauty of truth was seated in the mind of Julian, after it + had been purified from the errors and follies of his education. His + sentiments were changed; but as it would have been dangerous to have + avowed his sentiments, his conduct still continued the same. Very + different from the ass in Æsop, who disguised himself with a lion’s hide, + our lion was obliged to conceal himself under the skin of an ass; and, + while he embraced the dictates of reason, to obey the laws of prudence and + necessity.” <a href="#linknote-23.29" name="linknoteref-23.29" + id="linknoteref-23.29">29</a> The dissimulation of Julian lasted about ten + years, from his secret initiation at Ephesus to the beginning of the civil + war; when he declared himself at once the implacable enemy of Christ and + of Constantius. This state of constraint might contribute to strengthen + his devotion; and as soon as he had satisfied the obligation of assisting, + on solemn festivals, at the assemblies of the Christians, Julian returned, + with the impatience of a lover, to burn his free and voluntary incense on + the domestic chapels of Jupiter and Mercury. But as every act of + dissimulation must be painful to an ingenuous spirit, the profession of + Christianity increased the aversion of Julian for a religion which + oppressed the freedom of his mind, and compelled him to hold a conduct + repugnant to the noblest attributes of human nature, sincerity and + courage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.27" id="linknote-23.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.27">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. + c. x. p. 233, 234. Gallus had some reason to suspect the secret apostasy + of his brother; and in a letter, which may be received as genuine, he + exhorts Julian to adhere to the religion of their <i>ancestors;</i> an argument + which, as it should seem, was not yet perfectly ripe. See Julian, Op. p. + 454, and Hist. de Jovien tom ii. p. 141.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.28" id="linknote-23.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory, (iii. p. 50,) + with inhuman zeal, censures Constantius for paring the infant apostate. + His French translator (p. 265) cautiously observes, that such expressions + must not be prises à la lettre.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.29" id="linknote-23.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. + Parental. c ix. p. 233.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap23.2"></a> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The inclination of Julian might prefer the gods of Homer, and of the + Scipios, to the new faith, which his uncle had established in the Roman + empire; and in which he himself had been sanctified by the sacrament of + baptism. But, as a philosopher, it was incumbent on him to justify his + dissent from Christianity, which was supported by the number of its + converts, by the chain of prophecy, the splendor of miracles, and the + weight of evidence. The elaborate work, <a href="#linknote-23.30" + name="linknoteref-23.30" id="linknoteref-23.30">30</a> which he composed + amidst the preparations of the Persian war, contained the substance of + those arguments which he had long revolved in his mind. Some fragments + have been transcribed and preserved, by his adversary, the vehement Cyril + of Alexandria; <a href="#linknote-23.31" name="linknoteref-23.31" + id="linknoteref-23.31">31</a> and they exhibit a very singular mixture of + wit and learning, of sophistry and fanaticism. The elegance of the style + and the rank of the author, recommended his writings to the public + attention; <a href="#linknote-23.32" name="linknoteref-23.32" + id="linknoteref-23.32">32</a> and in the impious list of the enemies of + Christianity, the celebrated name of Porphyry was effaced by the superior + merit or reputation of Julian. The minds of the faithful were either + seduced, or scandalized, or alarmed; and the pagans, who sometimes + presumed to engage in the unequal dispute, derived, from the popular work + of their Imperial missionary, an inexhaustible supply of fallacious + objections. But in the assiduous prosecution of these theological studies, + the emperor of the Romans imbibed the illiberal prejudices and passions of + a polemic divine. He contracted an irrevocable obligation to maintain and + propagate his religious opinions; and whilst he secretly applauded the + strength and dexterity with which he wielded the weapons of controversy, + he was tempted to distrust the sincerity, or to despise the + understandings, of his antagonists, who could obstinately resist the force + of reason and eloquence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.30" id="linknote-23.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Fabricius (Biblioth. + Græc. l. v. c. viii, p. 88-90) and Lardner (Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. + p. 44-47) have accurately compiled all that can now be discovered of + Julian’s work against the Christians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.31" id="linknote-23.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.31">return</a>)<br /> [ About seventy years + after the death of Julian, he executed a task which had been feebly + attempted by Philip of Side, a prolix and contemptible writer. Even the + work of Cyril has not entirely satisfied the most favorable judges; and + the Abbé de la Bleterie (Preface a l’Hist. de Jovien, p. 30, 32) wishes + that some <i>theologien philosophe</i> (a strange centaur) would undertake the + refutation of Julian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.32" id="linknote-23.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.32">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, (Orat. + Parental. c. lxxxvii. p. 313,) who has been suspected of assisting his + friend, prefers this divine vindication (Orat. ix in necem Julian. p. 255, + edit. Morel.) to the writings of Porphyry. His judgment may be arraigned, + (Socrates, l. iii. c. 23,) but Libanius cannot be accused of flattery to a + dead prince.] + </p> + <p> + The Christians, who beheld with horror and indignation the apostasy of + Julian, had much more to fear from his power than from his arguments. The + pagans, who were conscious of his fervent zeal, expected, perhaps with + impatience, that the flames of persecution should be immediately kindled + against the enemies of the gods; and that the ingenious malice of Julian + would invent some cruel refinements of death and torture which had been + unknown to the rude and inexperienced fury of his predecessors. But the + hopes, as well as the fears, of the religious factions were apparently + disappointed, by the prudent humanity of a prince, <a href="#linknote-23.33" + name="linknoteref-23.33" id="linknoteref-23.33">33</a> who was careful of + his own fame, of the public peace, and of the rights of mankind. + Instructed by history and reflection, Julian was persuaded, that if the + diseases of the body may sometimes be cured by salutary violence, neither + steel nor fire can eradicate the erroneous opinions of the mind. The + reluctant victim may be dragged to the foot of the altar; but the heart + still abhors and disclaims the sacrilegious act of the hand. Religious + obstinacy is hardened and exasperated by oppression; and, as soon as the + persecution subsides, those who have yielded are restored as penitents, + and those who have resisted are honored as saints and martyrs. If Julian + adopted the unsuccessful cruelty of Diocletian and his colleagues, he was + sensible that he should stain his memory with the name of a tyrant, and + add new glories to the Catholic church, which had derived strength and + increase from the severity of the pagan magistrates. Actuated by these + motives, and apprehensive of disturbing the repose of an unsettled reign, + Julian surprised the world by an edict, which was not unworthy of a + statesman, or a philosopher. He extended to all the inhabitants of the + Roman world the benefits of a free and equal toleration; and the only + hardship which he inflicted on the Christians, was to deprive them of the + power of tormenting their fellow-subjects, whom they stigmatized with the + odious titles of idolaters and heretics. The pagans received a gracious + permission, or rather an express order, to open All their temples; <a + href="#linknote-23.34" name="linknoteref-23.34" id="linknoteref-23.34">34</a> + and they were at once delivered from the oppressive laws, and arbitrary + vexations, which they had sustained under the reign of Constantine, and of + his sons. At the same time the bishops and clergy, who had been banished + by the Arian monarch, were recalled from exile, and restored to their + respective churches; the Donatists, the Novatians, the Macedonians, the + Eunomians, and those who, with a more prosperous fortune, adhered to the + doctrine of the Council of Nice. Julian, who understood and derided their + theological disputes, invited to the palace the leaders of the hostile + sects, that he might enjoy the agreeable spectacle of their furious + encounters. The clamor of controversy sometimes provoked the emperor to + exclaim, “Hear me! the Franks have heard me, and the Alemanni;” but he + soon discovered that he was now engaged with more obstinate and implacable + enemies; and though he exerted the powers of oratory to persuade them to + live in concord, or at least in peace, he was perfectly satisfied, before + he dismissed them from his presence, that he had nothing to dread from the + union of the Christians. The impartial Ammianus has ascribed this affected + clemency to the desire of fomenting the intestine divisions of the church, + and the insidious design of undermining the foundations of Christianity, + was inseparably connected with the zeal which Julian professed, to restore + the ancient religion of the empire. <a href="#linknote-23.35" + name="linknoteref-23.35" id="linknoteref-23.35">35</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.33" id="linknote-23.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius (Orat. Parent. + c. lviii. p. 283, 284) has eloquently explained the tolerating principles + and conduct of his Imperial friend. In a very remarkable epistle to the + people of Bostra, Julian himself (Epist. lii.) professes his moderation, + and betrays his zeal, which is acknowledged by Ammianus, and exposed by + Gregory (Orat. iii. p.72)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.34" id="linknote-23.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.34">return</a>)<br /> [ In Greece the temples + of Minerva were opened by his express command, before the death of + Constantius, (Liban. Orat. Parent. c. 55, p. 280;) and Julian declares + himself a Pagan in his public manifesto to the Athenians. This + unquestionable evidence may correct the hasty assertion of Ammianus, who + seems to suppose Constantinople to be the place where he discovered his + attachment to the gods] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.35" id="linknote-23.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xxii. 5. + Sozomen, l. v. c. 5. Bestia moritur, tranquillitas redit.... omnes + episcopi qui de propriis sedibus fuerant exterminati per indulgentiam novi + principis ad acclesias redeunt. Jerom. adversus Luciferianos, tom. ii. p. + 143. Optatus accuses the Donatists for owing their safety to an apostate, + (l. ii. c. 16, p. 36, 37, edit. Dupin.)] + </p> + <p> + As soon as he ascended the throne, he assumed, according to the custom of + his predecessors, the character of supreme pontiff; not only as the most + honorable title of Imperial greatness, but as a sacred and important + office; the duties of which he was resolved to execute with pious + diligence. As the business of the state prevented the emperor from joining + every day in the public devotion of his subjects, he dedicated a domestic + chapel to his tutelar deity the Sun; his gardens were filled with statues + and altars of the gods; and each apartment of the palace displaced the + appearance of a magnificent temple. Every morning he saluted the parent of + light with a sacrifice; the blood of another victim was shed at the moment + when the Sun sunk below the horizon; and the Moon, the Stars, and the + Genii of the night received their respective and seasonable honors from + the indefatigable devotion of Julian. On solemn festivals, he regularly + visited the temple of the god or goddess to whom the day was peculiarly + consecrated, and endeavored to excite the religion of the magistrates and + people by the example of his own zeal. Instead of maintaining the lofty + state of a monarch, distinguished by the splendor of his purple, and + encompassed by the golden shields of his guards, Julian solicited, with + respectful eagerness, the meanest offices which contributed to the worship + of the gods. Amidst the sacred but licentious crowd of priests, of + inferior ministers, and of female dancers, who were dedicated to the + service of the temple, it was the business of the emperor to bring the + wood, to blow the fire, to handle the knife, to slaughter the victim, and, + thrusting his bloody hands into the bowels of the expiring animal, to draw + forth the heart or liver, and to read, with the consummate skill of an + haruspex, imaginary signs of future events. The wisest of the Pagans + censured this extravagant superstition, which affected to despise the + restraints of prudence and decency. Under the reign of a prince, who + practised the rigid maxims of economy, the expense of religious worship + consumed a very large portion of the revenue; a constant supply of the + scarcest and most beautiful birds was transported from distant climates, + to bleed on the altars of the gods; a hundred oxen were frequently + sacrificed by Julian on one and the same day; and it soon became a popular + jest, that if he should return with conquest from the Persian war, the + breed of horned cattle must infallibly be extinguished. Yet this expense + may appear inconsiderable, when it is compared with the splendid presents + which were offered either by the hand, or by order, of the emperor, to all + the celebrated places of devotion in the Roman world; and with the sums + allotted to repair and decorate the ancient temples, which had suffered + the silent decay of time, or the recent injuries of Christian rapine. + Encouraged by the example, the exhortations, the liberality, of their + pious sovereign, the cities and families resumed the practice of their + neglected ceremonies. “Every part of the world,” exclaims Libanius, with + devout transport, “displayed the triumph of religion; and the grateful + prospect of flaming altars, bleeding victims, the smoke of incense, and a + solemn train of priests and prophets, without fear and without danger. The + sound of prayer and of music was heard on the tops of the highest + mountains; and the same ox afforded a sacrifice for the gods, and a supper + for their joyous votaries.” <a href="#linknote-23.36" + name="linknoteref-23.36" id="linknoteref-23.36">36</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.36" id="linknote-23.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.36">return</a>)<br /> [ The restoration of the + Pagan worship is described by Julian, (Misopogon, p. 346,) Libanius, + (Orat. Parent. c. 60, p. 286, 287, and Orat. Consular. ad Julian. p. 245, + 246, edit. Morel.,) Ammianus, (xxii. 12,) and Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. + iv. p. 121.) These writers agree in the essential, and even minute, facts; + but the different lights in which they view the extreme devotion of + Julian, are expressive of the gradations of self-applause, passionate + admiration, mild reproof, and partial invective.] + </p> + <p> + But the genius and power of Julian were unequal to the enterprise of + restoring a religion which was destitute of theological principles, of + moral precepts, and of ecclesiastical discipline; which rapidly hastened + to decay and dissolution, and was not susceptible of any solid or + consistent reformation. The jurisdiction of the supreme pontiff, more + especially after that office had been united with the Imperial dignity, + comprehended the whole extent of the Roman empire. Julian named for his + vicars, in the several provinces, the priests and philosophers whom he + esteemed the best qualified to cooperate in the execution of his great + design; and his pastoral letters, <a href="#linknote-23.37" + name="linknoteref-23.37" id="linknoteref-23.37">37</a> if we may use that + name, still represent a very curious sketch of his wishes and intentions. + He directs, that in every city the sacerdotal order should be composed, + without any distinction of birth and fortune, of those persons who were + the most conspicuous for the love of the gods, and of men. “If they are + guilty,” continues he, “of any scandalous offence, they should be censured + or degraded by the superior pontiff; but as long as they retain their + rank, they are entitled to the respect of the magistrates and people. + Their humility may be shown in the plainness of their domestic garb; their + dignity, in the pomp of holy vestments. When they are summoned in their + turn to officiate before the altar, they ought not, during the appointed + number of days, to depart from the precincts of the temple; nor should a + single day be suffered to elapse, without the prayers and the sacrifice, + which they are obliged to offer for the prosperity of the state, and of + individuals. The exercise of their sacred functions requires an immaculate + purity, both of mind and body; and even when they are dismissed from the + temple to the occupations of common life, it is incumbent on them to excel + in decency and virtue the rest of their fellow-citizens. The priest of the + gods should never be seen in theatres or taverns. His conversation should + be chaste, his diet temperate, his friends of honorable reputation; and if + he sometimes visits the Forum or the Palace, he should appear only as the + advocate of those who have vainly solicited either justice or mercy. His + studies should be suited to the sanctity of his profession. Licentious + tales, or comedies, or satires, must be banished from his library, which + ought solely to consist of historical or philosophical writings; of + history, which is founded in truth, and of philosophy, which is connected + with religion. The impious opinions of the Epicureans and sceptics deserve + his abhorrence and contempt; <a href="#linknote-23.38" + name="linknoteref-23.38" id="linknoteref-23.38">38</a> but he should + diligently study the systems of Pythagoras, of Plato, and of the Stoics, + which unanimously teach that there <i>are</i> gods; that the world is governed by + their providence; that their goodness is the source of every temporal + blessing; and that they have prepared for the human soul a future state of + reward or punishment.” The Imperial pontiff inculcates, in the most + persuasive language, the duties of benevolence and hospitality; exhorts + his inferior clergy to recommend the universal practice of those virtues; + promises to assist their indigence from the public treasury; and declares + his resolution of establishing hospitals in every city, where the poor + should be received without any invidious distinction of country or of + religion. Julian beheld with envy the wise and humane regulations of the + church; and he very frankly confesses his intention to deprive the + Christians of the applause, as well as advantage, which they had acquired + by the exclusive practice of charity and beneficence. <a + href="#linknote-23.39" name="linknoteref-23.39" id="linknoteref-23.39">39</a> + The same spirit of imitation might dispose the emperor to adopt several + ecclesiastical institutions, the use and importance of which were approved + by the success of his enemies. But if these imaginary plans of reformation + had been realized, the forced and imperfect copy would have been less + beneficial to Paganism, than honorable to Christianity. <a + href="#linknote-23.40" name="linknoteref-23.40" id="linknoteref-23.40">40</a> + The Gentiles, who peaceably followed the customs of their ancestors, were + rather surprised than pleased with the introduction of foreign manners; + and in the short period of his reign, Julian had frequent occasions to + complain of the want of fervor of his own party. <a href="#linknote-23.41" + name="linknoteref-23.41" id="linknoteref-23.41">41</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.37" id="linknote-23.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.37">return</a>)<br /> [ See Julian. Epistol. + xlix. lxii. lxiii., and a long and curious fragment, without beginning or + end, (p. 288-305.) The supreme pontiff derides the Mosaic history and the + Christian discipline, prefers the Greek poets to the Hebrew prophets, and + palliates, with the skill of a Jesuit the <i>relative</i> worship of images.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.38" id="linknote-23.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.38">return</a>)<br /> [ The exultation of + Julian (p. 301) that these impious sects and even their writings, are + extinguished, may be consistent enough with the sacerdotal character; but + it is unworthy of a philosopher to wish that any opinions and arguments + the most repugnant to his own should be concealed from the knowledge of + mankind.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.39" id="linknote-23.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet he insinuates, that + the Christians, under the pretence of charity, inveigled children from + their religion and parents, conveyed them on shipboard, and devoted those + victims to a life of poverty or pervitude in a remote country, (p. 305.) + Had the charge been proved it was his duty, not to complain, but to + punish.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.40" id="linknote-23.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.40">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory Nazianzen is + facetious, ingenious, and argumentative, (Orat. iii. p. 101, 102, &c.) + He ridicules the folly of such vain imitation; and amuses himself with + inquiring, what lessons, moral or theological, could be extracted from the + Grecian fables.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.41" id="linknote-23.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.41">return</a>)<br /> [ He accuses one of his + pontiffs of a secret confederacy with the Christian bishops and + presbyters, (Epist. lxii.) &c. Epist. lxiii.] + </p> + <p> + The enthusiasm of Julian prompted him to embrace the friends of Jupiter as + his personal friends and brethren; and though he partially overlooked the + merit of Christian constancy, he admired and rewarded the noble + perseverance of those Gentiles who had preferred the favor of the gods to + that of the emperor. <a href="#linknote-23.42" name="linknoteref-23.42" + id="linknoteref-23.42">42</a> If they cultivated the literature, as well as + the religion, of the Greeks, they acquired an additional claim to the + friendship of Julian, who ranked the Muses in the number of his tutelar + deities. In the religion which he had adopted, piety and learning were + almost synonymous; <a href="#linknote-23.43" name="linknoteref-23.43" + id="linknoteref-23.43">43</a> and a crowd of poets, of rhetoricians, and of + philosophers, hastened to the Imperial court, to occupy the vacant places + of the bishops, who had seduced the credulity of Constantius. His + successor esteemed the ties of common initiation as far more sacred than + those of consanguinity; he chose his favorites among the sages, who were + deeply skilled in the occult sciences of magic and divination; and every + impostor, who pretended to reveal the secrets of futurity, was assured of + enjoying the present hour in honor and affluence. <a href="#linknote-23.44" + name="linknoteref-23.44" id="linknoteref-23.44">44</a> Among the + philosophers, Maximus obtained the most eminent rank in the friendship of + his royal disciple, who communicated, with unreserved confidence, his + actions, his sentiments, and his religious designs, during the anxious + suspense of the civil war. <a href="#linknote-23.45" name="linknoteref-23.45" + id="linknoteref-23.45">45</a> As soon as Julian had taken possession of the + palace of Constantinople, he despatched an honorable and pressing + invitation to Maximus, who then resided at Sardes in Lydia, with + Chrysanthius, the associate of his art and studies. The prudent and + superstitious Chrysanthius refused to undertake a journey which showed + itself, according to the rules of divination, with the most threatening + and malignant aspect: but his companion, whose fanaticism was of a bolder + cast, persisted in his interrogations, till he had extorted from the gods + a seeming consent to his own wishes, and those of the emperor. The journey + of Maximus through the cities of Asia displayed the triumph of philosophic + vanity; and the magistrates vied with each other in the honorable + reception which they prepared for the friend of their sovereign. Julian + was pronouncing an oration before the senate, when he was informed of the + arrival of Maximus. The emperor immediately interrupted his discourse, + advanced to meet him, and after a tender embrace, conducted him by the + hand into the midst of the assembly; where he publicly acknowledged the + benefits which he had derived from the instructions of the philosopher. + Maximus, <a href="#linknote-23.46" name="linknoteref-23.46" + id="linknoteref-23.46">46</a> who soon acquired the confidence, and + influenced the councils of Julian, was insensibly corrupted by the + temptations of a court. His dress became more splendid, his demeanor more + lofty, and he was exposed, under a succeeding reign, to a disgraceful + inquiry into the means by which the disciple of Plato had accumulated, in + the short duration of his favor, a very scandalous proportion of wealth. + Of the other philosophers and sophists, who were invited to the Imperial + residence by the choice of Julian, or by the success of Maximus, few were + able to preserve their innocence or their reputation. The liberal gifts of + money, lands, and houses, were insufficient to satiate their rapacious + avarice; and the indignation of the people was justly excited by the + remembrance of their abject poverty and disinterested professions. The + penetration of Julian could not always be deceived: but he was unwilling + to despise the characters of those men whose talents deserved his esteem: + he desired to escape the double reproach of imprudence and inconstancy; + and he was apprehensive of degrading, in the eyes of the profane, the + honor of letters and of religion. <a href="#linknote-23.47" + name="linknoteref-23.47" id="linknoteref-23.47">47</a> <a + href="#linknote-23.48" name="linknoteref-23.48" id="linknoteref-23.48">48</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.42" id="linknote-23.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.42">return</a>)<br /> [ He praises the fidelity + of Callixene, priestess of Ceres, who had been twice as constant as + Penelope, and rewards her with the priesthood of the Phrygian goddess at + Pessinus, (Julian. Epist. xxi.) He applauds the firmness of Sopater of + Hierapolis, who had been repeatedly pressed by Constantius and Gallus to + <i>apostatize</i>, (Epist. xxvii p. 401.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.43" id="linknote-23.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.43">return</a>)<br /> [ Orat. Parent. c. 77, p. + 202. The same sentiment is frequently inculcated by Julian, Libanius, and + the rest of their party.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.44" id="linknote-23.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.44">return</a>)<br /> [ The curiosity and + credulity of the emperor, who tried every mode of divination, are fairly + exposed by Ammianus, xxii. 12.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.45" id="linknote-23.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.45">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Epist. xxxviii. + Three other epistles, (xv. xvi. xxxix.,) in the same style of friendship + and confidence, are addressed to the philosopher Maximus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.46" id="linknote-23.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius (in Maximo, p. + 77, 78, 79, and in Chrysanthio, p. 147, 148) has minutely related these + anecdotes, which he conceives to be the most important events of the age. + Yet he fairly confesses the frailty of Maximus. His reception at + Constantinople is described by Libanius (Orat. Parent. c. 86, p. 301) and + Ammianus, (xxii. 7.) * Note: Eunapius wrote a continuation of the History + of Dexippus. Some valuable fragments of this work have been recovered by + M. Mai, and reprinted in Niebuhr’s edition of the Byzantine Historians.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.47" id="linknote-23.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Chrysanthius, who had + refused to quit Lydia, was created high priest of the province. His + cautious and temperate use of power secured him after the revolution; and + he lived in peace, while Maximus, Priscus, &c., were persecuted by the + Christian ministers. See the adventures of those fanatic sophists, + collected by Brucker, tom ii. p. 281-293.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.48" id="linknote-23.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Sec Libanius (Orat. + Parent. c. 101, 102, p. 324, 325, 326) and Eunapius, (Vit. Sophist. in + Proæresio, p. 126.) Some students, whose expectations perhaps were + groundless, or extravagant, retired in disgust, (Greg. Naz. Orat. iv. p. + 120.) It is strange that we should not be able to contradict the title of + one of Tillemont’s chapters, (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 960,) “La + Cour de Julien est pleine de philosphes et de gens perdus.”] + </p> + <p> + The favor of Julian was almost equally divided between the Pagans, who had + firmly adhered to the worship of their ancestors, and the Christians, who + prudently embraced the religion of their sovereign. The acquisition of new + proselytes <a href="#linknote-23.49" name="linknoteref-23.49" + id="linknoteref-23.49">49</a> gratified the ruling passions of his soul, + superstition and vanity; and he was heard to declare, with the enthusiasm + of a missionary, that if he could render each individual richer than + Midas, and every city greater than Babylon, he should not esteem himself + the benefactor of mankind, unless, at the same time, he could reclaim his + subjects from their impious revolt against the immortal gods. <a + href="#linknote-23.50" name="linknoteref-23.50" id="linknoteref-23.50">50</a> + A prince who had studied human nature, and who possessed the treasures of + the Roman empire, could adapt his arguments, his promises, and his + rewards, to every order of Christians; <a href="#linknote-23.51" + name="linknoteref-23.51" id="linknoteref-23.51">51</a> and the merit of a + seasonable conversion was allowed to supply the defects of a candidate, or + even to expiate the guilt of a criminal. As the army is the most forcible + engine of absolute power, Julian applied himself, with peculiar diligence, + to corrupt the religion of his troops, without whose hearty concurrence + every measure must be dangerous and unsuccessful; and the natural temper + of soldiers made this conquest as easy as it was important. The legions of + Gaul devoted themselves to the faith, as well as to the fortunes, of their + victorious leader; and even before the death of Constantius, he had the + satisfaction of announcing to his friends, that they assisted with fervent + devotion, and voracious appetite, at the sacrifices, which were repeatedly + offered in his camp, of whole hecatombs of fat oxen. <a + href="#linknote-23.52" name="linknoteref-23.52" id="linknoteref-23.52">52</a> + The armies of the East, which had been trained under the standard of the + cross, and of Constantius, required a more artful and expensive mode of + persuasion. On the days of solemn and public festivals, the emperor + received the homage, and rewarded the merit, of the troops. His throne of + state was encircled with the military ensigns of Rome and the republic; + the holy name of Christ was erased from the <i>Labarum;</i> and the symbols of + war, of majesty, and of pagan superstition, were so dexterously blended, + that the faithful subject incurred the guilt of idolatry, when he + respectfully saluted the person or image of his sovereign. The soldiers + passed successively in review; and each of them, before he received from + the hand of Julian a liberal donative, proportioned to his rank and + services, was required to cast a few grains of incense into the flame + which burnt upon the altar. Some Christian confessors might resist, and + others might repent; but the far greater number, allured by the prospect + of gold, and awed by the presence of the emperor, contracted the criminal + engagement; and their future perseverance in the worship of the gods was + enforced by every consideration of duty and of interest. + </p> + <p> + By the frequent repetition of these arts, and at the expense of sums which + would have purchased the service of half the nations of Scythia, Julian + gradually acquired for his troops the imaginary protection of the gods, + and for himself the firm and effectual support of the Roman legions. <a + href="#linknote-23.53" name="linknoteref-23.53" id="linknoteref-23.53">53</a> + It is indeed more than probable, that the restoration and encouragement of + Paganism revealed a multitude of pretended Christians, who, from motives + of temporal advantage, had acquiesced in the religion of the former reign; + and who afterwards returned, with the same flexibility of conscience, to + the faith which was professed by the successors of Julian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.49" id="linknote-23.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.49">return</a>)<br /> [ Under the reign of + Lewis XIV. his subjects of every rank aspired to the glorious title of + <i>Convertisseur</i>, expressive of their zea and success in making proselytes. + The word and the idea are growing obsolete in France may they never be + introduced into England.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.50" id="linknote-23.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.50">return</a>)<br /> [ See the strong + expressions of Libanius, which were probably those of Julian himself, + (Orat. Parent. c. 59, p. 285.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.51" id="linknote-23.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.51">return</a>)<br /> [ When Gregory Nazianzen + (Orat. x. p. 167) is desirous to magnify the Christian firmness of his + brother Cæsarius, physician to the Imperial court, he owns that Cæsarius + disputed with a formidable adversary. In his invectives he scarcely allows + any share of wit or courage to the apostate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.52" id="linknote-23.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian, Epist. xxxviii. + Ammianus, xxii. 12. Adeo ut in dies pæne singulos milites carnis + distentiore sagina victitantes incultius, potusque aviditate correpti, + humeris impositi transeuntium per plateas, ex publicis ædibus..... ad sua + diversoria portarentur. The devout prince and the indignant historian + describe the same scene; and in Illyricum or Antioch, similar causes must + have produced similar effects.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.53" id="linknote-23.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory (Orat. iii. p. + 74, 75, 83-86) and Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. lxxxi. lxxxii. p. 307, + 308,). The sophist owns and justifies the expense of these military + conversions.] + </p> + <p> + While the devout monarch incessantly labored to restore and propagate the + religion of his ancestors, he embraced the extraordinary design of + rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem. In a public epistle <a + href="#linknote-23.54" name="linknoteref-23.54" id="linknoteref-23.54">54</a> + to the nation or community of the Jews, dispersed through the provinces, + he pities their misfortunes, condemns their oppressors, praises their + constancy, declares himself their gracious protector, and expresses a + pious hope, that after his return from the Persian war, he may be + permitted to pay his grateful vows to the Almighty in his holy city of + Jerusalem. The blind superstition, and abject slavery, of those + unfortunate exiles, must excite the contempt of a philosophic emperor; but + they deserved the friendship of Julian, by their implacable hatred of the + Christian name. The barren synagogue abhorred and envied the fecundity of + the rebellious church; the power of the Jews was not equal to their + malice; but their gravest rabbis approved the private murder of an + apostate; <a href="#linknote-23.55" name="linknoteref-23.55" + id="linknoteref-23.55">55</a> and their seditious clamors had often + awakened the indolence of the Pagan magistrates. Under the reign of + Constantine, the Jews became the subjects of their revolted children nor + was it long before they experienced the bitterness of domestic tyranny. + The civil immunities which had been granted, or confirmed, by Severus, + were gradually repealed by the Christian princes; and a rash tumult, + excited by the Jews of Palestine, <a href="#linknote-23.56" + name="linknoteref-23.56" id="linknoteref-23.56">56</a> seemed to justify the + lucrative modes of oppression which were invented by the bishops and + eunuchs of the court of Constantius. The Jewish patriarch, who was still + permitted to exercise a precarious jurisdiction, held his residence at + Tiberias; <a href="#linknote-23.57" name="linknoteref-23.57" + id="linknoteref-23.57">57</a> and the neighboring cities of Palestine were + filled with the remains of a people who fondly adhered to the promised + land. But the edict of Hadrian was renewed and enforced; and they viewed + from afar the walls of the holy city, which were profaned in their eyes by + the triumph of the cross and the devotion of the Christians. <a + href="#linknote-23.58" name="linknoteref-23.58" id="linknoteref-23.58">58</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.54" id="linknote-23.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.54">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian’s epistle (xxv.) + is addressed to the community of the Jews. Aldus (Venet. 1499) has branded + it with an; but this stigma is justly removed by the subsequent editors, + Petavius and Spanheim. This epistle is mentioned by Sozomen, (l. v. c. + 22,) and the purport of it is confirmed by Gregory, (Orat. iv. p. 111.) + and by Julian himself (Fragment. p. 295.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.55" id="linknote-23.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.55">return</a>)<br /> [ The Misnah denounced + death against those who abandoned the foundation. The judgment of zeal is + explained by Marsham (Canon. Chron. p. 161, 162, edit. fol. London, 1672) + and Basnage, (Hist. des Juifs, tom. viii. p. 120.) Constantine made a law + to protect Christian converts from Judaism. Cod. Theod. l. xvi. tit. viii. + leg. 1. Godefroy, tom. vi. p. 215.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.56" id="linknote-23.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.56">return</a>)<br /> [ Et interea (during the + civil war of Magnentius) Judæorum seditio, qui Patricium, nefarie in + regni speciem sustulerunt, oppressa. Aurelius Victor, in Constantio, c. + xlii. See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 379, in 4to.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.57" id="linknote-23.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.57">return</a>)<br /> [ The city and synagogue + of Tiberias are curiously described by Reland. Palestin. tom. ii. p. + 1036-1042.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.58" id="linknote-23.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.58">return</a>)<br /> [ Basnage has fully + illustrated the state of the Jews under Constantine and his successors, + (tom. viii. c. iv. p. 111-153.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap23.3"></a> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + In the midst of a rocky and barren country, the walls of Jerusalem <a + href="#linknote-23.59" name="linknoteref-23.59" id="linknoteref-23.59">59</a> + enclosed the two mountains of Sion and Acra, within an oval figure of + about three English miles. <a href="#linknote-23.60" name="linknoteref-23.60" + id="linknoteref-23.60">60</a> Towards the south, the upper town, and the + fortress of David, were erected on the lofty ascent of Mount Sion: on the + north side, the buildings of the lower town covered the spacious summit of + Mount Acra; and a part of the hill, distinguished by the name of Moriah, + and levelled by human industry, was crowned with the stately temple of the + Jewish nation. After the final destruction of the temple by the arms of + Titus and Hadrian, a ploughshare was drawn over the consecrated ground, as + a sign of perpetual interdiction. Sion was deserted; and the vacant space + of the lower city was filled with the public and private edifices of the + Ælian colony, which spread themselves over the adjacent hill of Calvary. + The holy places were polluted with mountains of idolatry; and, either from + design or accident, a chapel was dedicated to Venus, on the spot which had + been sanctified by the death and resurrection of Christ. <a + href="#linknote-23.61" name="linknoteref-23.61" id="linknoteref-23.61">61</a> + <a href="#linknote-23.6111" name="linknoteref-23.6111" + id="linknoteref-23.6111">6111</a> Almost three hundred years after those + stupendous events, the profane chapel of Venus was demolished by the order + of Constantine; and the removal of the earth and stones revealed the holy + sepulchre to the eyes of mankind. A magnificent church was erected on that + mystic ground, by the first Christian emperor; and the effects of his + pious munificence were extended to every spot which had been consecrated + by the footstep of patriarchs, of prophets, and of the Son of God. <a + href="#linknote-23.62" name="linknoteref-23.62" id="linknoteref-23.62">62</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.59" id="linknote-23.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.59">return</a>)<br /> [ Reland (Palestin. l. i. + p. 309, 390, l. iii. p. 838) describes, with learning and perspicuity, + Jerusalem, and the face of the adjacent country.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.60" id="linknote-23.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.60">return</a>)<br /> [ I have consulted a rare + and curious treatise of M. D’Anville, (sur l’Ancienne Jerusalem, Paris, + 1747, p. 75.) The circumference of the ancient city (Euseb. Preparat. + Evangel. l. ix. c. 36) was 27 stadia, or 2550 <i>toises</i>. A plan, taken on the + spot, assigns no more than 1980 for the modern town. The circuit is + defined by natural landmarks, which cannot be mistaken or removed.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.61" id="linknote-23.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.61">return</a>)<br /> [ See two curious + passages in Jerom, (tom. i. p. 102, tom. vi. p. 315,) and the ample + details of Tillemont, (Hist, des Empereurs, tom. i. p. 569. tom. ii. p. + 289, 294, 4to edition.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.6111" id="linknote-23.6111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6111 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.6111">return</a>)<br /> [ On the site of the + Holy Sepulchre, compare the chapter in Professor Robinson’s Travels in + Palestine, which has renewed the old controversy with great vigor. To me, + this temple of Venus, said to have been erected by Hadrian to insult the + Christians, is not the least suspicious part of the whole legend.-M. + 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.62" id="linknote-23.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Eusebius in Vit. + Constantin. l. iii. c. 25-47, 51-53. The emperor likewise built churches + at Bethlem, the Mount of Olives, and the oa of Mambre. The holy sepulchre + is described by Sandys, (Travels, p. 125-133,) and curiously delineated by + Le Bruyn, (Voyage au Levant, p. 28-296.)] + </p> + <p> + The passionate desire of contemplating the original monuments of their + redemption attracted to Jerusalem a successive crowd of pilgrims, from the + shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and the most distant countries of the East; + <a href="#linknote-23.63" name="linknoteref-23.63" id="linknoteref-23.63">63</a> + and their piety was authorized by the example of the empress Helena, who + appears to have united the credulity of age with the warm feelings of a + recent conversion. Sages and heroes, who have visited the memorable scenes + of ancient wisdom or glory, have confessed the inspiration of the genius + of the place; <a href="#linknote-23.64" name="linknoteref-23.64" + id="linknoteref-23.64">64</a> and the Christian who knelt before the holy + sepulchre, ascribed his lively faith, and his fervent devotion, to the + more immediate influence of the Divine Spirit. The zeal, perhaps the + avarice, of the clergy of Jerusalem, cherished and multiplied these + beneficial visits. They fixed, by unquestionable tradition, the scene of + each memorable event. They exhibited the instruments which had been used + in the passion of Christ; the nails and the lance that had pierced his + hands, his feet, and his side; the crown of thorns that was planted on his + head; the pillar at which he was scourged; and, above all, they showed the + cross on which he suffered, and which was dug out of the earth in the + reign of those princes, who inserted the symbol of Christianity in the + banners of the Roman legions. <a href="#linknote-23.65" + name="linknoteref-23.65" id="linknoteref-23.65">65</a> Such miracles as + seemed necessary to account for its extraordinary preservation, and + seasonable discovery, were gradually propagated without opposition. The + custody of the <i>true cross</i>, which on Easter Sunday was solemnly exposed to + the people, was intrusted to the bishop of Jerusalem; and he alone might + gratify the curious devotion of the pilgrims, by the gift of small pieces, + which they encased in gold or gems, and carried away in triumph to their + respective countries. But as this gainful branch of commerce must soon + have been annihilated, it was found convenient to suppose, that the + marvelous wood possessed a secret power of vegetation; and that its + substance, though continually diminished, still remained entire and + unimpaired. <a href="#linknote-23.66" name="linknoteref-23.66" + id="linknoteref-23.66">66</a> It might perhaps have been expected, that the + influence of the place and the belief of a perpetual miracle, should have + produced some salutary effects on the morals, as well as on the faith, of + the people. Yet the most respectable of the ecclesiastical writers have + been obliged to confess, not only that the streets of Jerusalem were + filled with the incessant tumult of business and pleasure, <a + href="#linknote-23.67" name="linknoteref-23.67" id="linknoteref-23.67">67</a> + but that every species of vice—adultery, theft, idolatry, poisoning, + murder—was familiar to the inhabitants of the holy city. <a + href="#linknote-23.68" name="linknoteref-23.68" id="linknoteref-23.68">68</a> + The wealth and preëminence of the church of Jerusalem excited the ambition + of Arian, as well as orthodox, candidates; and the virtues of Cyril, who, + since his death, has been honored with the title of Saint, were displayed + in the exercise, rather than in the acquisition, of his episcopal dignity. + <a href="#linknote-23.69" name="linknoteref-23.69" id="linknoteref-23.69">69</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.63" id="linknote-23.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.63">return</a>)<br /> [ The Itinerary from + Bourdeaux to Jerusalem was composed in the year 333, for the use of + pilgrims; among whom Jerom (tom. i. p. 126) mentions the Britons and the + Indians. The causes of this superstitious fashion are discussed in the + learned and judicious preface of Wesseling. (Itinarar. p. 537-545.) + ——Much curious information on this subject is collected in the + first chapter of Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzzüge.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.64" id="linknote-23.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Cicero (de Finibus, v. + 1) has beautifully expressed the common sense of mankind.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.65" id="linknote-23.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Baronius (Annal. + Eccles. A. D. 326, No. 42-50) and Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. xii. p. + 8-16) are the historians and champions of the miraculous <i>invention</i> of the + cross, under the reign of Constantine. Their oldest witnesses are + Paulinus, Sulpicius Severus, Rufinus, Ambrose, and perhaps Cyril of + Jerusalem. The silence of Eusebius, and the Bourdeaux pilgrim, which + satisfies those who think perplexes those who believe. See Jortin’s + sensible remarks, vol. ii. p 238-248.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.66" id="linknote-23.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.66">return</a>)<br /> [ This multiplication is + asserted by Paulinus, (Epist. xxxvi. See Dupin. Bibliot. Eccles. tom. iii. + p. 149,) who seems to have improved a rhetorical flourish of Cyril into a + real fact. The same supernatural privilege must have been communicated to + the Virgin’s milk, (Erasmi Opera, tom. i. p. 778, Lugd. Batav. 1703, in + Colloq. de Peregrinat. Religionis ergo,) saints’ heads, &c. and other + relics, which are repeated in so many different churches. * Note: Lord + Mahon, in a memoir read before the Society of Antiquaries, (Feb. 1831,) + has traced in a brief but interesting manner, the singular adventures of + the “true” cross. It is curious to inquire, what authority we have, except + of <i>late</i> tradition, for the <i>Hill</i> of Calvary. There is none in the sacred + writings; the uniform use of the common word, instead of any word + expressing assent or acclivity, is against the notion.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.67" id="linknote-23.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.67">return</a>)<br /> [ Jerom, (tom. i. p. + 103,) who resided in the neighboring village of Bethlem, describes the + vices of Jerusalem from his personal experience.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.68" id="linknote-23.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregor. Nyssen, apud + Wesseling, p. 539. The whole epistle, which condemns either the use or the + abuse of religious pilgrimage, is painful to the Catholic divines, while + it is dear and familiar to our Protestant polemics.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.69" id="linknote-23.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.69">return</a>)<br /> [ He renounced his + orthodox ordination, officiated as a deacon, and was re-ordained by the + hands of the Arians. But Cyril afterwards changed with the times, and + prudently conformed to the Nicene faith. Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. tom. + viii.,) who treats his memory with tenderness and respect, has thrown his + virtues into the text, and his faults into the notes, in decent obscurity, + at the end of the volume.] + </p> + <p> + The vain and ambitious mind of Julian might aspire to restore the ancient + glory of the temple of Jerusalem. <a href="#linknote-23.70" + name="linknoteref-23.70" id="linknoteref-23.70">70</a> As the Christians + were firmly persuaded that a sentence of everlasting destruction had been + pronounced against the whole fabric of the Mosaic law, the Imperial + sophist would have converted the success of his undertaking into a + specious argument against the faith of prophecy, and the truth of + revelation. <a href="#linknote-23.71" name="linknoteref-23.71" + id="linknoteref-23.71">71</a> He was displeased with the spiritual worship + of the synagogue; but he approved the institutions of Moses, who had not + disdained to adopt many of the rites and ceremonies of Egypt. <a + href="#linknote-23.72" name="linknoteref-23.72" id="linknoteref-23.72">72</a> + The local and national deity of the Jews was sincerely adored by a + polytheist, who desired only to multiply the number of the gods; <a + href="#linknote-23.73" name="linknoteref-23.73" id="linknoteref-23.73">73</a> + and such was the appetite of Julian for bloody sacrifice, that his + emulation might be excited by the piety of Solomon, who had offered, at + the feast of the dedication, twenty-two thousand oxen, and one hundred and + twenty thousand sheep. <a href="#linknote-23.74" name="linknoteref-23.74" + id="linknoteref-23.74">74</a> These considerations might influence his + designs; but the prospect of an immediate and important advantage would + not suffer the impatient monarch to expect the remote and uncertain event + of the Persian war. He resolved to erect, without delay, on the commanding + eminence of Moriah, a stately temple, which might eclipse the splendor of + the church of the resurrection on the adjacent hill of Calvary; to + establish an order of priests, whose interested zeal would detect the + arts, and resist the ambition, of their Christian rivals; and to invite a + numerous colony of Jews, whose stern fanaticism would be always prepared + to second, and even to anticipate, the hostile measures of the Pagan + government. Among the friends of the emperor (if the names of emperor, and + of friend, are not incompatible) the first place was assigned, by Julian + himself, to the virtuous and learned Alypius. <a href="#linknote-23.75" + name="linknoteref-23.75" id="linknoteref-23.75">75</a> The humanity of + Alypius was tempered by severe justice and manly fortitude; and while he + exercised his abilities in the civil administration of Britain, he + imitated, in his poetical compositions, the harmony and softness of the + odes of Sappho. This minister, to whom Julian communicated, without + reserve, his most careless levities, and his most serious counsels, + received an extraordinary commission to restore, in its pristine beauty, + the temple of Jerusalem; and the diligence of Alypius required and + obtained the strenuous support of the governor of Palestine. At the call + of their great deliverer, the Jews, from all the provinces of the empire, + assembled on the holy mountain of their fathers; and their insolent + triumph alarmed and exasperated the Christian inhabitants of Jerusalem. + The desire of rebuilding the temple has in every age been the ruling + passion of the children of Israel. In this propitious moment the men + forgot their avarice, and the women their delicacy; spades and pickaxes of + silver were provided by the vanity of the rich, and the rubbish was + transported in mantles of silk and purple. Every purse was opened in + liberal contributions, every hand claimed a share in the pious labor, and + the commands of a great monarch were executed by the enthusiasm of a whole + people. <a href="#linknote-23.76" name="linknoteref-23.76" + id="linknoteref-23.76">76</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.70" id="linknote-23.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Imperii sui memoriam + magnitudine operum gestiens propagare Ammian. xxiii. 1. The temple of + Jerusalem had been famous even among the Gentiles. <i>They</i> had many temples + in each city, (at Sichem five, at Gaza eight, at Rome four hundred and + twenty-four;) but the wealth and religion of the Jewish nation was centred + in one spot.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.71" id="linknote-23.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.71">return</a>)<br /> [ The secret intentions + of Julian are revealed by the late bishop of Gloucester, the learned and + dogmatic Warburton; who, with the authority of a theologian, prescribes + the motives and conduct of the Supreme Being. The discourse entitled + <i>Julian</i> (2d edition, London, 1751) is strongly marked with all the + peculiarities which are imputed to the Warburtonian school.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.72" id="linknote-23.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.72">return</a>)<br /> [ I shelter myself behind + Maimonides, Marsham, Spencer, Le Clerc, Warburton, &c., who have + fairly derided the fears, the folly, and the falsehood of some + superstitious divines. See Divine Legation, vol. iv. p. 25, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.73" id="linknote-23.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.73">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (Fragment. p. + 295) respectfully styles him, and mentions him elsewhere (Epist. lxiii.) + with still higher reverence. He doubly condemns the Christians for + believing, and for renouncing, the religion of the Jews. Their Deity was a + <i>true</i>, but not the <i>only</i>, God Apul Cyril. l. ix. p. 305, 306.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.74" id="linknote-23.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.74">return</a>)<br /> [ 1 Kings, viii. 63. 2 + Chronicles, vii. 5. Joseph. Antiquitat. Judaic. l. viii. c. 4, p. 431, + edit. Havercamp. As the blood and smoke of so many hecatombs might be + inconvenient, Lightfoot, the Christian Rabbi, removes them by a miracle. + Le Clerc (ad loca) is bold enough to suspect to fidelity of the numbers. * + Note: According to the historian Kotobeddym, quoted by Burckhardt, + (Travels in Arabia, p. 276,) the Khalif Mokteder sacrificed, during his + pilgrimage to Mecca, in the year of the Hejira 350, forty thousand camels + and cows, and fifty thousand sheep. Barthema describes thirty thousand + oxen slain, and their carcasses given to the poor. Quarterly Review, + xiii.p.39—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.75" id="linknote-23.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian, epist. xxix. + xxx. La Bleterie has neglected to translate the second of these epistles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.76" id="linknote-23.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.76">return</a>)<br /> [ See the zeal and + impatience of the Jews in Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. iv. p. 111) and + Theodoret. (l. iii. c. 20.)] + </p> + <p> + Yet, on this occasion, the joint efforts of power and enthusiasm were + unsuccessful; and the ground of the Jewish temple, which is now covered by + a Mahometan mosque, <a href="#linknote-23.77" name="linknoteref-23.77" + id="linknoteref-23.77">77</a> still continued to exhibit the same edifying + spectacle of ruin and desolation. Perhaps the absence and death of the + emperor, and the new maxims of a Christian reign, might explain the + interruption of an arduous work, which was attempted only in the last six + months of the life of Julian. <a href="#linknote-23.78" + name="linknoteref-23.78" id="linknoteref-23.78">78</a> But the Christians + entertained a natural and pious expectation, that, in this memorable + contest, the honor of religion would be vindicated by some signal miracle. + An earthquake, a whirlwind, and a fiery eruption, which overturned and + scattered the new foundations of the temple, are attested, with some + variations, by contemporary and respectable evidence. <a + href="#linknote-23.79" name="linknoteref-23.79" id="linknoteref-23.79">79</a> + This public event is described by Ambrose, <a href="#linknote-23.80" + name="linknoteref-23.80" id="linknoteref-23.80">80</a> bishop of Milan, in + an epistle to the emperor Theodosius, which must provoke the severe + animadversion of the Jews; by the eloquent Chrysostom, <a + href="#linknote-23.81" name="linknoteref-23.81" id="linknoteref-23.81">81</a> + who might appeal to the memory of the elder part of his congregation at + Antioch; and by Gregory Nazianzen, <a href="#linknote-23.82" + name="linknoteref-23.82" id="linknoteref-23.82">82</a> who published his + account of the miracle before the expiration of the same year. The last of + these writers has boldly declared, that this preternatural event was not + disputed by the infidels; and his assertion, strange as it may seem is + confirmed by the unexceptionable testimony of Ammianus Marcellinus. <a + href="#linknote-23.83" name="linknoteref-23.83" id="linknoteref-23.83">83</a> + The philosophic soldier, who loved the virtues, without adopting the + prejudices, of his master, has recorded, in his judicious and candid + history of his own times, the extraordinary obstacles which interrupted + the restoration of the temple of Jerusalem. “Whilst Alypius, assisted by + the governor of the province, urged, with vigor and diligence, the + execution of the work, horrible balls of fire breaking out near the + foundations, with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the place, + from time to time, inaccessible to the scorched and blasted workmen; and + the victorious element continuing in this manner obstinately and + resolutely bent, as it were, to drive them to a distance, the undertaking + was abandoned.” <a href="#linknote-23.8311" name="linknoteref-23.8311" + id="linknoteref-23.8311">8311</a> Such authority should satisfy a + believing, and must astonish an incredulous, mind. Yet a philosopher may + still require the original evidence of impartial and intelligent + spectators. At this important crisis, any singular accident of nature + would assume the appearance, and produce the effects of a real prodigy. + This glorious deliverance would be speedily improved and magnified by the + pious art of the clergy of Jerusalem, and the active credulity of the + Christian world and, at the distance of twenty years, a Roman historian, + careless of theological disputes, might adorn his work with the specious + and splendid miracle. <a href="#linknote-23.84" name="linknoteref-23.84" + id="linknoteref-23.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.77" id="linknote-23.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.77">return</a>)<br /> [ Built by Omar, the + second Khalif, who died A. D. 644. This great mosque covers the whole + consecrated ground of the Jewish temple, and constitutes almost a square + of 760 <i>toises</i>, or one Roman mile in circumference. See D’Anville, + Jerusalem, p. 45.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.78" id="linknote-23.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.78">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus records the + consults of the year 363, before he proceeds to mention the <i>thoughts</i> of + Julian. Templum. ... instaurare sumptibus <i>cogitabat</i> immodicis. Warburton + has a secret wish to anticipate the design; but he must have understood, + from former examples, that the execution of such a work would have + demanded many years.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.79" id="linknote-23.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.79">return</a>)<br /> [ The subsequent + witnesses, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Philostorgius, &c., add + contradictions rather than authority. Compare the objections of Basnage + (Hist. des Juifs, tom. viii. p. 156-168) with Warburton’s answers, + (Julian, p. 174-258.) The bishop has ingeniously explained the miraculous + crosses which appeared on the garments of the spectators by a similar + instance, and the natural effects of lightning.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.80" id="linknote-23.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.80">return</a>)<br /> [ Ambros. tom. ii. epist. + xl. p. 946, edit. Benedictin. He composed this fanatic epistle (A. D. 388) + to justify a bishop who had been condemned by the civil magistrate for + burning a synagogue.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.81" id="linknote-23.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Chrysostom, tom. i. p. + 580, advers. Judæos et Gentes, tom. ii. p. 574, de Sto Babyla, edit. + Montfaucon. I have followed the common and natural supposition; but the + learned Benedictine, who dates the composition of these sermons in the + year 383, is confident they were never pronounced from the pulpit.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.82" id="linknote-23.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. + iv. p. 110-113.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.83" id="linknote-23.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.83">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxiii. 1. Cum + itaque rei fortiter instaret Alypius, juvaretque provinciæ rector, + metuendi globi flammarum prope fundamenta crebris assultibus erumpentes + fecere locum exustis aliquoties operantibus inaccessum; hocque modo + elemento destinatius repellente, cessavit inceptum. Warburton labors (p. + 60-90) to extort a confession of the miracle from the mouths of Julian and + Libanius, and to employ the evidence of a rabbi who lived in the fifteenth + century. Such witnesses can only be received by a very favorable judge.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.8311" id="linknote-23.8311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8311 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.8311">return</a>)<br /> [ Michaelis has given + an ingenious and sufficiently probable explanation of this remarkable + incident, which the positive testimony of Ammianus, a contemporary and a + pagan, will not permit us to call in question. It was suggested by a + passage in Tacitus. That historian, speaking of Jerusalem, says, [I omit + the first part of the quotation adduced by M. Guizot, which only by a most + extraordinary mistranslation of muri introrsus sinuati by “<i>enfoncemens</i>” + could be made to bear on the question.—M.] “The Temple itself was a + kind of citadel, which had its own walls, superior in their workmanship + and construction to those of the city. The porticos themselves, which + surrounded the temple, were an excellent fortification. There was a + fountain of constantly running water; <i>subterranean excavations under the + mountain; reservoirs and cisterns to collect the rain-water</i>.” Tac. Hist. v. + ii. 12. These excavations and reservoirs must have been very considerable. + The latter furnished water during the whole siege of Jerusalem to + 1,100,000 inhabitants, for whom the fountain of Siloe could not have + sufficed, and who had no fresh rain-water, the siege having taken place + from the month of April to the month of August, a period of the year + during which it rarely rains in Jerusalem. As to the excavations, they + served after, and even before, the return of the Jews from Babylon, to + contain not only magazines of oil, wine, and corn, but also the treasures + which were laid up in the Temple. Josephus has related several incidents + which show their extent. When Jerusalem was on the point of being taken by + Titus, the rebel chiefs, placing their last hopes in these vast + subterranean cavities, formed a design of concealing themselves there, and + remaining during the conflagration of the city, and until the Romans had + retired to a distance. The greater part had not time to execute their + design; but one of them, Simon, the Son of Gioras, having provided himself + with food, and tools to excavate the earth descended into this retreat + with some companions: he remained there till Titus had set out for Rome: + under the pressure of famine he issued forth on a sudden in the very place + where the Temple had stood, and appeared in the midst of the Roman guard. + He was seized and carried to Rome for the triumph. His appearance made it + be suspected that other Jews might have chosen the same asylum; search was + made, and a great number discovered. Joseph. de Bell. Jud. l. vii. c. 2. + It is probable that the greater part of these excavations were the remains + of the time of Solomon, when it was the custom to work to a great extent + under ground: no other date can be assigned to them. The Jews, on their + return from the captivity, were too poor to undertake such works; and, + although Herod, on rebuilding the Temple, made some excavations, (Joseph. + Ant. Jud. xv. 11, vii.,) the haste with which that building was completed + will not allow us to suppose that they belonged to that period. Some were + used for sewers and drains, others served to conceal the immense treasures + of which Crassus, a hundred and twenty years before, plundered the Jews, + and which doubtless had been since replaced. The Temple was destroyed A. + C. 70; the attempt of Julian to rebuild it, and the fact related by + Ammianus, coincide with the year 363. There had then elapsed between these + two epochs an interval of near 300 years, during which the excavations, + choked up with ruins, must have become full of inflammable air. The + workmen employed by Julian as they were digging, arrived at the + excavations of the Temple; they would take torches to explore them; sudden + flames repelled those who approached; explosions were heard, and these + phenomena were renewed every time that they penetrated into new + subterranean passages. This explanation is confirmed by the relation of an + event nearly similar, by Josephus. King Herod having heard that immense + treasures had been concealed in the sepulchre of David, he descended into + it with a few confidential persons; he found in the first subterranean + chamber only jewels and precious stuffs: but having wished to penetrate + into a second chamber, which had been long closed, he was repelled, when + he opened it, by flames which killed those who accompanied him. (Ant. Jud. + xvi. 7, i.) As here there is no room for miracle, this fact may be + considered as a new proof of the veracity of that related by Ammianus and + the contemporary writers.—G. ——To the illustrations of + the extent of the subterranean chambers adduced by Michaelis, may be + added, that when John of Gischala, during the siege, surprised the Temple, + the party of Eleazar took refuge within them. Bell. Jud. vi. 3, i. The + sudden sinking of the hill of Sion when Jerusalem was occupied by + Barchocab, may have been connected with similar excavations. Hist. of + Jews, vol. iii. 122 and 186.—M. ——It is a fact now + popularly known, that when mines which have been long closed are opened, + one of two things takes place; either the torches are extinguished and the + men fall first into a swoor and soon die; or, if the air is inflammable, a + little flame is seen to flicker round the lamp, which spreads and + multiplies till the conflagration becomes general, is followed by an + explosion, and kill all who are in the way.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.84" id="linknote-23.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Dr. Lardner, perhaps + alone of the Christian critics, presumes to doubt the truth of this famous + miracle. (Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. p. 47-71.)] + </p> + <p> + The silence of Jerom would lead to a suspicion that the same story which + was celebrated at a distance, might be despised on the spot. * Note: + Gibbon has forgotten Basnage, to whom Warburton replied.—M. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap23.4"></a> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The restoration of the Jewish temple was secretly connected with the ruin + of the Christian church. Julian still continued to maintain the freedom of + religious worship, without distinguishing whether this universal + toleration proceeded from his justice or his clemency. He affected to pity + the unhappy Christians, who were mistaken in the most important object of + their lives; but his pity was degraded by contempt, his contempt was + embittered by hatred; and the sentiments of Julian were expressed in a + style of sarcastic wit, which inflicts a deep and deadly wound, whenever + it issues from the mouth of a sovereign. As he was sensible that the + Christians gloried in the name of their Redeemer, he countenanced, and + perhaps enjoined, the use of the less honorable appellation of Galilæans. + <a href="#linknote-23.85" name="linknoteref-23.85" id="linknoteref-23.85">85</a> + He declared, that by the folly of the Galilæans, whom he describes as a + sect of fanatics, contemptible to men, and odious to the gods, the empire + had been reduced to the brink of destruction; and he insinuates in a + public edict, that a frantic patient might sometimes be cured by salutary + violence. <a href="#linknote-23.86" name="linknoteref-23.86" + id="linknoteref-23.86">86</a> An ungenerous distinction was admitted into + the mind and counsels of Julian, that, according to the difference of + their religious sentiments, one part of his subjects deserved his favor + and friendship, while the other was entitled only to the common benefits + that his justice could not refuse to an obedient people. According to a + principle, pregnant with mischief and oppression, the emperor transferred + to the pontiffs of his own religion the management of the liberal + allowances from the public revenue, which had been granted to the church by + the piety of Constantine and his sons. The proud system of clerical honors + and immunities, which had been constructed with so much art and labor, was + levelled to the ground; the hopes of testamentary donations were + intercepted by the rigor of the laws; and the priests of the Christian + sect were confounded with the last and most ignominious class of the + people. Such of these regulations as appeared necessary to check the + ambition and avarice of the ecclesiastics, were soon afterwards imitated + by the wisdom of an orthodox prince. The peculiar distinctions which + policy has bestowed, or superstition has lavished, on the sacerdotal + order, <i>must</i> be confined to those priests who profess the religion of the + state. But the will of the legislator was not exempt from prejudice and + passion; and it was the object of the insidious policy of Julian, to + deprive the Christians of all the temporal honors and advantages which + rendered them respectable in the eyes of the world. <a + href="#linknote-23.88" name="linknoteref-23.88" id="linknoteref-23.88">88</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.85" id="linknote-23.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Greg. Naz. Orat. iii. + p. 81. And this law was confirmed by the invariable practice of Julian + himself. Warburton has justly observed (p. 35,) that the Platonists + believed in the mysterious virtue of words and Julian’s dislike for the + name of Christ might proceed from superstition, as well as from contempt.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.86" id="linknote-23.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.86">return</a>)<br /> [ Fragment. Julian. p. + 288. He derides the (Epist. vii.,) and so far loses sight of the + principles of toleration, as to wish (Epist. xlii.).] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.88" id="linknote-23.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.88">return</a>)<br /> [ These laws, which + affected the clergy, may be found in the slight hints of Julian himself, + (Epist. lii.) in the vague declamations of Gregory, (Orat. iii. p. 86, + 87,) and in the positive assertions of Sozomen, (l. v. c. 5.)] + </p> + <p> + A just and severe censure has been inflicted on the law which prohibited + the Christians from teaching the arts of grammar and rhetoric. <a + href="#linknote-23.89" name="linknoteref-23.89" id="linknoteref-23.89">89</a> + The motives alleged by the emperor to justify this partial and oppressive + measure, might command, during his lifetime, the silence of slaves and the + applause of Gatterers. Julian abuses the ambiguous meaning of a word which + might be indifferently applied to the language and the religion of the + Greeks: he contemptuously observes, that the men who exalt the merit of + implicit faith are unfit to claim or to enjoy the advantages of science; + and he vainly contends, that if they refuse to adore the gods of Homer and + Demosthenes, they ought to content themselves with expounding Luke and + Matthew in the church of the Galilæans. <a href="#linknote-23.90" + name="linknoteref-23.90" id="linknoteref-23.90">90</a> In all the cities of + the Roman world, the education of the youth was intrusted to masters of + grammar and rhetoric; who were elected by the magistrates, maintained at + the public expense, and distinguished by many lucrative and honorable + privileges. The edict of Julian appears to have included the physicians, + and professors of all the liberal arts; and the emperor, who reserved to + himself the approbation of the candidates, was authorized by the laws to + corrupt, or to punish, the religious constancy of the most learned of the + Christians. <a href="#linknote-23.91" name="linknoteref-23.91" + id="linknoteref-23.91">91</a> As soon as the resignation of the more + obstinate <a href="#linknote-23.92" name="linknoteref-23.92" + id="linknoteref-23.92">92</a> teachers had established the unrivalled + dominion of the Pagan sophists, Julian invited the rising generation to + resort with freedom to the public schools, in a just confidence, that + their tender minds would receive the impressions of literature and + idolatry. If the greatest part of the Christian youth should be deterred + by their own scruples, or by those of their parents, from accepting this + dangerous mode of instruction, they must, at the same time, relinquish the + benefits of a liberal education. Julian had reason to expect that, in the + space of a few years, the church would relapse into its primæval + simplicity, and that the theologians, who possessed an adequate share of + the learning and eloquence of the age, would be succeeded by a generation + of blind and ignorant fanatics, incapable of defending the truth of their + own principles, or of exposing the various follies of Polytheism. <a + href="#linknote-23.93" name="linknoteref-23.93" id="linknoteref-23.93">93</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.89" id="linknote-23.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.89">return</a>)<br /> [ Inclemens.... perenni + obruendum silentio. Ammian. xxii. 10, ixv. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.90" id="linknote-23.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.90">return</a>)<br /> [ The edict itself, which + is still extant among the epistles of Julian, (xlii.,) may be compared + with the loose invectives of Gregory (Orat. iii. p. 96.) Tillemont (Mém. + Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1291-1294) has collected the seeming differences of + ancients and moderns. They may be easily reconciled. The Christians were + <i>directly</i> forbid to teach, they were <i>indirectly</i> forbid to learn; since they + would not frequent the schools of the Pagans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.91" id="linknote-23.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Codex Theodos. l. xiii. + tit. iii. de medicis et professoribus, leg. 5, (published the 17th of + June, received, at Spoleto in Italy, the 29th of July, A. D. 363,) with + Godefroy’s Illustrations, tom. v. p. 31.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.92" id="linknote-23.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Orosius celebrates + their disinterested resolution, Sicut a majori bus nostris compertum + habemus, omnes ubique propemodum... officium quam fidem deserere + maluerunt, vii. 30. Proæresius, a Christian sophist, refused to accept + the partial favor of the emperor Hieronym. in Chron. p. 185, edit. + Scaliger. Eunapius in Proæresio p. 126.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.93" id="linknote-23.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.93">return</a>)<br /> [ They had recourse to + the expedient of composing books for their own schools. Within a few + months Apollinaris produced his Christian imitations of Homer, (a sacred + history in twenty-four books,) Pindar, Euripides, and Menander; and + Sozomen is satisfied, that they equalled, or excelled, the originals. * + Note: Socrates, however, implies that, on the death of Julian, they were + contemptuously thrown aside by the Christians. Socr. Hist. iii.16.—M.] + </p> + <p> + It was undoubtedly the wish and design of Julian to deprive the Christians + of the advantages of wealth, of knowledge, and of power; but the injustice + of excluding them from all offices of trust and profit seems to have been + the result of his general policy, rather than the immediate consequence of + any positive law. <a href="#linknote-23.94" name="linknoteref-23.94" + id="linknoteref-23.94">94</a> Superior merit might deserve and obtain, some + extraordinary exceptions; but the greater part of the Christian officers + were gradually removed from their employments in the state, the army, and + the provinces. The hopes of future candidates were extinguished by the + declared partiality of a prince, who maliciously reminded them, that it + was unlawful for a Christian to use the sword, either of justice, or of + war; and who studiously guarded the camp and the tribunals with the + ensigns of idolatry. The powers of government were intrusted to the + pagans, who professed an ardent zeal for the religion of their ancestors; + and as the choice of the emperor was often directed by the rules of + divination, the favorites whom he preferred as the most agreeable to the + gods, did not always obtain the approbation of mankind. <a + href="#linknote-23.95" name="linknoteref-23.95" id="linknoteref-23.95">95</a> + Under the administration of their enemies, the Christians had much to + suffer, and more to apprehend. The temper of Julian was averse to cruelty; + and the care of his reputation, which was exposed to the eyes of the + universe, restrained the philosophic monarch from violating the laws of + justice and toleration, which he himself had so recently established. But + the provincial ministers of his authority were placed in a less + conspicuous station. In the exercise of arbitrary power, they consulted + the wishes, rather than the commands, of their sovereign; and ventured to + exercise a secret and vexatious tyranny against the sectaries, on whom + they were not permitted to confer the honors of martyrdom. The emperor, + who dissembled as long as possible his knowledge of the injustice that was + exercised in his name, expressed his real sense of the conduct of his + officers, by gentle reproofs and substantial rewards. <a + href="#linknote-23.96" name="linknoteref-23.96" id="linknoteref-23.96">96</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.94" id="linknote-23.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.94">return</a>)<br /> [ It was the instruction + of Julian to his magistrates, (Epist. vii.,). Sozomen (l. v. c. 18) and + Socrates (l. iii. c. 13) must be reduced to the standard of Gregory, + (Orat. iii. p. 95,) not less prone to exaggeration, but more restrained by + the actual knowledge of his contemporary readers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.95" id="linknote-23.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. + 88, p. 814.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.96" id="linknote-23.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.96">return</a>)<br /> [ Greg. Naz. Orat. iii. + p. 74, 91, 92. Socrates, l. iii. c. 14. The doret, l. iii. c. 6. Some + drawback may, however, be allowed for the violence of <i>their</i> zeal, not less + partial than the zeal of Julian] + </p> + <p> + The most effectual instrument of oppression, with which they were armed, + was the law that obliged the Christians to make full and ample + satisfaction for the temples which they had destroyed under the preceding + reign. The zeal of the triumphant church had not always expected the + sanction of the public authority; and the bishops, who were secure of + impunity, had often marched at the head of their congregation, to attack + and demolish the fortresses of the prince of darkness. The consecrated + lands, which had increased the patrimony of the sovereign or of the + clergy, were clearly defined, and easily restored. But on these lands, and + on the ruins of Pagan superstition, the Christians had frequently erected + their own religious edifices: and as it was necessary to remove the church + before the temple could be rebuilt, the justice and piety of the emperor + were applauded by one party, while the other deplored and execrated his + sacrilegious violence. <a href="#linknote-23.97" name="linknoteref-23.97" + id="linknoteref-23.97">97</a> After the ground was cleared, the restitution + of those stately structures which had been levelled with the dust, and of + the precious ornaments which had been converted to Christian uses, swelled + into a very large account of damages and debt. The authors of the injury + had neither the ability nor the inclination to discharge this accumulated + demand: and the impartial wisdom of a legislator would have been displayed + in balancing the adverse claims and complaints, by an equitable and + temperate arbitration. + </p> + <p> + But the whole empire, and particularly the East, was thrown into confusion + by the rash edicts of Julian; and the Pagan magistrates, inflamed by zeal + and revenge, abused the rigorous privilege of the Roman law, which + substitutes, in the place of his inadequate property, the person of the + insolvent debtor. Under the preceding reign, Mark, bishop of Arethusa, <a + href="#linknote-23.98" name="linknoteref-23.98" id="linknoteref-23.98">98</a> + had labored in the conversion of his people with arms more effectual than + those of persuasion. <a href="#linknote-23.99" name="linknoteref-23.99" + id="linknoteref-23.99">99</a> The magistrates required the full value of a + temple which had been destroyed by his intolerant zeal: but as they were + satisfied of his poverty, they desired only to bend his inflexible spirit + to the promise of the slightest compensation. They apprehended the aged + prelate, they inhumanly scourged him, they tore his beard; and his naked + body, annointed with honey, was suspended, in a net, between heaven and + earth, and exposed to the stings of insects and the rays of a Syrian sun. + <a href="#linknote-23.100" name="linknoteref-23.100" id="linknoteref-23.100">100</a> + From this lofty station, Mark still persisted to glory in his crime, and + to insult the impotent rage of his persecutors. He was at length rescued + from their hands, and dismissed to enjoy the honor of his divine triumph. + The Arians celebrated the virtue of their pious confessor; the Catholics + ambitiously claimed his alliance; <a href="#linknote-23.101" + name="linknoteref-23.101" id="linknoteref-23.101">101</a> and the Pagans, + who might be susceptible of shame or remorse, were deterred from the + repetition of such unavailing cruelty. <a href="#linknote-23.102" + name="linknoteref-23.102" id="linknoteref-23.102">102</a> Julian spared his + life: but if the bishop of Arethusa had saved the infancy of Julian, <a + href="#linknote-23.103" name="linknoteref-23.103" id="linknoteref-23.103">103</a> + posterity will condemn the ingratitude, instead of praising the clemency, + of the emperor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.97" id="linknote-23.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.97">return</a>)<br /> [ If we compare the + gentle language of Libanius (Orat. Parent c. 60. p. 286) with the + passionate exclamations of Gregory, (Orat. iii. p. 86, 87,) we may find it + difficult to persuade ourselves that the two orators are really describing + the same events.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.98" id="linknote-23.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.98">return</a>)<br /> [ Restan, or Arethusa, at + the equal distance of sixteen miles between Emesa (<i>Hems</i>) and Epiphania, + (<i>Hamath</i>,) was founded, or at least named, by Seleucus Nicator. Its + peculiar æra dates from the year of Rome 685, according to the medals of + the city. In the decline of the Seleucides, Emesa and Arethusa were + usurped by the Arab Sampsiceramus, whose posterity, the vassals of Rome, + were not extinguished in the reign of Vespasian.——See + D’Anville’s Maps and Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 134. Wesseling, + Itineraria, p. 188, and Noris. Epoch Syro-Macedon, p. 80, 481, 482.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.99" id="linknote-23.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.99">return</a>)<br /> [ Sozomen, l. v. c. 10. + It is surprising, that Gregory and Theodoret should suppress a + circumstance, which, in their eyes, must have enhanced the religious merit + of the confessor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.100" id="linknote-23.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.100">return</a>)<br /> [ The sufferings and + constancy of Mark, which Gregory has so tragically painted, (Orat. iii. p. + 88-91,) are confirmed by the unexceptionable and reluctant evidence of + Libanius. Epist. 730, p. 350, 351. Edit. Wolf. Amstel. 1738.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.101" id="linknote-23.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.101">return</a>)<br /> [ Certatim eum sibi + (Christiani) vindicant. It is thus that La Croze and Wolfius (ad loc.) + have explained a Greek word, whose true signification had been mistaken by + former interpreters, and even by Le Clerc, (Bibliothèque Ancienne et + Moderne, tom. iii. p. 371.) Yet Tillemont is strangely puzzled to + understand (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1309) <i>how</i> Gregory and Theodoret + could mistake a Semi-Arian bishop for a saint.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.102" id="linknote-23.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.102">return</a>)<br /> [ See the probable + advice of Sallust, (Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. iii. p. 90, 91.) Libanius + intercedes for a similar offender, lest they should find many <i>Marks;</i> yet + he allows, that if Orion had secreted the consecrated wealth, he deserved + to suffer the punishment of Marsyas; to be flayed alive, (Epist. 730, p. + 349-351.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.103" id="linknote-23.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.103">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory (Orat. iii. + p. 90) is satisfied that, by saving the apostate, Mark had deserved still + more than he had suffered.] + </p> + <p> + At the distance of five miles from Antioch, the Macedonian kings of Syria + had consecrated to Apollo one of the most elegant places of devotion in + the Pagan world. <a href="#linknote-23.104" name="linknoteref-23.104" + id="linknoteref-23.104">104</a> A magnificent temple rose in honor of the + god of light; and his colossal figure <a href="#linknote-23.105" + name="linknoteref-23.105" id="linknoteref-23.105">105</a> almost filled the + capacious sanctuary, which was enriched with gold and gems, and adorned by + the skill of the Grecian artists. The deity was represented in a bending + attitude, with a golden cup in his hand, pouring out a libation on the + earth; as if he supplicated the venerable mother to give to his arms the + cold and beauteous Daphne: for the spot was ennobled by fiction; and the + fancy of the Syrian poets had transported the amorous tale from the banks + of the Peneus to those of the Orontes. The ancient rites of Greece were + imitated by the royal colony of Antioch. A stream of prophecy, which + rivalled the truth and reputation of the Delphic oracle, flowed from the + <i>Castalian</i> fountain of Daphne. <a href="#linknote-23.106" + name="linknoteref-23.106" id="linknoteref-23.106">106</a> In the adjacent + fields a stadium was built by a special privilege, <a + href="#linknote-23.107" name="linknoteref-23.107" id="linknoteref-23.107">107</a> + which had been purchased from Elis; the Olympic games were celebrated at + the expense of the city; and a revenue of thirty thousand pounds sterling + was annually applied to the public pleasures. <a href="#linknote-23.108" + name="linknoteref-23.108" id="linknoteref-23.108">108</a> The perpetual + resort of pilgrims and spectators insensibly formed, in the neighborhood + of the temple, the stately and populous village of Daphne, which emulated + the splendor, without acquiring the title, of a provincial city. The + temple and the village were deeply bosomed in a thick grove of laurels and + cypresses, which reached as far as a circumference of ten miles, and + formed in the most sultry summers a cool and impenetrable shade. A + thousand streams of the purest water, issuing from every hill, preserved + the verdure of the earth, and the temperature of the air; the senses were + gratified with harmonious sounds and aromatic odors; and the peaceful + grove was consecrated to health and joy, to luxury and love. The vigorous + youth pursued, like Apollo, the object of his desires; and the blushing + maid was warned, by the fate of Daphne, to shun the folly of unseasonable + coyness. The soldier and the philosopher wisely avoided the temptation of + this sensual paradise: <a href="#linknote-23.109" name="linknoteref-23.109" + id="linknoteref-23.109">109</a> where pleasure, assuming the character of + religion, imperceptibly dissolved the firmness of manly virtue. But the + groves of Daphne continued for many ages to enjoy the veneration of + natives and strangers; the privileges of the holy ground were enlarged by + the munificence of succeeding emperors; and every generation added new + ornaments to the splendor of the temple. <a href="#linknote-23.110" + name="linknoteref-23.110" id="linknoteref-23.110">110</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.104" id="linknote-23.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.104">return</a>)<br /> [ The grove and temple + of Daphne are described by Strabo, (l. xvi. p. 1089, 1090, edit. Amstel. + 1707,) Libanius, (Nænia, p. 185-188. Antiochic. Orat. xi. p. 380, 381,) + and Sozomen, (l. v. c. 19.) Wesseling (Itinerar. p. 581) and Casaubon (ad + Hist. August. p. 64) illustrate this curious subject.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.105" id="linknote-23.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.105">return</a>)<br /> [ Simulacrum in eo + Olympiaci Jovis imitamenti æquiparans magnitudinem. Ammian. xxii. 13. The + Olympic Jupiter was sixty feet high, and his bulk was consequently equal + to that of a thousand men. See a curious <i>Mémoire</i> of the Abbé Gedoyn, + (Académie des Inscriptions, tom. ix. p. 198.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.106" id="linknote-23.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.106">return</a>)<br /> [ Hadrian read the + history of his future fortunes on a leaf dipped in the Castalian stream; a + trick which, according to the physician Vandale, (de Oraculis, p. 281, + 282,) might be easily performed by chemical preparations. The emperor + stopped the source of such dangerous knowledge; which was again opened by + the devout curiosity of Julian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.107" id="linknote-23.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.107">return</a>)<br /> [ It was purchased, A. + D. 44, in the year 92 of the æra of Antioch, (Noris. Epoch. Syro-Maced. + p. 139-174,) for the term of ninety Olympiads. But the Olympic games of + Antioch were not regularly celebrated till the reign of Commodus. See the + curious details in the Chronicle of John Malala, (tom. i. p. 290, 320, + 372-381,) a writer whose merit and authority are confined within the + limits of his native city.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.108" id="linknote-23.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.108">return</a>)<br /> [ Fifteen talents of + gold, bequeathed by Sosibius, who died in the reign of Augustus. The + theatrical merits of the Syrian cities in the reign of Constantine, are + computed in the Expositio totius Murd, p. 8, (Hudson, Geograph. Minor tom. + iii.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.109" id="linknote-23.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Avidio Cassio + Syriacas legiones dedi luxuria diffluentes et <i>Daphnicis</i> moribus. These are + the words of the emperor Marcus Antoninus in an original letter preserved + by his biographer in Hist. August. p. 41. Cassius dismissed or punished + every soldier who was seen at Daphne.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.110" id="linknote-23.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.110">return</a>)<br /> [ Aliquantum agrorum + Daphnensibus dedit, (<i>Pompey</i>,) quo lucus ibi spatiosior fieret; delectatus + amœnitate loci et aquarum abundantiz, Eutropius, vi. 14. Sextus Rufus, de + Provinciis, c. 16.] + </p> + <p> + When Julian, on the day of the annual festival, hastened to adore the + Apollo of Daphne, his devotion was raised to the highest pitch of + eagerness and impatience. His lively imagination anticipated the grateful + pomp of victims, of libations and of incense; a long procession of youths + and virgins, clothed in white robes, the symbol of their innocence; and + the tumultuous concourse of an innumerable people. But the zeal of Antioch + was diverted, since the reign of Christianity, into a different channel. + Instead of hecatombs of fat oxen sacrificed by the tribes of a wealthy + city to their tutelar deity the emperor complains that he found only a + single goose, provided at the expense of a priest, the pale and solitary + inhabitant of this decayed temple. <a href="#linknote-23.111" + name="linknoteref-23.111" id="linknoteref-23.111">111</a> The altar was + deserted, the oracle had been reduced to silence, and the holy ground was + profaned by the introduction of Christian and funereal rites. After + Babylas <a href="#linknote-23.112" name="linknoteref-23.112" + id="linknoteref-23.112">112</a> (a bishop of Antioch, who died in prison in + the persecution of Decius) had rested near a century in his grave, his + body, by the order of Cæsar Gallus, was transported into the midst of the + grove of Daphne. A magnificent church was erected over his remains; a + portion of the sacred lands was usurped for the maintenance of the clergy, + and for the burial of the Christians at Antioch, who were ambitious of + lying at the feet of their bishop; and the priests of Apollo retired, with + their affrighted and indignant votaries. As soon as another revolution + seemed to restore the fortune of Paganism, the church of St. Babylas was + demolished, and new buildings were added to the mouldering edifice which + had been raised by the piety of Syrian kings. But the first and most + serious care of Julian was to deliver his oppressed deity from the odious + presence of the dead and living Christians, who had so effectually + suppressed the voice of fraud or enthusiasm. <a href="#linknote-23.113" + name="linknoteref-23.113" id="linknoteref-23.113">113</a> The scene of + infection was purified, according to the forms of ancient rituals; the + bodies were decently removed; and the ministers of the church were + permitted to convey the remains of St. Babylas to their former habitation + within the walls of Antioch. The modest behavior which might have assuaged + the jealousy of a hostile government was neglected, on this occasion, by + the zeal of the Christians. The lofty car, that transported the relics of + Babylas, was followed, and accompanied, and received, by an innumerable + multitude; who chanted, with thundering acclamations, the Psalms of David + the most expressive of their contempt for idols and idolaters. The return + of the saint was a triumph; and the triumph was an insult on the religion + of the emperor, who exerted his pride to dissemble his resentment. During + the night which terminated this indiscreet procession, the temple of + Daphne was in flames; the statue of Apollo was consumed; and the walls of + the edifice were left a naked and awful monument of ruin. The Christians + of Antioch asserted, with religious confidence, that the powerful + intercession of St. Babylas had pointed the lightnings of heaven against + the devoted roof: but as Julian was reduced to the alternative of + believing either a crime or a miracle, he chose, without hesitation, + without evidence, but with some color of probability, to impute the fire + of Daphne to the revenge of the Galilæans. <a href="#linknote-23.114" + name="linknoteref-23.114" id="linknoteref-23.114">114</a> Their offence, had + it been sufficiently proved, might have justified the retaliation, which + was immediately executed by the order of Julian, of shutting the doors, + and confiscating the wealth, of the cathedral of Antioch. To discover the + criminals who were guilty of the tumult, of the fire, or of secreting the + riches of the church, several of the ecclesiastics were tortured; <a + href="#linknote-23.115" name="linknoteref-23.115" id="linknoteref-23.115">115</a> + and a Presbyter, of the name of Theodoret, was beheaded by the sentence of + the Count of the East. But this hasty act was blamed by the emperor; who + lamented, with real or affected concern, that the imprudent zeal of his + ministers would tarnish his reign with the disgrace of persecution. <a + href="#linknote-23.116" name="linknoteref-23.116" id="linknoteref-23.116">116</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.111" id="linknote-23.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.111">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (Misopogon, p. + 367, 362) discovers his own character with <i>naïveté</i>, that unconscious + simplicity which always constitutes genuine humor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.112" id="linknote-23.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.112">return</a>)<br /> [ Babylas is named by + Eusebius in the succession of the bishops of Antioch, (Hist. Eccles. l. + vi. c. 29, 39.) His triumph over two emperors (the first fabulous, the + second historical) is diffusely celebrated by Chrysostom, (tom. ii. p. + 536-579, edit. Montfaucon.) Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. iii. part ii. p. + 287-302, 459-465) becomes almost a sceptic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.113" id="linknote-23.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.113">return</a>)<br /> [ Ecclesiastical + critics, particularly those who love relics, exult in the confession of + Julian (Misopogon, p. 361) and Libanius, (Lænia, p. 185,) that Apollo was + disturbed by the vicinity of <i>one</i> dead man. Yet Ammianus (xxii. 12) clears + and purifies the whole ground, according to the rites which the Athenians + formerly practised in the Isle of Delos.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.114" id="linknote-23.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.114">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (in Misopogon, + p. 361) rather insinuates, than affirms, their guilt. Ammianus (xxii. 13) + treats the imputation as <i>levissimus rumor</i>, and relates the story with + extraordinary candor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.115" id="linknote-23.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Quo tam atroci casu + repente consumpto, ad id usque e imperatoris ira provexit, ut quæstiones + agitare juberet solito acriores, (yet Julian blames the lenity of the + magistrates of Antioch,) et majorem ecclesiam Antiochiæ claudi. This + interdiction was performed with some circumstances of indignity and + profanation; and the seasonable death of the principal actor, Julian’s + uncle, is related with much superstitious complacency by the Abbé de la + Bleterie. Vie de Julien, p. 362-369.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.116" id="linknote-23.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.116">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the + ecclesiastical historians, who are more or less to be suspected, we may + allege the passion of St. Theodore, in the Acta Sincera of Ruinart, p. + 591. The complaint of Julian gives it an original and authentic air.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap23.5"></a> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The zeal of the ministers of Julian was instantly checked by the frown of + their sovereign; but when the father of his country declares himself the + leader of a faction, the license of popular fury cannot easily be + restrained, nor consistently punished. Julian, in a public composition, + applauds the devotion and loyalty of the holy cities of Syria, whose pious + inhabitants had destroyed, at the first signal, the sepulchres of the + Galilæans; and faintly complains, that they had revenged the injuries of + the gods with less moderation than he should have recommended. <a + href="#linknote-23.117" name="linknoteref-23.117" id="linknoteref-23.117">117</a> + This imperfect and reluctant confession may appear to confirm the + ecclesiastical narratives; that in the cities of Gaza, Ascalon, Cæsarea, + Heliopolis, &c., the Pagans abused, without prudence or remorse, the + moment of their prosperity. That the unhappy objects of their cruelty were + released from torture only by death; and as their mangled bodies were + dragged through the streets, they were pierced (such was the universal + rage) by the spits of cooks, and the distaffs of enraged women; and that + the entrails of Christian priests and virgins, after they had been tasted + by those bloody fanatics, were mixed with barley, and contemptuously + thrown to the unclean animals of the city. <a href="#linknote-23.118" + name="linknoteref-23.118" id="linknoteref-23.118">118</a> Such scenes of + religious madness exhibit the most contemptible and odious picture of + human nature; but the massacre of Alexandria attracts still more + attention, from the certainty of the fact, the rank of the victims, and + the splendor of the capital of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.117" id="linknote-23.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.117">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Misopogon, p. + 361.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.118" id="linknote-23.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.118">return</a>)<br /> [ See Gregory + Nazianzen, (Orat. iii. p. 87.) Sozomen (l. v. c. 9) may be considered as + an original, though not impartial, witness. He was a native of Gaza, and + had conversed with the confessor Zeno, who, as bishop of Maiuma, lived to + the age of a hundred, (l. vii. c. 28.) Philostorgius (l. vii. c. 4, with + Godefroy’s Dissertations, p. 284) adds some tragic circumstances, of + Christians who were <i>literally</i> sacrificed at the altars of the gods, &c.] + </p> + <p> + George, <a href="#linknote-23.119" name="linknoteref-23.119" + id="linknoteref-23.119">119</a> from his parents or his education, surnamed + the Cappadocian, was born at Epiphania in Cilicia, in a fuller’s shop. + From this obscure and servile origin he raised himself by the talents of a + parasite; and the patrons, whom he assiduously flattered, procured for + their worthless dependent a lucrative commission, or contract, to supply + the army with bacon. His employment was mean; he rendered it infamous. He + accumulated wealth by the basest arts of fraud and corruption; but his + malversations were so notorious, that George was compelled to escape from + the pursuits of justice. After this disgrace, in which he appears to have + saved his fortune at the expense of his honor, he embraced, with real or + affected zeal, the profession of Arianism. From the love, or the + ostentation, of learning, he collected a valuable library of history + rhetoric, philosophy, and theology, <a href="#linknote-23.120" + name="linknoteref-23.120" id="linknoteref-23.120">120</a> and the choice of + the prevailing faction promoted George of Cappadocia to the throne of + Athanasius. The entrance of the new archbishop was that of a Barbarian + conqueror; and each moment of his reign was polluted by cruelty and + avarice. The Catholics of Alexandria and Egypt were abandoned to a tyrant, + qualified, by nature and education, to exercise the office of persecution; + but he oppressed with an impartial hand the various inhabitants of his + extensive diocese. The primate of Egypt assumed the pomp and insolence of + his lofty station; but he still betrayed the vices of his base and servile + extraction. The merchants of Alexandria were impoverished by the unjust, + and almost universal, monopoly, which he acquired, of nitre, salt, paper, + funerals, &c.: and the spiritual father of a great people condescended + to practise the vile and pernicious arts of an informer. The Alexandrians + could never forget, nor forgive, the tax, which he suggested, on all the + houses of the city; under an obsolete claim, that the royal founder had + conveyed to his successors, the Ptolemies and the Cæsars, the perpetual + property of the soil. The Pagans, who had been flattered with the hopes of + freedom and toleration, excited his devout avarice; and the rich temples + of Alexandria were either pillaged or insulted by the haughty prince, who + exclaimed, in a loud and threatening tone, “How long will these sepulchres + be permitted to stand?” Under the reign of Constantius, he was expelled by + the fury, or rather by the justice, of the people; and it was not without + a violent struggle, that the civil and military powers of the state could + restore his authority, and gratify his revenge. The messenger who + proclaimed at Alexandria the accession of Julian, announced the downfall + of the archbishop. George, with two of his obsequious ministers, Count + Diodorus, and Dracontius, master of the mint were ignominiously dragged in + chains to the public prison. At the end of twenty-four days, the prison + was forced open by the rage of a superstitious multitude, impatient of the + tedious forms of judicial proceedings. The enemies of gods and men expired + under their cruel insults; the lifeless bodies of the archbishop and his + associates were carried in triumph through the streets on the back of a + camel; <a href="#linknote-23.12011" name="linknoteref-23.12011" + id="linknoteref-23.12011">12011</a> and the inactivity of the Athanasian + party <a href="#linknote-23.121" name="linknoteref-23.121" + id="linknoteref-23.121">121</a> was esteemed a shining example of + evangelical patience. The remains of these guilty wretches were thrown + into the sea; and the popular leaders of the tumult declared their + resolution to disappoint the devotion of the Christians, and to intercept + the future honors of these <i>martyrs</i>, who had been punished, like their + predecessors, by the enemies of their religion. <a href="#linknote-23.122" + name="linknoteref-23.122" id="linknoteref-23.122">122</a> The fears of the + Pagans were just, and their precautions ineffectual. The meritorious death + of the archbishop obliterated the memory of his life. The rival of + Athanasius was dear and sacred to the Arians, and the seeming conversion + of those sectaries introduced his worship into the bosom of the Catholic + church. <a href="#linknote-23.123" name="linknoteref-23.123" + id="linknoteref-23.123">123</a> The odious stranger, disguising every + circumstance of time and place, assumed the mask of a martyr, a saint, and + a Christian hero; <a href="#linknote-23.124" name="linknoteref-23.124" + id="linknoteref-23.124">124</a> and the infamous George of Cappadocia has + been transformed <a href="#linknote-23.125" name="linknoteref-23.125" + id="linknoteref-23.125">125</a> into the renowned St. George of England, + the patron of arms, of chivalry, and of the garter. <a + href="#linknote-23.126" name="linknoteref-23.126" id="linknoteref-23.126">126</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.119" id="linknote-23.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.119">return</a>)<br /> [ The life and death of + George of Cappadocia are described by Ammianus, (xxii. 11,) Gregory of + Nazianzen, (Orat. xxi. p. 382, 385, 389, 390,) and Epiphanius, (Hæres. + lxxvi.) The invectives of the two saints might not deserve much credit, + unless they were confirmed by the testimony of the cool and impartial + infidel.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.120" id="linknote-23.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.120">return</a>)<br /> [ After the massacre of + George, the emperor Julian repeatedly sent orders to preserve the library + for his own use, and to torture the slaves who might be suspected of + secreting any books. He praises the merit of the collection, from whence + he had borrowed and transcribed several manuscripts while he pursued his + studies in Cappadocia. He could wish, indeed, that the works of the + Galiæans might perish but he requires an exact account even of those + theological volumes lest other treatises more valuable should be + confounded in their less Julian. Epist. ix. xxxvi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.12011" id="linknote-23.12011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12011 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.12011">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian himself + says, that they tore him to pieces like dogs, Epist. x.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.121" id="linknote-23.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.121">return</a>)<br /> [ Philostorgius, with + cautious malice, insinuates their guilt, l. vii. c. ii. Godefroy p. 267.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.122" id="linknote-23.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Cineres projecit in + mare, id metuens ut clamabat, ne, collectis supremis, ædes illis + exstruerentur ut reliquis, qui deviare a religione compulsi, pertulere, + cruciabiles pœnas, adusque gloriosam mortem intemeratâ fide progressi, et + nunc Martyres appellantur. Ammian. xxii. 11. Epiphanius proves to the + Arians, that George was not a martyr.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.123" id="linknote-23.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.123">return</a>)<br /> [ Some Donatists + (Optatus Milev. p. 60, 303, edit. Dupin; and Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. + vi. p. 713, in 4to.) and Priscillianists (Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. + viii. p. 517, in 4to.) have in like manner usurped the honors of the + Catholic saints and martyrs.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.124" id="linknote-23.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.124">return</a>)<br /> [ The saints of + Cappadocia, Basil, and the Gregories, were ignorant of their holy + companion. Pope Gelasius, (A. D. 494,) the first Catholic who acknowledges + St. George, places him among the martyrs “qui Deo magis quam hominibus + noti sunt.” He rejects his Acts as the composition of heretics. Some, + perhaps, not the oldest, of the spurious Acts, are still extant; and, + through a cloud of fiction, we may yet distinguish the combat which St. + George of Cappadocia sustained, in the presence of Queen <i>Alexandria</i>, + against the <i>magician Athanasius</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.125" id="linknote-23.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.125">return</a>)<br /> [ This transformation + is not given as absolutely certain, but as <i>extremely</i> probable. See the + Longueruana, tom. i. p. 194. ——Note: The late Dr. Milner (the + Roman Catholic bishop) wrote a tract to vindicate the existence and the + orthodoxy of the tutelar saint of England. He succeeds, I think, in + tracing the worship of St. George up to a period which makes it improbable + that so notorious an Arian could be palmed upon the Catholic church as a + saint and a martyr. The Acts rejected by Gelasius may have been of Arian + origin, and designed to ingraft the story of their hero on the obscure + adventures of some earlier saint. See an Historical and Critical Inquiry + into the Existence and Character of Saint George, in a letter to the Earl + of Leicester, by the Rev. J. Milner. F. S. A. London 1792.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.126" id="linknote-23.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.126">return</a>)<br /> [ A curious history of + the worship of St. George, from the sixth century, (when he was already + revered in Palestine, in Armenia at Rome, and at Treves in Gaul,) might be + extracted from Dr. Heylin (History of St. George, 2d edition, London, + 1633, in 4to. p. 429) and the Bollandists, (Act. Ss. Mens. April. tom. + iii. p. 100-163.) His fame and popularity in Europe, and especially in + England, proceeded from the Crusades.] + </p> + <p> + About the same time that Julian was informed of the tumult of Alexandria, + he received intelligence from Edessa, that the proud and wealthy faction + of the Arians had insulted the weakness of the Valentinians, and committed + such disorders as ought not to be suffered with impunity in a + well-regulated state. Without expecting the slow forms of justice, the + exasperated prince directed his mandate to the magistrates of Edessa, <a + href="#linknote-23.127" name="linknoteref-23.127" id="linknoteref-23.127">127</a> + by which he confiscated the whole property of the church: the money was + distributed among the soldiers; the lands were added to the domain; and + this act of oppression was aggravated by the most ungenerous irony. “I + show myself,” says Julian, “the true friend of the Galilæans. Their + <i>admirable</i> law has promised the kingdom of heaven to the poor; and they + will advance with more diligence in the paths of virtue and salvation, + when they are relieved by my assistance from the load of temporal + possessions. Take care,” pursued the monarch, in a more serious tone, + “take care how you provoke my patience and humanity. If these disorders + continue, I will revenge on the magistrates the crimes of the people; and + you will have reason to dread, not only confiscation and exile, but fire + and the sword.” The tumults of Alexandria were doubtless of a more bloody + and dangerous nature: but a Christian bishop had fallen by the hands of + the Pagans; and the public epistle of Julian affords a very lively proof + of the partial spirit of his administration. His reproaches to the + citizens of Alexandria are mingled with expressions of esteem and + tenderness; and he laments, that, on this occasion, they should have + departed from the gentle and generous manners which attested their Grecian + extraction. He gravely censures the offence which they had committed + against the laws of justice and humanity; but he recapitulates, with + visible complacency, the intolerable provocations which they had so long + endured from the impious tyranny of George of Cappadocia. Julian admits + the principle, that a wise and vigorous government should chastise the + insolence of the people; yet, in consideration of their founder Alexander, + and of Serapis their tutelar deity, he grants a free and gracious pardon + to the guilty city, for which he again feels the affection of a brother. + <a href="#linknote-23.128" name="linknoteref-23.128" id="linknoteref-23.128">128</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.127" id="linknote-23.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.127">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Epist. + xliii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.128" id="linknote-23.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.128">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. Epist. x. He + allowed his friends to assuage his anger Ammian. xxii. 11.] + </p> + <p> + After the tumult of Alexandria had subsided, Athanasius, amidst the public + acclamations, seated himself on the throne from whence his unworthy + competitor had been precipitated: and as the zeal of the archbishop was + tempered with discretion, the exercise of his authority tended not to + inflame, but to reconcile, the minds of the people. His pastoral labors + were not confined to the narrow limits of Egypt. The state of the + Christian world was present to his active and capacious mind; and the age, + the merit, the reputation of Athanasius, enabled him to assume, in a + moment of danger, the office of Ecclesiastical Dictator. <a + href="#linknote-23.129" name="linknoteref-23.129" id="linknoteref-23.129">129</a> + Three years were not yet elapsed since the majority of the bishops of the + West had ignorantly, or reluctantly, subscribed the Confession of Rimini. + They repented, they believed, but they dreaded the unseasonable rigor of + their orthodox brethren; and if their pride was stronger than their faith, + they might throw themselves into the arms of the Arians, to escape the + indignity of a public penance, which must degrade them to the condition of + obscure laymen. At the same time the domestic differences concerning the + union and distinction of the divine persons, were agitated with some heat + among the Catholic doctors; and the progress of this metaphysical + controversy seemed to threaten a public and lasting division of the Greek + and Latin churches. By the wisdom of a select synod, to which the name and + presence of Athanasius gave the authority of a general council, the + bishops, who had unwarily deviated into error, were admitted to the + communion of the church, on the easy condition of subscribing the Nicene + Creed; without any formal acknowledgment of their past fault, or any + minute definition of their scholastic opinions. The advice of the primate + of Egypt had already prepared the clergy of Gaul and Spain, of Italy and + Greece, for the reception of this salutary measure; and, notwithstanding + the opposition of some ardent spirits, <a href="#linknote-23.130" + name="linknoteref-23.130" id="linknoteref-23.130">130</a> the fear of the + common enemy promoted the peace and harmony of the Christians. <a + href="#linknote-23.131" name="linknoteref-23.131" id="linknoteref-23.131">131</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.129" id="linknote-23.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.129">return</a>)<br /> [ See Athanas. ad + Rufin. tom. ii. p. 40, 41, and Greg. Nazianzen Orat. iii. p. 395, 396; who + justly states the temperate zeal of the primate, as much more meritorious + than his prayers, his fasts, his persecutions, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.130" id="linknote-23.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.130">return</a>)<br /> [ I have not leisure to + follow the blind obstinacy of Lucifer of Cagliari. See his adventures in + Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 900-926;) and observe how the color + of the narrative insensibly changes, as the confessor becomes a + schismatic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.131" id="linknote-23.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.131">return</a>)<br /> [ Assensus est huic + sententiæ Occidens, et, per tam necessarium conilium, Satanæ faucibus + mundus ereptus. The lively and artful dialogue of Jerom against the + Luciferians (tom. ii. p. 135-155) exhibits an original picture of the + ecclesiastical policy of the times.] + </p> + <p> + The skill and diligence of the primate of Egypt had improved the season of + tranquillity, before it was interrupted by the hostile edicts of the + emperor. <a href="#linknote-23.132" name="linknoteref-23.132" + id="linknoteref-23.132">132</a> Julian, who despised the Christians, + honored Athanasius with his sincere and peculiar hatred. For his sake + alone, he introduced an arbitrary distinction, repugnant at least to the + spirit of his former declarations. He maintained, that the Galilæans, + whom he had recalled from exile, were not restored, by that general + indulgence, to the possession of their respective churches; and he + expressed his astonishment, that a criminal, who had been repeatedly + condemned by the judgment of the emperors, should dare to insult the + majesty of the laws, and insolently usurp the archiepiscopal throne of + Alexandria, without expecting the orders of his sovereign. As a punishment + for the imaginary offence, he again banished Athanasius from the city; and + he was pleased to suppose, that this act of justice would be highly + agreeable to his pious subjects. The pressing solicitations of the people + soon convinced him, that the majority of the Alexandrians were Christians; + and that the greatest part of the Christians were firmly attached to the + cause of their oppressed primate. But the knowledge of their sentiments, + instead of persuading him to recall his decree, provoked him to extend to + all Egypt the term of the exile of Athanasius. The zeal of the multitude + rendered Julian still more inexorable: he was alarmed by the danger of + leaving at the head of a tumultuous city, a daring and popular leader; and + the language of his resentment discovers the opinion which he entertained + of the courage and abilities of Athanasius. The execution of the sentence + was still delayed, by the caution or negligence of Ecdicius, præfect of + Egypt, who was at length awakened from his lethargy by a severe reprimand. + “Though you neglect,” says Julian, “to write to me on any other subject, + at least it is your duty to inform me of your conduct towards Athanasius, + the enemy of the gods. My intentions have been long since communicated to + you. I swear by the great Serapis, that unless, on the calends of + December, Athanasius has departed from Alexandria, nay, from Egypt, the + officers of your government shall pay a fine of one hundred pounds of + gold. You know my temper: I am slow to condemn, but I am still slower to + forgive.” This epistle was enforced by a short postscript, written with + the emperor’s own hand. “The contempt that is shown for all the gods fills + me with grief and indignation. There is nothing that I should see, nothing + that I should hear, with more pleasure, than the expulsion of Athanasius + from all Egypt. The abominable wretch! Under my reign, the baptism of + several Grecian ladies of the highest rank has been the effect of his + persecutions.” <a href="#linknote-23.133" name="linknoteref-23.133" + id="linknoteref-23.133">133</a> The death of Athanasius was not <i>expressly</i> + commanded; but the præfect of Egypt understood that it was safer for him + to exceed, than to neglect, the orders of an irritated master. The + archbishop prudently retired to the monasteries of the Desert; eluded, + with his usual dexterity, the snares of the enemy; and lived to triumph + over the ashes of a prince, who, in words of formidable import, had + declared his wish that the whole venom of the Galilæan school were + contained in the single person of Athanasius. <a href="#linknote-23.134" + name="linknoteref-23.134" id="linknoteref-23.134">134</a> <a + href="#linknote-23.13411" name="linknoteref-23.13411" + id="linknoteref-23.13411">13411</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.132" id="linknote-23.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Tillemont, who + supposes that George was massacred in August crowds the actions of + Athanasius into a narrow space, (Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 360.) An + original fragment, published by the Marquis Maffei, from the old Chapter + library of Verona, (Osservazioni Letterarie, tom. iii. p. 60-92,) affords + many important dates, which are authenticated by the computation of + Egyptian months.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.133" id="linknote-23.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.133">return</a>)<br /> [ I have preserved the + ambiguous sense of the last word, the ambiguity of a tyrant who wished to + find, or to create, guilt.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.134" id="linknote-23.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.134">return</a>)<br /> [ The three epistles of + Julian, which explain his intentions and conduct with regard to + Athanasius, should be disposed in the following chronological order, xxvi. + x. vi. * See likewise, Greg. Nazianzen xxi. p. 393. Sozomen, l. v. c. 15. + Socrates, l. iii. c. 14. Theodoret, l iii. c. 9, and Tillemont, Mém. + Eccles. tom. viii. p. 361-368, who has used some materials prepared by the + Bollandists.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.13411" id="linknote-23.13411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13411 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.13411">return</a>)<br /> [ The sentence in + the text is from Epist. li. addressed to the people of Alexandria.—M.] + </p> + <p> + I have endeavored faithfully to represent the artful system by which + Julian proposed to obtain the effects, without incurring the guilt, or + reproach, of persecution. But if the deadly spirit of fanaticism perverted + the heart and understanding of a virtuous prince, it must, at the same + time, be confessed that the <i>real</i> sufferings of the Christians were + inflamed and magnified by human passions and religious enthusiasm. The + meekness and resignation which had distinguished the primitive disciples + of the gospel, was the object of the applause, rather than of the + imitation of their successors. The Christians, who had now possessed above + forty years the civil and ecclesiastical government of the empire, had + contracted the insolent vices of prosperity, <a href="#linknote-23.135" + name="linknoteref-23.135" id="linknoteref-23.135">135</a> and the habit of + believing that the saints alone were entitled to reign over the earth. As + soon as the enmity of Julian deprived the clergy of the privileges which + had been conferred by the favor of Constantine, they complained of the + most cruel oppression; and the free toleration of idolaters and heretics + was a subject of grief and scandal to the orthodox party. <a + href="#linknote-23.136" name="linknoteref-23.136" id="linknoteref-23.136">136</a> + The acts of violence, which were no longer countenanced by the + magistrates, were still committed by the zeal of the people. At Pessinus, + the altar of Cybele was overturned almost in the presence of the emperor; + and in the city of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, the temple of Fortune, the sole + place of worship which had been left to the Pagans, was destroyed by the + rage of a popular tumult. On these occasions, a prince, who felt for the + honor of the gods, was not disposed to interrupt the course of justice; + and his mind was still more deeply exasperated, when he found that the + fanatics, who had deserved and suffered the punishment of incendiaries, + were rewarded with the honors of martyrdom. <a href="#linknote-23.137" + name="linknoteref-23.137" id="linknoteref-23.137">137</a> The Christian + subjects of Julian were assured of the hostile designs of their sovereign; + and, to their jealous apprehension, every circumstance of his government + might afford some grounds of discontent and suspicion. In the ordinary + administration of the laws, the Christians, who formed so large a part of + the people, must frequently be condemned: but their indulgent brethren, + without examining the merits of the cause, presumed their innocence, + allowed their claims, and imputed the severity of their judge to the + partial malice of religious persecution. <a href="#linknote-23.138" + name="linknoteref-23.138" id="linknoteref-23.138">138</a> These present + hardships, intolerable as they might appear, were represented as a slight + prelude of the impending calamities. The Christians considered Julian as a + cruel and crafty tyrant; who suspended the execution of his revenge till + he should return victorious from the Persian war. They expected, that as + soon as he had triumphed over the foreign enemies of Rome, he would lay + aside the irksome mask of dissimulation; that the amphitheatre would + stream with the blood of hermits and bishops; and that the Christians who + still persevered in the profession of the faith, would be deprived of the + common benefits of nature and society. <a href="#linknote-23.139" + name="linknoteref-23.139" id="linknoteref-23.139">139</a> Every calumny <a + href="#linknote-23.140" name="linknoteref-23.140" id="linknoteref-23.140">140</a> + that could wound the reputation of the Apostate, was credulously embraced + by the fears and hatred of his adversaries; and their indiscreet clamors + provoked the temper of a sovereign, whom it was their duty to respect, and + their interest to flatter. + </p> + <p> + They still protested, that prayers and tears were their only weapons + against the impious tyrant, whose head they devoted to the justice of + offended Heaven. But they insinuated, with sullen resolution, that their + submission was no longer the effect of weakness; and that, in the + imperfect state of human virtue, the patience, which is founded on + principle, may be exhausted by persecution. It is impossible to determine + how far the zeal of Julian would have prevailed over his good sense and + humanity; but if we seriously reflect on the strength and spirit of the + church, we shall be convinced, that before the emperor could have + extinguished the religion of Christ, he must have involved his country in + the horrors of a civil war. <a href="#linknote-23.141" + name="linknoteref-23.141" id="linknoteref-23.141">141</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.135" id="linknote-23.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.135">return</a>)<br /> [ See the fair + confession of Gregory, (Orat. iii. p. 61, 62.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.136" id="linknote-23.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.136">return</a>)<br /> [ Hear the furious and + absurd complaint of Optatus, (de Schismat Denatist. l. ii. c. 16, 17.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.137" id="linknote-23.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.137">return</a>)<br /> [ Greg. Nazianzen, + Orat. iii. p. 91, iv. p. 133. He praises the rioters of Cæsarea. See + Sozomen, l. v. 4, 11. Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 649, 650) owns, + that their behavior was not dans l’ordre commun: but he is perfectly + satisfied, as the great St. Basil always celebrated the festival of these + blessed martyrs.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.138" id="linknote-23.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.138">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian determined a + lawsuit against the new Christian city at Maiuma, the port of Gaza; and + his sentence, though it might be imputed to bigotry, was never reversed by + his successors. Sozomen, l. v. c. 3. Reland, Palestin. tom. ii. p. 791.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.139" id="linknote-23.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.139">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory (Orat. iii. + p. 93, 94, 95. Orat. iv. p. 114) pretends to speak from the information of + Julian’s confidants, whom Orosius (vii. 30) could not have seen.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.140" id="linknote-23.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.140">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory (Orat. iii. + p. 91) charges the Apostate with secret sacrifices of boys and girls; and + positively affirms, that the dead bodies were thrown into the Orontes. See + Theodoret, l. iii. c. 26, 27; and the equivocal candor of the Abbé de la + Bleterie, Vie de Julien, p. 351, 352. Yet <i>contemporary</i> malice could not + impute to Julian the troops of martyrs, more especially in the West, which + Baronius so greedily swallows, and Tillemont so faintly rejects, (Mém. + Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1295-1315.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-23.141" id="linknote-23.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-23.141">return</a>)<br /> [ The resignation of + Gregory is truly edifying, (Orat. iv. p. 123, 124.) Yet, when an officer + of Julian attempted to seize the church of Nazianzus, he would have lost + his life, if he had not yielded to the zeal of the bishop and people, + (Orat. xix. p. 308.) See the reflections of Chrysostom, as they are + alleged by Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 575.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap24.1"></a> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Residence Of Julian At Antioch.—His Successful Expedition + Against The Persians.—Passage Of The Tigris—The Retreat + And Death Of Julian.—Election Of Jovian.—He Saves The + Roman Army By A Disgraceful Treaty. +</pre> + <p> + The philosophical fable which Julian composed under the name of the + Cæsars, <a href="#linknote-24.1" name="linknoteref-24.1" + id="linknoteref-24.1">1</a> is one of the most agreeable and instructive + productions of ancient wit. <a href="#linknote-24.2" name="linknoteref-24.2" + id="linknoteref-24.2">2</a> During the freedom and equality of the days of + the Saturnalia, Romulus prepared a feast for the deities of Olympus, who + had adopted him as a worthy associate, and for the Roman princes, who had + reigned over his martial people, and the vanquished nations of the earth. + The immortals were placed in just order on their thrones of state, and the + table of the Cæsars was spread below the Moon in the upper region of the + air. The tyrants, who would have disgraced the society of gods and men, + were thrown headlong, by the inexorable Nemesis, into the Tartarean abyss. + The rest of the Cæsars successively advanced to their seats; and as they + passed, the vices, the defects, the blemishes of their respective + characters, were maliciously noticed by old Silenus, a laughing moralist, + who disguised the wisdom of a philosopher under the mask of a Bacchanal. + <a href="#linknote-24.3" name="linknoteref-24.3" id="linknoteref-24.3">3</a> + As soon as the feast was ended, the voice of Mercury proclaimed the will + of Jupiter, that a celestial crown should be the reward of superior merit. + Julius Cæsar, Augustus, Trajan, and Marcus Antoninus, were selected as + the most illustrious candidates; the effeminate Constantine <a + href="#linknote-24.4" name="linknoteref-24.4" id="linknoteref-24.4">4</a> was + not excluded from this honorable competition, and the great Alexander was + invited to dispute the prize of glory with the Roman heroes. Each of the + candidates was allowed to display the merit of his own exploits; but, in + the judgment of the gods, the modest silence of Marcus pleaded more + powerfully than the elaborate orations of his haughty rivals. When the + judges of this awful contest proceeded to examine the heart, and to + scrutinize the springs of action, the superiority of the Imperial Stoic + appeared still more decisive and conspicuous. <a href="#linknote-24.5" + name="linknoteref-24.5" id="linknoteref-24.5">5</a> Alexander and Cæsar, + Augustus, Trajan, and Constantine, acknowledged, with a blush, that fame, + or power, or pleasure had been the important object of <i>their</i> labors: but + the gods themselves beheld, with reverence and love, a virtuous mortal, + who had practised on the throne the lessons of philosophy; and who, in a + state of human imperfection, had aspired to imitate the moral attributes + of the Deity. The value of this agreeable composition (the Cæsars of + Julian) is enhanced by the rank of the author. A prince, who delineates, + with freedom, the vices and virtues of his predecessors, subscribes, in + every line, the censure or approbation of his own conduct. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.1" id="linknote-24.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.1">return</a>)<br /> [ See this fable or satire, + p. 306-336 of the Leipsig edition of Julian’s works. The French version of + the learned Ezekiel Spanheim (Paris, 1683) is coarse, languid, and + correct; and his notes, proofs, illustrations, &c., are piled on each + other till they form a mass of 557 close-printed quarto pages. The Abbé’ + de la Bleterie (Vie de Jovien, tom. i. p. 241-393) has more happily + expressed the spirit, as well as the sense, of the original, which he + illustrates with some concise and curious notes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.2" id="linknote-24.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.2">return</a>)<br /> [ Spanheim (in his preface) + has most learnedly discussed the etymology, origin, resemblance, and + disagreement of the Greek <i>satyrs</i>, a dramatic piece, which was acted after + the tragedy; and the Latin <i>satires</i>, (from <i>Satura</i>,) a <i>miscellaneous</i> + composition, either in prose or verse. But the Cæsars of Julian are of + such an original cast, that the critic is perplexed to which class he + should ascribe them. * Note: See also Casaubon de Satira, with Rambach’s + observations.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.3" id="linknote-24.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.3">return</a>)<br /> [ This mixed character of + Silenus is finely painted in the sixth eclogue of Virgil.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.4" id="linknote-24.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.4">return</a>)<br /> [ Every impartial reader + must perceive and condemn the partiality of Julian against his uncle + Constantine, and the Christian religion. On this occasion, the + interpreters are compelled, by a most sacred interest, to renounce their + allegiance, and to desert the cause of their author.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.5" id="linknote-24.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.5">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian was secretly + inclined to prefer a Greek to a Roman. But when he seriously compared a + hero with a philosopher, he was sensible that mankind had much greater + obligations to Socrates than to Alexander, (Orat. ad Themistium, p. 264.)] + </p> + <p> + In the cool moments of reflection, Julian preferred the useful and + benevolent virtues of Antoninus; but his ambitious spirit was inflamed by + the glory of Alexander; and he solicited, with equal ardor, the esteem of + the wise, and the applause of the multitude. In the season of life when + the powers of the mind and body enjoy the most active vigor, the emperor + who was instructed by the experience, and animated by the success, of the + German war, resolved to signalize his reign by some more splendid and + memorable achievement. The ambassadors of the East, from the continent of + India, and the Isle of Ceylon, <a href="#linknote-24.6" + name="linknoteref-24.6" id="linknoteref-24.6">6</a> had respectfully saluted + the Roman purple. <a href="#linknote-24.7" name="linknoteref-24.7" + id="linknoteref-24.7">7</a> The nations of the West esteemed and dreaded + the personal virtues of Julian, both in peace and war. He despised the + trophies of a Gothic victory, and was satisfied that the rapacious + Barbarians of the Danube would be restrained from any future violation of + the faith of treaties by the terror of his name, and the additional + fortifications with which he strengthened the Thracian and Illyrian + frontiers. The successor of Cyrus and Artaxerxes was the only rival whom + he deemed worthy of his arms; and he resolved, by the final conquest of + Persia, to chastise the naughty nation which had so long resisted and + insulted the majesty of Rome. <a href="#linknote-24.9" + name="linknoteref-24.9" id="linknoteref-24.9">9</a> As soon as the Persian + monarch was informed that the throne of Constantius was filled by a prince + of a very different character, he condescended to make some artful, or + perhaps sincere, overtures towards a negotiation of peace. But the pride + of Sapor was astonished by the firmness of Julian; who sternly declared, + that he would never consent to hold a peaceful conference among the flames + and ruins of the cities of Mesopotamia; and who added, with a smile of + contempt, that it was needless to treat by ambassadors, as he himself had + determined to visit speedily the court of Persia. The impatience of the + emperor urged the diligence of the military preparations. The generals + were named; and Julian, marching from Constantinople through the provinces + of Asia Minor, arrived at Antioch about eight months after the death of + his predecessor. His ardent desire to march into the heart of Persia, was + checked by the indispensable duty of regulating the state of the empire; + by his zeal to revive the worship of the gods; and by the advice of his + wisest friends; who represented the necessity of allowing the salutary + interval of winter quarters, to restore the exhausted strength of the + legions of Gaul, and the discipline and spirit of the Eastern troops. + Julian was persuaded to fix, till the ensuing spring, his residence at + Antioch, among a people maliciously disposed to deride the haste, and to + censure the delays, of their sovereign. <a href="#linknote-24.10" + name="linknoteref-24.10" id="linknoteref-24.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.6" id="linknote-24.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.6">return</a>)<br /> [ Inde nationibus Indicis + certatim cum aonis optimates mittentibus.... ab usque Divis et <i>Serendivis</i>. + Ammian. xx. 7. This island, to which the names of Taprobana, Serendib, and + Ceylon, have been successively applied, manifests how imperfectly the seas + and lands to the east of Cape Comorin were known to the Romans. 1. Under + the reign of Claudius, a freedman, who farmed the customs of the Red Sea, + was accidentally driven by the winds upon this strange and undiscovered + coast: he conversed six months with the natives; and the king of Ceylon, + who heard, for the first time, of the power and justice of Rome, was + persuaded to send an embassy to the emperor. (Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 24.) 2. + The geographers (and even Ptolemy) have magnified, above fifteen times, + the real size of this new world, which they extended as far as the + equator, and the neighborhood of China. * Note: The name of Diva gens or + Divorum regio, according to the probable conjecture of M. Letronne, (Trois + Mém. Acad. p. 127,) was applied by the ancients to the whole eastern coast + of the Indian Peninsula, from Ceylon to the Canges. The name may be traced + in Devipatnam, Devidan, Devicotta, Divinelly, the point of Divy.——M. + Letronne, p.121, considers the freedman with his embassy from Ceylon to + have been an impostor.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.7" id="linknote-24.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.7">return</a>)<br /> [ These embassies had been + sent to Constantius. Ammianus, who unwarily deviates into gross flattery, + must have forgotten the length of the way, and the short duration of the + reign of Julian. ——Gothos sæpe fallaces et perfidos; hostes + quærere se meliores aiebat: illis enim sufficere mercators Galatas per + quos ubique sine conditionis discrimine venumdantur. (Ammian. xxii. 7.) + Within less than fifteen years, these Gothic slaves threatened and subdued + their masters.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.9" id="linknote-24.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Alexander reminds his + rival Cæsar, who depreciated the fame and merit of an Asiatic victory, + that Crassus and Antony had felt the Persian arrows; and that the Romans, + in a war of three hundred years, had not yet subdued the single province + of Mesopotamia or Assyria, (Cæsares, p. 324.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.10" id="linknote-24.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.10">return</a>)<br /> [ The design of the + Persian war is declared by Ammianus, (xxii. 7, 12,) Libanius, (Orat. + Parent. c. 79, 80, p. 305, 306,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 158,) and Socrates, + (l. iii. c. 19.)] + </p> + <p> + If Julian had flattered himself, that his personal connection with the + capital of the East would be productive of mutual satisfaction to the + prince and people, he made a very false estimate of his own character, and + of the manners of Antioch. <a href="#linknote-24.11" name="linknoteref-24.11" + id="linknoteref-24.11">11</a> The warmth of the climate disposed the + natives to the most intemperate enjoyment of tranquillity and opulence; + and the lively licentiousness of the Greeks was blended with the + hereditary softness of the Syrians. Fashion was the only law, pleasure the + only pursuit, and the splendor of dress and furniture was the only + distinction of the citizens of Antioch. The arts of luxury were honored; + the serious and manly virtues were the subject of ridicule; and the + contempt for female modesty and reverent age announced the universal + corruption of the capital of the East. The love of spectacles was the + taste, or rather passion, of the Syrians; the most skilful artists were + procured from the adjacent cities; <a href="#linknote-24.12" + name="linknoteref-24.12" id="linknoteref-24.12">12</a> a considerable share + of the revenue was devoted to the public amusements; and the magnificence + of the games of the theatre and circus was considered as the happiness and + as the glory of Antioch. The rustic manners of a prince who disdained such + glory, and was insensible of such happiness, soon disgusted the delicacy + of his subjects; and the effeminate Orientals could neither imitate, nor + admire, the severe simplicity which Julian always maintained, and + sometimes affected. The days of festivity, consecrated, by ancient custom, + to the honor of the gods, were the only occasions in which Julian relaxed + his philosophic severity; and those festivals were the only days in which + the Syrians of Antioch could reject the allurements of pleasure. The + majority of the people supported the glory of the Christian name, which + had been first invented by their ancestors: <a href="#linknote-24.13" + name="linknoteref-24.13" id="linknoteref-24.13">13</a> they contended + themselves with disobeying the moral precepts, but they were scrupulously + attached to the speculative doctrines of their religion. The church of + Antioch was distracted by heresy and schism; but the Arians and the + Athanasians, the followers of Meletius and those of Paulinus, <a + href="#linknote-24.14" name="linknoteref-24.14" id="linknoteref-24.14">14</a> + were actuated by the same pious hatred of their common adversary. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.11" id="linknote-24.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.11">return</a>)<br /> [ The Satire of Julian, + and the Homilies of St. Chrysostom, exhibit the same picture of Antioch. + The miniature which the Abbé de la Bleterie has copied from thence, (Vie + de Julian, p. 332,) is elegant and correct.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.12" id="linknote-24.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.12">return</a>)<br /> [ Laodicea furnished + charioteers; Tyre and Berytus, comedians; Cæsarea, pantomimes; + Heliopolis, singers; Gaza, gladiators, Ascalon, wrestlers; and Castabala, + rope-dancers. See the Expositio totius Mundi, p. 6, in the third tome of + Hudson’s Minor Geographers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.13" id="linknote-24.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.13">return</a>)<br /> [ The people of Antioch + ingenuously professed their attachment to the <i>Chi</i>, (Christ,) and the + <i>Kappa</i>, (Constantius.) Julian in Misopogon, p. 357.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.14" id="linknote-24.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.14">return</a>)<br /> [ The schism of Antioch, + which lasted eighty-five years, (A. D. 330-415,) was inflamed, while + Julian resided in that city, by the indiscreet ordination of Paulinus. See + Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. iii. p. 803 of the quarto edition, (Paris, + 1701, &c,) which henceforward I shall quote.] + </p> + <p> + The strongest prejudice was entertained against the character of an + apostate, the enemy and successor of a prince who had engaged the + affections of a very numerous sect; and the removal of St. Babylas excited + an implacable opposition to the person of Julian. His subjects complained, + with superstitious indignation, that famine had pursued the emperor’s + steps from Constantinople to Antioch; and the discontent of a hungry + people was exasperated by the injudicious attempt to relieve their + distress. The inclemency of the season had affected the harvests of Syria; + and the price of bread, <a href="#linknote-24.15" name="linknoteref-24.15" + id="linknoteref-24.15">15</a> in the markets of Antioch, had naturally + risen in proportion to the scarcity of corn. But the fair and reasonable + proportion was soon violated by the rapacious arts of monopoly. In this + unequal contest, in which the produce of the land is claimed by one party + as his exclusive property, is used by another as a lucrative object of + trade, and is required by a third for the daily and necessary support of + life, all the profits of the intermediate agents are accumulated on the + head of the defenceless customers. The hardships of their situation were + exaggerated and increased by their own impatience and anxiety; and the + apprehension of a scarcity gradually produced the appearances of a famine. + When the luxurious citizens of Antioch complained of the high price of + poultry and fish, Julian publicly declared, that a frugal city ought to be + satisfied with a regular supply of wine, oil, and bread; but he + acknowledged, that it was the duty of a sovereign to provide for the + subsistence of his people. With this salutary view, the emperor ventured + on a very dangerous and doubtful step, of fixing, by legal authority, the + value of corn. He enacted, that, in a time of scarcity, it should be sold + at a price which had seldom been known in the most plentiful years; and + that his own example might strengthen his laws, he sent into the market + four hundred and twenty-two thousand <i>modii</i>, or measures, which were drawn + by his order from the granaries of Hierapolis, of Chalcis, and even of + Egypt. The consequences might have been foreseen, and were soon felt. The + Imperial wheat was purchased by the rich merchants; the proprietors of + land, or of corn, withheld from the city the accustomed supply; and the + small quantities that appeared in the market were secretly sold at an + advanced and illegal price. Julian still continued to applaud his own + policy, treated the complaints of the people as a vain and ungrateful + murmur, and convinced Antioch that he had inherited the obstinacy, though + not the cruelty, of his brother Gallus. <a href="#linknote-24.16" + name="linknoteref-24.16" id="linknoteref-24.16">16</a> The remonstrances of + the municipal senate served only to exasperate his inflexible mind. He was + persuaded, perhaps with truth, that the senators of Antioch who possessed + lands, or were concerned in trade, had themselves contributed to the + calamities of their country; and he imputed the disrespectful boldness + which they assumed, to the sense, not of public duty, but of private + interest. The whole body, consisting of two hundred of the most noble and + wealthy citizens, were sent, under a guard, from the palace to the prison; + and though they were permitted, before the close of evening, to return to + their respective houses, <a href="#linknote-24.17" name="linknoteref-24.17" + id="linknoteref-24.17">17</a> the emperor himself could not obtain the + forgiveness which he had so easily granted. The same grievances were still + the subject of the same complaints, which were industriously circulated by + the wit and levity of the Syrian Greeks. During the licentious days of the + Saturnalia, the streets of the city resounded with insolent songs, which + derided the laws, the religion, the personal conduct, and even the <i>beard</i>, + of the emperor; the spirit of Antioch was manifested by the connivance of + the magistrates, and the applause of the multitude. <a + href="#linknote-24.18" name="linknoteref-24.18" id="linknoteref-24.18">18</a> + The disciple of Socrates was too deeply affected by these popular insults; + but the monarch, endowed with a quick sensibility, and possessed of + absolute power, refused his passions the gratification of revenge. A + tyrant might have proscribed, without distinction, the lives and fortunes + of the citizens of Antioch; and the unwarlike Syrians must have patiently + submitted to the lust, the rapaciousness and the cruelty, of the faithful + legions of Gaul. A milder sentence might have deprived the capital of the + East of its honors and privileges; and the courtiers, perhaps the + subjects, of Julian, would have applauded an act of justice, which + asserted the dignity of the supreme magistrate of the republic. <a + href="#linknote-24.19" name="linknoteref-24.19" id="linknoteref-24.19">19</a> + But instead of abusing, or exerting, the authority of the state, to + revenge his personal injuries, Julian contented himself with an + inoffensive mode of retaliation, which it would be in the power of few + princes to employ. He had been insulted by satires and libels; in his + turn, he composed, under the title of the <i>Enemy of the Beard</i>, an ironical + confession of his own faults, and a severe satire on the licentious and + effeminate manners of Antioch. This Imperial reply was publicly exposed + before the gates of the palace; and the Misopogon <a href="#linknote-24.20" + name="linknoteref-24.20" id="linknoteref-24.20">20</a> still remains a + singular monument of the resentment, the wit, the humanity, and the + indiscretion of Julian. Though he affected to laugh, he could not forgive. + <a href="#linknote-24.21" name="linknoteref-24.21" id="linknoteref-24.21">21</a> + His contempt was expressed, and his revenge might be gratified, by the + nomination of a governor <a href="#linknote-24.22" name="linknoteref-24.22" + id="linknoteref-24.22">22</a> worthy only of such subjects; and the + emperor, forever renouncing the ungrateful city, proclaimed his resolution + to pass the ensuing winter at Tarsus in Cilicia. <a href="#linknote-24.23" + name="linknoteref-24.23" id="linknoteref-24.23">23</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.15" id="linknote-24.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.15">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian states three + different proportions, of five, ten, or fifteen <i>modii</i> of wheat for one + piece of gold, according to the degrees of plenty and scarcity, (in + Misopogon, p. 369.) From this fact, and from some collateral examples, I + conclude, that under the successors of Constantine, the moderate price of + wheat was about thirty-two shillings the English quarter, which is equal + to the average price of the sixty-four first years of the present century. + See Arbuthnot’s Tables of Coins, Weights, and Measures, p. 88, 89. Plin. + Hist. Natur. xviii. 12. Mém. de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxviii. + p. 718-721. Smith’s Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of + Nations, vol. i. p 246. This last I am proud to quote as the work of a + sage and a friend.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.16" id="linknote-24.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Nunquam a proposito + declinabat, Galli similis fratris, licet incruentus. Ammian. xxii. 14. The + ignorance of the most enlightened princes may claim some excuse; but we + cannot be satisfied with Julian’s own defence, (in Misopogon, p. 363, + 369,) or the elaborate apology of Libanius, (Orat. Parental c. xcvii. p. + 321.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.17" id="linknote-24.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Their short and easy + confinement is gently touched by Libanius, (Orat. Parental. c. xcviii. p. + 322, 323.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.18" id="linknote-24.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, (ad + Antiochenos de Imperatoris ira, c. 17, 18, 19, in Fabricius, Bibliot. + Græc. tom. vii. p. 221-223,) like a skilful advocate, severely censures + the folly of the people, who suffered for the crime of a few obscure and + drunken wretches.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.19" id="linknote-24.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius (ad Antiochen. + c. vii. p. 213) reminds Antioch of the recent chastisement of Cæsarea; + and even Julian (in Misopogon, p. 355) insinuates how severely Tarentum + had expiated the insult to the Roman ambassadors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.20" id="linknote-24.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.20">return</a>)<br /> [ On the subject of the + Misopogon, see Ammianus, (xxii. 14,) Libanius, (Orat. Parentalis, c. xcix. + p. 323,) Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. p. 133) and the Chronicle of + Antioch, by John Malala, (tom. ii. p. 15, 16.) I have essential + obligations to the translation and notes of the Abbé de la Bleterie, (Vie + de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 1-138.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.21" id="linknote-24.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus very justly + remarks, Coactus dissimulare pro tempore ira sufflabatur interna. The + elaborate irony of Julian at length bursts forth into serious and direct + invective.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.22" id="linknote-24.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Ipse autem Antiochiam + egressurus, Heliopoliten quendam Alexandrum Syriacæ jurisdictioni + præfecit, turbulentum et sævum; dicebatque non illum meruisse, sed + Antiochensibus avaris et contumeliosis hujusmodi judicem convenire. + Ammian. xxiii. 2. Libanius, (Epist. 722, p. 346, 347,) who confesses to + Julian himself, that he had shared the general discontent, pretends that + Alexander was a useful, though harsh, reformer of the manners and religion + of Antioch.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.23" id="linknote-24.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.23">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian, in Misopogon, + p. 364. Ammian. xxiii. 2, and Valesius, ad loc. Libanius, in a professed + oration, invites him to return to his loyal and penitent city of Antioch.] + </p> + <p> + Yet Antioch possessed one citizen, whose genius and virtues might atone, + in the opinion of Julian, for the vice and folly of his country. The + sophist Libanius was born in the capital of the East; he publicly + professed the arts of rhetoric and declamation at Nice, Nicomedia, + Constantinople, Athens, and, during the remainder of his life, at Antioch. + His school was assiduously frequented by the Grecian youth; his disciples, + who sometimes exceeded the number of eighty, celebrated their incomparable + master; and the jealousy of his rivals, who persecuted him from one city + to another, confirmed the favorable opinion which Libanius ostentatiously + displayed of his superior merit. The preceptors of Julian had extorted a + rash but solemn assurance, that he would never attend the lectures of + their adversary: the curiosity of the royal youth was checked and + inflamed: he secretly procured the writings of this dangerous sophist, and + gradually surpassed, in the perfect imitation of his style, the most + laborious of his domestic pupils. <a href="#linknote-24.24" + name="linknoteref-24.24" id="linknoteref-24.24">24</a> When Julian ascended + the throne, he declared his impatience to embrace and reward the Syrian + sophist, who had preserved, in a degenerate age, the Grecian purity of + taste, of manners, and of religion. The emperor’s prepossession was + increased and justified by the discreet pride of his favorite. Instead of + pressing, with the foremost of the crowd, into the palace of + Constantinople, Libanius calmly expected his arrival at Antioch; withdrew + from court on the first symptoms of coldness and indifference; required a + formal invitation for each visit; and taught his sovereign an important + lesson, that he might command the obedience of a subject, but that he must + deserve the attachment of a friend. The sophists of every age, despising, + or affecting to despise, the accidental distinctions of birth and fortune, + <a href="#linknote-24.25" name="linknoteref-24.25" id="linknoteref-24.25">25</a> + reserve their esteem for the superior qualities of the mind, with which + they themselves are so plentifully endowed. Julian might disdain the + acclamations of a venal court, who adored the Imperial purple; but he was + deeply flattered by the praise, the admonition, the freedom, and the envy + of an independent philosopher, who refused his favors, loved his person, + celebrated his fame, and protected his memory. The voluminous writings of + Libanius still exist; for the most part, they are the vain and idle + compositions of an orator, who cultivated the science of words; the + productions of a recluse student, whose mind, regardless of his + contemporaries, was incessantly fixed on the Trojan war and the Athenian + commonwealth. Yet the sophist of Antioch sometimes descended from this + imaginary elevation; he entertained a various and elaborate + correspondence; <a href="#linknote-24.26" name="linknoteref-24.26" + id="linknoteref-24.26">26</a> he praised the virtues of his own times; he + boldly arraigned the abuse of public and private life; and he eloquently + pleaded the cause of Antioch against the just resentment of Julian and + Theodosius. It is the common calamity of old age, <a href="#linknote-24.27" + name="linknoteref-24.27" id="linknoteref-24.27">27</a> to lose whatever + might have rendered it desirable; but Libanius experienced the peculiar + misfortune of surviving the religion and the sciences, to which he had + consecrated his genius. The friend of Julian was an indignant spectator of + the triumph of Christianity; and his bigotry, which darkened the prospect + of the visible world, did not inspire Libanius with any lively hopes of + celestial glory and happiness. <a href="#linknote-24.28" + name="linknoteref-24.28" id="linknoteref-24.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.24" id="linknote-24.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. + c. vii. p. 230, 231.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.25" id="linknote-24.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius reports, that + Libanius refused the honorary rank of Prætorian præfect, as less + illustrious than the title of Sophist, (in Vit. Sophist. p. 135.) The + critics have observed a similar sentiment in one of the epistles (xviii. + edit. Wolf) of Libanius himself.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.26" id="linknote-24.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Near two thousand of + his letters—a mode of composition in which Libanius was thought to + excel—are still extant, and already published. The critics may + praise their subtle and elegant brevity; yet Dr. Bentley (Dissertation + upon Phalaris, p. 48) might justly, though quaintly observe, that “you + feel, by the emptiness and deadness of them, that you converse with some + dreaming pedant, with his elbow on his desk.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.27" id="linknote-24.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.27">return</a>)<br /> [ His birth is assigned + to the year 314. He mentions the seventy-sixth year of his age, (A. D. + 390,) and seems to allude to some events of a still later date.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.28" id="linknote-24.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius has composed + the vain, prolix, but curious narrative of his own life, (tom. ii. p. + 1-84, edit. Morell,) of which Eunapius (p. 130-135) has left a concise and + unfavorable account. Among the moderns, Tillemont, (Hist. des Empereurs, + tom. iv. p. 571-576,) Fabricius, (Bibliot. Græc. tom. vii. p. 376-414,) + and Lardner, (Heathen Testimonies, tom. iv. p. 127-163,) have illustrated + the character and writings of this famous sophist.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap24.2"></a> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The martial impatience of Julian urged him to take the field in the + beginning of the spring; and he dismissed, with contempt and reproach, the + senate of Antioch, who accompanied the emperor beyond the limits of their + own territory, to which he was resolved never to return. After a laborious + march of two days, <a href="#linknote-24.29" name="linknoteref-24.29" + id="linknoteref-24.29">29</a> he halted on the third at Beræa, or Aleppo, + where he had the mortification of finding a senate almost entirely + Christian; who received with cold and formal demonstrations of respect the + eloquent sermon of the apostle of paganism. The son of one of the most + illustrious citizens of Beræa, who had embraced, either from interest or + conscience, the religion of the emperor, was disinherited by his angry + parent. The father and the son were invited to the Imperial table. Julian, + placing himself between them, attempted, without success, to inculcate the + lesson and example of toleration; supported, with affected calmness, the + indiscreet zeal of the aged Christian, who seemed to forget the sentiments + of nature, and the duty of a subject; and at length, turning towards the + afflicted youth, “Since you have lost a father,” said he, “for my sake, it + is incumbent on me to supply his place.” <a href="#linknote-24.30" + name="linknoteref-24.30" id="linknoteref-24.30">30</a> The emperor was + received in a manner much more agreeable to his wishes at Batnæ, <a + href="#linknote-24.3011" name="linknoteref-24.3011" id="linknoteref-24.3011">3011</a> + a small town pleasantly seated in a grove of cypresses, about twenty miles + from the city of Hierapolis. The solemn rites of sacrifice were decently + prepared by the inhabitants of Batnæ, who seemed attached to the worship + of their tutelar deities, Apollo and Jupiter; but the serious piety of + Julian was offended by the tumult of their applause; and he too clearly + discerned, that the smoke which arose from their altars was the incense of + flattery, rather than of devotion. The ancient and magnificent temple + which had sanctified, for so many ages, the city of Hierapolis, <a + href="#linknote-24.31" name="linknoteref-24.31" id="linknoteref-24.31">31</a> + no longer subsisted; and the consecrated wealth, which afforded a liberal + maintenance to more than three hundred priests, might hasten its downfall. + Yet Julian enjoyed the satisfaction of embracing a philosopher and a + friend, whose religious firmness had withstood the pressing and repeated + solicitations of Constantius and Gallus, as often as those princes lodged + at his house, in their passage through Hierapolis. In the hurry of + military preparation, and the careless confidence of a familiar + correspondence, the zeal of Julian appears to have been lively and + uniform. He had now undertaken an important and difficult war; and the + anxiety of the event rendered him still more attentive to observe and + register the most trifling presages, from which, according to the rules of + divination, any knowledge of futurity could be derived. <a + href="#linknote-24.32" name="linknoteref-24.32" id="linknoteref-24.32">32</a> + He informed Libanius of his progress as far as Hierapolis, by an elegant + epistle, <a href="#linknote-24.33" name="linknoteref-24.33" + id="linknoteref-24.33">33</a> which displays the facility of his genius, + and his tender friendship for the sophist of Antioch. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.29" id="linknote-24.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.29">return</a>)<br /> [ From Antioch to + Litarbe, on the territory of Chalcis, the road, over hills and through + morasses, was extremely bad; and the loose stones were cemented only with + sand, (Julian. epist. xxvii.) It is singular enough that the Romans should + have neglected the great communication between Antioch and the Euphrates. + See Wesseling Itinerar. p. 190 Bergier, Hist des Grands Chemins, tom. ii. + p. 100] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.30" id="linknote-24.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian alludes to this + incident, (epist. xxvii.,) which is more distinctly related by Theodoret, + (l. iii. c. 22.) The intolerant spirit of the father is applauded by + Tillemont, (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 534.) and even by La + Bleterie, (Vie de Julien, p. 413.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.3011" id="linknote-24.3011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3011 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.3011">return</a>)<br /> [ This name, of + Syriac origin, is found in the Arabic, and means a place in a valley where + waters meet. Julian says, the name of the city is Barbaric, the situation + Greek. The geographer Abulfeda (tab. Syriac. p. 129, edit. Koehler) speaks + of it in a manner to justify the praises of Julian.—St. Martin. + Notes to Le Beau, iii. 56.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.31" id="linknote-24.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.31">return</a>)<br /> [ See the curious + treatise de Deâ Syriâ, inserted among the works of Lucian, (tom. iii. p. + 451-490, edit. Reitz.) The singular appellation of <i>Ninus vetus</i> (Ammian. + xiv. 8) might induce a suspicion, that Heirapolis had been the royal seat + of the Assyrians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.32" id="linknote-24.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.32">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (epist. xxviii.) + kept a regular account of all the fortunate omens; but he suppresses the + inauspicious signs, which Ammianus (xxiii. 2) has carefully recorded.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.33" id="linknote-24.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian. epist. xxvii. + p. 399-402.] + </p> + <p> + Hierapolis, <a href="#linknote-24.3311" name="linknoteref-24.3311" + id="linknoteref-24.3311">3311</a> situate almost on the banks of the + Euphrates, <a href="#linknote-24.34" name="linknoteref-24.34" + id="linknoteref-24.34">34</a> had been appointed for the general rendezvous + of the Roman troops, who immediately passed the great river on a bridge of + boats, which was previously constructed. <a href="#linknote-24.35" + name="linknoteref-24.35" id="linknoteref-24.35">35</a> If the inclinations + of Julian had been similar to those of his predecessor, he might have + wasted the active and important season of the year in the circus of + Samosata or in the churches of Edessa. But as the warlike emperor, instead + of Constantius, had chosen Alexander for his model, he advanced without + delay to Carrhæ, <a href="#linknote-24.36" name="linknoteref-24.36" + id="linknoteref-24.36">36</a> a very ancient city of Mesopotamia, at the + distance of fourscore miles from Hierapolis. The temple of the Moon + attracted the devotion of Julian; but the halt of a few days was + principally employed in completing the immense preparations of the Persian + war. The secret of the expedition had hitherto remained in his own breast; + but as Carrhæ is the point of separation of the two great roads, he could + no longer conceal whether it was his design to attack the dominions of + Sapor on the side of the Tigris, or on that of the Euphrates. The emperor + detached an army of thirty thousand men, under the command of his kinsman + Procopius, and of Sebastian, who had been duke of Egypt. They were ordered + to direct their march towards Nisibis, and to secure the frontier from the + desultory incursions of the enemy, before they attempted the passage of + the Tigris. Their subsequent operations were left to the discretion of the + generals; but Julian expected, that after wasting with fire and sword the + fertile districts of Media and Adiabene, they might arrive under the walls + of Ctesiphon at the same time that he himself, advancing with equal steps + along the banks of the Euphrates, should besiege the capital of the + Persian monarchy. The success of this well-concerted plan depended, in a + great measure, on the powerful and ready assistance of the king of + Armenia, who, without exposing the safety of his own dominions, might + detach an army of four thousand horse, and twenty thousand foot, to the + assistance of the Romans. <a href="#linknote-24.37" name="linknoteref-24.37" + id="linknoteref-24.37">37</a> But the feeble Arsaces Tiranus, <a + href="#linknote-24.38" name="linknoteref-24.38" id="linknoteref-24.38">38</a> + king of Armenia, had degenerated still more shamefully than his father + Chosroes, from the manly virtues of the great Tiridates; and as the + pusillanimous monarch was averse to any enterprise of danger and glory, he + could disguise his timid indolence by the more decent excuses of religion + and gratitude. He expressed a pious attachment to the memory of + Constantius, from whose hands he had received in marriage Olympias, the + daughter of the præfect Ablavius; and the alliance of a female, who had + been educated as the destined wife of the emperor Constans, exalted the + dignity of a Barbarian king. <a href="#linknote-24.39" + name="linknoteref-24.39" id="linknoteref-24.39">39</a> Tiranus professed the + Christian religion; he reigned over a nation of Christians; and he was + restrained, by every principle of conscience and interest, from + contributing to the victory, which would consummate the ruin of the + church. The alienated mind of Tiranus was exasperated by the indiscretion + of Julian, who treated the king of Armenia as <i>his</i> slave, and as the enemy + of the gods. The haughty and threatening style of the Imperial mandates <a + href="#linknote-24.40" name="linknoteref-24.40" id="linknoteref-24.40">40</a> + awakened the secret indignation of a prince, who, in the humiliating state + of dependence, was still conscious of his royal descent from the + Arsacides, the lords of the East, and the rivals of the Roman power. <a + href="#linknote-24.4011" name="linknoteref-24.4011" id="linknoteref-24.4011">4011</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.3311" id="linknote-24.3311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3311 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.3311">return</a>)<br /> [ Or Bambyce, now + Bambouch; Manbedj Arab., or Maboug, Syr. It was twenty-four Roman miles + from the Euphrates.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.34" id="linknote-24.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.34">return</a>)<br /> [ I take the earliest + opportunity of acknowledging my obligations to M. d’Anville, for his + recent geography of the Euphrates and Tigris, (Paris, 1780, in 4to.,) + which particularly illustrates the expedition of Julian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.35" id="linknote-24.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.35">return</a>)<br /> [ There are three + passages within a few miles of each other; 1. Zeugma, celebrated by the + ancients; 2. Bir, frequented by the moderns; and, 3. The bridge of + Menbigz, or Hierapolis, at the distance of four parasangs from the city. + —— Djisr Manbedj is the same with the ancient Zeugma. St. + Martin, iii. 58—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.36" id="linknote-24.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Haran, or Carrhæ, was + the ancient residence of the Sabæans, and of Abraham. See the Index + Geographicus of Schultens, (ad calcem Vit. Saladin.,) a work from which I + have obtained much <i>Oriental</i> knowledge concerning the ancient and modern + geography of Syria and the adjacent countries. ——On an + inedited medal in the collection of the late M. Tochon. of the Academy of + Inscriptions, it is read Xappan. St. Martin. iii 60—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.37" id="linknote-24.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.37">return</a>)<br /> [ See Xenophon. Cyropæd. + l. iii. p. 189, edit. Hutchinson. Artavasdes might have supplied Marc + Antony with 16,000 horse, armed and disciplined after the Parthian manner, + (Plutarch, in M. Antonio. tom. v. p. 117.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.38" id="linknote-24.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.38">return</a>)<br /> [ Moses of Chorene (Hist. + Armeniac. l. iii. c. 11, p. 242) fixes his accession (A. D. 354) to the + 17th year of Constantius. ——Arsaces Tiranus, or Diran, had + ceased to reign twenty-five years before, in 337. The intermediate changes + in Armenia, and the character of this Arsaces, the son of Diran, are + traced by M. St. Martin, at considerable length, in his supplement to Le + Beau, ii. 208-242. As long as his Grecian queen Olympias maintained her + influence, Arsaces was faithful to the Roman and <i>Christian</i> alliance. On + the accession of Julian, the same influence made his fidelity to waver; + but Olympias having been poisoned in the sacramental bread by the agency + of Pharandcem, the former wife of Arsaces, another change took place in + Armenian politics unfavorable to the Christian interest. The patriarch + Narses retired from the impious court to a safe seclusion. Yet Pharandsem + was equally hostile to the Persian influence, and Arsaces began to support + with vigor the cause of Julian. He made an inroad into the Persian + dominions with a body of Rans and Alans as auxiliaries; wasted Aderbidgan + and Sapor, who had been defeated near Tauriz, was engaged in making head + against his troops in Persarmenia, at the time of the death of Julian. + Such is M. St. Martin’s view, (ii. 276, et sqq.,) which rests on the + Armenian historians, Faustos of Byzantium, and Mezrob the biographer of + the Partriarch Narses. In the history of Armenia by Father Chamitch, and + translated by Avdall, Tiran is still king of Armenia, at the time of + Julian’s death. F. Chamitch follows Moses of Chorene, The authority of + Gibbon.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.39" id="linknote-24.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xx. 11. + Athanasius (tom. i. p. 856) says, in general terms, that Constantius gave + to his brother’s widow, an expression more suitable to a Roman than a + Christian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.40" id="linknote-24.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.40">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxiii. 2) + uses a word much too soft for the occasion, <i>monuerat</i>. Muratori (Fabricius, + Bibliothec. Græc. tom. vii. p. 86) has published an epistle from Julian + to the satrap Arsaces; fierce, vulgar, and (though it might deceive + Sozomen, l. vi. c. 5) most probably spurious. La Bleterie (Hist. de + Jovien, tom. ii. p. 339) translates and rejects it. Note: St. Martin + considers it genuine: the Armenian writers mention such a letter, iii. 37.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.4011" id="linknote-24.4011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4011 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.4011">return</a>)<br /> [ Arsaces did not + abandon the Roman alliance, but gave it only feeble support. St. Martin, + iii. 41—M.] + </p> + <p> + The military dispositions of Julian were skilfully contrived to deceive + the spies and to divert the attention of Sapor. The legions appeared to + direct their march towards Nisibis and the Tigris. On a sudden they + wheeled to the right; traversed the level and naked plain of Carrhæ; and + reached, on the third day, the banks of the Euphrates, where the strong + town of Nicephorium, or Callinicum, had been founded by the Macedonian + kings. From thence the emperor pursued his march, above ninety miles, + along the winding stream of the Euphrates, till, at length, about one + month after his departure from Antioch, he discovered the towers of + Circesium, <a href="#linknote-24.4012" name="linknoteref-24.4012" + id="linknoteref-24.4012">4012</a> the extreme limit of the Roman dominions. + The army of Julian, the most numerous that any of the Cæsars had ever led + against Persia, consisted of sixty-five thousand effective and + well-disciplined soldiers. The veteran bands of cavalry and infantry, of + Romans and Barbarians, had been selected from the different provinces; and + a just preëminence of loyalty and valor was claimed by the hardy Gauls, + who guarded the throne and person of their beloved prince. A formidable + body of Scythian auxiliaries had been transported from another climate, + and almost from another world, to invade a distant country, of whose name + and situation they were ignorant. The love of rapine and war allured to + the Imperial standard several tribes of Saracens, or roving Arabs, whose + service Julian had commanded, while he sternly refused the payment of the + accustomed subsidies. The broad channel of the Euphrates <a + href="#linknote-24.41" name="linknoteref-24.41" id="linknoteref-24.41">41</a> + was crowded by a fleet of eleven hundred ships, destined to attend the + motions, and to satisfy the wants, of the Roman army. The military + strength of the fleet was composed of fifty armed galleys; and these were + accompanied by an equal number of flat-bottomed boats, which might + occasionally be connected into the form of temporary bridges. The rest of + the ships, partly constructed of timber, and partly covered with raw + hides, were laden with an almost inexhaustible supply of arms and engines, + of utensils and provisions. The vigilant humanity of Julian had embarked a + very large magazine of vinegar and biscuit for the use of the soldiers, + but he prohibited the indulgence of wine; and rigorously stopped a long + string of superfluous camels that attempted to follow the rear of the + army. The River Chaboras falls into the Euphrates at Circesium; <a + href="#linknote-24.42" name="linknoteref-24.42" id="linknoteref-24.42">42</a> + and as soon as the trumpet gave the signal of march, the Romans passed the + little stream which separated two mighty and hostile empires. The custom + of ancient discipline required a military oration; and Julian embraced + every opportunity of displaying his eloquence. He animated the impatient + and attentive legions by the example of the inflexible courage and + glorious triumphs of their ancestors. He excited their resentment by a + lively picture of the insolence of the Persians; and he exhorted them to + imitate his firm resolution, either to extirpate that perfidious nation, + or to devote his life in the cause of the republic. The eloquence of + Julian was enforced by a donative of one hundred and thirty pieces of + silver to every soldier; and the bridge of the Chaboras was instantly cut + away, to convince the troops that they must place their hopes of safety in + the success of their arms. Yet the prudence of the emperor induced him to + secure a remote frontier, perpetually exposed to the inroads of the + hostile Arabs. A detachment of four thousand men was left at Circesium, + which completed, to the number of ten thousand, the regular garrison of + that important fortress. <a href="#linknote-24.43" name="linknoteref-24.43" + id="linknoteref-24.43">43</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.4012" id="linknote-24.4012"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4012 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.4012">return</a>)<br /> [ Kirkesia the + Carchemish of the Scriptures.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.41" id="linknote-24.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.41">return</a>)<br /> [ Latissimum flumen + Euphraten artabat. Ammian. xxiii. 3 Somewhat higher, at the fords of + Thapsacus, the river is four stadia or 800 yards, almost half an English + mile, broad. (Xenophon, Anabasis, l. i. p. 41, edit. Hutchinson, with + Foster’s Observations, p. 29, &c., in the 2d volume of Spelman’s + translation.) If the breadth of the Euphrates at Bir and Zeugma is no more + than 130 yards, (Voyages de Niebuhr, tom. ii. p. 335,) the enormous + difference must chiefly arise from the depth of the channel.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.42" id="linknote-24.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.42">return</a>)<br /> [ Munimentum tutissimum + et fabre politum, Abora (the Orientals aspirate Chaboras or Chabour) et + Euphrates ambiunt flumina, velut spatium insulare fingentes. Ammian. + xxiii. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.43" id="linknote-24.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.43">return</a>)<br /> [ The enterprise and + armament of Julian are described by himself, (Epist. xxvii.,) Ammianus + Marcellinus, (xxiii. 3, 4, 5,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 108, 109, p. + 332, 333,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 160, 161, 162) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. l,) and + John Malala, (tom. ii. p. 17.)] + </p> + <p> + From the moment that the Romans entered the enemy’s country, <a + href="#linknote-24.44" name="linknoteref-24.44" id="linknoteref-24.44">44</a> + the country of an active and artful enemy, the order of march was disposed + in three columns. <a href="#linknote-24.45" name="linknoteref-24.45" + id="linknoteref-24.45">45</a> The strength of the infantry, and + consequently of the whole army was placed in the centre, under the + peculiar command of their master-general Victor. On the right, the brave + Nevitta led a column of several legions along the banks of the Euphrates, + and almost always in sight of the fleet. The left flank of the army was + protected by the column of cavalry. Hormisdas and Arinthæus were + appointed generals of the horse; and the singular adventures of Hormisdas + <a href="#linknote-24.46" name="linknoteref-24.46" id="linknoteref-24.46">46</a> + are not undeserving of our notice. He was a Persian prince, of the royal + race of the Sassanides, who, in the troubles of the minority of Sapor, had + escaped from prison to the hospitable court of the great Constantine. + Hormisdas at first excited the compassion, and at length acquired the + esteem, of his new masters; his valor and fidelity raised him to the + military honors of the Roman service; and though a Christian, he might + indulge the secret satisfaction of convincing his ungrateful country, that + an oppressed subject may prove the most dangerous enemy. Such was the + disposition of the three principal columns. The front and flanks of the + army were covered by Lucilianus with a flying detachment of fifteen + hundred light-armed soldiers, whose active vigilance observed the most + distant signs, and conveyed the earliest notice, of any hostile approach. + Dagalaiphus, and Secundinus duke of Osrhoene, conducted the troops of the + rear-guard; the baggage securely proceeded in the intervals of the + columns; and the ranks, from a motive either of use or ostentation, were + formed in such open order, that the whole line of march extended almost + ten miles. The ordinary post of Julian was at the head of the centre + column; but as he preferred the duties of a general to the state of a + monarch, he rapidly moved, with a small escort of light cavalry, to the + front, the rear, the flanks, wherever his presence could animate or + protect the march of the Roman army. The country which they traversed from + the Chaboras, to the cultivated lands of Assyria, may be considered as a + part of the desert of Arabia, a dry and barren waste, which could never be + improved by the most powerful arts of human industry. Julian marched over + the same ground which had been trod above seven hundred years before by + the footsteps of the younger Cyrus, and which is described by one of the + companions of his expedition, the sage and heroic Xenophon. <a + href="#linknote-24.47" name="linknoteref-24.47" id="linknoteref-24.47">47</a> + “The country was a plain throughout, as even as the sea, and full of + wormwood; and if any other kind of shrubs or reeds grew there, they had + all an aromatic smell, but no trees could be seen. Bustards and ostriches, + antelopes and wild asses, <a href="#linknote-24.48" name="linknoteref-24.48" + id="linknoteref-24.48">48</a> appeared to be the only inhabitants of the + desert; and the fatigues of the march were alleviated by the amusements of + the chase.” The loose sand of the desert was frequently raised by the wind + into clouds of dust; and a great number of the soldiers of Julian, with + their tents, were suddenly thrown to the ground by the violence of an + unexpected hurricane. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.44" id="linknote-24.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.44">return</a>)<br /> [ Before he enters + Persia, Ammianus copiously describes (xxiii. p. 396-419, edit. Gronov. in + 4to.) the eighteen great provinces, (as far as the Seric, or Chinese + frontiers,) which were subject to the Sassanides.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.45" id="linknote-24.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.45">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxiv. 1) and + Zosimus (l. iii. p. 162, 163) rately expressed the order of march.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.46" id="linknote-24.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.46">return</a>)<br /> [ The adventures of + Hormisdas are related with some mixture of fable, (Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 100-102; Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs tom. iv. p. 198.) It is almost + impossible that he should be the brother (frater germanus) of an <i>eldest</i> + and <i>posthumous</i> child: nor do I recollect that Ammianus ever gives him that + title. * Note: St. Martin conceives that he was an elder brother by + another mother who had several children, ii. 24—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.47" id="linknote-24.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.47">return</a>)<br /> [ See the first book of + the Anabasis, p. 45, 46. This pleasing work is original and authentic. Yet + Xenophon’s memory, perhaps many years after the expedition, has sometimes + betrayed him; and the distances which he marks are often larger than + either a soldier or a geographer will allow.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.48" id="linknote-24.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Mr. Spelman, the + English translator of the Anabasis, (vol. i. p. 51,) confounds the + antelope with the roebuck, and the wild ass with the zebra.] + </p> + <p> + The sandy plains of Mesopotamia were abandoned to the antelopes and wild + asses of the desert; but a variety of populous towns and villages were + pleasantly situated on the banks of the Euphrates, and in the islands + which are occasionally formed by that river. The city of Annah, or Anatho, + <a href="#linknote-24.49" name="linknoteref-24.49" id="linknoteref-24.49">49</a> + the actual residence of an Arabian emir, is composed of two long streets, + which enclose, within a natural fortification, a small island in the + midst, and two fruitful spots on either side, of the Euphrates. The + warlike inhabitants of Anatho showed a disposition to stop the march of a + Roman emperor; till they were diverted from such fatal presumption by the + mild exhortations of Prince Hormisdas, and the approaching terrors of the + fleet and army. They implored, and experienced, the clemency of Julian, + who transplanted the people to an advantageous settlement, near Chalcis in + Syria, and admitted Pusæus, the governor, to an honorable rank in his + service and friendship. But the impregnable fortress of Thilutha could + scorn the menace of a siege; and the emperor was obliged to content + himself with an insulting promise, that, when he had subdued the interior + provinces of Persia, Thilutha would no longer refuse to grace the triumph + of the emperor. The inhabitants of the open towns, unable to resist, and + unwilling to yield, fled with precipitation; and their houses, filled with + spoil and provisions, were occupied by the soldiers of Julian, who + massacred, without remorse and without punishment, some defenceless women. + During the march, the Surenas, <a href="#linknote-24.4911" + name="linknoteref-24.4911" id="linknoteref-24.4911">4911</a> or Persian + general, and Malek Rodosaces, the renowned emir of the tribe of Gassan, <a + href="#linknote-24.50" name="linknoteref-24.50" id="linknoteref-24.50">50</a> + incessantly hovered round the army; every straggler was intercepted; every + detachment was attacked; and the valiant Hormisdas escaped with some + difficulty from their hands. But the Barbarians were finally repulsed; the + country became every day less favorable to the operations of cavalry; and + when the Romans arrived at Macepracta, they perceived the ruins of the + wall, which had been constructed by the ancient kings of Assyria, to + secure their dominions from the incursions of the Medes. These + preliminaries of the expedition of Julian appear to have employed about + fifteen days; and we may compute near three hundred miles from the + fortress of Circesium to the wall of Macepracta. <a href="#linknote-24.51" + name="linknoteref-24.51" id="linknoteref-24.51">51</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.49" id="linknote-24.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.49">return</a>)<br /> [ See Voyages de + Tavernier, part i. l. iii. p. 316, and more especially Viaggi di Pietro + della Valle, tom. i. lett. xvii. p. 671, &c. He was ignorant of the + old name and condition of Annah. Our blind travellers <i>seldom</i> possess any + previous knowledge of the countries which they visit. Shaw and Tournefort + deserve an honorable exception.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.4911" id="linknote-24.4911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4911 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.4911">return</a>)<br /> [ This is not a + title, but the name of a great Persian family. St. Martin, iii. 79.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.50" id="linknote-24.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.50">return</a>)<br /> [ Famosi nominis latro, + says Ammianus; a high encomium for an Arab. The tribe of Gassan had + settled on the edge of Syria, and reigned some time in Damascus, under a + dynasty of thirty-one kings, or emirs, from the time of Pompey to that of + the Khalif Omar. D’Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 360. Pococke, + Specimen Hist. Arabicæ, p. 75-78. The name of Rodosaces does not appear + in the list. * Note: Rodosaces-malek is king. St. Martin considers that + Gibbon has fallen into an error in bringing the tribe of Gassan to the + Euphrates. In Ammianus it is Assan. M. St. Martin would read Massanitarum, + the same with the Mauzanitæ of Malala.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.51" id="linknote-24.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.51">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammianus, (xxiv. 1, + 2,) Libanius, (Orat. Parental. c. 110, 111, p. 334,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. + 164-168.) * Note: This Syriac or Chaldaic has relation to its position; it + easily bears the signification of the division of the waters. M. St. M. + considers it the Missice of Pliny, v. 26. St. Martin, iii. 83.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The fertile province of Assyria, <a href="#linknote-24.52" + name="linknoteref-24.52" id="linknoteref-24.52">52</a> which stretched + beyond the Tigris, as far as the mountains of Media, <a + href="#linknote-24.53" name="linknoteref-24.53" id="linknoteref-24.53">53</a> + extended about four hundred miles from the ancient wall of Macepracta, to + the territory of Basra, where the united streams of the Euphrates and + Tigris discharge themselves into the Persian Gulf. <a href="#linknote-24.54" + name="linknoteref-24.54" id="linknoteref-24.54">54</a> The whole country + might have claimed the peculiar name of Mesopotamia; as the two rivers, + which are never more distant than fifty, approach, between Bagdad and + Babylon, within twenty-five miles, of each other. A multitude of + artificial canals, dug without much labor in a soft and yielding soil + connected the rivers, and intersected the plain of Assyria. The uses of + these artificial canals were various and important. They served to + discharge the superfluous waters from one river into the other, at the + season of their respective inundations. Subdividing themselves into + smaller and smaller branches, they refreshed the dry lands, and supplied + the deficiency of rain. They facilitated the intercourse of peace and + commerce; and, as the dams could be speedily broke down, they armed the + despair of the Assyrians with the means of opposing a sudden deluge to the + progress of an invading army. To the soil and climate of Assyria, nature + had denied some of her choicest gifts, the vine, the olive, and the + fig-tree; <a href="#linknote-24.5411" name="linknoteref-24.5411" + id="linknoteref-24.5411">5411</a> but the food which supports the life of + man, and particularly wheat and barley, were produced with inexhaustible + fertility; and the husbandman, who committed his seed to the earth, was + frequently rewarded with an increase of two, or even of three, hundred. + The face of the country was interspersed with groves of innumerable + palm-trees; <a href="#linknote-24.55" name="linknoteref-24.55" + id="linknoteref-24.55">55</a> and the diligent natives celebrated, either + in verse or prose, the three hundred and sixty uses to which the trunk, + the branches, the leaves, the juice, and the fruit, were skilfully + applied. Several manufactures, especially those of leather and linen, + employed the industry of a numerous people, and afforded valuable + materials for foreign trade; which appears, however, to have been + conducted by the hands of strangers. Babylon had been converted into a + royal park; but near the ruins of the ancient capital, new cities had + successively arisen, and the populousness of the country was displayed in + the multitude of towns and villages, which were built of bricks dried in + the sun, and strongly cemented with bitumen; the natural and peculiar + production of the Babylonian soil. While the successors of Cyrus reigned + over Asia, the province of Syria alone maintained, during a third part of + the year, the luxurious plenty of the table and household of the Great + King. Four considerable villages were assigned for the subsistence of his + Indian dogs; eight hundred stallions, and sixteen thousand mares, were + constantly kept, at the expense of the country, for the royal stables; and + as the daily tribute, which was paid to the satrap, amounted to one + English bushe of silver, we may compute the annual revenue of Assyria at + more than twelve hundred thousand pounds sterling. <a href="#linknote-24.56" + name="linknoteref-24.56" id="linknoteref-24.56">56</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.52" id="linknote-24.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.52">return</a>)<br /> [ The description of + Assyria, is furnished by Herodotus, (l. i. c. 192, &c.,) who sometimes + writes for children, and sometimes for philosophers; by Strabo, (l. xvi. + p. 1070-1082,) and by Ammianus, (l.xxiii. c. 6.) The most useful of the + modern travellers are Tavernier, (part i. l. ii. p. 226-258,) Otter, (tom. + ii. p. 35-69, and 189-224,) and Niebuhr, (tom. ii. p. 172-288.) Yet I much + regret that the <i>Irak Arabi</i> of Abulfeda has not been translated.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.53" id="linknote-24.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus remarks, that + the primitive Assyria, which comprehended Ninus, (Nineveh,) and Arbela, + had assumed the more recent and peculiar appellation of Adiabene; and he + seems to fix Teredon, Vologesia, and Apollonia, as the <i>extreme</i> cities of + the actual province of Assyria.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.54" id="linknote-24.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.54">return</a>)<br /> [ The two rivers unite at + Apamea, or Corna, (one hundred miles from the Persian Gulf,) into the + broad stream of the Pasitigris, or Shutul-Arab. The Euphrates formerly + reached the sea by a separate channel, which was obstructed and diverted + by the citizens of Orchoe, about twenty miles to the south-east of modern + Basra. (D’Anville, in the Mémoires de l’Acad. des Inscriptions, tom.xxx. + p. 171-191.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.5411" id="linknote-24.5411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5411 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.5411">return</a>)<br /> [ We are informed by + Mr. Gibbon, that nature has denied to the soil an climate of Assyria some + of her choicest gifts, the vine, the olive, and the fig-tree. This might + have been the case ir the age of Ammianus Marcellinus, but it is not so at + the present day; and it is a curious fact that the grape, the olive, and + the fig, are the most common fruits in the province, and may be seen in + every garden. Macdonald Kinneir, Geogr. Mem. on Persia 239—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.55" id="linknote-24.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.55">return</a>)<br /> [ The learned Kæmpfer, + as a botanist, an antiquary, and a traveller, has exhausted (Amœnitat. + Exoticæ, Fasicul. iv. p. 660-764) the whole subject of palm-trees.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.56" id="linknote-24.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.56">return</a>)<br /> [ Assyria yielded to the + Persian satrap an <i>Artaba</i> of silver each day. The well-known proportion of + weights and measures (see Bishop Hooper’s elaborate Inquiry,) the specific + gravity of water and silver, and the value of that metal, will afford, + after a short process, the annual revenue which I have stated. Yet the + Great King received no more than 1000 Euboic, or Tyrian, talents + (252,000l.) from Assyria. The comparison of two passages in Herodotus, (l. + i. c. 192, l. iii. c. 89-96) reveals an important difference between the + <i>gross</i>, and the <i>net</i>, revenue of Persia; the sums paid by the province, and + the gold or silver deposited in the royal treasure. The monarch might + annually save three millions six hundred thousand pounds, of the seventeen + or eighteen millions raised upon the people.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap24.3"></a> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The fields of Assyria were devoted by Julian to the calamities of war; and + the philosopher retaliated on a guiltless people the acts of rapine and + cruelty which had been committed by their haughty master in the Roman + provinces. The trembling Assyrians summoned the rivers to their + assistance; and completed, with their own hands, the ruin of their + country. The roads were rendered impracticable; a flood of waters was + poured into the camp; and, during several days, the troops of Julian were + obliged to contend with the most discouraging hardships. But every + obstacle was surmounted by the perseverance of the legionaries, who were + inured to toil as well as to danger, and who felt themselves animated by + the spirit of their leader. The damage was gradually repaired; the waters + were restored to their proper channels; whole groves of palm-trees were + cut down, and placed along the broken parts of the road; and the army + passed over the broad and deeper canals, on bridges of floating rafts, + which were supported by the help of bladders. Two cities of Assyria + presumed to resist the arms of a Roman emperor: and they both paid the + severe penalty of their rashness. At the distance of fifty miles from the + royal residence of Ctesiphon, Perisabor, <a href="#linknote-24.5711" + name="linknoteref-24.5711" id="linknoteref-24.5711">5711</a> or Anbar, held + the second rank in the province; a city, large, populous, and well + fortified, surrounded with a double wall, almost encompassed by a branch + of the Euphrates, and defended by the valor of a numerous garrison. The + exhortations of Hormisdas were repulsed with contempt; and the ears of the + Persian prince were wounded by a just reproach, that, unmindful of his + royal birth, he conducted an army of strangers against his king and + country. The Assyrians maintained their loyalty by a skilful, as well as + vigorous, defence; till the lucky stroke of a battering-ram, having opened + a large breach, by shattering one of the angles of the wall, they hastily + retired into the fortifications of the interior citadel. The soldiers of + Julian rushed impetuously into the town, and after the full gratification + of every military appetite, Perisabor was reduced to ashes; and the + engines which assaulted the citadel were planted on the ruins of the + smoking houses. The contest was continued by an incessant and mutual + discharge of missile weapons; and the superiority which the Romans might + derive from the mechanical powers of their balistæ and catapultæ was + counterbalanced by the advantage of the ground on the side of the + besieged. But as soon as an <i>Helepolis</i> had been constructed, which could + engage on equal terms with the loftiest ramparts, the tremendous aspect of + a moving turret, that would leave no hope of resistance or mercy, + terrified the defenders of the citadel into an humble submission; and the + place was surrendered only two days after Julian first appeared under the + walls of Perisabor. Two thousand five hundred persons, of both sexes, the + feeble remnant of a flourishing people, were permitted to retire; the + plentiful magazines of corn, of arms, and of splendid furniture, were + partly distributed among the troops, and partly reserved for the public + service; the useless stores were destroyed by fire or thrown into the + stream of the Euphrates; and the fate of Amida was revenged by the total + ruin of Perisabor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.5711" id="linknote-24.5711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5711 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.5711">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius says that + it was a great city of Assyria, called after the name of the reigning + king. The orator of Antioch is not mistaken. The Persians and Syrians + called it Fyrouz Schapour or Fyrouz Schahbour; in Persian, the victory of + Schahpour. It owed that name to Sapor the First. It was before called + Anbar St. Martin, iii. 85.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The city or rather fortress, of Maogamalcha, which was defended by sixteen + large towers, a deep ditch, and two strong and solid walls of brick and + bitumen, appears to have been constructed at the distance of eleven miles, + as the safeguard of the capital of Persia. The emperor, apprehensive of + leaving such an important fortress in his rear, immediately formed the + siege of Maogamalcha; and the Roman army was distributed, for that + purpose, into three divisions. Victor, at the head of the cavalry, and of + a detachment of heavy-armed foot, was ordered to clear the country, as far + as the banks of the Tigris, and the suburbs of Ctesiphon. The conduct of + the attack was assumed by Julian himself, who seemed to place his whole + dependence in the military engines which he erected against the walls; + while he secretly contrived a more efficacious method of introducing his + troops into the heart of the city. Under the direction of Nevitta and + Dagalaiphus, the trenches were opened at a considerable distance, and + gradually prolonged as far as the edge of the ditch. The ditch was + speedily filled with earth; and, by the incessant labor of the troops, a + mine was carried under the foundations of the walls, and sustained, at + sufficient intervals, by props of timber. Three chosen cohorts, advancing + in a single file, silently explored the dark and dangerous passage; till + their intrepid leader whispered back the intelligence, that he was ready + to issue from his confinement into the streets of the hostile city. Julian + checked their ardor, that he might insure their success; and immediately + diverted the attention of the garrison, by the tumult and clamor of a + general assault. The Persians, who, from their walls, contemptuously + beheld the progress of an impotent attack, celebrated with songs of + triumph the glory of Sapor; and ventured to assure the emperor, that he + might ascend the starry mansion of Ormusd, before he could hope to take + the impregnable city of Maogamalcha. The city was already taken. History + has recorded the name of a private soldier the first who ascended from the + mine into a deserted tower. The passage was widened by his companions, who + pressed forwards with impatient valor. Fifteen hundred enemies were + already in the midst of the city. The astonished garrison abandoned the + walls, and their only hope of safety; the gates were instantly burst open; + and the revenge of the soldier, unless it were suspended by lust or + avarice, was satiated by an undistinguishing massacre. The governor, who + had yielded on a promise of mercy, was burnt alive, a few days afterwards, + on a charge of having uttered some disrespectful words against the honor + of Prince Hormisdas. The fortifications were razed to the ground; and not + a vestige was left, that the city of Maogamalcha had ever existed. The + neighborhood of the capital of Persia was adorned with three stately + palaces, laboriously enriched with every production that could gratify the + luxury and pride of an Eastern monarch. The pleasant situation of the + gardens along the banks of the Tigris, was improved, according to the + Persian taste, by the symmetry of flowers, fountains, and shady walks: and + spacious parks were enclosed for the reception of the bears, lions, and + wild boars, which were maintained at a considerable expense for the + pleasure of the royal chase. The park walls were broken down, the savage + game was abandoned to the darts of the soldiers, and the palaces of Sapor + were reduced to ashes, by the command of the Roman emperor. Julian, on + this occasion, showed himself ignorant, or careless, of the laws of + civility, which the prudence and refinement of polished ages have + established between hostile princes. Yet these wanton ravages need not + excite in our breasts any vehement emotions of pity or resentment. A + simple, naked statue, finished by the hand of a Grecian artist, is of more + genuine value than all these rude and costly monuments of Barbaric labor; + and, if we are more deeply affected by the ruin of a palace than by the + conflagration of a cottage, our humanity must have formed a very erroneous + estimate of the miseries of human life. <a href="#linknote-24.57" + name="linknoteref-24.57" id="linknoteref-24.57">57</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.57" id="linknote-24.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.57">return</a>)<br /> [ The operations of the + Assyrian war are circumstantially related by Ammianus, (xxiv. 2, 3, 4, 5,) + Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 112-123, p. 335-347,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. + 168-180,) and Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat iv. p. 113, 144.) The <i>military</i> + criticisms of the saint are devoutly copied by Tillemont, his faithful + slave.] + </p> + <p> + Julian was an object of hatred and terror to the Persian and the painters + of that nation represented the invader of their country under the emblem + of a furious lion, who vomited from his mouth a consuming fire. <a + href="#linknote-24.58" name="linknoteref-24.58" id="linknoteref-24.58">58</a> + To his friends and soldiers the philosophic hero appeared in a more + amiable light; and his virtues were never more conspicuously displayed, + than in the last and most active period of his life. He practised, without + effort, and almost without merit, the habitual qualities of temperance and + sobriety. According to the dictates of that artificial wisdom, which + assumes an absolute dominion over the mind and body, he sternly refused + himself the indulgence of the most natural appetites. <a + href="#linknote-24.59" name="linknoteref-24.59" id="linknoteref-24.59">59</a> + In the warm climate of Assyria, which solicited a luxurious people to the + gratification of every sensual desire, <a href="#linknote-24.60" + name="linknoteref-24.60" id="linknoteref-24.60">60</a> a youthful conqueror + preserved his chastity pure and inviolate; nor was Julian ever tempted, + even by a motive of curiosity, to visit his female captives of exquisite + beauty, <a href="#linknote-24.61" name="linknoteref-24.61" + id="linknoteref-24.61">61</a> who, instead of resisting his power, would + have disputed with each other the honor of his embraces. With the same + firmness that he resisted the allurements of love, he sustained the + hardships of war. When the Romans marched through the flat and flooded + country, their sovereign, on foot, at the head of his legions, shared + their fatigues and animated their diligence. In every useful labor, the + hand of Julian was prompt and strenuous; and the Imperial purple was wet + and dirty as the coarse garment of the meanest soldier. The two sieges + allowed him some remarkable opportunities of signalizing his personal + valor, which, in the improved state of the military art, can seldom be + exerted by a prudent general. The emperor stood before + the citadel of Perisabor, insensible of his extreme danger, and encouraged + his troops to burst open the gates of iron, till he was almost overwhelmed + under a cloud of missile weapons and huge stones, that were directed + against his person. As he examined the exterior fortifications of + Maogamalcha, two Persians, devoting themselves for their country, suddenly + rushed upon him with drawn cimeters: the emperor dexterously received + their blows on his uplifted shield; and, with a steady and well-aimed + thrust, laid one of his adversaries dead at his feet. The esteem of a + prince who possesses the virtues which he approves, is the noblest + recompense of a deserving subject; and the authority which Julian derived + from his personal merit, enabled him to revive and enforce the rigor of + ancient discipline. He punished with death or ignominy the misbehavior of + three troops of horse, who, in a skirmish with the Surenas, had lost their + honor and one of their standards: and he distinguished with <i>obsidional</i> <a + href="#linknote-24.62" name="linknoteref-24.62" id="linknoteref-24.62">62</a> + crowns the valor of the foremost soldiers, who had ascended into the city + of Maogamalcha. + </p> + <p> + After the siege of Perisabor, the firmness of the emperor was exercised by + the insolent avarice of the army, who loudly complained, that their + services were rewarded by a trifling donative of one hundred pieces of + silver. His just indignation was expressed in the grave and manly language + of a Roman. “Riches are the object of your desires; those riches are in + the hands of the Persians; and the spoils of this fruitful country are + proposed as the prize of your valor and discipline. Believe me,” added + Julian, “the Roman republic, which formerly possessed such immense + treasures, is now reduced to want and wretchedness once our princes have + been persuaded, by weak and interested ministers, to purchase with gold + the tranquillity of the Barbarians. The revenue is exhausted; the cities + are ruined; the provinces are dispeopled. For myself, the only inheritance + that I have received from my royal ancestors is a soul incapable of fear; + and as long as I am convinced that every real advantage is seated in the + mind, I shall not blush to acknowledge an honorable poverty, which, in the + days of ancient virtue, was considered as the glory of Fabricius. That + glory, and that virtue, may be your own, if you will listen to the voice + of Heaven and of your leader. But if you will rashly persist, if you are + determined to renew the shameful and mischievous examples of old + seditions, proceed. As it becomes an emperor who has filled the first rank + among men, I am prepared to die, standing; and to despise a precarious + life, which, every hour, may depend on an accidental fever. If I have been + found unworthy of the command, there are now among you, (I speak it with + pride and pleasure,) there are many chiefs whose merit and experience are + equal to the conduct of the most important war. Such has been the temper + of my reign, that I can retire, without regret, and without apprehension, + to the obscurity of a private station” <a href="#linknote-24.63" + name="linknoteref-24.63" id="linknoteref-24.63">63</a> The modest resolution + of Julian was answered by the unanimous applause and cheerful obedience of + the Romans, who declared their confidence of victory, while they fought + under the banners of their heroic prince. Their courage was kindled by his + frequent and familiar asseverations, (for such wishes were the oaths of + Julian,) “So may I reduce the Persians under the yoke!” “Thus may I + restore the strength and splendor of the republic!” The love of fame was + the ardent passion of his soul: but it was not before he trampled on the + ruins of Maogamalcha, that he allowed himself to say, “We have now + provided some materials for the sophist of Antioch.” <a + href="#linknote-24.64" name="linknoteref-24.64" id="linknoteref-24.64">64</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.58" id="linknote-24.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.58">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius de ulciscenda + Juliani nece, c. 13, p. 162.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.59" id="linknote-24.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.59">return</a>)<br /> [ The famous examples of + Cyrus, Alexander, and Scipio, were acts of justice. Julian’s chastity was + voluntary, and, in his opinion, meritorious.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.60" id="linknote-24.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.60">return</a>)<br /> [ Sallust (ap. Vet. + Scholiast. Juvenal. Satir. i. 104) observes, that nihil corruptius + moribus. The matrons and virgins of Babylon freely mingled with the men in + licentious banquets; and as they felt the intoxication of wine and love, + they gradually, and almost completely, threw aside the encumbrance of + dress; ad ultimum ima corporum velamenta projiciunt. Q. Curtius, v. 1.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.61" id="linknote-24.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Ex virginibus autem + quæ speciosæ sunt captæ, et in Perside, ubi fæminarum pulchritudo + excellit, nec contrectare aliquam votuit nec videre. Ammian. xxiv. 4. The + native race of Persians is small and ugly; but it has been improved by the + perpetual mixture of Circassian blood, (Herodot. l. iii. c. 97. Buffon, + Hist. Naturelle, tom. iii. p. 420.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.62" id="linknote-24.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Obsidionalibus coronis + donati. Ammian. xxiv. 4. Either Julian or his historian were unskillful + antiquaries. He should have given mural crowns. The <i>obsidional</i> were the + reward of a general who had delivered a besieged city, (Aulus Gellius, + Noct. Attic. v. 6.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.63" id="linknote-24.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.63">return</a>)<br /> [ I give this speech as + original and genuine. Ammianus might hear, could transcribe, and was + incapable of inventing, it. I have used some slight freedoms, and conclude + with the most forcibic sentence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.64" id="linknote-24.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxiv. 3. + Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 122, p. 346.] + </p> + <p> + The successful valor of Julian had triumphed over all the obstacles that + opposed his march to the gates of Ctesiphon. But the reduction, or even + the siege, of the capital of Persia, was still at a distance: nor can the + military conduct of the emperor be clearly apprehended, without a + knowledge of the country which was the theatre of his bold and skilful + operations. <a href="#linknote-24.65" name="linknoteref-24.65" + id="linknoteref-24.65">65</a> Twenty miles to the south of Bagdad, and on + the eastern bank of the Tigris, the curiosity of travellers has observed + some ruins of the palaces of Ctesiphon, which, in the time of Julian, was + a great and populous city. The name and glory of the adjacent Seleucia + were forever extinguished; and the only remaining quarter of that Greek + colony had resumed, with the Assyrian language and manners, the primitive + appellation of Coche. Coche was situate on the western side of the Tigris; + but it was naturally considered as a suburb of Ctesiphon, with which we + may suppose it to have been connected by a permanent bridge of boats. + </p> + <p> + The united parts contribute to form the common epithet of Al Modain, the + cities, which the Orientals have bestowed on the winter residence of the + Sassinadees; and the whole circumference of the Persian capital was + strongly fortified by the waters of the river, by lofty walls, and by + impracticable morasses. Near the ruins of Seleucia, the camp of Julian was + fixed, and secured, by a ditch and rampart, against the sallies of the + numerous and enterprising garrison of Coche. In this fruitful and pleasant + country, the Romans were plentifully supplied with water and forage: and + several forts, which might have embarrassed the motions of the army, + submitted, after some resistance, to the efforts of their valor. The fleet + passed from the Euphrates into an artificial derivation of that river, + which pours a copious and navigable stream into the Tigris, at a small + distance <i>below</i> the great city. If they had followed this royal canal, + which bore the name of Nahar-Malcha, <a href="#linknote-24.66" + name="linknoteref-24.66" id="linknoteref-24.66">66</a> the intermediate + situation of Coche would have separated the fleet and army of Julian; and + the rash attempt of steering against the current of the Tigris, and + forcing their way through the midst of a hostile capital, must have been + attended with the total destruction of the Roman navy. The prudence of the + emperor foresaw the danger, and provided the remedy. As he had minutely + studied the operations of Trajan in the same country, he soon recollected + that his warlike predecessor had dug a new and navigable canal, which, + leaving Coche on the right hand, conveyed the waters of the Nahar-Malcha + into the river Tigris, at some distance <i>above</i> the cities. From the + information of the peasants, Julian ascertained the vestiges of this + ancient work, which were almost obliterated by design or accident. By the + indefatigable labor of the soldiers, a broad and deep channel was speedily + prepared for the reception of the Euphrates. A strong dike was constructed + to interrupt the ordinary current of the Nahar-Malcha: a flood of waters + rushed impetuously into their new bed; and the Roman fleet, steering their + triumphant course into the Tigris, derided the vain and ineffectual + barriers which the Persians of Ctesiphon had erected to oppose their + passage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.65" id="linknote-24.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.65">return</a>)<br /> [ M. d’Anville, (Mém. de + l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxxviii p. 246-259) has ascertained the + true position and distance of Babylon, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Bagdad, &c. + The Roman traveller, Pietro della Valle, (tom. i. lett. xvii. p. 650-780,) + seems to be the most intelligent spectator of that famous province. He is + a gentleman and a scholar, but intolerably vain and prolix.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.66" id="linknote-24.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.66">return</a>)<br /> [ The Royal Canal + (<i>Nahar-Malcha</i>) might be successively restored, altered, divided, &c., + (Cellarius, Geograph. Antiq. tom. ii. p. 453;) and these changes may serve + to explain the seeming contradictions of antiquity. In the time of Julian, + it must have fallen into the Euphrates <i>below</i> Ctesiphon.] + </p> + <p> + As it became necessary to transport the Roman army over the Tigris, + another labor presented itself, of less toil, but of more danger, than the + preceding expedition. The stream was broad and rapid; the ascent steep and + difficult; and the intrenchments which had been formed on the ridge of the + opposite bank, were lined with a numerous army of heavy cuirrasiers, + dexterous archers, and huge elephants; who (according to the extravagant + hyperbole of Libanius) could trample with the same ease a field of corn, + or a legion of Romans. <a href="#linknote-24.67" name="linknoteref-24.67" + id="linknoteref-24.67">67</a> In the presence of such an enemy, the + construction of a bridge was impracticable; and the intrepid prince, who + instantly seized the only possible expedient, concealed his design, till + the moment of execution, from the knowledge of the Barbarians, of his own + troops, and even of his generals themselves. Under the specious pretence + of examining the state of the magazines, fourscore vessels <a + href="#linknote-24.6711" name="linknoteref-24.6711" id="linknoteref-24.6711">6711</a> + were gradually unladen; and a select detachment, apparently destined for + some secret expedition, was ordered to stand to their arms on the first + signal. Julian disguised the silent anxiety of his own mind with smiles of + confidence and joy; and amused the hostile nations with the spectacle of + military games, which he insultingly celebrated under the walls of Coche. + The day was consecrated to pleasure; but, as soon as the hour of supper + was passed, the emperor summoned the generals to his tent, and acquainted + them that he had fixed that night for the passage of the Tigris. They + stood in silent and respectful astonishment; but, when the venerable + Sallust assumed the privilege of his age and experience, the rest of the + chiefs supported with freedom the weight of his prudent remonstrances. <a + href="#linknote-24.68" name="linknoteref-24.68" id="linknoteref-24.68">68</a> + Julian contented himself with observing, that conquest and safety depended + on the attempt; that instead of diminishing, the number of their enemies + would be increased, by successive reenforcements; and that a longer delay + would neither contract the breadth of the stream, nor level the height of + the bank. The signal was instantly given, and obeyed; the most impatient + of the legionaries leaped into five vessels that lay nearest to the bank; + and as they plied their oars with intrepid diligence, they were lost, + after a few moments, in the darkness of the night. A flame arose on the + opposite side; and Julian, who too clearly understood that his foremost + vessels, in attempting to land, had been fired by the enemy, dexterously + converted their extreme danger into a presage of victory. “Our + fellow-soldiers,” he eagerly exclaimed, “are already masters of the bank; + see—they make the appointed signal; let us hasten to emulate and + assist their courage.” The united and rapid motion of a great fleet broke + the violence of the current, and they reached the eastern shore of the + Tigris with sufficient speed to extinguish the flames, and rescue their + adventurous companions. The difficulties of a steep and lofty ascent were + increased by the weight of armor, and the darkness of the night. A shower + of stones, darts, and fire, was incessantly discharged on the heads of the + assailants; who, after an arduous struggle, climbed the bank and stood + victorious upon the rampart. As soon as they possessed a more equal field, + Julian, who, with his light infantry, had led the attack, <a + href="#linknote-24.69" name="linknoteref-24.69" id="linknoteref-24.69">69</a> + darted through the ranks a skilful and experienced eye: his bravest + soldiers, according to the precepts of Homer, <a href="#linknote-24.70" + name="linknoteref-24.70" id="linknoteref-24.70">70</a> were distributed in + the front and rear: and all the trumpets of the Imperial army sounded to + battle. The Romans, after sending up a military shout, advanced in + measured steps to the animating notes of martial music; launched their + formidable javelins; and rushed forwards with drawn swords, to deprive the + Barbarians, by a closer onset, of the advantage of their missile weapons. + The whole engagement lasted above twelve hours; till the gradual retreat + of the Persians was changed into a disorderly flight, of which the + shameful example was given by the principal leader, and the Surenas + himself. They were pursued to the gates of Ctesiphon; and the conquerors + might have entered the dismayed city, <a href="#linknote-24.71" + name="linknoteref-24.71" id="linknoteref-24.71">71</a> if their general, + Victor, who was dangerously wounded with an arrow, had not conjured them + to desist from a rash attempt, which must be fatal, if it were not + successful. On <i>their</i> side, the Romans acknowledged the loss of only + seventy-five men; while they affirmed, that the Barbarians had left on the + field of battle two thousand five hundred, or even six thousand, of their + bravest soldiers. The spoil was such as might be expected from the riches + and luxury of an Oriental camp; large quantities of silver and gold, + splendid arms and trappings, and beds and tables of massy silver. <a + href="#linknote-24.7111" name="linknoteref-24.7111" id="linknoteref-24.7111">7111</a> + The victorious emperor distributed, as the rewards of valor, some + honorable gifts, civic, and mural, and naval crowns; which he, and perhaps + he alone, esteemed more precious than the wealth of Asia. A solemn + sacrifice was offered to the god of war, but the appearances of the + victims threatened the most inauspicious events; and Julian soon + discovered, by less ambiguous signs, that he had now reached the term of + his prosperity. <a href="#linknote-24.72" name="linknoteref-24.72" + id="linknoteref-24.72">72</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.67" id="linknote-24.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.67">return</a>)<br /> [ Rien n’est beau que le + vrai; a maxim which should be inscribed on the desk of every rhetorician.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.6711" id="linknote-24.6711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6711 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.6711">return</a>)<br /> [ This is a mistake; + each vessel (according to Zosimus two, according to Ammianus five) had + eighty men. Amm. xxiv. 6, with Wagner’s note. Gibbon must have read + <i>octogenas</i> for <i>octogenis</i>. The five vessels selected for this service were + remarkably large and strong provision transports. The strength of the + fleet remained with Julian to carry over the army—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.68" id="linknote-24.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius alludes to the + most powerful of the generals. I have ventured to name <i>Sallust</i>. Ammianus + says, of all the leaders, quod acri metû territ acrimetu territi duces + concordi precatû precaut fieri prohibere tentarent. * Note: It is evident + that Gibbon has mistaken the sense of Libanius; his words can only apply + to a commander of a detachment, not to so eminent a person as the Præfect + of the East. St. Martin, iii. 313.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.69" id="linknote-24.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Hinc Imperator.... + (says Ammianus) ipse cum levis armaturæ auxiliis per prima postremaque + discurrens, &c. Yet Zosimus, his friend, does not allow him to pass + the river till two days after the battle.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.70" id="linknote-24.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Secundum Homericam + dispositionem. A similar disposition is ascribed to the wise Nestor, in + the fourth book of the Iliad; and Homer was never absent from the mind of + Julian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.71" id="linknote-24.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.71">return</a>)<br /> [ Persas terrore subito + miscuerunt, versisque agminibus totius gentis, apertas Ctesiphontis portas + victor miles intrâsset, ni major prædarum occasio fuisset, quam cura + victoriæ, (Sextus Rufus de Provinciis c. 28.) Their avarice might dispose + them to hear the advice of Victor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.7111" id="linknote-24.7111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7111 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.7111">return</a>)<br /> [ The suburbs of + Ctesiphon, according to a new fragment of Eunapius, were so full of + provisions, that the soldiers were in danger of suffering from excess. + Mai, p. 260. Eunapius in Niebuhr. Nov. Byz. Coll. 68. Julian exhibited + warlike dances and games in his camp to recreate the soldiers Ibid.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.72" id="linknote-24.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.72">return</a>)<br /> [ The labor of the canal, + the passage of the Tigris, and the victory, are described by Ammianus, + (xxiv. 5, 6,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 124-128, p. 347-353,) Greg. + Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. p. 115,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 181-183,) and Sextus + Rufus, (de Provinciis, c. 28.)] + </p> + <p> + On the second day after the battle, the domestic guards, the Jovians and + Herculians, and the remaining troops, which composed near two thirds of + the whole army, were securely wafted over the Tigris. <a + href="#linknote-24.73" name="linknoteref-24.73" id="linknoteref-24.73">73</a> + While the Persians beheld from the walls of Ctesiphon the desolation of + the adjacent country, Julian cast many an anxious look towards the North, + in full expectation, that as he himself had victoriously penetrated to the + capital of Sapor, the march and junction of his lieutenants, Sebastian and + Procopius, would be executed with the same courage and diligence. His + expectations were disappointed by the treachery of the Armenian king, who + permitted, and most probably directed, the desertion of his auxiliary + troops from the camp of the Romans; <a href="#linknote-24.74" + name="linknoteref-24.74" id="linknoteref-24.74">74</a> and by the + dissensions of the two generals, who were incapable of forming or + executing any plan for the public service. When the emperor had + relinquished the hope of this important reenforcement, he condescended to + hold a council of war, and approved, after a full debate, the sentiment of + those generals, who dissuaded the siege of Ctesiphon, as a fruitless and + pernicious undertaking. It is not easy for us to conceive, by what arts of + fortification a city thrice besieged and taken by the predecessors of + Julian could be rendered impregnable against an army of sixty thousand + Romans, commanded by a brave and experienced general, and abundantly + supplied with ships, provisions, battering engines, and military stores. + But we may rest assured, from the love of glory, and contempt of danger, + which formed the character of Julian, that he was not discouraged by any + trivial or imaginary obstacles. <a href="#linknote-24.75" + name="linknoteref-24.75" id="linknoteref-24.75">75</a> At the very time when + he declined the siege of Ctesiphon, he rejected, with obstinacy and + disdain, the most flattering offers of a negotiation of peace. Sapor, who + had been so long accustomed to the tardy ostentation of Constantius, was + surprised by the intrepid diligence of his successor. As far as the + confines of India and Scythia, the satraps of the distant provinces were + ordered to assemble their troops, and to march, without delay, to the + assistance of their monarch. But their preparations were dilatory, their + motions slow; and before Sapor could lead an army into the field, he + received the melancholy intelligence of the devastation of Assyria, the + ruin of his palaces, and the slaughter of his bravest troops, who defended + the passage of the Tigris. The pride of royalty was humbled in the dust; + he took his repasts on the ground; and the disorder of his hair expressed + the grief and anxiety of his mind. Perhaps he would not have refused to + purchase, with one half of his kingdom, the safety of the remainder; and + he would have gladly subscribed himself, in a treaty of peace, the + faithful and dependent ally of the Roman conqueror. Under the pretence of + private business, a minister of rank and confidence was secretly + despatched to embrace the knees of Hormisdas, and to request, in the + language of a suppliant, that he might be introduced into the presence of + the emperor. The Sassanian prince, whether he listened to the voice of + pride or humanity, whether he consulted the sentiments of his birth, or + the duties of his situation, was equally inclined to promote a salutary + measure, which would terminate the calamities of Persia, and secure the + triumph of Rome. He was astonished by the inflexible firmness of a hero, + who remembered, most unfortunately for himself and for his country, that + Alexander had uniformly rejected the propositions of Darius. But as Julian + was sensible, that the hope of a safe and honorable peace might cool the + ardor of his troops, he earnestly requested that Hormisdas would privately + dismiss the minister of Sapor, and conceal this dangerous temptation from + the knowledge of the camp. <a href="#linknote-24.76" name="linknoteref-24.76" + id="linknoteref-24.76">76</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.73" id="linknote-24.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.73">return</a>)<br /> [ The fleet and army were + formed in three divisions, of which the first only had passed during the + night.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.74" id="linknote-24.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Moses of Chorene (Hist. + Armen. l. iii. c. 15, p. 246) supplies us with a national tradition, and a + spurious letter. I have borrowed only the leading circumstance, which is + consistent with truth, probability, and Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 131, + p. 355.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.75" id="linknote-24.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Civitas inexpugnabilis, + facinus audax et importunum. Ammianus, xxiv. 7. His fellow-soldier, + Eutropius, turns aside from the difficulty, Assyriamque populatus, castra + apud Ctesiphontem stativa aliquandiu habuit: remeansbue victor, &c. x. + 16. Zosimus is artful or ignorant, and Socrates inaccurate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.76" id="linknote-24.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. + c. 130, p. 354, c. 139, p. 361. Socrates, l. iii. c. 21. The + ecclesiastical historian imputes the refusal of peace to the advice of + Maximus. Such advice was unworthy of a philosopher; but the philosopher + was likewise a magician, who flattered the hopes and passions of his + master.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap24.4"></a> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The honor, as well as interest, of Julian, forbade him to consume his time + under the impregnable walls of Ctesiphon and as often as he defied the + Barbarians, who defended the city, to meet him on the open plain, they + prudently replied, that if he desired to exercise his valor, he might seek + the army of the Great King. He felt the insult, and he accepted the + advice. Instead of confining his servile march to the banks of the + Euphrates and Tigris, he resolved to imitate the adventurous spirit of + Alexander, and boldly to advance into the inland provinces, till he forced + his rival to contend with him, perhaps in the plains of Arbela, for the + empire of Asia. The magnanimity of Julian was applauded and betrayed, by + the arts of a noble Persian, who, in the cause of his country, had + generously submitted to act a part full of danger, of falsehood, and of + shame. <a href="#linknote-24.77" name="linknoteref-24.77" + id="linknoteref-24.77">77</a> With a train of faithful followers, he + deserted to the Imperial camp; exposed, in a specious tale, the injuries + which he had sustained; exaggerated the cruelty of Sapor, the discontent + of the people, and the weakness of the monarchy; and confidently offered + himself as the hostage and guide of the Roman march. The most rational + grounds of suspicion were urged, without effect, by the wisdom and + experience of Hormisdas; and the credulous Julian, receiving the traitor + into his bosom, was persuaded to issue a hasty order, which, in the + opinion of mankind, appeared to arraign his prudence, and to endanger his + safety. He destroyed, in a single hour, the whole navy, which had been + transported above five hundred miles, at so great an expense of toil, of + treasure, and of blood. Twelve, or, at the most, twenty-two small vessels + were saved, to accompany, on carriages, the march of the army, and to form + occasional bridges for the passage of the rivers. A supply of twenty days’ + provisions was reserved for the use of the soldiers; and the rest of the + magazines, with a fleet of eleven hundred vessels, which rode at anchor in + the Tigris, were abandoned to the flames, by the absolute command of the + emperor. The Christian bishops, Gregory and Augustin, insult the madness + of the Apostate, who executed, with his own hands, the sentence of divine + justice. Their authority, of less weight, perhaps, in a military question, + is confirmed by the cool judgment of an experienced soldier, who was + himself spectator of the conflagration, and who could not disapprove the + reluctant murmurs of the troops. <a href="#linknote-24.78" + name="linknoteref-24.78" id="linknoteref-24.78">78</a> Yet there are not + wanting some specious, and perhaps solid, reasons, which might justify the + resolution of Julian. The navigation of the Euphrates never ascended above + Babylon, nor that of the Tigris above Opis. <a href="#linknote-24.79" + name="linknoteref-24.79" id="linknoteref-24.79">79</a> The distance of the + last-mentioned city from the Roman camp was not very considerable: and + Julian must soon have renounced the vain and impracticable attempt of + forcing upwards a great fleet against the stream of a rapid river, <a + href="#linknote-24.80" name="linknoteref-24.80" id="linknoteref-24.80">80</a> + which in several places was embarrassed by natural or artificial + cataracts. <a href="#linknote-24.81" name="linknoteref-24.81" + id="linknoteref-24.81">81</a> The power of sails and oars was insufficient; + it became necessary to tow the ships against the current of the river; the + strength of twenty thousand soldiers was exhausted in this tedious and + servile labor, and if the Romans continued to march along the banks of the + Tigris, they could only expect to return home without achieving any + enterprise worthy of the genius or fortune of their leader. If, on the + contrary, it was advisable to advance into the inland country, the + destruction of the fleet and magazines was the only measure which could + save that valuable prize from the hands of the numerous and active troops + which might suddenly be poured from the gates of Ctesiphon. Had the arms + of Julian been victorious, we should now admire the conduct, as well as + the courage, of a hero, who, by depriving his soldiers of the hopes of a + retreat, left them only the alternative of death or conquest. <a + href="#linknote-24.82" name="linknoteref-24.82" id="linknoteref-24.82">82</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.77" id="linknote-24.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.77">return</a>)<br /> [ The arts of this new + Zopyrus (Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. iv. p. 115, 116) may derive some credit + from the testimony of two abbreviators, (Sextus Rufus and Victor,) and the + casual hints of Libanius (Orat. Parent. c. 134, p. 357) and Ammianus, + (xxiv. 7.) The course of genuine history is interrupted by a most + unseasonable chasm in the text of Ammianus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.78" id="linknote-24.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.78">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammianus, (xxiv. + 7,) Libanius, (Orat. Parentalis, c. 132, 133, p. 356, 357,) Zosimus, (l. + iii. p. 183,) Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 26) Gregory, (Orat. iv. p. + 116,) and Augustin, (de Civitate Dei, l. iv. c. 29, l. v. c. 21.) Of these + Libanius alone attempts a faint apology for his hero; who, according to + Ammianus, pronounced his own condemnation by a tardy and ineffectual + attempt to extinguish the flames.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.79" id="linknote-24.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult Herodotus, (l. + i. c. 194,) Strabo, (l. xvi. p. 1074,) and Tavernier, (part i. l. ii. p. + 152.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.80" id="linknote-24.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.80">return</a>)<br /> [ A celeritate Tigris + incipit vocari, ita appellant Medi sagittam. Plin. Hist. Natur. vi. 31.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.81" id="linknote-24.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.81">return</a>)<br /> [ One of these dikes, + which produces an artificial cascade or cataract, is described by + Tavernier (part i. l. ii. p. 226) and Thevenot, (part ii. l. i. p. 193.) + The Persians, or Assyrians, labored to interrupt the navigation of the + river, (Strabo, l. xv. p. 1075. D’Anville, l’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 98, + 99.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.82" id="linknote-24.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Recollect the + successful and applauded rashness of Agathocles and Cortez, who burnt + their ships on the coast of Africa and Mexico.] + </p> + <p> + The cumbersome train of artillery and wagons, which retards the operations + of a modern army, were in a great measure unknown in the camps of the + Romans. <a href="#linknote-24.83" name="linknoteref-24.83" + id="linknoteref-24.83">83</a> Yet, in every age, the subsistence of sixty + thousand men must have been one of the most important cares of a prudent + general; and that subsistence could only be drawn from his own or from the + enemy’s country. Had it been possible for Julian to maintain a bridge of + communication on the Tigris, and to preserve the conquered places of + Assyria, a desolated province could not afford any large or regular + supplies, in a season of the year when the lands were covered by the + inundation of the Euphrates, <a href="#linknote-24.84" + name="linknoteref-24.84" id="linknoteref-24.84">84</a> and the unwholesome + air was darkened with swarms of innumerable insects. <a + href="#linknote-24.85" name="linknoteref-24.85" id="linknoteref-24.85">85</a> + The appearance of the hostile country was far more inviting. The extensive + region that lies between the River Tigris and the mountains of Media, was + filled with villages and towns; and the fertile soil, for the most part, + was in a very improved state of cultivation. Julian might expect, that a + conqueror, who possessed the two forcible instruments of persuasion, steel + and gold, would easily procure a plentiful subsistence from the fears or + avarice of the natives. But, on the approach of the Romans, the rich and + smiling prospect was instantly blasted. Wherever they moved, the + inhabitants deserted the open villages, and took shelter in the fortified + towns; the cattle was driven away; the grass and ripe corn were consumed + with fire; and, as soon as the flames had subsided which interrupted the + march of Julian, he beheld the melancholy face of a smoking and naked + desert. This desperate but effectual method of defence can only be + executed by the enthusiasm of a people who prefer their independence to + their property; or by the rigor of an arbitrary government, which consults + the public safety without submitting to their inclinations the liberty of + choice. On the present occasion the zeal and obedience of the Persians + seconded the commands of Sapor; and the emperor was soon reduced to the + scanty stock of provisions, which continually wasted in his hands. Before + they were entirely consumed, he might still have reached the wealthy and + unwarlike cities of Ecbatana or Susa, by the effort of a rapid and + well-directed march; <a href="#linknote-24.86" name="linknoteref-24.86" + id="linknoteref-24.86">86</a> but he was deprived of this last resource by + his ignorance of the roads, and by the perfidy of his guides. The Romans + wandered several days in the country to the eastward of Bagdad; the + Persian deserter, who had artfully led them into the snare, escaped from + their resentment; and his followers, as soon as they were put to the + torture, confessed the secret of the conspiracy. The visionary conquests + of Hyrcania and India, which had so long amused, now tormented, the mind + of Julian. Conscious that his own imprudence was the cause of the public + distress, he anxiously balanced the hopes of safety or success, without + obtaining a satisfactory answer, either from gods or men. At length, as + the only practicable measure, he embraced the resolution of directing his + steps towards the banks of the Tigris, with the design of saving the army + by a hasty march to the confines of Corduene; a fertile and friendly + province, which acknowledged the sovereignty of Rome. The desponding + troops obeyed the signal of the retreat, only seventy days after they had + passed the Chaboras, with the sanguine expectation of subverting the + throne of Persia. <a href="#linknote-24.87" name="linknoteref-24.87" + id="linknoteref-24.87">87</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.83" id="linknote-24.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.83">return</a>)<br /> [ See the judicious + reflections of the author of the Essai sur la Tactique, tom. ii. p. + 287-353, and the learned remarks of M. Guichardt Nouveaux Mémoires + Militaires, tom. i. p. 351-382, on the baggage and subsistence of the + Roman armies.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.84" id="linknote-24.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.84">return</a>)<br /> [ The Tigris rises to the + south, the Euphrates to the north, of the Armenian mountains. The former + overflows in March, the latter in July. These circumstances are well + explained in the Geographical Dissertation of Foster, inserted in + Spelman’s Expedition of Cyras, vol. ii. p. 26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.85" id="linknote-24.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxiv. 8) + describes, as he had felt, the inconveniency of the flood, the heat, and + the insects. The lands of Assyria, oppressed by the Turks, and ravaged by + the Curds or Arabs, yield an increase of ten, fifteen, and twenty fold, + for the seed which is cast into the ground by the wretched and unskillful + husbandmen. Voyage de Niebuhr, tom. ii. p. 279, 285.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.86" id="linknote-24.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.86">return</a>)<br /> [ Isidore of Charax + (Mansion. Parthic. p. 5, 6, in Hudson, Geograph. Minor. tom. ii.) reckons + 129 schæni from Seleucia, and Thevenot, (part i. l. i. ii. p. 209-245,) + 128 hours of march from Bagdad to Ecbatana, or Hamadan. These measures + cannot exceed an ordinary parasang, or three Roman miles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.87" id="linknote-24.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.87">return</a>)<br /> [ The march of Julian + from Ctesiphon is circumstantially, but not clearly, described by + Ammianus, (xxiv. 7, 8,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 134, p. 357,) and + Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 183.) The two last seem ignorant that their conqueror + was retreating; and Libanius absurdly confines him to the banks of the + Tigris.] + </p> + <p> + As long as the Romans seemed to advance into the country, their march was + observed and insulted from a distance, by several bodies of Persian + cavalry; who, showing themselves sometimes in loose, and sometimes in + close order, faintly skirmished with the advanced guards. These + detachments were, however, supported by a much greater force; and the + heads of the columns were no sooner pointed towards the Tigris than a + cloud of dust arose on the plain. The Romans, who now aspired only to the + permission of a safe and speedy retreat, endeavored to persuade + themselves, that this formidable appearance was occasioned by a troop of + wild asses, or perhaps by the approach of some friendly Arabs. They + halted, pitched their tents, fortified their camp, passed the whole night + in continual alarms; and discovered at the dawn of day, that they were + surrounded by an army of Persians. This army, which might be considered + only as the van of the Barbarians, was soon followed by the main body of + cuirassiers, archers, and elephants, commanded by Meranes, a general of + rank and reputation. He was accompanied by two of the king’s sons, and + many of the principal satraps; and fame and expectation exaggerated the + strength of the remaining powers, which slowly advanced under the conduct + of Sapor himself. As the Romans continued their march, their long array, + which was forced to bend or divide, according to the varieties of the + ground, afforded frequent and favorable opportunities to their vigilant + enemies. The Persians repeatedly charged with fury; they were repeatedly + repulsed with firmness; and the action at Maronga, which almost deserved + the name of a battle, was marked by a considerable loss of satraps and + elephants, perhaps of equal value in the eyes of their monarch. These + splendid advantages were not obtained without an adequate slaughter on the + side of the Romans: several officers of distinction were either killed or + wounded; and the emperor himself, who, on all occasions of danger, + inspired and guided the valor of his troops, was obliged to expose his + person, and exert his abilities. The weight of offensive and defensive + arms, which still constituted the strength and safety of the Romans, + disabled them from making any long or effectual pursuit; and as the + horsemen of the East were trained to dart their javelins, and shoot their + arrows, at full speed, and in every possible direction, <a + href="#linknote-24.88" name="linknoteref-24.88" id="linknoteref-24.88">88</a> + the cavalry of Persia was never more formidable than in the moment of a + rapid and disorderly flight. But the most certain and irreparable loss of + the Romans was that of time. The hardy veterans, accustomed to the cold + climate of Gaul and Germany, fainted under the sultry heat of an Assyrian + summer; their vigor was exhausted by the incessant repetition of march and + combat; and the progress of the army was suspended by the precautions of a + slow and dangerous retreat, in the presence of an active enemy. Every day, + every hour, as the supply diminished, the value and price of subsistence + increased in the Roman camp. <a href="#linknote-24.89" + name="linknoteref-24.89" id="linknoteref-24.89">89</a> Julian, who always + contented himself with such food as a hungry soldier would have disdained, + distributed, for the use of the troops, the provisions of the Imperial + household, and whatever could be spared, from the sumpter-horses, of the + tribunes and generals. But this feeble relief served only to aggravate the + sense of the public distress; and the Romans began to entertain the most + gloomy apprehensions that, before they could reach the frontiers of the + empire, they should all perish, either by famine, or by the sword of the + Barbarians. <a href="#linknote-24.90" name="linknoteref-24.90" + id="linknoteref-24.90">90</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.88" id="linknote-24.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.88">return</a>)<br /> [ Chardin, the most + judicious of modern travellers, describes (tom. ii. p. 57, 58, &c., + edit. in 4to.) the education and dexterity of the Persian horsemen. + Brissonius (de Regno Persico, p. 650 651, &c.,) has collected the + testimonies of antiquity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.89" id="linknote-24.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.89">return</a>)<br /> [ In Mark Antony’s + retreat, an attic chœnix sold for fifty drachmæ, or, in other words, a + pound of flour for twelve or fourteen shillings barley bread was sold for + its weight in silver. It is impossible to peruse the interesting narrative + of Plutarch, (tom. v. p. 102-116,) without perceiving that Mark Antony and + Julian were pursued by the same enemies, and involved in the same + distress.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.90" id="linknote-24.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxiv. 8, xxv. + 1. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 184, 185, 186. Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 134, 135, + p. 357, 358, 359. The sophist of Antioch appears ignorant that the troops + were hungry.] + </p> + <p> + While Julian struggled with the almost insuperable difficulties of his + situation, the silent hours of the night were still devoted to study and + contemplation. Whenever he closed his eyes in short and interrupted + slumbers, his mind was agitated with painful anxiety; nor can it be + thought surprising, that the Genius of the empire should once more appear + before him, covering with a funeral veil his head, and his horn of + abundance, and slowly retiring from the Imperial tent. The monarch started + from his couch, and stepping forth to refresh his wearied spirits with the + coolness of the midnight air, he beheld a fiery meteor, which shot athwart + the sky, and suddenly vanished. Julian was convinced that he had seen the + menacing countenance of the god of war; <a href="#linknote-24.91" + name="linknoteref-24.91" id="linknoteref-24.91">91</a> the council which he + summoned, of Tuscan Haruspices, <a href="#linknote-24.92" + name="linknoteref-24.92" id="linknoteref-24.92">92</a> unanimously + pronounced that he should abstain from action; but on this occasion, + necessity and reason were more prevalent than superstition; and the + trumpets sounded at the break of day. The army marched through a hilly + country; and the hills had been secretly occupied by the Persians. Julian + led the van with the skill and attention of a consummate general; he was + alarmed by the intelligence that his rear was suddenly attacked. The heat + of the weather had tempted him to lay aside his cuirass; but he snatched a + shield from one of his attendants, and hastened, with a sufficient + reenforcement, to the relief of the rear-guard. A similar danger recalled + the intrepid prince to the defence of the front; and, as he galloped + through the columns, the centre of the left was attacked, and almost + overpowered by the furious charge of the Persian cavalry and elephants. + This huge body was soon defeated, by the well-timed evolution of the light + infantry, who aimed their weapons, with dexterity and effect, against the + backs of the horsemen, and the legs of the elephants. The Barbarians fled; + and Julian, who was foremost in every danger, animated the pursuit with + his voice and gestures. His trembling guards, scattered and oppressed by + the disorderly throng of friends and enemies, reminded their fearless + sovereign that he was without armor; and conjured him to decline the fall + of the impending ruin. As they exclaimed, <a href="#linknote-24.93" + name="linknoteref-24.93" id="linknoteref-24.93">93</a> a cloud of darts and + arrows was discharged from the flying squadrons; and a javelin, after + razing the skin of his arm, transpierced the ribs, and fixed in the + inferior part of the liver. Julian attempted to draw the deadly weapon + from his side; but his fingers were cut by the sharpness of the steel, and + he fell senseless from his horse. His guards flew to his relief; and the + wounded emperor was gently raised from the ground, and conveyed out of the + tumult of the battle into an adjacent tent. The report of the melancholy + event passed from rank to rank; but the grief of the Romans inspired them + with invincible valor, and the desire of revenge. The bloody and obstinate + conflict was maintained by the two armies, till they were separated by the + total darkness of the night. The Persians derived some honor from the + advantage which they obtained against the left wing, where Anatolius, + master of the offices, was slain, and the præfect Sallust very narrowly + escaped. But the event of the day was adverse to the Barbarians. They + abandoned the field; their two generals, Meranes and Nohordates, <a + href="#linknote-24.94" name="linknoteref-24.94" id="linknoteref-24.94">94</a> + fifty nobles or satraps, and a multitude of their bravest soldiers; and + the success of the Romans, if Julian had survived, might have been + improved into a decisive and useful victory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.91" id="linknote-24.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxv. 2. Julian + had sworn in a passion, nunquam se Marti sacra facturum, (xxiv. 6.) Such + whimsical quarrels were not uncommon between the gods and their insolent + votaries; and even the prudent Augustus, after his fleet had been twice + shipwrecked, excluded Neptune from the honors of public processions. See + Hume’s Philosophical Reflections. Essays, vol. ii. p. 418.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.92" id="linknote-24.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.92">return</a>)<br /> [ They still retained the + monopoly of the vain but lucrative science, which had been invented in + Hetruria; and professed to derive their knowledge of signs and omens from + the ancient books of Tarquitius, a Tuscan sage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.93" id="linknote-24.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.93">return</a>)<br /> [ Clambant hinc inde + <i>candidati</i> (see the note of Valesius) quos terror, ut fugientium molem + tanquam ruinam male compositi culminis declinaret. Ammian. xxv 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.94" id="linknote-24.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Sapor himself declared + to the Romans, that it was his practice to comfort the families of his + deceased satraps, by sending them, as a present, the heads of the guards + and officers who had not fallen by their master’s side. Libanius, de nece + Julian. ulcis. c. xiii. p. 163.] + </p> + <p> + The first words that Julian uttered, after his recovery from the fainting + fit into which he had been thrown by loss of blood, were expressive of his + martial spirit. He called for his horse and arms, and was impatient to + rush into the battle. His remaining strength was exhausted by the painful + effort; and the surgeons, who examined his wound, discovered the symptoms + of approaching death. He employed the awful moments with the firm temper + of a hero and a sage; the philosophers who had accompanied him in this + fatal expedition, compared the tent of Julian with the prison of Socrates; + and the spectators, whom duty, or friendship, or curiosity, had assembled + round his couch, listened with respectful grief to the funeral oration of + their dying emperor. <a href="#linknote-24.95" name="linknoteref-24.95" + id="linknoteref-24.95">95</a> “Friends and fellow-soldiers, the seasonable + period of my departure is now arrived, and I discharge, with the + cheerfulness of a ready debtor, the demands of nature. I have learned from + philosophy, how much the soul is more excellent than the body; and that + the separation of the nobler substance should be the subject of joy, + rather than of affliction. I have learned from religion, that an early + death has often been the reward of piety; <a href="#linknote-24.96" + name="linknoteref-24.96" id="linknoteref-24.96">96</a> and I accept, as a + favor of the gods, the mortal stroke that secures me from the danger of + disgracing a character, which has hitherto been supported by virtue and + fortitude. I die without remorse, as I have lived without guilt. I am + pleased to reflect on the innocence of my private life; and I can affirm + with confidence, that the supreme authority, that emanation of the Divine + Power, has been preserved in my hands pure and immaculate. Detesting the + corrupt and destructive maxims of despotism, I have considered the + happiness of the people as the end of government. Submitting my actions to + the laws of prudence, of justice, and of moderation, I have trusted the + event to the care of Providence. Peace was the object of my counsels, as + long as peace was consistent with the public welfare; but when the + imperious voice of my country summoned me to arms, I exposed my person to + the dangers of war, with the clear foreknowledge (which I had acquired + from the art of divination) that I was destined to fall by the sword. I + now offer my tribute of gratitude to the Eternal Being, who has not + suffered me to perish by the cruelty of a tyrant, by the secret dagger of + conspiracy, or by the slow tortures of lingering disease. He has given me, + in the midst of an honorable career, a splendid and glorious departure + from this world; and I hold it equally absurd, equally base, to solicit, + or to decline, the stroke of fate. This much I have attempted to say; but + my strength fails me, and I feel the approach of death. I shall cautiously + refrain from any word that may tend to influence your suffrages in the + election of an emperor. My choice might be imprudent or injudicious; and + if it should not be ratified by the consent of the army, it might be fatal + to the person whom I should recommend. I shall only, as a good citizen, + express my hopes, that the Romans may be blessed with the government of a + virtuous sovereign.” After this discourse, which Julian pronounced in a + firm and gentle tone of voice, he distributed, by a military testament, <a + href="#linknote-24.97" name="linknoteref-24.97" id="linknoteref-24.97">97</a> + the remains of his private fortune; and making some inquiry why Anatolius + was not present, he understood, from the answer of Sallust, that Anatolius + was killed; and bewailed, with amiable inconsistency, the loss of his + friend. At the same time he reproved the immoderate grief of the + spectators; and conjured them not to disgrace, by unmanly tears, the fate + of a prince, who in a few moments would be united with heaven, and with + the stars. <a href="#linknote-24.98" name="linknoteref-24.98" + id="linknoteref-24.98">98</a> The spectators were silent; and Julian + entered into a metaphysical argument with the philosophers Priscus and + Maximus, on the nature of the soul. The efforts which he made, of mind as + well as body, most probably hastened his death. His wound began to bleed + with fresh violence; his respiration was embarrassed by the swelling of + the veins; he called for a draught of cold water, and, as soon as he had + drank it, expired without pain, about the hour of midnight. Such was the + end of that extraordinary man, in the thirty-second year of his age, after + a reign of one year and about eight months, from the death of Constantius. + In his last moments he displayed, perhaps with some ostentation, the love + of virtue and of fame, which had been the ruling passions of his life. <a + href="#linknote-24.99" name="linknoteref-24.99" id="linknoteref-24.99">99</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.95" id="linknote-24.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.95">return</a>)<br /> [ The character and + situation of Julian might countenance the suspicion that he had previously + composed the elaborate oration, which Ammianus heard, and has transcribed. + The version of the Abbé de la Bleterie is faithful and elegant. I have + followed him in expressing the Platonic idea of emanations, which is + darkly insinuated in the original.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.96" id="linknote-24.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.96">return</a>)<br /> [ Herodotus (l. i. c. + 31,) has displayed that doctrine in an agreeable tale. Yet the Jupiter, + (in the 16th book of the Iliad,) who laments with tears of blood the death + of Sarpedon his son, had a very imperfect notion of happiness or glory + beyond the grave.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.97" id="linknote-24.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.97">return</a>)<br /> [ The soldiers who made + their verbal or nuncupatory testaments, upon actual service, (in + procinctu,) were exempted from the formalities of the Roman law. See + Heineccius, (Antiquit. Jur. Roman. tom. i. p. 504,) and Montesquieu, + (Esprit des Loix, l. xxvii.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.98" id="linknote-24.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.98">return</a>)<br /> [ This union of the human + soul with the divine æthereal substance of the universe, is the ancient + doctrine of Pythagoras and Plato: but it seems to exclude any personal or + conscious immortality. See Warburton’s learned and rational observations. + Divine Legation, vol ii. p. 199-216.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.99" id="linknote-24.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.99">return</a>)<br /> [ The whole relation of + the death of Julian is given by Ammianus, (xxv. 3,) an intelligent + spectator. Libanius, who turns with horror from the scene, has supplied + some circumstances, (Orat. Parental. c 136-140, p. 359-362.) The calumnies + of Gregory, and the legends of more recent saints, may now be <i>silently</i> + despised. * Note: A very remarkable fragment of Eunapius describes, not + without spirit, the struggle between the terror of the army on account of + their perilous situation, and their grief for the death of Julian. “Even + the vulgar felt that they would soon provide a general, but such a general + as Julian they would never find, even though a god in the form of man—Julian, + who, with a mind equal to the divinity, triumphed over the evil + propensities of human nature,—* * who held commerce with immaterial + beings while yet in the material body—who condescended to rule + because a ruler was necessary to the welfare of mankind.” Mai, Nov. Coll. + ii. 261. Eunapius in Niebuhr, 69.] + </p> + <p> + The triumph of Christianity, and the calamities of the empire, may, in + some measure, be ascribed to Julian himself, who had neglected to secure + the future execution of his designs, by the timely and judicious + nomination of an associate and successor. But the royal race of + Constantius Chlorus was reduced to his own person; and if he entertained + any serious thoughts of investing with the purple the most worthy among + the Romans, he was diverted from his resolution by the difficulty of the + choice, the jealousy of power, the fear of ingratitude, and the natural + presumption of health, of youth, and of prosperity. His unexpected death + left the empire without a master, and without an heir, in a state of + perplexity and danger, which, in the space of fourscore years, had never + been experienced, since the election of Diocletian. In a government which + had almost forgotten the distinction of pure and noble blood, the + superiority of birth was of little moment; the claims of official rank + were accidental and precarious; and the candidates, who might aspire to + ascend the vacant throne could be supported only by the consciousness of + personal merit, or by the hopes of popular favor. But the situation of a + famished army, encompassed on all sides by a host of Barbarians, shortened + the moments of grief and deliberation. In this scene of terror and + distress, the body of the deceased prince, according to his own + directions, was decently embalmed; and, at the dawn of day, the generals + convened a military senate, at which the commanders of the legions, and + the officers both of cavalry and infantry, were invited to assist. Three + or four hours of the night had not passed away without some secret cabals; + and when the election of an emperor was proposed, the spirit of faction + began to agitate the assembly. Victor and Arinthæus collected the remains + of the court of Constantius; the friends of Julian attached themselves to + the Gallic chiefs, Dagalaiphus and Nevitta; and the most fatal + consequences might be apprehended from the discord of two factions, so + opposite in their character and interest, in their maxims of government, + and perhaps in their religious principles. The superior virtues of Sallust + could alone reconcile their divisions, and unite their suffrages; and the + venerable præfect would immediately have been declared the successor of + Julian, if he himself, with sincere and modest firmness, had not alleged + his age and infirmities, so unequal to the weight of the diadem. The + generals, who were surprised and perplexed by his refusal, showed some + disposition to adopt the salutary advice of an inferior officer, <a + href="#linknote-24.100" name="linknoteref-24.100" id="linknoteref-24.100">100</a> + that they should act as they would have acted in the absence of the + emperor; that they should exert their abilities to extricate the army from + the present distress; and, if they were fortunate enough to reach the + confines of Mesopotamia, they should proceed with united and deliberate + counsels in the election of a lawful sovereign. While they debated, a few + voices saluted Jovian, who was no more than <i>first</i> <a href="#linknote-24.101" + name="linknoteref-24.101" id="linknoteref-24.101">101</a> of the domestics, + with the names of Emperor and Augustus. The tumultuary acclamation <a + href="#linknote-24.10111" name="linknoteref-24.10111" + id="linknoteref-24.10111">10111</a> was instantly repeated by the guards + who surrounded the tent, and passed, in a few minutes, to the extremities + of the line. The new prince, astonished with his own fortune was hastily + invested with the Imperial ornaments, and received an oath of fidelity + from the generals, whose favor and protection he so lately solicited. The + strongest recommendation of Jovian was the merit of his father, Count + Varronian, who enjoyed, in honorable retirement, the fruit of his long + services. In the obscure freedom of a private station, the son indulged + his taste for wine and women; yet he supported, with credit, the character + of a Christian <a href="#linknote-24.102" name="linknoteref-24.102" + id="linknoteref-24.102">102</a> and a soldier. Without being conspicuous + for any of the ambitious qualifications which excite the admiration and + envy of mankind, the comely person of Jovian, his cheerful temper, and + familiar wit, had gained the affection of his fellow-soldiers; and the + generals of both parties acquiesced in a popular election, which had not + been conducted by the arts of their enemies. The pride of this unexpected + elevation was moderated by the just apprehension, that the same day might + terminate the life and reign of the new emperor. The pressing voice of + necessity was obeyed without delay; and the first orders issued by Jovian, + a few hours after his predecessor had expired, were to prosecute a march, + which could alone extricate the Romans from their actual distress. <a + href="#linknote-24.103" name="linknoteref-24.103" id="linknoteref-24.103">103</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.100" id="linknote-24.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.100">return</a>)<br /> [ Honoratior aliquis + miles; perhaps Ammianus himself. The modest and judicious historian + describes the scene of the election, at which he was undoubtedly present, + (xxv. 5.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.101" id="linknote-24.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.101">return</a>)<br /> [ The <i>primus</i> or + <i>primicerius</i> enjoyed the dignity of a senator, and though only a tribune, + he ranked with the military dukes. Cod. Theodosian. l. vi. tit. xxiv. + These privileges are perhaps more recent than the time of Jovian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.10111" id="linknote-24.10111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10111 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.10111">return</a>)<br /> [ The soldiers + supposed that the acclamations proclaimed the name of Julian, restored, as + they fondly thought, to health, not that of Jovian. loc.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.102" id="linknote-24.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.102">return</a>)<br /> [ The ecclesiastical + historians, Socrates, (l. iii. c. 22,) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. 3,) and + Theodoret, (l. iv. c. 1,) ascribe to Jovian the merit of a confessor under + the preceding reign; and piously suppose that he refused the purple, till + the whole army unanimously exclaimed that they were Christians. Ammianus, + calmly pursuing his narrative, overthrows the legend by a single sentence. + Hostiis pro Joviano extisque inspectis, pronuntiatum est, &c., xxv. + 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.103" id="linknote-24.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.103">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxv. 10) + has drawn from the life an impartial portrait of Jovian; to which the + younger Victor has added some remarkable strokes. The Abbé de la Bleterie + (Histoire de Jovien, tom. i. p. 1-238) has composed an elaborate history + of his short reign; a work remarkably distinguished by elegance of style, + critical disquisition, and religious prejudice.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap24.5"></a> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The esteem of an enemy is most sincerely expressed by his fears; and the + degree of fear may be accurately measured by the joy with which he + celebrates his deliverance. The welcome news of the death of Julian, which + a deserter revealed to the camp of Sapor, inspired the desponding monarch + with a sudden confidence of victory. He immediately detached the royal + cavalry, perhaps the ten thousand <i>Immortals</i>, <a href="#linknote-24.104" + name="linknoteref-24.104" id="linknoteref-24.104">104</a> to second and + support the pursuit; and discharged the whole weight of his united forces + on the rear-guard of the Romans. The rear-guard was thrown into disorder; + the renowned legions, which derived their titles from Diocletian, and his + warlike colleague, were broke and trampled down by the elephants; and + three tribunes lost their lives in attempting to stop the flight of their + soldiers. The battle was at length restored by the persevering valor of + the Romans; the Persians were repulsed with a great slaughter of men and + elephants; and the army, after marching and fighting a long summer’s day, + arrived, in the evening, at Samara, on the banks of the Tigris, about one + hundred miles above Ctesiphon. <a href="#linknote-24.105" + name="linknoteref-24.105" id="linknoteref-24.105">105</a> On the ensuing + day, the Barbarians, instead of harassing the march, attacked the camp, of + Jovian; which had been seated in a deep and sequestered valley. From the + hills, the archers of Persia insulted and annoyed the wearied legionaries; + and a body of cavalry, which had penetrated with desperate courage through + the Prætorian gate, was cut in pieces, after a doubtful conflict, near + the Imperial tent. In the succeeding night, the camp of Carche was + protected by the lofty dikes of the river; and the Roman army, though + incessantly exposed to the vexatious pursuit of the Saracens, pitched + their tents near the city of Dura, <a href="#linknote-24.106" + name="linknoteref-24.106" id="linknoteref-24.106">106</a> four days after + the death of Julian. The Tigris was still on their left; their hopes and + provisions were almost consumed; and the impatient soldiers, who had + fondly persuaded themselves that the frontiers of the empire were not far + distant, requested their new sovereign, that they might be permitted to + hazard the passage of the river. With the assistance of his wisest + officers, Jovian endeavored to check their rashness; by representing, that + if they possessed sufficient skill and vigor to stem the torrent of a deep + and rapid stream, they would only deliver themselves naked and defenceless + to the Barbarians, who had occupied the opposite banks, Yielding at length + to their clamorous importunities, he consented, with reluctance, that five + hundred Gauls and Germans, accustomed from their infancy to the waters of + the Rhine and Danube, should attempt the bold adventure, which might serve + either as an encouragement, or as a warning, for the rest of the army. In + the silence of the night, they swam the Tigris, surprised an unguarded + post of the enemy, and displayed at the dawn of day the signal of their + resolution and fortune. The success of this trial disposed the emperor to + listen to the promises of his architects, who propose to construct a + floating bridge of the inflated skins of sheep, oxen, and goats, covered + with a floor of earth and fascines. <a href="#linknote-24.107" + name="linknoteref-24.107" id="linknoteref-24.107">107</a> Two important days + were spent in the ineffectual labor; and the Romans, who already endured + the miseries of famine, cast a look of despair on the Tigris, and upon the + Barbarians; whose numbers and obstinacy increased with the distress of the + Imperial army. <a href="#linknote-24.108" name="linknoteref-24.108" + id="linknoteref-24.108">108</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.104" id="linknote-24.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.104">return</a>)<br /> [ Regius equitatus. It + appears, from Irocopius, that the Immortals, so famous under Cyrus and his + successors, were revived, if we may use that improper word, by the + Sassanides. Brisson de Regno Persico, p. 268, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.105" id="linknote-24.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.105">return</a>)<br /> [ The obscure villages + of the inland country are irrecoverably lost; nor can we name the field of + battle where Julian fell: but M. D’Anville has demonstrated the precise + situation of Sumere, Carche, and Dura, along the banks of the Tigris, + (Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 248 L’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 95, 97.) + In the ninth century, Sumere, or Samara, became, with a slight change of + name, the royal residence of the khalifs of the house of Abbas. * Note: + Sormanray, called by the Arabs Samira, where D’Anville placed Samara, is + too much to the south; and is a modern town built by Caliph Morasen. + Serra-man-rai means, in Arabic, it rejoices every one who sees it. St. + Martin, iii. 133.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.106" id="linknote-24.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.106">return</a>)<br /> [ Dura was a fortified + place in the wars of Antiochus against the rebels of Media and Persia, + (Polybius, l. v. c. 48, 52, p. 548, 552 edit. Casaubon, in 8vo.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.107" id="linknote-24.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.107">return</a>)<br /> [ A similar expedient + was proposed to the leaders of the ten thousand, and wisely rejected. + Xenophon, Anabasis, l. iii. p. 255, 256, 257. It appears, from our modern + travellers, that rafts floating on bladders perform the trade and + navigation of the Tigris.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.108" id="linknote-24.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.108">return</a>)<br /> [ The first military + acts of the reign of Jovian are related by Ammianus, (xxv. 6,) Libanius, + (Orat. Parent. c. 146, p. 364,) and Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 189, 190, 191.) + Though we may distrust the fairness of Libanius, the ocular testimony of + Eutropius (uno a Persis atque altero prœlio victus, x. 17) must incline + us to suspect that Ammianus had been too jealous of the honor of the Roman + arms.] + </p> + <p> + In this hopeless condition, the fainting spirits of the Romans were + revived by the sound of peace. The transient presumption of Sapor had + vanished: he observed, with serious concern, that, in the repetition of + doubtful combats, he had lost his most faithful and intrepid nobles, his + bravest troops, and the greatest part of his train of elephants: and the + experienced monarch feared to provoke the resistance of despair, the + vicissitudes of fortune, and the unexhausted powers of the Roman empire; + which might soon advance to elieve, or to revenge, the successor of + Julian. The Surenas himself, accompanied by another satrap, appeared in + the camp of Jovian; <a href="#linknote-24.109" name="linknoteref-24.109" + id="linknoteref-24.109">109</a> and declared, that the clemency of his + sovereign was not averse to signify the conditions on which he would + consent to spare and to dismiss the Cæsar with the relics of his captive + army. <a href="#linknote-24.10911" name="linknoteref-24.10911" + id="linknoteref-24.10911">10911</a> The hopes of safety subdued the + firmness of the Romans; the emperor was compelled, by the advice of his + council, and the cries of his soldiers, to embrace the offer of peace; <a + href="#linknote-24.10912" name="linknoteref-24.10912" + id="linknoteref-24.10912">10912</a> and the præfect Sallust was + immediately sent, with the general Arinthæus, to understand the pleasure + of the Great King. The crafty Persian delayed, under various pretenses, + the conclusion of the agreement; started difficulties, required + explanations, suggested expedients, receded from his concessions, + increased his demands, and wasted four days in the arts of negotiation, + till he had consumed the stock of provisions which yet remained in the + camp of the Romans. Had Jovian been capable of executing a bold and + prudent measure, he would have continued his march, with unremitting + diligence; the progress of the treaty would have suspended the attacks of + the Barbarians; and, before the expiration of the fourth day, he might + have safely reached the fruitful province of Corduene, at the distance + only of one hundred miles. <a href="#linknote-24.110" + name="linknoteref-24.110" id="linknoteref-24.110">110</a> The irresolute + emperor, instead of breaking through the toils of the enemy, expected his + fate with patient resignation; and accepted the humiliating conditions of + peace, which it was no longer in his power to refuse. The five provinces + beyond the Tigris, which had been ceded by the grandfather of Sapor, were + restored to the Persian monarchy. He acquired, by a single article, the + impregnable city of Nisibis; which had sustained, in three successive + sieges, the effort of his arms. Singara, and the castle of the Moors, one + of the strongest places of Mesopotamia, were likewise dismembered from the + empire. It was considered as an indulgence, that the inhabitants of those + fortresses were permitted to retire with their effects; but the conqueror + rigorously insisted, that the Romans should forever abandon the king and + kingdom of Armenia. <a href="#linknote-24.11011" name="linknoteref-24.11011" + id="linknoteref-24.11011">11011</a> A peace, or rather a long truce, of + thirty years, was stipulated between the hostile nations; the faith of the + treaty was ratified by solemn oaths and religious ceremonies; and hostages + of distinguished rank were reciprocally delivered to secure the + performance of the conditions. <a href="#linknote-24.111" + name="linknoteref-24.111" id="linknoteref-24.111">111</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.109" id="linknote-24.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Sextus Rufus (de + Provinciis, c. 29) embraces a poor subterfuge of national vanity. Tanta + reverentia nominis Romani fuit, ut a Persis <i>primus</i> de pace sermo + haberetur. ——He is called Junius by John Malala; the same, M. St. + Martin conjectures, with a satrap of Gordyene named Jovianus, or + Jovinianus; mentioned in Ammianus Marcellinus, xviii. 6.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.10911" id="linknote-24.10911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10911 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.10911">return</a>)<br /> [ The Persian + historians couch the message of Shah-pour in these Oriental terms: “I have + reassembled my numerous army. I am resolved to revenge my subjects, who + have been plundered, made captives, and slain. It is for this that I have + bared my arm, and girded my loins. If you consent to pay the price of the + blood which has been shed, to deliver up the booty which has been + plundered, and to restore the city of Nisibis, which is in Irak, and + belongs to our empire, though now in your possession, I will sheathe the + sword of war; but should you refuse these terms, the hoofs of my horse, + which are hard as steel, shall efface the name of the Romans from the + earth; and my glorious cimeter, that destroys like fire, shall exterminate + the people of your empire.” These authorities do not mention the death of + Julian. Malcolm’s Persia, i. 87.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.10912" id="linknote-24.10912"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10912 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.10912">return</a>)<br /> [ The Paschal + chronicle, not, as M. St. Martin says, supported by John Malala, places + the mission of this ambassador before the death of Julian. The king of + Persia was then in Persarmenia, ignorant of the death of Julian; he only + arrived at the army subsequent to that event. St. Martin adopts this view, + and finds or extorts support for it, from Libanius and Ammianus, iii. 158.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.110" id="linknote-24.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.110">return</a>)<br /> [ It is presumptuous to + controvert the opinion of Ammianus, a soldier and a spectator. Yet it is + difficult to understand <i>how</i> the mountains of Corduene could extend over + the plains of Assyria, as low as the conflux of the Tigris and the great + Zab; or <i>how</i> an army of sixty thousand men could march one hundred miles in + four days. Note: * Yet this appears to be the case (in modern maps: ) the + march is the difficulty.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.11011" id="linknote-24.11011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11011 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.11011">return</a>)<br /> [ Sapor availed + himself, a few years after, of the dissolution of the alliance between the + Romans and the Armenians. See St. M. iii. 163.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.111" id="linknote-24.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.111">return</a>)<br /> [ The treaty of Dura is + recorded with grief or indignation by Ammianus, (xxv. 7,) Libanius, (Orat. + Parent. c. 142, p. 364,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 190, 191,) Gregory + Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. p. 117, 118, who imputes the distress to Julian, the + deliverance to Jovian,) and Eutropius, (x. 17.) The last-mentioned writer, + who was present in military station, styles this peace necessarium quidem + sed ignoblem.] + </p> + <p> + The sophist of Antioch, who saw with indignation the sceptre of his hero + in the feeble hand of a Christian successor, professes to admire the + moderation of Sapor, in contenting himself with so small a portion of the + Roman empire. If he had stretched as far as the Euphrates the claims of + his ambition, he might have been secure, says Libanius, of not meeting + with a refusal. If he had fixed, as the boundary of Persia, the Orontes, + the Cydnus, the Sangarius, or even the Thracian Bosphorus, flatterers + would not have been wanting in the court of Jovian to convince the timid + monarch, that his remaining provinces would still afford the most ample + gratifications of power and luxury. <a href="#linknote-24.112" + name="linknoteref-24.112" id="linknoteref-24.112">112</a> Without adopting + in its full force this malicious insinuation, we must acknowledge, that + the conclusion of so ignominious a treaty was facilitated by the private + ambition of Jovian. The obscure domestic, exalted to the throne by + fortune, rather than by merit, was impatient to escape from the hands of + the Persians, that he might prevent the designs of Procopius, who + commanded the army of Mesopotamia, and establish his doubtful reign over + the legions and provinces which were still ignorant of the hasty and + tumultuous choice of the camp beyond the Tigris. <a href="#linknote-24.113" + name="linknoteref-24.113" id="linknoteref-24.113">113</a> In the + neighborhood of the same river, at no very considerable distance from the + fatal station of Dura, <a href="#linknote-24.114" name="linknoteref-24.114" + id="linknoteref-24.114">114</a> the ten thousand Greeks, without generals, + or guides, or provisions, were abandoned, above twelve hundred miles from + their native country, to the resentment of a victorious monarch. The + difference of <i>their</i> conduct and success depended much more on their + character than on their situation. Instead of tamely resigning themselves + to the secret deliberations and private views of a single person, the + united councils of the Greeks were inspired by the generous enthusiasm of + a popular assembly; where the mind of each citizen is filled with the love + of glory, the pride of freedom, and the contempt of death. Conscious of + their superiority over the Barbarians in arms and discipline, they + disdained to yield, they refused to capitulate: every obstacle was + surmounted by their patience, courage, and military skill; and the + memorable retreat of the ten thousand exposed and insulted the weakness of + the Persian monarchy. <a href="#linknote-24.115" name="linknoteref-24.115" + id="linknoteref-24.115">115</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.112" id="linknote-24.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.112">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. + Parent. c. 143, p. 364, 365.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.113" id="linknote-24.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.113">return</a>)<br /> [ Conditionibus..... + dispendiosis Romanæ reipublicæ impositis.... quibus cupidior regni quam + gloriæ Jovianus, imperio rudis, adquievit. Sextus Rufus de Provinciis, c. + 29. La Bleterie has expressed, in a long, direct oration, these specious + considerations of public and private interest, (Hist. de Jovien, tom. i. + p. 39, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.114" id="linknote-24.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.114">return</a>)<br /> [ The generals were + murdered on the bauks of the Zabatus, (Ana basis, l. ii. p. 156, l. iii. + p. 226,) or great Zab, a river of Assyria, 400 feet broad, which falls + into the Tigris fourteen hours below Mosul. The error of the Greeks + bestowed on the greater and lesser Zab the names of the <i>Wolf</i>, (Lycus,) and + the <i>Goat</i>, (Capros.) They created these animals to attend the <i>Tiger</i> of the + East.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.115" id="linknote-24.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.115">return</a>)<br /> [ The <i>Cyropædia</i> is + vague and languid; the <i>Anabasis</i> circumstance and animated. Such is the + eternal difference between fiction and truth.] + </p> + <p> + As the price of his disgraceful concessions, the emperor might perhaps + have stipulated, that the camp of the hungry Romans should be plentifully + supplied; <a href="#linknote-24.116" name="linknoteref-24.116" + id="linknoteref-24.116">116</a> and that they should be permitted to pass + the Tigris on the bridge which was constructed by the hands of the + Persians. But, if Jovian presumed to solicit those equitable terms, they + were sternly refused by the haughty tyrant of the East, whose clemency had + pardoned the invaders of his country. The Saracens sometimes intercepted + the stragglers of the march; but the generals and troops of Sapor + respected the cessation of arms; and Jovian was suffered to explore the + most convenient place for the passage of the river. The small vessels, + which had been saved from the conflagration of the fleet, performed the + most essential service. They first conveyed the emperor and his favorites; + and afterwards transported, in many successive voyages, a great part of + the army. But, as every man was anxious for his personal safety, and + apprehensive of being left on the hostile shore, the soldiers, who were + too impatient to wait the slow returns of the boats, boldly ventured + themselves on light hurdles, or inflated skins; and, drawing after them + their horses, attempted, with various success, to swim across the river. + Many of these daring adventurers were swallowed by the waves; many others, + who were carried along by the violence of the stream, fell an easy prey to + the avarice or cruelty of the wild Arabs: and the loss which the army + sustained in the passage of the Tigris, was not inferior to the carnage of + a day of battle. As soon as the Romans were landed on the western bank, + they were delivered from the hostile pursuit of the Barbarians; but, in a + laborious march of two hundred miles over the plains of Mesopotamia, they + endured the last extremities of thirst and hunger. They were obliged to + traverse the sandy desert, which, in the extent of seventy miles, did not + afford a single blade of sweet grass, nor a single spring of fresh water; + and the rest of the inhospitable waste was untrod by the footsteps either + of friends or enemies. Whenever a small measure of flour could be + discovered in the camp, twenty pounds weight were greedily purchased with + ten pieces of gold: <a href="#linknote-24.117" name="linknoteref-24.117" + id="linknoteref-24.117">117</a> the beasts of burden were slaughtered and + devoured; and the desert was strewed with the arms and baggage of the + Roman soldiers, whose tattered garments and meagre countenances displayed + their past sufferings and actual misery. A small convoy of provisions + advanced to meet the army as far as the castle of Ur; and the supply was + the more grateful, since it declared the fidelity of Sebastian and + Procopius. At Thilsaphata, <a href="#linknote-24.118" + name="linknoteref-24.118" id="linknoteref-24.118">118</a> the emperor most + graciously received the generals of Mesopotamia; and the remains of a once + flourishing army at length reposed themselves under the walls of Nisibis. + The messengers of Jovian had already proclaimed, in the language of + flattery, his election, his treaty, and his return; and the new prince had + taken the most effectual measures to secure the allegiance of the armies + and provinces of Europe, by placing the military command in the hands of + those officers, who, from motives of interest, or inclination, would + firmly support the cause of their benefactor. <a href="#linknote-24.119" + name="linknoteref-24.119" id="linknoteref-24.119">119</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.116" id="linknote-24.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.116">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Rufinus, + an immediate supply of provisions was stipulated by the treaty, and + Theodoret affirms, that the obligation was faithfully discharged by the + Persians. Such a fact is probable but undoubtedly false. See Tillemont, + Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 702.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.117" id="linknote-24.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.117">return</a>)<br /> [ We may recollect some + lines of Lucan, (Pharsal. iv. 95,) who describes a similar distress of + Cæsar’s army in Spain:— ——Sæva fames aderat—Miles + eget: toto censu non prodigus emit Exiguam Cererem. Proh lucri pallida + tabes! Non deest prolato jejunus venditor auro. See Guichardt (Nouveaux + Mémoires Militaires, tom. i. p. 370-382.) His analysis of the two + campaigns in Spain and Africa is the noblest monument that has ever been + raised to the fame of Cæsar.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.118" id="linknote-24.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.118">return</a>)<br /> [ M. d’Anville (see his + Maps, and l’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 92, 93) traces their march, and + assigns the true position of Hatra, Ur, and Thilsaphata, which Ammianus + has mentioned. ——He does not complain of the Samiel, the + deadly hot wind, which Thevenot (Voyages, part ii. l. i. p. 192) so much + dreaded. ——Hatra, now Kadhr. Ur, Kasr or Skervidgi. + Thilsaphata is unknown—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.119" id="linknote-24.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.119">return</a>)<br /> [ The retreat of Jovian + is described by Ammianus, (xxv. 9,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 143, p. + 365,) and Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 194.)] + </p> + <p> + The friends of Julian had confidently announced the success of his + expedition. They entertained a fond persuasion that the temples of the + gods would be enriched with the spoils of the East; that Persia would be + reduced to the humble state of a tributary province, governed by the laws + and magistrates of Rome; that the Barbarians would adopt the dress, and + manners, and language of their conquerors; and that the youth of Ecbatana + and Susa would study the art of rhetoric under Grecian masters. <a + href="#linknote-24.120" name="linknoteref-24.120" id="linknoteref-24.120">120</a> + The progress of the arms of Julian interrupted his communication with the + empire; and, from the moment that he passed the Tigris, his affectionate + subjects were ignorant of the fate and fortunes of their prince. Their + contemplation of fancied triumphs was disturbed by the melancholy rumor of + his death; and they persisted to doubt, after they could no longer deny, + the truth of that fatal event. <a href="#linknote-24.121" + name="linknoteref-24.121" id="linknoteref-24.121">121</a> The messengers of + Jovian promulgated the specious tale of a prudent and necessary peace; the + voice of fame, louder and more sincere, revealed the disgrace of the + emperor, and the conditions of the ignominious treaty. The minds of the + people were filled with astonishment and grief, with indignation and + terror, when they were informed, that the unworthy successor of Julian + relinquished the five provinces which had been acquired by the victory of + Galerius; and that he shamefully surrendered to the Barbarians the + important city of Nisibis, the firmest bulwark of the provinces of the + East. <a href="#linknote-24.122" name="linknoteref-24.122" + id="linknoteref-24.122">122</a> The deep and dangerous question, how far + the public faith should be observed, when it becomes incompatible with the + public safety, was freely agitated in popular conversation; and some hopes + were entertained that the emperor would redeem his pusillanimous behavior + by a splendid act of patriotic perfidy. The inflexible spirit of the Roman + senate had always disclaimed the unequal conditions which were extorted + from the distress of their captive armies; and, if it were necessary to + satisfy the national honor, by delivering the guilty general into the + hands of the Barbarians, the greatest part of the subjects of Jovian would + have cheerfully acquiesced in the precedent of ancient times. <a + href="#linknote-24.123" name="linknoteref-24.123" id="linknoteref-24.123">123</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.120" id="linknote-24.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.120">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, (Orat. + Parent. c. 145, p. 366.) Such were the natural hopes and wishes of a + rhetorician.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.121" id="linknote-24.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.121">return</a>)<br /> [ The people of + Carrhæ, a city devoted to Paganism, buried the inauspicious messenger + under a pile of stones, (Zosimus, l. iii. p. 196.) Libanius, when he + received the fatal intelligence, cast his eye on his sword; but he + recollected that Plato had condemned suicide, and that he must live to + compose the Panegyric of Julian, (Libanius de Vita sua, tom. ii. p. 45, + 46.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.122" id="linknote-24.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus and + Eutropius may be admitted as fair and credible witnesses of the public + language and opinions. The people of Antioch reviled an ignominious peace, + which exposed them to the Persians, on a naked and defenceless frontier, + (Excerpt. Valesiana, p. 845, ex Johanne Antiocheno.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.123" id="linknote-24.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.123">return</a>)<br /> [ The Abbé de la + Bleterie, (Hist. de Jovien, tom. i. p. 212-227.) though a severe casuist, + has pronounced that Jovian was not bound to execute his promise; since he + <i>could not</i> dismember the empire, nor alienate, without their consent, the + allegiance of his people. I have never found much delight or instruction + in such political metaphysics.] + </p> + <p> + But the emperor, whatever might be the limits of his constitutional + authority, was the absolute master of the laws and arms of the state; and + the same motives which had forced him to subscribe, now pressed him to + execute, the treaty of peace. He was impatient to secure an empire at the + expense of a few provinces; and the respectable names of religion and + honor concealed the personal fears and ambition of Jovian. Notwithstanding + the dutiful solicitations of the inhabitants, decency, as well as + prudence, forbade the emperor to lodge in the palace of Nisibis; but the + next morning after his arrival, Bineses, the ambassador of Persia, entered + the place, displayed from the citadel the standard of the Great King, and + proclaimed, in his name, the cruel alternative of exile or servitude. The + principal citizens of Nisibis, who, till that fatal moment, had confided + in the protection of their sovereign, threw themselves at his feet. They + conjured him not to abandon, or, at least, not to deliver, a faithful + colony to the rage of a Barbarian tyrant, exasperated by the three + successive defeats which he had experienced under the walls of Nisibis. + They still possessed arms and courage to repel the invaders of their + country: they requested only the permission of using them in their own + defence; and, as soon as they had asserted their independence, they should + implore the favor of being again admitted into the ranks of his subjects. + Their arguments, their eloquence, their tears, were ineffectual. Jovian + alleged, with some confusion, the sanctity of oaths; and, as the + reluctance with which he accepted the present of a crown of gold, + convinced the citizens of their hopeless condition, the advocate Sylvanus + was provoked to exclaim, “O emperor! may you thus be crowned by all the + cities of your dominions!” Jovian, who in a few weeks had assumed the + habits of a prince, <a href="#linknote-24.124" name="linknoteref-24.124" + id="linknoteref-24.124">124</a> was displeased with freedom, and offended + with truth: and as he reasonably supposed, that the discontent of the + people might incline them to submit to the Persian government, he + published an edict, under pain of death, that they should leave the city + within the term of three days. Ammianus has delineated in lively colors + the scene of universal despair, which he seems to have viewed with an eye + of compassion. <a href="#linknote-24.125" name="linknoteref-24.125" + id="linknoteref-24.125">125</a> The martial youth deserted, with indignant + grief, the walls which they had so gloriously defended: the disconsolate + mourner dropped a last tear over the tomb of a son or husband, which must + soon be profaned by the rude hand of a Barbarian master; and the aged + citizen kissed the threshold, and clung to the doors, of the house where + he had passed the cheerful and careless hours of infancy. The highways + were crowded with a trembling multitude: the distinctions of rank, and + sex, and age, were lost in the general calamity. Every one strove to bear + away some fragment from the wreck of his fortunes; and as they could not + command the immediate service of an adequate number of horses or wagons, + they were obliged to leave behind them the greatest part of their valuable + effects. The savage insensibility of Jovian appears to have aggravated the + hardships of these unhappy fugitives. They were seated, however, in a + new-built quarter of Amida; and that rising city, with the reenforcement + of a very considerable colony, soon recovered its former splendor, and + became the capital of Mesopotamia. <a href="#linknote-24.126" + name="linknoteref-24.126" id="linknoteref-24.126">126</a> Similar orders + were despatched by the emperor for the evacuation of Singara and the + castle of the Moors; and for the restitution of the five provinces beyond + the Tigris. Sapor enjoyed the glory and the fruits of his victory; and + this ignominious peace has justly been considered as a memorable æra in + the decline and fall of the Roman empire. The predecessors of Jovian had + sometimes relinquished the dominion of distant and unprofitable provinces; + but, since the foundation of the city, the genius of Rome, the god + Terminus, who guarded the boundaries of the republic, had never retired + before the sword of a victorious enemy. <a href="#linknote-24.127" + name="linknoteref-24.127" id="linknoteref-24.127">127</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.124" id="linknote-24.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.124">return</a>)<br /> [ At Nisibis he + performed a <i>royal</i> act. A brave officer, his namesake, who had been thought + worthy of the purple, was dragged from supper, thrown into a well, and + stoned to death without any form of trial or evidence of guilt. Anomian. + xxv. 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.125" id="linknote-24.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.125">return</a>)<br /> [ See xxv. 9, and + Zosimus, l. iii. p. 194, 195.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.126" id="linknote-24.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.126">return</a>)<br /> [ Chron. Paschal. p. + 300. The ecclesiastical Notitiæ may be consulted.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.127" id="linknote-24.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.127">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. iii. p. + 192, 193. Sextus Rufus de Provinciis, c. 29. Augustin de Civitat. Dei, l. + iv. c. 29. This general position must be applied and interpreted with some + caution.] + </p> + <p> + After Jovian had performed those engagements which the voice of his people + might have tempted him to violate, he hastened away from the scene of his + disgrace, and proceeded with his whole court to enjoy the luxury of + Antioch. <a href="#linknote-24.128" name="linknoteref-24.128" + id="linknoteref-24.128">128</a> Without consulting the dictates of + religious zeal, he was prompted, by humanity and gratitude, to bestow the + last honors on the remains of his deceased sovereign: <a + href="#linknote-24.129" name="linknoteref-24.129" id="linknoteref-24.129">129</a> + and Procopius, who sincerely bewailed the loss of his kinsman, was removed + from the command of the army, under the decent pretence of conducting the + funeral. The corpse of Julian was transported from Nisibis to Tarsus, in a + slow march of fifteen days; and, as it passed through the cities of the + East, was saluted by the hostile factions, with mournful lamentations and + clamorous insults. The Pagans already placed their beloved hero in the + rank of those gods whose worship he had restored; while the invectives of + the Christians pursued the soul of the Apostate to hell, and his body to + the grave. <a href="#linknote-24.130" name="linknoteref-24.130" + id="linknoteref-24.130">130</a> One party lamented the approaching ruin of + their altars; the other celebrated the marvellous deliverance of their + church. The Christians applauded, in lofty and ambiguous strains, the + stroke of divine vengeance, which had been so long suspended over the + guilty head of Julian. They acknowledge, that the death of the tyrant, at + the instant he expired beyond the Tigris, was <i>revealed</i> to the saints of + Egypt, Syria, and Cappadocia; <a href="#linknote-24.131" + name="linknoteref-24.131" id="linknoteref-24.131">131</a> and instead of + suffering him to fall by the Persian darts, their indiscretion ascribed + the heroic deed to the obscure hand of some mortal or immortal champion of + the faith. <a href="#linknote-24.132" name="linknoteref-24.132" + id="linknoteref-24.132">132</a> Such imprudent declarations were eagerly + adopted by the malice, or credulity, of their adversaries; <a + href="#linknote-24.133" name="linknoteref-24.133" id="linknoteref-24.133">133</a> + who darkly insinuated, or confidently asserted, that the governors of the + church had instigated and directed the fanaticism of a domestic assassin. + <a href="#linknote-24.134" name="linknoteref-24.134" id="linknoteref-24.134">134</a> + Above sixteen years after the death of Julian, the charge was solemnly and + vehemently urged, in a public oration, addressed by Libanius to the + emperor Theodosius. His suspicions are unsupported by fact or argument; + and we can only esteem the generous zeal of the sophist of Antioch for the + cold and neglected ashes of his friend. <a href="#linknote-24.135" + name="linknoteref-24.135" id="linknoteref-24.135">135</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.128" id="linknote-24.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.128">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xxv. 9. + Zosimus, l. iii. p. 196. He might be edax, vino Venerique indulgens. But I + agree with La Bleterie (tom. i. p. 148-154) in rejecting the foolish + report of a Bacchanalian riot (ap. Suidam) celebrated at Antioch, by the + emperor, his <i>wife</i>, and a troop of concubines.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.129" id="linknote-24.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.129">return</a>)<br /> [ The Abbé de la + Bleterie (tom. i. p. 156-209) handsomely exposes the brutal bigotry of + Baronius, who would have thrown Julian to the dogs, ne cespititia quidem + sepultura dignus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.130" id="linknote-24.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.130">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare the sophist + and the saint, (Libanius, Monod. tom. ii. p. 251, and Orat. Parent. c. + 145, p. 367, c. 156, p. 377, with Gregory Nazianzen, Orat. iv. p. + 125-132.) The Christian orator faintly mutters some exhortations to + modesty and forgiveness; but he is well satisfied, that the real + sufferings of Julian will far exceed the fabulous torments of Ixion or + Tantalus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.131" id="linknote-24.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.131">return</a>)<br /> [ Tillemont (Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 549) has collected these visions. Some saint or + angel was observed to be absent in the night, on a secret expedition, + &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.132" id="linknote-24.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Sozomen (l. vi. 2) + applauds the Greek doctrine of <i>tyrannicide;</i> but the whole passage, which a + Jesuit might have translated, is prudently suppressed by the president + Cousin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.133" id="linknote-24.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.133">return</a>)<br /> [ Immediately after the + death of Julian, an uncertain rumor was scattered, telo cecidisse Romano. + It was carried, by some deserters to the Persian camp; and the Romans were + reproached as the assassins of the emperor by Sapor and his subjects, + (Ammian. xxv. 6. Libanius de ulciscenda Juliani nece, c. xiii. p. 162, + 163.) It was urged, as a decisive proof, that no Persian had appeared to + claim the promised reward, (Liban. Orat. Parent. c. 141, p. 363.) But the + flying horseman, who darted the fatal javelin, might be ignorant of its + effect; or he might be slain in the same action. Ammianus neither feels + nor inspires a suspicion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.134" id="linknote-24.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.134">return</a>)<br /> [ This dark and + ambiguous expression may point to Athanasius, the first, without a rival, + of the Christian clergy, (Libanius de ulcis. Jul. nece, c. 5, p. 149. La + Bleterie, Hist. de Jovien, tom. i. p. 179.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.135" id="linknote-24.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.135">return</a>)<br /> [ The orator + (Fabricius, Bibliot. Græc. tom. vii. p. 145-179) scatters suspicions, + demands an inquiry, and insinuates, that proofs might still be obtained. + He ascribes the success of the Huns to the criminal neglect of revenging + Julian’s death.] + </p> + <p> + It was an ancient custom in the funerals, as well as in the triumphs, of + the Romans, that the voice of praise should be corrected by that of satire + and ridicule; and that, in the midst of the splendid pageants, which + displayed the glory of the living or of the dead, their imperfections + should not be concealed from the eyes of the world. <a + href="#linknote-24.136" name="linknoteref-24.136" id="linknoteref-24.136">136</a> + This custom was practised in the funeral of Julian. The comedians, who + resented his contempt and aversion for the theatre, exhibited, with the + applause of a Christian audience, the lively and exaggerated + representation of the faults and follies of the deceased emperor. His + various character and singular manners afforded an ample scope for + pleasantry and ridicule. <a href="#linknote-24.137" name="linknoteref-24.137" + id="linknoteref-24.137">137</a> In the exercise of his uncommon talents, he + often descended below the majesty of his rank. Alexander was transformed + into Diogenes; the philosopher was degraded into a priest. The purity of + his virtue was sullied by excessive vanity; his superstition disturbed the + peace, and endangered the safety, of a mighty empire; and his irregular + sallies were the less entitled to indulgence, as they appeared to be the + laborious efforts of art, or even of affectation. The remains of Julian + were interred at Tarsus in Cilicia; but his stately tomb, which arose in + that city, on the banks of the cold and limpid Cydnus, <a + href="#linknote-24.138" name="linknoteref-24.138" id="linknoteref-24.138">138</a> + was displeasing to the faithful friends, who loved and revered the memory + of that extraordinary man. The philosopher expressed a very reasonable + wish, that the disciple of Plato might have reposed amidst the groves of + the academy; <a href="#linknote-24.139" name="linknoteref-24.139" + id="linknoteref-24.139">139</a> while the soldier exclaimed, in bolder + accents, that the ashes of Julian should have been mingled with those of + Cæsar, in the field of Mars, and among the ancient monuments of Roman + virtue. <a href="#linknote-24.140" name="linknoteref-24.140" + id="linknoteref-24.140">140</a> The history of princes does not very + frequently renew the examples of a similar competition. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.136" id="linknote-24.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.136">return</a>)<br /> [ At the funeral of + Vespasian, the comedian who personated that frugal emperor, anxiously + inquired how much it cost. Fourscore thousand pounds, (centies.) Give me + the tenth part of the sum, and throw my body into the Tiber. Sueton, in + Vespasian, c. 19, with the notes of Casaubon and Gronovius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.137" id="linknote-24.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.137">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory (Orat. iv. p. + 119, 120) compares this supposed ignominy and ridicule to the funeral + honors of Constantius, whose body was chanted over Mount Taurus by a choir + of angels.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.138" id="linknote-24.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.138">return</a>)<br /> [ Quintus Curtius, l. + iii. c. 4. The luxuriancy of his descriptions has been often censured. Yet + it was almost the duty of the historian to describe a river, whose waters + had nearly proved fatal to Alexander.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.139" id="linknote-24.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.139">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. + Parent. c. 156, p. 377. Yet he acknowledges with gratitude the liberality + of the two royal brothers in decorating the tomb of Julian, (de ulcis. + Jul. nece, c. 7, p. 152.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-24.140" id="linknote-24.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-24.140">return</a>)<br /> [ Cujus suprema et + cineres, si qui tunc juste consuleret, non Cydnus videre deberet, quamvis + gratissimus amnis et liquidus: sed ad perpetuandam gloriam recte factorum + præterlambere Tiberis, intersecans urbem æternam, divorumque veterum + monumenta præstringens Ammian. xxv. 10.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap25.1"></a> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Government And Death Of Jovian.—Election Of + Valentinian, Who Associates His Brother Valens, And Makes + The Final Division Of The Eastern And Western Empires.— + Revolt Of Procopius.—Civil And Ecclesiastical + Administration.—Germany. —Britain.—Africa.—The East.— + The Danube.—Death Of Valentinian.—His Two Sons, Gratian + And Valentinian II., Succeed To The Western Empire. +</pre> + <p> + The death of Julian had left the public affairs of the empire in a very + doubtful and dangerous situation. The Roman army was saved by an + inglorious, perhaps a necessary treaty; <a href="#linknote-25.1" + name="linknoteref-25.1" id="linknoteref-25.1">1</a> and the first moments of + peace were consecrated by the pious Jovian to restore the domestic + tranquility of the church and state. The indiscretion of his predecessor, + instead of reconciling, had artfully fomented the religious war: and the + balance which he affected to preserve between the hostile factions, served + only to perpetuate the contest, by the vicissitudes of hope and fear, by + the rival claims of ancient possession and actual favor. The Christians + had forgotten the spirit of the gospel; and the Pagans had imbibed the + spirit of the church. In private families, the sentiments of nature were + extinguished by the blind fury of zeal and revenge: the majesty of the + laws was violated or abused; the cities of the East were stained with + blood; and the most implacable enemies of the Romans were in the bosom of + their country. Jovian was educated in the profession of Christianity; and + as he marched from Nisibis to Antioch, the banner of the Cross, the + Labarum of Constantine, which was again displayed at the head of the + legions, announced to the people the faith of their new emperor. As soon + as he ascended the throne, he transmitted a circular epistle to all the + governors of provinces; in which he confessed the divine truth, and + secured the legal establishment, of the Christian religion. The insidious + edicts of Julian were abolished; the ecclesiastical immunities were + restored and enlarged; and Jovian condescended to lament, that the + distress of the times obliged him to diminish the measure of charitable + distributions. <a href="#linknote-25.2" name="linknoteref-25.2" + id="linknoteref-25.2">2</a> The Christians were unanimous in the loud and + sincere applause which they bestowed on the pious successor of Julian. But + they were still ignorant what creed, or what synod, he would choose for + the standard of orthodoxy; and the peace of the church immediately revived + those eager disputes which had been suspended during the season of + persecution. The episcopal leaders of the contending sects, convinced, + from experience, how much their fate would depend on the earliest + impressions that were made on the mind of an untutored soldier, hastened + to the court of Edessa, or Antioch. The highways of the East were crowded + with Homoousian, and Arian, and Semi-Arian, and Eunomian bishops, who + struggled to outstrip each other in the holy race: the apartments of the + palace resounded with their clamors; and the ears of the prince were + assaulted, and perhaps astonished, by the singular mixture of metaphysical + argument and passionate invective. <a href="#linknote-25.3" + name="linknoteref-25.3" id="linknoteref-25.3">3</a> The moderation of + Jovian, who recommended concord and charity, and referred the disputants + to the sentence of a future council, was interpreted as a symptom of + indifference: but his attachment to the Nicene creed was at length + discovered and declared, by the reverence which he expressed for the + <i>celestial</i> <a href="#linknote-25.4" name="linknoteref-25.4" + id="linknoteref-25.4">4</a> virtues of the great Athanasius. The intrepid + veteran of the faith, at the age of seventy, had issued from his retreat + on the first intelligence of the tyrant’s death. The acclamations of the + people seated him once more on the archiepiscopal throne; and he wisely + accepted, or anticipated, the invitation of Jovian. The venerable figure + of Athanasius, his calm courage, and insinuating eloquence, sustained the + reputation which he had already acquired in the courts of four successive + princes. <a href="#linknote-25.5" name="linknoteref-25.5" + id="linknoteref-25.5">5</a> As soon as he had gained the confidence, and + secured the faith, of the Christian emperor, he returned in triumph to his + diocese, and continued, with mature counsels and undiminished vigor, to + direct, ten years longer, <a href="#linknote-25.6" name="linknoteref-25.6" + id="linknoteref-25.6">6</a> the ecclesiastical government of Alexandria, + Egypt, and the Catholic church. Before his departure from Antioch, he + assured Jovian that his orthodox devotion would be rewarded with a long + and peaceful reign. Athanasius, had reason to hope, that he should be + allowed either the merit of a successful prediction, or the excuse of a + grateful though ineffectual prayer. <a href="#linknote-25.7" + name="linknoteref-25.7" id="linknoteref-25.7">7</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.1" id="linknote-25.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.1">return</a>)<br /> [ The medals of Jovian + adorn him with victories, laurel crowns, and prostrate captives. Ducange, + Famil. Byzantin. p. 52. Flattery is a foolish suicide; she destroys + herself with her own hands.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.2" id="linknote-25.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.2">return</a>)<br /> [ Jovian restored to the + church a forcible and comprehensive expression, (Philostorgius, l. viii. + c. 5, with Godefroy’s Dissertations, p. 329. Sozomen, l. vi. c. 3.) The + new law which condemned the rape or marriage of nuns (Cod. Theod. l. ix. + tit. xxv. leg. 2) is exaggerated by Sozomen; who supposes, that an amorous + glance, the adultery of the heart, was punished with death by the + evangelic legislator.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.3" id="linknote-25.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Socrates, l. iii. + c. 25, and Philostorgius, l. viii. c. 6, with Godefroy’s Dissertations, p. + 330.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.4" id="linknote-25.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.4">return</a>)<br /> [ The word <i>celestial</i> + faintly expresses the impious and extravagant flattery of the emperor to + the archbishop. (See the original epistle in Athanasius, tom. ii. p. 33.) + Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. xxi. p. 392) celebrates the friendship of Jovian + and Athanasius. The primate’s journey was advised by the Egyptian monks, + (Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 221.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.5" id="linknote-25.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.5">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius, at the court + of Antioch, is agreeably represented by La Bleterie, (Hist. de Jovien, + tom. i. p. 121-148;) he translates the singular and original conferences + of the emperor, the primate of Egypt, and the Arian deputies. The Abbé is + not satisfied with the coarse pleasantry of Jovian; but his partiality for + Athanasius assumes, in <i>his</i> eyes, the character of justice.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.6" id="linknote-25.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.6">return</a>)<br /> [ The true area of his + death is perplexed with some difficulties, (Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. + viii. p. 719-723.) But the date (A. D. 373, May 2) which seems the most + consistent with history and reason, is ratified by his authentic life, + (Maffei Osservazioni Letterarie, tom. iii. p. 81.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.7" id="linknote-25.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.7">return</a>)<br /> [ See the observations of + Valesius and Jortin (Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. iv. p. 38) on + the original letter of Athanasius; which is preserved by Theodoret, (l. + iv. c. 3.) In some Mss. this indiscreet promise is omitted; perhaps by the + Catholics, jealous of the prophetic fame of their leader.] + </p> + <p> + The slightest force, when it is applied to assist and guide the natural + descent of its object, operates with irresistible weight; and Jovian had + the good fortune to embrace the religious opinions which were supported by + the spirit of the times, and the zeal and numbers of the most powerful + sect. <a href="#linknote-25.8" name="linknoteref-25.8" id="linknoteref-25.8">8</a> + Under his reign, Christianity obtained an easy and lasting victory; and as + soon as the smile of royal patronage was withdrawn, the genius of + Paganism, which had been fondly raised and cherished by the arts of + Julian, sunk irrecoverably in the. In many cities, the temples were shut + or deserted: the philosophers who had abused their transient favor, + thought it prudent to shave their beards, and disguise their profession; + and the Christians rejoiced, that they were now in a condition to forgive, + or to revenge, the injuries which they had suffered under the preceding + reign. <a href="#linknote-25.9" name="linknoteref-25.9" id="linknoteref-25.9">9</a> + The consternation of the Pagan world was dispelled by a wise and gracious + edict of toleration; in which Jovian explicitly declared, that although he + should severely punish the sacrilegious rites of magic, his subjects might + exercise, with freedom and safety, the ceremonies of the ancient worship. + The memory of this law has been preserved by the orator Themistius, who + was deputed by the senate of Constantinople to express their royal + devotion for the new emperor. Themistius expatiates on the clemency of the + Divine Nature, the facility of human error, the rights of conscience, and + the independence of the mind; and, with some eloquence, inculcates the + principles of philosophical toleration; whose aid Superstition herself, in + the hour of her distress, is not ashamed to implore. He justly observes, + that in the recent changes, both religions had been alternately disgraced + by the seeming acquisition of worthless proselytes, of those votaries of + the reigning purple, who could pass, without a reason, and without a + blush, from the church to the temple, and from the altars of Jupiter to + the sacred table of the Christians. <a href="#linknote-25.10" + name="linknoteref-25.10" id="linknoteref-25.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.8" id="linknote-25.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Athanasius (apud + Theodoret, l. iv. c. 3) magnifies the number of the orthodox, who composed + the whole world. This assertion was verified in the space of thirty and + forty years.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.9" id="linknote-25.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates, l. iii. c. 24. + Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. iv. p. 131) and Libanius (Orat. Parentalis, c. + 148, p. 369) expresses the <i>living</i> sentiments of their respective + factions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.10" id="linknote-25.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.10">return</a>)<br /> [ Themistius, Orat. v. p. + 63-71, edit. Harduin, Paris, 1684. The Abbé de la Bleterie judiciously + remarks, (Hist. de Jovien, tom. i. p. 199,) that Sozomen has forgot the + general toleration; and Themistius the establishment of the Catholic + religion. Each of them turned away from the object which he disliked, and + wished to suppress the part of the edict the least honorable, in his + opinion, to the emperor.] + </p> + <p> + In the space of seven months, the Roman troops, who were now returned to + Antioch, had performed a march of fifteen hundred miles; in which they had + endured all the hardships of war, of famine, and of climate. + Notwithstanding their services, their fatigues, and the approach of + winter, the timid and impatient Jovian allowed only, to the men and + horses, a respite of six weeks. The emperor could not sustain the + indiscreet and malicious raillery of the people of Antioch. <a + href="#linknote-25.11" name="linknoteref-25.11" id="linknoteref-25.11">11</a> + He was impatient to possess the palace of Constantinople; and to prevent + the ambition of some competitor, who might occupy the vacant allegiance of + Europe. But he soon received the grateful intelligence, that his authority + was acknowledged from the Thracian Bosphorus to the Atlantic Ocean. By the + first letters which he despatched from the camp of Mesopotamia, he had + delegated the military command of Gaul and Illyricum to Malarich, a brave + and faithful officer of the nation of the Franks; and to his + father-in-law, Count Lucillian, who had formerly distinguished his courage + and conduct in the defence of Nisibis. Malarich had declined an office to + which he thought himself unequal; and Lucillian was massacred at Rheims, + in an accidental mutiny of the Batavian cohorts. <a href="#linknote-25.12" + name="linknoteref-25.12" id="linknoteref-25.12">12</a> But the moderation of + Jovinus, master-general of the cavalry, who forgave the intention of his + disgrace, soon appeased the tumult, and confirmed the uncertain minds of + the soldiers. The oath of fidelity was administered and taken, with loyal + acclamations; and the deputies of the Western armies <a + href="#linknote-25.13" name="linknoteref-25.13" id="linknoteref-25.13">13</a> + saluted their new sovereign as he descended from Mount Taurus to the city + of Tyana in Cappadocia. From Tyana he continued his hasty march to Ancyra, + capital of the province of Galatia; where Jovian assumed, with his infant + son, the name and ensigns of the consulship. <a href="#linknote-25.14" + name="linknoteref-25.14" id="linknoteref-25.14">14</a> Dadastana, <a + href="#linknote-25.15" name="linknoteref-25.15" id="linknoteref-25.15">15</a> + an obscure town, almost at an equal distance between Ancyra and Nice, was + marked for the fatal term of his journey and life. After indulging himself + with a plentiful, perhaps an intemperate, supper, he retired to rest; and + the next morning the emperor Jovian was found dead in his bed. The cause + of this sudden death was variously understood. By some it was ascribed to + the consequences of an indigestion, occasioned either by the quantity of + the wine, or the quality of the mushrooms, which he had swallowed in the + evening. According to others, he was suffocated in his sleep by the vapor + of charcoal, which extracted from the walls of the apartment the + unwholesome moisture of the fresh plaster. <a href="#linknote-25.16" + name="linknoteref-25.16" id="linknoteref-25.16">16</a> But the want of a + regular inquiry into the death of a prince, whose reign and person were + soon forgotten, appears to have been the only circumstance which + countenanced the malicious whispers of poison and domestic guilt. <a + href="#linknote-25.17" name="linknoteref-25.17" id="linknoteref-25.17">17</a> + The body of Jovian was sent to Constantinople, to be interred with his + predecessors, and the sad procession was met on the road by his wife + Charito, the daughter of Count Lucillian; who still wept the recent death + of her father, and was hastening to dry her tears in the embraces of an + Imperial husband. Her disappointment and grief were imbittered by the + anxiety of maternal tenderness. Six weeks before the death of Jovian, his + infant son had been placed in the curule chair, adorned with the title of + <i>Nobilissimus</i>, and the vain ensigns of the consulship. Unconscious of his + fortune, the royal youth, who, from his grandfather, assumed the name of + Varronian, was reminded only by the jealousy of the government, that he + was the son of an emperor. Sixteen years afterwards he was still alive, + but he had already been deprived of an eye; and his afflicted mother + expected every hour, that the innocent victim would be torn from her arms, + to appease, with his blood, the suspicions of the reigning prince. <a + href="#linknote-25.18" name="linknoteref-25.18" id="linknoteref-25.18">18</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.11" id="linknote-25.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Johan. Antiochen. in + Excerpt. Valesian. p. 845. The libels of Antioch may be admitted on very + slight evidence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.12" id="linknote-25.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.12">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Ammianus, (xxv. + 10,) who omits the name of the Batarians, with Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 197,) + who removes the scene of action from Rheims to Sirmium.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.13" id="linknote-25.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.13">return</a>)<br /> [ Quos capita scholarum + ordo castrensis appellat. Ammian. xxv. 10, and Vales. ad locum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.14" id="linknote-25.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Cugus vagitus, + pertinaciter reluctantis, ne in curuli sella veheretur ex more, id quod + mox accidit protendebat. Augustus and his successors respectfully + solicited a dispensation of age for the sons or nephews whom they raised + to the consulship. But the curule chair of the first Brutus had never been + dishonored by an infant.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.15" id="linknote-25.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.15">return</a>)<br /> [ The Itinerary of + Antoninus fixes Dadastana 125 Roman miles from Nice; 117 from Ancyra, + (Wesseling, Itinerar. p. 142.) The pilgrim of Bourdeaux, by omitting some + stages, reduces the whole space from 242 to 181 miles. Wesseling, p. 574. + * Note: Dadastana is supposed to be Castabat.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.16" id="linknote-25.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.16">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammianus, (xxv. + 10,) Eutropius, (x. 18.) who might likewise be present, Jerom, (tom. i. p. + 26, ad Heliodorum.) Orosius, (vii. 31,) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. 6,) Zosimus, + (l. iii. p. 197, 198,) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 28, 29.) We + cannot expect a perfect agreement, and we shall not discuss minute + differences.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.17" id="linknote-25.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, unmindful of + his usual candor and good sense, compares the death of the harmless Jovian + to that of the second Africanus, who had excited the fears and resentment + of the popular faction.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.18" id="linknote-25.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Chrysostom, tom. i. p. + 336, 344, edit. Montfaucon. The Christian orator attempts to comfort a + widow by the examples of illustrious misfortunes; and observes, that of + nine emperors (including the Cæsar Gallus) who had reigned in his time, + only two (Constantine and Constantius) died a natural death. Such vague + consolations have never wiped away a single tear.] + </p> + <p> + After the death of Jovian, the throne of the Roman world remained ten + days, <a href="#linknote-25.19" name="linknoteref-25.19" + id="linknoteref-25.19">19</a> without a master. The ministers and generals + still continued to meet in council; to exercise their respective + functions; to maintain the public order; and peaceably to conduct the army + to the city of Nice in Bithynia, which was chosen for the place of the + election. <a href="#linknote-25.20" name="linknoteref-25.20" + id="linknoteref-25.20">20</a> In a solemn assembly of the civil and + military powers of the empire, the diadem was again unanimously offered to + the præfect Sallust. He enjoyed the glory of a second refusal: and when + the virtues of the father were alleged in favor of his son, the præfect, + with the firmness of a disinterested patriot, declared to the electors, + that the feeble age of the one, and the unexperienced youth of the other, + were equally incapable of the laborious duties of government. Several + candidates were proposed; and, after weighing the objections of character + or situation, they were successively rejected; but, as soon as the name of + Valentinian was pronounced, the merit of that officer united the suffrages + of the whole assembly, and obtained the sincere approbation of Sallust + himself. Valentinian <a href="#linknote-25.21" name="linknoteref-25.21" + id="linknoteref-25.21">21</a> was the son of Count Gratian, a native of + Cibalis, in Pannonia, who from an obscure condition had raised himself, by + matchless strength and dexterity, to the military commands of Africa and + Britain; from which he retired with an ample fortune and suspicious + integrity. The rank and services of Gratian contributed, however, to + smooth the first steps of the promotion of his son; and afforded him an + early opportunity of displaying those solid and useful qualifications, + which raised his character above the ordinary level of his + fellow-soldiers. The person of Valentinian was tall, graceful, and + majestic. His manly countenance, deeply marked with the impression of + sense and spirit, inspired his friends with awe, and his enemies with + fear; and to second the efforts of his undaunted courage, the son of + Gratian had inherited the advantages of a strong and healthy constitution. + By the habits of chastity and temperance, which restrain the appetites and + invigorate the faculties, Valentinian preserved his own and the public + esteem. The avocations of a military life had diverted his youth from the + elegant pursuits of literature; <a href="#linknote-25.2111" + name="linknoteref-25.2111" id="linknoteref-25.2111">2111</a> he was ignorant + of the Greek language, and the arts of rhetoric; but as the mind of the + orator was never disconcerted by timid perplexity, he was able, as often + as the occasion prompted him, to deliver his decided sentiments with bold + and ready elocution. The laws of martial discipline were the only laws + that he had studied; and he was soon distinguished by the laborious + diligence, and inflexible severity, with which he discharged and enforced + the duties of the camp. In the time of Julian he provoked the danger of + disgrace, by the contempt which he publicly expressed for the reigning + religion; <a href="#linknote-25.22" name="linknoteref-25.22" + id="linknoteref-25.22">22</a> and it should seem, from his subsequent + conduct, that the indiscreet and unseasonable freedom of Valentinian was + the effect of military spirit, rather than of Christian zeal. He was + pardoned, however, and still employed by a prince who esteemed his merit; + <a href="#linknote-25.23" name="linknoteref-25.23" id="linknoteref-25.23">23</a> + and in the various events of the Persian war, he improved the reputation + which he had already acquired on the banks of the Rhine. The celerity and + success with which he executed an important commission, recommended him to + the favor of Jovian; and to the honorable command of the second <i>school</i>, or + company, of Targetiers, of the domestic guards. In the march from Antioch, + he had reached his quarters at Ancyra, when he was unexpectedly summoned, + without guilt and without intrigue, to assume, in the forty-third year of + his age, the absolute government of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.19" id="linknote-25.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Ten days appear + scarcely sufficient for the march and election. But it may be observed, 1. + That the generals might command the expeditious use of the public posts + for themselves, their attendants, and messengers. 2. That the troops, for + the ease of the cities, marched in many divisions; and that the head of + the column might arrive at Nice, when the rear halted at Ancyra.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.20" id="linknote-25.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xxvi. 1. + Zosimus, l. iii. p. 198. Philostorgius, l. viii. c. 8, and Godefroy, + Dissertat. p. 334. Philostorgius, who appears to have obtained some + curious and authentic intelligence, ascribes the choice of Valentinian to + the præfect Sallust, the master-general Arintheus, Dagalaiphus count of + the domestics, and the patrician Datianus, whose pressing recommendations + from Ancyra had a weighty influence in the election.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.21" id="linknote-25.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxx. 7, 9) + and the younger Victor have furnished the portrait of Valentinian, which + naturally precedes and illustrates the history of his reign. * Note: + Symmachus, in a fragment of an oration published by M. Mai, describes + Valentinian as born among the snows of Illyria, and habituated to military + labor amid the heat and dust of Libya: genitus in frigoribus, educatus is + solibus Sym. Orat. Frag. edit. Niebuhr, p. 5.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.2111" id="linknote-25.2111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2111 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.2111">return</a>)<br /> [ According to + Ammianus, he wrote elegantly, and was skilled in painting and modelling. + Scribens decore, venusteque pingens et fingens. xxx. 7.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.22" id="linknote-25.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.22">return</a>)<br /> [ At Antioch, where he + was obliged to attend the emperor to the table, he struck a priest, who + had presumed to purify him with lustral water, (Sozomen, l. vi. c. 6. + Theodoret, l. iii. c. 15.) Such public defiance might become Valentinian; + but it could leave no room for the unworthy delation of the philosopher + Maximus, which supposes some more private offence, (Zosimus, l. iv. p. + 200, 201.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.23" id="linknote-25.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.23">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates, l. iv. A + previous exile to Melitene, or Thebais (the first might be possible,) is + interposed by Sozomen (l. vi. c. 6) and Philostorgius, (l. vii. c. 7, with + Godefroy’s Dissertations, p. 293.)] + </p> + <p> + The invitation of the ministers and generals at Nice was of little moment, + unless it were confirmed by the voice of the army. + </p> + <p> + The aged Sallust, who had long observed the irregular fluctuations of + popular assemblies, proposed, under pain of death, that none of those + persons, whose rank in the service might excite a party in their favor, + should appear in public on the day of the inauguration. Yet such was the + prevalence of ancient superstition, that a whole day was voluntarily added + to this dangerous interval, because it happened to be the intercalation of + the Bissextile. <a href="#linknote-25.24" name="linknoteref-25.24" + id="linknoteref-25.24">24</a> At length, when the hour was supposed to be + propitious, Valentinian showed himself from a lofty tribunal; the + judicious choice was applauded; and the new prince was solemnly invested + with the diadem and the purple, amidst the acclamation of the troops, who + were disposed in martial order round the tribunal. But when he stretched + forth his hand to address the armed multitude, a busy whisper was + accidentally started in the ranks, and insensibly swelled into a loud and + imperious clamor, that he should name, without delay, a colleague in the + empire. The intrepid calmness of Valentinian obtained silence, and + commanded respect; and he thus addressed the assembly: “A few minutes + since it was in <i>your</i> power, fellow-soldiers, to have left me in the + obscurity of a private station. Judging, from the testimony of my past + life, that I deserved to reign, you have placed me on the throne. It is + now <i>my</i> duty to consult the safety and interest of the republic. The weight + of the universe is undoubtedly too great for the hands of a feeble mortal. + I am conscious of the limits of my abilities, and the uncertainty of my + life; and far from declining, I am anxious to solicit, the assistance of a + worthy colleague. But, where discord may be fatal, the choice of a + faithful friend requires mature and serious deliberation. That + deliberation shall be <i>my</i> care. Let <i>your</i> conduct be dutiful and consistent. + Retire to your quarters; refresh your minds and bodies; and expect the + accustomed donative on the accession of a new emperor.” <a + href="#linknote-25.25" name="linknoteref-25.25" id="linknoteref-25.25">25</a> + The astonished troops, with a mixture of pride, of satisfaction, and of + terror, confessed the voice of their master. + </p> + <p> + Their angry clamors subsided into silent reverence; and Valentinian, + encompassed with the eagles of the legions, and the various banners of the + cavalry and infantry, was conducted, in warlike pomp, to the palace of + Nice. As he was sensible, however, of the importance of preventing some + rash declaration of the soldiers, he consulted the assembly of the chiefs; + and their real sentiments were concisely expressed by the generous freedom + of Dagalaiphus. “Most excellent prince,” said that officer, “if you + consider only your family, you have a brother; if you love the republic, + look round for the most deserving of the Romans.” <a href="#linknote-25.26" + name="linknoteref-25.26" id="linknoteref-25.26">26</a> The emperor, who + suppressed his displeasure, without altering his intention, slowly + proceeded from Nice to Nicomedia and Constantinople. In one of the suburbs + of that capital, <a href="#linknote-25.27" name="linknoteref-25.27" + id="linknoteref-25.27">27</a> thirty days after his own elevation, he + bestowed the title of Augustus on his brother Valens; <a + href="#linknote-25.2711" name="linknoteref-25.2711" id="linknoteref-25.2711">2711</a> + and as the boldest patriots were convinced, that their opposition, without + being serviceable to their country, would be fatal to themselves, the + declaration of his absolute will was received with silent submission. + Valens was now in the thirty-sixth year of his age; but his abilities had + never been exercised in any employment, military or civil; and his + character had not inspired the world with any sanguine expectations. He + possessed, however, one quality, which recommended him to Valentinian, and + preserved the domestic peace of the empire; devout and grateful attachment + to his benefactor, whose superiority of genius, as well as of authority, + Valens humbly and cheerfully acknowledged in every action of his life. <a + href="#linknote-25.28" name="linknoteref-25.28" id="linknoteref-25.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.24" id="linknote-25.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, in a long, + because unseasonable, digression, (xxvi. l, and Valesius, ad locum,) + rashly supposes that he understands an astronomical question, of which his + readers are ignorant. It is treated with more judgment and propriety by + Censorinus (de Die Natali, c. 20) and Macrobius, (Saturnal. i. c. 12-16.) + The appellation of <i>Bissextile</i>, which marks the inauspicious year, + (Augustin. ad Januarium, Epist. 119,) is derived from the <i>repetition</i> of + the <i>sixth</i> day of the calends of March.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.25" id="linknote-25.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Valentinian’s first + speech is in Ammianus, (xxvi. 2;) concise and sententious in + Philostorgius, (l. viii. c. 8.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.26" id="linknote-25.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Si tuos amas, Imperator + optime, habes fratrem; si Rempublicam quære quem vestias. Ammian. xxvi. + 4. In the division of the empire, Valentinian retained that sincere + counsellor for himself, (c.6.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.27" id="linknote-25.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.27">return</a>)<br /> [ In suburbano, Ammian. + xxvi. 4. The famous <i>Hebdomon</i>, or field of Mars, was distant from + Constantinople either seven stadia, or seven miles. See Valesius, and his + brother, ad loc., and Ducange, Const. l. ii. p. 140, 141, 172, 173.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.2711" id="linknote-25.2711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2711 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.2711">return</a>)<br /> [ Symmachus praises + the liberality of Valentinian in raising his brother at once to the rank + of Augustus, not training him through the slow and probationary degree of + Cæsar. Exigui animi vices munerum partiuntur, liberalitas desideriis + nihil reliquit. Symm. Orat. p. 7. edit. Niebuhr, 1816, reprinted from Mai.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.28" id="linknote-25.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Participem quidem + legitimum potestatis; sed in modum apparitoris morigerum, ut progrediens + aperiet textus. Ammian. xxvi. 4.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap25.2"></a> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + Before Valentinian divided the provinces, he reformed the administration + of the empire. All ranks of subjects, who had been injured or oppressed + under the reign of Julian, were invited to support their public + accusations. The silence of mankind attested the spotless integrity of the + præfect Sallust; <a href="#linknote-25.29" name="linknoteref-25.29" + id="linknoteref-25.29">29</a> and his own pressing solicitations, that he + might be permitted to retire from the business of the state, were rejected + by Valentinian with the most honorable expressions of friendship and + esteem. But among the favorites of the late emperor, there were many who + had abused his credulity or superstition; and who could no longer hope to + be protected either by favor or justice. <a href="#linknote-25.30" + name="linknoteref-25.30" id="linknoteref-25.30">30</a> The greater part of + the ministers of the palace, and the governors of the provinces, were + removed from their respective stations; yet the eminent merit of some + officers was distinguished from the obnoxious crowd; and, notwithstanding + the opposite clamors of zeal and resentment, the whole proceedings of this + delicate inquiry appear to have been conducted with a reasonable share of + wisdom and moderation. <a href="#linknote-25.31" name="linknoteref-25.31" + id="linknoteref-25.31">31</a> The festivity of a new reign received a short + and suspicious interruption from the sudden illness of the two princes; + but as soon as their health was restored, they left Constantinople in the + beginning of the spring. In the castle, or palace, of Mediana, only three + miles from Naissus, they executed the solemn and final division of the + Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-25.32" name="linknoteref-25.32" + id="linknoteref-25.32">32</a> Valentinian bestowed on his brother the rich + præfecture of the <i>East</i>, from the Lower Danube to the confines of Persia; + whilst he reserved for his immediate government the warlike <a + href="#linknote-25.3211" name="linknoteref-25.3211" id="linknoteref-25.3211">3211</a> + præfectures of <i>Illyricum, Italy</i>, and <i>Gaul</i>, from the extremity of Greece + to the Caledonian rampart, and from the rampart of Caledonia to the foot + of Mount Atlas. The provincial administration remained on its former + basis; but a double supply of generals and magistrates was required for + two councils, and two courts: the division was made with a just regard to + their peculiar merit and situation, and seven master-generals were soon + created, either of the cavalry or infantry. When this important business + had been amicably transacted, Valentinian and Valens embraced for the last + time. The emperor of the West established his temporary residence at + Milan; and the emperor of the East returned to Constantinople, to assume + the dominion of fifty provinces, of whose language he was totally + ignorant. <a href="#linknote-25.33" name="linknoteref-25.33" + id="linknoteref-25.33">33</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.29" id="linknote-25.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Notwithstanding the + evidence of Zonaras, Suidas, and the Paschal Chronicle, M. de Tillemont + (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 671) <i>wishes</i> to disbelieve those stories, + si avantageuses à un payen.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.30" id="linknote-25.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius celebrates and + exaggerates the sufferings of Maximus. (p. 82, 83;) yet he allows that the + sophist or magician, the guilty favorite of Julian, and the personal enemy + of Valentinian, was dismissed on the payment of a small fine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.31" id="linknote-25.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.31">return</a>)<br /> [ The loose assertions of + a general disgrace (Zosimus, l. iv. p. 201), are detected and refuted by + Tillemont, (tom. v. p. 21.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.32" id="linknote-25.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.32">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xxvi. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.3211" id="linknote-25.3211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3211 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.3211">return</a>)<br /> [ Ipse supra impacati + Rhen semibarbaras ripas raptim vexilla constituens * * Princeps creatus ad + difficilem militiam revertisti. Symm. Orat. 81.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.33" id="linknote-25.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus says, in + general terms, subagrestis ingenii, nec bellicis nec liberalibus studiis + eruditus. Ammian. xxxi. 14. The orator Themistius, with the genuine + impertinence of a Greek, wishes for the first time to speak the Latin + language, the dialect of his sovereign. Orat. vi. p. 71.] + </p> + <p> + The tranquility of the East was soon disturbed by rebellion; and the + throne of Valens was threatened by the daring attempts of a rival whose + affinity to the emperor Julian <a href="#linknote-25.34" + name="linknoteref-25.34" id="linknoteref-25.34">34</a> was his sole merit, + and had been his only crime. Procopius had been hastily promoted from the + obscure station of a tribune, and a notary, to the joint command of the + army of Mesopotamia; the public opinion already named him as the successor + of a prince who was destitute of natural heirs; and a vain rumor was + propagated by his friends, or his enemies, that Julian, before the altar + of the Moon at Carrhæ, had privately invested Procopius with the Imperial + purple. <a href="#linknote-25.35" name="linknoteref-25.35" + id="linknoteref-25.35">35</a> He endeavored, by his dutiful and submissive + behavior, to disarm the jealousy of Jovian; resigned, without a contest, + his military command; and retired, with his wife and family, to cultivate + the ample patrimony which he possessed in the province of Cappadocia. + These useful and innocent occupations were interrupted by the appearance + of an officer with a band of soldiers, who, in the name of his new + sovereigns, Valentinian and Valens, was despatched to conduct the + unfortunate Procopius either to a perpetual prison or an ignominious + death. His presence of mind procured him a longer respite, and a more + splendid fate. Without presuming to dispute the royal mandate, he + requested the indulgence of a few moments to embrace his weeping family; + and while the vigilance of his guards was relaxed by a plentiful + entertainment, he dexterously escaped to the sea-coast of the Euxine, from + whence he passed over to the country of Bosphorus. In that sequestered + region he remained many months, exposed to the hardships of exile, of + solitude, and of want; his melancholy temper brooding over his + misfortunes, and his mind agitated by the just apprehension, that, if any + accident should discover his name, the faithless Barbarians would violate, + without much scruple, the laws of hospitality. In a moment of impatience + and despair, Procopius embarked in a merchant vessel, which made sail for + Constantinople; and boldly aspired to the rank of a sovereign, because he + was not allowed to enjoy the security of a subject. At first he lurked in + the villages of Bithynia, continually changing his habitation and his + disguise. <a href="#linknote-25.36" name="linknoteref-25.36" + id="linknoteref-25.36">36</a> By degrees he ventured into the capital, + trusted his life and fortune to the fidelity of two friends, a senator and + a eunuch, and conceived some hopes of success, from the intelligence which + he obtained of the actual state of public affairs. The body of the people + was infected with a spirit of discontent: they regretted the justice and + the abilities of Sallust, who had been imprudently dismissed from the + præfecture of the East. They despised the character of Valens, which was + rude without vigor, and feeble without mildness. They dreaded the + influence of his father-in-law, the patrician Petronius, a cruel and + rapacious minister, who rigorously exacted all the arrears of tribute that + might remain unpaid since the reign of the emperor Aurelian. The + circumstances were propitious to the designs of a usurper. The hostile + measures of the Persians required the presence of Valens in Syria: from + the Danube to the Euphrates the troops were in motion; and the capital was + occasionally filled with the soldiers who passed or repassed the Thracian + Bosphorus. Two cohorts of Gaul were persuaded to listen to the secret + proposals of the conspirators; which were recommended by the promise of a + liberal donative; and, as they still revered the memory of Julian, they + easily consented to support the hereditary claim of his proscribed + kinsman. At the dawn of day they were drawn up near the baths of + Anastasia; and Procopius, clothed in a purple garment, more suitable to a + player than to a monarch, appeared, as if he rose from the dead, in the + midst of Constantinople. The soldiers, who were prepared for his + reception, saluted their trembling prince with shouts of joy and vows of + fidelity. Their numbers were soon increased by a band of sturdy peasants, + collected from the adjacent country; and Procopius, shielded by the arms + of his adherents, was successively conducted to the tribunal, the senate, + and the palace. During the first moments of his tumultuous reign, he was + astonished and terrified by the gloomy silence of the people; who were + either ignorant of the cause, or apprehensive of the event. But his + military strength was superior to any actual resistance: the malcontents + flocked to the standard of rebellion; the poor were excited by the hopes, + and the rich were intimidated by the fear, of a general pillage; and the + obstinate credulity of the multitude was once more deceived by the + promised advantages of a revolution. The magistrates were seized; the + prisons and arsenals broke open; the gates, and the entrance of the + harbor, were diligently occupied; and, in a few hours, Procopius became + the absolute, though precarious, master of the Imperial city. <a + href="#linknote-25.3611" name="linknoteref-25.3611" id="linknoteref-25.3611">3611</a> + The usurper improved this unexpected success with some degree of courage + and dexterity. He artfully propagated the rumors and opinions the most + favorable to his interest; while he deluded the populace by giving + audience to the frequent, but imaginary, ambassadors of distant nations. + The large bodies of troops stationed in the cities of Thrace and the + fortresses of the Lower Danube, were gradually involved in the guilt of + rebellion: and the Gothic princes consented to supply the sovereign of + Constantinople with the formidable strength of several thousand + auxiliaries. His generals passed the Bosphorus, and subdued, without an + effort, the unarmed, but wealthy provinces of Bithynia and Asia. After an + honorable defence, the city and island of Cyzicus yielded to his power; + the renowned legions of the Jovians and Herculeans embraced the cause of + the usurper, whom they were ordered to crush; and, as the veterans were + continually augmented with new levies, he soon appeared at the head of an + army, whose valor, as well as numbers, were not unequal to the greatness + of the contest. The son of Hormisdas, <a href="#linknote-25.37" + name="linknoteref-25.37" id="linknoteref-25.37">37</a> a youth of spirit and + ability, condescended to draw his sword against the lawful emperor of the + East; and the Persian prince was immediately invested with the ancient and + extraordinary powers of a Roman Proconsul. The alliance of Faustina, the + widow of the emperor Constantius, who intrusted herself and her daughter + to the hands of the usurper, added dignity and reputation to his cause. + The princess Constantia, who was then about five years of age, + accompanied, in a litter, the march of the army. She was shown to the + multitude in the arms of her adopted father; and, as often as she passed + through the ranks, the tenderness of the soldiers was inflamed into + martial fury: <a href="#linknote-25.38" name="linknoteref-25.38" + id="linknoteref-25.38">38</a> they recollected the glories of the house of + Constantine, and they declared, with loyal acclamation, that they would + shed the last drop of their blood in the defence of the royal infant. <a + href="#linknote-25.39" name="linknoteref-25.39" id="linknoteref-25.39">39</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.34" id="linknote-25.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.34">return</a>)<br /> [ The uncertain degree of + alliance, or consanguinity, is expressed by the words, cognatus, + consobrinus, (see Valesius ad Ammian. xxiii. 3.) The mother of Procopius + might be a sister of Basilina and Count Julian, the mother and uncle of + the Apostate. Ducange, Fam. Byzantin. p. 49.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.35" id="linknote-25.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxiii. 3, xxvi. + 6. He mentions the report with much hesitation: susurravit obscurior fama; + nemo enim dicti auctor exstitit verus. It serves, however, to remark, that + Procopius was a Pagan. Yet his religion does not appear to have promoted, + or obstructed, his pretensions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.36" id="linknote-25.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.36">return</a>)<br /> [ One of his retreats was + a country-house of Eunomius, the heretic. The master was absent, innocent, + ignorant; yet he narrowly escaped a sentence of death, and was banished + into the remote parts of Mauritania, (Philostorg. l. ix. c. 5, 8, and + Godefroy’s Dissert. p. 369-378.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.3611" id="linknote-25.3611"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3611 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.3611">return</a>)<br /> [ It may be + suspected, from a fragment of Eunapius, that the heathen and philosophic + party espoused the cause of Procopius. Heraclius, the Cynic, a man who had + been honored by a philosophic controversy with Julian, striking the ground + with his staff, incited him to courage with the line of Homer Eunapius. + Mai, p. 207 or in Niebuhr’s edition, p. 73.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.37" id="linknote-25.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.37">return</a>)<br /> [ Hormisdæ maturo juveni + Hormisdæ regalis illius filio, potestatem Proconsulis detulit; et + civilia, more veterum, et bella, recturo. Ammian. xxvi. 8. The Persian + prince escaped with honor and safety, and was afterwards (A. D. 380) + restored to the same extraordinary office of proconsul of Bithynia, + (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 204) I am ignorant whether the + race of Sassan was propagated. I find (A. D. 514) a pope Hormisdas; but he + was a native of Frusino, in Italy, (Pagi Brev. Pontific. tom. i. p. 247)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.38" id="linknote-25.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.38">return</a>)<br /> [ The infant rebel was + afterwards the wife of the emperor Gratian but she died young, and + childless. See Ducange, Fam. Byzantin. p. 48, 59.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.39" id="linknote-25.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Sequimini culminis + summi prosapiam, was the language of Procopius, who affected to despise + the obscure birth, and fortuitous election of the upstart Pannonian. + Ammian. xxvi. 7.] + </p> + <p> + In the mean while Valentinian was alarmed and perplexed by the doubtful + intelligence of the revolt of the East. <a href="#linknote-25.3911" + name="linknoteref-25.3911" id="linknoteref-25.3911">3911</a> The + difficulties of a German war forced him to confine his immediate care to + the safety of his own dominions; and, as every channel of communication + was stopped or corrupted, he listened, with doubtful anxiety, to the + rumors which were industriously spread, that the defeat and death of + Valens had left Procopius sole master of the Eastern provinces. Valens was + not dead: but on the news of the rebellion, which he received at Cæsarea, + he basely despaired of his life and fortune; proposed to negotiate with + the usurper, and discovered his secret inclination to abdicate the + Imperial purple. The timid monarch was saved from disgrace and ruin by the + firmness of his ministers, and their abilities soon decided in his favor + the event of the civil war. In a season of tranquillity, Sallust had + resigned without a murmur; but as soon as the public safety was attacked, + he ambitiously solicited the preëminence of toil and danger; and the + restoration of that virtuous minister to the præfecture of the East, was + the first step which indicated the repentance of Valens, and satisfied the + minds of the people. The reign of Procopius was apparently supported by + powerful armies and obedient provinces. But many of the principal + officers, military as well as civil, had been urged, either by motives of + duty or interest, to withdraw themselves from the guilty scene; or to + watch the moment of betraying, and deserting, the cause of the usurper. + Lupicinus advanced by hasty marches, to bring the legions of Syria to the + aid of Valens. Arintheus, who, in strength, beauty, and valor, excelled + all the heroes of the age, attacked with a small troop a superior body of + the rebels. When he beheld the faces of the soldiers who had served under + his banner, he commanded them, with a loud voice, to seize and deliver up + their pretended leader; and such was the ascendant of his genius, that + this extraordinary order was instantly obeyed. <a href="#linknote-25.40" + name="linknoteref-25.40" id="linknoteref-25.40">40</a> Arbetio, a + respectable veteran of the great Constantine, who had been distinguished + by the honors of the consulship, was persuaded to leave his retirement, + and once more to conduct an army into the field. In the heat of action, + calmly taking off his helmet, he showed his gray hairs and venerable + countenance: saluted the soldiers of Procopius by the endearing names of + children and companions, and exhorted them no longer to support the + desperate cause of a contemptible tyrant; but to follow their old + commander, who had so often led them to honor and victory. In the two + engagements of Thyatira <a href="#linknote-25.41" name="linknoteref-25.41" + id="linknoteref-25.41">41</a> and Nacolia, the unfortunate Procopius was + deserted by his troops, who were seduced by the instructions and example + of their perfidious officers. After wandering some time among the woods + and mountains of Phyrgia, he was betrayed by his desponding followers, + conducted to the Imperial camp, and immediately beheaded. He suffered the + ordinary fate of an unsuccessful usurper; but the acts of cruelty which + were exercised by the conqueror, under the forms of legal justice, excited + the pity and indignation of mankind. <a href="#linknote-25.42" + name="linknoteref-25.42" id="linknoteref-25.42">42</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.3911" id="linknote-25.3911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3911 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.3911">return</a>)<br /> [ Symmachus describes + his embarrassment. “The Germans are the common enemies of the state, + Procopius the private foe of the Emperor; his first care must be victory, + his second revenge.” Symm. Orat. p. 11.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.40" id="linknote-25.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.40">return</a>)<br /> [ Et dedignatus hominem + superare certamine despicabilem, auctoritatis et celsi fiducia corporis + ipsis hostibus jussit, suum vincire rectorem: atque ita turmarum, + antesignanus umbratilis comprensus suorum manibus. The strength and beauty + of Arintheus, the new Hercules, are celebrated by St. Basil, who supposed + that God had created him as an inimitable model of the human species. The + painters and sculptors could not express his figure: the historians + appeared fabulous when they related his exploits, (Ammian. xxvi. and + Vales. ad loc.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.41" id="linknote-25.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.41">return</a>)<br /> [ The same field of + battle is placed by Ammianus in Lycia, and by Zosimus at Thyatira, which + are at the distance of 150 miles from each other. But Thyatira alluitur + <i>Lyco</i>, (Plin. Hist. Natur. v. 31, Cellarius, Geograph. Antiq. tom. ii. p. + 79;) and the transcribers might easily convert an obscure river into a + well-known province. * Note: Ammianus and Zosimus place the last battle at + Nacolia in <i>Phrygia;</i> Ammianus altogether omits the former battle near + Thyatira. Procopius was on his march (iter tendebat) towards Lycia. See + Wagner’s note, in c.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.42" id="linknote-25.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.42">return</a>)<br /> [ The adventures, + usurpation, and fall of Procopius, are related, in a regular series, by + Ammianus, (xxvi. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,) and Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 203-210.) They + often illustrate, and seldom contradict, each other. Themistius (Orat. + vii. p. 91, 92) adds some base panegyric; and Euna pius (p. 83, 84) some + malicious satire. ——Symmachus joins with Themistius in + praising the clemency of Valens dic victoriæ moderatus est, quasi contra + se nemo pugnavit. Symm. Orat. p. 12.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Such indeed are the common and natural fruits of despotism and rebellion. + But the inquisition into the crime of magic, <a href="#linknote-25.4211" + name="linknoteref-25.4211" id="linknoteref-25.4211">4211</a> which, under + the reign of the two brothers, was so rigorously prosecuted both at Rome + and Antioch, was interpreted as the fatal symptom, either of the + displeasure of Heaven, or of the depravity of mankind. <a + href="#linknote-25.43" name="linknoteref-25.43" id="linknoteref-25.43">43</a> + Let us not hesitate to indulge a liberal pride, that, in the present age, + the enlightened part of Europe has abolished <a href="#linknote-25.44" + name="linknoteref-25.44" id="linknoteref-25.44">44</a> a cruel and odious + prejudice, which reigned in every climate of the globe, and adhered to + every system of religious opinions. <a href="#linknote-25.45" + name="linknoteref-25.45" id="linknoteref-25.45">45</a> The nations, and the + sects, of the Roman world, admitted with equal credulity, and similar + abhorrence, the reality of that infernal art, <a href="#linknote-25.46" + name="linknoteref-25.46" id="linknoteref-25.46">46</a> which was able to + control the eternal order of the planets, and the voluntary operations of + the human mind. They dreaded the mysterious power of spells and + incantations, of potent herbs, and execrable rites; which could extinguish + or recall life, inflame the passions of the soul, blast the works of + creation, and extort from the reluctant dæmons the secrets of futurity. + They believed, with the wildest inconsistency, that this preternatural + dominion of the air, of earth, and of hell, was exercised, from the vilest + motives of malice or gain, by some wrinkled hags and itinerant sorcerers, + who passed their obscure lives in penury and contempt. <a + href="#linknote-25.47" name="linknoteref-25.47" id="linknoteref-25.47">47</a> + The arts of magic were equally condemned by the public opinion, and by the + laws of Rome; but as they tended to gratify the most imperious passions of + the heart of man, they were continually proscribed, and continually + practised. <a href="#linknote-25.48" name="linknoteref-25.48" + id="linknoteref-25.48">48</a> An imaginary cause was capable of producing + the most serious and mischievous effects. The dark predictions of the + death of an emperor, or the success of a conspiracy, were calculated only + to stimulate the hopes of ambition, and to dissolve the ties of fidelity; + and the intentional guilt of magic was aggravated by the actual crimes of + treason and sacrilege. <a href="#linknote-25.49" name="linknoteref-25.49" + id="linknoteref-25.49">49</a> Such vain terrors disturbed the peace of + society, and the happiness of individuals; and the harmless flame which + insensibly melted a waxen image, might derive a powerful and pernicious + energy from the affrighted fancy of the person whom it was maliciously + designed to represent. <a href="#linknote-25.50" name="linknoteref-25.50" + id="linknoteref-25.50">50</a> From the infusion of those herbs, which were + supposed to possess a supernatural influence, it was an easy step to the + use of more substantial poison; and the folly of mankind sometimes became + the instrument, and the mask, of the most atrocious crimes. As soon as the + zeal of informers was encouraged by the ministers of Valens and + Valentinian, they could not refuse to listen to another charge, too + frequently mingled in the scenes of domestic guilt; a charge of a softer + and less malignant nature, for which the pious, though excessive, rigor of + Constantine had recently decreed the punishment of death. <a + href="#linknote-25.51" name="linknoteref-25.51" id="linknoteref-25.51">51</a> + This deadly and incoherent mixture of treason and magic, of poison and + adultery, afforded infinite gradations of guilt and innocence, of excuse + and aggravation, which in these proceedings appear to have been confounded + by the angry or corrupt passions of the judges. They easily discovered + that the degree of their industry and discernment was estimated, by the + Imperial court, according to the number of executions that were furnished + from the respective tribunals. It was not without extreme reluctance that + they pronounced a sentence of acquittal; but they eagerly admitted such + evidence as was stained with perjury, or procured by torture, to prove the + most improbable charges against the most respectable characters. The + progress of the inquiry continually opened new subjects of criminal + prosecution; the audacious informer, whose falsehood was detected, retired + with impunity; but the wretched victim, who discovered his real or + pretended accomplices, were seldom permitted to receive the price of his + infamy. From the extremity of Italy and Asia, the young, and the aged, + were dragged in chains to the tribunals of Rome and Antioch. Senators, + matrons, and philosophers, expired in ignominious and cruel tortures. The + soldiers, who were appointed to guard the prisons, declared, with a murmur + of pity and indignation, that their numbers were insufficient to oppose + the flight, or resistance, of the multitude of captives. The wealthiest + families were ruined by fines and confiscations; the most innocent + citizens trembled for their safety; and we may form some notion of the + magnitude of the evil, from the extravagant assertion of an ancient + writer, that, in the obnoxious provinces, the prisoners, the exiles, and + the fugitives, formed the greatest part of the inhabitants. <a + href="#linknote-25.52" name="linknoteref-25.52" id="linknoteref-25.52">52</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.4211" id="linknote-25.4211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4211 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.4211">return</a>)<br /> [ This infamous + inquisition into sorcery and witchcraft has been of greater influence on + human affairs than is commonly supposed. The persecutions against + philosophers and their libraries was carried on with so much fury, that + from this time (A. D. 374) the names of the Gentile philosophers became + almost extinct; and the Christian philosophy and religion, particularly in + the East, established their ascendency. I am surprised that Gibbon has not + made this observation. Heyne, Note on Zosimus, l. iv. 14, p. 637. Besides + vast heaps of manuscripts publicly destroyed throughout the East, men of + letters burned their whole libraries, lest some fatal volume should expose + them to the malice of the informers and the extreme penalty of the law. + Amm. Marc. xxix. 11.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.43" id="linknote-25.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.43">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius de ulciscend. + Julian. nece, c. ix. p. 158, 159. The sophist deplores the public frenzy, + but he does not (after their deaths) impeach the justice of the emperors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.44" id="linknote-25.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.44">return</a>)<br /> [ The French and English + lawyers, of the present age, allow the <i>theory</i>, and deny the <i>practice</i>, of + witchcraft, (Denisart, Recueil de Decisions de Jurisprudence, au mot + <i>Sorciers</i>, tom. iv. p. 553. Blackstone’s Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 60.) As + private reason always prevents, or outstrips, public wisdom, the president + Montesquieu (Esprit des Loix, l. xii. c. 5, 6) rejects the <i>existence</i> of + magic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.45" id="linknote-25.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.45">return</a>)<br /> [ See Œuvres de Bayle, + tom. iii. p. 567-589. The sceptic of Rotterdam exhibits, according to his + custom, a strange medley of loose knowledge and lively wit.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.46" id="linknote-25.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.46">return</a>)<br /> [ The Pagans + distinguished between good and bad magic, the Theurgic and the Goetic, + (Hist. de l’Académie, &c., tom. vii. p. 25.) But they could not have + defended this obscure distinction against the acute logic of Bayle. In the + Jewish and Christian system, <i>all</i> dæmons are infernal spirits; and <i>all</i> + commerce with them is idolatry, apostasy &c., which deserves death and + damnation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.47" id="linknote-25.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.47">return</a>)<br /> [ The Canidia of Horace + (Carm. l. v. Od. 5, with Dacier’s and Sanadon’s illustrations) is a vulgar + witch. The Erictho of Lucan (Pharsal. vi. 430-830) is tedious, disgusting, + but sometimes sublime. She chides the delay of the Furies, and threatens, + with tremendous obscurity, to pronounce their real names; to reveal the + true infernal countenance of Hecate; to invoke the secret powers that lie + below hell, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.48" id="linknote-25.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Genus hominum + potentibus infidum, sperantibus fallax, quod in civitate nostrâ et + vetabitur semper et retinebitur. Tacit. Hist. i. 22. See Augustin. de + Civitate Dei, l. viii. c. 19, and the Theodosian Code l. ix. tit. xvi., + with Godefroy’s Commentary.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.49" id="linknote-25.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.49">return</a>)<br /> [ The persecution of + Antioch was occasioned by a criminal consultation. The twenty-four letters + of the alphabet were arranged round a magic tripod: and a dancing ring, + which had been placed in the centre, pointed to the four first letters in + the name of the future emperor, O. E. O Triangle. Theodorus (perhaps with + many others, who owned the fatal syllables) was executed. Theodosius + succeeded. Lardner (Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. p. 353-372) has + copiously and fairly examined this dark transaction of the reign of + Valens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.50" id="linknote-25.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.50">return</a>)<br /> [ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Limus ut hic durescit, et hæc ut cera liquescit + Uno eodemque igni—Virgil. Bucolic. viii. 80. + + Devovet absentes, simulacraque cerea figit. + —Ovid. in Epist. Hypsil. ad Jason 91. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + Such vain incantations could affect the mind, and increase the disease of + Germanicus. Tacit. Annal. ii. 69.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.51" id="linknote-25.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.51">return</a>)<br /> [ See Heineccius, + Antiquitat. Juris Roman. tom. ii. p. 353, &c. Cod. Theodosian. l. ix. + tit. 7, with Godefroy’s Commentary.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.52" id="linknote-25.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.52">return</a>)<br /> [ The cruel persecution + of Rome and Antioch is described, and most probably exaggerated, by + Ammianus (xxvii. 1. xxix. 1, 2) and Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 216-218.) The + philosopher Maximus, with some justice, was involved in the charge of + magic, (Eunapius in Vit. Sophist. p. 88, 89;) and young Chrysostom, who + had accidentally found one of the proscribed books, gave himself up for + lost, (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 340.)] + </p> + <p> + When Tacitus describes the deaths of the innocent and illustrious Romans, + who were sacrificed to the cruelty of the first Cæsars, the art of the + historian, or the merit of the sufferers, excites in our breast the most + lively sensations of terror, of admiration, and of pity. The coarse and + undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with + tedious and disgusting accuracy. But as our attention is no longer engaged + by the contrast of freedom and servitude, of recent greatness and of + actual misery, we should turn with horror from the frequent executions, + which disgraced, both at Rome and Antioch, the reign of the two brothers. + <a href="#linknote-25.53" name="linknoteref-25.53" id="linknoteref-25.53">53</a> + Valens was of a timid, <a href="#linknote-25.54" name="linknoteref-25.54" + id="linknoteref-25.54">54</a> and Valentinian of a choleric, disposition. + <a href="#linknote-25.55" name="linknoteref-25.55" id="linknoteref-25.55">55</a> + An anxious regard to his personal safety was the ruling principle of the + administration of Valens. In the condition of a subject, he had kissed, + with trembling awe, the hand of the oppressor; and when he ascended the + throne, he reasonably expected, that the same fears, which had subdued his + own mind, would secure the patient submission of his people. The favorites + of Valens obtained, by the privilege of rapine and confiscation, the + wealth which his economy would have refused. <a href="#linknote-25.56" + name="linknoteref-25.56" id="linknoteref-25.56">56</a> They urged, with + persuasive eloquence, <i>that</i>, in all cases of treason, suspicion is + equivalent to proof; <i>that</i> the power supposes the intention, of mischief; + <i>that</i> the intention is not less criminal than the act; and <i>that</i> a subject + no longer deserves to live, if his life may threaten the safety, or + disturb the repose, of his sovereign. The judgment of Valentinian was + sometimes deceived, and his confidence abused; but he would have silenced + the informers with a contemptuous smile, had they presumed to alarm his + fortitude by the sound of danger. They praised his inflexible love of + justice; and, in the pursuit of justice, the emperor was easily tempted to + consider clemency as a weakness, and passion as a virtue. As long as he + wrestled with his equals, in the bold competition of an active and + ambitious life, Valentinian was seldom injured, and never insulted, with + impunity: if his prudence was arraigned, his spirit was applauded; and the + proudest and most powerful generals were apprehensive of provoking the + resentment of a fearless soldier. After he became master of the world, he + unfortunately forgot, that where no resistance can be made, no courage can + be exerted; and instead of consulting the dictates of reason and + magnanimity, he indulged the furious emotions of his temper, at a time + when they were disgraceful to himself, and fatal to the defenceless + objects of his displeasure. In the government of his household, or of his + empire, slight, or even imaginary, offences—a hasty word, a casual + omission, an involuntary delay—were chastised by a sentence of + immediate death. The expressions which issued the most readily from the + mouth of the emperor of the West were, “Strike off his head;” “Burn him + alive;” “Let him be beaten with clubs till he expires;” <a + href="#linknote-25.57" name="linknoteref-25.57" id="linknoteref-25.57">57</a> + and his most favored ministers soon understood, that, by a rash attempt to + dispute, or suspend, the execution of his sanguinary commands, they might + involve themselves in the guilt and punishment of disobedience. The + repeated gratification of this savage justice hardened the mind of + Valentinian against pity and remorse; and the sallies of passion were + confirmed by the habits of cruelty. <a href="#linknote-25.58" + name="linknoteref-25.58" id="linknoteref-25.58">58</a> He could behold with + calm satisfaction the convulsive agonies of torture and death; he reserved + his friendship for those faithful servants whose temper was the most + congenial to his own. The merit of Maximin, who had slaughtered the + noblest families of Rome, was rewarded with the royal approbation, and the + præfecture of Gaul. + </p> + <p> + Two fierce and enormous bears, distinguished by the appellations of + <i>Innocence</i>, and <i>Mica Aurea</i>, could alone deserve to share the favor of + Maximin. The cages of those trusty guards were always placed near the + bed-chamber of Valentinian, who frequently amused his eyes with the + grateful spectacle of seeing them tear and devour the bleeding limbs of + the malefactors who were abandoned to their rage. Their diet and exercises + were carefully inspected by the Roman emperor; and when <i>Innocence</i> had + earned her discharge, by a long course of meritorious service, the + faithful animal was again restored to the freedom of her native woods. <a + href="#linknote-25.59" name="linknoteref-25.59" id="linknoteref-25.59">59</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.53" id="linknote-25.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult the six last + books of Ammianus, and more particularly the portraits of the two royal + brothers, (xxx. 8, 9, xxxi. 14.) Tillemont has collected (tom. v. p. + 12-18, p. 127-133) from all antiquity their virtues and vices.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.54" id="linknote-25.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.54">return</a>)<br /> [ The younger Victor + asserts, that he was valde timidus: yet he behaved, as almost every man + would do, with decent resolution at the <i>head</i> of an army. The same + historian attempts to prove that his anger was harmless. Ammianus + observes, with more candor and judgment, incidentia crimina ad contemptam + vel læsam principis amplitudinem trahens, in sanguinem sæviebat.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.55" id="linknote-25.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.55">return</a>)<br /> [ Cum esset ad + acerbitatem naturæ calore propensior. .. pœnas perignes augebat et + gladios. Ammian. xxx. 8. See xxvii. 7] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.56" id="linknote-25.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.56">return</a>)<br /> [ I have transferred the + reproach of avarice from Valens to his servant. Avarice more properly + belongs to ministers than to kings; in whom that passion is commonly + extinguished by absolute possession.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.57" id="linknote-25.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.57">return</a>)<br /> [ He sometimes expressed + a sentence of death with a tone of pleasantry: “Abi, Comes, et muta ei + caput, qui sibi mutari provinciam cupit.” A boy, who had slipped too + hastily a Spartan bound; an armorer, who had made a polished cuirass that + wanted some grains of the legitimate weight, &c., were the victims of + his fury.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.58" id="linknote-25.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.58">return</a>)<br /> [ The innocents of Milan + were an agent and three apparitors, whom Valentinian condemned for + signifying a legal summons. Ammianus (xxvii. 7) strangely supposes, that + all who had been unjustly executed were worshipped as martyrs by the + Christians. His impartial silence does not allow us to believe, that the + great chamberlain Rhodanus was burnt alive for an act of oppression, + (Chron. Paschal. p. 392.) * Note: Ammianus does not say that they were + worshipped as <i>martyrs</i>. Quorum memoriam apud Mediolanum colentes nunc usque + Christiani loculos ubi sepulti sunt, <i>ad innocentes</i> appellant. Wagner’s + note in loco. Yet if the next paragraph refers to that transaction, which + is not quite clear. Gibbon is right.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.59" id="linknote-25.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.59">return</a>)<br /> [ Ut bene meritam in + sylvas jussit abire <i>Innoxiam</i>. Ammian. xxix. and Valesius ad locum.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap25.3"></a> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + But in the calmer moments of reflection, when the mind of Valens was not + agitated by fear, or that of Valentinian by rage, the tyrant resumed the + sentiments, or at least the conduct, of the father of his country. The + dispassionate judgment of the Western emperor could clearly perceive, and + accurately pursue, his own and the public interest; and the sovereign of + the East, who imitated with equal docility the various examples which he + received from his elder brother, was sometimes guided by the wisdom and + virtue of the præfect Sallust. Both princes invariably retained, in the + purple, the chaste and temperate simplicity which had adorned their + private life; and, under their reign, the pleasures of the court never + cost the people a blush or a sigh. They gradually reformed many of the + abuses of the times of Constantius; judiciously adopted and improved the + designs of Julian and his successor; and displayed a style and spirit of + legislation which might inspire posterity with the most favorable opinion + of their character and government. It is not from the master of <i>Innocence</i>, + that we should expect the tender regard for the welfare of his subjects, + which prompted Valentinian to condemn the exposition of new-born infants; + <a href="#linknote-25.60" name="linknoteref-25.60" id="linknoteref-25.60">60</a> + and to establish fourteen skilful physicians, with stipends and + privileges, in the fourteen quarters of Rome. The good sense of an + illiterate soldier founded a useful and liberal institution for the + education of youth, and the support of declining science. <a + href="#linknote-25.61" name="linknoteref-25.61" id="linknoteref-25.61">61</a> + It was his intention, that the arts of rhetoric and grammar should be + taught in the Greek and Latin languages, in the metropolis of every + province; and as the size and dignity of the school was usually + proportioned to the importance of the city, the academies of Rome and + Constantinople claimed a just and singular preëminence. The fragments of + the literary edicts of Valentinian imperfectly represent the school of + Constantinople, which was gradually improved by subsequent regulations. + That school consisted of thirty-one professors in different branches of + learning. One philosopher, and two lawyers; five sophists, and ten + grammarians for the Greek, and three orators, and ten grammarians for the + Latin tongue; besides seven scribes, or, as they were then styled, + antiquarians, whose laborious pens supplied the public library with fair + and correct copies of the classic writers. The rule of conduct, which was + prescribed to the students, is the more curious, as it affords the first + outlines of the form and discipline of a modern university. It was + required, that they should bring proper certificates from the magistrates + of their native province. Their names, professions, and places of abode, + were regularly entered in a public register. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.60" id="linknote-25.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.60">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Code of + Justinian, l. viii. tit. lii. leg. 2. Unusquisque sabolem suam nutriat. + Quod si exponendam putaverit animadversioni quæ constituta est + subjacebit. For the present I shall not interfere in the dispute between + Noodt and Binkershoek; how far, or how long this unnatural practice had + been condemned or abolished by law philosophy, and the more civilized + state of society.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.61" id="linknote-25.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.61">return</a>)<br /> [ These salutary + institutions are explained in the Theodosian Code, l. xiii. tit. iii. <i>De + Professoribus et Medicis</i>, and l. xiv. tit. ix. <i>De Studiis liberalibus + Urbis Romæ</i>. Besides our usual guide, (Godefroy,) we may consult Giannone, + (Istoria di Napoli, tom. i. p. 105-111,) who has treated the interesting + subject with the zeal and curiosity of a man of latters who studies his + domestic history.] + </p> + <p> + The studious youth were severely prohibited from wasting their time in + feasts, or in the theatre; and the term of their education was limited to + the age of twenty. The præfect of the city was empowered to chastise the + idle and refractory by stripes or expulsion; and he was directed to make + an annual report to the master of the offices, that the knowledge and + abilities of the scholars might be usefully applied to the public service. + The institutions of Valentinian contributed to secure the benefits of + peace and plenty; and the cities were guarded by the establishment of the + <i>Defensors;</i> <a href="#linknote-25.62" name="linknoteref-25.62" + id="linknoteref-25.62">62</a> freely elected as the tribunes and advocates + of the people, to support their rights, and to expose their grievances, + before the tribunals of the civil magistrates, or even at the foot of the + Imperial throne. The finances were diligently administered by two princes, + who had been so long accustomed to the rigid economy of a private fortune; + but in the receipt and application of the revenue, a discerning eye might + observe some difference between the government of the East and of the + West. Valens was persuaded, that royal liberality can be supplied only by + public oppression, and his ambition never aspired to secure, by their + actual distress, the future strength and prosperity of his people. Instead + of increasing the weight of taxes, which, in the space of forty years, had + been gradually doubled, he reduced, in the first years of his reign, one + fourth of the tribute of the East. <a href="#linknote-25.63" + name="linknoteref-25.63" id="linknoteref-25.63">63</a> Valentinian appears + to have been less attentive and less anxious to relieve the burdens of his + people. He might reform the abuses of the fiscal administration; but he + exacted, without scruple, a very large share of the private property; as + he was convinced, that the revenues, which supported the luxury of + individuals, would be much more advantageously employed for the defence + and improvement of the state. The subjects of the East, who enjoyed the + present benefit, applauded the indulgence of their prince. The solid but + less splendid, merit of Valentinian was felt and acknowledged by the + subsequent generation. <a href="#linknote-25.64" name="linknoteref-25.64" + id="linknoteref-25.64">64</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.62" id="linknote-25.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theodos. l. i. + tit. xi. with Godefroy’s <i>Paratitlon</i>, which diligently gleans from the rest + of the code.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.63" id="linknote-25.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.63">return</a>)<br /> [ Three lines of Ammianus + (xxxi. 14) countenance a whole oration of Themistius, (viii. p. 101-120,) + full of adulation, pedantry, and common-place morality. The eloquent M. + Thomas (tom. i. p. 366-396) has amused himself with celebrating the + virtues and genius of Themistius, who was not unworthy of the age in which + he lived.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.64" id="linknote-25.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. 202. + Ammian. xxx. 9. His reformation of costly abuses might entitle him to the + praise of, in provinciales admodum parcus, tributorum ubique molliens + sarcinas. By some his frugality was styled avarice, (Jerom. Chron. p. + 186)] + </p> + <p> + But the most honorable circumstance of the character of Valentinian, is + the firm and temperate impartiality which he uniformly preserved in an age + of religious contention. His strong sense, unenlightened, but uncorrupted, + by study, declined, with respectful indifference, the subtle questions of + theological debate. The government of the <i>Earth</i> claimed his vigilance, and + satisfied his ambition; and while he remembered that he was the disciple + of the church, he never forgot that he was the sovereign of the clergy. + Under the reign of an apostate, he had signalized his zeal for the honor + of Christianity: he allowed to his subjects the privilege which he had + assumed for himself; and they might accept, with gratitude and confidence, + the general toleration which was granted by a prince addicted to passion, + but incapable of fear or of disguise. <a href="#linknote-25.65" + name="linknoteref-25.65" id="linknoteref-25.65">65</a> The Pagans, the Jews, + and all the various sects which acknowledged the divine authority of + Christ, were protected by the laws from arbitrary power or popular insult; + nor was any mode of worship prohibited by Valentinian, except those secret + and criminal practices, which abused the name of religion for the dark + purposes of vice and disorder. The art of magic, as it was more cruelly + punished, was more strictly proscribed: but the emperor admitted a formal + distinction to protect the ancient methods of divination, which were + approved by the senate, and exercised by the Tuscan haruspices. He had + condemned, with the consent of the most rational Pagans, the license of + nocturnal sacrifices; but he immediately admitted the petition of + Prætextatus, proconsul of Achaia, who represented, that the life of the + Greeks would become dreary and comfortless, if they were deprived of the + invaluable blessing of the Eleusinian mysteries. Philosophy alone can + boast, (and perhaps it is no more than the boast of philosophy,) that her + gentle hand is able to eradicate from the human mind the latent and deadly + principle of fanaticism. But this truce of twelve years, which was + enforced by the wise and vigorous government of Valentinian, by suspending + the repetition of mutual injuries, contributed to soften the manners, and + abate the prejudices, of the religious factions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.65" id="linknote-25.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Testes sunt leges a me + in exordio Imperii mei datæ; quibus unicuique quod animo imbibisset + colendi libera facultas tributa est. Cod. Theodos. l. ix. tit. xvi. leg. + 9. To this declaration of Valentinian, we may add the various testimonies + of Ammianus, (xxx. 9,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 204,) and Sozomen, (l. vi. c. + 7, 21.) Baronius would naturally blame such rational toleration, (Annal. + Eccles A. D. 370, No. 129-132, A. D. 376, No. 3, 4.) ——Comme + il s’était prescrit pour règle de ne point se mêler de disputes de + religion, son histoire est presque entièrement dégagée des affaires + ecclésiastiques. Le Beau. iii. 214.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The friend of toleration was unfortunately placed at a distance from the + scene of the fiercest controversies. As soon as the Christians of the West + had extricated themselves from the snares of the creed of Rimini, they + happily relapsed into the slumber of orthodoxy; and the small remains of + the Arian party, that still subsisted at Sirmium or Milan, might be + considered rather as objects of contempt than of resentment. But in the + provinces of the East, from the Euxine to the extremity of Thebais, the + strength and numbers of the hostile factions were more equally balanced; + and this equality, instead of recommending the counsels of peace, served + only to perpetuate the horrors of religious war. The monks and bishops + supported their arguments by invectives; and their invectives were + sometimes followed by blows. Athanasius still reigned at Alexandria; the + thrones of Constantinople and Antioch were occupied by Arian prelates, and + every episcopal vacancy was the occasion of a popular tumult. The + Homoousians were fortified by the reconciliation of fifty-nine Macelonian, + or Semi-Arian, bishops; but their secret reluctance to embrace the + divinity of the Holy Ghost, clouded the splendor of the triumph; and the + declaration of Valens, who, in the first years of his reign, had imitated + the impartial conduct of his brother, was an important victory on the side + of Arianism. The two brothers had passed their private life in the + condition of catechumens; but the piety of Valens prompted him to solicit + the sacrament of baptism, before he exposed his person to the dangers of a + Gothic war. He naturally addressed himself to Eudoxus, <a + href="#linknote-25.66" name="linknoteref-25.66" id="linknoteref-25.66">66</a> + <a href="#linknote-25.6611" name="linknoteref-25.6611" + id="linknoteref-25.6611">6611</a> bishop of the Imperial city; and if the + ignorant monarch was instructed by that Arian pastor in the principles of + heterodox theology, his misfortune, rather than his guilt, was the + inevitable consequence of his erroneous choice. Whatever had been the + determination of the emperor, he must have offended a numerous party of + his Christian subjects; as the leaders both of the Homoousians and of the + Arians believed, that, if they were not suffered to reign, they were most + cruelly injured and oppressed. After he had taken this decisive step, it + was extremely difficult for him to preserve either the virtue, or the + reputation of impartiality. He never aspired, like Constantius, to the + fame of a profound theologian; but as he had received with simplicity and + respect the tenets of Euxodus, Valens resigned his conscience to the + direction of his ecclesiastical guides, and promoted, by the influence of + his authority, the reunion of the <i>Athanasian heretics</i> to the body of the + Catholic church. At first, he pitied their blindness; by degrees he was + provoked at their obstinacy; and he insensibly hated those sectaries to + whom he was an object of hatred. <a href="#linknote-25.67" + name="linknoteref-25.67" id="linknoteref-25.67">67</a> The feeble mind of + Valens was always swayed by the persons with whom he familiarly conversed; + and the exile or imprisonment of a private citizen are the favors the most + readily granted in a despotic court. Such punishments were frequently + inflicted on the leaders of the Homoousian party; and the misfortune of + fourscore ecclesiastics of Constantinople, who, perhaps accidentally, were + burned on shipboard, was imputed to the cruel and premeditated malice of + the emperor, and his Arian ministers. In every contest, the Catholics (if + we may anticipate that name) were obliged to pay the penalty of their own + faults, and of those of their adversaries. In every election, the claims + of the Arian candidate obtained the preference; and if they were opposed + by the majority of the people, he was usually supported by the authority + of the civil magistrate, or even by the terrors of a military force. The + enemies of Athanasius attempted to disturb the last years of his venerable + age; and his temporary retreat to his father’s sepulchre has been + celebrated as a fifth exile. But the zeal of a great people, who instantly + flew to arms, intimidated the præfect: and the archbishop was permitted + to end his life in peace and in glory, after a reign of forty-seven years. + The death of Athanasius was the signal of the persecution of Egypt; and + the Pagan minister of Valens, who forcibly seated the worthless Lucius on + the archiepiscopal throne, purchased the favor of the reigning party, by + the blood and sufferings of their Christian brethren. The free toleration + of the heathen and Jewish worship was bitterly lamented, as a circumstance + which aggravated the misery of the Catholics, and the guilt of the impious + tyrant of the East. <a href="#linknote-25.68" name="linknoteref-25.68" + id="linknoteref-25.68">68</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.66" id="linknote-25.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Eudoxus was of a mild + and timid disposition. When he baptized Valens, (A. D. 367,) he must have + been extremely old; since he had studied theology fifty-five years before, + under Lucian, a learned and pious martyr. Philostorg. l. ii. c. 14-16, l. + iv. c. 4, with Godefroy, p 82, 206, and Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. v. p. + 471-480, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.6611" id="linknote-25.6611"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6611 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.6611">return</a>)<br /> [ Through the + influence of his wife say the ecclesiastical writers.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.67" id="linknote-25.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.67">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory Nazianzen + (Orat. xxv. p. 432) insults the persecuting spirit of the Arians, as an + infallible symptom of error and heresy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.68" id="linknote-25.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.68">return</a>)<br /> [ This sketch of the + ecclesiastical government of Valens is drawn from Socrates, (l. iv.,) + Sozomen, (l. vi.,) Theodoret, (l. iv.,) and the immense compilations of + Tillemont, (particularly tom. vi. viii. and ix.)] + </p> + <p> + The triumph of the orthodox party has left a deep stain of persecution on + the memory of Valens; and the character of a prince who derived his + virtues, as well as his vices, from a feeble understanding and a + pusillanimous temper, scarcely deserves the labor of an apology. Yet + candor may discover some reasons to suspect that the ecclesiastical + ministers of Valens often exceeded the orders, or even the intentions, of + their master; and that the real measure of facts has been very liberally + magnified by the vehement declamation and easy credulity of his + antagonists. <a href="#linknote-25.69" name="linknoteref-25.69" + id="linknoteref-25.69">69</a> 1. The silence of Valentinian may suggest a + probable argument that the partial severities, which were exercised in the + name and provinces of his colleague, amounted only to some obscure and + inconsiderable deviations from the established system of religious + toleration: and the judicious historian, who has praised the equal temper + of the elder brother, has not thought himself obliged to contrast the + tranquillity of the West with the cruel persecution of the East. <a + href="#linknote-25.70" name="linknoteref-25.70" id="linknoteref-25.70">70</a> + 2. Whatever credit may be allowed to vague and distant reports, the + character, or at least the behavior, of Valens, may be most distinctly + seen in his personal transactions with the eloquent Basil, archbishop of + Cæsarea, who had succeeded Athanasius in the management of the + Trinitarian cause. <a href="#linknote-25.71" name="linknoteref-25.71" + id="linknoteref-25.71">71</a> The circumstantial narrative has been + composed by the friends and admirers of Basil; and as soon as we have + stripped away a thick coat of rhetoric and miracle, we shall be astonished + by the unexpected mildness of the Arian tyrant, who admired the firmness + of his character, or was apprehensive, if he employed violence, of a + general revolt in the province of Cappadocia. The archbishop, who + asserted, with inflexible pride, <a href="#linknote-25.72" + name="linknoteref-25.72" id="linknoteref-25.72">72</a> the truth of his + opinions, and the dignity of his rank, was left in the free possession of + his conscience and his throne. The emperor devoutly assisted at the solemn + service of the cathedral; and, instead of a sentence of banishment, + subscribed the donation of a valuable estate for the use of a hospital, + which Basil had lately founded in the neighborhood of Cæsarea. <a + href="#linknote-25.73" name="linknoteref-25.73" id="linknoteref-25.73">73</a> + 3. I am not able to discover, that any law (such as Theodosius afterwards + enacted against the Arians) was published by Valens against the Athanasian + sectaries; and the edict which excited the most violent clamors, may not + appear so extremely reprehensible. The emperor had observed, that several + of his subjects, gratifying their lazy disposition under the pretence of + religion, had associated themselves with the monks of Egypt; and he + directed the count of the East to drag them from their solitude; and to + compel these deserters of society to accept the fair alternative of + renouncing their temporal possessions, or of discharging the public duties + of men and citizens. <a href="#linknote-25.74" name="linknoteref-25.74" + id="linknoteref-25.74">74</a> The ministers of Valens seem to have extended + the sense of this penal statute, since they claimed a right of enlisting + the young and ablebodied monks in the Imperial armies. A detachment of + cavalry and infantry, consisting of three thousand men, marched from + Alexandria into the adjacent desert of Nitria, <a href="#linknote-25.75" + name="linknoteref-25.75" id="linknoteref-25.75">75</a> which was peopled by + five thousand monks. The soldiers were conducted by Arian priests; and it + is reported, that a considerable slaughter was made in the monasteries + which disobeyed the commands of their sovereign. <a href="#linknote-25.76" + name="linknoteref-25.76" id="linknoteref-25.76">76</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.69" id="linknote-25.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Dr. Jortin (Remarks on + Ecclesiastical History, vol. iv. p. 78) has already conceived and + intimated the same suspicion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.70" id="linknote-25.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.70">return</a>)<br /> [ This reflection is so + obvious and forcible, that Orosius (l. vii. c. 32, 33,) delays the + persecution till after the death of Valentinian. Socrates, on the other + hand, supposes, (l. iii. c. 32,) that it was appeased by a philosophical + oration, which Themistius pronounced in the year 374, (Orat. xii. p. 154, + in Latin only.) Such contradictions diminish the evidence, and reduce the + term, of the persecution of Valens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.71" id="linknote-25.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.71">return</a>)<br /> [ Tillemont, whom I + follow and abridge, has extracted (Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 153-167) the + most authentic circumstances from the Panegyrics of the two Gregories; the + brother, and the friend, of Basil. The letters of Basil himself (Dupin, + Bibliothèque, Ecclesiastique, tom. ii. p. 155-180) do not present the + image of a very lively persecution.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.72" id="linknote-25.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Basilius Cæsariensis + episcopus Cappadociæ clarus habetur... qui multa continentiæ et ingenii + bona uno superbiæ malo perdidit. This irreverent passage is perfectly in + the style and character of St. Jerom. It does not appear in Scaliger’s + edition of his Chronicle; but Isaac Vossius found it in some old Mss. + which had not been reformed by the monks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.73" id="linknote-25.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.73">return</a>)<br /> [ This noble and + charitable foundation (almost a new city) surpassed in merit, if not in + greatness, the pyramids, or the walls of Babylon. It was principally + intended for the reception of lepers, (Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. xx. p. + 439.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.74" id="linknote-25.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theodos. l. xii. + tit. i. leg. 63. Godefroy (tom. iv. p. 409-413) performs the duty of a + commentator and advocate. Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 808) + <i>supposes</i> a second law to excuse his orthodox friends, who had + misrepresented the edict of Valens, and suppressed the liberty of choice.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.75" id="linknote-25.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.75">return</a>)<br /> [ See D’Anville, + Description de l’Egypte, p. 74. Hereafter I shall consider the monastic + institutions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.76" id="linknote-25.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates, l. iv. c. 24, + 25. Orosius, l. vii. c. 33. Jerom. in Chron. p. 189, and tom. ii. p. 212. + The monks of Egypt performed many miracles, which prove the truth of their + faith. Right, says Jortin, (Remarks, vol iv. p. 79,) but what proves the + truth of those miracles.] + </p> + <p> + The strict regulations which have been framed by the wisdom of modern + legislators to restrain the wealth and avarice of the clergy, may be + originally deduced from the example of the emperor Valentinian. His edict, + <a href="#linknote-25.77" name="linknoteref-25.77" id="linknoteref-25.77">77</a> + addressed to Damasus, bishop of Rome, was publicly read in the churches of + the city. He admonished the ecclesiastics and monks not to frequent the + houses of widows and virgins; and menaced their disobedience with the + animadversion of the civil judge. The director was no longer permitted to + receive any gift, or legacy, or inheritance, from the liberality of his + spiritual-daughter: every testament contrary to this edict was declared + null and void; and the illegal donation was confiscated for the use of the + treasury. By a subsequent regulation, it should seem, that the same + provisions were extended to nuns and bishops; and that all persons of the + ecclesiastical order were rendered incapable of receiving any testamentary + gifts, and strictly confined to the natural and legal rights of + inheritance. As the guardian of domestic happiness and virtue, Valentinian + applied this severe remedy to the growing evil. In the capital of the + empire, the females of noble and opulent houses possessed a very ample + share of independent property: and many of those devout females had + embraced the doctrines of Christianity, not only with the cold assent of + the understanding, but with the warmth of affection, and perhaps with the + eagerness of fashion. They sacrificed the pleasures of dress and luxury; + and renounced, for the praise of chastity, the soft endearments of + conjugal society. Some ecclesiastic, of real or apparent sanctity, was + chosen to direct their timorous conscience, and to amuse the vacant + tenderness of their heart: and the unbounded confidence, which they + hastily bestowed, was often abused by knaves and enthusiasts; who hastened + from the extremities of the East, to enjoy, on a splendid theatre, the + privileges of the monastic profession. By their contempt of the world, + they insensibly acquired its most desirable advantages; the lively + attachment, perhaps of a young and beautiful woman, the delicate plenty of + an opulent household, and the respectful homage of the slaves, the + freedmen, and the clients of a senatorial family. The immense fortunes of + the Roman ladies were gradually consumed in lavish alms and expensive + pilgrimages; and the artful monk, who had assigned himself the first, or + possibly the sole place, in the testament of his spiritual daughter, still + presumed to declare, with the smooth face of hypocrisy, that <i>he</i> was only + the instrument of charity, and the steward of the poor. The lucrative, but + disgraceful, trade, <a href="#linknote-25.78" name="linknoteref-25.78" + id="linknoteref-25.78">78</a> which was exercised by the clergy to defraud + the expectations of the natural heirs, had provoked the indignation of a + superstitious age: and two of the most respectable of the Latin fathers + very honestly confess, that the ignominious edict of Valentinian was just + and necessary; and that the Christian priests had deserved to lose a + privilege, which was still enjoyed by comedians, charioteers, and the + ministers of idols. But the wisdom and authority of the legislator are + seldom victorious in a contest with the vigilant dexterity of private + interest; and Jerom, or Ambrose, might patiently acquiesce in the justice + of an ineffectual or salutary law. If the ecclesiastics were checked in + the pursuit of personal emolument, they would exert a more laudable + industry to increase the wealth of the church; and dignify their + covetousness with the specious names of piety and patriotism. <a + href="#linknote-25.79" name="linknoteref-25.79" id="linknoteref-25.79">79</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.77" id="linknote-25.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.77">return</a>)<br /> [ Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. + tit. ii. leg. 20. Godefroy, (tom. vi. p. 49,) after the example of + Baronius, impartially collects all that the fathers have said on the + subject of this important law; whose spirit was long afterwards revived by + the emperor Frederic II., Edward I. of England, and other Christian + princes who reigned after the twelfth century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.78" id="linknote-25.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.78">return</a>)<br /> [ The expressions which I + have used are temperate and feeble, if compared with the vehement + invectives of Jerom, (tom. i. p. 13, 45, 144, &c.) In <i>his</i> turn he was + reproached with the guilt which he imputed to his brother monks; and the + <i>Sceleratus</i>, the <i>Versipellis</i>, was publicly accused as the lover of the + widow Paula, (tom. ii. p. 363.) He undoubtedly possessed the affection, + both of the mother and the daughter; but he declares that he never abused + his influence to any selfish or sensual purpose.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.79" id="linknote-25.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Pudet dicere, + sacerdotes idolorum, mimi et aurigæ, et scorta, hæreditates capiunt: + solis <i>clericis</i> ac <i>monachis</i> hac lege prohibetur. Et non prohibetur a + persecutoribus, sed a principibus Christianis. Nec de lege queror; sed + doleo cur <i>meruerimus</i> hanc legem. Jerom (tom. i. p. 13) discreetly + insinuates the secret policy of his patron Damasus.] + </p> + <p> + Damasus, bishop of Rome, who was constrained to stigmatize the avarice of + his clergy by the publication of the law of Valentinian, had the good + sense, or the good fortune, to engage in his service the zeal and + abilities of the learned Jerom; and the grateful saint has celebrated the + merit and purity of a very ambiguous character. <a href="#linknote-25.80" + name="linknoteref-25.80" id="linknoteref-25.80">80</a> But the splendid + vices of the church of Rome, under the reign of Valentinian and Damasus, + have been curiously observed by the historian Ammianus, who delivers his + impartial sense in these expressive words: “The præfecture of Juventius + was accompanied with peace and plenty, but the tranquillity of his + government was soon disturbed by a bloody sedition of the distracted + people. The ardor of Damasus and Ursinus, to seize the episcopal seat, + surpassed the ordinary measure of human ambition. They contended with the + rage of party; the quarrel was maintained by the wounds and death of their + followers; and the præfect, unable to resist or appease the tumult, was + constrained, by superior violence, to retire into the suburbs. Damasus + prevailed: the well-disputed victory remained on the side of his faction; + one hundred and thirty-seven dead bodies <a href="#linknote-25.81" + name="linknoteref-25.81" id="linknoteref-25.81">81</a> were found in the + <i>Basilica</i> of Sicininus, <a href="#linknote-25.82" name="linknoteref-25.82" + id="linknoteref-25.82">82</a> where the Christians hold their religious + assemblies; and it was long before the angry minds of the people resumed + their accustomed tranquillity. When I consider the splendor of the + capital, I am not astonished that so valuable a prize should inflame the + desires of ambitious men, and produce the fiercest and most obstinate + contests. The successful candidate is secure, that he will be enriched by + the offerings of matrons; <a href="#linknote-25.83" name="linknoteref-25.83" + id="linknoteref-25.83">83</a> that, as soon as his dress is composed with + becoming care and elegance, he may proceed, in his chariot, through the + streets of Rome; <a href="#linknote-25.84" name="linknoteref-25.84" + id="linknoteref-25.84">84</a> and that the sumptuousness of the Imperial + table will not equal the profuse and delicate entertainments provided by + the taste, and at the expense, of the Roman pontiffs. How much more + rationally (continues the honest Pagan) would those pontiffs consult their + true happiness, if, instead of alleging the greatness of the city as an + excuse for their manners, they would imitate the exemplary life of some + provincial bishops, whose temperance and sobriety, whose mean apparel and + downcast looks, recommend their pure and modest virtue to the Deity and + his true worshippers!” <a href="#linknote-25.85" name="linknoteref-25.85" + id="linknoteref-25.85">85</a> The schism of Damasus and Ursinus was + extinguished by the exile of the latter; and the wisdom of the præfect + Prætextatus <a href="#linknote-25.86" name="linknoteref-25.86" + id="linknoteref-25.86">86</a> restored the tranquillity of the city. + Prætextatus was a philosophic Pagan, a man of learning, of taste, and + politeness; who disguised a reproach in the form of a jest, when he + assured Damasus, that if he could obtain the bishopric of Rome, he himself + would immediately embrace the Christian religion. <a href="#linknote-25.87" + name="linknoteref-25.87" id="linknoteref-25.87">87</a> This lively picture + of the wealth and luxury of the popes in the fourth century becomes the + more curious, as it represents the intermediate degree between the humble + poverty of the apostolic fishermen, and the royal state of a temporal + prince, whose dominions extend from the confines of Naples to the banks of + the Po. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.80" id="linknote-25.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.80">return</a>)<br /> [ Three words of Jerom, + <i>sanctæ memoriæ Damasus</i> (tom. ii. p. 109,) wash away all his stains, and + blind the devout eyes of Tillemont. (Mem Eccles. tom. viii. p. 386-424.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.81" id="linknote-25.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Jerom himself is forced + to allow, crudelissimæ interfectiones diversi sexûs perpetratæ, (in + Chron. p. 186.) But an original <i>libel</i>, or petition of two presbyters of + the adverse party, has unaccountably escaped. They affirm that the doors + of the Basilica were burnt, and that the roof was untiled; that Damasus + marched at the head of his own clergy, grave-diggers, charioteers, and + hired gladiators; that none of <i>his</i> party were killed, but that one hundred + and sixty dead bodies were found. This petition is published by the P. + Sirmond, in the first volume of his work.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.82" id="linknote-25.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.82">return</a>)<br /> [ The <i>Basilica</i> of + Sicininus, or Liberius, is probably the church of Sancta Maria Maggiore, + on the Esquiline hill. Baronius, A. D. 367 No. 3; and Donatus, Roma + Antiqua et Nova, l. iv. c. 3, p. 462.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.83" id="linknote-25.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.83">return</a>)<br /> [ The enemies of Damasus + styled him <i>Auriscalpius Matronarum</i> the ladies’ ear-scratcher.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.84" id="linknote-25.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory Nazianzen + (Orat. xxxii. p. 526) describes the pride and luxury of the prelates who + reigned in the Imperial cities; their gilt car, fiery steeds, numerous + train, &c. The crowd gave way as to a wild beast.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.85" id="linknote-25.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxvii. 3. + Perpetuo Numini, <i>verisque</i> ejus cultoribus. The incomparable pliancy of a + polytheist!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.86" id="linknote-25.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.86">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, who makes a + fair report of his præfecture (xxvii. 9) styles him præclaræ indolis, + gravitatisque senator, (xxii. 7, and Vales. ad loc.) A curious inscription + (Grutor MCII. No. 2) records, in two columns, his religious and civil + honors. In one line he was Pontiff of the Sun, and of Vesta, Augur, + Quindecemvir, Hierophant, &c., &c. In the other, 1. Quæstor + candidatus, more probably titular. 2. Prætor. 3. Corrector of Tuscany and + Umbria. 4. Consular of Lusitania. 5. Proconsul of Achaia. 6. Præfect of + Rome. 7. Prætorian præfect of Italy. 8. Of Illyricum. 9. Consul elect; + but he died before the beginning of the year 385. See Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom v. p. 241, 736.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.87" id="linknote-25.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.87">return</a>)<br /> [ Facite me Romanæ urbis + episcopum; et ero protinus Christianus (Jerom, tom. ii. p. 165.) It is + more than probable that Damasus would not have purchased his conversion at + such a price.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap25.4"></a> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + When the suffrage of the generals and of the army committed the sceptre of + the Roman empire to the hands of Valentinian, his reputation in arms, his + military skill and experience, and his rigid attachment to the forms, as + well as spirit, of ancient discipline, were the principal motives of their + judicious choice. + </p> + <p> + The eagerness of the troops, who pressed him to nominate his colleague, + was justified by the dangerous situation of public affairs; and + Valentinian himself was conscious, that the abilities of the most active + mind were unequal to the defence of the distant frontiers of an invaded + monarchy. As soon as the death of Julian had relieved the Barbarians from + the terror of his name, the most sanguine hopes of rapine and conquest + excited the nations of the East, of the North, and of the South. Their + inroads were often vexatious, and sometimes formidable; but, during the + twelve years of the reign of Valentinian, his firmness and vigilance + protected his own dominions; and his powerful genius seemed to inspire and + direct the feeble counsels of his brother. Perhaps the method of annals + would more forcibly express the urgent and divided cares of the two + emperors; but the attention of the reader, likewise, would be distracted + by a tedious and desultory narrative. A separate view of the five great + theatres of war; I. Germany; II. Britain; III. Africa; IV. The East; and, + V. The Danube; will impress a more distinct image of the military state of + the empire under the reigns of Valentinian and Valens. + </p> + <p> + I. The ambassadors of the Alemanni had been offended by the harsh and + haughty behavior of Ursacius, master of the offices; <a + href="#linknote-25.88" name="linknoteref-25.88" id="linknoteref-25.88">88</a> + who by an act of unseasonable parsimony, had diminished the value, as well + as the quantity, of the presents to which they were entitled, either from + custom or treaty, on the accession of a new emperor. They expressed, and + they communicated to their countrymen, their strong sense of the national + affront. The irascible minds of the chiefs were exasperated by the + suspicion of contempt; and the martial youth crowded to their standard. + Before Valentinian could pass the Alps, the villages of Gaul were in + flames; before his general Degalaiphus could encounter the Alemanni, they + had secured the captives and the spoil in the forests of Germany. In the + beginning of the ensuing year, the military force of the whole nation, in + deep and solid columns, broke through the barrier of the Rhine, during the + severity of a northern winter. Two Roman counts were defeated and mortally + wounded; and the standard of the Heruli and Batavians fell + into the hands of the conquerors, who + displayed, with insulting shouts and menaces, the trophy of their victory. + The standard was recovered; but the Batavians had not redeemed the shame + of their disgrace and flight in the eyes of their severe judge. It was the + opinion of Valentinian, that his soldiers must learn to fear their + commander, before they could cease to fear the enemy. The troops were + solemnly assembled; and the trembling Batavians were enclosed within the + circle of the Imperial army. Valentinian then ascended his tribunal; and, + as if he disdained to punish cowardice with death, he inflicted a stain of + indelible ignominy on the officers, whose misconduct and pusillanimity + were found to be the first occasion of the defeat. The Batavians were + degraded from their rank, stripped of their arms, and condemned to be sold + for slaves to the highest bidder. At this tremendous sentence, the troops + fell prostrate on the ground, deprecated the indignation of their + sovereign, and protested, that, if he would indulge them in another trial, + they would approve themselves not unworthy of the name of Romans, and of + his soldiers. Valentinian, with affected reluctance, yielded to their + entreaties; the Batavians resumed their arms, and with their arms, the + invincible resolution of wiping away their disgrace in the blood of the + Alemanni. <a href="#linknote-25.89" name="linknoteref-25.89" + id="linknoteref-25.89">89</a> The principal command was declined by + Dagalaiphus; and that experienced general, who had represented, perhaps + with too much prudence, the extreme difficulties of the undertaking, had + the mortification, before the end of the campaign, of seeing his rival + Jovinus convert those difficulties into a decisive advantage over the + scattered forces of the Barbarians. At the head of a well-disciplined army + of cavalry, infantry, and light troops, Jovinus advanced, with cautious + and rapid steps, to Scarponna, <a href="#linknote-25.90" + name="linknoteref-25.90" id="linknoteref-25.90">90</a> <a + href="#linknote-25.9011" name="linknoteref-25.9011" id="linknoteref-25.9011">9011</a> + in the territory of Metz, where he surprised a large division of the + Alemanni, before they had time to run to their arms; and flushed his + soldiers with the confidence of an easy and bloodless victory. Another + division, or rather army, of the enemy, after the cruel and wanton + devastation of the adjacent country, reposed themselves on the shady banks + of the Moselle. Jovinus, who had viewed the ground with the eye of a + general, made a silent approach through a deep and woody vale, till he + could distinctly perceive the indolent security of the Germans. Some were + bathing their huge limbs in the river; others were combing their long and + flaxen hair; others again were swallowing large draughts of rich and + delicious wine. On a sudden they heard the sound of the Roman trumpet; + they saw the enemy in their camp. Astonishment produced disorder; disorder + was followed by flight and dismay; and the confused multitude of the + bravest warriors was pierced by the swords and javelins of the legionaries + and auxiliaries. The fugitives escaped to the third, and most + considerable, camp, in the Catalonian plains, near Châlons in Champagne: + the straggling detachments were hastily recalled to their standard; and + the Barbarian chiefs, alarmed and admonished by the fate of their + companions, prepared to encounter, in a decisive battle, the victorious + forces of the lieutenant of Valentinian. The bloody and obstinate conflict + lasted a whole summer’s day, with equal valor, and with alternate success. + The Romans at length prevailed, with the loss of about twelve hundred men. + Six thousand of the Alemanni were slain, four thousand were wounded; and + the brave Jovinus, after chasing the flying remnant of their host as far + as the banks of the Rhine, returned to Paris, to receive the applause of + his sovereign, and the ensigns of the consulship for the ensuing year. <a + href="#linknote-25.91" name="linknoteref-25.91" id="linknoteref-25.91">91</a> + The triumph of the Romans was indeed sullied by their treatment of the + captive king, whom they hung on a gibbet, without the knowledge of their + indignant general. This disgraceful act of cruelty, which might be imputed + to the fury of the troops, was followed by the deliberate murder of + Withicab, the son of Vadomair; a German prince, of a weak and sickly + constitution, but of a daring and formidable spirit. The domestic assassin + was instigated and protected by the Romans; <a href="#linknote-25.92" + name="linknoteref-25.92" id="linknoteref-25.92">92</a> and the violation of + the laws of humanity and justice betrayed their secret apprehension of the + weakness of the declining empire. The use of the dagger is seldom adopted + in public councils, as long as they retain any confidence in the power of + the sword. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.88" id="linknote-25.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.88">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian, xxvi. 5. + Valesius adds a long and good note on the master of the offices.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.89" id="linknote-25.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.89">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxvii. 1. + Zosimus, l. iv. p. 208. The disgrace of the Batavians is suppressed by the + contemporary soldier, from a regard for military honor, which could not + affect a Greek rhetorician of the succeeding age.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.90" id="linknote-25.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.90">return</a>)<br /> [ See D’Anville, Notice + de l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 587. The name of the Moselle, which is not + specified by Ammianus, is clearly understood by Mascou, (Hist. of the + Ancient Germans, vii. 2)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.9011" id="linknote-25.9011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9011 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.9011">return</a>)<br /> [ Charpeigne on the + Moselle. Mannert—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.91" id="linknote-25.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.91">return</a>)<br /> [ The battles are + described by Ammianus, (xxvii. 2,) and by Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 209,) who + supposes Valentinian to have been present.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.92" id="linknote-25.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Studio solicitante + nostrorum, occubuit. Ammian xxvii. 10.] + </p> + <p> + While the Alemanni appeared to be humbled by their recent calamities, the + pride of Valentinian was mortified by the unexpected surprisal of + Moguntiacum, or Mentz, the principal city of the Upper Germany. In the + unsuspicious moment of a Christian festival, <a href="#linknote-25.9211" + name="linknoteref-25.9211" id="linknoteref-25.9211">9211</a> Rando, a bold + and artful chieftain, who had long meditated his attempt, suddenly passed + the Rhine; entered the defenceless town, and retired with a multitude of + captives of either sex. Valentinian resolved to execute severe vengeance + on the whole body of the nation. Count Sebastian, with the bands of Italy + and Illyricum, was ordered to invade their country, most probably on the + side of Rhætia. The emperor in person, accompanied by his son Gratian, + passed the Rhine at the head of a formidable army, which was supported on + both flanks by Jovinus and Severus, the two masters-general of the cavalry + and infantry of the West. The Alemanni, unable to prevent the devastation + of their villages, fixed their camp on a lofty, and almost inaccessible, + mountain, in the modern duchy of Wirtemberg, and resolutely expected the + approach of the Romans. The life of Valentinian was exposed to imminent + danger by the intrepid curiosity with which he persisted to explore some + secret and unguarded path. A troop of Barbarians suddenly rose from their + ambuscade: and the emperor, who vigorously spurred his horse down a steep + and slippery descent, was obliged to leave behind him his armor-bearer, + and his helmet, magnificently enriched with gold and precious stones. At + the signal of the general assault, the Roman troops encompassed and + ascended the mountain of Solicinium on three different sides. <a + href="#linknote-25.9212" name="linknoteref-25.9212" id="linknoteref-25.9212">9212</a> + Every step which they gained, increased their ardor, and abated the + resistance of the enemy: and after their united forces had occupied the + summit of the hill, they impetuously urged the Barbarians down the + northern descent, where Count Sebastian was posted to intercept their + retreat. After this signal victory, Valentinian returned to his winter + quarters at Treves; where he indulged the public joy by the exhibition of + splendid and triumphal games. <a href="#linknote-25.93" + name="linknoteref-25.93" id="linknoteref-25.93">93</a> But the wise monarch, + instead of aspiring to the conquest of Germany, confined his attention to + the important and laborious defence of the Gallic frontier, against an + enemy whose strength was renewed by a stream of daring volunteers, which + incessantly flowed from the most distant tribes of the North. <a + href="#linknote-25.94" name="linknoteref-25.94" id="linknoteref-25.94">94</a> + The banks of the Rhine <a href="#linknote-25.9411" name="linknoteref-25.9411" + id="linknoteref-25.9411">9411</a> from its source to the straits of the + ocean, were closely planted with strong castles and convenient towers; new + works, and new arms, were invented by the ingenuity of a prince who was + skilled in the mechanical arts; and his numerous levies of Roman and + Barbarian youth were severely trained in all the exercises of war. The + progress of the work, which was sometimes opposed by modest + representations, and sometimes by hostile attempts, secured the + tranquillity of Gaul during the nine subsequent years of the + administration of Valentinian. <a href="#linknote-25.95" + name="linknoteref-25.95" id="linknoteref-25.95">95</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.9211" id="linknote-25.9211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9211 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.9211">return</a>)<br /> [ Probably Easter. + Wagner.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.9212" id="linknote-25.9212"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9212 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.9212">return</a>)<br /> [ Mannert is unable + to fix the position of Solicinium. Haefelin (in Comm Acad Elect. Palat. v. + 14) conjectures Schwetzingen, near Heidelberg. See Wagner’s note. St. + Martin, Sultz in Wirtemberg, near the sources of the Neckar St. Martin, + iii. 339.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.93" id="linknote-25.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.93">return</a>)<br /> [ The expedition of + Valentinian is related by Ammianus, (xxvii. 10;) and celebrated by + Ausonius, (Mosell. 421, &c.,) who foolishly supposes, that the Romans + were ignorant of the sources of the Danube.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.94" id="linknote-25.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Immanis enim natio, jam + inde ab incunabulis primis varietate casuum imminuta; ita sæpius + adolescit, ut fuisse longis sæculis æstimetur intacta. Ammianus, xxviii. + 5. The Count de Buat (Hist. des Peuples de l’Europe, tom. vi. p. 370) + ascribes the fecundity of the Alemanni to their easy adoption of + strangers. ——Note: “This explanation,” says Mr. Malthus, “only + removes the difficulty a little farther off. It makes the earth rest upon + the tortoise, but does not tell us on what the tortoise rests. We may + still ask what northern reservoir supplied this incessant stream of daring + adventurers. Montesquieu’s solution of the problem will, I think, hardly + be admitted, (Grandeur et Décadence des Romains, c. 16, p. 187.) * * * The + whole difficulty, however, is at once removed, if we apply to the German + nations, at that time, a fact which is so generally known to have occurred + in America, and suppose that, when not checked by wars and famine, they + increased at a rate that would double their numbers in twenty-five or + thirty years. The propriety, and even the necessity, of applying this rate + of increase to the inhabitants of ancient Germany, will strikingly appear + from that most valuable picture of their manners which has been left us by + Tacitus, (Tac. de Mor. Germ. 16 to 20.) * * * With these manners, and a + habit of enterprise and emigration, which would naturally remove all fears + about providing for a family, it is difficult to conceive a society with a + stronger principle of increase in it, and we see at once that prolific + source of armies and colonies against which the force of the Roman empire + so long struggled with difficulty, and under which it ultimately sunk. It + is not probable that, for two periods together, or even for one, the + population within the confines of Germany ever doubled itself in + twenty-five years. Their perpetual wars, the rude state of agriculture, + and particularly the very strange custom adopted by most of the tribes of + marking their barriers by extensive deserts, would prevent any very great + actual increase of numbers. At no one period could the country be called + well peopled, though it was often redundant in population. * * * Instead + of clearing their forests, draining their swamps, and rendering their soil + fit to support an extended population, they found it more congenial to + their martial habits and impatient dispositions to go in quest of food, of + plunder, or of glory, into other countries.” Malthus on Population, i. p. + 128.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.9411" id="linknote-25.9411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9411 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.9411">return</a>)<br /> [ The course of the + Neckar was likewise strongly guarded. The hyperbolical eulogy of Symmachus + asserts that the Neckar first became known to the Romans by the conquests + and fortifications of Valentinian. Nunc primum victoriis tuis externus + fluvius publicatur. Gaudeat servitute, captivus innotuit. Symm. Orat. p. + 22.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.95" id="linknote-25.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxviii. 2. + Zosimus, l. iv. p. 214. The younger Victor mentions the mechanical genius + of Valentinian, nova arma meditari fingere terra seu limo simulacra.] + </p> + <p> + That prudent emperor, who diligently practised the wise maxims of + Diocletian, was studious to foment and excite the intestine divisions of + the tribes of Germany. About the middle of the fourth century, the + countries, perhaps of Lusace and Thuringia, on either side of the Elbe, + were occupied by the vague dominion of the Burgundians; a warlike and + numerous people, <a href="#linknote-25.9511" name="linknoteref-25.9511" + id="linknoteref-25.9511">9511</a> of the Vandal race, <a + href="#linknote-25.96" name="linknoteref-25.96" id="linknoteref-25.96">96</a> + whose obscure name insensibly swelled into a powerful kingdom, and has + finally settled on a flourishing province. The most remarkable + circumstance in the ancient manners of the Burgundians appears to have + been the difference of their civil and ecclesiastical constitution. The + appellation of <i>Hendinos</i> was given to the king or general, and the title of + <i>Sinistus</i> to the high priest, of the nation. The person of the priest was + sacred, and his dignity perpetual; but the temporal government was held by + a very precarious tenure. If the events of war accuses the courage or + conduct of the king, he was immediately deposed; and the injustice of his + subjects made him responsible for the fertility of the earth, and the + regularity of the seasons, which seemed to fall more properly within the + sacerdotal department. <a href="#linknote-25.97" name="linknoteref-25.97" + id="linknoteref-25.97">97</a> The disputed possession of some salt-pits <a + href="#linknote-25.98" name="linknoteref-25.98" id="linknoteref-25.98">98</a> + engaged the Alemanni and the Burgundians in frequent contests: the latter + were easily tempted, by the secret solicitations and liberal offers of the + emperor; and their fabulous descent from the Roman soldiers, who had + formerly been left to garrison the fortresses of Drusus, was admitted with + mutual credulity, as it was conducive to mutual interest. <a + href="#linknote-25.99" name="linknoteref-25.99" id="linknoteref-25.99">99</a> + An army of fourscore thousand Burgundians soon appeared on the banks of + the Rhine; and impatiently required the support and subsidies which + Valentinian had promised: but they were amused with excuses and delays, + till at length, after a fruitless expectation, they were compelled to + retire. The arms and fortifications of the Gallic frontier checked the + fury of their just resentment; and their massacre of the captives served + to imbitter the hereditary feud of the Burgundians and the Alemanni. The + inconstancy of a wise prince may, perhaps, be explained by some alteration + of circumstances; and perhaps it was the original design of Valentinian to + intimidate, rather than to destroy; as the balance of power would have + been equally overturned by the extirpation of either of the German + nations. Among the princes of the Alemanni, Macrianus, who, with a Roman + name, had assumed the arts of a soldier and a statesman, deserved his + hatred and esteem. The emperor himself, with a light and unencumbered + band, condescended to pass the Rhine, marched fifty miles into the + country, and would infallibly have seized the object of his pursuit, if + his judicious measures had not been defeated by the impatience of the + troops. Macrianus was afterwards admitted to the honor of a personal + conference with the emperor; and the favors which he received, fixed him, + till the hour of his death, a steady and sincere friend of the republic. + <a href="#linknote-25.100" name="linknoteref-25.100" id="linknoteref-25.100">100</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.9511" id="linknote-25.9511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9511 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.9511">return</a>)<br /> [ According to the + general opinion, the Burgundians formed a Gothic o Vandalic tribe, who, + from the banks of the Lower Vistula, made incursions, on one side towards + Transylvania, on the other towards the centre of Germany. All that remains + of the Burgundian language is Gothic. * * * Nothing in their customs + indicates a different origin. Malte Brun, Geog. tom. i. p. 396. (edit. + 1831.)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.96" id="linknote-25.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.96">return</a>)<br /> [ Bellicosos et pubis + immensæ viribus affluentes; et ideo metuendos finitimis universis. + Ammian. xxviii. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.97" id="linknote-25.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.97">return</a>)<br /> [ I am always apt to + suspect historians and travellers of improving extraordinary facts into + general laws. Ammianus ascribes a similar custom to Egypt; and the Chinese + have imputed it to the Ta-tsin, or Roman empire, (De Guignes, Hist. des + Huns, tom. ii. part. 79.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.98" id="linknote-25.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.98">return</a>)<br /> [ Salinarum finiumque + causa Alemannis sæpe jurgabant. Ammian xxviii. 5. Possibly they disputed + the possession of the <i>Sala</i>, a river which produced salt, and which had + been the object of ancient contention. Tacit. Annal. xiii. 57, and Lipsius + ad loc.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.99" id="linknote-25.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.99">return</a>)<br /> [ Jam inde temporibus + priscis sobolem se esse Romanam Burgundii sciunt: and the vague tradition + gradually assumed a more regular form, (Oros. l. vii. c. 32.) It is + annihilated by the decisive authority of Pliny, who composed the History + of Drusus, and served in Germany, (Plin. Secund. Epist. iii. 5,) within + sixty years after the death of that hero. <i>Germanorum genera</i> quinque; + Vindili, quorum pars <i>Burgundiones</i>, &c., (Hist. Natur. iv. 28.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.100" id="linknote-25.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.100">return</a>)<br /> [ The wars and + negotiations relative to the Burgundians and Alemanni, are distinctly + related by Ammianus Marcellinus, (xxviii. 5, xxix 4, xxx. 3.) Orosius, (l. + vii. c. 32,) and the Chronicles of Jerom and Cassiodorus, fix some dates, + and add some circumstances.] + </p> + <p> + The land was covered by the fortifications of Valentinian; but the + sea-coast of Gaul and Britain was exposed to the depredations of the + Saxons. That celebrated name, in which we have a dear and domestic + interest, escaped the notice of Tacitus; and in the maps of Ptolemy, it + faintly marks the narrow neck of the Cimbric peninsula, and three small + islands towards the mouth of the Elbe. <a href="#linknote-25.101" + name="linknoteref-25.101" id="linknoteref-25.101">101</a> This contracted + territory, the present duchy of Sleswig, or perhaps of Holstein, was + incapable of pouring forth the inexhaustible swarms of Saxons who reigned + over the ocean, who filled the British island with their language, their + laws, and their colonies; and who so long defended the liberty of the + North against the arms of Charlemagne. <a href="#linknote-25.102" + name="linknoteref-25.102" id="linknoteref-25.102">102</a> The solution of + this difficulty is easily derived from the similar manners, and loose + constitution, of the tribes of Germany; which were blended with each other + by the slightest accidents of war or friendship. The situation of the + native Saxons disposed them to embrace the hazardous professions of + fishermen and pirates; and the success of their first adventures would + naturally excite the emulation of their bravest countrymen, who were + impatient of the gloomy solitude of their woods and mountains. Every tide + might float down the Elbe whole fleets of canoes, filled with hardy and + intrepid associates, who aspired to behold the unbounded prospect of the + ocean, and to taste the wealth and luxury of unknown worlds. It should + seem probable, however, that the most numerous auxiliaries of the Saxons + were furnished by the nations who dwelt along the shores of the Baltic. + They possessed arms and ships, the art of navigation, and the habits of + naval war; but the difficulty of issuing through the northern columns of + Hercules <a href="#linknote-25.103" name="linknoteref-25.103" + id="linknoteref-25.103">103</a> (which, during several months of the year, + are obstructed with ice) confined their skill and courage within the + limits of a spacious lake. The rumor of the successful armaments which + sailed from the mouth of the Elbe, would soon provoke them to cross the + narrow isthmus of Sleswig, and to launch their vessels on the great sea. + The various troops of pirates and adventurers, who fought under the same + standard, were insensibly united in a permanent society, at first of + rapine, and afterwards of government. A military confederation was + gradually moulded into a national body, by the gentle operation of + marriage and consanguinity; and the adjacent tribes, who solicited the + alliance, accepted the name and laws, of the Saxons. If the fact were not + established by the most unquestionable evidence, we should appear to abuse + the credulity of our readers, by the description of the vessels in which + the Saxon pirates ventured to sport in the waves of the German Ocean, the + British Channel, and the Bay of Biscay. The keel of their large + flat-bottomed boats were framed of light timber, but the sides and upper + works consisted only of wicker, with a covering of strong hides. <a + href="#linknote-25.104" name="linknoteref-25.104" id="linknoteref-25.104">104</a> + In the course of their slow and distant navigations, they must always have + been exposed to the danger, and very frequently to the misfortune, of + shipwreck; and the naval annals of the Saxons were undoubtedly filled with + the accounts of the losses which they sustained on the coasts of Britain + and Gaul. But the daring spirit of the pirates braved the perils both of + the sea and of the shore: their skill was confirmed by the habits of + enterprise; the meanest of their mariners was alike capable of handling an + oar, of rearing a sail, or of conducting a vessel, and the Saxons rejoiced + in the appearance of a tempest, which concealed their design, and + dispersed the fleets of the enemy. <a href="#linknote-25.105" + name="linknoteref-25.105" id="linknoteref-25.105">105</a> After they had + acquired an accurate knowledge of the maritime provinces of the West, they + extended the scene of their depredations, and the most sequestered places + had no reason to presume on their security. The Saxon boats drew so little + water that they could easily proceed fourscore or a hundred miles up the + great rivers; their weight was so inconsiderable, that they were + transported on wagons from one river to another; and the pirates who had + entered the mouth of the Seine, or of the Rhine, might descend, with the + rapid stream of the Rhone, into the Mediterranean. Under the reign of + Valentinian, the maritime provinces of Gaul were afflicted by the Saxons: + a military count was stationed for the defence of the sea-coast, or + Armorican limit; and that officer, who found his strength, or his + abilities, unequal to the task, implored the assistance of Severus, + master-general of the infantry. The Saxons, surrounded and outnumbered, + were forced to relinquish their spoil, and to yield a select band of their + tall and robust youth to serve in the Imperial armies. They stipulated + only a safe and honorable retreat; and the condition was readily granted + by the Roman general, who meditated an act of perfidy, <a + href="#linknote-25.106" name="linknoteref-25.106" id="linknoteref-25.106">106</a> + imprudent as it was inhuman, while a Saxon remained alive, and in arms, to + revenge the fate of their countrymen. The premature eagerness of the + infantry, who were secretly posted in a deep valley, betrayed the + ambuscade; and they would perhaps have fallen the victims of their own + treachery, if a large body of cuirassiers, alarmed by the noise of the + combat, had not hastily advanced to extricate their companions, and to + overwhelm the undaunted valor of the Saxons. Some of the prisoners were + saved from the edge of the sword, to shed their blood in the amphitheatre; + and the orator Symmachus complains, that twenty-nine of those desperate + savages, by strangling themselves with their own hands, had disappointed + the amusement of the public. Yet the polite and philosophic citizens of + Rome were impressed with the deepest horror, when they were informed, that + the Saxons consecrated to the gods the tithe of their <i>human</i> spoil; and + that they ascertained by lot the objects of the barbarous sacrifice. <a + href="#linknote-25.107" name="linknoteref-25.107" id="linknoteref-25.107">107</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.101" id="linknote-25.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.101">return</a>)<br /> [ At the northern + extremity of the peninsula, (the Cimbric promontory of Pliny, iv. 27,) + Ptolemy fixes the remnant of the <i>Cimbri</i>. He fills the interval between the + <i>Saxons</i> and the Cimbri with six obscure tribes, who were united, as early + as the sixth century, under the national appellation of <i>Danes</i>. See Cluver. + German. Antiq. l. iii. c. 21, 22, 23.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.102" id="linknote-25.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.102">return</a>)<br /> [ M. D’Anville + (Establissement des Etats de l’Europe, &c., p. 19-26) has marked the + extensive limits of the Saxony of Charlemagne.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.103" id="linknote-25.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.103">return</a>)<br /> [ The fleet of Drusus + had failed in their attempt to pass, or even to approach, the <i>Sound</i>, + (styled, from an obvious resemblance, the columns of Hercules,) and the + naval enterprise was never resumed, (Tacit. de Moribus German. c. 34.) The + knowledge which the Romans acquired of the naval powers of the Baltic, (c. + 44, 45) was obtained by their land journeys in search of amber.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.104" id="linknote-25.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.104">return</a>)<br /> [ Quin et Aremoricus + piratam <i>Saxona</i> tractus<br/> + Sperabat; cui pelle salum sulcare Britannum<br/> + Ludus; et assuto glaucum mare findere lembo.<br/> + Sidon. in Panegyr. Avit. 369. + </p> + <p> + The genius of Cæsar imitated, for a particular service, these rude, but + light vessels, which were likewise used by the natives of Britain. + (Comment. de Bell. Civil. i. 51, and Guichardt, Nouveaux Mémoires + Militaires, tom. ii. p. 41, 42.) The British vessels would now astonish + the genius of Cæsar.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.105" id="linknote-25.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.105">return</a>)<br /> [ The best original + account of the Saxon pirates may be found in Sidonius Apollinaris, (l. + viii. epist. 6, p. 223, edit. Sirmond,) and the best commentary in the + Abbé du Bos, (Hist. Critique de la Monarchie Françoise, &c. tom. i. l. + i. c. 16, p. 148-155. See likewise p. 77, 78.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.106" id="linknote-25.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.106">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. (xxviii. 5) + justifies this breach of faith to pirates and robbers; and Orosius (l. + vii. c. 32) more clearly expresses their real guilt; virtute atque + agilitate terribeles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.107" id="linknote-25.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.107">return</a>)<br /> [ Symmachus (l. ii. + epist. 46) still presumes to mention the sacred name of Socrates and + philosophy. Sidonius, bishop of Clermont, might condemn, (l. viii. epist. + 6,) with <i>less</i> inconsistency, the human sacrifices of the Saxons.] + </p> + <p> + II. The fabulous colonies of Egyptians and Trojans, of Scandinavians and + Spaniards, which flattered the pride, and amused the credulity, of our + rude ancestors, have insensibly vanished in the light of science and + philosophy. <a href="#linknote-25.108" name="linknoteref-25.108" + id="linknoteref-25.108">108</a> The present age is satisfied with the + simple and rational opinion, that the islands of Great Britain and Ireland + were gradually peopled from the adjacent continent of Gaul. From the coast + of Kent, to the extremity of Caithness and Ulster, the memory of a Celtic + origin was distinctly preserved, in the perpetual resemblance of language, + of religion, and of manners; and the peculiar characters of the British + tribes might be naturally ascribed to the influence of accidental and + local circumstances. <a href="#linknote-25.109" name="linknoteref-25.109" + id="linknoteref-25.109">109</a> The Roman Province was reduced to the state + of civilized and peaceful servitude; the rights of savage freedom were + contracted to the narrow limits of Caledonia. The inhabitants of that + northern region were divided, as early as the reign of Constantine, + between the two great tribes of the Scots and of the Picts, <a + href="#linknote-25.110" name="linknoteref-25.110" id="linknoteref-25.110">110</a> + who have since experienced a very different fortune. The power, and almost + the memory, of the Picts have been extinguished by their successful + rivals; and the Scots, after maintaining for ages the dignity of an + independent kingdom, have multiplied, by an equal and voluntary union, the + honors of the English name. The hand of nature had contributed to mark the + ancient distinctions of the Scots and Picts. The former were the men of + the hills, and the latter those of the plain. The eastern coast of + Caledonia may be considered as a level and fertile country, which, even in + a rude state of tillage, was capable of producing a considerable quantity + of corn; and the epithet of <i>cruitnich</i>, or wheat-eaters, expressed the + contempt or envy of the carnivorous highlander. The cultivation of the + earth might introduce a more accurate separation of property, and the + habits of a sedentary life; but the love of arms and rapine was still the + ruling passion of the Picts; and their warriors, who stripped themselves + for a day of battle, were distinguished, in the eyes of the Romans, by the + strange fashion of painting their naked bodies with gaudy colors and + fantastic figures. The western part of Caledonia irregularly rises into + wild and barren hills, which scarcely repay the toil of the husbandman, + and are most profitably used for the pasture of cattle. The highlanders + were condemned to the occupations of shepherds and hunters; and, as they + seldom were fixed to any permanent habitation, they acquired the + expressive name of Scots, which, in the Celtic tongue, is said to be + equivalent to that of <i>wanderers</i>, or <i>vagrants</i>. The inhabitants of a barren + land were urged to seek a fresh supply of food in the waters. The deep + lakes and bays which intersect their country, are plentifully supplied + with fish; and they gradually ventured to cast their nets in the waves of + the ocean. The vicinity of the Hebrides, so profusely scattered along the + western coast of Scotland, tempted their curiosity, and improved their + skill; and they acquired, by slow degrees, the art, or rather the habit, + of managing their boats in a tempestuous sea, and of steering their + nocturnal course by the light of the well-known stars. The two bold + headlands of Caledonia almost touch the shores of a spacious island, which + obtained, from its luxuriant vegetation, the epithet of <i>Green;</i> and has + preserved, with a slight alteration, the name of Erin, or Ierne, or + Ireland. It is <i>probable</i>, that in some remote period of antiquity, the + fertile plains of Ulster received a colony of hungry Scots; and that the + strangers of the North, who had dared to encounter the arms of the + legions, spread their conquests over the savage and unwarlike natives of a + solitary island. It is <i>certain</i>, that, in the declining age of the Roman + empire, Caledonia, Ireland, and the Isle of Man, were inhabited by the + Scots, and that the kindred tribes, who were often associated in military + enterprise, were deeply affected by the various accidents of their mutual + fortunes. They long cherished the lively tradition of their common name + and origin; and the missionaries of the Isle of Saints, who diffused the + light of Christianity over North Britain, established the vain opinion, + that their Irish countrymen were the natural, as well as spiritual, + fathers of the Scottish race. The loose and obscure tradition has been + preserved by the venerable Bede, who scattered some rays of light over the + darkness of the eighth century. On this slight foundation, a huge + superstructure of fable was gradually reared, by the bards and the monks; + two orders of men, who equally abused the privilege of fiction. The + Scottish nation, with mistaken pride, adopted their Irish genealogy; and + the annals of a long line of imaginary kings have been adorned by the + fancy of Boethius, and the classic elegance of Buchanan. <a + href="#linknote-25.111" name="linknoteref-25.111" id="linknoteref-25.111">111</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.108" id="linknote-25.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.108">return</a>)<br /> [ In the beginning of + the last century, the learned Camden was obliged to undermine, with + respectful scepticism, the romance of <i>Brutus</i>, the Trojan; who is now + buried in silent oblivion with <i>Scota</i>, the daughter of Pharaoh, and her + numerous progeny. Yet I am informed, that some champions of the <i>Milesian + colony</i> may still be found among the original natives of Ireland. A people + dissatisfied with their present condition, grasp at any visions of their + past or future glory.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.109" id="linknote-25.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacitus, or rather + his father-in-law, Agricola, might remark the German or Spanish complexion + of some British tribes. But it was their sober, deliberate opinion: “In + universum tamen æstimanti Gallos cicinum solum occupâsse credibile est. + Eorum sacra deprehendas.... ermo haud multum diversus,” (in Vit. Agricol. + c. xi.) Cæsar had observed their common religion, (Comment. de Bello + Gallico, vi. 13;) and in his time the emigration from the Belgic Gaul was + a recent, or at least an historical event, (v. 10.) Camden, the British + Strabo, has modestly ascertained our genuine antiquities, (Britannia, vol. + i. Introduction, p. ii.—xxxi.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.110" id="linknote-25.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.110">return</a>)<br /> [ In the dark and + doubtful paths of Caledonian antiquity, I have chosen for my guides two + learned and ingenious Highlanders, whom their birth and education had + peculiarly qualified for that office. See Critical Dissertations on the + Origin and Antiquities, &c., of the Caledonians, by Dr. John + Macpherson, London 1768, in 4to.; and Introduction to the History of Great + Britain and Ireland, by James Macpherson, Esq., London 1773, in 4to., + third edit. Dr. Macpherson was a minister in the Isle of Sky: and it is a + circumstance honorable for the present age, that a work, replete with + erudition and criticism, should have been composed in the most remote of + the Hebrides.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.111" id="linknote-25.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.111">return</a>)<br /> [ The Irish descent of + the Scots has been revived in the last moments of its decay, and + strenuously supported, by the Rev. Mr. Whitaker, (Hist. of Manchester, + vol. i. p. 430, 431; and Genuine History of the Britons asserted, &c., + p. 154-293) Yet he acknowledges, 1. <i>That</i> the Scots of Ammianus Marcellinus + (A.D. 340) were already settled in Caledonia; and that the Roman authors + do not afford any hints of their emigration from another country. 2. <i>That</i> + all the accounts of such emigrations, which have been asserted or + received, by Irish bards, Scotch historians, or English antiquaries, + (Buchanan, Camden, Usher, Stillingfleet, &c.,) are totally fabulous. + 3. <i>That</i> three of the Irish tribes, which are mentioned by Ptolemy, (A.D. + 150,) were of Caledonian extraction. 4. <i>That</i> a younger branch of + Caledonian princes, of the house of Fingal, acquired and possessed the + monarchy of Ireland. After these concessions, the remaining difference + between Mr. Whitaker and his adversaries is minute and obscure. The + <i>genuine history</i>, which he produces, of a Fergus, the cousin of Ossian, who + was transplanted (A.D. 320) from Ireland to Caledonia, is built on a + conjectural supplement to the Erse poetry, and the feeble evidence of + Richard of Cirencester, a monk of the fourteenth century. The lively + spirit of the learned and ingenious antiquarian has tempted him to forget + the nature of a question, which he so <i>vehemently</i> debates, and so + <i>absolutely</i> decides. * Note: This controversy has not slumbered since the + days of Gibbon. We have strenuous advocates of the Phœnician origin of + the Irish, and each of the old theories, with several new ones, maintains + its partisans. It would require several pages fairly to bring down the + dispute to our own days, and perhaps we should be no nearer to any + satisfactory theory than Gibbon was.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap25.5"></a> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + V. + </h2> + <p> + Six years after the death of Constantine, the destructive inroads of the + Scots and Picts required the presence of his youngest son, who reigned in + the Western empire. Constans visited his British dominions: but we may + form some estimate of the importance of his achievements, by the language + of panegyric, which celebrates only his triumph over the elements or, in + other words, the good fortune of a safe and easy passage from the port of + Boulogne to the harbor of Sandwich. <a href="#linknote-25.112" + name="linknoteref-25.112" id="linknoteref-25.112">112</a> The calamities + which the afflicted provincials continued to experience, from foreign war + and domestic tyranny, were aggravated by the feeble and corrupt + administration of the eunuchs of Constantius; and the transient relief + which they might obtain from the virtues of Julian, was soon lost by the + absence and death of their benefactor. The sums of gold and silver, which + had been painfully collected, or liberally transmitted, for the payment of + the troops, were intercepted by the avarice of the commanders; discharges, + or, at least, exemptions, from the military service, were publicly sold; + the distress of the soldiers, who were injuriously deprived of their legal + and scanty subsistence, provoked them to frequent desertion; the nerves of + discipline were relaxed, and the highways were infested with robbers. <a + href="#linknote-25.113" name="linknoteref-25.113" id="linknoteref-25.113">113</a> + The oppression of the good, and the impunity of the wicked, equally + contributed to diffuse through the island a spirit of discontent and + revolt; and every ambitious subject, every desperate exile, might + entertain a reasonable hope of subverting the weak and distracted + government of Britain. The hostile tribes of the North, who detested the + pride and power of the King of the World, suspended their domestic feuds; + and the Barbarians of the land and sea, the Scots, the Picts, and the + Saxons, spread themselves with rapid and irresistible fury, from the wall + of Antoninus to the shores of Kent. Every production of art and nature, + every object of convenience and luxury, which they were incapable of + creating by labor or procuring by trade, was accumulated in the rich and + fruitful province of Britain. <a href="#linknote-25.114" + name="linknoteref-25.114" id="linknoteref-25.114">114</a> A philosopher may + deplore the eternal discords of the human race, but he will confess, that + the desire of spoil is a more rational provocation than the vanity of + conquest. From the age of Constantine to the Plantagenets, this rapacious + spirit continued to instigate the poor and hardy Caledonians; but the same + people, whose generous humanity seems to inspire the songs of Ossian, was + disgraced by a savage ignorance of the virtues of peace, and of the laws + of war. Their southern neighbors have felt, and perhaps exaggerated, the + cruel depredations of the Scots and Picts; <a href="#linknote-25.115" + name="linknoteref-25.115" id="linknoteref-25.115">115</a> and a valiant + tribe of Caledonia, the Attacotti, <a href="#linknote-25.116" + name="linknoteref-25.116" id="linknoteref-25.116">116</a> the enemies, and + afterwards the soldiers, of Valentinian, are accused, by an eye-witness, + of delighting in the taste of human flesh. When they hunted the woods for + prey, it is said, that they attacked the shepherd rather than his flock; + and that they curiously selected the most delicate and brawny parts, both + of males and females, which they prepared for their horrid repasts. <a + href="#linknote-25.117" name="linknoteref-25.117" id="linknoteref-25.117">117</a> + If, in the neighborhood of the commercial and literary town of Glasgow, a + race of cannibals has really existed, we may contemplate, in the period of + the Scottish history, the opposite extremes of savage and civilized life. + Such reflections tend to enlarge the circle of our ideas; and to encourage + the pleasing hope, that New Zealand may produce, in some future age, the + Hume of the Southern Hemisphere. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.112" id="linknote-25.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.112">return</a>)<br /> [ Hyeme tumentes ac + sævientes undas calcâstis Oceani sub remis vestris;... insperatam + imperatoris faciem Britannus expavit. Julius Fermicus Maternus de Errore + Profan. Relig. p. 464. edit. Gronov. ad calcem Minuc. Fæl. See Tillemont, + (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 336.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.113" id="linknote-25.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.113">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius, Orat. + Parent. c. xxxix. p. 264. This curious passage has escaped the diligence + of our British antiquaries.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.114" id="linknote-25.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.114">return</a>)<br /> [ The Caledonians + praised and coveted the gold, the steeds, the lights, &c., of the + <i>stranger</i>. See Dr. Blair’s Dissertation on Ossian, vol ii. p. 343; and Mr. + Macpherson’s Introduction, p. 242-286.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.115" id="linknote-25.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Lord Lyttelton has + circumstantially related, (History of Henry II. vol. i. p. 182,) and Sir + David Dalrymple has slightly mentioned, (Annals of Scotland, vol. i. p. + 69,) a barbarous inroad of the Scots, at a time (A.D. 1137) when law, + religion, and society must have softened their primitive manners.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.116" id="linknote-25.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.116">return</a>)<br /> [ Attacotti bellicosa + hominum natio. Ammian. xxvii. 8. Camden (Introduct. p. clii.) has restored + their true name in the text of Jerom. The bands of Attacotti, which Jerom + had seen in Gaul, were afterwards stationed in Italy and Illyricum, + (Notitia, S. viii. xxxix. xl.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.117" id="linknote-25.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.117">return</a>)<br /> [ Cum ipse + adolescentulus in Gallia viderim Attacottos (or Scotos) gentem Britannicam + humanis vesci carnibus; et cum per silvas porcorum greges, et armentorum + percudumque reperiant, pastorum <i>nates</i> et feminarum <i>papillas</i> solere + abscindere; et has solas ciborum delicias arbitrari. Such is the evidence + of Jerom, (tom. ii. p. 75,) whose veracity I find no reason to question. * + Note: See Dr. Parr’s works, iii. 93, where he questions the propriety of + Gibbon’s translation of this passage. The learned doctor approves of the + version proposed by a Mr. Gaches, who would make out that it was the + delicate parts of the swine and the cattle, which were eaten by these + ancestors of the Scotch nation. I confess that even to acquit them of this + charge. I cannot agree to the new version, which, in my opinion, is + directly contrary both to the meaning of the words, and the general sense + of the passage. But I would suggest, did Jerom, as a boy, accompany these + savages in any of their hunting expeditions? If he did not, how could he + be an eye-witness of this practice? The Attacotti in Gaul must have been + in the service of Rome. Were they permitted to indulge these cannibal + propensities at the expense, not of the flocks, but of the shepherds of + the provinces? These sanguinary trophies of plunder would scarce’y have + been publicly exhibited in a Roman city or a Roman camp. I must leave the + hereditary pride of our northern neighbors at issue with the veracity of + St. Jerom.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Every messenger who escaped across the British Channel, conveyed the most + melancholy and alarming tidings to the ears of Valentinian; and the + emperor was soon informed that the two military commanders of the province + had been surprised and cut off by the Barbarians. Severus, count of the + domestics, was hastily despatched, and as suddenly recalled, by the court + of Treves. The representations of Jovinus served only to indicate the + greatness of the evil; and, after a long and serious consultation, the + defence, or rather the recovery, of Britain was intrusted to the abilities + of the brave Theodosius. The exploits of that general, the father of a + line of emperors, have been celebrated, with peculiar complacency, by the + writers of the age: but his real merit deserved their applause; and his + nomination was received, by the army and province, as a sure presage of + approaching victory. He seized the favorable moment of navigation, and + securely landed the numerous and veteran bands of the Heruli and + Batavians, the Jovians and the Victors. In his march from Sandwich to + London, Theodosius defeated several parties of the Barbarians, released a + multitude of captives, and, after distributing to his soldiers a small + portion of the spoil, established the fame of disinterested justice, by + the restitution of the remainder to the rightful proprietors. The citizens + of London, who had almost despaired of their safety, threw open their + gates; and as soon as Theodosius had obtained from the court of Treves the + important aid of a military lieutenant, and a civil governor, he executed, + with wisdom and vigor, the laborious task of the deliverance of Britain. + The vagrant soldiers were recalled to their standard; an edict of amnesty + dispelled the public apprehensions; and his cheerful example alleviated + the rigor of martial discipline. The scattered and desultory warfare of + the Barbarians, who infested the land and sea, deprived him of the glory + of a signal victory; but the prudent spirit, and consummate art, of the + Roman general, were displayed in the operations of two campaigns, which + successively rescued every part of the province from the hands of a cruel + and rapacious enemy. The splendor of the cities, and the security of the + fortifications, were diligently restored, by the paternal care of + Theodosius; who with a strong hand confined the trembling Caledonians to + the northern angle of the island; and perpetuated, by the name and + settlement of the new province of <i>Valentia</i>, the glories of the reign of + Valentinian. <a href="#linknote-25.118" name="linknoteref-25.118" + id="linknoteref-25.118">118</a> The voice of poetry and panegyric may add, + perhaps with some degree of truth, that the unknown regions of Thule were + stained with the blood of the Picts; that the oars of Theodosius dashed + the waves of the Hyperborean ocean; and that the distant Orkneys were the + scene of his naval victory over the Saxon pirates. <a + href="#linknote-25.119" name="linknoteref-25.119" id="linknoteref-25.119">119</a> + He left the province with a fair, as well as splendid, reputation; and was + immediately promoted to the rank of master-general of the cavalry, by a + prince who could applaud, without envy, the merit of his servants. In the + important station of the Upper Danube, the conqueror of Britain checked + and defeated the armies of the Alemanni, before he was chosen to suppress + the revolt of Africa. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.118" id="linknote-25.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.118">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus has + concisely represented (xx. l. xxvi. 4, xxvii. 8 xxviii. 3) the whole + series of the British war.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.119" id="linknote-25.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.119">return</a>)<br /> [ Horrescit.... + ratibus.... impervia Thule. Ille.... nec falso nomine Pictos Edomuit. + Scotumque vago mucrone secutus, Fregit Hyperboreas remis audacibus undas. + Claudian, in iii. Cons. Honorii, ver. 53, &c—Madurunt Saxone + fuso Orcades: incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule, Scotorum cumulos flevit + glacialis Ierne. In iv. Cons. Hon. ver. 31, &c. ——See + likewise Pacatus, (in Panegyr. Vet. xii. 5.) But it is not easy to + appreciate the intrinsic value of flattery and metaphor. Compare the + <i>British</i> victories of Bolanus (Statius, Silv. v. 2) with his real + character, (Tacit. in Vit. Agricol. c. 16.)] + </p> + <p> + III. The prince who refuses to be the judge, instructs the people to + consider him as the accomplice, of his ministers. The military command of + Africa had been long exercised by Count Romanus, and his abilities were + not inadequate to his station; but, as sordid interest was the sole motive + of his conduct, he acted, on most occasions, as if he had been the enemy + of the province, and the friend of the Barbarians of the desert. The three + flourishing cities of Oea, Leptis, and Sobrata, which, under the name of + Tripoli, had long constituted a federal union, <a href="#linknote-25.120" + name="linknoteref-25.120" id="linknoteref-25.120">120</a> were obliged, for + the first time, to shut their gates against a hostile invasion; several of + their most honorable citizens were surprised and massacred; the villages, + and even the suburbs, were pillaged; and the vines and fruit trees of that + rich territory were extirpated by the malicious savages of Getulia. The + unhappy provincials implored the protection of Romanus; but they soon + found that their military governor was not less cruel and rapacious than + the Barbarians. As they were incapable of furnishing the four thousand + camels, and the exorbitant present, which he required, before he would + march to the assistance of Tripoli; his demand was equivalent to a + refusal, and he might justly be accused as the author of the public + calamity. In the annual assembly of the three cities, they nominated two + deputies, to lay at the feet of Valentinian the customary offering of a + gold victory; and to accompany this tribute of duty, rather than of + gratitude, with their humble complaint, that they were ruined by the + enemy, and betrayed by their governor. If the severity of Valentinian had + been rightly directed, it would have fallen on the guilty head of Romanus. + But the count, long exercised in the arts of corruption, had despatched a + swift and trusty messenger to secure the venal friendship of Remigius, + master of the offices. The wisdom of the Imperial council was deceived by + artifice; and their honest indignation was cooled by delay. At length, + when the repetition of complaint had been justified by the repetition of + public misfortunes, the notary Palladius was sent from the court of + Treves, to examine the state of Africa, and the conduct of Romanus. The + rigid impartiality of Palladius was easily disarmed: he was tempted to + reserve for himself a part of the public treasure, which he brought with + him for the payment of the troops; and from the moment that he was + conscious of his own guilt, he could no longer refuse to attest the + innocence and merit of the count. The charge of the Tripolitans was + declared to be false and frivolous; and Palladius himself was sent back + from Treves to Africa, with a special commission to discover and prosecute + the authors of this impious conspiracy against the representatives of the + sovereign. His inquiries were managed with so much dexterity and success, + that he compelled the citizens of Leptis, who had sustained a recent siege + of eight days, to contradict the truth of their own decrees, and to + censure the behavior of their own deputies. A bloody sentence was + pronounced, without hesitation, by the rash and headstrong cruelty of + Valentinian. The president of Tripoli, who had presumed to pity the + distress of the province, was publicly executed at Utica; four + distinguished citizens were put to death, as the accomplices of the + imaginary fraud; and the tongues of two others were cut out, by the + express order of the emperor. Romanus, elated by impunity, and irritated + by resistance, was still continued in the military command; till the + Africans were provoked, by his avarice, to join the rebellious standard of + Firmus, the Moor. <a href="#linknote-25.121" name="linknoteref-25.121" + id="linknoteref-25.121">121</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.120" id="linknote-25.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.120">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus frequently + mentions their concilium annuum, legitimum, &c. Leptis and Sabrata are + long since ruined; but the city of Oea, the native country of Apuleius, + still flourishes under the provincial denomination of <i>Tripoli</i>. See + Cellarius (Geograph. Antiqua, tom. ii. part ii. p. 81,) D’Anville, + (Geographie Ancienne, tom. iii. p. 71, 72,) and Marmol, (Arrique, tom. ii. + p. 562.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.121" id="linknote-25.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.121">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xviii. 6. + Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p 25, 676) has discussed the + chronological difficulties of the history of Count Romanus.] + </p> + <p> + His father Nabal was one of the richest and most powerful of the Moorish + princes, who acknowledged the supremacy of Rome. But as he left, either by + his wives or concubines, a very numerous posterity, the wealthy + inheritance was eagerly disputed; and Zamma, one of his sons, was slain in + a domestic quarrel by his brother Firmus. The implacable zeal, with which + Romanus prosecuted the legal revenge of this murder, could be ascribed + only to a motive of avarice, or personal hatred; but, on this occasion, + his claims were just; his influence was weighty; and Firmus clearly + understood, that he must either present his neck to the executioner, or + appeal from the sentence of the Imperial consistory, to his sword, and to + the people. <a href="#linknote-25.122" name="linknoteref-25.122" + id="linknoteref-25.122">122</a> He was received as the deliverer of his + country; and, as soon as it appeared that Romanus was formidable only to a + submissive province, the tyrant of Africa became the object of universal + contempt. The ruin of Cæsarea, which was plundered and burnt by the + licentious Barbarians, convinced the refractory cities of the danger of + resistance; the power of Firmus was established, at least in the provinces + of Mauritania and Numidia; and it seemed to be his only doubt whether he + should assume the diadem of a Moorish king, or the purple of a Roman + emperor. But the imprudent and unhappy Africans soon discovered, that, in + this rash insurrection, they had not sufficiently consulted their own + strength, or the abilities of their leader. Before he could procure any + certain intelligence, that the emperor of the West had fixed the choice of + a general, or that a fleet of transports was collected at the mouth of the + Rhone, he was suddenly informed that the great Theodosius, with a small + band of veterans, had landed near Igilgilis, or Gigeri, on the African + coast; and the timid usurper sunk under the ascendant of virtue and + military genius. Though Firmus possessed arms and treasures, his despair + of victory immediately reduced him to the use of those arts, which, in the + same country, and in a similar situation, had formerly been practised by + the crafty Jugurtha. He attempted to deceive, by an apparent submission, + the vigilance of the Roman general; to seduce the fidelity of his troops; + and to protract the duration of the war, by successively engaging the + independent tribes of Africa to espouse his quarrel, or to protect his + flight. Theodosius imitated the example, and obtained the success, of his + predecessor Metellus. When Firmus, in the character of a suppliant, + accused his own rashness, and humbly solicited the clemency of the + emperor, the lieutenant of Valentinian received and dismissed him with a + friendly embrace: but he diligently required the useful and substantial + pledges of a sincere repentance; nor could he be persuaded, by the + assurances of peace, to suspend, for an instant, the operations of an + active war. A dark conspiracy was detected by the penetration of + Theodosius; and he satisfied, without much reluctance, the public + indignation, which he had secretly excited. Several of the guilty + accomplices of Firmus were abandoned, according to ancient custom, to the + tumult of a military execution; many more, by the amputation of both their + hands, continued to exhibit an instructive spectacle of horror; the hatred + of the rebels was accompanied with fear; and the fear of the Roman + soldiers was mingled with respectful admiration. Amidst the boundless + plains of Getulia, and the innumerable valleys of Mount Atlas, it was + impossible to prevent the escape of Firmus; and if the usurper could have + tired the patience of his antagonist, he would have secured his person in + the depth of some remote solitude, and expected the hopes of a future + revolution. He was subdued by the perseverance of Theodosius; who had + formed an inflexible determination, that the war should end only by the + death of the tyrant; and that every nation of Africa, which presumed to + support his cause, should be involved in his ruin. At the head of a small + body of troops, which seldom exceeded three thousand five hundred men, the + Roman general advanced, with a steady prudence, devoid of rashness or of + fear, into the heart of a country, where he was sometimes attacked by + armies of twenty thousand Moors. The boldness of his charge dismayed the + irregular Barbarians; they were disconcerted by his seasonable and orderly + retreats; they were continually baffled by the unknown resources of the + military art; and they felt and confessed the just superiority which was + assumed by the leader of a civilized nation. When Theodosius entered the + extensive dominions of Igmazen, king of the Isaflenses, the haughty savage + required, in words of defiance, his name, and the object of his + expedition. “I am,” replied the stern and disdainful count, “I am the + general of Valentinian, the lord of the world; who has sent me hither to + pursue and punish a desperate robber. Deliver him instantly into my hands; + and be assured, that if thou dost not obey the commands of my invincible + sovereign, thou, and the people over whom thou reignest, shall be utterly + extirpated.” <a href="#linknote-25.12211" name="linknoteref-25.12211" + id="linknoteref-25.12211">12211</a> As soon as Igmazen was satisfied, that + his enemy had strength and resolution to execute the fatal menace, he + consented to purchase a necessary peace by the sacrifice of a guilty + fugitive. The guards that were placed to secure the person of Firmus + deprived him of the hopes of escape; and the Moorish tyrant, after wine + had extinguished the sense of danger, disappointed the insulting triumph + of the Romans, by strangling himself in the night. His dead body, the only + present which Igmazen could offer to the conqueror, was carelessly thrown + upon a camel; and Theodosius, leading back his victorious troops to + Sitifi, was saluted by the warmest acclamations of joy and loyalty. <a + href="#linknote-25.123" name="linknoteref-25.123" id="linknoteref-25.123">123</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.122" id="linknote-25.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.122">return</a>)<br /> [ The Chronology of + Ammianus is loose and obscure; and Orosius (i. vii. c. 33, p. 551, edit. + Havercamp) seems to place the revolt of Firmus after the deaths of + Valentinian and Valens. Tillemont (Hist. des. Emp. tom. v. p. 691) + endeavors to pick his way. The patient and sure-foot mule of the Alps may + be trusted in the most slippery paths.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.12211" id="linknote-25.12211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12211 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.12211">return</a>)<br /> [ The war was + longer protracted than this sentence would lead us to suppose: it was not + till defeated more than once that Igmazen yielded Amm. xxix. 5.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.123" id="linknote-25.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.123">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian xxix. 5. The + text of this long chapter (fifteen quarto pages) is broken and corrupted; + and the narrative is perplexed by the want of chronological and + geographical landmarks.] + </p> + <p> + Africa had been lost by the vices of Romanus; it was restored by the + virtues of Theodosius; and our curiosity may be usefully directed to the + inquiry of the respective treatment which the two generals received from + the Imperial court. The authority of Count Romanus had been suspended by + the master-general of the cavalry; and he was committed to safe and + honorable custody till the end of the war. His crimes were proved by the + most authentic evidence; and the public expected, with some impatience, + the decree of severe justice. But the partial and powerful favor of + Mellobaudes encouraged him to challenge his legal judges, to obtain + repeated delays for the purpose of procuring a crowd of friendly + witnesses, and, finally, to cover his guilty conduct, by the additional + guilt of fraud and forgery. About the same time, the restorer of Britain + and Africa, on a vague suspicion that his name and services were superior + to the rank of a subject, was ignominiously beheaded at Carthage. + Valentinian no longer reigned; and the death of Theodosius, as well as the + impunity of Romanus, may justly be imputed to the arts of the ministers, + who abused the confidence, and deceived the inexperienced youth, of his + sons. <a href="#linknote-25.124" name="linknoteref-25.124" + id="linknoteref-25.124">124</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.124" id="linknote-25.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.124">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian xxviii. 4. + Orosius, l. vii. c. 33, p. 551, 552. Jerom. in Chron. p. 187.] + </p> + <p> + If the geographical accuracy of Ammianus had been fortunately bestowed on + the British exploits of Theodosius, we should have traced, with eager + curiosity, the distinct and domestic footsteps of his march. But the + tedious enumeration of the unknown and uninteresting tribes of Africa may + be reduced to the general remark, that they were all of the swarthy race + of the Moors; that they inhabited the back settlements of the Mauritanian + and Numidian province, the country, as they have since been termed by the + Arabs, of dates and of locusts; <a href="#linknote-25.125" + name="linknoteref-25.125" id="linknoteref-25.125">125</a> and that, as the + Roman power declined in Africa, the boundary of civilized manners and + cultivated land was insensibly contracted. Beyond the utmost limits of the + Moors, the vast and inhospitable desert of the South extends above a + thousand miles to the banks of the Niger. The ancients, who had a very + faint and imperfect knowledge of the great peninsula of Africa, were + sometimes tempted to believe, that the torrid zone must ever remain + destitute of inhabitants; <a href="#linknote-25.126" + name="linknoteref-25.126" id="linknoteref-25.126">126</a> and they sometimes + amused their fancy by filling the vacant space with headless men, or + rather monsters; <a href="#linknote-25.127" name="linknoteref-25.127" + id="linknoteref-25.127">127</a> with horned and cloven-footed satyrs; <a + href="#linknote-25.128" name="linknoteref-25.128" id="linknoteref-25.128">128</a> + with fabulous centaurs; <a href="#linknote-25.129" name="linknoteref-25.129" + id="linknoteref-25.129">129</a> and with human pygmies, who waged a bold + and doubtful warfare against the cranes. <a href="#linknote-25.130" + name="linknoteref-25.130" id="linknoteref-25.130">130</a> Carthage would + have trembled at the strange intelligence that the countries on either + side of the equator were filled with innumerable nations, who differed + only in their color from the ordinary appearance of the human species: and + the subjects of the Roman empire might have anxiously expected, that the + swarms of Barbarians, which issued from the North, would soon be + encountered from the South by new swarms of Barbarians, equally fierce and + equally formidable. These gloomy terrors would indeed have been dispelled + by a more intimate acquaintance with the character of their African + enemies. The inaction of the negroes does not seem to be the effect either + of their virtue or of their pusillanimity. They indulge, like the rest of + mankind, their passions and appetites; and the adjacent tribes are engaged + in frequent acts of hostility. <a href="#linknote-25.131" + name="linknoteref-25.131" id="linknoteref-25.131">131</a> But their rude + ignorance has never invented any effectual weapons of defence, or of + destruction; they appear incapable of forming any extensive plans of + government, or conquest; and the obvious inferiority of their mental + faculties has been discovered and abused by the nations of the temperate + zone. Sixty thousand blacks are annually embarked from the coast of + Guinea, never to return to their native country; but they are embarked in + chains; <a href="#linknote-25.132" name="linknoteref-25.132" + id="linknoteref-25.132">132</a> and this constant emigration, which, in the + space of two centuries, might have furnished armies to overrun the globe, + accuses the guilt of Europe, and the weakness of Africa. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.125" id="linknote-25.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.125">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo Africanus (in the + Viaggi di Ramusio, tom. i. fol. 78-83) has traced a curious picture of the + people and the country; which are more minutely described in the Afrique + de Marmol, tom. iii. p. 1-54.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.126" id="linknote-25.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.126">return</a>)<br /> [ This uninhabitable + zone was gradually reduced by the improvements of ancient geography, from + forty-five to twenty-four, or even sixteen degrees of latitude. See a + learned and judicious note of Dr. Robertson, Hist. of America, vol. i. p. + 426.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.127" id="linknote-25.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.127">return</a>)<br /> [ Intra, si credere + libet, vix jam homines et magis semiferi... Blemmyes, Satyri, &c. + Pomponius Mela, i. 4, p. 26, edit. Voss. in 8vo. Pliny <i>philosophically</i> + explains (vi. 35) the irregularities of nature, which he had <i>credulously</i> + admitted, (v. 8.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.128" id="linknote-25.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.128">return</a>)<br /> [ If the satyr was the + Orang-outang, the great human ape, (Buffon, Hist. Nat. tom. xiv. p. 43, + &c.,) one of that species might actually be shown alive at Alexandria, + in the reign of Constantine. Yet some difficulty will still remain about + the conversation which St. Anthony held with one of these pious savages, + in the desert of Thebais. (Jerom. in Vit. Paul. Eremit. tom. i. p. 238.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.129" id="linknote-25.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.129">return</a>)<br /> [ St. Anthony likewise + met one of <i>these</i> monsters; whose existence was seriously asserted by the + emperor Claudius. The public laughed; but his præfect of Egypt had the + address to send an artful preparation, the embalmed corpse of a + <i>Hippocentaur</i>, which was preserved almost a century afterwards in the + Imperial palace. See Pliny, (Hist. Natur. vii. 3,) and the judicious + observations of Freret. (Mémoires de l’Acad. tom. vii. p. 321, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.130" id="linknote-25.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.130">return</a>)<br /> [ The fable of the + pygmies is as old as Homer, (Iliad. iii. 6) The pygmies of India and + Æthiopia were (trispithami) twenty-seven inches high. Every spring their + cavalry (mounted on rams and goats) marched, in battle array, to destroy + the cranes’ eggs, aliter (says Pliny) futuris gregibus non resisti. Their + houses were built of mud, feathers, and egg-shells. See Pliny, (vi. 35, + vii. 2,) and Strabo, (l. ii. p. 121.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.131" id="linknote-25.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.131">return</a>)<br /> [ The third and fourth + volumes of the valuable Histoire des Voyages describe the present state of + the Negroes. The nations of the sea-coast have been polished by European + commerce; and those of the inland country have been improved by Moorish + colonies. * Note: The martial tribes in chain armor, discovered by Denham, + are Mahometan; the great question of the inferiority of the African tribes + in their mental faculties will probably be experimentally resolved before + the close of the century; but the Slave Trade still continues, and will, + it is to be feared, till the spirit of gain is subdued by the spirit of + Christian humanity.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.132" id="linknote-25.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Histoire + Philosophique et Politique, &c., tom. iv. p. 192.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap25.6"></a> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + VI. + </h2> + <p> + IV. The ignominious treaty, which saved the army of Jovian, had been + faithfully executed on the side of the Romans; and as they had solemnly + renounced the sovereignty and alliance of Armenia and Iberia, those + tributary kingdoms were exposed, without protection, to the arms of the + Persian monarch. <a href="#linknote-25.133" name="linknoteref-25.133" + id="linknoteref-25.133">133</a> Sapor entered the Armenian territories at + the head of a formidable host of cuirassiers, of archers, and of mercenary + foot; but it was the invariable practice of Sapor to mix war and + negotiation, and to consider falsehood and perjury as the most powerful + instruments of regal policy. He affected to praise the prudent and + moderate conduct of the king of Armenia; and the unsuspicious Tiranus was + persuaded, by the repeated assurances of insidious friendship, to deliver + his person into the hands of a faithless and cruel enemy. In the midst of + a splendid entertainment, he was bound in chains of silver, as an honor + due to the blood of the Arsacides; and, after a short confinement in the + Tower of Oblivion at Ecbatana, he was released from the miseries of life, + either by his own dagger, or by that of an assassin. <a + href="#linknote-25.13311" name="linknoteref-25.13311" + id="linknoteref-25.13311">13311</a> The kingdom of Armenia was reduced to + the state of a Persian province; the administration was shared between a + distinguished satrap and a favorite eunuch; and Sapor marched, without + delay, to subdue the martial spirit of the Iberians. Sauromaces, who + reigned in that country by the permission of the emperors, was expelled by + a superior force; and, as an insult on the majesty of Rome, the king of + kings placed a diadem on the head of his abject vassal Aspacuras. The city + of Artogerassa <a href="#linknote-25.134" name="linknoteref-25.134" + id="linknoteref-25.134">134</a> was the only place of Armenia <a + href="#linknote-25.13411" name="linknoteref-25.13411" + id="linknoteref-25.13411">13411</a> which presumed to resist the efforts of + his arms. The treasure deposited in that strong fortress tempted the + avarice of Sapor; but the danger of Olympias, the wife or widow of the + Armenian king, excited the public compassion, and animated the desperate + valor of her subjects and soldiers. <a href="#linknote-25.13412" + name="linknoteref-25.13412" id="linknoteref-25.13412">13412</a> The Persians + were surprised and repulsed under the walls of Artogerassa, by a bold and + well-concerted sally of the besieged. But the forces of Sapor were + continually renewed and increased; the hopeless courage of the garrison + was exhausted; the strength of the walls yielded to the assault; and the + proud conqueror, after wasting the rebellious city with fire and sword, + led away captive an unfortunate queen; who, in a more auspicious hour, had + been the destined bride of the son of Constantine. <a + href="#linknote-25.135" name="linknoteref-25.135" id="linknoteref-25.135">135</a> + Yet if Sapor already triumphed in the easy conquest of two dependent + kingdoms, he soon felt, that a country is unsubdued as long as the minds + of the people are actuated by a hostile and contumacious spirit. The + satraps, whom he was obliged to trust, embraced the first opportunity of + regaining the affection of their countrymen, and of signalizing their + immortal hatred to the Persian name. Since the conversion of the Armenians + and Iberians, these nations considered the Christians as the favorites, + and the Magians as the adversaries, of the Supreme Being: the influence of + the clergy, over a superstitious people was uniformly exerted in the cause + of Rome; and as long as the successors of Constantine disputed with those + of Artaxerxes the sovereignty of the intermediate provinces, the religious + connection always threw a decisive advantage into the scale of the empire. + A numerous and active party acknowledged Para, the son of Tiranus, as the + lawful sovereign of Armenia, and his title to the throne was deeply rooted + in the hereditary succession of five hundred years. By the unanimous + consent of the Iberians, the country was equally divided between the rival + princes; and Aspacuras, who owed his diadem to the choice of Sapor, was + obliged to declare, that his regard for his children, who were detained as + hostages by the tyrant, was the only consideration which prevented him + from openly renouncing the alliance of Persia. The emperor Valens, who + respected the obligations of the treaty, and who was apprehensive of + involving the East in a dangerous war, ventured, with slow and cautious + measures, to support the Roman party in the kingdoms of Iberia and + Armenia. <a href="#linknote-25.13511" name="linknoteref-25.13511" + id="linknoteref-25.13511">13511</a> Twelve legions established the + authority of Sauromaces on the banks of the Cyrus. The Euphrates was + protected by the valor of Arintheus. A powerful army, under the command of + Count Trajan, and of Vadomair, king of the Alemanni, fixed their camp on + the confines of Armenia. But they were strictly enjoined not to commit the + first hostilities, which might be understood as a breach of the treaty: + and such was the implicit obedience of the Roman general, that they + retreated, with exemplary patience, under a shower of Persian arrows till + they had clearly acquired a just title to an honorable and legitimate + victory. Yet these appearances of war insensibly subsided in a vain and + tedious negotiation. The contending parties supported their claims by + mutual reproaches of perfidy and ambition; and it should seem, that the + original treaty was expressed in very obscure terms, since they were + reduced to the necessity of making their inconclusive appeal to the + partial testimony of the generals of the two nations, who had assisted at + the negotiations. <a href="#linknote-25.136" name="linknoteref-25.136" + id="linknoteref-25.136">136</a> The invasion of the Goths and Huns which + soon afterwards shook the foundations of the Roman empire, exposed the + provinces of Asia to the arms of Sapor. But the declining age, and perhaps + the infirmities, of the monarch suggested new maxims of tranquillity and + moderation. His death, which happened in the full maturity of a reign of + seventy years, changed in a moment the court and councils of Persia; and + their attention was most probably engaged by domestic troubles, and the + distant efforts of a Carmanian war. <a href="#linknote-25.137" + name="linknoteref-25.137" id="linknoteref-25.137">137</a> The remembrance of + ancient injuries was lost in the enjoyment of peace. The kingdoms of + Armenia and Iberia were permitted, by the mutual,though tacit consent of + both empires, to resume their doubtful neutrality. In the first years of + the reign of Theodosius, a Persian embassy arrived at Constantinople, to + excuse the unjustifiable measures of the former reign; and to offer, as + the tribute of friendship, or even of respect, a splendid present of gems, + of silk, and of Indian elephants. <a href="#linknote-25.138" + name="linknoteref-25.138" id="linknoteref-25.138">138</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.133" id="linknote-25.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.133">return</a>)<br /> [ The evidence of + Ammianus is original and decisive, (xxvii. 12.) Moses of Chorene, (l. iii. + c. 17, p. 249, and c. 34, p. 269,) and Procopius, (de Bell. Persico, l. i. + c. 5, p. 17, edit. Louvre,) have been consulted: but those historians who + confound distinct facts, repeat the same events, and introduce strange + stories, must be used with diffidence and caution. Note: The statement of + Ammianus is more brief and succinct, but harmonizes with the more + complicated history developed by M. St. Martin from the Armenian writers, + and from Procopius, who wrote, as he states from Armenian authorities.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.13311" id="linknote-25.13311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13311 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.13311">return</a>)<br /> [ According to M. + St. Martin, Sapor, though supported by the two apostate Armenian princes, + Meroujan the Ardzronnian and Vahan the Mamigonian, was gallantly resisted + by Arsaces, and his brave though impious wife Pharandsem. His troops were + defeated by Vasag, the high constable of the kingdom. (See M. St. Martin.) + But after four years’ courageous defence of his kingdom, Arsaces was + abandoned by his nobles, and obliged to accept the perfidious hospitality + of Sapor. He was blinded and imprisoned in the “Castle of Oblivion;” his + brave general Vasag was flayed alive; his skin stuffed and placed near the + king in his lonely prison. It was not till many years after (A.D. 371) + that he stabbed himself, according to the romantic story, (St. M. iii. + 387, 389,) in a paroxysm of excitement at his restoration to royal honors. + St. Martin, Additions to Le Beau, iii. 283, 296.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.134" id="linknote-25.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.134">return</a>)<br /> [ Perhaps Artagera, or + Ardis; under whose walls Caius, the grandson of Augustus, was wounded. + This fortress was situate above Amida, near one of the sources of the + Tigris. See D’Anville, Geographie Ancienue, tom. ii. p. 106. * Note: St. + Martin agrees with Gibbon, that it was the same fortress with Ardis Note, + p. 373.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.13411" id="linknote-25.13411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13411 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.13411">return</a>)<br /> [ Artaxata, + Vagharschabad, or Edchmiadzin, Erovantaschad, and many other cities, in + all of which there was a considerable Jewish population were taken and + destroyed.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.13412" id="linknote-25.13412"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13412 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.13412">return</a>)<br /> [ Pharandsem, not + Olympias, refusing the orders of her captive husband to surrender herself + to Sapor, threw herself into Artogerassa St. Martin, iii. 293, 302. She + defended herself for fourteen months, till famine and disease had left few + survivors out of 11,000 soldiers and 6000 women who had taken refuge in + the fortress. She then threw open the gates with her own hand. M. St. + Martin adds, what even the horrors of Oriental warfare will scarcely + permit us to credit, that she was exposed by Sapor on a public scaffold to + the brutal lusts of his soldiery, and afterwards empaled, iii. 373, &c.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.135" id="linknote-25.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.135">return</a>)<br /> [ Tillemont (Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. v. p. 701) proves, from chronology, that Olympias must + have been the mother of Para. Note *: An error according to St. M. 273.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.13511" id="linknote-25.13511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13511 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.13511">return</a>)<br /> [ According to + Themistius, quoted by St. Martin, he once advanced to the Tigris, iii. + 436.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.136" id="linknote-25.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.136">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxvii. 12, + xix. 1. xxx. 1, 2) has described the events, without the dates, of the + Persian war. Moses of Chorene (Hist. Armen. l. iii. c. 28, p. 261, c. 31, + p. 266, c. 35, p. 271) affords some additional facts; but it is extremely + difficult to separate truth from fable.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.137" id="linknote-25.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.137">return</a>)<br /> [ Artaxerxes was the + successor and brother (<i>the cousin-german</i>) of the great Sapor; and the + guardian of his son, Sapor III. (Agathias, l. iv. p. 136, edit. Louvre.) + See the Universal History, vol. xi. p. 86, 161. The authors of that + unequal work have compiled the Sassanian dynasty with erudition and + diligence; but it is a preposterous arrangement to divide the Roman and + Oriental accounts into two distinct histories. * Note: On the war of Sapor + with the Bactrians, which diverted from Armenia, see St. M. iii. 387.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.138" id="linknote-25.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.138">return</a>)<br /> [ Pacatus in Panegyr. + Vet. xii. 22, and Orosius, l. vii. c. 34. Ictumque tum fœdus est, quo + universus Oriens usque ad num (A. D. 416) tranquillissime fruitur.] + </p> + <p> + In the general picture of the affairs of the East under the reign of + Valens, the adventures of Para form one of the most striking and singular + objects. The noble youth, by the persuasion of his mother Olympias, had + escaped through the Persian host that besieged Artogerassa, and implored + the protection of the emperor of the East. By his timid councils, Para was + alternately supported, and recalled, and restored, and betrayed. The hopes + of the Armenians were sometimes raised by the presence of their natural + sovereign, <a href="#linknote-25.13811" name="linknoteref-25.13811" + id="linknoteref-25.13811">13811</a> and the ministers of Valens were + satisfied, that they preserved the integrity of the public faith, if their + vassal was not suffered to assume the diadem and title of King. But they + soon repented of their own rashness. They were confounded by the + reproaches and threats of the Persian monarch. They found reason to + distrust the cruel and inconstant temper of Para himself; who sacrificed, + to the slightest suspicions, the lives of his most faithful servants, and + held a secret and disgraceful correspondence with the assassin of his + father and the enemy of his country. Under the specious pretence of + consulting with the emperor on the subject of their common interest, Para + was persuaded to descend from the mountains of Armenia, where his party + was in arms, and to trust his independence and safety to the discretion of + a perfidious court. The king of Armenia, for such he appeared in his own + eyes and in those of his nation, was received with due honors by the + governors of the provinces through which he passed; but when he arrived at + Tarsus in Cilicia, his progress was stopped under various pretences; his + motions were watched with respectful vigilance, and he gradually + discovered, that he was a prisoner in the hands of the Romans. Para + suppressed his indignation, dissembled his fears, and after secretly + preparing his escape, mounted on horseback with three hundred of his + faithful followers. The officer stationed at the door of his apartment + immediately communicated his flight to the consular of Cilicia, who + overtook him in the suburbs, and endeavored without success, to dissuade + him from prosecuting his rash and dangerous design. A legion was ordered + to pursue the royal fugitive; but the pursuit of infantry could not be + very alarming to a body of light cavalry; and upon the first cloud of + arrows that was discharged into the air, they retreated with precipitation + to the gates of Tarsus. After an incessant march of two days and two + nights, Para and his Armenians reached the banks of the Euphrates; but the + passage of the river which they were obliged to swim, <a + href="#linknote-25.13812" name="linknoteref-25.13812" + id="linknoteref-25.13812">13812</a> was attended with some delay and some + loss. The country was alarmed; and the two roads, which were only + separated by an interval of three miles had been occupied by a thousand + archers on horseback, under the command of a count and a tribune. Para + must have yielded to superior force, if the accidental arrival of a + friendly traveller had not revealed the danger and the means of escape. A + dark and almost impervious path securely conveyed the Armenian troop + through the thicket; and Para had left behind him the count and the + tribune, while they patiently expected his approach along the public + highways. They returned to the Imperial court to excuse their want of + diligence or success; and seriously alleged, that the king of Armenia, who + was a skilful magician, had transformed himself and his followers, and + passed before their eyes under a borrowed shape. <a + href="#linknote-25.13813" name="linknoteref-25.13813" + id="linknoteref-25.13813">13813</a> After his return to his native kingdom, + Para still continued to profess himself the friend and ally of the Romans: + but the Romans had injured him too deeply ever to forgive, and the secret + sentence of his death was signed in the council of Valens. The execution + of the bloody deed was committed to the subtle prudence of Count Trajan; + and he had the merit of insinuating himself into the confidence of the + credulous prince, that he might find an opportunity of stabbing him to the + heart Para was invited to a Roman banquet, which had been prepared with + all the pomp and sensuality of the East; the hall resounded with cheerful + music, and the company was already heated with wine; when the count + retired for an instant, drew his sword, and gave the signal of the murder. + A robust and desperate Barbarian instantly rushed on the king of Armenia; + and though he bravely defended his life with the first weapon that chance + offered to his hand, the table of the Imperial general was stained with + the royal blood of a guest, and an ally. Such were the weak and wicked + maxims of the Roman administration, that, to attain a doubtful object of + political interest the laws of nations, and the sacred rights of + hospitality were inhumanly violated in the face of the world. <a + href="#linknote-25.139" name="linknoteref-25.139" id="linknoteref-25.139">139</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.13811" id="linknote-25.13811"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13811 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.13811">return</a>)<br /> [ On the reconquest + of Armenia by Para, or rather by Mouschegh, the Mamigonian see St. M. iii. + 375, 383.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.13812" id="linknote-25.13812"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13812 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.13812">return</a>)<br /> [ On planks floated + by bladders.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.13813" id="linknote-25.13813"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13813 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.13813">return</a>)<br /> [ It is curious + enough that the Armenian historian, Faustus of Byzandum, represents Para + as a magician. His impious mother Pharandac had devoted him to the demons + on his birth. St. M. iv. 23.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.139" id="linknote-25.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.139">return</a>)<br /> [ See in Ammianus (xxx. + 1) the adventures of Para. Moses of Chorene calls him Tiridates; and tells + a long, and not improbable story of his son Gnelus, who afterwards made + himself popular in Armenia, and provoked the jealousy of the reigning + king, (l. iii. c 21, &c., p. 253, &c.) * Note: This note is a + tissue of mistakes. Tiridates and Para are two totally different persons. + Tiridates was the father of Gnel first husband of Pharandsem, the mother + of Para. St. Martin, iv. 27—M.] + </p> + <p> + V. During a peaceful interval of thirty years, the Romans secured their + frontiers, and the Goths extended their dominions. The victories of the + great Hermanric, <a href="#linknote-25.140" name="linknoteref-25.140" + id="linknoteref-25.140">140</a> king of the Ostrogoths, and the most noble + of the race of the Amali, have been compared, by the enthusiasm of his + countrymen, to the exploits of Alexander; with this singular, and almost + incredible, difference, that the martial spirit of the Gothic hero, + instead of being supported by the vigor of youth, was displayed with glory + and success in the extreme period of human life, between the age of + fourscore and one hundred and ten years. The independent tribes were + persuaded, or compelled, to acknowledge the king of the Ostrogoths as the + sovereign of the Gothic nation: the chiefs of the Visigoths, or Thervingi, + renounced the royal title, and assumed the more humble appellation of + <i>Judges;</i> and, among those judges, Athanaric, Fritigern, and Alavivus, were + the most illustrious, by their personal merit, as well as by their + vicinity to the Roman provinces. These domestic conquests, which increased + the military power of Hermanric, enlarged his ambitious designs. He + invaded the adjacent countries of the North; and twelve considerable + nations, whose names and limits cannot be accurately defined, successively + yielded to the superiority of the Gothic arms. <a href="#linknote-25.141" + name="linknoteref-25.141" id="linknoteref-25.141">141</a> The Heruli, who + inhabited the marshy lands near the lake Mæotis, were renowned for their + strength and agility; and the assistance of their light infantry was + eagerly solicited, and highly esteemed, in all the wars of the Barbarians. + But the active spirit of the Heruli was subdued by the slow and steady + perseverance of the Goths; and, after a bloody action, in which the king + was slain, the remains of that warlike tribe became a useful accession to + the camp of Hermanric. + </p> + <p> + He then marched against the Venedi; unskilled in the use of arms, and + formidable only by their numbers, which filled the wide extent of the + plains of modern Poland. The victorious Goths, who were not inferior in + numbers, prevailed in the contest, by the decisive advantages of exercise + and discipline. After the submission of the Venedi, the conqueror + advanced, without resistance, as far as the confines of the Æstii; <a + href="#linknote-25.142" name="linknoteref-25.142" id="linknoteref-25.142">142</a> + an ancient people, whose name is still preserved in the province of + Esthonia. Those distant inhabitants of the Baltic coast were supported by + the labors of agriculture, enriched by the trade of amber, and consecrated + by the peculiar worship of the Mother of the Gods. But the scarcity of + iron obliged the Æstian warriors to content themselves with wooden clubs; + and the reduction of that wealthy country is ascribed to the prudence, + rather than to the arms, of Hermanric. His dominions, which extended from + the Danube to the Baltic, included the native seats, and the recent + acquisitions, of the Goths; and he reigned over the greatest part of + Germany and Scythia with the authority of a conqueror, and sometimes with + the cruelty of a tyrant. But he reigned over a part of the globe incapable + of perpetuating and adorning the glory of its heroes. The name of + Hermanric is almost buried in oblivion; his exploits are imperfectly + known; and the Romans themselves appeared unconscious of the progress of + an aspiring power which threatened the liberty of the North, and the peace + of the empire. <a href="#linknote-25.143" name="linknoteref-25.143" + id="linknoteref-25.143">143</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.140" id="linknote-25.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.140">return</a>)<br /> [ The concise account + of the reign and conquests of Hermanric seems to be one of the valuable + fragments which Jornandes (c 28) borrowed from the Gothic histories of + Ablavius, or Cassiodorus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.141" id="linknote-25.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.141">return</a>)<br /> [ M. d. Buat. (Hist. + des Peuples de l’Europe, tom. vi. p. 311-329) investigates, with more + industry than success, the nations subdued by the arms of Hermanric. He + denies the existence of the <i>Vasinobroncæ</i>, on account of the immoderate + length of their name. Yet the French envoy to Ratisbon, or Dresden, must + have traversed the country of the <i>Mediomatrici</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.142" id="linknote-25.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.142">return</a>)<br /> [ The edition of + Grotius (Jornandes, p. 642) exhibits the name of <i>Æstri</i>. But reason and + the Ambrosian MS. have restored the <i>Æstii</i>, whose manners and situation + are expressed by the pencil of Tacitus, (Germania, c. 45.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.143" id="linknote-25.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.143">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxxi. 3) + observes, in general terms, Ermenrichi.... nobilissimi Regis, et per multa + variaque fortiter facta, vicinigentibus formidati, &c.] + </p> + <p> + The Goths had contracted an hereditary attachment for the Imperial house + of Constantine, of whose power and liberality they had received so many + signal proofs. They respected the public peace; and if a hostile band + sometimes presumed to pass the Roman limit, their irregular conduct was + candidly ascribed to the ungovernable spirit of the Barbarian youth. Their + contempt for two new and obscure princes, who had been raised to the + throne by a popular election, inspired the Goths with bolder hopes; and, + while they agitated some design of marching their confederate force under + the national standard, <a href="#linknote-25.144" name="linknoteref-25.144" + id="linknoteref-25.144">144</a> they were easily tempted to embrace the + party of Procopius; and to foment, by their dangerous aid, the civil + discord of the Romans. The public treaty might stipulate no more than ten + thousand auxiliaries; but the design was so zealously adopted by the + chiefs of the Visigoths, that the army which passed the Danube amounted to + the number of thirty thousand men. <a href="#linknote-25.145" + name="linknoteref-25.145" id="linknoteref-25.145">145</a> They marched with + the proud confidence, that their invincible valor would decide the fate of + the Roman empire; and the provinces of Thrace groaned under the weight of + the Barbarians, who displayed the insolence of masters and the + licentiousness of enemies. But the intemperance which gratified their + appetites, retarded their progress; and before the Goths could receive any + certain intelligence of the defeat and death of Procopius, they perceived, + by the hostile state of the country, that the civil and military powers + were resumed by his successful rival. A chain of posts and fortifications, + skilfully disposed by Valens, or the generals of Valens, resisted their + march, prevented their retreat, and intercepted their subsistence. The + fierceness of the Barbarians was tamed and suspended by hunger; they + indignantly threw down their arms at the feet of the conqueror, who + offered them food and chains: the numerous captives were distributed in + all the cities of the East; and the provincials, who were soon + familiarized with their savage appearance, ventured, by degrees, to + measure their own strength with these formidable adversaries, whose name + had so long been the object of their terror. The king of Scythia (and + Hermanric alone could deserve so lofty a title) was grieved and + exasperated by this national calamity. His ambassadors loudly complained, + at the court of Valens, of the infraction of the ancient and solemn + alliance, which had so long subsisted between the Romans and the Goths. + They alleged, that they had fulfilled the duty of allies, by assisting the + kinsman and successor of the emperor Julian; they required the immediate + restitution of the noble captives; and they urged a very singular claim, + that the Gothic generals marching in arms, and in hostile array, were + entitled to the sacred character and privileges of ambassadors. The + decent, but peremptory, refusal of these extravagant demands, was + signified to the Barbarians by Victor, master-general of the cavalry; who + expressed, with force and dignity, the just complaints of the emperor of + the East. <a href="#linknote-25.146" name="linknoteref-25.146" + id="linknoteref-25.146">146</a> The negotiation was interrupted; and the + manly exhortations of Valentinian encouraged his timid brother to + vindicate the insulted majesty of the empire. <a href="#linknote-25.147" + name="linknoteref-25.147" id="linknoteref-25.147">147</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.144" id="linknote-25.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.144">return</a>)<br /> [ Valens. ... docetur + relationibus Ducum, gentem Gothorum, ea tempestate intactam ideoque + sævissimam, conspirantem in unum, ad pervadenda parari collimitia + Thraciarum. Ammian. xxi. 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.145" id="linknote-25.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.145">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Buat (Hist. des + Peuples de l’Europe, tom. vi. p. 332) has curiously ascertained the real + number of these auxiliaries. The 3000 of Ammianus, and the 10,000 of + Zosimus, were only the first divisions of the Gothic army. * Note: M. St. + Martin (iii. 246) denies that there is any authority for these numbers.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.146" id="linknote-25.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.146">return</a>)<br /> [ The march, and + subsequent negotiation, are described in the Fragments of Eunapius, + (Excerpt. Legat. p. 18, edit. Louvre.) The provincials who afterwards + became familiar with the Barbarians, found that their strength was more + apparent than real. They were tall of stature; but their legs were clumsy, + and their shoulders were narrow.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.147" id="linknote-25.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.147">return</a>)<br /> [ Valens enim, ut + consulto placuerat fratri, cujus regebatur arbitrio, arma concussit in + Gothos ratione justâ permotus. Ammianus (xxvii. 4) then proceeds to + describe, not the country of the Goths, but the peaceful and obedient + province of Thrace, which was not affected by the war.] + </p> + <p> + The splendor and magnitude of this Gothic war are celebrated by a + contemporary historian: <a href="#linknote-25.148" name="linknoteref-25.148" + id="linknoteref-25.148">148</a> but the events scarcely deserve the + attention of posterity, except as the preliminary steps of the approaching + decline and fall of the empire. Instead of leading the nations of Germany + and Scythia to the banks of the Danube, or even to the gates of + Constantinople, the aged monarch of the Goths resigned to the brave + Athanaric the danger and glory of a defensive war, against an enemy, who + wielded with a feeble hand the powers of a mighty state. A bridge of boats + was established upon the Danube; the presence of Valens animated his + troops; and his ignorance of the art of war was compensated by personal + bravery, and a wise deference to the advice of Victor and Arintheus, his + masters-general of the cavalry and infantry. The operations of the + campaign were conducted by their skill and experience; but they found it + impossible to drive the Visigoths from their strong posts in the + mountains; and the devastation of the plains obliged the Romans themselves + to repass the Danube on the approach of winter. The incessant rains, which + swelled the waters of the river, produced a tacit suspension of arms, and + confined the emperor Valens, during the whole course of the ensuing + summer, to his camp of Marcianopolis. The third year of the war was more + favorable to the Romans, and more pernicious to the Goths. The + interruption of trade deprived the Barbarians of the objects of luxury, + which they already confounded with the necessaries of life; and the + desolation of a very extensive tract of country threatened them with the + horrors of famine. Athanaric was provoked, or compelled, to risk a battle, + which he lost, in the plains; and the pursuit was rendered more bloody by + the cruel precaution of the victorious generals, who had promised a large + reward for the head of every Goth that was brought into the Imperial camp. + The submission of the Barbarians appeased the resentment of Valens and his + council: the emperor listened with satisfaction to the flattering and + eloquent remonstrance of the senate of Constantinople, which assumed, for + the first time, a share in the public deliberations; and the same + generals, Victor and Arintheus, who had successfully directed the conduct + of the war, were empowered to regulate the conditions of peace. The + freedom of trade, which the Goths had hitherto enjoyed, was restricted to + two cities on the Danube; the rashness of their leaders was severely + punished by the suppression of their pensions and subsidies; and the + exception, which was stipulated in favor of Athanaric alone, was more + advantageous than honorable to the Judge of the Visigoths. Athanaric, who, + on this occasion, appears to have consulted his private interest, without + expecting the orders of his sovereign, supported his own dignity, and that + of his tribe, in the personal interview which was proposed by the + ministers of Valens. He persisted in his declaration, that it was + impossible for him, without incurring the guilt of perjury, ever to set + his foot on the territory of the empire; and it is more than probable, + that his regard for the sanctity of an oath was confirmed by the recent + and fatal examples of Roman treachery. The Danube, which separated the + dominions of the two independent nations, was chosen for the scene of the + conference. The emperor of the East, and the Judge of the Visigoths, + accompanied by an equal number of armed followers, advanced in their + respective barges to the middle of the stream. After the ratification of + the treaty, and the delivery of hostages, Valens returned in triumph to + Constantinople; and the Goths remained in a state of tranquillity about + six years; till they were violently impelled against the Roman empire by + an innumerable host of Scythians, who appeared to issue from the frozen + regions of the North. <a href="#linknote-25.149" name="linknoteref-25.149" + id="linknoteref-25.149">149</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.148" id="linknote-25.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.148">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius, in Excerpt. + Legat. p. 18, 19. The Greek sophist must have considered as <i>one</i> and the + <i>same</i> war, the whole series of Gothic history till the victories and peace + of Theodosius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.149" id="linknote-25.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.149">return</a>)<br /> [ The Gothic war is + described by Ammianus, (xxvii. 6,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 211-214,) and + Themistius, (Orat. x. p. 129-141.) The orator Themistius was sent from the + senate of Constantinople to congratulate the victorious emperor; and his + servile eloquence compares Valens on the Danube to Achilles in the + Scamander. Jornandes forgets a war peculiar to the <i>Visi</i>-Goths, and + inglorious to the Gothic name, (Mascon’s Hist. of the Germans, vii. 3.)] + </p> + <p> + The emperor of the West, who had resigned to his brother the command of + the Lower Danube, reserved for his immediate care the defence of the + Rhætian and Illyrian provinces, which spread so many hundred miles along + the greatest of the European rivers. The active policy of Valentinian was + continually employed in adding new fortifications to the security of the + frontier: but the abuse of this policy provoked the just resentment of the + Barbarians. The Quadi complained, that the ground for an intended fortress + had been marked out on their territories; and their complaints were urged + with so much reason and moderation, that Equitius, master-general of + Illyricum, consented to suspend the prosecution of the work, till he + should be more clearly informed of the will of his sovereign. This fair + occasion of injuring a rival, and of advancing the fortune of his son, was + eagerly embraced by the inhuman Maximin, the præfect, or rather tyrant, + of Gaul. The passions of Valentinian were impatient of control; and he + credulously listened to the assurances of his favorite, that if the + government of Valeria, and the direction of the work, were intrusted to + the zeal of his son Marcellinus, the emperor should no longer be + importuned with the audacious remonstrances of the Barbarians. The + subjects of Rome, and the natives of Germany, were insulted by the + arrogance of a young and worthless minister, who considered his rapid + elevation as the proof and reward of his superior merit. He affected, + however, to receive the modest application of Gabinius, king of the Quadi, + with some attention and regard: but this artful civility concealed a dark + and bloody design, and the credulous prince was persuaded to accept the + pressing invitation of Marcellinus. I am at a loss how to vary the + narrative of similar crimes; or how to relate, that, in the course of the + same year, but in remote parts of the empire, the inhospitable table of + two Imperial generals was stained with the royal blood of two guests and + allies, inhumanly murdered by their order, and in their presence. The fate + of Gabinius, and of Para, was the same: but the cruel death of their + sovereign was resented in a very different manner by the servile temper of + the Armenians, and the free and daring spirit of the Germans. The Quadi + were much declined from that formidable power, which, in the time of + Marcus Antoninus, had spread terror to the gates of Rome. But they still + possessed arms and courage; their courage was animated by despair, and + they obtained the usual reenforcement of the cavalry of their Sarmatian + allies. So improvident was the assassin Marcellinus, that he chose the + moment when the bravest veterans had been drawn away, to suppress the + revolt of Firmus; and the whole province was exposed, with a very feeble + defence, to the rage of the exasperated Barbarians. They invaded Pannonia + in the season of harvest; unmercifully destroyed every object of plunder + which they could not easily transport; and either disregarded, or + demolished, the empty fortifications. The princess Constantia, the + daughter of the emperor Constantius, and the granddaughter of the great + Constantine, very narrowly escaped. That royal maid, who had innocently + supported the revolt of Procopius, was now the destined wife of the heir + of the Western empire. She traversed the peaceful province with a splendid + and unarmed train. Her person was saved from danger, and the republic from + disgrace, by the active zeal of Messala, governor of the provinces. As + soon as he was informed that the village, where she stopped only to dine, + was almost encompassed by the Barbarians, he hastily placed her in his own + chariot, and drove full speed till he reached the gates of Sirmium, which + were at the distance of six-and-twenty miles. Even Sirmium might not have + been secure, if the Quadi and Sarmatians had diligently advanced during + the general consternation of the magistrates and people. Their delay + allowed Probus, the Prætorian præfect, sufficient time to recover his + own spirits, and to revive the courage of the citizens. He skilfully + directed their strenuous efforts to repair and strengthen the decayed + fortifications; and procured the seasonable and effectual assistance of a + company of archers, to protect the capital of the Illyrian provinces. + Disappointed in their attempts against the walls of Sirmium, the indignant + Barbarians turned their arms against the master general of the frontier, + to whom they unjustly attributed the murder of their king. Equitius could + bring into the field no more than two legions; but they contained the + veteran strength of the Mæsian and Pannonian bands. The obstinacy with + which they disputed the vain honors of rank and precedency, was the cause + of their destruction; and while they acted with separate forces and + divided councils, they were surprised and slaughtered by the active vigor + of the Sarmatian horse. The success of this invasion provoked the + emulation of the bordering tribes; and the province of Mæsia would + infallibly have been lost, if young Theodosius, the duke, or military + commander, of the frontier, had not signalized, in the defeat of the + public enemy, an intrepid genius, worthy of his illustrious father, and of + his future greatness. <a href="#linknote-25.150" name="linknoteref-25.150" + id="linknoteref-25.150">150</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.150" id="linknote-25.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.150">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxix. 6) + and Zosimus (I. iv. p. 219, 220) carefully mark the origin and progress of + the Quadic and Sarmatian war.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap25.7"></a> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + VII. + </h2> + <p> + The mind of Valentinian, who then resided at Treves, was deeply affected + by the calamities of Illyricum; but the lateness of the season suspended + the execution of his designs till the ensuing spring. He marched in + person, with a considerable part of the forces of Gaul, from the banks of + the Moselle: and to the suppliant ambassadors of the Sarmatians, who met + him on the way, he returned a doubtful answer, that, as soon as he reached + the scene of action, he should examine, and pronounce. When he arrived at + Sirmium, he gave audience to the deputies of the Illyrian provinces; who + loudly congratulated their own felicity under the auspicious government of + Probus, his Prætorian præfect. <a href="#linknote-25.151" + name="linknoteref-25.151" id="linknoteref-25.151">151</a> Valentinian, who + was flattered by these demonstrations of their loyalty and gratitude, + imprudently asked the deputy of Epirus, a Cynic philosopher of intrepid + sincerity, <a href="#linknote-25.152" name="linknoteref-25.152" + id="linknoteref-25.152">152</a> whether he was freely sent by the wishes of + the province. “With tears and groans am I sent,” replied Iphicles, “by a + reluctant people.” The emperor paused: but the impunity of his ministers + established the pernicious maxim, that they might oppress his subjects, + without injuring his service. A strict inquiry into their conduct would + have relieved the public discontent. The severe condemnation of the murder + of Gabinius, was the only measure which could restore the confidence of + the Germans, and vindicate the honor of the Roman name. But the haughty + monarch was incapable of the magnanimity which dares to acknowledge a + fault. He forgot the provocation, remembered only the injury, and advanced + into the country of the Quadi with an insatiate thirst of blood and + revenge. The extreme devastation, and promiscuous massacre, of a savage + war, were justified, in the eyes of the emperor, and perhaps in those of + the world, by the cruel equity of retaliation: <a href="#linknote-25.153" + name="linknoteref-25.153" id="linknoteref-25.153">153</a> and such was the + discipline of the Romans, and the consternation of the enemy, that + Valentinian repassed the Danube without the loss of a single man. As he + had resolved to complete the destruction of the Quadi by a second + campaign, he fixed his winter quarters at Bregetio, on the Danube, near + the Hungarian city of Presburg. While the operations of war were suspended + by the severity of the weather, the Quadi made an humble attempt to + deprecate the wrath of their conqueror; and, at the earnest persuasion of + Equitius, their ambassadors were introduced into the Imperial council. + They approached the throne with bended bodies and dejected countenances; + and without daring to complain of the murder of their king, they affirmed, + with solemn oaths, that the late invasion was the crime of some irregular + robbers, which the public council of the nation condemned and abhorred. + The answer of the emperor left them but little to hope from his clemency + or compassion. He reviled, in the most intemperate language, their + baseness, their ingratitude, their insolence. His eyes, his voice, his + color, his gestures, expressed the violence of his ungoverned fury; and + while his whole frame was agitated with convulsive passion, a large blood + vessel suddenly burst in his body; and Valentinian fell speechless into + the arms of his attendants. Their pious care immediately concealed his + situation from the crowd; but, in a few minutes, the emperor of the West + expired in an agony of pain, retaining his senses till the last; and + struggling, without success, to declare his intentions to the generals and + ministers, who surrounded the royal couch. Valentinian was about + fifty-four years of age; and he wanted only one hundred days to accomplish + the twelve years of his reign. <a href="#linknote-25.154" + name="linknoteref-25.154" id="linknoteref-25.154">154</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.151" id="linknote-25.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.151">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, (xxx. 5,) + who acknowledges the merit, has censured, with becoming asperity, the + oppressive administration of Petronius Probus. When Jerom translated and + continued the Chronicle of Eusebius, (A. D. 380; see Tillemont, Mém. + Eccles. tom. xii. p. 53, 626,) he expressed the truth, or at least the + public opinion of his country, in the following words: “Probus P. P. + Illyrici inquissimus tributorum exactionibus, ante provincias quas + regebat, quam a Barbaris vastarentur, <i>erasit</i>.” (Chron. edit. Scaliger, p. + 187. Animadvers p. 259.) The Saint afterwards formed an intimate and + tender friendship with the widow of Probus; and the name of Count Equitius + with less propriety, but without much injustice, has been substituted in + the text.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.152" id="linknote-25.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.152">return</a>)<br /> [ Julian (Orat. vi. p. + 198) represents his friend Iphicles, as a man of virtue and merit, who had + made himself ridiculous and unhappy by adopting the extravagant dress and + manners of the Cynics.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.153" id="linknote-25.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.153">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxx. v. + Jerom, who exaggerates the misfortune of Valentinian, refuses him even + this last consolation of revenge. Genitali vastato solo et <i>inultam</i> patriam + derelinquens, (tom. i. p. 26.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.154" id="linknote-25.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.154">return</a>)<br /> [ See, on the death of + Valentinian, Ammianus, (xxx. 6,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 221,) Victor, (in + Epitom.,) Socrates, (l. iv. c. 31,) and Jerom, (in Chron. p. 187, and tom. + i. p. 26, ad Heliodor.) There is much variety of circumstances among them; + and Ammianus is so eloquent, that he writes nonsense.] + </p> + <p> + The polygamy of Valentinian is seriously attested by an ecclesiastical + historian. <a href="#linknote-25.155" name="linknoteref-25.155" + id="linknoteref-25.155">155</a> “The empress Severa (I relate the fable) + admitted into her familiar society the lovely Justina, the daughter of an + Italian governor: her admiration of those naked charms, which she had + often seen in the bath, was expressed with such lavish and imprudent + praise, that the emperor was tempted to introduce a second wife into his + bed; and his public edict extended to all the subjects of the empire the + same domestic privilege which he had assumed for himself.” But we may be + assured, from the evidence of reason as well as history, that the two + marriages of Valentinian, with Severa, and with Justina, were <i>successively</i> + contracted; and that he used the ancient permission of divorce, which was + still allowed by the laws, though it was condemned by the church. Severa + was the mother of Gratian, who seemed to unite every claim which could + entitle him to the undoubted succession of the Western empire. He was the + eldest son of a monarch whose glorious reign had confirmed the free and + honorable choice of his fellow-soldiers. Before he had attained the ninth + year of his age, the royal youth received from the hands of his indulgent + father the purple robe and diadem, with the title of Augustus; the + election was solemnly ratified by the consent and applause of the armies + of Gaul; <a href="#linknote-25.156" name="linknoteref-25.156" + id="linknoteref-25.156">156</a> and the name of Gratian was added to the + names of Valentinian and Valens, in all the legal transactions of the + Roman government. By his marriage with the granddaughter of Constantine, + the son of Valentinian acquired all the hereditary rights of the Flavian + family; which, in a series of three Imperial generations, were sanctified + by time, religion, and the reverence of the people. At the death of his + father, the royal youth was in the seventeenth year of his age; and his + virtues already justified the favorable opinion of the army and the + people. But Gratian resided, without apprehension, in the palace of + Treves; whilst, at the distance of many hundred miles, Valentinian + suddenly expired in the camp of Bregetio. The passions, which had been so + long suppressed by the presence of a master, immediately revived in the + Imperial council; and the ambitious design of reigning in the name of an + infant, was artfully executed by Mellobaudes and Equitius, who commanded + the attachment of the Illyrian and Italian bands. They contrived the most + honorable pretences to remove the popular leaders, and the troops of Gaul, + who might have asserted the claims of the lawful successor; they suggested + the necessity of extinguishing the hopes of foreign and domestic enemies, + by a bold and decisive measure. The empress Justina, who had been left in + a palace about one hundred miles from Bregetio, was respectively invited + to appear in the camp, with the son of the deceased emperor. On the sixth + day after the death of Valentinian, the infant prince of the same name, + who was only four years old, was shown, in the arms of his mother, to the + legions; and solemnly invested, by military acclamation, with the titles + and ensigns of supreme power. The impending dangers of a civil war were + seasonably prevented by the wise and moderate conduct of the emperor + Gratian. He cheerfully accepted the choice of the army; declared that he + should always consider the son of Justina as a brother, not as a rival; + and advised the empress, with her son Valentinian to fix their residence + at Milan, in the fair and peaceful province of Italy; while he assumed the + more arduous command of the countries beyond the Alps. Gratian dissembled + his resentment till he could safely punish, or disgrace, the authors of + the conspiracy; and though he uniformly behaved with tenderness and regard + to his infant colleague, he gradually confounded, in the administration of + the Western empire, the office of a guardian with the authority of a + sovereign. The government of the Roman world was exercised in the united + names of Valens and his two nephews; but the feeble emperor of the East, + who succeeded to the rank of his elder brother, never obtained any weight + or influence in the councils of the West. <a href="#linknote-25.157" + name="linknoteref-25.157" id="linknoteref-25.157">157</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.155" id="linknote-25.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.155">return</a>)<br /> [ Socrates (l. iv. c. + 31) is the only original witness of this foolish story, so repugnant to + the laws and manners of the Romans, that it scarcely deserved the formal + and elaborate dissertation of M. Bonamy, (Mém. de l’Académie, tom. xxx. p. + 394-405.) Yet I would preserve the natural circumstance of the bath; + instead of following Zosimus who represents Justina as an old woman, the + widow of Magnentius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.156" id="linknote-25.156"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.156">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxvii. 6) + describes the form of this military election, and <i>august</i> investiture. + Valentinian does not appear to have consulted, or even informed, the + senate of Rome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-25.157" id="linknote-25.157"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-25.157">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xxx. 10. + Zosimus, l. iv. p. 222, 223. Tillemont has proved (Hist. des Empereurs, + tom. v. p. 707-709) that Gratian <i>reigned</i> in Italy, Africa, and Illyricum. + I have endeavored to express his authority over his brother’s dominions, + as he used it, in an ambiguous style.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap26.1"></a> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Manners Of The Pastoral Nations.—Progress Of The Huns, From + China To Europe.—Flight Of The Goths.—They Pass The + Danube.—Gothic War.—Defeat And Death Of Valens.—Gratian + Invests Theodosius With The Eastern Empire.—His Character + And Success.—Peace And Settlement Of The Goths. +</pre> + <p> + In the second year of the reign of Valentinian and Valens, on the morning + of the twenty-first day of July, the greatest part of the Roman world was + shaken by a violent and destructive earthquake. The impression was + communicated to the waters; the shores of the Mediterranean were left dry, + by the sudden retreat of the sea; great quantities of fish were caught + with the hand; large vessels were stranded on the mud; and a curious + spectator <a href="#linknote-26.1" name="linknoteref-26.1" + id="linknoteref-26.1">1</a> amused his eye, or rather his fancy, by + contemplating the various appearance of valleys and mountains, which had + never, since the formation of the globe, been exposed to the sun. But the + tide soon returned, with the weight of an immense and irresistible deluge, + which was severely felt on the coasts of Sicily, of Dalmatia, of Greece, + and of Egypt: large boats were transported, and lodged on the roofs of + houses, or at the distance of two miles from the shore; the people, with + their habitations, were swept away by the waters; and the city of + Alexandria annually commemorated the fatal day, on which fifty thousand + persons had lost their lives in the inundation. This calamity, the report + of which was magnified from one province to another, astonished and + terrified the subjects of Rome; and their affrighted imagination enlarged + the real extent of a momentary evil. They recollected the preceding + earthquakes, which had subverted the cities of Palestine and Bithynia: + they considered these alarming strokes as the prelude only of still more + dreadful calamities, and their fearful vanity was disposed to confound the + symptoms of a declining empire and a sinking world. <a href="#linknote-26.2" + name="linknoteref-26.2" id="linknoteref-26.2">2</a> It was the fashion of + the times to attribute every remarkable event to the particular will of + the Deity; the alterations of nature were connected, by an invisible + chain, with the moral and metaphysical opinions of the human mind; and the + most sagacious divines could distinguish, according to the color of their + respective prejudices, that the establishment of heresy tended to produce + an earthquake; or that a deluge was the inevitable consequence of the + progress of sin and error. Without presuming to discuss the truth or + propriety of these lofty speculations, the historian may content himself + with an observation, which seems to be justified by experience, that man + has much more to fear from the passions of his fellow-creatures, than from + the convulsions of the elements. <a href="#linknote-26.3" + name="linknoteref-26.3" id="linknoteref-26.3">3</a> The mischievous effects + of an earthquake, or deluge, a hurricane, or the eruption of a volcano, + bear a very inconsiderable portion to the ordinary calamities of war, as + they are now moderated by the prudence or humanity of the princes of + Europe, who amuse their own leisure, and exercise the courage of their + subjects, in the practice of the military art. But the laws and manners of + modern nations protect the safety and freedom of the vanquished soldier; + and the peaceful citizen has seldom reason to complain, that his life, or + even his fortune, is exposed to the rage of war. In the disastrous period + of the fall of the Roman empire, which may justly be dated from the reign + of Valens, the happiness and security of each individual were personally + attacked; and the arts and labors of ages were rudely defaced by the + Barbarians of Scythia and Germany. The invasion of the Huns precipitated + on the provinces of the West the Gothic nation, which advanced, in less + than forty years, from the Danube to the Atlantic, and opened a way, by + the success of their arms, to the inroads of so many hostile tribes, more + savage than themselves. The original principle of motion was concealed in + the remote countries of the North; and the curious observation of the + pastoral life of the Scythians, <a href="#linknote-26.4" + name="linknoteref-26.4" id="linknoteref-26.4">4</a> or Tartars, <a + href="#linknote-26.5" name="linknoteref-26.5" id="linknoteref-26.5">5</a> + will illustrate the latent cause of these destructive emigrations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.1" id="linknote-26.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.1">return</a>)<br /> [ Such is the bad taste of + Ammianus, (xxvi. 10,) that it is not easy to distinguish his facts from + his metaphors. Yet he positively affirms, that he saw the rotten carcass + of a ship, <i>ad decundum lapidem</i>, at Mothone, or Modon, in Peloponnesus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.2" id="linknote-26.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.2">return</a>)<br /> [ The earthquakes and + inundations are variously described by Libanius, (Orat. de ulciscenda + Juliani nece, c. x., in Fabricius, Bibl. Græc. tom. vii. p. 158, with a + learned note of Olearius,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 221,) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. + 2,) Cedrenus, (p. 310, 314,) and Jerom, (in Chron. p. 186, and tom. i. p. + 250, in Vit. Hilarion.) Epidaurus must have been overwhelmed, had not the + prudent citizens placed St. Hilarion, an Egyptian monk, on the beach. He + made the sign of the Cross; the mountain-wave stopped, bowed, and + returned.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.3" id="linknote-26.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Dicæarchus, the + Peripatetic, composed a formal treatise, to prove this obvious truth; + which is not the most honorable to the human species. (Cicero, de + Officiis, ii. 5.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.4" id="linknote-26.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.4">return</a>)<br /> [ The original Scythians of + Herodotus (l. iv. c. 47—57, 99—101) were confined, by the + Danube and the Palus Mæotis, within a square of 4000 stadia, (400 Roman + miles.) See D’Anville (Mém. de l’Académie, tom. xxxv. p. 573—591.) + Diodorus Siculus (tom. i. l. ii. p. 155, edit. Wesseling) has marked the + gradual progress of the <i>name</i> and nation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.5" id="linknote-26.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.5">return</a>)<br /> [ The <i>Tatars</i>, or Tartars, + were a primitive tribe, the rivals, and at length the subjects, of the + Moguls. In the victorious armies of Zingis Khan, and his successors, the + Tartars formed the vanguard; and the name, which first reached the ears of + foreigners, was applied to the whole nation, (Freret, in the Hist. de + l’Académie, tom. xviii. p. 60.) In speaking of all, or any of the northern + shepherds of Europe, or Asia, I indifferently use the appellations of + <i>Scythians</i> or <i>Tartars</i>. * Note: The Moguls, (Mongols,) according to M. + Klaproth, are a tribe of the Tartar nation. Tableaux Hist. de l’Asie, p. + 154.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The different characters that mark the civilized nations of the globe, may + be ascribed to the use, and the abuse, of reason; which so variously + shapes, and so artificially composes, the manners and opinions of a + European, or a Chinese. But the operation of instinct is more sure and + simple than that of reason: it is much easier to ascertain the appetites + of a quadruped than the speculations of a philosopher; and the savage + tribes of mankind, as they approach nearer to the condition of animals, + preserve a stronger resemblance to themselves and to each other. The + uniform stability of their manners is the natural consequence of the + imperfection of their faculties. Reduced to a similar situation, their + wants, their desires, their enjoyments, still continue the same: and the + influence of food or climate, which, in a more improved state of society, + is suspended, or subdued, by so many moral causes, most powerfully + contributes to form, and to maintain, the national character of + Barbarians. In every age, the immense plains of Scythia, or Tartary, have + been inhabited by vagrant tribes of hunters and shepherds, whose indolence + refuses to cultivate the earth, and whose restless spirit disdains the + confinement of a sedentary life. In every age, the Scythians, and Tartars, + have been renowned for their invincible courage and rapid conquests. The + thrones of Asia have been repeatedly overturned by the shepherds of the + North; and their arms have spread terror and devastation over the most + fertile and warlike countries of Europe. <a href="#linknote-26.6" + name="linknoteref-26.6" id="linknoteref-26.6">6</a> On this occasion, as + well as on many others, the sober historian is forcibly awakened from a + pleasing vision; and is compelled, with some reluctance, to confess, that + the pastoral manners, which have been adorned with the fairest attributes + of peace and innocence, are much better adapted to the fierce and cruel + habits of a military life. To illustrate this observation, I shall now + proceed to consider a nation of shepherds and of warriors, in the three + important articles of, I. Their diet; II. Their habitations; and, III. + Their exercises. The narratives of antiquity are justified by the + experience of modern times; <a href="#linknote-26.7" name="linknoteref-26.7" + id="linknoteref-26.7">7</a> and the banks of the Borysthenes, of the Volga, + or of the Selinga, will indifferently present the same uniform spectacle + of similar and native manners. <a href="#linknote-26.8" + name="linknoteref-26.8" id="linknoteref-26.8">8</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.6" id="linknote-26.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.6">return</a>)<br /> [ Imperium Asiæ <i>ter</i> + quæsivere: ipsi perpetuo ab alieno imperio, aut intacti aut invicti, + mansere. Since the time of Justin, (ii. 2,) they have multiplied this + account. Voltaire, in a few words, (tom. x. p. 64, Hist. Generale, c. + 156,) has abridged the Tartar conquests.<br /><br /> + Oft o’er the trembling nations from afar,<br /> + Has Scythia breathed the living cloud of war.<br /> + Note *: Gray.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.7" id="linknote-26.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.7">return</a>)<br /> [ The fourth book of + Herodotus affords a curious though imperfect, portrait of the Scythians. + Among the moderns, who describe the uniform scene, the Khan of Khowaresm, + Abulghazi Bahadur, expresses his native feelings; and his genealogical + history of the Tartars has been copiously illustrated by the French and + English editors. Carpin, Ascelin, and Rubruquis (in the Hist. des Voyages, + tom. vii.) represent the Moguls of the fourteenth century. To these guides + I have added Gerbillon, and the other Jesuits, (Description de la China + par du Halde, tom. iv.,) who accurately surveyed the Chinese Tartary; and + that honest and intelligent traveller, Bell, of Antermony, (two volumes in + 4to. Glasgow, 1763.) * Note: Of the various works published since the time + of Gibbon, which throw fight on the nomadic population of Central Asia, + may be particularly remarked the Travels and Dissertations of Pallas; and + above all, the very curious work of Bergman, Nomadische Streifereyen. + Riga, 1805.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.8" id="linknote-26.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.8">return</a>)<br /> [ The Uzbecks are the most + altered from their primitive manners; 1. By the profession of the + Mahometan religion; and 2. By the possession of the cities and harvests of + the great Bucharia.] + </p> + <p> + I. The corn, or even the rice, which constitutes the ordinary and + wholesome food of a civilized people, can be obtained only by the patient + toil of the husbandman. Some of the happy savages, who dwell between the + tropics, are plentifully nourished by the liberality of nature; but in the + climates of the North, a nation of shepherds is reduced to their flocks + and herds. The skilful practitioners of the medical art will determine (if + they are able to determine) how far the temper of the human mind may be + affected by the use of animal, or of vegetable, food; and whether the + common association of carniverous and cruel deserves to be considered in + any other light than that of an innocent, perhaps a salutary, prejudice of + humanity. <a href="#linknote-26.9" name="linknoteref-26.9" + id="linknoteref-26.9">9</a> Yet, if it be true, that the sentiment of + compassion is imperceptibly weakened by the sight and practice of domestic + cruelty, we may observe, that the horrid objects which are disguised by + the arts of European refinement, are exhibited in their naked and most + disgusting simplicity in the tent of a Tartarian shepherd. The ox, or the + sheep, are slaughtered by the same hand from which they were accustomed to + receive their daily food; and the bleeding limbs are served, with very + little preparation, on the table of their unfeeling murderer. In the + military profession, and especially in the conduct of a numerous army, the + exclusive use of animal food appears to be productive of the most solid + advantages. Corn is a bulky and perishable commodity; and the large + magazines, which are indispensably necessary for the subsistence of our + troops, must be slowly transported by the labor of men or horses. But the + flocks and herds, which accompany the march of the Tartars, afford a sure + and increasing supply of flesh and milk: in the far greater part of the + uncultivated waste, the vegetation of the grass is quick and luxuriant; + and there are few places so extremely barren, that the hardy cattle of the + North cannot find some tolerable pasture. + </p> + <p> + The supply is multiplied and prolonged by the undistinguishing appetite, + and patient abstinence, of the Tartars. They indifferently feed on the + flesh of those animals that have been killed for the table, or have died + of disease. Horseflesh, which in every age and country has been proscribed + by the civilized nations of Europe and Asia, they devour with peculiar + greediness; and this singular taste facilitates the success of their + military operations. The active cavalry of Scythia is always followed, in + their most distant and rapid incursions, by an adequate number of spare + horses, who may be occasionally used, either to redouble the speed, or to + satisfy the hunger, of the Barbarians. Many are the resources of courage + and poverty. When the forage round a camp of Tartars is almost consumed, + they slaughter the greatest part of their cattle, and preserve the flesh, + either smoked, or dried in the sun. On the sudden emergency of a hasty + march, they provide themselves with a sufficient quantity of little balls + of cheese, or rather of hard curd, which they occasionally dissolve in + water; and this unsubstantial diet will support, for many days, the life, + and even the spirits, of the patient warrior. But this extraordinary + abstinence, which the Stoic would approve, and the hermit might envy, is + commonly succeeded by the most voracious indulgence of appetite. The wines + of a happier climate are the most grateful present, or the most valuable + commodity, that can be offered to the Tartars; and the only example of + their industry seems to consist in the art of extracting from mare’s milk + a fermented liquor, which possesses a very strong power of intoxication. + Like the animals of prey, the savages, both of the old and new world, + experience the alternate vicissitudes of famine and plenty; and their + stomach is inured to sustain, without much inconvenience, the opposite + extremes of hunger and of intemperance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.9" id="linknote-26.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Il est certain que les + grands mangeurs de viande sont en général cruels et féroces plus que les + autres hommes. Cette observation est de tous les lieux, et de tous les + temps: la barbarie Angloise est connue, &c. Emile de Rousseau, tom. i. + p. 274. Whatever we may think of the general observation, <i>we</i> shall not + easily allow the truth of his example. The good-natured complaints of + Plutarch, and the pathetic lamentations of Ovid, seduce our reason, by + exciting our sensibility.] + </p> + <p> + II. In the ages of rustic and martial simplicity, a people of soldiers and + husbandmen are dispersed over the face of an extensive and cultivated + country; and some time must elapse before the warlike youth of Greece or + Italy could be assembled under the same standard, either to defend their + own confines, or to invade the territories of the adjacent tribes. The + progress of manufactures and commerce insensibly collects a large + multitude within the walls of a city: but these citizens are no longer + soldiers; and the arts which adorn and improve the state of civil society, + corrupt the habits of the military life. The pastoral manners of the + Scythians seem to unite the different advantages of simplicity and + refinement. The individuals of the same tribe are constantly assembled, + but they are assembled in a camp; and the native spirit of these dauntless + shepherds is animated by mutual support and emulation. The houses of the + Tartars are no more than small tents, of an oval form, which afford a cold + and dirty habitation, for the promiscuous youth of both sexes. The palaces + of the rich consist of wooden huts, of such a size that they may be + conveniently fixed on large wagons, and drawn by a team perhaps of twenty + or thirty oxen. The flocks and herds, after grazing all day in the + adjacent pastures, retire, on the approach of night, within the protection + of the camp. The necessity of preventing the most mischievous confusion, + in such a perpetual concourse of men and animals, must gradually + introduce, in the distribution, the order, and the guard, of the + encampment, the rudiments of the military art. As soon as the forage of a + certain district is consumed, the tribe, or rather army, of shepherds, + makes a regular march to some fresh pastures; and thus acquires, in the + ordinary occupations of the pastoral life, the practical knowledge of one + of the most important and difficult operations of war. The choice of + stations is regulated by the difference of the seasons: in the summer, the + Tartars advance towards the North, and pitch their tents on the banks of a + river, or, at least, in the neighborhood of a running stream. But in the + winter, they return to the South, and shelter their camp, behind some + convenient eminence, against the winds, which are chilled in their passage + over the bleak and icy regions of Siberia. These manners are admirably + adapted to diffuse, among the wandering tribes, the spirit of emigration + and conquest. The connection between the people and their territory is of + so frail a texture, that it may be broken by the slightest accident. The + camp, and not the soil, is the native country of the genuine Tartar. + Within the precincts of that camp, his family, his companions, his + property, are always included; and, in the most distant marches, he is + still surrounded by the objects which are dear, or valuable, or familiar + in his eyes. The thirst of rapine, the fear, or the resentment of injury, + the impatience of servitude, have, in every age, been sufficient causes to + urge the tribes of Scythia boldly to advance into some unknown countries, + where they might hope to find a more plentiful subsistence or a less + formidable enemy. The revolutions of the North have frequently determined + the fate of the South; and in the conflict of hostile nations, the victor + and the vanquished have alternately drove, and been driven, from the + confines of China to those of Germany. <a href="#linknote-26.10" + name="linknoteref-26.10" id="linknoteref-26.10">10</a> These great + emigrations, which have been sometimes executed with almost incredible + diligence, were rendered more easy by the peculiar nature of the climate. + It is well known that the cold of Tartary is much more severe than in the + midst of the temperate zone might reasonably be expected; this uncommon + rigor is attributed to the height of the plains, which rise, especially + towards the East, more than half a mile above the level of the sea; and to + the quantity of saltpetre with which the soil is deeply impregnated. <a + href="#linknote-26.11" name="linknoteref-26.11" id="linknoteref-26.11">11</a> + In the winter season, the broad and rapid rivers, that discharge their + waters into the Euxine, the Caspian, or the Icy Sea, are strongly frozen; + the fields are covered with a bed of snow; and the fugitive, or + victorious, tribes may securely traverse, with their families, their + wagons, and their cattle, the smooth and hard surface of an immense plain. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.10" id="linknote-26.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.10">return</a>)<br /> [ These Tartar + emigrations have been discovered by M. de Guignes (Histoire des Huns, tom. + i. ii.) a skilful and laborious interpreter of the Chinese language; who + has thus laid open new and important scenes in the history of mankind.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.11" id="linknote-26.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.11">return</a>)<br /> [ A plain in the Chinese + Tartary, only eighty leagues from the great wall, was found by the + missionaries to be three thousand geometrical paces above the level of the + sea. Montesquieu, who has used, and abused, the relations of travellers, + deduces the revolutions of Asia from this important circumstance, that + heat and cold, weakness and strength, touch each other without any + temperate zone, (Esprit des Loix, l. xvii. c. 3.)] + </p> + <p> + III. The pastoral life, compared with the labors of agriculture and + manufactures, is undoubtedly a life of idleness; and as the most honorable + shepherds of the Tartar race devolve on their captives the domestic + management of the cattle, their own leisure is seldom disturbed by any + servile and assiduous cares. But this leisure, instead of being devoted to + the soft enjoyments of love and harmony, is usefully spent in the violent + and sanguinary exercise of the chase. The plains of Tartary are filled + with a strong and serviceable breed of horses, which are easily trained + for the purposes of war and hunting. The Scythians of every age have been + celebrated as bold and skilful riders; and constant practice had seated + them so firmly on horseback, that they were supposed by strangers to + perform the ordinary duties of civil life, to eat, to drink, and even to + sleep, without dismounting from their steeds. They excel in the dexterous + management of the lance; the long Tartar bow is drawn with a nervous arm; + and the weighty arrow is directed to its object with unerring aim and + irresistible force. These arrows are often pointed against the harmless + animals of the desert, which increase and multiply in the absence of their + most formidable enemy; the hare, the goat, the roebuck, the fallow-deer, + the stag, the elk, and the antelope. The vigor and patience, both of the + men and horses, are continually exercised by the fatigues of the chase; + and the plentiful supply of game contributes to the subsistence, and even + luxury, of a Tartar camp. But the exploits of the hunters of Scythia are + not confined to the destruction of timid or innoxious beasts; they boldly + encounter the angry wild boar, when he turns against his pursuers, excite + the sluggish courage of the bear, and provoke the fury of the tiger, as he + slumbers in the thicket. Where there is danger, there may be glory; and + the mode of hunting, which opens the fairest field to the exertions of + valor, may justly be considered as the image, and as the school, of war. + The general hunting matches, the pride and delight of the Tartar princes, + compose an instructive exercise for their numerous cavalry. A circle is + drawn, of many miles in circumference, to encompass the game of an + extensive district; and the troops that form the circle regularly advance + towards a common centre; where the captive animals, surrounded on every + side, are abandoned to the darts of the hunters. In this march, which + frequently continues many days, the cavalry are obliged to climb the + hills, to swim the rivers, and to wind through the valleys, without + interrupting the prescribed order of their gradual progress. They acquire + the habit of directing their eye, and their steps, to a remote object; of + preserving their intervals of suspending or accelerating their pace, + according to the motions of the troops on their right and left; and of + watching and repeating the signals of their leaders. Their leaders study, + in this practical school, the most important lesson of the military art; + the prompt and accurate judgment of ground, of distance, and of time. To + employ against a human enemy the same patience and valor, the same skill + and discipline, is the only alteration which is required in real war; and + the amusements of the chase serve as a prelude to the conquest of an + empire. <a href="#linknote-26.12" name="linknoteref-26.12" + id="linknoteref-26.12">12</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.12" id="linknote-26.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.12">return</a>)<br /> [ Petit de la Croix (Vie + de Gengiscan, l. iii. c. 6) represents the full glory and extent of the + Mogul chase. The Jesuits Gerbillon and Verbiest followed the emperor + Khamhi when he hunted in Tartary, (Duhalde, Déscription de la Chine, tom. + iv. p. 81, 290, &c., folio edit.) His grandson, Kienlong, who unites + the Tartar discipline with the laws and learning of China, describes + (Eloge de Moukden, p. 273—285) as a poet the pleasures which he had + often enjoyed as a sportsman.] + </p> + <p> + The political society of the ancient Germans has the appearance of a + voluntary alliance of independent warriors. The tribes of Scythia, + distinguished by the modern appellation of <i>Hords</i>, assume the form of a + numerous and increasing family; which, in the course of successive + generations, has been propagated from the same original stock. The + meanest, and most ignorant, of the Tartars, preserve, with conscious + pride, the inestimable treasure of their genealogy; and whatever + distinctions of rank may have been introduced, by the unequal distribution + of pastoral wealth, they mutually respect themselves, and each other, as + the descendants of the first founder of the tribe. The custom, which still + prevails, of adopting the bravest and most faithful of the captives, may + countenance the very probable suspicion, that this extensive consanguinity + is, in a great measure, legal and fictitious. But the useful prejudice, + which has obtained the sanction of time and opinion, produces the effects + of truth; the haughty Barbarians yield a cheerful and voluntary obedience + to the head of their blood; and their chief, or <i>mursa</i>, as the + representative of their great father, exercises the authority of a judge + in peace, and of a leader in war. In the original state of the pastoral + world, each of the <i>mursas</i> (if we may continue to use a modern appellation) + acted as the independent chief of a large and separate family; and the + limits of their peculiar territories were gradually fixed by superior + force, or mutual consent. But the constant operation of various and + permanent causes contributed to unite the vagrant Hords into national + communities, under the command of a supreme head. The weak were desirous + of support, and the strong were ambitious of dominion; the power, which is + the result of union, oppressed and collected the divided force of the + adjacent tribes; and, as the vanquished were freely admitted to share the + advantages of victory, the most valiant chiefs hastened to range + themselves and their followers under the formidable standard of a + confederate nation. The most successful of the Tartar princes assumed the + military command, to which he was entitled by the superiority, either of + merit or of power. He was raised to the throne by the acclamations of his + equals; and the title of <i>Khan</i> expresses, in the language of the North of + Asia, the full extent of the regal dignity. The right of hereditary + succession was long confined to the blood of the founder of the monarchy; + and at this moment all the Khans, who reign from Crimea to the wall of + China, are the lineal descendants of the renowned Zingis. <a + href="#linknote-26.13" name="linknoteref-26.13" id="linknoteref-26.13">13</a> + But, as it is the indispensable duty of a Tartar sovereign to lead his + warlike subjects into the field, the claims of an infant are often + disregarded; and some royal kinsman, distinguished by his age and valor, + is intrusted with the sword and sceptre of his predecessor. Two distinct + and regular taxes are levied on the tribes, to support the dignity of the + national monarch, and of their peculiar chief; and each of those + contributions amounts to the tithe, both of their property, and of their + spoil. A Tartar sovereign enjoys the tenth part of the wealth of his + people; and as his own domestic riches of flocks and herds increase in a + much larger proportion, he is able plentifully to maintain the rustic + splendor of his court, to reward the most deserving, or the most favored + of his followers, and to obtain, from the gentle influence of corruption, + the obedience which might be sometimes refused to the stern mandates of + authority. The manners of his subjects, accustomed, like himself, to blood + and rapine, might excuse, in their eyes, such partial acts of tyranny, as + would excite the horror of a civilized people; but the power of a despot + has never been acknowledged in the deserts of Scythia. The immediate + jurisdiction of the khan is confined within the limits of his own tribe; + and the exercise of his royal prerogative has been moderated by the + ancient institution of a national council. The Coroulai, <a + href="#linknote-26.14" name="linknoteref-26.14" id="linknoteref-26.14">14</a> + or Diet, of the Tartars, was regularly held in the spring and autumn, in + the midst of a plain; where the princes of the reigning family, and the + mursas of the respective tribes, may conveniently assemble on horseback, + with their martial and numerous trains; and the ambitious monarch, who + reviewed the strength, must consult the inclination of an armed people. + The rudiments of a feudal government may be discovered in the constitution + of the Scythian or Tartar nations; but the perpetual conflict of those + hostile nations has sometimes terminated in the establishment of a + powerful and despotic empire. The victor, enriched by the tribute, and + fortified by the arms of dependent kings, has spread his conquests over + Europe or Asia: the successful shepherds of the North have submitted to + the confinement of arts, of laws, and of cities; and the introduction of + luxury, after destroying the freedom of the people, has undermined the + foundations of the throne. <a href="#linknote-26.15" name="linknoteref-26.15" + id="linknoteref-26.15">15</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.13" id="linknote-26.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.13">return</a>)<br /> [ See the second volume + of the Genealogical History of the Tartars; and the list of the Khans, at + the end of the life of Geng’s, or Zingis. Under the reign of Timur, or + Tamerlane, one of his subjects, a descendant of Zingis, still bore the + regal appellation of Khan and the conqueror of Asia contented himself with + the title of Emir or Sultan. Abulghazi, part v. c. 4. D’Herbelot, + Bibliothèque Orien tale, p. 878.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.14" id="linknote-26.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.14">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Diets of the + ancient Huns, (De Guignes, tom. ii. p. 26,) and a curious description of + those of Zingis, (Vie de Gengiscan, l. i. c. 6, l. iv. c. 11.) Such + assemblies are frequently mentioned in the Persian history of Timur; + though they served only to countenance the resolutions of their master.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.15" id="linknote-26.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.15">return</a>)<br /> [ Montesquieu labors to + explain a difference, which has not existed, between the liberty of the + Arabs, and the <i>perpetual</i> slavery of the Tartars. (Esprit des Loix, l. + xvii. c. 5, l. xviii. c. 19, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + The memory of past events cannot long be preserved in the frequent and + remote emigrations of illiterate Barbarians. The modern Tartars are + ignorant of the conquests of their ancestors; <a href="#linknote-26.16" + name="linknoteref-26.16" id="linknoteref-26.16">16</a> and our knowledge of + the history of the Scythians is derived from their intercourse with the + learned and civilized nations of the South, the Greeks, the Persians, and + the Chinese. The Greeks, who navigated the Euxine, and planted their + colonies along the sea-coast, made the gradual and imperfect discovery of + Scythia; from the Danube, and the confines of Thrace, as far as the frozen + Mæotis, the seat of eternal winter, and Mount Caucasus, which, in the + language of poetry, was described as the utmost boundary of the earth. + They celebrated, with simple credulity, the virtues of the pastoral life: + <a href="#linknote-26.17" name="linknoteref-26.17" id="linknoteref-26.17">17</a> + they entertained a more rational apprehension of the strength and numbers + of the warlike Barbarians, <a href="#linknote-26.18" name="linknoteref-26.18" + id="linknoteref-26.18">18</a> who contemptuously baffled the immense + armament of Darius, the son of Hystaspes. <a href="#linknote-26.19" + name="linknoteref-26.19" id="linknoteref-26.19">19</a> The Persian monarchs + had extended their western conquests to the banks of the Danube, and the + limits of European Scythia. The eastern provinces of their empire were + exposed to the Scythians of Asia; the wild inhabitants of the plains + beyond the Oxus and the Jaxartes, two mighty rivers, which direct their + course towards the Caspian Sea. The long and memorable quarrel of Iran and + Touran is still the theme of history or romance: the famous, perhaps the + fabulous, valor of the Persian heroes, Rustan and Asfendiar, was + signalized, in the defence of their country, against the Afrasiabs of the + North; <a href="#linknote-26.20" name="linknoteref-26.20" + id="linknoteref-26.20">20</a> and the invincible spirit of the same + Barbarians resisted, on the same ground, the victorious arms of Cyrus and + Alexander. <a href="#linknote-26.21" name="linknoteref-26.21" + id="linknoteref-26.21">21</a> In the eyes of the Greeks and Persians, the + real geography of Scythia was bounded, on the East, by the mountains of + Imaus, or Caf; and their distant prospect of the extreme and inaccessible + parts of Asia was clouded by ignorance, or perplexed by fiction. But those + inaccessible regions are the ancient residence of a powerful and civilized + nation, <a href="#linknote-26.22" name="linknoteref-26.22" + id="linknoteref-26.22">22</a> which ascends, by a probable tradition, above + forty centuries; <a href="#linknote-26.23" name="linknoteref-26.23" + id="linknoteref-26.23">23</a> and which is able to verify a series of near + two thousand years, by the perpetual testimony of accurate and + contemporary historians. <a href="#linknote-26.24" name="linknoteref-26.24" + id="linknoteref-26.24">24</a> The annals of China <a href="#linknote-26.25" + name="linknoteref-26.25" id="linknoteref-26.25">25</a> illustrate the state + and revolutions of the pastoral tribes, which may still be distinguished + by the vague appellation of Scythians, or Tartars; the vassals, the + enemies, and sometimes the conquerors, of a great empire; whose policy has + uniformly opposed the blind and impetuous valor of the Barbarians of the + North. From the mouth of the Danube to the Sea of Japan, the whole + longitude of Scythia is about one hundred and ten degrees, which, in that + parallel, are equal to more than five thousand miles. The latitude of + these extensive deserts cannot be so easily, or so accurately, measured; + but, from the fortieth degree, which touches the wall of China, we may + securely advance above a thousand miles to the northward, till our + progress is stopped by the excessive cold of Siberia. In that dreary + climate, instead of the animated picture of a Tartar camp, the smoke that + issues from the earth, or rather from the snow, betrays the subterraneous + dwellings of the Tongouses, and the Samoides: the want of horses and oxen + is imperfectly supplied by the use of reindeer, and of large dogs; and the + conquerors of the earth insensibly degenerate into a race of deformed and + diminutive savages, who tremble at the sound of arms. <a + href="#linknote-26.26" name="linknoteref-26.26" id="linknoteref-26.26">26</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.16" id="linknote-26.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulghasi Khan, in the + two first parts of his Genealogical History, relates the miserable tales + and traditions of the Uzbek Tartars concerning the times which preceded + the reign of Zingis. * Note: The differences between the various pastoral + tribes and nations comprehended by the ancients under the vague name of + Scythians, and by Gibbon under inst of Tartars, have received some, and + still, perhaps, may receive more, light from the comparisons of their + dialects and languages by modern scholars.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.17" id="linknote-26.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.17">return</a>)<br /> [ In the thirteenth book + of the Iliad, Jupiter turns away his eyes from the bloody fields of Troy, + to the plains of Thrace and Scythia. He would not, by changing the + prospect, behold a more peaceful or innocent scene.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.18" id="linknote-26.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Thucydides, l. ii. c. + 97.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.19" id="linknote-26.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.19">return</a>)<br /> [ See the fourth book of + Herodotus. When Darius advanced into the Moldavian desert, between the + Danube and the Niester, the king of the Scythians sent him a mouse, a + frog, a bird, and five arrows; a tremendous allegory!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.20" id="linknote-26.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.20">return</a>)<br /> [ These wars and heroes + may be found under their respective <i>titles</i>, in the Bibliothèque Orientale + of D’Herbelot. They have been celebrated in an epic poem of sixty thousand + rhymed couplets, by Ferdusi, the Homer of Persia. See the history of Nadir + Shah, p. 145, 165. The public must lament that Mr. Jones has suspended the + pursuit of Oriental learning. Note: Ferdusi is yet imperfectly known to + European readers. An abstract of the whole poem has been published by + Goerres in German, under the title “das Heldenbuch des Iran.” In English, + an abstract with poetical translations, by Mr. Atkinson, has appeared, + under the auspices of the Oriental Fund. But to translate a poet a man + must be a poet. The best account of the poem is in an article by Von + Hammer in the Vienna Jahrbucher, 1820: or perhaps in a masterly article in + Cochrane’s Foreign Quarterly Review, No. 1, 1835. A splendid and critical + edition of the whole work has been published by a very learned English + Orientalist, Captain Macan, at the expense of the king of Oude. As to the + number of 60,000 couplets, Captain Macan (Preface, p. 39) states that he + never saw a MS. containing more than 56,685, including doubtful and + spurious passages and episodes.—M. * Note: The later studies of Sir + W. Jones were more in unison with the wishes of the public, thus expressed + by Gibbon.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.21" id="linknote-26.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.21">return</a>)<br /> [ The Caspian Sea, with + its rivers and adjacent tribes, are laboriously illustrated in the Examen + Critique des Historiens d’Alexandre, which compares the true geography, + and the errors produced by the vanity or ignorance of the Greeks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.22" id="linknote-26.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.22">return</a>)<br /> [ The original seat of + the nation appears to have been in the Northwest of China, in the + provinces of Chensi and Chansi. Under the two first dynasties, the + principal town was still a movable camp; the villages were thinly + scattered; more land was employed in pasture than in tillage; the exercise + of hunting was ordained to clear the country from wild beasts; Petcheli + (where Pekin stands) was a desert, and the Southern provinces were peopled + with Indian savages. The dynasty of the <i>Han</i> (before Christ 206) gave the + empire its actual form and extent.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.23" id="linknote-26.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.23">return</a>)<br /> [ The æra of the Chinese + monarchy has been variously fixed from 2952 to 2132 years before Christ; + and the year 2637 has been chosen for the lawful epoch, by the authority + of the present emperor. The difference arises from the uncertain duration + of the two first dynasties; and the vacant space that lies beyond them, as + far as the real, or fabulous, times of Fohi, or Hoangti. Sematsien dates + his authentic chronology from the year 841; the thirty-six eclipses of + Confucius (thirty-one of which have been verified) were observed between + the years 722 and 480 before Christ. The <i>historical</i> period of China does + not ascend above the Greek Olympiads.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.24" id="linknote-26.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.24">return</a>)<br /> [ After several ages of + anarchy and despotism, the dynasty of the Han (before Christ 206) was the + æra of the revival of learning. The fragments of ancient literature were + restored; the characters were improved and fixed; and the future + preservation of books was secured by the useful inventions of ink, paper, + and the art of printing. Ninety-seven years before Christ, Sematsien + published the first history of China. His labors were illustrated, and + continued, by a series of one hundred and eighty historians. The substance + of their works is still extant; and the most considerable of them are now + deposited in the king of France’s library.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.25" id="linknote-26.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.25">return</a>)<br /> [ China has been + illustrated by the labors of the French; of the missionaries at Pekin, and + Messrs. Freret and De Guignes at Paris. The substance of the three + preceding notes is extracted from the Chou-king, with the preface and + notes of M. de Guignes, Paris, 1770. The <i>Tong-Kien-Kang-Mou</i>, translated by + P. de Mailla, under the name of Hist. Génerale de la Chine, tom. i. p. + xlix.—cc.; the Mémoires sur la Chine, Paris, 1776, &c., tom. i. + p. 1—323; tom. ii. p. 5—364; the Histoire des Huns, tom. i. p. + 4—131, tom. v. p. 345—362; and the Mémoires de l’Académie des + Inscriptions, tom. x. p. 377—402; tom. xv. p. 495—564; tom. + xviii. p. 178—295; xxxvi. p. 164—238.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.26" id="linknote-26.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.26">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Histoire + Generale des Voyages, tom. xviii., and the Genealogical History, vol. ii. + p. 620—664.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap26.2"></a> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The Huns, who under the reign of Valens threatened the empire of Rome, had + been formidable, in a much earlier period, to the empire of China. <a + href="#linknote-26.27" name="linknoteref-26.27" id="linknoteref-26.27">27</a> + Their ancient, perhaps their original, seat was an extensive, though dry + and barren, tract of country, immediately on the north side of the great + wall. Their place is at present occupied by the forty-nine Hords or + Banners of the Mongous, a pastoral nation, which consists of about two + hundred thousand families. <a href="#linknote-26.28" name="linknoteref-26.28" + id="linknoteref-26.28">28</a> But the valor of the Huns had extended the + narrow limits of their dominions; and their rustic chiefs, who assumed the + appellation of <i>Tanjou</i>, gradually became the conquerors, and the sovereigns + of a formidable empire. Towards the East, their victorious arms were + stopped only by the ocean; and the tribes, which are thinly scattered + between the Amoor and the extreme peninsula of Corea, adhered, with + reluctance, to the standard of the Huns. On the West, near the head of the + Irtish, in the valleys of Imaus, they found a more ample space, and more + numerous enemies. One of the lieutenants of the Tanjou subdued, in a + single expedition, twenty-six nations; the Igours, <a href="#linknote-26.29" + name="linknoteref-26.29" id="linknoteref-26.29">29</a> distinguished above + the Tartar race by the use of letters, were in the number of his vassals; + and, by the strange connection of human events, the flight of one of those + vagrant tribes recalled the victorious Parthians from the invasion of + Syria. <a href="#linknote-26.30" name="linknoteref-26.30" + id="linknoteref-26.30">30</a> On the side of the North, the ocean was + assigned as the limit of the power of the Huns. Without enemies to resist + their progress, or witnesses to contradict their vanity, they might + securely achieve a real, or imaginary, conquest of the frozen regions of + Siberia. The <i>Northern Sea</i> was fixed as the remote boundary of their + empire. But the name of that sea, on whose shores the patriot Sovou + embraced the life of a shepherd and an exile, <a href="#linknote-26.31" + name="linknoteref-26.31" id="linknoteref-26.31">31</a> may be transferred, + with much more probability, to the Baikal, a capacious basin, above three + hundred miles in length, which disdains the modest appellation of a lake + <a href="#linknote-26.32" name="linknoteref-26.32" id="linknoteref-26.32">32</a> + and which actually communicates with the seas of the North, by the long + course of the Angara, the Tongusha, and the Jenissea. The submission of so + many distant nations might flatter the pride of the Tanjou; but the valor + of the Huns could be rewarded only by the enjoyment of the wealth and + luxury of the empire of the South. In the third century <a + href="#linknote-26.3211" name="linknoteref-26.3211" id="linknoteref-26.3211">3211</a> + before the Christian æra, a wall of fifteen hundred miles in length was + constructed, to defend the frontiers of China against the inroads of the + Huns; <a href="#linknote-26.33" name="linknoteref-26.33" + id="linknoteref-26.33">33</a> but this stupendous work, which holds a + conspicuous place in the map of the world, has never contributed to the + safety of an unwarlike people. The cavalry of the Tanjou frequently + consisted of two or three hundred thousand men, formidable by the + matchless dexterity with which they managed their bows and their horses: + by their hardy patience in supporting the inclemency of the weather; and + by the incredible speed of their march, which was seldom checked by + torrents, or precipices, by the deepest rivers, or by the most lofty + mountains. They spread themselves at once over the face of the country; + and their rapid impetuosity surprised, astonished, and disconcerted the + grave and elaborate tactics of a Chinese army. The emperor Kaoti, <a + href="#linknote-26.34" name="linknoteref-26.34" id="linknoteref-26.34">34</a> + a soldier of fortune, whose personal merit had raised him to the throne, + marched against the Huns with those veteran troops which had been trained + in the civil wars of China. But he was soon surrounded by the Barbarians; + and, after a siege of seven days, the monarch, hopeless of relief, was + reduced to purchase his deliverance by an ignominious capitulation. The + successors of Kaoti, whose lives were dedicated to the arts of peace, or + the luxury of the palace, submitted to a more permanent disgrace. They too + hastily confessed the insufficiency of arms and fortifications. They were + too easily convinced, that while the blazing signals announced on every + side the approach of the Huns, the Chinese troops, who slept with the + helmet on their head, and the cuirass on their back, were destroyed by the + incessant labor of ineffectual marches. <a href="#linknote-26.35" + name="linknoteref-26.35" id="linknoteref-26.35">35</a> A regular payment of + money, and silk, was stipulated as the condition of a temporary and + precarious peace; and the wretched expedient of disguising a real tribute, + under the names of a gift or subsidy, was practised by the emperors of + China as well as by those of Rome. But there still remained a more + disgraceful article of tribute, which violated the sacred feelings of + humanity and nature. The hardships of the savage life, which destroy in + their infancy the children who are born with a less healthy and robust + constitution, introduced a remarkable disproportion between the numbers of + the two sexes. The Tartars are an ugly and even deformed race; and while + they consider their own women as the instruments of domestic labor, their + desires, or rather their appetites, are directed to the enjoyment of more + elegant beauty. A select band of the fairest maidens of China was annually + devoted to the rude embraces of the Huns; <a href="#linknote-26.36" + name="linknoteref-26.36" id="linknoteref-26.36">36</a> and the alliance of + the haughty Tanjous was secured by their marriage with the genuine, or + adopted, daughters of the Imperial family, which vainly attempted to + escape the sacrilegious pollution. The situation of these unhappy victims + is described in the verses of a Chinese princess, who laments that she had + been condemned by her parents to a distant exile, under a Barbarian + husband; who complains that sour milk was her only drink, raw flesh her + only food, a tent her only palace; and who expresses, in a strain of + pathetic simplicity, the natural wish, that she were transformed into a + bird, to fly back to her dear country; the object of her tender and + perpetual regret. <a href="#linknote-26.37" name="linknoteref-26.37" + id="linknoteref-26.37">37</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.27" id="linknote-26.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.27">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Guignes (tom. ii. + p. 1—124) has given the original history of the ancient Hiong-nou, + or Huns. The Chinese geography of their country (tom. i. part. p. lv.—lxiii.) + seems to comprise a part of their conquests. * Note: The theory of De + Guignes on the early history of the Huns is, in general, rejected by + modern writers. De Guignes advanced no valid proof of the identity of the + Hioung-nou of the Chinese writers with the Huns, except the similarity of + name. Schlozer, (Allgemeine Nordische Geschichte, p. 252,) Klaproth, + (Tableaux Historiques de l’Asie, p. 246,) St. Martin, iv. 61, and A. + Remusat, (Recherches sur les Langues Tartares, D. P. xlvi, and p. 328; + though in the latter passage he considers the theory of De Guignes not + absolutely disproved,) concur in considering the Huns as belonging to the + Finnish stock, distinct from the Moguls the Mandscheus, and the Turks. The + Hiong-nou, according to Klaproth, were Turks. The names of the Hunnish + chiefs could not be pronounced by a Turk; and, according to the same + author, the Hioung-nou, which is explained in Chinese as <i>detestable + slaves</i>, as early as the year 91 J. C., were dispersed by the Chinese, and + assumed the name of Yue-po or Yue-pan. M. St. Martin does not consider it + impossible that the appellation of Hioung-nou may have belonged to the + Huns. But all agree in considering the Madjar or Magyar of modern Hungary + the descendants of the Huns. Their language (compare Gibbon, c. lv. n. 22) + is nearly related to the Lapponian and Vogoul. The noble forms of the + modern Hungarians, so strongly contrasted with the hideous pictures which + the fears and the hatred of the Romans give of the Huns, M. Klaproth + accounts for by the intermingling with other races, Turkish and Slavonian. + The present state of the question is thus stated in the last edition of + Malte Brun, and a new and ingenious hypothesis suggested to resolve all + the difficulties of the question.<br/> + Were the Huns Finns? This obscure question has not been debated till + very recently, and is yet very far from being decided. We are of opinion + that it will be so hereafter in the same manner as that with regard to + the Scythians. We shall trace in the portrait of Attila a dominant tribe + or Mongols, or Kalmucks, with all the hereditary ugliness of that race; + but in the mass of the Hunnish army and nation will be recognized the + Chuni and the Ounni of the Greek Geography. the Kuns of the Hungarians, + the European Huns, and a race in close relationship with the Flemish + stock. Malte Brun, vi. p. 94. This theory is more fully and ably + developed, p. 743. Whoever has seen the emperor of Austria’s + Hungarian guard, will not readily admit their descent from the Huns + described by Sidonius Appolinaris.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.28" id="linknote-26.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.28">return</a>)<br /> [ See in Duhalde (tom. + iv. p. 18—65) a circumstantial description, with a correct map, of + the country of the Mongous.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.29" id="linknote-26.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.29">return</a>)<br /> [ The Igours, or Vigours, + were divided into three branches; hunters, shepherds, and husbandmen; and + the last class was despised by the two former. See Abulghazi, part ii. c. + 7. * Note: On the Ouigour or Igour characters, see the work of M. A. + Remusat, Sur les Langues Tartares. He conceives the Ouigour alphabet of + sixteen letters to have been formed from the Syriac, and introduced by the + Nestorian Christians.—Ch. ii. M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.30" id="linknote-26.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Mémoires de l’Académie + des Inscriptions, tom. xxv. p. 17—33. The comprehensive view of M. + de Guignes has compared these distant events.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.31" id="linknote-26.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.31">return</a>)<br /> [ The fame of Sovou, or + So-ou, his merit, and his singular adventurers, are still celebrated in + China. See the Eloge de Moukden, p. 20, and notes, p. 241—247; and + Mémoires sur la Chine, tom. iii. p. 317—360.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.32" id="linknote-26.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.32">return</a>)<br /> [ See Isbrand Ives in + Harris’s Collection, vol. ii. p. 931; Bell’s Travels, vol. i. p. 247—254; + and Gmelin, in the Hist. Generale des Voyages, tom. xviii. 283—329. + They all remark the vulgar opinion that the <i>holy sea</i> grows angry and + tempestuous if any one presumes to call it a <i>lake</i>. This grammatical nicety + often excites a dispute between the absurd superstition of the mariners + and the absurd obstinacy of travellers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.3211" id="linknote-26.3211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3211 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.3211">return</a>)<br /> [ 224 years before + Christ. It was built by Chi-hoang-ti of the Dynasty Thsin. It is from + twenty to twenty-five feet high. Ce monument, aussi gigantesque + qu’impuissant, arreterait bien les incursions de quelques Nomades; mais il + n’a jamais empéché les invasions des Turcs, des Mongols, et des Mandchous. + Abe Remusat Rech. Asiat. 2d ser. vol. i. p. 58—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.33" id="linknote-26.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.33">return</a>)<br /> [ The construction of the + wall of China is mentioned by Duhalde (tom. ii. p. 45) and De Guignes, + (tom. ii. p. 59.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.34" id="linknote-26.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.34">return</a>)<br /> [ See the life of + Lieoupang, or Kaoti, in the Hist, de la Chine, published at Paris, 1777, + &c., tom. i. p. 442—522. This voluminous work is the translation + (by the P. de Mailla) of the <i>Tong- Kien-Kang-Mou</i>, the celebrated + abridgment of the great History of Semakouang (A.D. 1084) and his + continuators.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.35" id="linknote-26.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.35">return</a>)<br /> [ See a free and ample + memorial, presented by a Mandarin to the emperor Venti, (before Christ 180—157,) + in Duhalde, (tom. ii. p. 412—426,) from a collection of State papers + marked with the red pencil by Kamhi himself, (p. 354—612.) Another + memorial from the minister of war (Kang-Mou, tom. ii. p 555) supplies some + curious circumstances of the manners of the Huns.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.36" id="linknote-26.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.36">return</a>)<br /> [ A supply of women is + mentioned as a customary article of treaty and tribute, (Hist. de la + Conquete de la Chine, par les Tartares Mantcheoux, tom. i. p. 186, 187, + with the note of the editor.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.37" id="linknote-26.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.37">return</a>)<br /> [ De Guignes, Hist. des + Huns, tom. ii. p. 62.] + </p> + <p> + The conquest of China has been twice achieved by the pastoral tribes of + the North: the forces of the Huns were not inferior to those of the + Moguls, or of the Mantcheoux; and their ambition might entertain the most + sanguine hopes of success. But their pride was humbled, and their progress + was checked, by the arms and policy of Vouti, <a href="#linknote-26.38" + name="linknoteref-26.38" id="linknoteref-26.38">38</a> the fifth emperor of + the powerful dynasty of the Han. In his long reign of fifty- four years, + the Barbarians of the southern provinces submitted to the laws and manners + of China; and the ancient limits of the monarchy were enlarged, from the + great river of Kiang, to the port of Canton. Instead of confining himself + to the timid operations of a defensive war, his lieutenants penetrated + many hundred miles into the country of the Huns. In those boundless + deserts, where it is impossible to form magazines, and difficult to + transport a sufficient supply of provisions, the armies of Vouti were + repeatedly exposed to intolerable hardships: and, of one hundred and forty + thousand soldiers, who marched against the Barbarians, thirty thousand + only returned in safety to the feet of their master. These losses, + however, were compensated by splendid and decisive success. The Chinese + generals improved the superiority which they derived from the temper of + their arms, their chariots of war, and the service of their Tartar + auxiliaries. The camp of the Tanjou was surprised in the midst of sleep + and intemperance; and, though the monarch of the Huns bravely cut his way + through the ranks of the enemy, he left above fifteen thousand of his + subjects on the field of battle. Yet this signal victory, which was + preceded and followed by many bloody engagements, contributed much less to + the destruction of the power of the Huns than the effectual policy which + was employed to detach the tributary nations from their obedience. + Intimidated by the arms, or allured by the promises, of Vouti and his + successors, the most considerable tribes, both of the East and of the + West, disclaimed the authority of the Tanjou. While some acknowledged + themselves the allies or vassals of the empire, they all became the + implacable enemies of the Huns; and the numbers of that haughty people, as + soon as they were reduced to their native strength, might, perhaps, have + been contained within the walls of one of the great and populous cities of + China. <a href="#linknote-26.39" name="linknoteref-26.39" + id="linknoteref-26.39">39</a> The desertion of his subjects, and the + perplexity of a civil war, at length compelled the Tanjou himself to + renounce the dignity of an independent sovereign, and the freedom of a + warlike and high-spirited nation. He was received at Sigan, the capital of + the monarchy, by the troops, the mandarins, and the emperor himself, with + all the honors that could adorn and disguise the triumph of Chinese + vanity. <a href="#linknote-26.40" name="linknoteref-26.40" + id="linknoteref-26.40">40</a> A magnificent palace was prepared for his + reception; his place was assigned above all the princes of the royal + family; and the patience of the Barbarian king was exhausted by the + ceremonies of a banquet, which consisted of eight courses of meat, and of + nine solemn pieces of music. But he performed, on his knees, the duty of a + respectful homage to the emperor of China; pronounced, in his own name, + and in the name of his successors, a perpetual oath of fidelity; and + gratefully accepted a seal, which was bestowed as the emblem of his regal + dependence. After this humiliating submission, the Tanjous sometimes + departed from their allegiance and seized the favorable moments of war and + rapine; but the monarchy of the Huns gradually declined, till it was + broken, by civil dissension, into two hostile and separate kingdoms. One + of the princes of the nation was urged, by fear and ambition, to retire + towards the South with eight hords, which composed between forty and fifty + thousand families. He obtained, with the title of Tanjou, a convenient + territory on the verge of the Chinese provinces; and his constant + attachment to the service of the empire was secured by weakness, and the + desire of revenge. From the time of this fatal schism, the Huns of the + North continued to languish about fifty years; till they were oppressed on + every side by their foreign and domestic enemies. The proud inscription <a + href="#linknote-26.41" name="linknoteref-26.41" id="linknoteref-26.41">41</a> + of a column, erected on a lofty mountain, announced to posterity, that a + Chinese army had marched seven hundred miles into the heart of their + country. The Sienpi, <a href="#linknote-26.42" name="linknoteref-26.42" + id="linknoteref-26.42">42</a> a tribe of Oriental Tartars, retaliated the + injuries which they had formerly sustained; and the power of the Tanjous, + after a reign of thirteen hundred years, was utterly destroyed before the + end of the first century of the Christian æra. <a href="#linknote-26.43" + name="linknoteref-26.43" id="linknoteref-26.43">43</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.38" id="linknote-26.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.38">return</a>)<br /> [ See the reign of the + emperor Vouti, in the Kang-Mou, tom. iii. p. 1—98. His various and + inconsistent character seems to be impartially drawn.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.39" id="linknote-26.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.39">return</a>)<br /> [ This expression is used + in the memorial to the emperor Venti, (Duhalde, tom. ii. p. 411.) Without + adopting the exaggerations of Marco Polo and Isaac Vossius, we may + rationally allow for Pekin two millions of inhabitants. The cities of the + South, which contain the manufactures of China, are still more populous.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.40" id="linknote-26.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.40">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Kang-Mou, tom. + iii. p. 150, and the subsequent events under the proper years. This + memorable festival is celebrated in the Eloge de Moukden, and explained in + a note by the P. Gaubil, p. 89, 90.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.41" id="linknote-26.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.41">return</a>)<br /> [ This inscription was + composed on the spot by Parkou, President of the Tribunal of History + (Kang-Mou, tom. iii. p. 392.) Similar monuments have been discovered in + many parts of Tartary, (Histoire des Huns, tom. ii. p. 122.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.42" id="linknote-26.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.42">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Guignes (tom. i. + p. 189) has inserted a short account of the Sienpi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.43" id="linknote-26.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.43">return</a>)<br /> [ The æra of the Huns is + placed, by the Chinese, 1210 years before Christ. But the series of their + kings does not commence till the year 230, (Hist. des Huns, tom. ii. p. + 21, 123.)] + </p> + <p> + The fate of the vanquished Huns was diversified by the various influence + of character and situation. <a href="#linknote-26.44" + name="linknoteref-26.44" id="linknoteref-26.44">44</a> Above one hundred + thousand persons, the poorest, indeed, and the most pusillanimous of the + people, were contented to remain in their native country, to renounce + their peculiar name and origin, and to mingle with the victorious nation + of the Sienpi. Fifty-eight hords, about two hundred thousand men, + ambitious of a more honorable servitude, retired towards the South; + implored the protection of the emperors of China; and were permitted to + inhabit, and to guard, the extreme frontiers of the province of Chansi and + the territory of Ortous. But the most warlike and powerful tribes of the + Huns maintained, in their adverse fortune, the undaunted spirit of their + ancestors. The Western world was open to their valor; and they resolved, + under the conduct of their hereditary chieftains, to conquer and subdue + some remote country, which was still inaccessible to the arms of the + Sienpi, and to the laws of China. <a href="#linknote-26.45" + name="linknoteref-26.45" id="linknoteref-26.45">45</a> The course of their + emigration soon carried them beyond the mountains of Imaus, and the limits + of the Chinese geography; but <i>we</i> are able to distinguish the two great + divisions of these formidable exiles, which directed their march towards + the Oxus, and towards the Volga. The first of these colonies established + their dominion in the fruitful and extensive plains of Sogdiana, on the + eastern side of the Caspian; where they preserved the name of Huns, with + the epithet of Euthalites, or Nepthalites. <a href="#linknote-26.4511" + name="linknoteref-26.4511" id="linknoteref-26.4511">4511</a> Their manners + were softened, and even their features were insensibly improved, by the + mildness of the climate, and their long residence in a flourishing + province, <a href="#linknote-26.46" name="linknoteref-26.46" + id="linknoteref-26.46">46</a> which might still retain a faint impression + of the arts of Greece. <a href="#linknote-26.47" name="linknoteref-26.47" + id="linknoteref-26.47">47</a> The <i>white</i> Huns, a name which they derived + from the change of their complexions, soon abandoned the pastoral life of + Scythia. Gorgo, which, under the appellation of Carizme, has since enjoyed + a temporary splendor, was the residence of the king, who exercised a legal + authority over an obedient people. Their luxury was maintained by the + labor of the Sogdians; and the only vestige of their ancient barbarism, + was the custom which obliged all the companions, perhaps to the number of + twenty, who had shared the liberality of a wealthy lord, to be buried + alive in the same grave. <a href="#linknote-26.48" name="linknoteref-26.48" + id="linknoteref-26.48">48</a> The vicinity of the Huns to the provinces of + Persia, involved them in frequent and bloody contests with the power of + that monarchy. But they respected, in peace, the faith of treaties; in + war, the dictates of humanity; and their memorable victory over Peroses, + or Firuz, displayed the moderation, as well as the valor, of the + Barbarians. The <i>second</i> division of their countrymen, the Huns, who + gradually advanced towards the North-west, were exercised by the hardships + of a colder climate, and a more laborious march. Necessity compelled them + to exchange the silks of China for the furs of Siberia; the imperfect + rudiments of civilized life were obliterated; and the native fierceness of + the Huns was exasperated by their intercourse with the savage tribes, who + were compared, with some propriety, to the wild beasts of the desert. + Their independent spirit soon rejected the hereditary succession of the + Tanjous; and while each horde was governed by its peculiar mursa, their + tumultuary council directed the public measures of the whole nation. As + late as the thirteenth century, their transient residence on the eastern + banks of the Volga was attested by the name of Great Hungary. <a + href="#linknote-26.49" name="linknoteref-26.49" id="linknoteref-26.49">49</a> + In the winter, they descended with their flocks and herds towards the + mouth of that mighty river; and their summer excursions reached as high as + the latitude of Saratoff, or perhaps the conflux of the Kama. Such at + least were the recent limits of the black Calmucks, <a + href="#linknote-26.50" name="linknoteref-26.50" id="linknoteref-26.50">50</a> + who remained about a century under the protection of Russia; and who have + since returned to their native seats on the frontiers of the Chinese + empire. The march, and the return, of those wandering Tartars, whose + united camp consists of fifty thousand tents or families, illustrate the + distant emigrations of the ancient Huns. <a href="#linknote-26.51" + name="linknoteref-26.51" id="linknoteref-26.51">51</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.44" id="linknote-26.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.44">return</a>)<br /> [ The various accidents, + the downfall, and the flight of the Huns, are related in the Kang-Mou, + tom. iii. p. 88, 91, 95, 139, &c. The small numbers of each horde may + be due to their losses and divisions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.45" id="linknote-26.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.45">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Guignes has + skilfully traced the footsteps of the Huns through the vast deserts of + Tartary, (tom. ii. p. 123, 277, &c., 325, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.4511" id="linknote-26.4511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4511 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.4511">return</a>)<br /> [ The Armenian + authors often mention this people under the name of Hepthal. St. Martin + considers that the name of Nepthalites is an error of a copyist. St. + Martin, iv. 254.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.46" id="linknote-26.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Mohammed, sultan of + Carizme, reigned in Sogdiana when it was invaded (A.D. 1218) by Zingis and + his moguls. The Oriental historians (see D’Herbelot, Petit de la Croix, + &c.,) celebrate the populous cities which he ruined, and the fruitful + country which he desolated. In the next century, the same provinces of + Chorasmia and Nawaralnahr were described by Abulfeda, (Hudson, Geograph. + Minor. tom. iii.) Their actual misery may be seen in the Genealogical + History of the Tartars, p. 423—469.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.47" id="linknote-26.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Justin (xli. 6) has + left a short abridgment of the Greek kings of Bactriana. To their industry + I should ascribe the new and extraordinary trade, which transported the + merchandises of India into Europe, by the Oxus, the Caspian, the Cyrus, + the Phasis, and the Euxine. The other ways, both of the land and sea, were + possessed by the Seleucides and the Ptolemies. (See l’Esprit des Loix, l. + xxi.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.48" id="linknote-26.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Procopius de Bell. + Persico, l. i. c. 3, p. 9.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.49" id="linknote-26.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.49">return</a>)<br /> [ In the thirteenth + century, the monk Rubruquis (who traversed the immense plain of Kipzak, in + his journey to the court of the Great Khan) observed the remarkable name + of <i>Hungary</i>, with the traces of a common language and origin, (Hist. des + Voyages, tom. vii. p. 269.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.50" id="linknote-26.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.50">return</a>)<br /> [ Bell, (vol. i. p. 29—34,) + and the editors of the Genealogical History, (p. 539,) have described the + Calmucks of the Volga in the beginning of the present century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.51" id="linknote-26.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.51">return</a>)<br /> [ This great + transmigration of 300,000 Calmucks, or Torgouts, happened in the year + 1771. The original narrative of Kien-long, the reigning emperor of China, + which was intended for the inscription of a column, has been translated by + the missionaries of Pekin, (Mémoires sur la Chine, tom. i. p. 401—418.) + The emperor affects the smooth and specious language of the Son of Heaven, + and the Father of his People.] + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to fill the dark interval of time, which elapsed, after + the Huns of the Volga were lost in the eyes of the Chinese, and before + they showed themselves to those of the Romans. There is some reason, + however, to apprehend, that the same force which had driven them from + their native seats, still continued to impel their march towards the + frontiers of Europe. The power of the Sienpi, their implacable enemies, + which extended above three thousand miles from East to West, <a + href="#linknote-26.52" name="linknoteref-26.52" id="linknoteref-26.52">52</a> + must have gradually oppressed them by the weight and terror of a + formidable neighborhood; and the flight of the tribes of Scythia would + inevitably tend to increase the strength or to contract the territories, + of the Huns. The harsh and obscure appellations of those tribes would + offend the ear, without informing the understanding, of the reader; but I + cannot suppress the very natural suspicion, <i>that</i> the Huns of the North + derived a considerable reenforcement from the ruin of the dynasty of the + South, which, in the course of the third century, submitted to the + dominion of China; <i>that</i> the bravest warriors marched away in search of + their free and adventurous countrymen; <i>and</i> that, as they had been divided + by prosperity, they were easily reunited by the common hardships of their + adverse fortune. <a href="#linknote-26.53" name="linknoteref-26.53" + id="linknoteref-26.53">53</a> The Huns, with their flocks and herds, their + wives and children, their dependents and allies, were transported to the + west of the Volga, and they boldly advanced to invade the country of the + Alani, a pastoral people, who occupied, or wasted, an extensive tract of + the deserts of Scythia. The plains between the Volga and the Tanais were + covered with the tents of the Alani, but their name and manners were + diffused over the wide extent of their conquests; and the painted tribes + of the Agathyrsi and Geloni were confounded among their vassals. Towards + the North, they penetrated into the frozen regions of Siberia, among the + savages who were accustomed, in their rage or hunger, to the taste of + human flesh; and their Southern inroads were pushed as far as the confines + of Persia and India. The mixture of Samartic and German blood had + contributed to improve the features of the Alani, <a + href="#linknote-26.5311" name="linknoteref-26.5311" id="linknoteref-26.5311">5311</a> + to whiten their swarthy complexions, and to tinge their hair with a + yellowish cast, which is seldom found in the Tartar race. They were less + deformed in their persons, less brutish in their manners, than the Huns; + but they did not yield to those formidable Barbarians in their martial and + independent spirit; in the love of freedom, which rejected even the use of + domestic slaves; and in the love of arms, which considered war and rapine + as the pleasure and the glory of mankind. A naked cimeter, fixed in the + ground, was the only object of their religious worship; the scalps of + their enemies formed the costly trappings of their horses; and they + viewed, with pity and contempt, the pusillanimous warriors, who patiently + expected the infirmities of age, and the tortures of lingering disease. <a + href="#linknote-26.54" name="linknoteref-26.54" id="linknoteref-26.54">54</a> + On the banks of the Tanais, the military power of the Huns and the Alani + encountered each other with equal valor, but with unequal success. The + Huns prevailed in the bloody contest; the king of the Alani was slain; and + the remains of the vanquished nation were dispersed by the ordinary + alternative of flight or submission. <a href="#linknote-26.55" + name="linknoteref-26.55" id="linknoteref-26.55">55</a> A colony of exiles + found a secure refuge in the mountains of Caucasus, between the Euxine and + the Caspian, where they still preserve their name and their independence. + Another colony advanced, with more intrepid courage, towards the shores of + the Baltic; associated themselves with the Northern tribes of Germany; and + shared the spoil of the Roman provinces of Gaul and Spain. But the + greatest part of the nation of the Alani embraced the offers of an + honorable and advantageous union; and the Huns, who esteemed the valor of + their less fortunate enemies, proceeded, with an increase of numbers and + confidence, to invade the limits of the Gothic empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.52" id="linknote-26.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.52">return</a>)<br /> [ The Khan-Mou (tom. iii. + p. 447) ascribes to their conquests a space of 14,000 <i>lis</i>. According to + the present standard, 200 <i>lis</i> (or more accurately 193) are equal to one + degree of latitude; and one English mile consequently exceeds three miles + of China. But there are strong reasons to believe that the ancient <i>li</i> + scarcely equalled one half of the modern. See the elaborate researches of + M. D’Anville, a geographer who is not a stranger in any age or climate of + the globe. (Mémoires de l’Acad. tom. ii. p. 125-502. Itineraires, p. + 154-167.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.53" id="linknote-26.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.53">return</a>)<br /> [ See Histoire des Huns, + tom. ii. p. 125—144. The subsequent history (p. 145—277) of + three or four Hunnic dynasties evidently proves that their martial spirit + was not impaired by a long residence in China.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.5311" id="linknote-26.5311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5311 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.5311">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare M. + Klaproth’s curious speculations on the Alani. He supposes them to have + been the people, known by the Chinese, at the time of their first + expeditions to the West, under the name of Yath-sai or A-lanna, the Alanân + of Persian tradition, as preserved in Ferdusi; the same, according to + Ammianus, with the Massagetæ, and with the Albani. The remains of the + nation still exist in the Ossetæ of Mount Caucasus. Klaproth, Tableaux + Historiques de l’Asie, p. 174.—M. Compare Shafarik Slawische + alterthümer, i. p. 350.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.54" id="linknote-26.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.54">return</a>)<br /> [ Utque hominibus quietis + et placidis otium est voluptabile, ita illos pericula juvent et bella. + Judicatur ibi beatus qui in prœlio profuderit animam: senescentes etiam + et fortuitis mortibus mundo digressos, ut degeneres et ignavos, conviciis + atrocibus insectantur. [Ammian. xxxi. 11.] We must think highly of the + conquerors of <i>such</i> men.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.55" id="linknote-26.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.55">return</a>)<br /> [ On the subject of the + Alani, see Ammianus, (xxxi. 2,) Jornandes, (de Rebus Geticis, c. 24,) M. + de Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. ii. p. 279,) and the Genealogical + History of the Tartars, (tom. ii. p. 617.)] + </p> + <p> + The great Hermanric, whose dominions extended from the Baltic to the + Euxine, enjoyed, in the full maturity of age and reputation, the fruit of + his victories, when he was alarmed by the formidable approach of a host of + unknown enemies, <a href="#linknote-26.56" name="linknoteref-26.56" + id="linknoteref-26.56">56</a> on whom his barbarous subjects might, without + injustice, bestow the epithet of Barbarians. The numbers, the strength, + the rapid motions, and the implacable cruelty of the Huns, were felt, and + dreaded, and magnified, by the astonished Goths; who beheld their fields + and villages consumed with flames, and deluged with indiscriminate + slaughter. To these real terrors they added the surprise and abhorrence + which were excited by the shrill voice, the uncouth gestures, and the + strange deformity of the Huns. <a href="#linknote-26.5611" + name="linknoteref-26.5611" id="linknoteref-26.5611">5611</a> These savages + of Scythia were compared (and the picture had some resemblance) to the + animals who walk very awkwardly on two legs and to the misshapen figures, + the <i>Termini</i>, which were often placed on the bridges of antiquity. They + were distinguished from the rest of the human species by their broad + shoulders, flat noses, and small black eyes, deeply buried in the head; + and as they were almost destitute of beards, they never enjoyed either the + manly grace of youth, or the venerable aspect of age. <a + href="#linknote-26.57" name="linknoteref-26.57" id="linknoteref-26.57">57</a> + A fabulous origin was assigned, worthy of their form and manners; that the + witches of Scythia, who, for their foul and deadly practices, had been + driven from society, had copulated in the desert with infernal spirits; + and that the Huns were the offspring of this execrable conjunction. <a + href="#linknote-26.58" name="linknoteref-26.58" id="linknoteref-26.58">58</a> + The tale, so full of horror and absurdity, was greedily embraced by the + credulous hatred of the Goths; but, while it gratified their hatred, it + increased their fear, since the posterity of dæmons and witches might be + supposed to inherit some share of the præternatural powers, as well as of + the malignant temper, of their parents. Against these enemies, Hermanric + prepared to exert the united forces of the Gothic state; but he soon + discovered that his vassal tribes, provoked by oppression, were much more + inclined to second, than to repel, the invasion of the Huns. One of the + chiefs of the Roxolani <a href="#linknote-26.59" name="linknoteref-26.59" + id="linknoteref-26.59">59</a> had formerly deserted the standard of + Hermanric, and the cruel tyrant had condemned the innocent wife of the + traitor to be torn asunder by wild horses. The brothers of that + unfortunate woman seized the favorable moment of revenge. + </p> + <p> + The aged king of the Goths languished some time after the dangerous wound + which he received from their daggers; but the conduct of the war was + retarded by his infirmities; and the public councils of the nation were + distracted by a spirit of jealousy and discord. His death, which has been + imputed to his own despair, left the reins of government in the hands of + Withimer, who, with the doubtful aid of some Scythian mercenaries, + maintained the unequal contest against the arms of the Huns and the Alani, + till he was defeated and slain in a decisive battle. The Ostrogoths + submitted to their fate; and the royal race of the Amali will hereafter be + found among the subjects of the haughty Attila. But the person of + Witheric, the infant king, was saved by the diligence of Alatheus and + Saphrax; two warriors of approved valor and fiedlity, who, by cautious + marches, conducted the independent remains of the nation of the Ostrogoths + towards the Danastus, or Niester; a considerable river, which now + separates the Turkish dominions from the empire of Russia. On the banks of + the Niester, the prudent Athanaric, more attentive to his own than to the + general safety, had fixed the camp of the Visigoths; with the firm + resolution of opposing the victorious Barbarians, whom he thought it less + advisable to provoke. The ordinary speed of the Huns was checked by the + weight of baggage, and the encumbrance of captives; but their military + skill deceived, and almost destroyed, the army of Athanaric. While the + Judge of the Visigoths defended the banks of the Niester, he was + encompassed and attacked by a numerous detachment of cavalry, who, by the + light of the moon, had passed the river in a fordable place; and it was + not without the utmost efforts of courage and conduct, that he was able to + effect his retreat towards the hilly country. The undaunted general had + already formed a new and judicious plan of defensive war; and the strong + lines, which he was preparing to construct between the mountains, the + Pruth, and the Danube, would have secured the extensive and fertile + territory that bears the modern name of Walachia, from the destructive + inroads of the Huns. <a href="#linknote-26.60" name="linknoteref-26.60" + id="linknoteref-26.60">60</a> But the hopes and measures of the Judge of + the Visigoths was soon disappointed, by the trembling impatience of his + dismayed countrymen; who were persuaded by their fears, that the + interposition of the Danube was the only barrier that could save them from + the rapid pursuit, and invincible valor, of the Barbarians of Scythia. + Under the command of Fritigern and Alavivus, <a href="#linknote-26.61" + name="linknoteref-26.61" id="linknoteref-26.61">61</a> the body of the + nation hastily advanced to the banks of the great river, and implored the + protection of the Roman emperor of the East. Athanaric himself, still + anxious to avoid the guilt of perjury, retired, with a band of faithful + followers, into the mountainous country of Caucaland; which appears to + have been guarded, and almost concealed, by the impenetrable forests of + Transylvania. <a href="#linknote-26.62" name="linknoteref-26.62" + id="linknoteref-26.62">62</a> <a href="#linknote-26.6211" + name="linknoteref-26.6211" id="linknoteref-26.6211">6211</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.56" id="linknote-26.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.56">return</a>)<br /> [ As we are possessed of + the authentic history of the Huns, it would be impertinent to repeat, or + to refute, the fables which misrepresent their origin and progress, their + passage of the mud or water of the Mæotis, in pursuit of an ox or stag, + les Indes qu’ils avoient découvertes, &c., (Zosimus, l. iv. p. 224. + Sozomen, l. vi. c. 37. Procopius, Hist. Miscell. c. 5. Jornandes, c. 24. + Grandeur et Décadence, &c., des Romains, c. 17.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.5611" id="linknote-26.5611"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5611 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.5611">return</a>)<br /> [ Art added to their + native ugliness; in fact, it is difficult to ascribe the proper share in + the features of this hideous picture to nature, to the barbarous skill + with which they were self-disfigured, or to the terror and hatred of the + Romans. Their noses were flattened by their nurses, their cheeks were + gashed by an iron instrument, that the scars might look more fearful, and + prevent the growth of the beard. Jornandes and Sidonius Apollinaris:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Obtundit teneras circumdata fascia nares, + Ut galeis cedant. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + Yet he adds that their forms were robust and manly, their height of a + middle size, but, from the habit of riding, disproportioned. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Stant pectora vasta, + Insignes humer, succincta sub ilibus alvus. + Forma quidem pediti media est, procera sed extat + Si cernas equites, sic longi sæpe putantur + Si sedeant.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.57" id="linknote-26.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.57">return</a>)<br /> [ Prodigiosæ formæ, et + pandi; ut bipedes existimes bestias; vel quales in commarginandis + pontibus, effigiati stipites dolantur incompte. Ammian. xxxi. i. Jornandes + (c. 24) draws a strong caricature of a Calmuck face. Species pavenda + nigredine... quædam deformis offa, non fecies; habensque magis puncta + quam lumina. See Buffon. Hist. Naturelle, tom. iii. 380.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.58" id="linknote-26.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.58">return</a>)<br /> [ This execrable origin, + which Jornandes (c. 24) describes with the rancor of a Goth, might be + originally derived from a more pleasing fable of the Greeks. (Herodot. l. + iv. c. 9, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.59" id="linknote-26.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.59">return</a>)<br /> [ The Roxolani may be the + fathers of the the <i>Russians</i>, (D’Anville, Empire de Russie, p. 1—10,) + whose residence (A.D. 862) about Novogrod Veliki cannot be very remote + from that which the Geographer of Ravenna (i. 12, iv. 4, 46, v. 28, 30) + assigns to the Roxolani, (A.D. 886.) * Note: See, on the origin of the + Russ, Schlozer, Nordische Geschichte, p. 78—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.60" id="linknote-26.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.60">return</a>)<br /> [ The text of Ammianus + seems to be imperfect or corrupt; but the nature of the ground explains, + and almost defines, the Gothic rampart. Mémoires de l’Académie, &c., + tom. xxviii. p. 444—462.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.61" id="linknote-26.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.61">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Buat (Hist. des + Peuples de l’Europe, tom. vi. p. 407) has conceived a strange idea, that + Alavivus was the same person as Ulphilas, the Gothic bishop; and that + Ulphilas, the grandson of a Cappadocian captive, became a temporal prince + of the Goths.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.62" id="linknote-26.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxxi. 3) and + Jornandes (de Rebus Geticis, c. 24) describe the subversion of the Gothic + empire by the Huns.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.6211" id="linknote-26.6211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6211 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.6211">return</a>)<br /> [ The most probable + opinion as to the position of this land is that of M. Malte-Brun. He + thinks that Caucaland is the territory of the Cacoenses, placed by Ptolemy + (l. iii. c. 8) towards the Carpathian Mountains, on the side of the + present Transylvania, and therefore the canton of Cacava, to the south of + Hermanstadt, the capital of the principality. Caucaland it is evident, is + the Gothic form of these different names. St. Martin, iv 103.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap26.3"></a> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + After Valens had terminated the Gothic war with some appearance of glory + and success, he made a progress through his dominions of Asia, and at + length fixed his residence in the capital of Syria. The five years <a + href="#linknote-26.63" name="linknoteref-26.63" id="linknoteref-26.63">63</a> + which he spent at Antioch was employed to watch, from a secure distance, + the hostile designs of the Persian monarch; to check the depredations of + the Saracens and Isaurians; <a href="#linknote-26.64" + name="linknoteref-26.64" id="linknoteref-26.64">64</a> to enforce, by + arguments more prevalent than those of reason and eloquence, the belief of + the Arian theology; and to satisfy his anxious suspicions by the + promiscuous execution of the innocent and the guilty. But the attention of + the emperor was most seriously engaged, by the important intelligence + which he received from the civil and military officers who were intrusted + with the defence of the Danube. He was informed, that the North was + agitated by a furious tempest; that the irruption of the Huns, an unknown + and monstrous race of savages, had subverted the power of the Goths; and + that the suppliant multitudes of that warlike nation, whose pride was now + humbled in the dust, covered a space of many miles along the banks of the + river. With outstretched arms, and pathetic lamentations, they loudly + deplored their past misfortunes and their present danger; acknowledged + that their only hope of safety was in the clemency of the Roman + government; and most solemnly protested, that if the gracious liberality + of the emperor would permit them to cultivate the waste lands of Thrace, + they should ever hold themselves bound, by the strongest obligations of + duty and gratitude, to obey the laws, and to guard the limits, of the + republic. These assurances were confirmed by the ambassadors of the Goths, + <a href="#linknote-26.6411" name="linknoteref-26.6411" + id="linknoteref-26.6411">6411</a> who impatiently expected from the mouth + of Valens an answer that must finally determine the fate of their unhappy + countrymen. The emperor of the East was no longer guided by the wisdom and + authority of his elder brother, whose death happened towards the end of + the preceding year; and as the distressful situation of the Goths required + an instant and peremptory decision, he was deprived of the favorite + resources of feeble and timid minds, who consider the use of dilatory and + ambiguous measures as the most admirable efforts of consummate prudence. + As long as the same passions and interests subsist among mankind, the + questions of war and peace, of justice and policy, which were debated in + the councils of antiquity, will frequently present themselves as the + subject of modern deliberation. But the most experienced statesman of + Europe has never been summoned to consider the propriety, or the danger, + of admitting, or rejecting, an innumerable multitude of Barbarians, who + are driven by despair and hunger to solicit a settlement on the + territories of a civilized nation. When that important proposition, so + essentially connected with the public safety, was referred to the + ministers of Valens, they were perplexed and divided; but they soon + acquiesced in the flattering sentiment which seemed the most favorable to + the pride, the indolence, and the avarice of their sovereign. The slaves, + who were decorated with the titles of præfects and generals, dissembled + or disregarded the terrors of this national emigration; so extremely + different from the partial and accidental colonies, which had been + received on the extreme limits of the empire. But they applauded the + liberality of fortune, which had conducted, from the most distant + countries of the globe, a numerous and invincible army of strangers, to + defend the throne of Valens; who might now add to the royal treasures the + immense sums of gold supplied by the provincials to compensate their + annual proportion of recruits. The prayers of the Goths were granted, and + their service was accepted by the Imperial court: and orders were + immediately despatched to the civil and military governors of the Thracian + diocese, to make the necessary preparations for the passage and + subsistence of a great people, till a proper and sufficient territory + could be allotted for their future residence. The liberality of the + emperor was accompanied, however, with two harsh and rigorous conditions, + which prudence might justify on the side of the Romans; but which distress + alone could extort from the indignant Goths. Before they passed the + Danube, they were required to deliver their arms: and it was insisted, + that their children should be taken from them, and dispersed through the + provinces of Asia; where they might be civilized by the arts of education, + and serve as hostages to secure the fidelity of their parents. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.63" id="linknote-26.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.63">return</a>)<br /> [ The Chronology of + Ammianus is obscure and imperfect. Tillemont has labored to clear and + settle the annals of Valens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.64" id="linknote-26.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. 223. + Sozomen, l. vi. c. 38. The Isaurians, each winter, infested the roads of + Asia Minor, as far as the neighborhood of Constantinople. Basil, Epist. + cel. apud Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 106.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.6411" id="linknote-26.6411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6411 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.6411">return</a>)<br /> [ Sozomen and + Philostorgius say that the bishop Ulphilas was one of these ambassadors.—M.] + </p> + <p> + During the suspense of a doubtful and distant negotiation, the impatient + Goths made some rash attempts to pass the Danube, without the permission + of the government, whose protection they had implored. Their motions were + strictly observed by the vigilance of the troops which were stationed + along the river and their foremost detachments were defeated with + considerable slaughter; yet such were the timid councils of the reign of + Valens, that the brave officers who had served their country in the + execution of their duty, were punished by the loss of their employments, + and narrowly escaped the loss of their heads. The Imperial mandate was at + length received for transporting over the Danube the whole body of the + Gothic nation; <a href="#linknote-26.65" name="linknoteref-26.65" + id="linknoteref-26.65">65</a> but the execution of this order was a task of + labor and difficulty. The stream of the Danube, which in those parts is + above a mile broad, <a href="#linknote-26.66" name="linknoteref-26.66" + id="linknoteref-26.66">66</a> had been swelled by incessant rains; and in + this tumultuous passage, many were swept away, and drowned, by the rapid + violence of the current. A large fleet of vessels, of boats, and of + canoes, was provided; many days and nights they passed and repassed with + indefatigable toil; and the most strenuous diligence was exerted by the + officers of Valens, that not a single Barbarian, of those who were + reserved to subvert the foundations of Rome, should be left on the + opposite shore. It was thought expedient that an accurate account should + be taken of their numbers; but the persons who were employed soon + desisted, with amazement and dismay, from the prosecution of the endless + and impracticable task: <a href="#linknote-26.67" name="linknoteref-26.67" + id="linknoteref-26.67">67</a> and the principal historian of the age most + seriously affirms, that the prodigious armies of Darius and Xerxes, which + had so long been considered as the fables of vain and credulous antiquity, + were now justified, in the eyes of mankind, by the evidence of fact and + experience. A probable testimony has fixed the number of the Gothic + warriors at two hundred thousand men: and if we can venture to add the + just proportion of women, of children, and of slaves, the whole mass of + people which composed this formidable emigration, must have amounted to + near a million of persons, of both sexes, and of all ages. The children of + the Goths, those at least of a distinguished rank, were separated from the + multitude. They were conducted, without delay, to the distant seats + assigned for their residence and education; and as the numerous train of + hostages or captives passed through the cities, their gay and splendid + apparel, their robust and martial figure, excited the surprise and envy of + the Provincials. <a href="#linknote-26.6711" name="linknoteref-26.6711" + id="linknoteref-26.6711">6711</a> But the stipulation, the most offensive + to the Goths, and the most important to the Romans, was shamefully eluded. + The Barbarians, who considered their arms as the ensigns of honor and the + pledges of safety, were disposed to offer a price, which the lust or + avarice of the Imperial officers was easily tempted to accept. To preserve + their arms, the haughty warriors consented, with some reluctance, to + prostitute their wives or their daughters; the charms of a beauteous maid, + or a comely boy, secured the connivance of the inspectors; who sometimes + cast an eye of covetousness on the fringed carpets and linen garments of + their new allies, <a href="#linknote-26.68" name="linknoteref-26.68" + id="linknoteref-26.68">68</a> or who sacrificed their duty to the mean + consideration of filling their farms with cattle, and their houses with + slaves. The Goths, with arms in their hands, were permitted to enter the + boats; and when their strength was collected on the other side of the + river, the immense camp which was spread over the plains and the hills of + the Lower Mæsia, assumed a threatening and even hostile aspect. The + leaders of the Ostrogoths, Alatheus and Saphrax, the guardians of their + infant king, appeared soon afterwards on the Northern banks of the Danube; + and immediately despatched their ambassadors to the court of Antioch, to + solicit, with the same professions of allegiance and gratitude, the same + favor which had been granted to the suppliant Visigoths. The absolute + refusal of Valens suspended their progress, and discovered the repentance, + the suspicions, and the fears, of the Imperial council. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.65" id="linknote-26.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.65">return</a>)<br /> [ The passage of the + Danube is exposed by Ammianus, (xxxi. 3, 4,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 223, + 224,) Eunapius in Excerpt. Legat. (p. 19, 20,) and Jornandes, (c. 25, 26.) + Ammianus declares (c. 5) that he means only, ispas rerum digerere + <i>summitates</i>. But he often takes a false measure of their importance; and + his superfluous prolixity is disagreeably balanced by his unseasonable + brevity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.66" id="linknote-26.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Chishull, a curious + traveller, has remarked the breadth of the Danube, which he passed to the + south of Bucharest near the conflux of the Argish, (p. 77.) He admires the + beauty and spontaneous plenty of Mæsia, or Bulgaria.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.67" id="linknote-26.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.67">return</a>)<br /> [ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Quem sci scire velit, Libyci velit æquoris idem + Discere quam multæ Zephyro turbentur harenæ. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + Ammianus has inserted, in his prose, these lines of Virgil, (Georgia l. + ii. 105,) originally designed by the poet to express the impossibility of + numbering the different sorts of vines. See Plin. Hist. Natur l. xiv.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.6711" id="linknote-26.6711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6711 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.6711">return</a>)<br /> [ A very curious, but + obscure, passage of Eunapius, appears to me to have been misunderstood by + M. Mai, to whom we owe its discovery. The substance is as follows: “The + Goths transported over the river their native deities, with their priests + of both sexes; but concerning their rites they maintained a deep and + ‘<i>adamantine</i> silence.’ To the Romans they pretended to be generally + Christians, and placed certain persons to represent bishops in a + conspicuous manner on their wagons. There was even among them a sort of + what are called monks, persons whom it was not difficult to mimic; it was + enough to wear black raiment, to be wicked, and held in respect.” + (Eunapius hated the “black-robed monks,” as appears in another passage, + with the cordial detestation of a heathen philosopher.) “Thus, while they + faithfully but secretly adhered to their own religion, the Romans were + weak enough to suppose them perfect Christians.” Mai, 277. Eunapius in + Niebuhr, 82.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.68" id="linknote-26.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius and Zosimus + curiously specify these articles of Gothic wealth and luxury. Yet it must + be presumed, that they were the manufactures of the provinces; which the + Barbarians had acquired as the spoils of war; or as the gifts, or + merchandise, of peace.] + </p> + <p> + An undisciplined and unsettled nation of Barbarians required the firmest + temper, and the most dexterous management. The daily subsistence of near a + million of extraordinary subjects could be supplied only by constant and + skilful diligence, and might continually be interrupted by mistake or + accident. The insolence, or the indignation, of the Goths, if they + conceived themselves to be the objects either of fear or of contempt, + might urge them to the most desperate extremities; and the fortune of the + state seemed to depend on the prudence, as well as the integrity, of the + generals of Valens. At this important crisis, the military government of + Thrace was exercised by Lupicinus and Maximus, in whose venal minds the + slightest hope of private emolument outweighed every consideration of + public advantage; and whose guilt was only alleviated by their incapacity + of discerning the pernicious effects of their rash and criminal + administration. + </p> + <p> + Instead of obeying the orders of their sovereign, and satisfying, with + decent liberality, the demands of the Goths, they levied an ungenerous and + oppressive tax on the wants of the hungry Barbarians. The vilest food was + sold at an extravagant price; and, in the room of wholesome and + substantial provisions, the markets were filled with the flesh of dogs, + and of unclean animals, who had died of disease. To obtain the valuable + acquisition of a pound of bread, the Goths resigned the possession of an + expensive, though serviceable, slave; and a small quantity of meat was + greedily purchased with ten pounds of a precious, but useless metal, <a + href="#linknote-26.69" name="linknoteref-26.69" id="linknoteref-26.69">69</a> + when their property was exhausted, they continued this necessary traffic + by the sale of their sons and daughters; and notwithstanding the love of + freedom, which animated every Gothic breast, they submitted to the + humiliating maxim, that it was better for their children to be maintained + in a servile condition, than to perish in a state of wretched and helpless + independence. The most lively resentment is excited by the tyranny of + pretended benefactors, who sternly exact the debt of gratitude which they + have cancelled by subsequent injuries: a spirit of discontent insensibly + arose in the camp of the Barbarians, who pleaded, without success, the + merit of their patient and dutiful behavior; and loudly complained of the + inhospitable treatment which they had received from their new allies. They + beheld around them the wealth and plenty of a fertile province, in the + midst of which they suffered the intolerable hardships of artificial + famine. But the means of relief, and even of revenge, were in their hands; + since the rapaciousness of their tyrants had left to an injured people the + possession and the use of arms. The clamors of a multitude, untaught to + disguise their sentiments, announced the first symptoms of resistance, and + alarmed the timid and guilty minds of Lupicinus and Maximus. Those crafty + ministers, who substituted the cunning of temporary expedients to the wise + and salutary counsels of general policy, attempted to remove the Goths + from their dangerous station on the frontiers of the empire; and to + disperse them, in separate quarters of cantonment, through the interior + provinces. As they were conscious how ill they had deserved the respect, + or confidence, of the Barbarians, they diligently collected, from every + side, a military force, that might urge the tardy and reluctant march of a + people, who had not yet renounced the title, or the duties, of Roman + subjects. But the generals of Valens, while their attention was solely + directed to the discontented Visigoths, imprudently disarmed the ships and + the fortifications which constituted the defence of the Danube. The fatal + oversight was observed, and improved, by Alatheus and Saphrax, who + anxiously watched the favorable moment of escaping from the pursuit of the + Huns. By the help of such rafts and vessels as could be hastily procured, + the leaders of the Ostrogoths transported, without opposition, their king + and their army; and boldly fixed a hostile and independent camp on the + territories of the empire. <a href="#linknote-26.70" name="linknoteref-26.70" + id="linknoteref-26.70">70</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.69" id="linknote-26.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.69">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Decem libras;</i> the word + <i>silver</i> must be understood. Jornandes betrays the passions and prejudices + of a Goth. The servile Geeks, Eunapius and Zosimus, disguise the Roman + oppression, and execrate the perfidy of the Barbarians. Ammianus, a + patriot historian, slightly, and reluctantly, touches on the odious + subject. Jerom, who wrote almost on the spot, is fair, though concise. Per + avaritaim aximi ducis, ad rebellionem fame <i>coacti</i> sunt, (in Chron.) * + Note: A new passage from the history of Eunapius is nearer to the truth. + ‘It appeared to our commanders a legitimate source of gain to be bribed by + the Barbarians: Edit. Niebuhr, p. 82.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.70" id="linknote-26.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus, xxxi. 4, 5.] + </p> + <p> + Under the name of Judges, Alavivus and Fritigern were the leaders of the + Visigoths in peace and war; and the authority which they derived from + their birth was ratified by the free consent of the nation. In a season of + tranquility, their power might have been equal, as well as their rank; + but, as soon as their countrymen were exasperated by hunger and + oppression, the superior abilities of Fritigern assumed the military + command, which he was qualified to exercise for the public welfare. He + restrained the impatient spirit of the Visigoths till the injuries and the + insults of their tyrants should justify their resistance in the opinion of + mankind: but he was not disposed to sacrifice any solid advantages for the + empty praise of justice and moderation. Sensible of the benefits which + would result from the union of the Gothic powers under the same standard, + he secretly cultivated the friendship of the Ostrogoths; and while he + professed an implicit obedience to the orders of the Roman generals, he + proceeded by slow marches towards Marcianopolis, the capital of the Lower + Mæsia, about seventy miles from the banks of the Danube. On that fatal + spot, the flames of discord and mutual hatred burst forth into a dreadful + conflagration. Lupicinus had invited the Gothic chiefs to a splendid + entertainment; and their martial train remained under arms at the entrance + of the palace. But the gates of the city were strictly guarded, and the + Barbarians were sternly excluded from the use of a plentiful market, to + which they asserted their equal claim of subjects and allies. Their humble + prayers were rejected with insolence and derision; and as their patience + was now exhausted, the townsmen, the soldiers, and the Goths, were soon + involved in a conflict of passionate altercation and angry reproaches. A + blow was imprudently given; a sword was hastily drawn; and the first blood + that was spilt in this accidental quarrel, became the signal of a long and + destructive war. In the midst of noise and brutal intemperance, Lupicinus + was informed, by a secret messenger, that many of his soldiers were slain, + and despoiled of their arms; and as he was already inflamed by wine, and + oppressed by sleep he issued a rash command, that their death should be + revenged by the massacre of the guards of Fritigern and Alavivus. + </p> + <p> + The clamorous shouts and dying groans apprised Fritigern of his extreme + danger; and, as he possessed the calm and intrepid spirit of a hero, he + saw that he was lost if he allowed a moment of deliberation to the man who + had so deeply injured him. “A trifling dispute,” said the Gothic leader, + with a firm but gentle tone of voice, “appears to have arisen between the + two nations; but it may be productive of the most dangerous consequences, + unless the tumult is immediately pacified by the assurance of our safety, + and the authority of our presence.” At these words, Fritigern and his + companions drew their swords, opened their passage through the unresisting + crowd, which filled the palace, the streets, and the gates, of + Marcianopolis, and, mounting their horses, hastily vanished from the eyes + of the astonished Romans. The generals of the Goths were saluted by the + fierce and joyful acclamations of the camp; war was instantly resolved, + and the resolution was executed without delay: the banners of the nation + were displayed according to the custom of their ancestors; and the air + resounded with the harsh and mournful music of the Barbarian trumpet. <a + href="#linknote-26.71" name="linknoteref-26.71" id="linknoteref-26.71">71</a> + The weak and guilty Lupicinus, who had dared to provoke, who had neglected + to destroy, and who still presumed to despise, his formidable enemy, + marched against the Goths, at the head of such a military force as could + be collected on this sudden emergency. The Barbarians expected his + approach about nine miles from Marcianopolis; and on this occasion the + talents of the general were found to be of more prevailing efficacy than + the weapons and discipline of the troops. The valor of the Goths was so + ably directed by the genius of Fritigern, that they broke, by a close and + vigorous attack, the ranks of the Roman legions. Lupicinus left his arms + and standards, his tribunes and his bravest soldiers, on the field of + battle; and their useless courage served only to protect the ignominious + flight of their leader. “That successful day put an end to the distress of + the Barbarians, and the security of the Romans: from that day, the Goths, + renouncing the precarious condition of strangers and exiles, assumed the + character of citizens and masters, claimed an absolute dominion over the + possessors of land, and held, in their own right, the northern provinces + of the empire, which are bounded by the Danube.” Such are the words of the + Gothic historian, <a href="#linknote-26.72" name="linknoteref-26.72" + id="linknoteref-26.72">72</a> who celebrates, with rude eloquence, the + glory of his countrymen. But the dominion of the Barbarians was exercised + only for the purposes of rapine and destruction. As they had been + deprived, by the ministers of the emperor, of the common benefits of + nature, and the fair intercourse of social life, they retaliated the + injustice on the subjects of the empire; and the crimes of Lupicinus were + expiated by the ruin of the peaceful husbandmen of Thrace, the + conflagration of their villages, and the massacre, or captivity, of their + innocent families. The report of the Gothic victory was soon diffused over + the adjacent country; and while it filled the minds of the Romans with + terror and dismay, their own hasty imprudence contributed to increase the + forces of Fritigern, and the calamities of the province. Some time before + the great emigration, a numerous body of Goths, under the command of + Suerid and Colias, had been received into the protection and service of + the empire. <a href="#linknote-26.73" name="linknoteref-26.73" + id="linknoteref-26.73">73</a> They were encamped under the walls of + Hadrianople; but the ministers of Valens were anxious to remove them + beyond the Hellespont, at a distance from the dangerous temptation which + might so easily be communicated by the neighborhood, and the success, of + their countrymen. The respectful submission with which they yielded to the + order of their march, might be considered as a proof of their fidelity; + and their moderate request of a sufficient allowance of provisions, and of + a delay of only two days was expressed in the most dutiful terms. But the + first magistrate of Hadrianople, incensed by some disorders which had been + committed at his country-house, refused this indulgence; and arming + against them the inhabitants and manufacturers of a populous city, he + urged, with hostile threats, their instant departure. The Barbarians stood + silent and amazed, till they were exasperated by the insulting clamors, + and missile weapons, of the populace: but when patience or contempt was + fatigued, they crushed the undisciplined multitude, inflicted many a + shameful wound on the backs of their flying enemies, and despoiled them of + the splendid armor, <a href="#linknote-26.74" name="linknoteref-26.74" + id="linknoteref-26.74">74</a> which they were unworthy to bear. The + resemblance of their sufferings and their actions soon united this + victorious detachment to the nation of the Visigoths; the troops of Colias + and Suerid expected the approach of the great Fritigern, ranged themselves + under his standard, and signalized their ardor in the siege of + Hadrianople. But the resistance of the garrison informed the Barbarians, + that in the attack of regular fortifications, the efforts of unskillful + courage are seldom effectual. Their general acknowledged his error, raised + the siege, declared that “he was at peace with stone walls,” <a + href="#linknote-26.75" name="linknoteref-26.75" id="linknoteref-26.75">75</a> + and revenged his disappointment on the adjacent country. He accepted, with + pleasure, the useful reenforcement of hardy workmen, who labored in the + gold mines of Thrace, <a href="#linknote-26.76" name="linknoteref-26.76" + id="linknoteref-26.76">76</a> for the emolument, and under the lash, of an + unfeeling master: <a href="#linknote-26.77" name="linknoteref-26.77" + id="linknoteref-26.77">77</a> and these new associates conducted the + Barbarians, through the secret paths, to the most sequestered places, + which had been chosen to secure the inhabitants, the cattle, and the + magazines of corn. With the assistance of such guides, nothing could + remain impervious or inaccessible; resistance was fatal; flight was + impracticable; and the patient submission of helpless innocence seldom + found mercy from the Barbarian conqueror. In the course of these + depredations, a great number of the children of the Goths, who had been + sold into captivity, were restored to the embraces of their afflicted + parents; but these tender interviews, which might have revived and + cherished in their minds some sentiments of humanity, tended only to + stimulate their native fierceness by the desire of revenge. They listened, + with eager attention, to the complaints of their captive children, who had + suffered the most cruel indignities from the lustful or angry passions of + their masters, and the same cruelties, the same indignities, were severely + retaliated on the sons and daughters of the Romans. <a + href="#linknote-26.78" name="linknoteref-26.78" id="linknoteref-26.78">78</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.71" id="linknote-26.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.71">return</a>)<br /> [ Vexillis de <i>more</i> + sublatis, auditisque <i>triste sonantibus classicis</i>. Ammian. xxxi. 5. These + are the <i>rauca cornua</i> of Claudian, (in Rufin. ii. 57,) the large horns of + the <i>Uri</i>, or wild bull; such as have been more recently used by the Swiss + Cantons of Uri and Underwald. (Simler de Republicâ Helvet, l. ii. p. 201, + edit. Fuselin. Tigur 1734.) Their military horn is finely, though perhaps + casually, introduced in an original narrative of the battle of Nancy, + (A.D. 1477.) “Attendant le combat le dit cor fut corné par trois fois, + tant que le vent du souffler pouvoit durer: ce qui esbahit fort Monsieur + de Bourgoigne; <i>car deja à Morat l’avoit ouy</i>.” (See the Pièces + Justificatives in the 4to. edition of Philippe de Comines, tom. iii. p. + 493.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.72" id="linknote-26.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Jornandes de Rebus + Geticis, c. 26, p. 648, edit. Grot. These <i>splendidi panni</i> (they are + comparatively such) are undoubtedly transcribed from the larger histories + of Priscus, Ablavius, or Cassiodorus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.73" id="linknote-26.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.73">return</a>)<br /> [ Cum populis suis longe + ante suscepti. We are ignorant of the precise date and circumstances of + their transmigration.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.74" id="linknote-26.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.74">return</a>)<br /> [ An Imperial manufacture + of shields, &c., was established at Hadrianople; and the populace were + headed by the Fabricenses, or workmen. (Vales. ad Ammian. xxxi. 6.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.75" id="linknote-26.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Pacem sibi esse cum + parietibus memorans. Ammian. xxxi. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.76" id="linknote-26.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.76">return</a>)<br /> [ These mines were in the + country of the Bessi, in the ridge of mountains, the Rhodope, that runs + between Philippi and Philippopolis; two Macedonian cities, which derived + their name and origin from the father of Alexander. From the mines of + Thrace he annually received the value, not the weight, of a thousand + talents, (200,000l.,) a revenue which paid the phalanx, and corrupted the + orators of Greece. See Diodor. Siculus, tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 88, edit. + Wesseling. Godefroy’s Commentary on the Theodosian Code, tom. iii. p. 496. + Cellarius, Geograph. Antiq. tom. i. p. 676, 857. D Anville, Geographie + Ancienne, tom. i. p. 336.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.77" id="linknote-26.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.77">return</a>)<br /> [ As those unhappy + workmen often ran away, Valens had enacted severe laws to drag them from + their hiding-places. Cod. Theodosian, l. x. tit xix leg. 5, 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.78" id="linknote-26.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.78">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ammianus, xxxi. 5, + 6. The historian of the Gothic war loses time and space, by an + unseasonable recapitulation of the ancient inroads of the Barbarians.] + </p> + <p> + The imprudence of Valens and his ministers had introduced into the heart + of the empire a nation of enemies; but the Visigoths might even yet have + been reconciled, by the manly confession of past errors, and the sincere + performance of former engagements. These healing and temperate measures + seemed to concur with the timorous disposition of the sovereign of the + East: but, on this occasion alone, Valens was brave; and his unseasonable + bravery was fatal to himself and to his subjects. He declared his + intention of marching from Antioch to Constantinople, to subdue this + dangerous rebellion; and, as he was not ignorant of the difficulties of + the enterprise, he solicited the assistance of his nephew, the emperor + Gratian, who commanded all the forces of the West. The veteran troops were + hastily recalled from the defence of Armenia; that important frontier was + abandoned to the discretion of Sapor; and the immediate conduct of the + Gothic war was intrusted, during the absence of Valens, to his lieutenants + Trajan and Profuturus, two generals who indulged themselves in a very + false and favorable opinion of their own abilities. On their arrival in + Thrace, they were joined by Richomer, count of the domestics; and the + auxiliaries of the West, that marched under his banner, were composed of + the Gallic legions, reduced indeed, by a spirit of desertion, to the vain + appearances of strength and numbers. In a council of war, which was + influenced by pride, rather than by reason, it was resolved to seek, and + to encounter, the Barbarians, who lay encamped in the spacious and fertile + meadows, near the most southern of the six mouths of the Danube. <a + href="#linknote-26.79" name="linknoteref-26.79" id="linknoteref-26.79">79</a> + Their camp was surrounded by the usual fortification of wagons; <a + href="#linknote-26.80" name="linknoteref-26.80" id="linknoteref-26.80">80</a> + and the Barbarians, secure within the vast circle of the enclosure, + enjoyed the fruits of their valor, and the spoils of the province. In the + midst of riotous intemperance, the watchful Fritigern observed the + motions, and penetrated the designs, of the Romans. He perceived, that the + numbers of the enemy were continually increasing: and, as he understood + their intention of attacking his rear, as soon as the scarcity of forage + should oblige him to remove his camp, he recalled to their standard his + predatory detachments, which covered the adjacent country. As soon as they + descried the flaming beacons, <a href="#linknote-26.81" + name="linknoteref-26.81" id="linknoteref-26.81">81</a> they obeyed, with + incredible speed, the signal of their leader: the camp was filled with the + martial crowd of Barbarians; their impatient clamors demanded the battle, + and their tumultuous zeal was approved and animated by the spirit of their + chiefs. The evening was already far advanced; and the two armies prepared + themselves for the approaching combat, which was deferred only till the + dawn of day. + </p> + <p> + While the trumpets sounded to arms, the undaunted courage of the Goths was + confirmed by the mutual obligation of a solemn oath; and as they advanced + to meet the enemy, the rude songs, which celebrated the glory of their + forefathers, were mingled with their fierce and dissonant outcries, and + opposed to the artificial harmony of the Roman shout. Some military skill + was displayed by Fritigern to gain the advantage of a commanding eminence; + but the bloody conflict, which began and ended with the light, was + maintained on either side, by the personal and obstinate efforts of + strength, valor, and agility. The legions of Armenia supported their fame + in arms; but they were oppressed by the irresistible weight of the hostile + multitude the left wing of the Romans was thrown into disorder and the + field was strewed with their mangled carcasses. This partial defeat was + balanced, however, by partial success; and when the two armies, at a late + hour of the evening, retreated to their respective camps, neither of them + could claim the honors, or the effects, of a decisive victory. The real + loss was more severely felt by the Romans, in proportion to the smallness + of their numbers; but the Goths were so deeply confounded and dismayed by + this vigorous, and perhaps unexpected, resistance, that they remained + seven days within the circle of their fortifications. Such funeral rites, + as the circumstances of time and place would admit, were piously + discharged to some officers of distinguished rank; but the indiscriminate + vulgar was left unburied on the plain. Their flesh was greedily devoured + by the birds of prey, who in that age enjoyed very frequent and delicious + feasts; and several years afterwards the white and naked bones, which + covered the wide extent of the fields, presented to the eyes of Ammianus a + dreadful monument of the battle of Salices. <a href="#linknote-26.82" + name="linknoteref-26.82" id="linknoteref-26.82">82</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.79" id="linknote-26.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.79">return</a>)<br /> [ The Itinerary of + Antoninus (p. 226, 227, edit. Wesseling) marks the situation of this place + about sixty miles north of Tomi, Ovid’s exile; and the name of <i>Salices</i> + (the willows) expresses the nature of the soil.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.80" id="linknote-26.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.80">return</a>)<br /> [ This circle of wagons, + the <i>Carrago</i>, was the usual fortification of the Barbarians. (Vegetius de + Re Militari, l. iii. c. 10. Valesius ad Ammian. xxxi. 7.) The practice and + the name were preserved by their descendants as late as the fifteenth + century. The <i>Charroy</i>, which surrounded the <i>Ost</i>, is a word familiar to the + readers of Froissard, or Comines.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.81" id="linknote-26.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Statim ut accensi + malleoli. I have used the literal sense of real torches or beacons; but I + almost suspect, that it is only one of those turgid metaphors, those false + ornaments, that perpetually disfigure to style of Ammianus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.82" id="linknote-26.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Indicant nunc usque + albentes ossibus campi. Ammian. xxxi. 7. The historian might have viewed + these plains, either as a soldier, or as a traveller. But his modesty has + suppressed the adventures of his own life subsequent to the Persian wars + of Constantius and Julian. We are ignorant of the time when he quitted the + service, and retired to Rome, where he appears to have composed his + History of his Own Times.] + </p> + <p> + The progress of the Goths had been checked by the doubtful event of that + bloody day; and the Imperial generals, whose army would have been consumed + by the repetition of such a contest, embraced the more rational plan of + destroying the Barbarians by the wants and pressure of their own + multitudes. They prepared to confine the Visigoths in the narrow angle of + land between the Danube, the desert of Scythia, and the mountains of + Hæmus, till their strength and spirit should be insensibly wasted by the + inevitable operation of famine. The design was prosecuted with some + conduct and success: the Barbarians had almost exhausted their own + magazines, and the harvests of the country; and the diligence of + Saturninus, the master-general of the cavalry, was employed to improve the + strength, and to contract the extent, of the Roman fortifications. His + labors were interrupted by the alarming intelligence, that new swarms of + Barbarians had passed the unguarded Danube, either to support the cause, + or to imitate the example, of Fritigern. The just apprehension, that he + himself might be surrounded, and overwhelmed, by the arms of hostile and + unknown nations, compelled Saturninus to relinquish the siege of the + Gothic camp; and the indignant Visigoths, breaking from their confinement, + satiated their hunger and revenge by the repeated devastation of the + fruitful country, which extends above three hundred miles from the banks + of the Danube to the straits of the Hellespont. <a href="#linknote-26.83" + name="linknoteref-26.83" id="linknoteref-26.83">83</a> The sagacious + Fritigern had successfully appealed to the passions, as well as to the + interest, of his Barbarian allies; and the love of rapine, and the hatred + of Rome, seconded, or even prevented, the eloquence of his ambassadors. He + cemented a strict and useful alliance with the great body of his + countrymen, who obeyed Alatheus and Saphrax as the guardians of their + infant king: the long animosity of rival tribes was suspended by the sense + of their common interest; the independent part of the nation was + associated under one standard; and the chiefs of the Ostrogoths appear to + have yielded to the superior genius of the general of the Visigoths. He + obtained the formidable aid of the Taifalæ, <a href="#linknote-26.8311" + name="linknoteref-26.8311" id="linknoteref-26.8311">8311</a> whose military + renown was disgraced and polluted by the public infamy of their domestic + manners. Every youth, on his entrance into the world, was united by the + ties of honorable friendship, and brutal love, to some warrior of the + tribe; nor could he hope to be released from this unnatural connection, + till he had approved his manhood by slaying, in single combat, a huge + bear, or a wild boar of the forest. <a href="#linknote-26.84" + name="linknoteref-26.84" id="linknoteref-26.84">84</a> But the most powerful + auxiliaries of the Goths were drawn from the camp of those enemies who had + expelled them from their native seats. The loose subordination, and + extensive possessions, of the Huns and the Alani, delayed the conquests, + and distracted the councils, of that victorious people. Several of the + hords were allured by the liberal promises of Fritigern; and the rapid + cavalry of Scythia added weight and energy to the steady and strenuous + efforts of the Gothic infantry. The Sarmatians, who could never forgive + the successor of Valentinian, enjoyed and increased the general confusion; + and a seasonable irruption of the Alemanni, into the provinces of Gaul, + engaged the attention, and diverted the forces, of the emperor of the + West. <a href="#linknote-26.85" name="linknoteref-26.85" + id="linknoteref-26.85">85</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.83" id="linknote-26.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.83">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxxi. 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.8311" id="linknote-26.8311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8311 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.8311">return</a>)<br /> [ The Taifalæ, who + at this period inhabited the country which now forms the principality of + Wallachia, were, in my opinion, the last remains of the great and powerful + nation of the Dacians, (Daci or Dahæ.) which has given its name to these + regions, over which they had ruled so long. The Taifalæ passed with the + Goths into the territory of the empire. A great number of them entered the + Roman service, and were quartered in different provinces. They are + mentioned in the Notitia Imperii. There was a considerable body in the + country of the Pictavi, now Poithou. They long retained their manners and + language, and caused the name of the Theofalgicus pagus to be given to the + district they inhabited. Two places in the department of La Vendee, + Tiffanges and La Tiffardière, still preserve evident traces of this + denomination. St. Martin, iv. 118.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.84" id="linknote-26.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Hanc Taifalorum gentem + turpem, et obscenæ vitæ flagitiis ita accipimus mersam; ut apud eos + nefandi concubitûs fœdere copulentur mares puberes, ætatis viriditatem + in eorum pollutis usibus consumpturi. Porro, siqui jam adultus aprum + exceperit solus, vel interemit ursum immanem, colluvione liberatur + incesti. Ammian. xxxi. 9. ——Among the Greeks, likewise, more + especially among the Cretans, the holy bands of friendship were confirmed, + and sullied, by unnatural love.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.85" id="linknote-26.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxxi. 8, 9. + Jerom (tom. i. p. 26) enumerates the nations and marks a calamitous period + of twenty years. This epistle to Heliodorus was composed in the year 397, + (Tillemont, Mém. Eccles tom xii. p. 645.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap26.4"></a> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + One of the most dangerous inconveniences of the introduction of the + Barbarians into the army and the palace, was sensibly felt in their + correspondence with their hostile countrymen; to whom they imprudently, or + maliciously, revealed the weakness of the Roman empire. A soldier, of the + lifeguards of Gratian, was of the nation of the Alemanni, and of the tribe + of the Lentienses, who dwelt beyond the Lake of Constance. Some domestic + business obliged him to request a leave of absence. In a short visit to + his family and friends, he was exposed to their curious inquiries: and the + vanity of the loquacious soldier tempted him to display his intimate + acquaintance with the secrets of the state, and the designs of his master. + The intelligence, that Gratian was preparing to lead the military force of + Gaul, and of the West, to the assistance of his uncle Valens, pointed out + to the restless spirit of the Alemanni the moment, and the mode, of a + successful invasion. The enterprise of some light detachments, who, in the + month of February, passed the Rhine upon the ice, was the prelude of a + more important war. The boldest hopes of rapine, perhaps of conquest, + outweighed the considerations of timid prudence, or national faith. Every + forest, and every village, poured forth a band of hardy adventurers; and + the great army of the Alemanni, which, on their approach, was estimated at + forty thousand men by the fears of the people, was afterwards magnified to + the number of seventy thousand by the vain and credulous flattery of the + Imperial court. The legions, which had been ordered to march into + Pannonia, were immediately recalled, or detained, for the defence of Gaul; + the military command was divided between Nanienus and Mellobaudes; and the + youthful emperor, though he respected the long experience and sober wisdom + of the former, was much more inclined to admire, and to follow, the + martial ardor of his colleague; who was allowed to unite the incompatible + characters of count of the domestics, and of king of the Franks. His rival + Priarius, king of the Alemanni, was guided, or rather impelled, by the + same headstrong valor; and as their troops were animated by the spirit of + their leaders, they met, they saw, they encountered each other, near the + town of Argentaria, or Colmar, <a href="#linknote-26.86" + name="linknoteref-26.86" id="linknoteref-26.86">86</a> in the plains of + Alsace. The glory of the day was justly ascribed to the missile weapons, + and well-practised evolutions, of the Roman soldiers; the Alemanni, who + long maintained their ground, were slaughtered with unrelenting fury; five + thousand only of the Barbarians escaped to the woods and mountains; and + the glorious death of their king on the field of battle saved him from the + reproaches of the people, who are always disposed to accuse the justice, + or policy, of an unsuccessful war. After this signal victory, which + secured the peace of Gaul, and asserted the honor of the Roman arms, the + emperor Gratian appeared to proceed without delay on his Eastern + expedition; but as he approached the confines of the Alemanni, he suddenly + inclined to the left, surprised them by his unexpected passage of the + Rhine, and boldly advanced into the heart of their country. The Barbarians + opposed to his progress the obstacles of nature and of courage; and still + continued to retreat, from one hill to another, till they were satisfied, + by repeated trials, of the power and perseverance of their enemies. Their + submission was accepted as a proof, not indeed of their sincere + repentance, but of their actual distress; and a select number of their + brave and robust youth was exacted from the faithless nation, as the most + substantial pledge of their future moderation. The subjects of the empire, + who had so often experienced that the Alemanni could neither be subdued by + arms, nor restrained by treaties, might not promise themselves any solid + or lasting tranquillity: but they discovered, in the virtues of their + young sovereign, the prospect of a long and auspicious reign. When the + legions climbed the mountains, and scaled the fortifications of the + Barbarians, the valor of Gratian was distinguished in the foremost ranks; + and the gilt and variegated armor of his guards was pierced and shattered + by the blows which they had received in their constant attachment to the + person of their sovereign. At the age of nineteen, the son of Valentinian + seemed to possess the talents of peace and war; and his personal success + against the Alemanni was interpreted as a sure presage of his Gothic + triumphs. <a href="#linknote-26.87" name="linknoteref-26.87" + id="linknoteref-26.87">87</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.86" id="linknote-26.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.86">return</a>)<br /> [ The field of battle, + <i>Argentaria</i> or <i>Argentovaria</i>, is accurately fixed by M. D’Anville (Notice de + l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 96—99) at twenty-three Gallic leagues, or + thirty-four and a half Roman miles to the south of Strasburg. From its + ruins the adjacent town of <i>Colmar</i> has arisen. Note: It is rather Horburg, + on the right bank of the River Ill, opposite to Colmar. From Schoepflin, + Alsatia Illustrata. St. Martin, iv. 121.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.87" id="linknote-26.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.87">return</a>)<br /> [ The full and impartial + narrative of Ammianus (xxxi. 10) may derive some additional light from the + Epitome of Victor, the Chronicle of Jerom, and the History of Orosius, (l. + vii. c. 33, p. 552, edit. Havercamp.)] + </p> + <p> + While Gratian deserved and enjoyed the applause of his subjects, the + emperor Valens, who, at length, had removed his court and army from + Antioch, was received by the people of Constantinople as the author of the + public calamity. Before he had reposed himself ten days in the capital, he + was urged by the licentious clamors of the Hippodrome to march against the + Barbarians, whom he had invited into his dominions; and the citizens, who + are always brave at a distance from any real danger, declared, with + confidence, that, if they were supplied with arms, <i>they</i> alone would + undertake to deliver the province from the ravages of an insulting foe. <a + href="#linknote-26.88" name="linknoteref-26.88" id="linknoteref-26.88">88</a> + The vain reproaches of an ignorant multitude hastened the downfall of the + Roman empire; they provoked the desperate rashness of Valens; who did not + find, either in his reputation or in his mind, any motives to support with + firmness the public contempt. He was soon persuaded, by the successful + achievements of his lieutenants, to despise the power of the Goths, who, + by the diligence of Fritigern, were now collected in the neighborhood of + Hadrianople. The march of the Taifalæ had been intercepted by the valiant + Frigeric: the king of those licentious Barbarians was slain in battle; and + the suppliant captives were sent into distant exile to cultivate the lands + of Italy, which were assigned for their settlement in the vacant + territories of Modena and Parma. <a href="#linknote-26.89" + name="linknoteref-26.89" id="linknoteref-26.89">89</a> The exploits of + Sebastian, <a href="#linknote-26.90" name="linknoteref-26.90" + id="linknoteref-26.90">90</a> who was recently engaged in the service of + Valens, and promoted to the rank of master-general of the infantry, were + still more honorable to himself, and useful to the republic. He obtained + the permission of selecting three hundred soldiers from each of the + legions; and this separate detachment soon acquired the spirit of + discipline, and the exercise of arms, which were almost forgotten under + the reign of Valens. By the vigor and conduct of Sebastian, a large body + of the Goths were surprised in their camp; and the immense spoil, which + was recovered from their hands, filled the city of Hadrianople, and the + adjacent plain. The splendid narratives, which the general transmitted of + his own exploits, alarmed the Imperial court by the appearance of superior + merit; and though he cautiously insisted on the difficulties of the Gothic + war, his valor was praised, his advice was rejected; and Valens, who + listened with pride and pleasure to the flattering suggestions of the + eunuchs of the palace, was impatient to seize the glory of an easy and + assured conquest. His army was strengthened by a numerous reenforcement of + veterans; and his march from Constantinople to Hadrianople was conducted + with so much military skill, that he prevented the activity of the + Barbarians, who designed to occupy the intermediate defiles, and to + intercept either the troops themselves, or their convoys of provisions. + The camp of Valens, which he pitched under the walls of Hadrianople, was + fortified, according to the practice of the Romans, with a ditch and + rampart; and a most important council was summoned, to decide the fate of + the emperor and of the empire. The party of reason and of delay was + strenuously maintained by Victor, who had corrected, by the lessons of + experience, the native fierceness of the Sarmatian character; while + Sebastian, with the flexible and obsequious eloquence of a courtier, + represented every precaution, and every measure, that implied a doubt of + immediate victory, as unworthy of the courage and majesty of their + invincible monarch. The ruin of Valens was precipitated by the deceitful + arts of Fritigern, and the prudent admonitions of the emperor of the West. + The advantages of negotiating in the midst of war were perfectly + understood by the general of the Barbarians; and a Christian ecclesiastic + was despatched, as the holy minister of peace, to penetrate, and to + perplex, the councils of the enemy. The misfortunes, as well as the + provocations, of the Gothic nation, were forcibly and truly described by + their ambassador; who protested, in the name of Fritigern, that he was + still disposed to lay down his arms, or to employ them only in the defence + of the empire; if he could secure for his wandering countrymen a tranquil + settlement on the waste lands of Thrace, and a sufficient allowance of + corn and cattle. But he added, in a whisper of confidential friendship, + that the exasperated Barbarians were averse to these reasonable + conditions; and that Fritigern was doubtful whether he could accomplish + the conclusion of the treaty, unless he found himself supported by the + presence and terrors of an Imperial army. About the same time, Count + Richomer returned from the West to announce the defeat and submission of + the Alemanni, to inform Valens that his nephew advanced by rapid marches + at the head of the veteran and victorious legions of Gaul, and to request, + in the name of Gratian and of the republic, that every dangerous and + decisive measure might be suspended, till the junction of the two emperors + should insure the success of the Gothic war. But the feeble sovereign of + the East was actuated only by the fatal illusions of pride and jealousy. + He disdained the importunate advice; he rejected the humiliating aid; he + secretly compared the ignominious, at least the inglorious, period of his + own reign, with the fame of a beardless youth; and Valens rushed into the + field, to erect his imaginary trophy, before the diligence of his + colleague could usurp any share of the triumphs of the day. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.88" id="linknote-26.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.88">return</a>)<br /> [ Moratus paucissimos + dies, seditione popularium levium pulsus Ammian. xxxi. 11. Socrates (l. + iv. c. 38) supplies the dates and some circumstances. * Note: Compare + fragment of Eunapius. Mai, 272, in Niebuhr, p. 77.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.89" id="linknote-26.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.89">return</a>)<br /> [ Vivosque omnes circa + Mutinam, Regiumque, et Parmam, Italica oppida, rura culturos exterminavit. + Ammianus, xxxi. 9. Those cities and districts, about ten years after the + colony of the Taifalæ, appear in a very desolate state. See Muratori, + Dissertazioni sopra le Antichità Italiane, tom. i. Dissertat. xxi. p. + 354.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.90" id="linknote-26.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammian. xxxi. 11. + Zosimus, l. iv. p. 228—230. The latter expatiates on the desultory + exploits of Sebastian, and despatches, in a few lines, the important + battle of Hadrianople. According to the ecclesiastical critics, who hate + Sebastian, the praise of Zosimus is disgrace, (Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. v. p. 121.) His prejudice and ignorance undoubtedly render + him a very questionable judge of merit.] + </p> + <p> + On the ninth of August, a day which has deserved to be marked among the + most inauspicious of the Roman Calendar, <a href="#linknote-26.91" + name="linknoteref-26.91" id="linknoteref-26.91">91</a> the emperor Valens, + leaving, under a strong guard, his baggage and military treasure, marched + from Hadrianople to attack the Goths, who were encamped about twelve miles + from the city. <a href="#linknote-26.92" name="linknoteref-26.92" + id="linknoteref-26.92">92</a> By some mistake of the orders, or some + ignorance of the ground, the right wing, or column of cavalry arrived in + sight of the enemy, whilst the left was still at a considerable distance; + the soldiers were compelled, in the sultry heat of summer, to precipitate + their pace; and the line of battle was formed with tedious confusion and + irregular delay. The Gothic cavalry had been detached to forage in the + adjacent country; and Fritigern still continued to practise his customary + arts. He despatched messengers of peace, made proposals, required + hostages, and wasted the hours, till the Romans, exposed without shelter + to the burning rays of the sun, were exhausted by thirst, hunger, and + intolerable fatigue. The emperor was persuaded to send an ambassador to + the Gothic camp; the zeal of Richomer, who alone had courage to accept the + dangerous commission, was applauded; and the count of the domestics, + adorned with the splendid ensigns of his dignity, had proceeded some way + in the space between the two armies, when he was suddenly recalled by the + alarm of battle. The hasty and imprudent attack was made by Bacurius the + Iberian, who commanded a body of archers and targeteers; and as they + advanced with rashness, they retreated with loss and disgrace. In the same + moment, the flying squadrons of Alatheus and Saphrax, whose return was + anxiously expected by the general of the Goths, descended like a whirlwind + from the hills, swept across the plain, and added new terrors to the + tumultuous, but irresistible charge of the Barbarian host. The event of + the battle of Hadrianople, so fatal to Valens and to the empire, may be + described in a few words: the Roman cavalry fled; the infantry was + abandoned, surrounded, and cut in pieces. The most skilful evolutions, the + firmest courage, are scarcely sufficient to extricate a body of foot, + encompassed, on an open plain, by superior numbers of horse; but the + troops of Valens, oppressed by the weight of the enemy and their own + fears, were crowded into a narrow space, where it was impossible for them + to extend their ranks, or even to use, with effect, their swords and + javelins. In the midst of tumult, of slaughter, and of dismay, the + emperor, deserted by his guards and wounded, as it was supposed, with an + arrow, sought protection among the Lancearii and the Mattiarii, who still + maintained their ground with some appearance of order and firmness. His + faithful generals, Trajan and Victor, who perceived his danger, loudly + exclaimed that all was lost, unless the person of the emperor could be + saved. Some troops, animated by their exhortation, advanced to his relief: + they found only a bloody spot, covered with a heap of broken arms and + mangled bodies, without being able to discover their unfortunate prince, + either among the living or the dead. Their search could not indeed be + successful, if there is any truth in the circumstances with which some + historians have related the death of the emperor. + </p> + <p> + By the care of his attendants, Valens was removed from the field of battle + to a neighboring cottage, where they attempted to dress his wound, and to + provide for his future safety. But this humble retreat was instantly + surrounded by the enemy: they tried to force the door, they were provoked + by a discharge of arrows from the roof, till at length, impatient of + delay, they set fire to a pile of dry magots, and consumed the cottage + with the Roman emperor and his train. Valens perished in the flames; and a + youth, who dropped from the window, alone escaped, to attest the + melancholy tale, and to inform the Goths of the inestimable prize which + they had lost by their own rashness. A great number of brave and + distinguished officers perished in the battle of Hadrianople, which + equalled in the actual loss, and far surpassed in the fatal consequences, + the misfortune which Rome had formerly sustained in the fields of Cannæ. + <a href="#linknote-26.93" name="linknoteref-26.93" id="linknoteref-26.93">93</a> + Two master-generals of the cavalry and infantry, two great officers of the + palace, and thirty-five tribunes, were found among the slain; and the + death of Sebastian might satisfy the world, that he was the victim, as + well as the author, of the public calamity. Above two thirds of the Roman + army were destroyed: and the darkness of the night was esteemed a very + favorable circumstance, as it served to conceal the flight of the + multitude, and to protect the more orderly retreat of Victor and Richomer, + who alone, amidst the general consternation, maintained the advantage of + calm courage and regular discipline. <a href="#linknote-26.94" + name="linknoteref-26.94" id="linknoteref-26.94">94</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.91" id="linknote-26.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxxi. 12, 13) + almost alone describes the councils and actions which were terminated by + the fatal battle of Hadrianople. We might censure the vices of his style, + the disorder and perplexity of his narrative: but we must now take leave + of this impartial historian; and reproach is silenced by our regret for + such an irreparable loss.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.92" id="linknote-26.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.92">return</a>)<br /> [ The difference of the + eight miles of Ammianus, and the twelve of Idatius, can only embarrass + those critics (Valesius ad loc.,) who suppose a great army to be a + mathematical point, without space or dimensions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.93" id="linknote-26.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.93">return</a>)<br /> [ Nec ulla annalibus, + præter Cannensem pugnam, ita ad internecionem res legitur gesta. Ammian. + xxxi. 13. According to the grave Polybius, no more than 370 horse, and + 3,000 foot, escaped from the field of Cannæ: 10,000 were made prisoners; + and the number of the slain amounted to 5,630 horse, and 70,000 foot, + (Polyb. l. iii. p 371, edit. Casaubon, 8vo.) Livy (xxii. 49) is somewhat + less bloody: he slaughters only 2,700 horse, and 40,000 foot. The Roman + army was supposed to consist of 87,200 effective men, (xxii. 36.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.94" id="linknote-26.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.94">return</a>)<br /> [ We have gained some + faint light from Jerom, (tom. i. p. 26 and in Chron. p. 188,) Victor, (in + Epitome,) Orosius, (l. vii. c. 33, p. 554,) Jornandes, (c. 27,) Zosimus, + (l. iv. p. 230,) Socrates, (l. iv. c. 38,) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. 40,) + Idatius, (in Chron.) But their united evidence, if weighed against + Ammianus alone, is light and unsubstantial.] + </p> + <p> + While the impressions of grief and terror were still recent in the minds + of men, the most celebrated rhetorician of the age composed the funeral + oration of a vanquished army, and of an unpopular prince, whose throne was + already occupied by a stranger. “There are not wanting,” says the candid + Libanius, “those who arraign the prudence of the emperor, or who impute + the public misfortune to the want of courage and discipline in the troops. + For my own part, I reverence the memory of their former exploits: I + reverence the glorious death, which they bravely received, standing, and + fighting in their ranks: I reverence the field of battle, stained with + <i>their</i> blood, and the blood of the Barbarians. Those honorable marks have + been already washed away by the rains; but the lofty monuments of their + bones, the bones of generals, of centurions, and of valiant warriors, + claim a longer period of duration. The king himself fought and fell in the + foremost ranks of the battle. His attendants presented him with the + fleetest horses of the Imperial stable, that would soon have carried him + beyond the pursuit of the enemy. They vainly pressed him to reserve his + important life for the future service of the republic. He still declared + that he was unworthy to survive so many of the bravest and most faithful + of his subjects; and the monarch was nobly buried under a mountain of the + slain. Let none, therefore, presume to ascribe the victory of the + Barbarians to the fear, the weakness, or the imprudence, of the Roman + troops. The chiefs and the soldiers were animated by the virtue of their + ancestors, whom they equalled in discipline and the arts of war. Their + generous emulation was supported by the love of glory, which prompted them + to contend at the same time with heat and thirst, with fire and the sword; + and cheerfully to embrace an honorable death, as their refuge against + flight and infamy. The indignation of the gods has been the only cause of + the success of our enemies.” The truth of history may disclaim some parts + of this panegyric, which cannot strictly be reconciled with the character + of Valens, or the circumstances of the battle: but the fairest + commendation is due to the eloquence, and still more to the generosity, of + the sophist of Antioch. <a href="#linknote-26.95" name="linknoteref-26.95" + id="linknoteref-26.95">95</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.95" id="linknote-26.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Libanius de ulciscend. + Julian. nece, c. 3, in Fabricius, Bibliot Græc. tom. vii. p. 146—148.] + </p> + <p> + The pride of the Goths was elated by this memorable victory; but their + avarice was disappointed by the mortifying discovery, that the richest + part of the Imperial spoil had been within the walls of Hadrianople. They + hastened to possess the reward of their valor; but they were encountered + by the remains of a vanquished army, with an intrepid resolution, which + was the effect of their despair, and the only hope of their safety. The + walls of the city, and the ramparts of the adjacent camp, were lined with + military engines, that threw stones of an enormous weight; and astonished + the ignorant Barbarians by the noise, and velocity, still more than by the + real effects, of the discharge. The soldiers, the citizens, the + provincials, the domestics of the palace, were united in the danger, and + in the defence: the furious assault of the Goths was repulsed; their + secret arts of treachery and treason were discovered; and, after an + obstinate conflict of many hours, they retired to their tents; convinced, + by experience, that it would be far more advisable to observe the treaty, + which their sagacious leader had tacitly stipulated with the + fortifications of great and populous cities. After the hasty and impolitic + massacre of three hundred deserters, an act of justice extremely useful to + the discipline of the Roman armies, the Goths indignantly raised the siege + of Hadrianople. The scene of war and tumult was instantly converted into a + silent solitude: the multitude suddenly disappeared; the secret paths of + the woods and mountains were marked with the footsteps of the trembling + fugitives, who sought a refuge in the distant cities of Illyricum and + Macedonia; and the faithful officers of the household, and the treasury, + cautiously proceeded in search of the emperor, of whose death they were + still ignorant. The tide of the Gothic inundation rolled from the walls of + Hadrianople to the suburbs of Constantinople. The Barbarians were + surprised with the splendid appearance of the capital of the East, the + height and extent of the walls, the myriads of wealthy and affrighted + citizens who crowded the ramparts, and the various prospect of the sea and + land. While they gazed with hopeless desire on the inaccessible beauties + of Constantinople, a sally was made from one of the gates by a party of + Saracens, <a href="#linknote-26.96" name="linknoteref-26.96" + id="linknoteref-26.96">96</a> who had been fortunately engaged in the + service of Valens. The cavalry of Scythia was forced to yield to the + admirable swiftness and spirit of the Arabian horses: their riders were + skilled in the evolutions of irregular war; and the Northern Barbarians + were astonished and dismayed, by the inhuman ferocity of the Barbarians of + the South. + </p> + <p> + A Gothic soldier was slain by the dagger of an Arab; and the hairy, naked + savage, applying his lips to the wound, expressed a horrid delight, while + he sucked the blood of his vanquished enemy. <a href="#linknote-26.97" + name="linknoteref-26.97" id="linknoteref-26.97">97</a> The army of the + Goths, laden with the spoils of the wealthy suburbs and the adjacent + territory, slowly moved, from the Bosphorus, to the mountains which form + the western boundary of Thrace. The important pass of Succi was betrayed + by the fear, or the misconduct, of Maurus; and the Barbarians, who no + longer had any resistance to apprehend from the scattered and vanquished + troops of the East, spread themselves over the face of a fertile and + cultivated country, as far as the confines of Italy and the Hadriatic Sea. + <a href="#linknote-26.98" name="linknoteref-26.98" id="linknoteref-26.98">98</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.96" id="linknote-26.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.96">return</a>)<br /> [ Valens had gained, or + rather purchased, the friendship of the Saracens, whose vexatious inroads + were felt on the borders of Phœnicia, Palestine, and Egypt. The Christian + faith had been lately introduced among a people, reserved, in a future + age, to propagate another religion, (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. + v. p. 104, 106, 141. Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 593.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.97" id="linknote-26.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.97">return</a>)<br /> [ Crinitus quidam, nudus + omnia præter pubem, subraunum et ugubre strepens. Ammian. xxxi. 16, and + Vales. ad loc. The Arabs often fought naked; a custom which may be + ascribed to their sultry climate, and ostentatious bravery. The + description of this unknown savage is the lively portrait of Derar, a name + so dreadful to the Christians of Syria. See Ockley’s Hist. of the + Saracens, vol. i. p. 72, 84, 87.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.98" id="linknote-26.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.98">return</a>)<br /> [ The series of events + may still be traced in the last pages of Ammianus, (xxxi. 15, 16.) + Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 227, 231,) whom we are now reduced to cherish, + misplaces the sally of the Arabs before the death of Valens. Eunapius (in + Excerpt. Legat. p. 20) praises the fertility of Thrace, Macedonia, &c.] + </p> + <p> + The Romans, who so coolly, and so concisely, mention the acts of <i>justice</i> + which were exercised by the legions, <a href="#linknote-26.99" + name="linknoteref-26.99" id="linknoteref-26.99">99</a> reserve their + compassion, and their eloquence, for their own sufferings, when the + provinces were invaded, and desolated, by the arms of the successful + Barbarians. The simple circumstantial narrative (did such a narrative + exist) of the ruin of a single town, of the misfortunes of a single + family, <a href="#linknote-26.100" name="linknoteref-26.100" + id="linknoteref-26.100">100</a> might exhibit an interesting and + instructive picture of human manners: but the tedious repetition of vague + and declamatory complaints would fatigue the attention of the most patient + reader. The same censure may be applied, though not perhaps in an equal + degree, to the profane, and the ecclesiastical, writers of this unhappy + period; that their minds were inflamed by popular and religious animosity; + and that the true size and color of every object is falsified by the + exaggerations of their corrupt eloquence. The vehement Jerom <a + href="#linknote-26.101" name="linknoteref-26.101" id="linknoteref-26.101">101</a> + might justly deplore the calamities inflicted by the Goths, and their + barbarous allies, on his native country of Pannonia, and the wide extent + of the provinces, from the walls of Constantinople to the foot of the + Julian Alps; the rapes, the massacres, the conflagrations; and, above all, + the profanation of the churches, that were turned into stables, and the + contemptuous treatment of the relics of holy martyrs. But the Saint is + surely transported beyond the limits of nature and history, when he + affirms, “that, in those desert countries, nothing was left except the sky + and the earth; that, after the destruction of the cities, and the + extirpation of the human race, the land was overgrown with thick forests + and inextricable brambles; and that the universal desolation, announced by + the prophet Zephaniah, was accomplished, in the scarcity of the beasts, + the birds, and even of the fish.” These complaints were pronounced about + twenty years after the death of Valens; and the Illyrian provinces, which + were constantly exposed to the invasion and passage of the Barbarians, + still continued, after a calamitous period of ten centuries, to supply new + materials for rapine and destruction. Could it even be supposed, that a + large tract of country had been left without cultivation and without + inhabitants, the consequences might not have been so fatal to the inferior + productions of animated nature. The useful and feeble animals, which are + nourished by the hand of man, might suffer and perish, if they were + deprived of his protection; but the beasts of the forest, his enemies or + his victims, would multiply in the free and undisturbed possession of + their solitary domain. The various tribes that people the air, or the + waters, are still less connected with the fate of the human species; and + it is highly probable that the fish of the Danube would have felt more + terror and distress, from the approach of a voracious pike, than from the + hostile inroad of a Gothic army. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.99" id="linknote-26.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.99">return</a>)<br /> [ Observe with how much + indifference Cæsar relates, in the Commentaries of the Gallic war, <i>that</i> + he put to death the whole senate of the Veneti, who had yielded to his + mercy, (iii. 16;) <i>that</i> he labored to extirpate the whole nation of the + Eburones, (vi. 31;) <i>that</i> forty thousand persons were massacred at Bourges + by the just revenge of his soldiers, who spared neither age nor sex, (vii. + 27,) &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.100" id="linknote-26.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.100">return</a>)<br /> [ Such are the accounts + of the sack of Magdeburgh, by the ecclesiastic and the fisherman, which + Mr. Harte has transcribed, (Hist. of Gustavus Adolphus, vol. i. p. 313—320,) + with some apprehension of violating the <i>dignity</i> of history.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.101" id="linknote-26.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.101">return</a>)<br /> [ Et vastatis urbibus, + hominibusque interfectis, solitudinem et <i>raritatem bestiarum</i> quoque fieri, + <i>et volatilium, pisciumque:</i> testis Illyricum est, testis Thracia, testis in + quo ortus sum solum, (Pannonia;) ubi præter cœlum et terram, et + crescentes vepres, et condensa sylvarum <i>cuncta perierunt</i>. Tom. vii. p. + 250, l, Cap. Sophonias and tom. i. p. 26.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap26.5"></a> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + Whatever may have been the just measure of the calamities of Europe, there + was reason to fear that the same calamities would soon extend to the + peaceful countries of Asia. The sons of the Goths had been judiciously + distributed through the cities of the East; and the arts of education were + employed to polish, and subdue, the native fierceness of their temper. In + the space of about twelve years, their numbers had continually increased; + and the children, who, in the first emigration, were sent over the + Hellespont, had attained, with rapid growth, the strength and spirit of + perfect manhood. <a href="#linknote-26.102" name="linknoteref-26.102" + id="linknoteref-26.102">102</a> It was impossible to conceal from their + knowledge the events of the Gothic war; and, as those daring youths had + not studied the language of dissimulation, they betrayed their wish, their + desire, perhaps their intention, to emulate the glorious example of their + fathers. The danger of the times seemed to justify the jealous suspicions + of the provincials; and these suspicions were admitted as unquestionable + evidence, that the Goths of Asia had formed a secret and dangerous + conspiracy against the public safety. The death of Valens had left the + East without a sovereign; and Julius, who filled the important station of + master-general of the troops, with a high reputation of diligence and + ability, thought it his duty to consult the senate of Constantinople; + which he considered, during the vacancy of the throne, as the + representative council of the nation. As soon as he had obtained the + discretionary power of acting as he should judge most expedient for the + good of the republic, he assembled the principal officers, and privately + concerted effectual measures for the execution of his bloody design. An + order was immediately promulgated, that, on a stated day, the Gothic youth + should assemble in the capital cities of their respective provinces; and, + as a report was industriously circulated, that they were summoned to + receive a liberal gift of lands and money, the pleasing hope allayed the + fury of their resentment, and, perhaps, suspended the motions of the + conspiracy. On the appointed day, the unarmed crowd of the Gothic youth + was carefully collected in the square or Forum; the streets and avenues + were occupied by the Roman troops, and the roofs of the houses were + covered with archers and slingers. At the same hour, in all the cities of + the East, the signal was given of indiscriminate slaughter; and the + provinces of Asia were delivered by the cruel prudence of Julius, from a + domestic enemy, who, in a few months, might have carried fire and sword + from the Hellespont to the Euphrates. <a href="#linknote-26.103" + name="linknoteref-26.103" id="linknoteref-26.103">103</a> The urgent + consideration of the public safety may undoubtedly authorize the violation + of every positive law. How far that, or any other, consideration may + operate to dissolve the natural obligations of humanity and justice, is a + doctrine of which I still desire to remain ignorant. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.102" id="linknote-26.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.102">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius (in Excerpt. + Legat. p. 20) foolishly supposes a præternatural growth of the young + Goths, that he may introduce Cadmus’s armed men, who sprang from the + dragon’s teeth, &c. Such was the Greek eloquence of the times.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.103" id="linknote-26.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.103">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus evidently + approves this execution, efficacia velox et salutaris, which concludes his + work, (xxxi. 16.) Zosimus, who is curious and copious, (l. iv. p. 233—236,) + mistakes the date, and labors to find the reason, why Julius did not + consult the emperor Theodosius who had not yet ascended the throne of the + East.] + </p> + <p> + The emperor Gratian was far advanced on his march towards the plains of + Hadrianople, when he was informed, at first by the confused voice of fame, + and afterwards by the more accurate reports of Victor and Richomer, that + his impatient colleague had been slain in battle, and that two thirds of + the Roman army were exterminated by the sword of the victorious Goths. + Whatever resentment the rash and jealous vanity of his uncle might + deserve, the resentment of a generous mind is easily subdued by the softer + emotions of grief and compassion; and even the sense of pity was soon lost + in the serious and alarming consideration of the state of the republic. + Gratian was too late to assist, he was too weak to revenge, his + unfortunate colleague; and the valiant and modest youth felt himself + unequal to the support of a sinking world. A formidable tempest of the + Barbarians of Germany seemed ready to burst over the provinces of Gaul; + and the mind of Gratian was oppressed and distracted by the administration + of the Western empire. In this important crisis, the government of the + East, and the conduct of the Gothic war, required the undivided attention + of a hero and a statesman. A subject invested with such ample command + would not long have preserved his fidelity to a distant benefactor; and + the Imperial council embraced the wise and manly resolution of conferring + an obligation, rather than of yielding to an insult. It was the wish of + Gratian to bestow the purple as the reward of virtue; but, at the age of + nineteen, it is not easy for a prince, educated in the supreme rank, to + understand the true characters of his ministers and generals. He attempted + to weigh, with an impartial hand, their various merits and defects; and, + whilst he checked the rash confidence of ambition, he distrusted the + cautious wisdom which despaired of the republic. As each moment of delay + diminished something of the power and resources of the future sovereign of + the East, the situation of the times would not allow a tedious debate. The + choice of Gratian was soon declared in favor of an exile, whose father, + only three years before, had suffered, under the sanction of <i>his</i> + authority, an unjust and ignominious death. The great Theodosius, a name + celebrated in history, and dear to the Catholic church, <a + href="#linknote-26.104" name="linknoteref-26.104" id="linknoteref-26.104">104</a> + was summoned to the Imperial court, which had gradually retreated from the + confines of Thrace to the more secure station of Sirmium. Five months + after the death of Valens, the emperor Gratian produced before the + assembled troops <i>his</i> colleague and <i>their</i> master; who, after a modest, + perhaps a sincere, resistance, was compelled to accept, amidst the general + acclamations, the diadem, the purple, and the equal title of Augustus. <a + href="#linknote-26.105" name="linknoteref-26.105" id="linknoteref-26.105">105</a> + The provinces of Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, over which Valens had reigned, + were resigned to the administration of the new emperor; but, as he was + specially intrusted with the conduct of the Gothic war, the Illyrian + præfecture was dismembered; and the two great dioceses of Dacia and + Macedonia were added to the dominions of the Eastern empire. <a + href="#linknote-26.106" name="linknoteref-26.106" id="linknoteref-26.106">106</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.104" id="linknote-26.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.104">return</a>)<br /> [ A life of Theodosius + the Great was composed in the last century, (Paris, 1679, in 4to-1680, + 12mo.,) to inflame the mind of the young Dauphin with Catholic zeal. The + author, Flechier, afterwards bishop of Nismes, was a celebrated preacher; + and his history is adorned, or tainted, with pulpit eloquence; but he + takes his learning from Baronius, and his principles from St. Ambrose and + St Augustin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.105" id="linknote-26.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.105">return</a>)<br /> [ The birth, character, + and elevation of Theodosius are marked in Pacatus, (in Panegyr. Vet. xii. + 10, 11, 12,) Themistius, (Orat. xiv. p. 182,) (Zosimus, l. iv. p. 231,) + Augustin. (de Civitat. Dei. v. 25,) Orosius, (l. vii. c. 34,) Sozomen, (l. + vii. c. 2,) Socrates, (l. v. c. 2,) Theodoret, (l. v. c. 5,) + Philostorgius, (l. ix. c. 17, with Godefroy, p. 393,) the Epitome of + Victor, and the Chronicles of Prosper, Idatius, and Marcellinus, in the + Thesaurus Temporum of Scaliger. * Note: Add a hostile fragment of + Eunapius. Mai, p. 273, in Niebuhr, p 178—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.106" id="linknote-26.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.106">return</a>)<br /> [ Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. v. p. 716, &c.] + </p> + <p> + The same province, and perhaps the same city, <a href="#linknote-26.107" + name="linknoteref-26.107" id="linknoteref-26.107">107</a> which had given to + the throne the virtues of Trajan, and the talents of Hadrian, was the + orignal seat of another family of Spaniards, who, in a less fortunate age, + possessed, near fourscore years, the declining empire of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-26.108" name="linknoteref-26.108" id="linknoteref-26.108">108</a> + They emerged from the obscurity of municipal honors by the active spirit + of the elder Theodosius, a general whose exploits in Britain and Africa + have formed one of the most splendid parts of the annals of Valentinian. + The son of that general, who likewise bore the name of Theodosius, was + educated, by skilful preceptors, in the liberal studies of youth; but he + was instructed in the art of war by the tender care and severe discipline + of his father. <a href="#linknote-26.109" name="linknoteref-26.109" + id="linknoteref-26.109">109</a> Under the standard of such a leader, young + Theodosius sought glory and knowledge, in the most distant scenes of + military action; inured his constitution to the difference of seasons and + climates; distinguished his valor by sea and land; and observed the + various warfare of the Scots, the Saxons, and the Moors. His own merit, + and the recommendation of the conqueror of Africa, soon raised him to a + separate command; and, in the station of Duke of Mæsia, he vanquished an + army of Sarmatians; saved the province; deserved the love of the soldiers; + and provoked the envy of the court. <a href="#linknote-26.110" + name="linknoteref-26.110" id="linknoteref-26.110">110</a> His rising + fortunes were soon blasted by the disgrace and execution of his + illustrious father; and Theodosius obtained, as a favor, the permission of + retiring to a private life in his native province of Spain. He displayed a + firm and temperate character in the ease with which he adapted himself to + this new situation. His time was almost equally divided between the town + and country; the spirit, which had animated his public conduct, was shown + in the active and affectionate performance of every social duty; and the + diligence of the soldier was profitably converted to the improvement of + his ample patrimony, <a href="#linknote-26.111" name="linknoteref-26.111" + id="linknoteref-26.111">111</a> which lay between Valladolid and Segovia, + in the midst of a fruitful district, still famous for a most exquisite + breed of sheep. <a href="#linknote-26.112" name="linknoteref-26.112" + id="linknoteref-26.112">112</a> From the innocent, but humble labors of his + farm, Theodosius was transported, in less than four months, to the throne + of the Eastern empire; and the whole period of the history of the world + will not perhaps afford a similar example, of an elevation at the same + time so pure and so honorable. The princes who peaceably inherit the + sceptre of their fathers, claim and enjoy a legal right, the more secure + as it is absolutely distinct from the merits of their personal characters. + The subjects, who, in a monarchy, or a popular state, acquire the + possession of supreme power, may have raised themselves, by the + superiority either of genius or virtue, above the heads of their equals; + but their virtue is seldom exempt from ambition; and the cause of the + successful candidate is frequently stained by the guilt of conspiracy, or + civil war. Even in those governments which allow the reigning monarch to + declare a colleague or a successor, his partial choice, which may be + influenced by the blindest passions, is often directed to an unworthy + object But the most suspicious malignity cannot ascribe to Theodosius, in + his obscure solitude of Caucha, the arts, the desires, or even the hopes, + of an ambitious statesman; and the name of the Exile would long since have + been forgotten, if his genuine and distinguished virtues had not left a + deep impression in the Imperial court. During the season of prosperity, he + had been neglected; but, in the public distress, his superior merit was + universally felt and acknowledged. What confidence must have been reposed + in his integrity, since Gratian could trust, that a pious son would + forgive, for the sake of the republic, the murder of his father! What + expectations must have been formed of his abilities to encourage the hope, + that a single man could save, and restore, the empire of the East! + Theodosius was invested with the purple in the thirty-third year of his + age. The vulgar gazed with admiration on the manly beauty of his face, and + the graceful majesty of his person, which they were pleased to compare + with the pictures and medals of the emperor Trajan; whilst intelligent + observers discovered, in the qualities of his heart and understanding, a + more important resemblance to the best and greatest of the Roman princes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.107" id="linknote-26.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.107">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Italica</i>, founded by + Scipio Africanus for his wounded veterans of <i>Italy</i>. The ruins still + appear, about a league above Seville, but on the opposite bank of the + river. See the Hispania Illustrata of Nonius, a short though valuable + treatise, c. xvii. p. 64—67.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.108" id="linknote-26.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.108">return</a>)<br /> [ I agree with + Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 726) in suspecting the royal + pedigree, which remained a secret till the promotion of Theodosius. Even + after that event, the silence of Pacatus outweighs the venal evidence of + Themistius, Victor, and Claudian, who connect the family of Theodosius + with the blood of Trajan and Hadrian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.109" id="linknote-26.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Pacatas compares, and + consequently prefers, the youth of Theodosius to the military education of + Alexander, Hannibal, and the second Africanus; who, like him, had served + under their fathers, (xii. 8.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.110" id="linknote-26.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.110">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus (xxix. 6) + mentions this victory of Theodosius Junior Dux Mæsiæ, prima etiam tum + lanugine juvenis, princeps postea perspectissimus. The same fact is + attested by Themistius and Zosimus but Theodoret, (l. v. c. 5,) who adds + some curious circumstances, strangely applies it to the time of the + interregnum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.111" id="linknote-26.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.111">return</a>)<br /> [ Pacatus (in Panegyr. + Vet. xii. 9) prefers the rustic life of Theodosius to that of Cincinnatus; + the one was the effect of choice, the other of poverty.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.112" id="linknote-26.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.112">return</a>)<br /> [ M. D’Anville + (Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 25) has fixed the situation of Caucha, or + Coca, in the old province of Gallicia, where Zosimus and Idatius have + placed the birth, or patrimony, of Theodosius.] + </p> + <p> + It is not without the most sincere regret, that I must now take leave of + an accurate and faithful guide, who has composed the history of his own + times, without indulging the prejudices and passions, which usually affect + the mind of a contemporary. Ammianus Marcellinus, who terminates his + useful work with the defeat and death of Valens, recommends the more + glorious subject of the ensuing reign to the youthful vigor and eloquence + of the rising generation. <a href="#linknote-26.113" + name="linknoteref-26.113" id="linknoteref-26.113">113</a> The rising + generation was not disposed to accept his advice or to imitate his + example; <a href="#linknote-26.114" name="linknoteref-26.114" + id="linknoteref-26.114">114</a> and, in the study of the reign of + Theodosius, we are reduced to illustrate the partial narrative of Zosimus, + by the obscure hints of fragments and chronicles, by the figurative style + of poetry or panegyric, and by the precarious assistance of the + ecclesiastical writers, who, in the heat of religious faction, are apt to + despise the profane virtues of sincerity and moderation. Conscious of + these disadvantages, which will continue to involve a considerable portion + of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, I shall proceed with doubtful + and timorous steps. Yet I may boldly pronounce, that the battle of + Hadrianople was never revenged by any signal or decisive victory of + Theodosius over the Barbarians: and the expressive silence of his venal + orators may be confirmed by the observation of the condition and + circumstances of the times. The fabric of a mighty state, which has been + reared by the labors of successive ages, could not be overturned by the + misfortune of a single day, if the fatal power of the imagination did not + exaggerate the real measure of the calamity. The loss of forty thousand + Romans, who fell in the plains of Hadrianople, might have been soon + recruited in the populous provinces of the East, which contained so many + millions of inhabitants. The courage of a soldier is found to be the + cheapest, and most common, quality of human nature; and sufficient skill + to encounter an undisciplined foe might have been speedily taught by the + care of the surviving centurions. If the Barbarians were mounted on the + horses, and equipped with the armor, of their vanquished enemies, the + numerous studs of Cappadocia and Spain would have supplied new squadrons + of cavalry; the thirty-four arsenals of the empire were plentifully stored + with magazines of offensive and defensive arms: and the wealth of Asia + might still have yielded an ample fund for the expenses of the war. But + the effects which were produced by the battle of Hadrianople on the minds + of the Barbarians and of the Romans, extended the victory of the former, + and the defeat of the latter, far beyond the limits of a single day. A + Gothic chief was heard to declare, with insolent moderation, that, for his + own part, he was fatigued with slaughter: but that he was astonished how a + people, who fled before him like a flock of sheep, could still presume to + dispute the possession of their treasures and provinces. <a + href="#linknote-26.115" name="linknoteref-26.115" id="linknoteref-26.115">115</a> + The same terrors which the name of the Huns had spread among the Gothic + tribes, were inspired, by the formidable name of the Goths, among the + subjects and soldiers of the Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-26.116" + name="linknoteref-26.116" id="linknoteref-26.116">116</a> If Theodosius, + hastily collecting his scattered forces, had led them into the field to + encounter a victorious enemy, his army would have been vanquished by their + own fears; and his rashness could not have been excused by the chance of + success. But the <i>great</i> Theodosius, an epithet which he honorably deserved + on this momentous occasion, conducted himself as the firm and faithful + guardian of the republic. He fixed his head-quarters at Thessalonica, the + capital of the Macedonian diocese; <a href="#linknote-26.117" + name="linknoteref-26.117" id="linknoteref-26.117">117</a> from whence he + could watch the irregular motions of the Barbarians, and direct the + operations of his lieutenants, from the gates of Constantinople to the + shores of the Hadriatic. The fortifications and garrisons of the cities + were strengthened; and the troops, among whom a sense of order and + discipline was revived, were insensibly emboldened by the confidence of + their own safety. From these secure stations, they were encouraged to make + frequent sallies on the Barbarians, who infested the adjacent country; + and, as they were seldom allowed to engage, without some decisive + superiority, either of ground or of numbers, their enterprises were, for + the most part, successful; and they were soon convinced, by their own + experience, of the possibility of vanquishing their <i>invincible</i> enemies. + The detachments of these separate garrisons were generally united into + small armies; the same cautious measures were pursued, according to an + extensive and well-concerted plan of operations; the events of each day + added strength and spirit to the Roman arms; and the artful diligence of + the emperor, who circulated the most favorable reports of the success of + the war, contributed to subdue the pride of the Barbarians, and to animate + the hopes and courage of his subjects. If, instead of this faint and + imperfect outline, we could accurately represent the counsels and actions + of Theodosius, in four successive campaigns, there is reason to believe, + that his consummate skill would deserve the applause of every military + reader. The republic had formerly been saved by the delays of Fabius; and, + while the splendid trophies of Scipio, in the field of Zama, attract the + eyes of posterity, the camps and marches of the dictator among the hills + of the Campania, may claim a juster proportion of the solid and + independent fame, which the general is not compelled to share, either with + fortune or with his troops. Such was likewise the merit of Theodosius; and + the infirmities of his body, which most unseasonably languished under a + long and dangerous disease, could not oppress the vigor of his mind, or + divert his attention from the public service. <a href="#linknote-26.118" + name="linknoteref-26.118" id="linknoteref-26.118">118</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.113" id="linknote-26.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.113">return</a>)<br /> [ Let us hear Ammianus + himself. Hæc, ut miles quondam et Græcus, a principatu Cæsaris Nervæ + exorsus, adusque Valentis inter, pro virium explicavi mensurâ: opus + veritatem professum nun quam, ut arbitror, sciens, silentio ausus + corrumpere vel mendacio. Scribant reliqua potiores ætate, doctrinisque + florentes. Quos id, si libuerit, aggressuros, procudere linguas ad majores + moneo stilos. Ammian. xxxi. 16. The first thirteen books, a superficial + epitome of two hundred and fifty-seven years, are now lost: the last + eighteen, which contain no more than twenty-five years, still preserve the + copious and authentic history of his own times.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.114" id="linknote-26.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.114">return</a>)<br /> [ Ammianus was the last + subject of Rome who composed a profane history in the Latin language. The + East, in the next century, produced some rhetorical historians, Zosimus, + Olympiedorus, Malchus, Candidus &c. See Vossius de Historicis Græcis, + l. ii. c. 18, de Historicis Latinis l. ii. c. 10, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.115" id="linknote-26.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Chrysostom, tom. i. + p. 344, edit. Montfaucon. I have verified and examined this passage: but I + should never, without the aid of Tillemont, (Hist. des Emp. tom. v. p. + 152,) have detected an historical anecdote, in a strange medley of moral + and mystic exhortations, addressed, by the preacher of Antioch, to a young + widow.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.116" id="linknote-26.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.116">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius, in Excerpt. + Legation. p. 21.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.117" id="linknote-26.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.117">return</a>)<br /> [ See Godefroy’s + Chronology of the Laws. Codex Theodos tom. l. Prolegomen. p. xcix.—civ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.118" id="linknote-26.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.118">return</a>)<br /> [ Most writers insist + on the illness, and long repose, of Theodosius, at Thessalonica: Zosimus, + to diminish his glory; Jornandes, to favor the Goths; and the + ecclesiastical writers, to introduce his baptism.] + </p> + <p> + The deliverance and peace of the Roman provinces <a href="#linknote-26.119" + name="linknoteref-26.119" id="linknoteref-26.119">119</a> was the work of + prudence, rather than of valor: the prudence of Theodosius was seconded by + fortune: and the emperor never failed to seize, and to improve, every + favorable circumstance. As long as the superior genius of Fritigern + preserved the union, and directed the motions of the Barbarians, their + power was not inadequate to the conquest of a great empire. The death of + that hero, the predecessor and master of the renowned Alaric, relieved an + impatient multitude from the intolerable yoke of discipline and + discretion. The Barbarians, who had been restrained by his authority, + abandoned themselves to the dictates of their passions; and their passions + were seldom uniform or consistent. An army of conquerors was broken into + many disorderly bands of savage robbers; and their blind and irregular + fury was not less pernicious to themselves, than to their enemies. Their + mischievous disposition was shown in the destruction of every object which + they wanted strength to remove, or taste to enjoy; and they often + consumed, with improvident rage, the harvests, or the granaries, which + soon afterwards became necessary for their own subsistence. A spirit of + discord arose among the independent tribes and nations, which had been + united only by the bands of a loose and voluntary alliance. The troops of + the Huns and the Alani would naturally upbraid the flight of the Goths; + who were not disposed to use with moderation the advantages of their + fortune; the ancient jealousy of the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths could + not long be suspended; and the haughty chiefs still remembered the insults + and injuries, which they had reciprocally offered, or sustained, while the + nation was seated in the countries beyond the Danube. The progress of + domestic faction abated the more diffusive sentiment of national + animosity; and the officers of Theodosius were instructed to purchase, + with liberal gifts and promises, the retreat or service of the + discontented party. The acquisition of Modar, a prince of the royal blood + of the Amali, gave a bold and faithful champion to the cause of Rome. The + illustrious deserter soon obtained the rank of master-general, with an + important command; surprised an army of his countrymen, who were immersed + in wine and sleep; and, after a cruel slaughter of the astonished Goths, + returned with an immense spoil, and four thousand wagons, to the Imperial + camp. <a href="#linknote-26.120" name="linknoteref-26.120" + id="linknoteref-26.120">120</a> In the hands of a skilful politician, the + most different means may be successfully applied to the same ends; and the + peace of the empire, which had been forwarded by the divisions, was + accomplished by the reunion, of the Gothic nation. Athanaric, who had been + a patient spectator of these extraordinary events, was at length driven, + by the chance of arms, from the dark recesses of the woods of Caucaland. + He no longer hesitated to pass the Danube; and a very considerable part of + the subjects of Fritigern, who already felt the inconveniences of anarchy, + were easily persuaded to acknowledge for their king a Gothic Judge, whose + birth they respected, and whose abilities they had frequently experienced. + But age had chilled the daring spirit of Athanaric; and, instead of + leading his people to the field of battle and victory, he wisely listened + to the fair proposal of an honorable and advantageous treaty. Theodosius, + who was acquainted with the merit and power of his new ally, condescended + to meet him at the distance of several miles from Constantinople; and + entertained him in the Imperial city, with the confidence of a friend, and + the magnificence of a monarch. “The Barbarian prince observed, with + curious attention, the variety of objects which attracted his notice, and + at last broke out into a sincere and passionate exclamation of wonder. I + now behold (said he) what I never could believe, the glories of this + stupendous capital! And as he cast his eyes around, he viewed, and he + admired, the commanding situation of the city, the strength and beauty of + the walls and public edifices, the capacious harbor, crowded with + innumerable vessels, the perpetual concourse of distant nations, and the + arms and discipline of the troops. Indeed, (continued Athanaric,) the + emperor of the Romans is a god upon earth; and the presumptuous man, who + dares to lift his hand against him, is guilty of his own blood.” <a + href="#linknote-26.121" name="linknoteref-26.121" id="linknoteref-26.121">121</a> + The Gothic king did not long enjoy this splendid and honorable reception; + and, as temperance was not the virtue of his nation, it may justly be + suspected, that his mortal disease was contracted amidst the pleasures of + the Imperial banquets. But the policy of Theodosius derived more solid + benefit from the death, than he could have expected from the most faithful + services, of his ally. The funeral of Athanaric was performed with solemn + rites in the capital of the East; a stately monument was erected to his + memory; and his whole army, won by the liberal courtesy, and decent grief, + of Theodosius, enlisted under the standard of the Roman empire. <a + href="#linknote-26.122" name="linknoteref-26.122" id="linknoteref-26.122">122</a> + The submission of so great a body of the Visigoths was productive of the + most salutary consequences; and the mixed influence of force, of reason, + and of corruption, became every day more powerful, and more extensive. + Each independent chieftain hastened to obtain a separate treaty, from the + apprehension that an obstinate delay might expose <i>him</i>, alone and + unprotected, to the revenge, or justice, of the conqueror. The general, or + rather the final, capitulation of the Goths, may be dated four years, one + month, and twenty-five days, after the defeat and death of the emperor + Valens. <a href="#linknote-26.123" name="linknoteref-26.123" + id="linknoteref-26.123">123</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.119" id="linknote-26.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.119">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Themistius + (Orat, xiv. p. 181) with Zosimus (l. iv. p. 232,) Jornandes, (c. xxvii. p. + 649,) and the prolix Commentary of M. de Buat, (Hist. de Peuples, &c., + tom. vi. p. 477—552.) The Chronicles of Idatius and Marcellinus + allude, in general terms, to magna certamina, <i>magna multaque</i> prælia. The + two epithets are not easily reconciled.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.120" id="linknote-26.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.120">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus (l. iv. p. + 232) styles him a Scythian, a name which the more recent Greeks seem to + have appropriated to the Goths.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.121" id="linknote-26.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.121">return</a>)<br /> [ The reader will not + be displeased to see the original words of Jornandes, or the author whom + he transcribed. Regiam urbem ingressus est, miransque, En, inquit, cerno + quod sæpe incredulus audiebam, famam videlicet tantæ urbis. Et huc illuc + oculos volvens, nunc situm urbis, commeatumque navium, nunc mœnia clara + pro spectans, miratur; populosque diversarum gentium, quasi fonte in uno e + diversis partibus scaturiente unda, sic quoque militem ordinatum + aspiciens; Deus, inquit, sine dubio est terrenus Imperator, et quisquis + adversus eum manum moverit, ipse sui sanguinis reus existit Jornandes (c. + xxviii. p. 650) proceeds to mention his death and funeral.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.122" id="linknote-26.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Jornandes, c. xxviii. + p. 650. Even Zosimus (l. v. p. 246) is compelled to approve the generosity + of Theodosius, so honorable to himself, and so beneficial to the public.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.123" id="linknote-26.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.123">return</a>)<br /> [ The short, but + authentic, hints in the <i>Fasti</i> of Idatius (Chron. Scaliger. p. 52) are + stained with contemporary passion. The fourteenth oration of Themistius is + a compliment to Peace, and the consul Saturninus, (A.D. 383.)] + </p> + <p> + The provinces of the Danube had been already relieved from the oppressive + weight of the Gruthungi, or Ostrogoths, by the voluntary retreat of + Alatheus and Saphrax, whose restless spirit had prompted them to seek new + scenes of rapine and glory. Their destructive course was pointed towards + the West; but we must be satisfied with a very obscure and imperfect + knowledge of their various adventures. The Ostrogoths impelled several of + the German tribes on the provinces of Gaul; concluded, and soon violated, + a treaty with the emperor Gratian; advanced into the unknown countries of + the North; and, after an interval of more than four years, returned, with + accumulated force, to the banks of the Lower Danube. Their troops were + recruited with the fiercest warriors of Germany and Scythia; and the + soldiers, or at least the historians, of the empire, no longer recognized + the name and countenances of their former enemies. <a + href="#linknote-26.124" name="linknoteref-26.124" id="linknoteref-26.124">124</a> + The general who commanded the military and naval powers of the Thracian + frontier, soon perceived that his superiority would be disadvantageous to + the public service; and that the Barbarians, awed by the presence of his + fleet and legions, would probably defer the passage of the river till the + approaching winter. The dexterity of the spies, whom he sent into the + Gothic camp, allured the Barbarians into a fatal snare. They were + persuaded that, by a bold attempt, they might surprise, in the silence and + darkness of the night, the sleeping army of the Romans; and the whole + multitude was hastily embarked in a fleet of three thousand canoes. <a + href="#linknote-26.125" name="linknoteref-26.125" id="linknoteref-26.125">125</a> + The bravest of the Ostrogoths led the van; the main body consisted of the + remainder of their subjects and soldiers; and the women and children + securely followed in the rear. One of the nights without a moon had been + selected for the execution of their design; and they had almost reached + the southern bank of the Danube, in the firm confidence that they should + find an easy landing and an unguarded camp. But the progress of the + Barbarians was suddenly stopped by an unexpected obstacle a triple line of + vessels, strongly connected with each other, and which formed an + impenetrable chain of two miles and a half along the river. While they + struggled to force their way in the unequal conflict, their right flank + was overwhelmed by the irresistible attack of a fleet of galleys, which + were urged down the stream by the united impulse of oars and of the tide. + The weight and velocity of those ships of war broke, and sunk, and + dispersed, the rude and feeble canoes of the Barbarians; their valor was + ineffectual; and Alatheus, the king, or general, of the Ostrogoths, + perished with his bravest troops, either by the sword of the Romans, or in + the waves of the Danube. The last division of this unfortunate fleet might + regain the opposite shore; but the distress and disorder of the multitude + rendered them alike incapable, either of action or counsel; and they soon + implored the clemency of the victorious enemy. On this occasion, as well + as on many others, it is a difficult task to reconcile the passions and + prejudices of the writers of the age of Theodosius. The partial and + malignant historian, who misrepresents every action of his reign, affirms, + that the emperor did not appear in the field of battle till the Barbarians + had been vanquished by the valor and conduct of his lieutenant Promotus. + <a href="#linknote-26.126" name="linknoteref-26.126" id="linknoteref-26.126">126</a> + The flattering poet, who celebrated, in the court of Honorius, the glory + of the father and of the son, ascribes the victory to the personal prowess + of Theodosius; and almost insinuates, that the king of the Ostrogoths was + slain by the hand of the emperor. <a href="#linknote-26.127" + name="linknoteref-26.127" id="linknoteref-26.127">127</a> The truth of + history might perhaps be found in a just medium between these extreme and + contradictory assertions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.124" id="linknote-26.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.124">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. + 252.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.125" id="linknote-26.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.125">return</a>)<br /> [ I am justified, by + reason and example, in applying this Indian name to the the Barbarians, + the single trees hollowed into the shape of a boat. Zosimus, l. iv. p. + 253. Ausi Danubium quondam tranare Gruthungi In lintres fregere nemus: ter + mille ruebant Per fluvium plenæ cuneis immanibus alni. Claudian, in iv. + Cols. Hon. 623.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.126" id="linknote-26.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.126">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. + 252—255. He too frequently betrays his poverty of judgment by + disgracing the most serious narratives with trifling and incredible + circumstances.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.127" id="linknote-26.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.127">return</a>)<br /> [—Odothæi Regis + <i>opima</i> Retulit—Ver. 632. The <i>opima</i> were the spoils which a Roman + general could only win from the king, or general, of the enemy, whom he + had slain with his own hands: and no more than three such examples are + celebrated in the victorious ages of Rome.] + </p> + <p> + The original treaty which fixed the settlement of the Goths, ascertained + their privileges, and stipulated their obligations, would illustrate the + history of Theodosius and his successors. The series of their history has + imperfectly preserved the spirit and substance of this single agreement. + <a href="#linknote-26.128" name="linknoteref-26.128" id="linknoteref-26.128">128</a> + The ravages of war and tyranny had provided many large tracts of fertile + but uncultivated land for the use of those Barbarians who might not + disdain the practice of agriculture. A numerous colony of the Visigoths + was seated in Thrace; the remains of the Ostrogoths were planted in + Phrygia and Lydia; their immediate wants were supplied by a distribution + of corn and cattle; and their future industry was encouraged by an + exemption from tribute, during a certain term of years. The Barbarians + would have deserved to feel the cruel and perfidious policy of the + Imperial court, if they had suffered themselves to be dispersed through + the provinces. They required, and they obtained, the sole possession of + the villages and districts assigned for their residence; they still + cherished and propagated their native manners and language; asserted, in + the bosom of despotism, the freedom of their domestic government; and + acknowledged the sovereignty of the emperor, without submitting to the + inferior jurisdiction of the laws and magistrates of Rome. The hereditary + chiefs of the tribes and families were still permitted to command their + followers in peace and war; but the royal dignity was abolished; and the + generals of the Goths were appointed and removed at the pleasure of the + emperor. An army of forty thousand Goths was maintained for the perpetual + service of the empire of the East; and those haughty troops, who assumed + the title of <i>Fæderati</i>, or allies, were distinguished by their gold + collars, liberal pay, and licentious privileges. Their native courage was + improved by the use of arms and the knowledge of discipline; and, while + the republic was guarded, or threatened, by the doubtful sword of the + Barbarians, the last sparks of the military flame were finally + extinguished in the minds of the Romans. <a href="#linknote-26.129" + name="linknoteref-26.129" id="linknoteref-26.129">129</a> Theodosius had the + address to persuade his allies, that the conditions of peace, which had + been extorted from him by prudence and necessity, were the voluntary + expressions of his sincere friendship for the Gothic nation. <a + href="#linknote-26.130" name="linknoteref-26.130" id="linknoteref-26.130">130</a> + A different mode of vindication or apology was opposed to the complaints + of the people; who loudly censured these shameful and dangerous + concessions. <a href="#linknote-26.131" name="linknoteref-26.131" + id="linknoteref-26.131">131</a> The calamities of the war were painted in + the most lively colors; and the first symptoms of the return of order, of + plenty, and security, were diligently exaggerated. The advocates of + Theodosius could affirm, with some appearance of truth and reason, that it + was impossible to extirpate so many warlike tribes, who were rendered + desperate by the loss of their native country; and that the exhausted + provinces would be revived by a fresh supply of soldiers and husbandmen. + The Barbarians still wore an angry and hostile aspect; but the experience + of past times might encourage the hope, that they would acquire the habits + of industry and obedience; that their manners would be polished by time, + education, and the influence of Christianity; and that their posterity + would insensibly blend with the great body of the Roman people. <a + href="#linknote-26.132" name="linknoteref-26.132" id="linknoteref-26.132">132</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.128" id="linknote-26.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.128">return</a>)<br /> [ See Themistius, Orat. + xvi. p. 211. Claudian (in Eutrop. l. ii. 112) mentions the Phrygian + colony:——Ostrogothis colitur mistisque Gruthungis Phyrx ager——and + then proceeds to name the rivers of Lydia, the Pactolus, and Herreus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.129" id="linknote-26.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.129">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Jornandes, + (c. xx. 27,) who marks the condition and number of the Gothic <i>Fæderati</i>, + with Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 258,) who mentions their golden collars; and + Pacatus, (in Panegyr. Vet. xii. 37,) who applauds, with false or foolish + joy, their bravery and discipline.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.130" id="linknote-26.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.130">return</a>)<br /> [ Amator pacis + generisque Gothorum, is the praise bestowed by the Gothic historian, (c. + xxix.,) who represents his nation as innocent, peaceable men, slow to + anger, and patient of injuries. According to Livy, the Romans conquered + the world in their own defence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.131" id="linknote-26.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.131">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the partial + invectives of Zosimus, (always discontented with the Christian reigns,) + see the grave representations which Synesius addresses to the emperor + Arcadius, (de Regno, p. 25, 26, edit. Petav.) The philosophic bishop of + Cyrene was near enough to judge; and he was sufficiently removed from the + temptation of fear or flattery.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.132" id="linknote-26.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Themistius (Orat. + xvi. p. 211, 212) composes an elaborate and rational apology, which is + not, however, exempt from the puerilities of Greek rhetoric. Orpheus could + <i>only</i> charm the wild beasts of Thrace; but Theodosius enchanted the men and + women, whose predecessors in the same country had torn Orpheus in pieces, + &c.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these specious arguments, and these sanguine expectations, + it was apparent to every discerning eye, that the Goths would long remain + the enemies, and might soon become the conquerors of the Roman empire. + Their rude and insolent behavior expressed their contempt of the citizens + and provincials, whom they insulted with impunity. <a + href="#linknote-26.133" name="linknoteref-26.133" id="linknoteref-26.133">133</a> + To the zeal and valor of the Barbarians Theodosius was indebted for the + success of his arms: but their assistance was precarious; and they were + sometimes seduced, by a treacherous and inconstant disposition, to abandon + his standard, at the moment when their service was the most essential. + During the civil war against Maximus, a great number of Gothic deserters + retired into the morasses of Macedonia, wasted the adjacent provinces, and + obliged the intrepid monarch to expose his person, and exert his power, to + suppress the rising flame of rebellion. <a href="#linknote-26.134" + name="linknoteref-26.134" id="linknoteref-26.134">134</a> The public + apprehensions were fortified by the strong suspicion, that these tumults + were not the effect of accidental passion, but the result of deep and + premeditated design. It was generally believed, that the Goths had signed + the treaty of peace with a hostile and insidious spirit; and that their + chiefs had previously bound themselves, by a solemn and secret oath, never + to keep faith with the Romans; to maintain the fairest show of loyalty and + friendship, and to watch the favorable moment of rapine, of conquest, and + of revenge. But as the minds of the Barbarians were not insensible to the + power of gratitude, several of the Gothic leaders sincerely devoted + themselves to the service of the empire, or, at least, of the emperor; the + whole nation was insensibly divided into two opposite factions, and much + sophistry was employed in conversation and dispute, to compare the + obligations of their first, and second, engagements. The Goths, who + considered themselves as the friends of peace, of justice, and of Rome, + were directed by the authority of Fravitta, a valiant and honorable youth, + distinguished above the rest of his countrymen by the politeness of his + manners, the liberality of his sentiments, and the mild virtues of social + life. But the more numerous faction adhered to the fierce and faithless + Priulf, <a href="#linknote-26.13411" name="linknoteref-26.13411" + id="linknoteref-26.13411">13411</a> who inflamed the passions, and asserted + the independence, of his warlike followers. On one of the solemn + festivals, when the chiefs of both parties were invited to the Imperial + table, they were insensibly heated by wine, till they forgot the usual + restraints of discretion and respect, and betrayed, in the presence of + Theodosius, the fatal secret of their domestic disputes. The emperor, who + had been the reluctant witness of this extraordinary controversy, + dissembled his fears and resentment, and soon dismissed the tumultuous + assembly. Fravitta, alarmed and exasperated by the insolence of his rival, + whose departure from the palace might have been the signal of a civil war, + boldly followed him; and, drawing his sword, laid Priulf dead at his feet. + Their companions flew to arms; and the faithful champion of Rome would + have been oppressed by superior numbers, if he had not been protected by + the seasonable interposition of the Imperial guards. <a + href="#linknote-26.135" name="linknoteref-26.135" id="linknoteref-26.135">135</a> + Such were the scenes of Barbaric rage, which disgraced the palace and + table of the Roman emperor; and, as the impatient Goths could only be + restrained by the firm and temperate character of Theodosius, the public + safety seemed to depend on the life and abilities of a single man. <a + href="#linknote-26.136" name="linknoteref-26.136" id="linknoteref-26.136">136</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.133" id="linknote-26.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.133">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantinople was + deprived half a day of the public allowance of bread, to expiate the + murder of a Gothic soldier: was the guilt of the people. Libanius, Orat. + xii. p. 394, edit. Morel.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.134" id="linknote-26.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.134">return</a>)<br /> [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. + 267-271. He tells a long and ridiculous story of the adventurous prince, + who roved the country with only five horsemen, of a spy whom they + detected, whipped, and killed in an old woman’s cottage, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.13411" id="linknote-26.13411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13411 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.13411">return</a>)<br /> [ Eunapius.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.135" id="linknote-26.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.135">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Eunapius (in + Excerpt. Legat. p. 21, 22) with Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 279.) The difference + of circumstances and names must undoubtedly be applied to the same story. + Fravitta, or Travitta, was afterwards consul, (A.D. 401.) and still + continued his faithful services to the eldest son of Theodosius. + (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 467.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-26.136" id="linknote-26.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-26.136">return</a>)<br /> [ Les Goths ravagerent + tout depuis le Danube jusqu’au Bosphore; exterminerent Valens et son + armée; et ne repasserent le Danube, que pour abandonner l’affreuse + solitude qu’ils avoient faite, (Œuvres de Montesquieu, tom. iii. p. 479. + Considerations sur les <i>Causes</i> de la Grandeur et de la Décadence des + Romains, c. xvii.) The president Montesquieu seems ignorant that the + Goths, after the defeat of Valens, <i>never</i> abandoned the Roman territory. It + is now thirty years, says Claudian, (de Bello Getico, 166, &c., A.D. + 404,) Ex quo jam patrios gens hæc oblita Triones, Atque Istrum transvecta + semel, vestigia fixit Threicio funesta solo—the error is + inexcusable; since it disguises the principal and immediate cause of the + fall of the Western empire of Rome.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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