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diff --git a/732-0.txt b/732-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b2d6d88 --- /dev/null +++ b/732-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,32008 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire + Volume 2 + +Author: Edward Gibbon + +Commentator: H. H. Milman + +Release Date: November, 1996 [eBook #732] +[Most recently updated: September 23, 2023] + +Language: English + +Produced by: David Reed and David Widger + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + + + + + HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE + + Edward Gibbon, Esq. + + With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman + + Vol. 2 + + 1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised) + + VOLUME TWO + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part I. + + The Conduct Of The Roman Government Towards The Christians, From + The Reign Of Nero To That Of Constantine. + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part II. + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part III. + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part IV. + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part V. + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part VI. + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part VII. + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part VIII. + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part I. + + Foundation Of Constantinople.—Political System Constantine, And + His Successors.—Military Discipline.—The Palace.—The Finances. + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part II. + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part III. + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part IV. + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part V. + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part VI. + + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part I. + + Character Of Constantine.—Gothic War.—Death Of + Constantine.—Division Of The Empire Among His Three Sons.— Persian + War.—Tragic Deaths Of Constantine The Younger And + Constans.—Usurpation Of Magnentius.—Civil War.—Victory Of + Constantius. + + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part II. + + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part + III. + + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part IV. + + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part I. + + Constantius Sole Emperor.—Elevation And Death Of Gallus.— Danger + And Elevation Of Julian.—Sarmatian And Persian Wars.—Victories Of + Julian In Gaul. + + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part II. + + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part III. + + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part IV. + + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part I. + + The Motives, Progress, And Effects Of The Conversion Of + Constantine.—Legal Establishment And Constitution Of The Christian + Or Catholic Church. + + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part II. + + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part III. + + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part IV. + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + I. + + Persecution Of Heresy.—The Schism Of The Donatists.—The Arian + Controversy.—Athanasius.—Distracted State Of The Church And Empire + Under Constantine And His Sons.— Toleration Of Paganism. + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + II. + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + III. + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + IV. + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + V. + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + VI. + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + VII. + + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part I. + + Julian Is Declared Emperor By The Legions Of Gaul.—His March And + Success.—The Death Of Constantius.—Civil Administration Of Julian. + + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part II. + + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part III. + + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part IV. + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part I. + + The Religion Of Julian.—Universal Toleration.—He Attempts To + Restore And Reform The Pagan Worship—To Rebuild The Temple Of + Jerusalem—His Artful Persecution Of The Christians.—Mutual Zeal + And Injustice. + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part II. + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part III. + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part IV. + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part V. + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part I. + + Residence Of Julian At Antioch.—His Successful Expedition Against + The Persians.—Passage Of The Tigris—The Retreat And Death Of + Julian.—Election Of Jovian.—He Saves The Roman Army By A + Disgraceful Treaty. + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part II. + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part III. + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part IV. + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part V. + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part I. + + The Government And Death Of Jovian.—Election Of Valentinian, Who + Associates His Brother Valens, And Makes The Final Division Of The + Eastern And Western Empires.— Revolt Of Procopius.—Civil And + Ecclesiastical Administration.—Germany.—Britain.—Africa.—The + East.— The Danube.—Death Of Valentinian.—His Two Sons, Gratian And + Valentinian II., Succeed To The Western Empire. + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part II. + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part III. + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part IV. + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part V. + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part VI. + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part VII. + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part I. + + Manners Of The Pastoral Nations.—Progress Of The Huns, From China + To Europe.—Flight Of The Goths.—They Pass The Danube.—Gothic + War.—Defeat And Death Of Valens.—Gratian Invests Theodosius With + The Eastern Empire.—His Character And Success.—Peace And + Settlement Of The Goths. + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part II. + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part III. + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part IV. + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part V. + + VOLUME TWO + + + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part I. + + The Conduct Of The Roman Government Towards The Christians, From + The Reign Of Nero To That Of Constantine. 1111 + + + 1111 (return) [ The sixteenth chapter I cannot help considering + as a very ingenious and specious, but very disgraceful + extenuation of the cruelties perpetrated by the Roman magistrates + against the Christians. It is written in the most contemptibly + factious spirit of prejudice against the sufferers; it is + unworthy of a philosopher and of humanity. Let the narrative of + Cyprian’s death be examined. He had to relate the murder of an + innocent man of advanced age, and in a station deemed venerable + by a considerable body of the provincials of Africa, put to death + because he refused to sacrifice to Jupiter. Instead of pointing + the indignation of posterity against such an atrocious act of + tyranny, he dwells, with visible art, on the small circumstances + of decorum and politeness which attended this murder, and which + he relates with as much parade as if they were the most important + particulars of the event. Dr. Robertson has been the subject of + much blame for his real or supposed lenity towards the Spanish + murderers and tyrants in America. That the sixteenth chapter of + Mr. G. did not excite the same or greater disapprobation, is a + proof of the unphilosophical and indeed fanatical animosity + against Christianity, which was so prevalent during the latter + part of the eighteenth century.—_Mackintosh:_ see Life, i. p. + 244, 245.] + + If we seriously consider the purity of the Christian religion, + the sanctity of its moral precepts, and the innocent as well as + austere lives of the greater number of those who during the first + ages embraced the faith of the gospel, we should naturally + suppose, that so benevolent a doctrine would have been received + with due reverence, even by the unbelieving world; that the + learned and the polite, however they may deride the miracles, + would have esteemed the virtues, of the new sect; and that the + magistrates, instead of persecuting, would have protected an + order of men who yielded the most passive obedience to the laws, + though they declined the active cares of war and government. If, + on the other hand, we recollect the universal toleration of + Polytheism, as it was invariably maintained by the faith of the + people, the incredulity of philosophers, and the policy of the + Roman senate and emperors, we are at a loss to discover what new + offence the Christians had committed, what new provocation could + exasperate the mild indifference of antiquity, and what new + motives could urge the Roman princes, who beheld without concern + a thousand forms of religion subsisting in peace under their + gentle sway, to inflict a severe punishment on any part of their + subjects, who had chosen for themselves a singular but an + inoffensive mode of faith and worship. + + The religious policy of the ancient world seems to have assumed a + more stern and intolerant character, to oppose the progress of + Christianity. About fourscore years after the death of Christ, + his innocent disciples were punished with death by the sentence + of a proconsul of the most amiable and philosophic character, and + according to the laws of an emperor distinguished by the wisdom + and justice of his general administration. The apologies which + were repeatedly addressed to the successors of Trajan are filled + with the most pathetic complaints, that the Christians, who + obeyed the dictates, and solicited the liberty, of conscience, + were alone, among all the subjects of the Roman empire, excluded + from the common benefits of their auspicious government. The + deaths of a few eminent martyrs have been recorded with care; and + from the time that Christianity was invested with the supreme + power, the governors of the church have been no less diligently + employed in displaying the cruelty, than in imitating the + conduct, of their Pagan adversaries. To separate (if it be + possible) a few authentic as well as interesting facts from an + undigested mass of fiction and error, and to relate, in a clear + and rational manner, the causes, the extent, the duration, and + the most important circumstances of the persecutions to which the + first Christians were exposed, is the design of the present + chapter. 1222 + + 1222 (return) [ The history of the first age of Christianity is + only found in the Acts of the Apostles, and in order to speak of + the first persecutions experienced by the Christians, that book + should naturally have been consulted; those persecutions, then + limited to individuals and to a narrow sphere, interested only + the persecuted, and have been related by them alone. Gibbon + making the persecutions ascend no higher than Nero, has entirely + omitted those which preceded this epoch, and of which St. Luke + has preserved the memory. The only way to justify this omission + was, to attack the authenticity of the Acts of the Apostles; for, + if authentic, they must necessarily be consulted and quoted. Now, + antiquity has left very few works of which the authenticity is so + well established as that of the Acts of the Apostles. (See + Lardner’s Cred. of Gospel Hist. part iii.) It is therefore, + without sufficient reason, that Gibbon has maintained silence + concerning the narrative of St. Luke, and this omission is not + without importance.—G.] + + The sectaries of a persecuted religion, depressed by fear + animated with resentment, and perhaps heated by enthusiasm, are + seldom in a proper temper of mind calmly to investigate, or + candidly to appreciate, the motives of their enemies, which often + escape the impartial and discerning view even of those who are + placed at a secure distance from the flames of persecution. A + reason has been assigned for the conduct of the emperors towards + the primitive Christians, which may appear the more specious and + probable as it is drawn from the acknowledged genius of + Polytheism. It has already been observed, that the religious + concord of the world was principally supported by the implicit + assent and reverence which the nations of antiquity expressed for + their respective traditions and ceremonies. It might therefore be + expected, that they would unite with indignation against any sect + or people which should separate itself from the communion of + mankind, and claiming the exclusive possession of divine + knowledge, should disdain every form of worship, except its own, + as impious and idolatrous. The rights of toleration were held by + mutual indulgence: they were justly forfeited by a refusal of the + accustomed tribute. As the payment of this tribute was inflexibly + refused by the Jews, and by them alone, the consideration of the + treatment which they experienced from the Roman magistrates, will + serve to explain how far these speculations are justified by + facts, and will lead us to discover the true causes of the + persecution of Christianity. + + Without repeating what has already been mentioned of the + reverence of the Roman princes and governors for the temple of + Jerusalem, we shall only observe, that the destruction of the + temple and city was accompanied and followed by every + circumstance that could exasperate the minds of the conquerors, + and authorize religious persecution by the most specious + arguments of political justice and the public safety. From the + reign of Nero to that of Antoninus Pius, the Jews discovered a + fierce impatience of the dominion of Rome, which repeatedly broke + out in the most furious massacres and insurrections. Humanity is + shocked at the recital of the horrid cruelties which they + committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, and of Cyrene, where + they dwelt in treacherous friendship with the unsuspecting + natives; 1 and we are tempted to applaud the severe retaliation + which was exercised by the arms of the legions against a race of + fanatics, whose dire and credulous superstition seemed to render + them the implacable enemies not only of the Roman government, but + of human kind. 2 The enthusiasm of the Jews was supported by the + opinion, that it was unlawful for them to pay taxes to an + idolatrous master; and by the flattering promise which they + derived from their ancient oracles, that a conquering Messiah + would soon arise, destined to break their fetters, and to invest + the favorites of heaven with the empire of the earth. It was by + announcing himself as their long-expected deliverer, and by + calling on all the descendants of Abraham to assert the hope of + Israel, that the famous Barchochebas collected a formidable army, + with which he resisted during two years the power of the emperor + Hadrian. 3 + + 1 (return) [ In Cyrene, they massacred 220,000 Greeks; in Cyprus, + 240,000; in Egypt, a very great multitude. Many of these unhappy + victims were sawn asunder, according to a precedent to which + David had given the sanction of his example. The victorious Jews + devoured the flesh, licked up the blood, and twisted the entrails + like a girdle round their bodies. See Dion Cassius, l. lxviii. p. + 1145. * Note: Some commentators, among them Reimar, in his notes + on Dion Cassius think that the hatred of the Romans against the + Jews has led the historian to exaggerate the cruelties committed + by the latter. Don. Cass. lxviii. p. 1146.—G.] + + 2 (return) [ Without repeating the well-known narratives of + Josephus, we may learn from Dion, (l. lxix. p. 1162,) that in + Hadrian’s war 580,000 Jews were cut off by the sword, besides an + infinite number which perished by famine, by disease, and by + fire.] + + 3 (return) [ For the sect of the Zealots, see Basnage, Histoire + des Juifs, l. i. c. 17; for the characters of the Messiah, + according to the Rabbis, l. v. c. 11, 12, 13; for the actions of + Barchochebas, l. vii. c. 12. (Hist. of Jews iii. 115, &c.)—M.] + + Notwithstanding these repeated provocations, the resentment of + the Roman princes expired after the victory; nor were their + apprehensions continued beyond the period of war and danger. By + the general indulgence of polytheism, and by the mild temper of + Antoninus Pius, the Jews were restored to their ancient + privileges, and once more obtained the permission of circumcising + their children, with the easy restraint, that they should never + confer on any foreign proselyte that distinguishing mark of the + Hebrew race. 4 The numerous remains of that people, though they + were still excluded from the precincts of Jerusalem, were + permitted to form and to maintain considerable establishments + both in Italy and in the provinces, to acquire the freedom of + Rome, to enjoy municipal honors, and to obtain at the same time + an exemption from the burdensome and expensive offices of + society. The moderation or the contempt of the Romans gave a + legal sanction to the form of ecclesiastical police which was + instituted by the vanquished sect. The patriarch, who had fixed + his residence at Tiberias, was empowered to appoint his + subordinate ministers and apostles, to exercise a domestic + jurisdiction, and to receive from his dispersed brethren an + annual contribution. 5 New synagogues were frequently erected in + the principal cities of the empire; and the sabbaths, the fasts, + and the festivals, which were either commanded by the Mosaic law, + or enjoined by the traditions of the Rabbis, were celebrated in + the most solemn and public manner. 6 Such gentle treatment + insensibly assuaged the stern temper of the Jews. Awakened from + their dream of prophecy and conquest, they assumed the behavior + of peaceable and industrious subjects. Their irreconcilable + hatred of mankind, instead of flaming out in acts of blood and + violence, evaporated in less dangerous gratifications. They + embraced every opportunity of overreaching the idolaters in + trade; and they pronounced secret and ambiguous imprecations + against the haughty kingdom of Edom. 7 + + 4 (return) [ It is to Modestinus, a Roman lawyer (l. vi. + regular.) that we are indebted for a distinct knowledge of the + Edict of Antoninus. See Casaubon ad Hist. August. p. 27.] + + 5 (return) [ See Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, l. iii. c. 2, 3. + The office of Patriarch was suppressed by Theodosius the + younger.] + + 6 (return) [ We need only mention the Purim, or deliverance of + the Jews from he rage of Haman, which, till the reign of + Theodosius, was celebrated with insolent triumph and riotous + intemperance. Basnage, Hist. des Juifs, l. vi. c. 17, l. viii. c. + 6.] + + 7 (return) [ According to the false Josephus, Tsepho, the + grandson of Esau, conducted into Italy the army of Eneas, king of + Carthage. Another colony of Idumæans, flying from the sword of + David, took refuge in the dominions of Romulus. For these, or for + other reasons of equal weight, the name of Edom was applied by + the Jews to the Roman empire. * Note: The false Josephus is a + romancer of very modern date, though some of these legends are + probably more ancient. It may be worth considering whether many + of the stories in the Talmud are not history in a figurative + disguise, adopted from prudence. The Jews might dare to say many + things of Rome, under the significant appellation of Edom, which + they feared to utter publicly. Later and more ignorant ages took + literally, and perhaps embellished, what was intelligible among + the generation to which it was addressed. Hist. of Jews, iii. + 131. ——The false Josephus has the inauguration of the emperor, + with the seven electors and apparently the pope assisting at the + coronation! Pref. page xxvi.—M.] + + Since the Jews, who rejected with abhorrence the deities adored + by their sovereign and by their fellow-subjects, enjoyed, + however, the free exercise of their unsocial religion, there must + have existed some other cause, which exposed the disciples of + Christ to those severities from which the posterity of Abraham + was exempt. The difference between them is simple and obvious; + but, according to the sentiments of antiquity, it was of the + highest importance. The Jews were a _nation;_ the Christians were + a _sect:_ and if it was natural for every community to respect + the sacred institutions of their neighbors, it was incumbent on + them to persevere in those of their ancestors. The voice of + oracles, the precepts of philosophers, and the authority of the + laws, unanimously enforced this national obligation. By their + lofty claim of superior sanctity the Jews might provoke the + Polytheists to consider them as an odious and impure race. By + disdaining the intercourse of other nations, they might deserve + their contempt. The laws of Moses might be for the most part + frivolous or absurd; yet, since they had been received during + many ages by a large society, his followers were justified by the + example of mankind; and it was universally acknowledged, that + they had a right to practise what it would have been criminal in + them to neglect. But this principle, which protected the Jewish + synagogue, afforded not any favor or security to the primitive + church. By embracing the faith of the gospel, the Christians + incurred the supposed guilt of an unnatural and unpardonable + offence. They dissolved the sacred ties of custom and education, + violated the religious institutions of their country, and + presumptuously despised whatever their fathers had believed as + true, or had reverenced as sacred. Nor was this apostasy (if we + may use the expression) merely of a partial or local kind; since + the pious deserter who withdrew himself from the temples of Egypt + or Syria, would equally disdain to seek an asylum in those of + Athens or Carthage. Every Christian rejected with contempt the + superstitions of his family, his city, and his province. The + whole body of Christians unanimously refused to hold any + communion with the gods of Rome, of the empire, and of mankind. + It was in vain that the oppressed believer asserted the + inalienable rights of conscience and private judgment. Though his + situation might excite the pity, his arguments could never reach + the understanding, either of the philosophic or of the believing + part of the Pagan world. To their apprehensions, it was no less a + matter of surprise, that any individuals should entertain + scruples against complying with the established mode of worship, + than if they had conceived a sudden abhorrence to the manners, + the dress, 8111 or the language of their native country. 8 + + 8 (return) [ From the arguments of Celsus, as they are + represented and refuted by Origen, (l. v. p. 247—259,) we may + clearly discover the distinction that was made between the Jewish + _people_ and the Christian _sect_. See, in the Dialogue of + Minucius Felix, (c. 5, 6,) a fair and not inelegant description + of the popular sentiments, with regard to the desertion of the + established worship.] + + 8111 (return) [ In all this there is doubtless much truth; yet + does not the more important difference lie on the surface? The + Christians made many converts the Jews but few. Had the Jewish + been equally a proselyting religion would it not have encountered + as violent persecution?—M.] + + The surprise of the Pagans was soon succeeded by resentment; and + the most pious of men were exposed to the unjust but dangerous + imputation of impiety. Malice and prejudice concurred in + representing the Christians as a society of atheists, who, by the + most daring attack on the religious constitution of the empire, + had merited the severest animadversion of the civil magistrate. + They had separated themselves (they gloried in the confession) + from every mode of superstition which was received in any part of + the globe by the various temper of polytheism: but it was not + altogether so evident what deity, or what form of worship, they + had substituted to the gods and temples of antiquity. The pure + and sublime idea which they entertained of the Supreme Being + escaped the gross conception of the Pagan multitude, who were at + a loss to discover a spiritual and solitary God, that was neither + represented under any corporeal figure or visible symbol, nor was + adored with the accustomed pomp of libations and festivals, of + altars and sacrifices. 9 The sages of Greece and Rome, who had + elevated their minds to the contemplation of the existence and + attributes of the First Cause, were induced by reason or by + vanity to reserve for themselves and their chosen disciples the + privilege of this philosophical devotion. 10 They were far from + admitting the prejudices of mankind as the standard of truth, but + they considered them as flowing from the original disposition of + human nature; and they supposed that any popular mode of faith + and worship which presumed to disclaim the assistance of the + senses, would, in proportion as it receded from superstition, + find itself incapable of restraining the wanderings of the fancy, + and the visions of fanaticism. The careless glance which men of + wit and learning condescended to cast on the Christian + revelation, served only to confirm their hasty opinion, and to + persuade them that the principle, which they might have revered, + of the Divine Unity, was defaced by the wild enthusiasm, and + annihilated by the airy speculations, of the new sectaries. The + author of a celebrated dialogue, which has been attributed to + Lucian, whilst he affects to treat the mysterious subject of the + Trinity in a style of ridicule and contempt, betrays his own + ignorance of the weakness of human reason, and of the inscrutable + nature of the divine perfections. 11 + + 9 (return) [ Cur nullas aras habent? templa nulla? nulla nota + simulacra!—Unde autem, vel quis ille, aut ubi, Deus unicus, + solitarius, desti tutus? Minucius Felix, c. 10. The Pagan + interlocutor goes on to make a distinction in favor of the Jews, + who had once a temple, altars, victims, &c.] + + 10 (return) [ It is difficult (says Plato) to attain, and + dangerous to publish, the knowledge of the true God. See the + Theologie des Philosophes, in the Abbé d’Olivet’s French + translation of Tully de Naturâ Deorum, tom. i. p. 275.] + + 11 (return) [ The author of the Philopatris perpetually treats + the Christians as a company of dreaming enthusiasts, &c.; and in + one place he manifestly alludes to the vision in which St. Paul + was transported to the third heaven. In another place, Triephon, + who personates a Christian, after deriding the gods of Paganism, + proposes a mysterious oath.] + + It might appear less surprising, that the founder of Christianity + should not only be revered by his disciples as a sage and a + prophet, but that he should be adored as a God. The Polytheists + were disposed to adopt every article of faith, which seemed to + offer any resemblance, however distant or imperfect, with the + popular mythology; and the legends of Bacchus, of Hercules, and + of Æsculapius, had, in some measure, prepared their imagination + for the appearance of the Son of God under a human form. 12 But + they were astonished that the Christians should abandon the + temples of those ancient heroes, who, in the infancy of the + world, had invented arts, instituted laws, and vanquished the + tyrants or monsters who infested the earth, in order to choose + for the exclusive object of their religious worship an obscure + teacher, who, in a recent age, and among a barbarous people, had + fallen a sacrifice either to the malice of his own countrymen, or + to the jealousy of the Roman government. The Pagan multitude, + reserving their gratitude for temporal benefits alone, rejected + the inestimable present of life and immortality, which was + offered to mankind by Jesus of Nazareth. His mild constancy in + the midst of cruel and voluntary sufferings, his universal + benevolence, and the sublime simplicity of his actions and + character, were insufficient, in the opinion of those carnal men, + to compensate for the want of fame, of empire, and of success; + and whilst they refused to acknowledge his stupendous triumph + over the powers of darkness and of the grave, they + misrepresented, or they insulted, the equivocal birth, wandering + life, and ignominious death, of the divine Author of + Christianity. 13 + + 12 (return) [ According to Justin Martyr, (Apolog. Major, c. + 70-85,) the dæmon who had gained some imperfect knowledge of the + prophecies, purposely contrived this resemblance, which might + deter, though by different means, both the people and the + philosophers from embracing the faith of Christ.] + + 13 (return) [ In the first and second books of Origen, Celsus + treats the birth and character of our Savior with the most + impious contempt. The orator Libanius praises Porphyry and Julian + for confuting the folly of a sect., which styles a dead man of + Palestine, God, and the Son of God. Socrates, Hist. Ecclesiast. + iii. 23.] + + The personal guilt which every Christian had contracted, in thus + preferring his private sentiment to the national religion, was + aggravated in a very high degree by the number and union of the + criminals. It is well known, and has been already observed, that + Roman policy viewed with the utmost jealousy and distrust any + association among its subjects; and that the privileges of + private corporations, though formed for the most harmless or + beneficial purposes, were bestowed with a very sparing hand. 14 + The religious assemblies of the Christians who had separated + themselves from the public worship, appeared of a much less + innocent nature; they were illegal in their principle, and in + their consequences might become dangerous; nor were the emperors + conscious that they violated the laws of justice, when, for the + peace of society, they prohibited those secret and sometimes + nocturnal meetings. 15 The pious disobedience of the Christians + made their conduct, or perhaps their designs, appear in a much + more serious and criminal light; and the Roman princes, who might + perhaps have suffered themselves to be disarmed by a ready + submission, deeming their honor concerned in the execution of + their commands, sometimes attempted, by rigorous punishments, to + subdue this independent spirit, which boldly acknowledged an + authority superior to that of the magistrate. The extent and + duration of this spiritual conspiracy seemed to render it + everyday more deserving of his animadversion. We have already + seen that the active and successful zeal of the Christians had + insensibly diffused them through every province and almost every + city of the empire. The new converts seemed to renounce their + family and country, that they might connect themselves in an + indissoluble band of union with a peculiar society, which every + where assumed a different character from the rest of mankind. + Their gloomy and austere aspect, their abhorrence of the common + business and pleasures of life, and their frequent predictions of + impending calamities, 16 inspired the Pagans with the + apprehension of some danger, which would arise from the new sect, + the more alarming as it was the more obscure. “Whatever,” says + Pliny, “may be the principle of their conduct, their inflexible + obstinacy appeared deserving of punishment.” 17 + + 14 (return) [ The emperor Trajan refused to incorporate a company + of 150 firemen, for the use of the city of Nicomedia. He disliked + all associations. See Plin. Epist. x. 42, 43.] + + 15 (return) [ The proconsul Pliny had published a general edict + against unlawful meetings. The prudence of the Christians + suspended their Agapæ; but it was impossible for them to omit the + exercise of public worship.] + + 16 (return) [ As the prophecies of the Antichrist, approaching + conflagration, &c., provoked those Pagans whom they did not + convert, they were mentioned with caution and reserve; and the + Montanists were censured for disclosing too freely the dangerous + secret. See Mosheim, 413.] + + 17 (return) [ Neque enim dubitabam, quodcunque esset quod + faterentur, (such are the words of Pliny,) pervicacian certe et + inflexibilem obstinationem lebere puniri.] + + The precautions with which the disciples of Christ performed the + offices of religion were at first dictated by fear and necessity; + but they were continued from choice. By imitating the awful + secrecy which reigned in the Eleusinian mysteries, the Christians + had flattered themselves that they should render their sacred + institutions more respectable in the eyes of the Pagan world. 18 + But the event, as it often happens to the operations of subtile + policy, deceived their wishes and their expectations. It was + concluded, that they only concealed what they would have blushed + to disclose. Their mistaken prudence afforded an opportunity for + malice to invent, and for suspicious credulity to believe, the + horrid tales which described the Christians as the most wicked of + human kind, who practised in their dark recesses every + abomination that a depraved fancy could suggest, and who + solicited the favor of their unknown God by the sacrifice of + every moral virtue. There were many who pretended to confess or + to relate the ceremonies of this abhorred society. It was + asserted, “that a new-born infant, entirely covered over with + flour, was presented, like some mystic symbol of initiation, to + the knife of the proselyte, who unknowingly inflicted many a + secret and mortal wound on the innocent victim of his error; that + as soon as the cruel deed was perpetrated, the sectaries drank up + the blood, greedily tore asunder the quivering members, and + pledged themselves to eternal secrecy, by a mutual consciousness + of guilt. It was as confidently affirmed, that this inhuman + sacrifice was succeeded by a suitable entertainment, in which + intemperance served as a provocative to brutal lust; till, at the + appointed moment, the lights were suddenly extinguished, shame + was banished, nature was forgotten; and, as accident might + direct, the darkness of the night was polluted by the incestuous + commerce of sisters and brothers, of sons and of mothers.” 19 + + 18 (return) [ See Mosheim’s Ecclesiastical History, vol. i. p. + 101, and Spanheim, Remarques sur les Cæsars de Julien, p. 468, + &c.] + + 19 (return) [ See Justin Martyr, Apolog. i. 35, ii. 14. + Athenagoras, in Legation, c. 27. Tertullian, Apolog. c. 7, 8, 9. + Minucius Felix, c. 9, 10, 80, 31. The last of these writers + relates the accusation in the most elegant and circumstantial + manner. The answer of Tertullian is the boldest and most + vigorous.] + + But the perusal of the ancient apologies was sufficient to remove + even the slightest suspicion from the mind of a candid adversary. + The Christians, with the intrepid security of innocence, appeal + from the voice of rumor to the equity of the magistrates. They + acknowledge, that if any proof can be produced of the crimes + which calumny has imputed to them, they are worthy of the most + severe punishment. They provoke the punishment, and they + challenge the proof. At the same time they urge, with equal truth + and propriety, that the charge is not less devoid of probability, + than it is destitute of evidence; they ask, whether any one can + seriously believe that the pure and holy precepts of the gospel, + which so frequently restrain the use of the most lawful + enjoyments, should inculcate the practice of the most abominable + crimes; that a large society should resolve to dishonor itself in + the eyes of its own members; and that a great number of persons + of either sex, and every age and character, insensible to the + fear of death or infamy, should consent to violate those + principles which nature and education had imprinted most deeply + in their minds. 20 Nothing, it should seem, could weaken the + force or destroy the effect of so unanswerable a justification, + unless it were the injudicious conduct of the apologists + themselves, who betrayed the common cause of religion, to gratify + their devout hatred to the domestic enemies of the church. It was + sometimes faintly insinuated, and sometimes boldly asserted, that + the same bloody sacrifices, and the same incestuous festivals, + which were so falsely ascribed to the orthodox believers, were in + reality celebrated by the Marcionites, by the Carpocratians, and + by several other sects of the Gnostics, who, notwithstanding they + might deviate into the paths of heresy, were still actuated by + the sentiments of men, and still governed by the precepts of + Christianity. 21 Accusations of a similar kind were retorted upon + the church by the schismatics who had departed from its + communion, 22 and it was confessed on all sides, that the most + scandalous licentiousness of manners prevailed among great + numbers of those who affected the name of Christians. A Pagan + magistrate, who possessed neither leisure nor abilities to + discern the almost imperceptible line which divides the orthodox + faith from heretical pravity, might easily have imagined that + their mutual animosity had extorted the discovery of their common + guilt. It was fortunate for the repose, or at least for the + reputation, of the first Christians, that the magistrates + sometimes proceeded with more temper and moderation than is + usually consistent with religious zeal, and that they reported, + as the impartial result of their judicial inquiry, that the + sectaries, who had deserted the established worship, appeared to + them sincere in their professions, and blameless in their + manners; however they might incur, by their absurd and excessive + superstition, the censure of the laws. 23 + + 20 (return) [ In the persecution of Lyons, some Gentile slaves + were compelled, by the fear of tortures, to accuse their + Christian master. The church of Lyons, writing to their brethren + of Asia, treat the horrid charge with proper indignation and + contempt. Euseb. Hist. Eccles. v. i.] + + 21 (return) [ See Justin Martyr, Apolog. i. 35. Irenæus adv. + Hæres. i. 24. Clemens. Alexandrin. Stromat. l. iii. p. 438. + Euseb. iv. 8. It would be tedious and disgusting to relate all + that the succeeding writers have imagined, all that Epiphanius + has received, and all that Tillemont has copied. M. de Beausobre + (Hist. du Manicheisme, l. ix. c. 8, 9) has exposed, with great + spirit, the disingenuous arts of Augustin and Pope Leo I.] + + 22 (return) [ When Tertullian became a Montanist, he aspersed the + morals of the church which he had so resolutely defended. “Sed + majoris est Agape, quia per hanc adolescentes tui cum sororibus + dormiunt, appendices scilicet gulæ lascivia et luxuria.” De + Jejuniis c. 17. The 85th canon of the council of Illiberis + provides against the scandals which too often polluted the vigils + of the church, and disgraced the Christian name in the eyes of + unbelievers.] + + 23 (return) [ Tertullian (Apolog. c. 2) expatiates on the fair + and honorable testimony of Pliny, with much reason and some + declamation.] + + + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part II. + + + History, which undertakes to record the transactions of the past, + for the instruction of future ages, would ill deserve that + honorable office, if she condescended to plead the cause of + tyrants, or to justify the maxims of persecution. It must, + however, be acknowledged, that the conduct of the emperors who + appeared the least favorable to the primitive church, is by no + means so criminal as that of modern sovereigns, who have employed + the arm of violence and terror against the religious opinions of + any part of their subjects. From their reflections, or even from + their own feelings, a Charles V. or a Lewis XIV. might have + acquired a just knowledge of the rights of conscience, of the + obligation of faith, and of the innocence of error. But the + princes and magistrates of ancient Rome were strangers to those + principles which inspired and authorized the inflexible obstinacy + of the Christians in the cause of truth, nor could they + themselves discover in their own breasts any motive which would + have prompted them to refuse a legal, and as it were a natural, + submission to the sacred institutions of their country. The same + reason which contributes to alleviate the guilt, must have tended + to abate the vigor, of their persecutions. As they were actuated, + not by the furious zeal of bigots, but by the temperate policy of + legislators, contempt must often have relaxed, and humanity must + frequently have suspended, the execution of those laws which they + enacted against the humble and obscure followers of Christ. From + the general view of their character and motives we might + naturally conclude: I. That a considerable time elapsed before + they considered the new sectaries as an object deserving of the + attention of government. II. That in the conviction of any of + their subjects who were accused of so very singular a crime, they + proceeded with caution and reluctance. III. That they were + moderate in the use of punishments; and, IV. That the afflicted + church enjoyed many intervals of peace and tranquility. + Notwithstanding the careless indifference which the most copious + and the most minute of the Pagan writers have shown to the + affairs of the Christians, 24 it may still be in our power to + confirm each of these probable suppositions, by the evidence of + authentic facts. + + 24 (return) [ In the various compilation of the Augustan History, + (a part of which was composed under the reign of Constantine,) + there are not six lines which relate to the Christians; nor has + the diligence of Xiphilin discovered their name in the large + history of Dion Cassius. * Note: The greater part of the Augustan + History is dedicated to Diocletian. This may account for the + silence of its authors concerning Christianity. The notices that + occur are almost all in the lives composed under the reign of + Constantine. It may fairly be concluded, from the language which + he had into the mouth of Mæcenas, that Dion was an enemy to all + innovations in religion. (See Gibbon, _infra_, note 105.) In + fact, when the silence of Pagan historians is noticed, it should + be remembered how meagre and mutilated are all the extant + histories of the period—M.] + + 1. By the wise dispensation of Providence, a mysterious veil was + cast over the infancy of the church, which, till the faith of the + Christians was matured, and their numbers were multiplied, served + to protect them not only from the malice but even from the + knowledge of the Pagan world. The slow and gradual abolition of + the Mosaic ceremonies afforded a safe and innocent disguise to + the more early proselytes of the gospel. As they were, for the + greater part, of the race of Abraham, they were distinguished by + the peculiar mark of circumcision, offered up their devotions in + the Temple of Jerusalem till its final destruction, and received + both the Law and the Prophets as the genuine inspirations of the + Deity. The Gentile converts, who by a spiritual adoption had been + associated to the hope of Israel, were likewise confounded under + the garb and appearance of Jews, 25 and as the Polytheists paid + less regard to articles of faith than to the external worship, + the new sect, which carefully concealed, or faintly announced, + its future greatness and ambition, was permitted to shelter + itself under the general toleration which was granted to an + ancient and celebrated people in the Roman empire. It was not + long, perhaps, before the Jews themselves, animated with a + fiercer zeal and a more jealous faith, perceived the gradual + separation of their Nazarene brethren from the doctrine of the + synagogue; and they would gladly have extinguished the dangerous + heresy in the blood of its adherents. But the decrees of Heaven + had already disarmed their malice; and though they might + sometimes exert the licentious privilege of sedition, they no + longer possessed the administration of criminal justice; nor did + they find it easy to infuse into the calm breast of a Roman + magistrate the rancor of their own zeal and prejudice. The + provincial governors declared themselves ready to listen to any + accusation that might affect the public safety; but as soon as + they were informed that it was a question not of facts but of + words, a dispute relating only to the interpretation of the + Jewish laws and prophecies, they deemed it unworthy of the + majesty of Rome seriously to discuss the obscure differences + which might arise among a barbarous and superstitious people. The + innocence of the first Christians was protected by ignorance and + contempt; and the tribunal of the Pagan magistrate often proved + their most assured refuge against the fury of the synagogue. 26 + If indeed we were disposed to adopt the traditions of a too + credulous antiquity, we might relate the distant peregrinations, + the wonderful achievements, and the various deaths of the twelve + apostles: but a more accurate inquiry will induce us to doubt, + whether any of those persons who had been witnesses to the + miracles of Christ were permitted, beyond the limits of + Palestine, to seal with their blood the truth of their testimony. + 27 From the ordinary term of human life, it may very naturally be + presumed that most of them were deceased before the discontent of + the Jews broke out into that furious war, which was terminated + only by the ruin of Jerusalem. During a long period, from the + death of Christ to that memorable rebellion, we cannot discover + any traces of Roman intolerance, unless they are to be found in + the sudden, the transient, but the cruel persecution, which was + exercised by Nero against the Christians of the capital, + thirty-five years after the former, and only two years before the + latter, of those great events. The character of the philosophic + historian, to whom we are principally indebted for the knowledge + of this singular transaction, would alone be sufficient to + recommend it to our most attentive consideration. + + 25 (return) [ An obscure passage of Suetonius (in Claud. c. 25) + may seem to offer a proof how strangely the Jews and Christians + of Rome were confounded with each other.] + + 26 (return) [ See, in the xviiith and xxvth chapters of the Acts + of the Apostles, the behavior of Gallio, proconsul of Achaia, and + of Festus, procurator of Judea.] + + 27 (return) [ In the time of Tertullian and Clemens of + Alexandria, the glory of martyrdom was confined to St. Peter, St. + Paul, and St. James. It was gradually bestowed on the rest of the + apostles, by the more recent Greeks, who prudently selected for + the theatre of their preaching and sufferings some remote country + beyond the limits of the Roman empire. See Mosheim, p. 81; and + Tillemont, Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. i. part iii.] + + In the tenth year of the reign of Nero, the capital of the empire + was afflicted by a fire which raged beyond the memory or example + of former ages. 28 The monuments of Grecian art and of Roman + virtue, the trophies of the Punic and Gallic wars, the most holy + temples, and the most splendid palaces, were involved in one + common destruction. Of the fourteen regions or quarters into + which Rome was divided, four only subsisted entire, three were + levelled with the ground, and the remaining seven, which had + experienced the fury of the flames, displayed a melancholy + prospect of ruin and desolation. The vigilance of government + appears not to have neglected any of the precautions which might + alleviate the sense of so dreadful a calamity. The Imperial + gardens were thrown open to the distressed multitude, temporary + buildings were erected for their accommodation, and a plentiful + supply of corn and provisions was distributed at a very moderate + price. 29 The most generous policy seemed to have dictated the + edicts which regulated the disposition of the streets and the + construction of private houses; and as it usually happens, in an + age of prosperity, the conflagration of Rome, in the course of a + few years, produced a new city, more regular and more beautiful + than the former. But all the prudence and humanity affected by + Nero on this occasion were insufficient to preserve him from the + popular suspicion. Every crime might be imputed to the assassin + of his wife and mother; nor could the prince who prostituted his + person and dignity on the theatre be deemed incapable of the most + extravagant folly. The voice of rumor accused the emperor as the + incendiary of his own capital; and as the most incredible stories + are the best adapted to the genius of an enraged people, it was + gravely reported, and firmly believed, that Nero, enjoying the + calamity which he had occasioned, amused himself with singing to + his lyre the destruction of ancient Troy. 30 To divert a + suspicion, which the power of despotism was unable to suppress, + the emperor resolved to substitute in his own place some + fictitious criminals. “With this view,” continues Tacitus, “he + inflicted the most exquisite tortures on those men, who, under + the vulgar appellation of Christians, were already branded with + deserved infamy. They derived their name and origin from Christ, + who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence + of the procurator Pontius Pilate. 31 For a while this dire + superstition was checked; but it again burst forth; 3111 and not + only spread itself over Judæa, the first seat of this mischievous + sect, but was even introduced into Rome, the common asylum which + receives and protects whatever is impure, whatever is atrocious. + The confessions of those who were seized discovered a great + multitude of their accomplices, and they were all convicted, not + so much for the crime of setting fire to the city, as for their + hatred of human kind. 32 They died in torments, and their + torments were imbittered by insult and derision. Some were nailed + on crosses; others sewn up in the skins of wild beasts, and + exposed to the fury of dogs; others again, smeared over with + combustible materials, were used as torches to illuminate the + darkness of the night. The gardens of Nero were destined for the + melancholy spectacle, which was accompanied with a horse-race and + honored with the presence of the emperor, who mingled with the + populace in the dress and attitude of a charioteer. The guilt of + the Christians deserved indeed the most exemplary punishment, but + the public abhorrence was changed into commiseration, from the + opinion that those unhappy wretches were sacrificed, not so much + to the public welfare, as to the cruelty of a jealous tyrant.” 33 + Those who survey with a curious eye the revolutions of mankind, + may observe, that the gardens and circus of Nero on the Vatican, + which were polluted with the blood of the first Christians, have + been rendered still more famous by the triumph and by the abuse + of the persecuted religion. On the same spot, 34 a temple, which + far surpasses the ancient glories of the Capitol, has been since + erected by the Christian Pontiffs, who, deriving their claim of + universal dominion from an humble fisherman of Galilee, have + succeeded to the throne of the Cæsars, given laws to the + barbarian conquerors of Rome, and extended their spiritual + jurisdiction from the coast of the Baltic to the shores of the + Pacific Ocean. + + 28 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xv. 38—44. Sueton in Neron. c. 38. + Dion Cassius, l. lxii. p. 1014. Orosius, vii. 7.] + + 29 (return) [ The price of wheat (probably of the _modius_,) was + reduced as low as _terni Nummi;_ which would be equivalent to + about fifteen shillings the English quarter.] + + 30 (return) [ We may observe, that the rumor is mentioned by + Tacitus with a very becoming distrust and hesitation, whilst it + is greedily transcribed by Suetonius, and solemnly confirmed by + Dion.] + + 31 (return) [ This testimony is alone sufficient to expose the + anachronism of the Jews, who place the birth of Christ near a + century sooner. (Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, l. v. c. 14, 15.) + We may learn from Josephus, (Antiquitat. xviii. 3,) that the + procuratorship of Pilate corresponded with the last ten years of + Tiberius, A. D. 27—37. As to the particular time of the death of + Christ, a very early tradition fixed it to the 25th of March, A. + D. 29, under the consulship of the two Gemini. (Tertullian adv. + Judæos, c. 8.) This date, which is adopted by Pagi, Cardinal + Norris, and Le Clerc, seems at least as probable as the vulgar + æra, which is placed (I know not from what conjectures) four + years later.] + + 3111 (return) [ This single phrase, Repressa in præsens + exitiabilis superstitio rursus erumpebat, proves that the + Christians had already attracted the attention of the government; + and that Nero was not the first to persecute them. I am surprised + that more stress has not been laid on the confirmation which the + Acts of the Apostles derive from these words of Tacitus, Repressa + in præsens, and rursus erumpebat.—G. ——I have been unwilling to + suppress this note, but surely the expression of Tacitus refers + to the expected extirpation of the religion by the death of its + founder, Christ.—M.] + + 32 (return) [ _Odio humani generis convicti_. These words may + either signify the hatred of mankind towards the Christians, or + the hatred of the Christians towards mankind. I have preferred + the latter sense, as the most agreeable to the style of Tacitus, + and to the popular error, of which a precept of the gospel (see + Luke xiv. 26) had been, perhaps, the innocent occasion. My + interpretation is justified by the authority of Lipsius; of the + Italian, the French, and the English translators of Tacitus; of + Mosheim, (p. 102,) of Le Clerc, (Historia Ecclesiast. p. 427,) of + Dr. Lardner, (Testimonies, vol. i. p. 345,) and of the Bishop of + Gloucester, (Divine Legation, vol. iii. p. 38.) But as the word + _convicti_ does not unite very happily with the rest of the + sentence, James Gronovius has preferred the reading of + _conjuncti_, which is authorized by the valuable MS. of + Florence.] + + 33 (return) [ Tacit. Annal xv. 44.] + + 34 (return) [ Nardini Roma Antica, p. 487. Donatus de Roma + Antiqua, l. iii. p. 449.] + + But it would be improper to dismiss this account of Nero’s + persecution, till we have made some observations that may serve + to remove the difficulties with which it is perplexed, and to + throw some light on the subsequent history of the church. + + 1. The most sceptical criticism is obliged to respect the truth + of this extraordinary fact, and the integrity of this celebrated + passage of Tacitus. The former is confirmed by the diligent and + accurate Suetonius, who mentions the punishment which Nero + inflicted on the Christians, a sect of men who had embraced a new + and criminal superstition. 35 The latter may be proved by the + consent of the most ancient manuscripts; by the inimitable + character of the style of Tacitus by his reputation, which + guarded his text from the interpolations of pious fraud; and by + the purport of his narration, which accused the first Christians + of the most atrocious crimes, without insinuating that they + possessed any miraculous or even magical powers above the rest of + mankind. 36 2. Notwithstanding it is probable that Tacitus was + born some years before the fire of Rome, 37 he could derive only + from reading and conversation the knowledge of an event which + happened during his infancy. Before he gave himself to the + public, he calmly waited till his genius had attained its full + maturity, and he was more than forty years of age, when a + grateful regard for the memory of the virtuous Agricola extorted + from him the most early of those historical compositions which + will delight and instruct the most distant posterity. After + making a trial of his strength in the life of Agricola and the + description of Germany, he conceived, and at length executed, a + more arduous work; the history of Rome, in thirty books, from the + fall of Nero to the accession of Nerva. The administration of + Nerva introduced an age of justice and propriety, which Tacitus + had destined for the occupation of his old age; 38 but when he + took a nearer view of his subject, judging, perhaps, that it was + a more honorable or a less invidious office to record the vices + of past tyrants, than to celebrate the virtues of a reigning + monarch, he chose rather to relate, under the form of annals, the + actions of the four immediate successors of Augustus. To collect, + to dispose, and to adorn a series of fourscore years, in an + immortal work, every sentence of which is pregnant with the + deepest observations and the most lively images, was an + undertaking sufficient to exercise the genius of Tacitus himself + during the greatest part of his life. In the last years of the + reign of Trajan, whilst the victorious monarch extended the power + of Rome beyond its ancient limits, the historian was describing, + in the second and fourth books of his annals, the tyranny of + Tiberius; 39 and the emperor Hadrian must have succeeded to the + throne, before Tacitus, in the regular prosecution of his work, + could relate the fire of the capital, and the cruelty of Nero + towards the unfortunate Christians. At the distance of sixty + years, it was the duty of the annalist to adopt the narratives of + contemporaries; but it was natural for the philosopher to indulge + himself in the description of the origin, the progress, and the + character of the new sect, not so much according to the knowledge + or prejudices of the age of Nero, as according to those of the + time of Hadrian. 3 Tacitus very frequently trusts to the + curiosity or reflection of his readers to supply those + intermediate circumstances and ideas, which, in his extreme + conciseness, he has thought proper to suppress. We may therefore + presume to imagine some probable cause which could direct the + cruelty of Nero against the Christians of Rome, whose obscurity, + as well as innocence, should have shielded them from his + indignation, and even from his notice. The Jews, who were + numerous in the capital, and oppressed in their own country, were + a much fitter object for the suspicions of the emperor and of the + people: nor did it seem unlikely that a vanquished nation, who + already discovered their abhorrence of the Roman yoke, might have + recourse to the most atrocious means of gratifying their + implacable revenge. But the Jews possessed very powerful + advocates in the palace, and even in the heart of the tyrant; his + wife and mistress, the beautiful Poppæa, and a favorite player of + the race of Abraham, who had already employed their intercession + in behalf of the obnoxious people. 40 In their room it was + necessary to offer some other victims, and it might easily be + suggested that, although the genuine followers of Moses were + innocent of the fire of Rome, there had arisen among them a new + and pernicious sect of Galilæans, which was capable of the most + horrid crimes. Under the appellation of Galilæans, two + distinctions of men were confounded, the most opposite to each + other in their manners and principles; the disciples who had + embraced the faith of Jesus of Nazareth, 41 and the zealots who + had followed the standard of Judas the Gaulonite. 42 The former + were the friends, the latter were the enemies, of human kind; and + the only resemblance between them consisted in the same + inflexible constancy, which, in the defence of their cause, + rendered them insensible of death and tortures. The followers of + Judas, who impelled their countrymen into rebellion, were soon + buried under the ruins of Jerusalem; whilst those of Jesus, known + by the more celebrated name of Christians, diffused themselves + over the Roman empire. How natural was it for Tacitus, in the + time of Hadrian, to appropriate to the Christians the guilt and + the sufferings, 4211 which he might, with far greater truth and + justice, have attributed to a sect whose odious memory was almost + extinguished! 4. Whatever opinion may be entertained of this + conjecture, (for it is no more than a conjecture,) it is evident + that the effect, as well as the cause, of Nero’s persecution, was + confined to the walls of Rome, 43 that the religious tenets of + the Galilæans or Christians, 431 were never made a subject of + punishment, or even of inquiry; and that, as the idea of their + sufferings was for a long time connected with the idea of cruelty + and injustice, the moderation of succeeding princes inclined them + to spare a sect, oppressed by a tyrant, whose rage had been + usually directed against virtue and innocence. + + 35 (return) [ Sueton. in Nerone, c. 16. The epithet of + _malefica_, which some sagacious commentators have translated + magical, is considered by the more rational Mosheim as only + synonymous to the _exitiabilis_ of Tacitus.] + + 36 (return) [ The passage concerning Jesus Christ, which was + inserted into the text of Josephus, between the time of Origen + and that of Eusebius, may furnish an example of no vulgar + forgery. The accomplishment of the prophecies, the virtues, + miracles, and resurrection of Jesus, are distinctly related. + Josephus acknowledges that he was the Messiah, and hesitates + whether he should call him a man. If any doubt can still remain + concerning this celebrated passage, the reader may examine the + pointed objections of Le Fevre, (Havercamp. Joseph. tom. ii. p. + 267-273), the labored answers of Daubuz, (p. 187-232, and the + masterly reply (Bibliothèque Ancienne et Moderne, tom. vii. p. + 237-288) of an anonymous critic, whom I believe to have been the + learned Abbé de Longuerue. * Note: The modern editor of Eusebius, + Heinichen, has adopted, and ably supported, a notion, which had + before suggested itself to the editor, that this passage is not + altogether a forgery, but interpolated with many additional + clauses. Heinichen has endeavored to disengage the original text + from the foreign and more recent matter.—M.] + + 37 (return) [ See the lives of Tacitus by Lipsius and the Abbé de + la Bleterie, Dictionnaire de Bayle a l’article Particle Tacite, + and Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin tem. Latin. tom. ii. p. 386, edit. + Ernest. Ernst.] + + 38 (return) [ Principatum Divi Nervæ, et imperium Trajani, + uberiorem, securioremque materiam senectuti seposui. Tacit. Hist. + i.] + + 39 (return) [ See Tacit. Annal. ii. 61, iv. 4. * Note: The + perusal of this passage of Tacitus alone is sufficient, as I have + already said, to show that the Christian sect was not so obscure + as not already to have been repressed, (repressa,) and that it + did not pass for innocent in the eyes of the Romans.—G.] + + 40 (return) [ The player’s name was Aliturus. Through the same + channel, Josephus, (de vitâ suâ, c. 2,) about two years before, + had obtained the pardon and release of some Jewish priests, who + were prisoners at Rome.] + + 41 (return) [ The learned Dr. Lardner (Jewish and Heathen + Testimonies, vol ii. p. 102, 103) has proved that the name of + Galilæans was a very ancient, and perhaps the primitive + appellation of the Christians.] + + 42 (return) [ Joseph. Antiquitat. xviii. 1, 2. Tillemont, Ruine + des Juifs, p. 742 The sons of Judas were crucified in the time of + Claudius. His grandson Eleazar, after Jerusalem was taken, + defended a strong fortress with 960 of his most desperate + followers. When the battering ram had made a breach, they turned + their swords against their wives their children, and at length + against their own breasts. They dies to the last man.] + + 4211 (return) [ This conjecture is entirely devoid, not merely of + verisimilitude, but even of possibility. Tacitus could not be + deceived in appropriating to the Christians of Rome the guilt and + the sufferings which he might have attributed with far greater + truth to the followers of Judas the Gaulonite, for the latter + never went to Rome. Their revolt, their attempts, their opinions, + their wars, their punishment, had no other theatre but Judæa + (Basn. Hist. des. Juifs, t. i. p. 491.) Moreover the name of + Christians had long been given in Rome to the disciples of Jesus; + and Tacitus affirms too positively, refers too distinctly to its + etymology, to allow us to suspect any mistake on his part.—G. + ——M. Guizot’s expressions are not in the least too strong against + this strange imagination of Gibbon; it may be doubted whether the + followers of Judas were known as a sect under the name of + Galilæans.—M.] + + 43 (return) [ See Dodwell. Paucitat. Mart. l. xiii. The Spanish + Inscription in Gruter. p. 238, No. 9, is a manifest and + acknowledged forgery contrived by that noted imposter. Cyriacus + of Ancona, to flatter the pride and prejudices of the Spaniards. + See Ferreras, Histoire D’Espagne, tom. i. p. 192.] + + 431 (return) [ M. Guizot, on the authority of Sulpicius Severus, + ii. 37, and of Orosius, viii. 5, inclines to the opinion of those + who extend the persecution to the provinces. Mosheim rather leans + to that side on this much disputed question, (c. xxxv.) Neander + takes the view of Gibbon, which is in general that of the most + learned writers. There is indeed no evidence, which I can + discover, of its reaching the provinces; and the apparent + security, at least as regards his life, with which St. Paul + pursued his travels during this period, affords at least a strong + inference against a rigid and general inquisition against the + Christians in other parts of the empire.—M.] + + It is somewhat remarkable that the flames of war consumed, almost + at the same time, the temple of Jerusalem and the Capitol of + Rome; 44 and it appears no less singular, that the tribute which + devotion had destined to the former, should have been converted + by the power of an assaulting victor to restore and adorn the + splendor of the latter. 45 The emperors levied a general + capitation tax on the Jewish people; and although the sum + assessed on the head of each individual was inconsiderable, the + use for which it was designed, and the severity with which it was + exacted, were considered as an intolerable grievance. 46 Since + the officers of the revenue extended their unjust claim to many + persons who were strangers to the blood or religion of the Jews, + it was impossible that the Christians, who had so often sheltered + themselves under the shade of the synagogue, should now escape + this rapacious persecution. Anxious as they were to avoid the + slightest infection of idolatry, their conscience forbade them to + contribute to the honor of that dæmon who had assumed the + character of the Capitoline Jupiter. As a very numerous though + declining party among the Christians still adhered to the law of + Moses, their efforts to dissemble their Jewish origin were + detected by the decisive test of circumcision; 47 nor were the + Roman magistrates at leisure to inquire into the difference of + their religious tenets. Among the Christians who were brought + before the tribunal of the emperor, or, as it seems more + probable, before that of the procurator of Judæa, two persons are + said to have appeared, distinguished by their extraction, which + was more truly noble than that of the greatest monarchs. These + were the grandsons of St. Jude the apostle, who himself was the + brother of Jesus Christ. 48 Their natural pretensions to the + throne of David might perhaps attract the respect of the people, + and excite the jealousy of the governor; but the meanness of + their garb, and the simplicity of their answers, soon convinced + him that they were neither desirous nor capable of disturbing the + peace of the Roman empire. They frankly confessed their royal + origin, and their near relation to the Messiah; but they + disclaimed any temporal views, and professed that his kingdom, + which they devoutly expected, was purely of a spiritual and + angelic nature. When they were examined concerning their fortune + and occupation, they showed their hands, hardened with daily + labor, and declared that they derived their whole subsistence + from the cultivation of a farm near the village of Cocaba, of the + extent of about twenty-four English acres, 49 and of the value of + nine thousand drachms, or three hundred pounds sterling. The + grandsons of St. Jude were dismissed with compassion and + contempt. 50 + + 44 (return) [ The Capitol was burnt during the civil war between + Vitellius and Vespasian, the 19th of December, A. D. 69. On the + 10th of August, A. D. 70, the temple of Jerusalem was destroyed + by the hands of the Jews themselves, rather than by those of the + Romans.] + + 45 (return) [ The new Capitol was dedicated by Domitian. Sueton. + in Domitian. c. 5. Plutarch in Poplicola, tom. i. p. 230, edit. + Bryant. The gilding alone cost 12,000 talents (above two millions + and a half.) It was the opinion of Martial, (l. ix. Epigram 3,) + that if the emperor had called in his debts, Jupiter himself, + even though he had made a general auction of Olympus, would have + been unable to pay two shillings in the pound.] + + 46 (return) [ With regard to the tribute, see Dion Cassius, l. + lxvi. p. 1082, with Reimarus’s notes. Spanheim, de Usu + Numismatum, tom. ii. p. 571; and Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, l. + vii. c. 2.] + + 47 (return) [ Suetonius (in Domitian. c. 12) had seen an old man + of ninety publicly examined before the procurator’s tribunal. + This is what Martial calls, Mentula tributis damnata.] + + 48 (return) [ This appellation was at first understood in the + most obvious sense, and it was supposed, that the brothers of + Jesus were the lawful issue of Joseph and Mary. A devout respect + for the virginity of the mother of God suggested to the Gnostics, + and afterwards to the orthodox Greeks, the expedient of bestowing + a second wife on Joseph. The Latins (from the time of Jerome) + improved on that hint, asserted the perpetual celibacy of Joseph, + and justified by many similar examples the new interpretation + that Jude, as well as Simon and James, who were styled the + brothers of Jesus Christ, were only his first cousins. See + Tillemont, Mém. Ecclesiast. tom. i. part iii.: and Beausobre, + Hist. Critique du Manicheisme, l. ii. c. 2.] + + 49 (return) [ Thirty-nine, squares of a hundred feet each, which, + if strictly computed, would scarcely amount to nine acres.] + + 50 (return) [ Eusebius, iii. 20. The story is taken from + Hegesippus.] + + But although the obscurity of the house of David might protect + them from the suspicions of a tyrant, the present greatness of + his own family alarmed the pusillanimous temper of Domitian, + which could only be appeased by the blood of those Romans whom he + either feared, or hated, or esteemed. Of the two sons of his + uncle Flavius Sabinus, 51 the elder was soon convicted of + treasonable intentions, and the younger, who bore the name of + Flavius Clemens, was indebted for his safety to his want of + courage and ability. 52 The emperor for a long time, + distinguished so harmless a kinsman by his favor and protection, + bestowed on him his own niece Domitilla, adopted the children of + that marriage to the hope of the succession, and invested their + father with the honors of the consulship. + + 51 (return) [ See the death and character of Sabinus in Tacitus, + (Hist. iii. 74 ) Sabinus was the elder brother, and, till the + accession of Vespasian, had been considered as the principal + support of the Flavium family] + + 52 (return) [ Flavium Clementem patruelem suum _contemptissimæ + inertiæ_.. ex tenuissimâ suspicione interemit. Sueton. in + Domitian. c. 15.] + + But he had scarcely finished the term of his annual magistracy, + when, on a slight pretence, he was condemned and executed; + Domitilla was banished to a desolate island on the coast of + Campania; 53 and sentences either of death or of confiscation + were pronounced against a great number of who were involved in + the same accusation. The guilt imputed to their charge was that + of _Atheism_ and _Jewish manners;_ 54 a singular association of + ideas, which cannot with any propriety be applied except to the + Christians, as they were obscurely and imperfectly viewed by the + magistrates and by the writers of that period. On the strength of + so probable an interpretation, and too eagerly admitting the + suspicions of a tyrant as an evidence of their honorable crime, + the church has placed both Clemens and Domitilla among its first + martyrs, and has branded the cruelty of Domitian with the name of + the second persecution. But this persecution (if it deserves that + epithet) was of no long duration. A few months after the death of + Clemens, and the banishment of Domitilla, Stephen, a freedman + belonging to the latter, who had enjoyed the favor, but who had + not surely embraced the faith, of his mistress, 5411 assassinated + the emperor in his palace. 55 The memory of Domitian was + condemned by the senate; his acts were rescinded; his exiles + recalled; and under the gentle administration of Nerva, while the + innocent were restored to their rank and fortunes, even the most + guilty either obtained pardon or escaped punishment. 56 + + 53 (return) [ The Isle of Pandataria, according to Dion. Bruttius + Præsens (apud Euseb. iii. 18) banishes her to that of Pontia, + which was not far distant from the other. That difference, and a + mistake, either of Eusebius or of his transcribers, have given + occasion to suppose two Domitillas, the wife and the niece of + Clemens. See Tillemont, Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. ii. p. + 224.] + + 54 (return) [ Dion. l. lxvii. p. 1112. If the Bruttius Præsens, + from whom it is probable that he collected this account, was the + correspondent of Pliny, (Epistol. vii. 3,) we may consider him as + a contemporary writer.] + + 5411 (return) [ This is an uncandid sarcasm. There is nothing to + connect Stephen with the religion of Domitilla. He was a knave + detected in the malversation of money—interceptarum pecuniaram + reus.—M.] + + 55 (return) [ Suet. in Domit. c. 17. Philostratus in Vit. + Apollon. l. viii.] + + 56 (return) [ Dion. l. lxviii. p. 1118. Plin. Epistol. iv. 22.] + + II. About ten years afterwards, under the reign of Trajan, the + younger Pliny was intrusted by his friend and master with the + government of Bithynia and Pontus. He soon found himself at a + loss to determine by what rule of justice or of law he should + direct his conduct in the execution of an office the most + repugnant to his humanity. Pliny had never assisted at any + judicial proceedings against the Christians, with whose name + alone he seems to be acquainted; and he was totally uninformed + with regard to the nature of their guilt, the method of their + conviction, and the degree of their punishment. In this + perplexity he had recourse to his usual expedient, of submitting + to the wisdom of Trajan an impartial, and, in some respects, a + favorable account of the new superstition, requesting the + emperor, that he would condescend to resolve his doubts, and to + instruct his ignorance. 57 The life of Pliny had been employed in + the acquisition of learning, and in the business of the world. + + Since the age of nineteen he had pleaded with distinction in the + tribunals of Rome, 58 filled a place in the senate, had been + invested with the honors of the consulship, and had formed very + numerous connections with every order of men, both in Italy and + in the provinces. From _his_ ignorance therefore we may derive + some useful information. We may assure ourselves, that when he + accepted the government of Bithynia, there were no general laws + or decrees of the senate in force against the Christians; that + neither Trajan nor any of his virtuous predecessors, whose edicts + were received into the civil and criminal jurisprudence, had + publicly declared their intentions concerning the new sect; and + that whatever proceedings had been carried on against the + Christians, there were none of sufficient weight and authority to + establish a precedent for the conduct of a Roman magistrate. + + 57 (return) [ Plin. Epistol. x. 97. The learned Mosheim expresses + himself (p. 147, 232) with the highest approbation of Pliny’s + moderate and candid temper. Notwithstanding Dr. Lardner’s + suspicions (see Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, vol. ii. p. 46,) + I am unable to discover any bigotry in his language or + proceedings. * Note: Yet the humane Pliny put two female + attendants, probably deaconesses to the torture, in order to + ascertain the real nature of these suspicious meetings: + necessarium credidi, ex duabus ancillis, quæ ministræ dicebantor + quid asset veri et _per tormenta_ quærere.—M.] + + 58 (return) [ Plin. Epist. v. 8. He pleaded his first cause A. D. + 81; the year after the famous eruptions of Mount Vesuvius, in + which his uncle lost his life.] + + + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part III. + + + The answer of Trajan, to which the Christians of the succeeding + age have frequently appealed, discovers as much regard for + justice and humanity as could be reconciled with his mistaken + notions of religious policy. 59 Instead of displaying the + implacable zeal of an inquisitor, anxious to discover the most + minute particles of heresy, and exulting in the number of his + victims, the emperor expresses much more solicitude to protect + the security of the innocent, than to prevent the escape of the + guilty. He acknowledged the difficulty of fixing any general + plan; but he lays down two salutary rules, which often afforded + relief and support to the distressed Christians. Though he + directs the magistrates to punish such persons as are legally + convicted, he prohibits them, with a very humane inconsistency, + from making any inquiries concerning the supposed criminals. Nor + was the magistrate allowed to proceed on every kind of + information. Anonymous charges the emperor rejects, as too + repugnant to the equity of his government; and he strictly + requires, for the conviction of those to whom the guilt of + Christianity is imputed, the positive evidence of a fair and open + accuser. It is likewise probable, that the persons who assumed so + invidiuous an office, were obliged to declare the grounds of + their suspicions, to specify (both in respect to time and place) + the secret assemblies, which their Christian adversary had + frequented, and to disclose a great number of circumstances, + which were concealed with the most vigilant jealousy from the eye + of the profane. If they succeeded in their prosecution, they were + exposed to the resentment of a considerable and active party, to + the censure of the more liberal portion of mankind, and to the + ignominy which, in every age and country, has attended the + character of an informer. If, on the contrary, they failed in + their proofs, they incurred the severe and perhaps capital + penalty, which, according to a law published by the emperor + Hadrian, was inflicted on those who falsely attributed to their + fellow-citizens the crime of Christianity. The violence of + personal or superstitious animosity might sometimes prevail over + the most natural apprehensions of disgrace and danger but it + cannot surely be imagined, 60 that accusations of so unpromising + an appearance were either lightly or frequently undertaken by the + Pagan subjects of the Roman empire. 6011 + + 59 (return) [ Plin. Epist. x. 98. Tertullian (Apolog. c. 5) + considers this rescript as a relaxation of the ancient penal + laws, “quas Trajanus exparte frustratus est:” and yet Tertullian, + in another part of his Apology, exposes the inconsistency of + prohibiting inquiries, and enjoining punishments.] + + 60 (return) [ Eusebius (Hist. Ecclesiast. l. iv. c. 9) has + preserved the edict of Hadrian. He has likewise (c. 13) given us + one still more favorable, under the name of Antoninus; the + authenticity of which is not so universally allowed. The second + Apology of Justin contains some curious particulars relative to + the accusations of Christians. * Note: Professor Hegelmayer has + proved the authenticity of the edict of Antoninus, in his Comm. + Hist. Theol. in Edict. Imp. Antonini. Tubing. 1777, in 4to.—G. + ——Neander doubts its authenticity, (vol. i. p. 152.) In my + opinion, the internal evidence is decisive against it.—M] + + 6011 (return) [ The enactment of this law affords strong + presumption, that accusations of the “crime of Christianity,” + were by no means so uncommon, nor received with so much mistrust + and caution by the ruling authorities, as Gibbon would insinuate. + —M.] + + The expedient which was employed to elude the prudence of the + laws, affords a sufficient proof how effectually they + disappointed the mischievous designs of private malice or + superstitious zeal. In a large and tumultuous assembly, the + restraints of fear and shame, so forcible on the minds of + individuals, are deprived of the greatest part of their + influence. The pious Christian, as he was desirous to obtain, or + to escape, the glory of martyrdom, expected, either with + impatience or with terror, the stated returns of the public games + and festivals. On those occasions the inhabitants of the great + cities of the empire were collected in the circus or the theatre, + where every circumstance of the place, as well as of the + ceremony, contributed to kindle their devotion, and to extinguish + their humanity. Whilst the numerous spectators, crowned with + garlands, perfumed with incense, purified with the blood of + victims, and surrounded with the altars and statues of their + tutelar deities, resigned themselves to the enjoyment of + pleasures, which they considered as an essential part of their + religious worship, they recollected, that the Christians alone + abhorred the gods of mankind, and by their absence and melancholy + on these solemn festivals, seemed to insult or to lament the + public felicity. If the empire had been afflicted by any recent + calamity, by a plague, a famine, or an unsuccessful war; if the + Tyber had, or if the Nile had not, risen beyond its banks; if the + earth had shaken, or if the temperate order of the seasons had + been interrupted, the superstitious Pagans were convinced that + the crimes and the impiety of the Christians, who were spared by + the excessive lenity of the government, had at length provoked + the divine justice. It was not among a licentious and exasperated + populace, that the forms of legal proceedings could be observed; + it was not in an amphitheatre, stained with the blood of wild + beasts and gladiators, that the voice of compassion could be + heard. The impatient clamors of the multitude denounced the + Christians as the enemies of gods and men, doomed them to the + severest tortures, and venturing to accuse by name some of the + most distinguished of the new sectaries, required with + irresistible vehemence that they should be instantly apprehended + and cast to the lions. 61 The provincial governors and + magistrates who presided in the public spectacles were usually + inclined to gratify the inclinations, and to appease the rage, of + the people, by the sacrifice of a few obnoxious victims. But the + wisdom of the emperors protected the church from the danger of + these tumultuous clamors and irregular accusations, which they + justly censured as repugnant both to the firmness and to the + equity of their administration. The edicts of Hadrian and of + Antoninus Pius expressly declared, that the voice of the + multitude should never be admitted as legal evidence to convict + or to punish those unfortunate persons who had embraced the + enthusiasm of the Christians. 62 + + 61 (return) [ See Tertullian, (Apolog. c. 40.) The acts of the + martyrdom of Polycarp exhibit a lively picture of these tumults, + which were usually fomented by the malice of the Jews.] + + 62 (return) [ These regulations are inserted in the above + mentioned document of Hadrian and Pius. See the apology of + Melito, (apud Euseb. l iv 26)] + + III. Punishment was not the inevitable consequence of conviction, + and the Christians, whose guilt was the most clearly proved by + the testimony of witnesses, or even by their voluntary + confession, still retained in their own power the alternative of + life or death. It was not so much the past offence, as the actual + resistance, which excited the indignation of the magistrate. He + was persuaded that he offered them an easy pardon, since, if they + consented to cast a few grains of incense upon the altar, they + were dismissed from the tribunal in safety and with applause. It + was esteemed the duty of a humane judge to endeavor to reclaim, + rather than to punish, those deluded enthusiasts. Varying his + tone according to the age, the sex, or the situation of the + prisoners, he frequently condescended to set before their eyes + every circumstance which could render life more pleasing, or + death more terrible; and to solicit, nay, to entreat, them, that + they would show some compassion to themselves, to their families, + and to their friends. 63 If threats and persuasions proved + ineffectual, he had often recourse to violence; the scourge and + the rack were called in to supply the deficiency of argument, and + every art of cruelty was employed to subdue such inflexible, and, + as it appeared to the Pagans, such criminal, obstinacy. The + ancient apologists of Christianity have censured, with equal + truth and severity, the irregular conduct of their persecutors + who, contrary to every principle of judicial proceeding, admitted + the use of torture, in order to obtain, not a confession, but a + denial, of the crime which was the object of their inquiry. 64 + The monks of succeeding ages, who, in their peaceful solitudes, + entertained themselves with diversifying the deaths and + sufferings of the primitive martyrs, have frequently invented + torments of a much more refined and ingenious nature. In + particular, it has pleased them to suppose, that the zeal of the + Roman magistrates, disdaining every consideration of moral virtue + or public decency, endeavored to seduce those whom they were + unable to vanquish, and that by their orders the most brutal + violence was offered to those whom they found it impossible to + seduce. It is related, that females, who were prepared to despise + death, were sometimes condemned to a more severe trial, 6411 and + called upon to determine whether they set a higher value on their + religion or on their chastity. The youths to whose licentious + embraces they were abandoned, received a solemn exhortation from + the judge, to exert their most strenuous efforts to maintain the + honor of Venus against the impious virgin who refused to burn + incense on her altars. Their violence, however, was commonly + disappointed, and the seasonable interposition of some miraculous + power preserved the chaste spouses of Christ from the dishonor + even of an involuntary defeat. We should not indeed neglect to + remark, that the more ancient as well as authentic memorials of + the church are seldom polluted with these extravagant and + indecent fictions. 65 + + 63 (return) [ See the rescript of Trajan, and the conduct of + Pliny. The most authentic acts of the martyrs abound in these + exhortations. Note: Pliny’s test was the worship of the gods, + offerings to the statue of the emperor, and blaspheming + Christ—præterea maledicerent Christo.—M.] + + 64 (return) [ In particular, see Tertullian, (Apolog. c. 2, 3,) + and Lactantius, (Institut. Divin. v. 9.) Their reasonings are + almost the same; but we may discover, that one of these + apologists had been a lawyer, and the other a rhetorician.] + + 6411 (return) [ The more ancient as well as authentic memorials + of the church, relate many examples of the fact, (of these + _severe trials_,) which there is nothing to contradict. + Tertullian, among others, says, Nam proxime ad lenonem damnando + Christianam, potius quam ad leonem, confessi estis labem + pudicitiæ apud nos atrociorem omni pœna et omni morte reputari, + Apol. cap. ult. Eusebius likewise says, “Other virgins, dragged + to brothels, have lost their life rather than defile their + virtue.” Euseb. Hist. Ecc. viii. 14.—G. The miraculous + interpositions were the offspring of the coarse imaginations of + the monks.—M.] + + 65 (return) [ See two instances of this kind of torture in the + Acta Sincere Martyrum, published by Ruinart, p. 160, 399. Jerome, + in his Legend of Paul the Hermit, tells a strange story of a + young man, who was chained naked on a bed of flowers, and + assaulted by a beautiful and wanton courtesan. He quelled the + rising temptation by biting off his tongue.] + + The total disregard of truth and probability in the + representation of these primitive martyrdoms was occasioned by a + very natural mistake. The ecclesiastical writers of the fourth or + fifth centuries ascribed to the magistrates of Rome the same + degree of implacable and unrelenting zeal which filled their own + breasts against the heretics or the idolaters of their own times. + + It is not improbable that some of those persons who were raised + to the dignities of the empire, might have imbibed the prejudices + of the populace, and that the cruel disposition of others might + occasionally be stimulated by motives of avarice or of personal + resentment. 66 But it is certain, and we may appeal to the + grateful confessions of the first Christians, that the greatest + part of those magistrates who exercised in the provinces the + authority of the emperor, or of the senate, and to whose hands + alone the jurisdiction of life and death was intrusted, behaved + like men of polished manners and liberal education, who respected + the rules of justice, and who were conversant with the precepts + of philosophy. They frequently declined the odious task of + persecution, dismissed the charge with contempt, or suggested to + the accused Christian some legal evasion, by which he might elude + the severity of the laws. 67 Whenever they were invested with a + discretionary power, 68 they used it much less for the + oppression, than for the relief and benefit of the afflicted + church. They were far from condemning all the Christians who were + accused before their tribunal, and very far from punishing with + death all those who were convicted of an obstinate adherence to + the new superstition. Contenting themselves, for the most part, + with the milder chastisements of imprisonment, exile, or slavery + in the mines, 69 they left the unhappy victims of their justice + some reason to hope, that a prosperous event, the accession, the + marriage, or the triumph of an emperor, might speedily restore + them, by a general pardon, to their former state. The martyrs, + devoted to immediate execution by the Roman magistrates, appear + to have been selected from the most opposite extremes. They were + either bishops and presbyters, the persons the most distinguished + among the Christians by their rank and influence, and whose + example might strike terror into the whole sect; 70 or else they + were the meanest and most abject among them, particularly those + of the servile condition, whose lives were esteemed of little + value, and whose sufferings were viewed by the ancients with too + careless an indifference. 71 The learned Origen, who, from his + experience as well as reading, was intimately acquainted with the + history of the Christians, declares, in the most express terms, + that the number of martyrs was very inconsiderable. 72 His + authority would alone be sufficient to annihilate that formidable + army of martyrs, whose relics, drawn for the most part from the + catacombs of Rome, have replenished so many churches, 73 and + whose marvellous achievements have been the subject of so many + volumes of Holy Romance. 74 But the general assertion of Origen + may be explained and confirmed by the particular testimony of his + friend Dionysius, who, in the immense city of Alexandria, and + under the rigorous persecution of Decius, reckons only ten men + and seven women who suffered for the profession of the Christian + name. 75 + + 66 (return) [ The conversion of his wife provoked Claudius + Herminianus, governor of Cappadocia, to treat the Christians with + uncommon severity. Tertullian ad Scapulam, c. 3.] + + 67 (return) [ Tertullian, in his epistle to the governor of + Africa, mentions several remarkable instances of lenity and + forbearance, which had happened within his knowledge.] + + 68 (return) [ Neque enim in universum aliquid quod quasi certam + formam habeat, constitui potest; an expression of Trajan, which + gave a very great latitude to the governors of provinces. * Note: + Gibbon altogether forgets that Trajan fully approved of the + course pursued by Pliny. That course was, to order all who + persevered in their faith to be led to execution: perseverantes + duci jussi.—M.] + + 69 (return) [ In Metalla damnamur, in insulas relegamur. + Tertullian, Apolog. c. 12. The mines of Numidia contained nine + bishops, with a proportionable number of their clergy and people, + to whom Cyprian addressed a pious epistle of praise and comfort. + See Cyprian. Epistol. 76, 77.] + + 70 (return) [ Though we cannot receive with entire confidence + either the epistles, or the acts, of Ignatius, (they may be found + in the 2d volume of the Apostolic Fathers,) yet we may quote that + bishop of Antioch as one of these _exemplary_ martyrs. He was + sent in chains to Rome as a public spectacle, and when he arrived + at Troas, he received the pleasing intelligence, that the + persecution of Antioch was already at an end. * Note: The acts of + Ignatius are generally received as authentic, as are seven of his + letters. Eusebius and St. Jerome mention them: there are two + editions; in one, the letters are longer, and many passages + appear to have been interpolated; the other edition is that which + contains the real letters of St. Ignatius; such at least is the + opinion of the wisest and most enlightened critics. (See Lardner. + Cred. of Gospel Hist.) Less, uber dis Religion, v. i. p. 529. + Usser. Diss. de Ign. Epist. Pearson, Vindic, Ignatianæ. It should + be remarked, that it was under the reign of Trajan that the + bishop Ignatius was carried from Antioch to Rome, to be exposed + to the lions in the amphitheatre, the year of J. C. 107, + according to some; of 116, according to others.—G.] + + 71 (return) [ Among the martyrs of Lyons, (Euseb. l. v. c. 1,) + the slave Blandina was distinguished by more exquisite tortures. + Of the five martyrs so much celebrated in the acts of Felicitas + and Perpetua, two were of a servile, and two others of a very + mean, condition.] + + 72 (return) [ Origen. advers. Celsum, l. iii. p. 116. His words + deserve to be transcribed. * Note: The words that follow should + be quoted. “God not permitting that all his class of men should + be exterminated:” which appears to indicate that Origen thought + the number put to death inconsiderable only when compared to the + numbers who had survived. Besides this, he is speaking of the + state of the religion under Caracalla, Elagabalus, Alexander + Severus, and Philip, who had not persecuted the Christians. It + was during the reign of the latter that Origen wrote his books + against Celsus.—G.] + + 73 (return) [ If we recollect that all the Plebeians of Rome were + not Christians, and that all the Christians were not saints and + martyrs, we may judge with how much safety religious honors can + be ascribed to bones or urns, indiscriminately taken from the + public burial-place. After ten centuries of a very free and open + trade, some suspicions have arisen among the more learned + Catholics. They now require as a proof of sanctity and martyrdom, + the letters B.M., a vial full of red liquor supposed to be blood, + or the figure of a palm-tree. But the two former signs are of + little weight, and with regard to the last, it is observed by the + critics, 1. That the figure, as it is called, of a palm, is + perhaps a cypress, and perhaps only a stop, the flourish of a + comma used in the monumental inscriptions. 2. That the palm was + the symbol of victory among the Pagans. 3. That among the + Christians it served as the emblem, not only of martyrdom, but in + general of a joyful resurrection. See the epistle of P. Mabillon, + on the worship of unknown saints, and Muratori sopra le Antichita + Italiane, Dissertat. lviii.] + + 74 (return) [ As a specimen of these legends, we may be satisfied + with 10,000 Christian soldiers crucified in one day, either by + Trajan or Hadrian on Mount Ararat. See Baronius ad Martyrologium + Romanum; Tille mont, Mém. Ecclesiast. tom. ii. part ii. p. 438; + and Geddes’s Miscellanies, vol. ii. p. 203. The abbreviation of + Mil., which may signify either _soldiers_ or _thousands_, is said + to have occasioned some extraordinary mistakes.] + + 75 (return) [ Dionysius ap. Euseb l. vi. c. 41 One of the + seventeen was likewise accused of robbery. * Note: Gibbon ought + to have said, was falsely accused of robbery, for so it is in the + Greek text. This Christian, named Nemesion, falsely accused of + robbery before the centurion, was acquitted of a crime altogether + foreign to his character, but he was led before the governor as + guilty of being a Christian, and the governor inflicted upon him + a double torture. (Euseb. loc. cit.) It must be added, that Saint + Dionysius only makes particular mention of the principal martyrs, + [this is very doubtful.—M.] and that he says, in general, that + the fury of the Pagans against the Christians gave to Alexandria + the appearance of a city taken by storm. [This refers to plunder + and ill usage, not to actual slaughter.—M.] Finally it should be + observed that Origen wrote before the persecution of the emperor + Decius.—G.] + + During the same period of persecution, the zealous, the eloquent, + the ambitious Cyprian governed the church, not only of Carthage, + but even of Africa. He possessed every quality which could engage + the reverence of the faithful, or provoke the suspicions and + resentment of the Pagan magistrates. His character as well as his + station seemed to mark out that holy prelate as the most + distinguished object of envy and danger. 76 The experience, + however, of the life of Cyprian, is sufficient to prove that our + fancy has exaggerated the perilous situation of a Christian + bishop; and the dangers to which he was exposed were less + imminent than those which temporal ambition is always prepared to + encounter in the pursuit of honors. Four Roman emperors, with + their families, their favorites, and their adherents, perished by + the sword in the space of ten years, during which the bishop of + Carthage guided by his authority and eloquence the councils of + the African church. It was only in the third year of his + administration, that he had reason, during a few months, to + apprehend the severe edicts of Decius, the vigilance of the + magistrate and the clamors of the multitude, who loudly demanded, + that Cyprian, the leader of the Christians, should be thrown to + the lions. Prudence suggested the necessity of a temporary + retreat, and the voice of prudence was obeyed. He withdrew + himself into an obscure solitude, from whence he could maintain a + constant correspondence with the clergy and people of Carthage; + and, concealing himself till the tempest was past, he preserved + his life, without relinquishing either his power or his + reputation. His extreme caution did not, however, escape the + censure of the more rigid Christians, who lamented, or the + reproaches of his personal enemies, who insulted, a conduct which + they considered as a pusillanimous and criminal desertion of the + most sacred duty. 77 The propriety of reserving himself for the + future exigencies of the church, the example of several holy + bishops, 78 and the divine admonitions, which, as he declares + himself, he frequently received in visions and ecstacies, were + the reasons alleged in his justification. 79 But his best apology + may be found in the cheerful resolution, with which, about eight + years afterwards, he suffered death in the cause of religion. The + authentic history of his martyrdom has been recorded with unusual + candor and impartiality. A short abstract, therefore, of its most + important circumstances, will convey the clearest information of + the spirit, and of the forms, of the Roman persecutions. 80 + + 76 (return) [ The letters of Cyprian exhibit a very curious and + original picture both of the _man_ and of the _times_. See + likewise the two lives of Cyprian, composed with equal accuracy, + though with very different views; the one by Le Clerc + (Bibliothèque Universelle, tom. xii. p. 208-378,) the other by + Tillemont, Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. iv part i. p. 76-459.] + + 77 (return) [ See the polite but severe epistle of the clergy of + Rome to the bishop of Carthage. (Cyprian. Epist. 8, 9.) Pontius + labors with the greatest care and diligence to justify his master + against the general censure.] + + 78 (return) [ In particular those of Dionysius of Alexandria, and + Gregory Thaumaturgus, of Neo-Cæsarea. See Euseb. Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. vi. c. 40; and Mémoires de Tillemont, tom. iv. + part ii. p. 685.] + + 79 (return) [ See Cyprian. Epist. 16, and his life by Pontius.] + + 80 (return) [ We have an original life of Cyprian by the deacon + Pontius, the companion of his exile, and the spectator of his + death; and we likewise possess the ancient proconsular acts of + his martyrdom. These two relations are consistent with each + other, and with probability; and what is somewhat remarkable, + they are both unsullied by any miraculous circumstances.] + + + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part IV. + + + When Valerian was consul for the third, and Gallienus for the + fourth time, Paternus, proconsul of Africa, summoned Cyprian to + appear in his private council-chamber. He there acquainted him + with the Imperial mandate which he had just received, 81 that + those who had abandoned the Roman religion should immediately + return to the practice of the ceremonies of their ancestors. + Cyprian replied without hesitation, that he was a Christian and a + bishop, devoted to the worship of the true and only Deity, to + whom he offered up his daily supplications for the safety and + prosperity of the two emperors, his lawful sovereigns. + + With modest confidence he pleaded the privilege of a citizen, in + refusing to give any answer to some invidious and indeed illegal + questions which the proconsul had proposed. A sentence of + banishment was pronounced as the penalty of Cyprian’s + disobedience; and he was conducted without delay to Curubis, a + free and maritime city of Zeugitania, in a pleasant situation, a + fertile territory, and at the distance of about forty miles from + Carthage. 82 The exiled bishop enjoyed the conveniences of life + and the consciousness of virtue. His reputation was diffused over + Africa and Italy; an account of his behavior was published for + the edification of the Christian world; 83 and his solitude was + frequently interrupted by the letters, the visits, and the + congratulations of the faithful. On the arrival of a new + proconsul in the province the fortune of Cyprian appeared for + some time to wear a still more favorable aspect. He was recalled + from banishment; and though not yet permitted to return to + Carthage, his own gardens in the neighborhood of the capital were + assigned for the place of his residence. 84 + + 81 (return) [ It should seem that these were circular orders, + sent at the same time to all the governors. Dionysius (ap. Euseb. + l. vii. c. 11) relates the history of his own banishment from + Alexandria almost in the same manner. But as he escaped and + survived the persecution, we must account him either more or less + fortunate than Cyprian.] + + 82 (return) [ See Plin. Hist. Natur. v. 3. Cellarius, Geograph. + Antiq. part iii. p. 96. Shaw’s Travels, p. 90; and for the + adjacent country, (which is terminated by Cape Bona, or the + promontory of Mercury,) l’Afrique de Marmol. tom. ii. p. 494. + There are the remains of an aqueduct near Curubis, or Curbis, at + present altered into Gurbes; and Dr. Shaw read an inscription, + which styles that city _Colonia Fulvia_. The deacon Pontius (in + Vit. Cyprian. c. 12) calls it “Apricum et competentem locum, + hospitium pro voluntate secretum, et quicquid apponi eis ante + promissum est, qui regnum et justitiam Dei quærunt.”] + + 83 (return) [ See Cyprian. Epistol. 77, edit. Fell.] + + 84 (return) [ Upon his conversion, he had sold those gardens for + the benefit of the poor. The indulgence of God (most probably the + liberality of some Christian friend) restored them to Cyprian. + See Pontius, c. 15.] + + At length, exactly one year 85 after Cyprian was first + apprehended, Galerius Maximus, proconsul of Africa, received the + Imperial warrant for the execution of the Christian teachers. The + bishop of Carthage was sensible that he should be singled out for + one of the first victims; and the frailty of nature tempted him + to withdraw himself, by a secret flight, from the danger and the + honor of martyrdom; 8511 but soon recovering that fortitude which + his character required, he returned to his gardens, and patiently + expected the ministers of death. Two officers of rank, who were + intrusted with that commission, placed Cyprian between them in a + chariot, and as the proconsul was not then at leisure, they + conducted him, not to a prison, but to a private house in + Carthage, which belonged to one of them. An elegant supper was + provided for the entertainment of the bishop, and his Christian + friends were permitted for the last time to enjoy his society, + whilst the streets were filled with a multitude of the faithful, + anxious and alarmed at the approaching fate of their spiritual + father. 86 In the morning he appeared before the tribunal of the + proconsul, who, after informing himself of the name and situation + of Cyprian, commanded him to offer sacrifice, and pressed him to + reflect on the consequences of his disobedience. The refusal of + Cyprian was firm and decisive; and the magistrate, when he had + taken the opinion of his council, pronounced with some reluctance + the sentence of death. It was conceived in the following terms: + “That Thascius Cyprianus should be immediately beheaded, as the + enemy of the gods of Rome, and as the chief and ringleader of a + criminal association, which he had seduced into an impious + resistance against the laws of the most holy emperors, Valerian + and Gallienus.” 87 The manner of his execution was the mildest + and least painful that could be inflicted on a person convicted + of any capital offence; nor was the use of torture admitted to + obtain from the bishop of Carthage either the recantation of his + principles or the discovery of his accomplices. + + 85 (return) [ When Cyprian; a twelvemonth before, was sent into + exile, he dreamt that he should be put to death the next day. The + event made it necessary to explain that word, as signifying a + year. Pontius, c. 12.] + + 8511 (return) [ This was not, as it appears, the motive which + induced St. Cyprian to conceal himself for a short time; he was + threatened to be carried to Utica; he preferred remaining at + Carthage, in order to suffer martyrdom in the midst of his flock, + and in order that his death might conduce to the edification of + those whom he had guided during life. Such, at least, is his own + explanation of his conduct in one of his letters: Cum perlatum ad + nos fuisset, fratres carissimi, frumentarios esse missos qui me + Uticam per ducerent, consilioque carissimorum persuasum est, ut + de hortis interim recederemus, justa interveniente causâ, + consensi; eo quod congruat episcopum in eâ civitate, in quâ + Ecclesiæ dominicæ præest, illie. Dominum confiteri et plebem + universam præpositi præsentis confessione clarificari Ep. 83.—G] + + 86 (return) [ Pontius (c. 15) acknowledges that Cyprian, with + whom he supped, passed the night custodia delicata. The bishop + exercised a last and very proper act of jurisdiction, by + directing that the younger females, who watched in the streets, + should be removed from the dangers and temptations of a nocturnal + crowd. Act. Preconsularia, c. 2.] + + 87 (return) [ See the original sentence in the Acts, c. 4; and in + Pontius, c. 17 The latter expresses it in a more rhetorical + manner.] + + As soon as the sentence was proclaimed, a general cry of “We will + die with him,” arose at once among the listening multitude of + Christians who waited before the palace gates. The generous + effusions of their zeal and their affection were neither + serviceable to Cyprian nor dangerous to themselves. He was led + away under a guard of tribunes and centurions, without resistance + and without insult, to the place of his execution, a spacious and + level plain near the city, which was already filled with great + numbers of spectators. His faithful presbyters and deacons were + permitted to accompany their holy bishop. 8711 They assisted him + in laying aside his upper garment, spread linen on the ground to + catch the precious relics of his blood, and received his orders + to bestow five-and-twenty pieces of gold on the executioner. The + martyr then covered his face with his hands, and at one blow his + head was separated from his body. His corpse remained during some + hours exposed to the curiosity of the Gentiles: but in the night + it was removed, and transported in a triumphal procession, and + with a splendid illumination, to the burial-place of the + Christians. The funeral of Cyprian was publicly celebrated + without receiving any interruption from the Roman magistrates; + and those among the faithful, who had performed the last offices + to his person and his memory, were secure from the danger of + inquiry or of punishment. It is remarkable, that of so great a + multitude of bishops in the province of Africa, Cyprian was the + first who was esteemed worthy to obtain the crown of martyrdom. + 88 + + 8711 (return) [ There is nothing in the life of St. Cyprian, by + Pontius, nor in the ancient manuscripts, which can make us + suppose that the presbyters and deacons in their clerical + character, and known to be such, had the permission to attend + their holy bishop. Setting aside all religious considerations, it + is impossible not to be surprised at the kind of complaisance + with which the historian here insists, in favor of the + persecutors, on some mitigating circumstances allowed at the + death of a man whose only crime was maintaining his own opinions + with frankness and courage.—G.] + + 88 (return) [ Pontius, c. 19. M. de Tillemont (Mémoires, tom. iv. + part i. p. 450, note 50) is not pleased with so positive an + exclusion of any former martyr of the episcopal rank. * Note: M. + de. Tillemont, as an honest writer, explains the difficulties + which he felt about the text of Pontius, and concludes by + distinctly stating, that without doubt there is some mistake, and + that Pontius must have meant only Africa Minor or Carthage; for + St. Cyprian, in his 58th (69th) letter addressed to Pupianus, + speaks expressly of many bishops his colleagues, qui proscripti + sunt, vel apprehensi in carcere et catenis fuerunt; aut qui in + exilium relegati, illustri itinere ed Dominum profecti sunt; aut + qui quibusdam locis animadversi, cœlestes coronas de Domini + clarificatione sumpserunt.—G.] + + It was in the choice of Cyprian, either to die a martyr, or to + live an apostate; but on the choice depended the alternative of + honor or infamy. Could we suppose that the bishop of Carthage had + employed the profession of the Christian faith only as the + instrument of his avarice or ambition, it was still incumbent on + him to support the character he had assumed; 89 and if he + possessed the smallest degree of manly fortitude, rather to + expose himself to the most cruel tortures, than by a single act + to exchange the reputation of a whole life, for the abhorrence of + his Christian brethren, and the contempt of the Gentile world. + But if the zeal of Cyprian was supported by the sincere + conviction of the truth of those doctrines which he preached, the + crown of martyrdom must have appeared to him as an object of + desire rather than of terror. It is not easy to extract any + distinct ideas from the vague though eloquent declamations of the + Fathers, or to ascertain the degree of immortal glory and + happiness which they confidently promised to those who were so + fortunate as to shed their blood in the cause of religion. 90 + They inculcated with becoming diligence, that the fire of + martyrdom supplied every defect and expiated every sin; that + while the souls of ordinary Christians were obliged to pass + through a slow and painful purification, the triumphant sufferers + entered into the immediate fruition of eternal bliss, where, in + the society of the patriarchs, the apostles, and the prophets, + they reigned with Christ, and acted as his assessors in the + universal judgment of mankind. The assurance of a lasting + reputation upon earth, a motive so congenial to the vanity of + human nature, often served to animate the courage of the martyrs. + + The honors which Rome or Athens bestowed on those citizens who + had fallen in the cause of their country, were cold and unmeaning + demonstrations of respect, when compared with the ardent + gratitude and devotion which the primitive church expressed + towards the victorious champions of the faith. The annual + commemoration of their virtues and sufferings was observed as a + sacred ceremony, and at length terminated in religious worship. + Among the Christians who had publicly confessed their religious + principles, those who (as it very frequently happened) had been + dismissed from the tribunal or the prisons of the Pagan + magistrates, obtained such honors as were justly due to their + imperfect martyrdom and their generous resolution. The most pious + females courted the permission of imprinting kisses on the + fetters which they had worn, and on the wounds which they had + received. Their persons were esteemed holy, their decisions were + admitted with deference, and they too often abused, by their + spiritual pride and licentious manners, the preëminence which + their zeal and intrepidity had acquired. 91 Distinctions like + these, whilst they display the exalted merit, betray the + inconsiderable number of those who suffered, and of those who + died, for the profession of Christianity. + + 89 (return) [ Whatever opinion we may entertain of the character + or principles of Thomas Becket, we must acknowledge that he + suffered death with a constancy not unworthy of the primitive + martyrs. See Lord Lyttleton’s History of Henry II. vol. ii. p. + 592, &c.] + + 90 (return) [ See in particular the treatise of Cyprian de + Lapsis, p. 87-98, edit. Fell. The learning of Dodwell (Dissertat. + Cyprianic. xii. xiii.,) and the ingenuity of Middleton, (Free + Inquiry, p. 162, &c.,) have left scarcely any thing to add + concerning the merit, the honors, and the motives of the + martyrs.] + + 91 (return) [ Cyprian. Epistol. 5, 6, 7, 22, 24; and de Unitat. + Ecclesiæ. The number of pretended martyrs has been very much + multiplied, by the custom which was introduced of bestowing that + honorable name on confessors. Note: M. Guizot denies that the + letters of Cyprian, to which he refers, bear out the statement in + the text. I cannot scruple to admit the accuracy of Gibbon’s + quotation. To take only the fifth letter, we find this passage: + Doleo enim quando audio quosdam improbe et insolenter discurrere, + et ad ineptian vel ad discordias vacare, Christi membra et jam + Christum confessa per concubitûs illicitos inquinari, nec a + diaconis aut presbyteris regi posse, sed id agere ut per paucorum + pravos et malos mores, multorum et bonorum confessorum gloria + honesta maculetur. Gibbon’s misrepresentation lies in the + ambiguous expression “too often.” Were the epistles arranged in a + different manner in the edition consulted by M. Guizot?—M.] + + The sober discretion of the present age will more readily censure + than admire, but can more easily admire than imitate, the fervor + of the first Christians, who, according to the lively expressions + of Sulpicius Severus, desired martyrdom with more eagerness than + his own contemporaries solicited a bishopric. 92 The epistles + which Ignatius composed as he was carried in chains through the + cities of Asia, breathe sentiments the most repugnant to the + ordinary feelings of human nature. He earnestly beseeches the + Romans, that when he should be exposed in the amphitheatre, they + would not, by their kind but unseasonable intercession, deprive + him of the crown of glory; and he declares his resolution to + provoke and irritate the wild beasts which might be employed as + the instruments of his death. 93 Some stories are related of the + courage of martyrs, who actually performed what Ignatius had + intended; who exasperated the fury of the lions, pressed the + executioner to hasten his office, cheerfully leaped into the + fires which were kindled to consume them, and discovered a + sensation of joy and pleasure in the midst of the most exquisite + tortures. Several examples have been preserved of a zeal + impatient of those restraints which the emperors had provided for + the security of the church. The Christians sometimes supplied by + their voluntary declaration the want of an accuser, rudely + disturbed the public service of paganism, 94 and rushing in + crowds round the tribunal of the magistrates, called upon them to + pronounce and to inflict the sentence of the law. The behavior of + the Christians was too remarkable to escape the notice of the + ancient philosophers; but they seem to have considered it with + much less admiration than astonishment. Incapable of conceiving + the motives which sometimes transported the fortitude of + believers beyond the bounds of prudence or reason, they treated + such an eagerness to die as the strange result of obstinate + despair, of stupid insensibility, or of superstitious frenzy. 95 + “Unhappy men!” exclaimed the proconsul Antoninus to the + Christians of Asia; “unhappy men! if you are thus weary of your + lives, is it so difficult for you to find ropes and precipices?” + 96 He was extremely cautious (as it is observed by a learned and + picus historian) of punishing men who had found no accusers but + themselves, the Imperial laws not having made any provision for + so unexpected a case: condemning therefore a few as a warning to + their brethren, he dismissed the multitude with indignation and + contempt. 97 Notwithstanding this real or affected disdain, the + intrepid constancy of the faithful was productive of more + salutary effects on those minds which nature or grace had + disposed for the easy reception of religious truth. On these + melancholy occasions, there were many among the Gentiles who + pitied, who admired, and who were converted. The generous + enthusiasm was communicated from the sufferer to the spectators; + and the blood of martyrs, according to a well-known observation, + became the seed of the church. + + 92 (return) [ Certatim gloriosa in certamina ruebatur; multique + avidius tum martyria gloriosis mortibus quærebantur, quam nunc + Episcopatus pravis ambitionibus appetuntur. Sulpicius Severus, l. + ii. He might have omitted the word _nunc_.] + + 93 (return) [ See Epist. ad Roman. c. 4, 5, ap. Patres Apostol. + tom. ii. p. 27. It suited the purpose of Bishop Pearson (see + Vindiciæ Ignatianæ, part ii. c. 9) to justify, by a profusion of + examples and authorities, the sentiments of Ignatius.] + + 94 (return) [ The story of Polyeuctes, on which Corneille has + founded a very beautiful tragedy, is one of the most celebrated, + though not perhaps the most authentic, instances of this + excessive zeal. We should observe, that the 60th canon of the + council of Illiberis refuses the title of martyrs to those who + exposed themselves to death, by publicly destroying the idols.] + + 95 (return) [ See Epictetus, l. iv. c. 7, (though there is some + doubt whether he alludes to the Christians.) Marcus Antoninus de + Rebus suis, l. xi. c. 3 Lucian in Peregrin.] + + 96 (return) [ Tertullian ad Scapul. c. 5. The learned are divided + between three persons of the same name, who were all proconsuls + of Asia. I am inclined to ascribe this story to Antoninus Pius, + who was afterwards emperor; and who may have governed Asia under + the reign of Trajan.] + + 97 (return) [ Mosheim, de Rebus Christ, ante Constantin. p. 235.] + + But although devotion had raised, and eloquence continued to + inflame, this fever of the mind, it insensibly gave way to the + more natural hopes and fears of the human heart, to the love of + life, the apprehension of pain, and the horror of dissolution. + The more prudent rulers of the church found themselves obliged to + restrain the indiscreet ardor of their followers, and to distrust + a constancy which too often abandoned them in the hour of trial. + 98 As the lives of the faithful became less mortified and + austere, they were every day less ambitious of the honors of + martyrdom; and the soldiers of Christ, instead of distinguishing + themselves by voluntary deeds of heroism, frequently deserted + their post, and fled in confusion before the enemy whom it was + their duty to resist. There were three methods, however, of + escaping the flames of persecution, which were not attended with + an equal degree of guilt: first, indeed, was generally allowed to + be innocent; the second was of a doubtful, or at least of a + venial, nature; but the third implied a direct and criminal + apostasy from the Christian faith. + + 98 (return) [ See the Epistle of the Church of Smyrna, ap. Euseb. + Hist. Eccles. Liv. c. 15 * Note: The 15th chapter of the 10th + book of the Eccles. History of Eusebius treats principally of the + martyrdom of St. Polycarp, and mentions some other martyrs. A + single example of weakness is related; it is that of a Phrygian + named Quintus, who, appalled at the sight of the wild beasts and + the tortures, renounced his faith. This example proves little + against the mass of Christians, and this chapter of Eusebius + furnished much stronger evidence of their courage than of their + timidity.—G——This Quintus had, however, rashly and of his own + accord appeared before the tribunal; and the church of Smyrna + condemn “_his indiscreet ardor_,” coupled as it was with weakness + in the hour of trial.—M.] + + I. A modern inquisitor would hear with surprise, that whenever an + information was given to a Roman magistrate of any person within + his jurisdiction who had embraced the sect of the Christians, the + charge was communicated to the party accused, and that a + convenient time was allowed him to settle his domestic concerns, + and to prepare an answer to the crime which was imputed to him. + 99 If he entertained any doubt of his own constancy, such a delay + afforded him the opportunity of preserving his life and honor by + flight, of withdrawing himself into some obscure retirement or + some distant province, and of patiently expecting the return of + peace and security. A measure so consonant to reason was soon + authorized by the advice and example of the most holy prelates; + and seems to have been censured by few except by the Montanists, + who deviated into heresy by their strict and obstinate adherence + to the rigor of ancient discipline. 100 + + II.The provincial governors, whose zeal was less prevalent than + their avarice, had countenanced the practice of selling + certificates, (or libels, as they were called,) which attested, + that the persons therein mentioned had complied with the laws, + and sacrificed to the Roman deities. By producing these false + declarations, the opulent and timid Christians were enabled to + silence the malice of an informer, and to reconcile in some + measure their safety with their religion.101 A slight penance + atoned for this profane dissimulation. 1011 + + III. In every persecution there were great numbers of unworthy + Christians who publicly disowned or renounced the faith which + they had professed; and who confirmed the sincerity of their + abjuration, by the legal acts of burning incense or of offering + sacrifices. Some of these apostates had yielded on the first + menace or exhortation of the magistrate; whilst the patience of + others had been subdued by the length and repetition of tortures. + The affrighted countenances of some betrayed their inward + remorse, while others advanced with confidence and alacrity to + the altars of the gods. 102 But the disguise which fear had + imposed, subsisted no longer than the present danger. As soon as + the severity of the persecution was abated, the doors of the + churches were assailed by the returning multitude of penitents + who detested their idolatrous submission, and who solicited with + equal ardor, but with various success, their readmission into the + society of Christians. 103 1031 + + 99 (return) [ In the second apology of Justin, there is a + particular and very curious instance of this legal delay. The + same indulgence was granted to accused Christians, in the + persecution of Decius: and Cyprian (de Lapsis) expressly mentions + the “Dies negantibus præstitutus.” * Note: The examples drawn by + the historian from Justin Martyr and Cyprian relate altogether to + particular cases, and prove nothing as to the general practice + adopted towards the accused; it is evident, on the contrary, from + the same apology of St. Justin, that they hardly ever obtained + delay. “A man named Lucius, himself a Christian, present at an + unjust sentence passed against a Christian by the judge Urbicus, + asked him why he thus punished a man who was neither adulterer + nor robber, nor guilty of any other crime but that of avowing + himself a Christian.” Urbicus answered only in these words: “Thou + also hast the appearance of being a Christian.” “Yes, without + doubt,” replied Lucius. The judge ordered that he should be put + to death on the instant. A third, who came up, was condemned to + be beaten with rods. Here, then, are three examples where no + delay was granted.——[Surely these acts of a single passionate and + irritated judge prove the general practice as little as those + quoted by Gibbon.—M.] There exist a multitude of others, such as + those of Ptolemy, Marcellus, &c. Justin expressly charges the + judges with ordering the accused to be executed without hearing + the cause. The words of St. Cyprian are as particular, and simply + say, that he had appointed a day by which the Christians must + have renounced their faith; those who had not done it by that + time were condemned.—G. This confirms the statement in the + text.—M.] + + 100 (return) [ Tertullian considers flight from persecution as an + imperfect, but very criminal, apostasy, as an impious attempt to + elude the will of God, &c., &c. He has written a treatise on this + subject, (see p. 536—544, edit. Rigalt.,) which is filled with + the wildest fanaticism and the most incoherent declamation. It + is, however, somewhat remarkable, that Tertullian did not suffer + martyrdom himself.] + + 101 (return) [ The _libellatici_, who are chiefly known by the + writings of Cyprian, are described with the utmost precision, in + the copious commentary of Mosheim, p. 483—489.] + + 1011 (return) [ The penance was not so slight, for it was exactly + the same with that of apostates who had sacrificed to idols; it + lasted several years. See Fleun Hist. Ecc. v. ii. p. 171.—G.] + + 102 (return) [ Plin. Epist. x. 97. Dionysius Alexandrin. ap. + Euseb. l. vi. c. 41. Ad prima statim verba minantis inimici + maximus fratrum numerus fidem suam prodidit: nec prostratus est + persecutionis impetu, sed voluntario lapsu seipsum prostravit. + Cyprian. Opera, p. 89. Among these deserters were many priests, + and even bishops.] + + 103 (return) [ It was on this occasion that Cyprian wrote his + treatise De Lapsis, and many of his epistles. The controversy + concerning the treatment of penitent apostates, does not occur + among the Christians of the preceding century. Shall we ascribe + this to the superiority of their faith and courage, or to our + less intimate knowledge of their history!] + + 1031 (return) [ Pliny says, that the greater part of the + Christians persisted in avowing themselves to be so; the reason + for his consulting Trajan was the periclitantium numerus. + Eusebius (l. vi. c. 41) does not permit us to doubt that the + number of those who renounced their faith was infinitely below + the number of those who boldly confessed it. The prefect, he says + and his assessors present at the council, were alarmed at seeing + the crowd of Christians; the judges themselves trembled. Lastly, + St. Cyprian informs us, that the greater part of those who had + appeared weak brethren in the persecution of Decius, signalized + their courage in that of Gallius. Steterunt fortes, et ipso + dolore pœnitentiæ facti ad prælium fortiores Epist. lx. p. + 142.—G.] + + IV. Notwithstanding the general rules established for the + conviction and punishment of the Christians, the fate of those + sectaries, in an extensive and arbitrary government, must still + in a great measure, have depended on their own behavior, the + circumstances of the times, and the temper of their supreme as + well as subordinate rulers. Zeal might sometimes provoke, and + prudence might sometimes avert or assuage, the superstitious fury + of the Pagans. A variety of motives might dispose the provincial + governors either to enforce or to relax the execution of the + laws; and of these motives the most forcible was their regard not + only for the public edicts, but for the secret intentions of the + emperor, a glance from whose eye was sufficient to kindle or to + extinguish the flames of persecution. As often as any occasional + severities were exercised in the different parts of the empire, + the primitive Christians lamented and perhaps magnified their own + sufferings; but the celebrated number of _ten_ persecutions has + been determined by the ecclesiastical writers of the fifth + century, who possessed a more distinct view of the prosperous or + adverse fortunes of the church, from the age of Nero to that of + Diocletian. The ingenious parallels of the _ten_ plagues of + Egypt, and of the _ten_ horns of the Apocalypse, first suggested + this calculation to their minds; and in their application of the + faith of prophecy to the truth of history, they were careful to + select those reigns which were indeed the most hostile to the + Christian cause. 104 But these transient persecutions served only + to revive the zeal and to restore the discipline of the faithful; + and the moments of extraordinary rigor were compensated by much + longer intervals of peace and security. The indifference of some + princes, and the indulgence of others, permitted the Christians + to enjoy, though not perhaps a legal, yet an actual and public, + toleration of their religion. + + 104 (return) [ See Mosheim, p. 97. Sulpicius Severus was the + first author of this computation; though he seemed desirous of + reserving the tenth and greatest persecution for the coming of + the Antichrist.] + + + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part V. + + + The apology of Tertullian contains two very ancient, very + singular, but at the same time very suspicious, instances of + Imperial clemency; the edicts published by Tiberius, and by + Marcus Antoninus, and designed not only to protect the innocence + of the Christians, but even to proclaim those stupendous miracles + which had attested the truth of their doctrine. The first of + these examples is attended with some difficulties which might + perplex a sceptical mind. 105 We are required to believe, _that_ + Pontius Pilate informed the emperor of the unjust sentence of + death which he had pronounced against an innocent, and, as it + appeared, a divine, person; and that, without acquiring the + merit, he exposed himself to the danger of martyrdom; _that_ + Tiberius, who avowed his contempt for all religion, immediately + conceived the design of placing the Jewish Messiah among the gods + of Rome; _that_ his servile senate ventured to disobey the + commands of their master; _that_ Tiberius, instead of resenting + their refusal, contented himself with protecting the Christians + from the severity of the laws, many years before such laws were + enacted, or before the church had assumed any distinct name or + existence; and lastly, _that_ the memory of this extraordinary + transaction was preserved in the most public and authentic + records, which escaped the knowledge of the historians of Greece + and Rome, and were only visible to the eyes of an African + Christian, who composed his apology one hundred and sixty years + after the death of Tiberius. The edict of Marcus Antoninus is + supposed to have been the effect of his devotion and gratitude + for the miraculous deliverance which he had obtained in the + Marcomannic war. The distress of the legions, the seasonable + tempest of rain and hail, of thunder and of lightning, and the + dismay and defeat of the barbarians, have been celebrated by the + eloquence of several Pagan writers. If there were any Christians + in that army, it was natural that they should ascribe some merit + to the fervent prayers, which, in the moment of danger, they had + offered up for their own and the public safety. But we are still + assured by monuments of brass and marble, by the Imperial medals, + and by the Antonine column, that neither the prince nor the + people entertained any sense of this signal obligation, since + they unanimously attribute their deliverance to the providence of + Jupiter, and to the interposition of Mercury. 106 During the + whole course of his reign, Marcus despised the Christians as a + philosopher, and punished them as a sovereign. 1061 + + 105 (return) [ The testimony given by Pontius Pilate is first + mentioned by Justin. The successive improvements which the story + acquired (as if has passed through the hands of Tertullian, + Eusebius, Epiphanius, Chrysostom, Orosius, Gregory of Tours, and + the authors of the several editions of the acts of Pilate) are + very fairly stated by Dom Calmet Dissertat. sur l’Ecriture, tom. + iii. p. 651, &c.] + + 106 (return) [ On this miracle, as it is commonly called, of the + thundering legion, see the admirable criticism of Mr. Moyle, in + his Works, vol. ii. p. 81—390.] + + 1061 (return) [ Gibbon, with this phrase, and that below, which + admits the injustice of Marcus, has dexterously glossed over one + of the most remarkable facts in the early Christian history, that + the reign of the wisest and most humane of the heathen emperors + was the most fatal to the Christians. Most writers have ascribed + the persecutions under Marcus to the latent bigotry of his + character; Mosheim, to the influence of the philosophic party; + but the fact is admitted by all. A late writer (Mr. Waddington, + Hist. of the Church, p. 47) has not scrupled to assert, that + “this prince polluted every year of a long reign with innocent + blood;” but the causes as well as the date of the persecutions + authorized or permitted by Marcus are equally uncertain. Of the + Asiatic edict recorded by Melito. the date is unknown, nor is it + quite clear that it was an Imperial edict. If it was the act + under which Polycarp suffered, his martyrdom is placed by Ruinart + in the sixth, by Mosheim in the ninth, year of the reign of + Marcus. The martyrs of Vienne and Lyons are assigned by Dodwell + to the seventh, by most writers to the seventeenth. In fact, the + commencement of the persecutions of the Christians appears to + synchronize exactly with the period of the breaking out of the + Marcomannic war, which seems to have alarmed the whole empire, + and the emperor himself, into a paroxysm of returning piety to + their gods, of which the Christians were the victims. See Jul, + Capit. Script. Hist August. p. 181, edit. 1661. It is remarkable + that Tertullian (Apologet. c. v.) distinctly asserts that Verus + (M. Aurelius) issued no edicts against the Christians, and almost + positively exempts him from the charge of persecution.—M. This + remarkable synchronism, which explains the persecutions under M + Aurelius, is shown at length in Milman’s History of Christianity, + book ii. v.—M. 1845.] + + By a singular fatality, the hardships which they had endured + under the government of a virtuous prince, immediately ceased on + the accession of a tyrant; and as none except themselves had + experienced the injustice of Marcus, so they alone were protected + by the lenity of Commodus. The celebrated Marcia, the most + favored of his concubines, and who at length contrived the murder + of her Imperial lover, entertained a singular affection for the + oppressed church; and though it was impossible that she could + reconcile the practice of vice with the precepts of the gospel, + she might hope to atone for the frailties of her sex and + profession by declaring herself the patroness of the Christians. + 107 Under the gracious protection of Marcia, they passed in + safety the thirteen years of a cruel tyranny; and when the empire + was established in the house of Severus, they formed a domestic + but more honorable connection with the new court. The emperor was + persuaded, that in a dangerous sickness, he had derived some + benefit, either spiritual or physical, from the holy oil, with + which one of his slaves had anointed him. He always treated with + peculiar distinction several persons of both sexes who had + embraced the new religion. The nurse as well as the preceptor of + Caracalla were Christians; 1071 and if that young prince ever + betrayed a sentiment of humanity, it was occasioned by an + incident, which, however trifling, bore some relation to the + cause of Christianity. 108 Under the reign of Severus, the fury + of the populace was checked; the rigor of ancient laws was for + some time suspended; and the provincial governors were satisfied + with receiving an annual present from the churches within their + jurisdiction, as the price, or as the reward, of their + moderation. 109 The controversy concerning the precise time of + the celebration of Easter, armed the bishops of Asia and Italy + against each other, and was considered as the most important + business of this period of leisure and tranquillity. 110 Nor was + the peace of the church interrupted, till the increasing numbers + of proselytes seem at length to have attracted the attention, and + to have alienated the mind of Severus. With the design of + restraining the progress of Christianity, he published an edict, + which, though it was designed to affect only the new converts, + could not be carried into strict execution, without exposing to + danger and punishment the most zealous of their teachers and + missionaries. In this mitigated persecution we may still discover + the indulgent spirit of Rome and of Polytheism, which so readily + admitted every excuse in favor of those who practised the + religious ceremonies of their fathers. 111 + + 107 (return) [ Dion Cassius, or rather his abbreviator Xiphilin, + l. lxxii. p. 1206. Mr. Moyle (p. 266) has explained the condition + of the church under the reign of Commodus.] + + 1071 (return) [ The Jews and Christians contest the honor of + having furnished a nurse is the fratricide son of Severus + Caracalla. Hist. of Jews, iii. 158.—M.] + + 108 (return) [ Compare the life of Caracalla in the Augustan + History, with the epistle of Tertullian to Scapula. Dr. Jortin + (Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. p. 5, &c.) considers + the cure of Severus by the means of holy oil, with a strong + desire to convert it into a miracle.] + + 109 (return) [ Tertullian de Fuga, c. 13. The present was made + during the feast of the Saturnalia; and it is a matter of serious + concern to Tertullian, that the faithful should be confounded + with the most infamous professions which purchased the connivance + of the government.] + + 110 (return) [ Euseb. l. v. c. 23, 24. Mosheim, p. 435—447.] + + 111 (return) [ Judæos fieri sub gravi pœna vetuit. Idem etiam de + Christianis sanxit. Hist. August. p. 70.] + + But the laws which Severus had enacted soon expired with the + authority of that emperor; and the Christians, after this + accidental tempest, enjoyed a calm of thirty-eight years. 112 + Till this period they had usually held their assemblies in + private houses and sequestered places. They were now permitted to + erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purpose of + religious worship; 113 to purchase lands, even at Rome itself, + for the use of the community; and to conduct the elections of + their ecclesiastical ministers in so public, but at the same time + in so exemplary a manner, as to deserve the respectful attention + of the Gentiles. 114 This long repose of the church was + accompanied with dignity. The reigns of those princes who derived + their extraction from the Asiatic provinces, proved the most + favorable to the Christians; the eminent persons of the sect, + instead of being reduced to implore the protection of a slave or + concubine, were admitted into the palace in the honorable + characters of priests and philosophers; and their mysterious + doctrines, which were already diffused among the people, + insensibly attracted the curiosity of their sovereign. When the + empress Mammæa passed through Antioch, she expressed a desire of + conversing with the celebrated Origen, the fame of whose piety + and learning was spread over the East. Origen obeyed so + flattering an invitation, and though he could not expect to + succeed in the conversion of an artful and ambitious woman, she + listened with pleasure to his eloquent exhortations, and + honorably dismissed him to his retirement in Palestine. 115 The + sentiments of Mammæa were adopted by her son Alexander, and the + philosophic devotion of that emperor was marked by a singular but + injudicious regard for the Christian religion. In his domestic + chapel he placed the statues of Abraham, of Orpheus, of + Apollonius, and of Christ, as an honor justly due to those + respectable sages who had instructed mankind in the various modes + of addressing their homage to the supreme and universal Deity. + 116 A purer faith, as well as worship, was openly professed and + practised among his household. Bishops, perhaps for the first + time, were seen at court; and, after the death of Alexander, when + the inhuman Maximin discharged his fury on the favorites and + servants of his unfortunate benefactor, a great number of + Christians of every rank and of both sexes, were involved in the + promiscuous massacre, which, on their account, has improperly + received the name of Persecution. 117 1171 + + 112 (return) [ Sulpicius Severus, l. ii. p. 384. This computation + (allowing for a single exception) is confirmed by the history of + Eusebius, and by the writings of Cyprian.] + + 113 (return) [ The antiquity of Christian churches is discussed + by Tillemont, (Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. iii. part ii. p. + 68-72,) and by Mr. Moyle, (vol. i. p. 378-398.) The former refers + the first construction of them to the peace of Alexander Severus; + the latter, to the peace of Gallienus.] + + 114 (return) [ See the Augustan History, p. 130. The emperor + Alexander adopted their method of publicly proposing the names of + those persons who were candidates for ordination. It is true that + the honor of this practice is likewise attributed to the Jews.] + + 115 (return) [ Euseb. Hist. Ecclesiast. l. vi. c. 21. Hieronym. + de Script. Eccles. c. 54. Mammæa was styled a holy and pious + woman, both by the Christians and the Pagans. From the former, + therefore, it was impossible that she should deserve that + honorable epithet.] + + 116 (return) [ See the Augustan History, p. 123. Mosheim (p. 465) + seems to refine too much on the domestic religion of Alexander. + His design of building a public temple to Christ, (Hist. August. + p. 129,) and the objection which was suggested either to him, or + in similar circumstances to Hadrian, appear to have no other + foundation than an improbable report, invented by the Christians, + and credulously adopted by an historian of the age of + Constantine.] + + 117 (return) [ Euseb. l. vi. c. 28. It may be presumed that the + success of the Christians had exasperated the increasing bigotry + of the Pagans. Dion Cassius, who composed his history under the + former reign, had most probably intended for the use of his + master those counsels of persecution, which he ascribes to a + better age, and to and to the favorite of Augustus. Concerning + this oration of Mæcenas, or rather of Dion, I may refer to my own + unbiased opinion, (vol. i. c. 1, note 25,) and to the Abbé de la + Bleterie (Mémoires de l’Académie, tom. xxiv. p. 303 tom xxv. p. + 432.) * Note: If this be the case, Dion Cassius must have known + the Christians they must have been the subject of his particular + attention, since the author supposes that he wished his master to + profit by these “counsels of persecution.” How are we to + reconcile this necessary consequence with what Gibbon has said of + the ignorance of Dion Cassius even of the name of the Christians? + (c. xvi. n. 24.) (Gibbon speaks of Dion’s _silence_, not of his + _ignorance_.—M) The supposition in this note is supported by no + proof; it is probable that Dion Cassius has often designated the + Christians by the name of Jews. See Dion Cassius, l. lxvii. c 14, + lxviii. l—G. On this point I should adopt the view of Gibbon + rather than that of M Guizot.—M] + + 1171 (return) [ It is with good reason that this massacre has + been called a persecution, for it lasted during the whole reign + of Maximin, as may be seen in Eusebius. (l. vi. c. 28.) Rufinus + expressly confirms it: Tribus annis a Maximino persecutione + commota, in quibus finem et persecutionis fecit et vitas Hist. l. + vi. c. 19.—G.] + + Notwithstanding the cruel disposition of Maximin, the effects of + his resentment against the Christians were of a very local and + temporary nature, and the pious Origen, who had been proscribed + as a devoted victim, was still reserved to convey the truths of + the gospel to the ear of monarchs. 118 He addressed several + edifying letters to the emperor Philip, to his wife, and to his + mother; and as soon as that prince, who was born in the + neighborhood of Palestine, had usurped the Imperial sceptre, the + Christians acquired a friend and a protector. The public and even + partial favor of Philip towards the sectaries of the new + religion, and his constant reverence for the ministers of the + church, gave some color to the suspicion, which prevailed in his + own times, that the emperor himself was become a convert to the + faith; 119 and afforded some grounds for a fable which was + afterwards invented, that he had been purified by confession and + penance from the guilt contracted by the murder of his innocent + predecessor. 120 The fall of Philip introduced, with the change + of masters, a new system of government, so oppressive to the + Christians, that their former condition, ever since the time of + Domitian, was represented as a state of perfect freedom and + security, if compared with the rigorous treatment which they + experienced under the short reign of Decius. 121 The virtues of + that prince will scarcely allow us to suspect that he was + actuated by a mean resentment against the favorites of his + predecessor; and it is more reasonable to believe, that in the + prosecution of his general design to restore the purity of Roman + manners, he was desirous of delivering the empire from what he + condemned as a recent and criminal superstition. The bishops of + the most considerable cities were removed by exile or death: the + vigilance of the magistrates prevented the clergy of Rome during + sixteen months from proceeding to a new election; and it was the + opinion of the Christians, that the emperor would more patiently + endure a competitor for the purple, than a bishop in the capital. + 122 Were it possible to suppose that the penetration of Decius + had discovered pride under the disguise of humility, or that he + could foresee the temporal dominion which might insensibly arise + from the claims of spiritual authority, we might be less + surprised, that he should consider the successors of St. Peter, + as the most formidable rivals to those of Augustus. + + 118 (return) [ Orosius, l. vii. c. 19, mentions Origen as the + object of Maximin’s resentment; and Firmilianus, a Cappadocian + bishop of that age, gives a just and confined idea of this + persecution, (apud Cyprian Epist. 75.)] + + 119 (return) [ The mention of those princes who were publicly + supposed to be Christians, as we find it in an epistle of + Dionysius of Alexandria, (ap. Euseb. l. vii. c. 10,) evidently + alludes to Philip and his family, and forms a contemporary + evidence, that such a report had prevailed; but the Egyptian + bishop, who lived at an humble distance from the court of Rome, + expresses himself with a becoming diffidence concerning the truth + of the fact. The epistles of Origen (which were extant in the + time of Eusebius, see l. vi. c. 36) would most probably decide + this curious rather than important question.] + + 120 (return) [ Euseb. l. vi. c. 34. The story, as is usual, has + been embellished by succeeding writers, and is confuted, with + much superfluous learning, by Frederick Spanheim, (Opera Varia, + tom. ii. p. 400, &c.)] + + 121 (return) [ Lactantius, de Mortibus Persecutorum, c. 3, 4. + After celebrating the felicity and increase of the church, under + a long succession of good princes, he adds, “Extitit post annos + plurimos, execrabile animal, Decius, qui vexaret Ecclesiam.”] + + 122 (return) [ Euseb. l. vi. c. 39. Cyprian. Epistol. 55. The see + of Rome remained vacant from the martyrdom of Fabianus, the 20th + of January, A. D. 259, till the election of Cornelius, the 4th of + June, A. D. 251 Decius had probably left Rome, since he was + killed before the end of that year.] + + The administration of Valerian was distinguished by a levity and + inconstancy ill suited to the gravity of the _Roman Censor_. In + the first part of his reign, he surpassed in clemency those + princes who had been suspected of an attachment to the Christian + faith. In the last three years and a half, listening to the + insinuations of a minister addicted to the superstitions of + Egypt, he adopted the maxims, and imitated the severity, of his + predecessor Decius. 123 The accession of Gallienus, which + increased the calamities of the empire, restored peace to the + church; and the Christians obtained the free exercise of their + religion by an edict addressed to the bishops, and conceived in + such terms as seemed to acknowledge their office and public + character. 124 The ancient laws, without being formally repealed, + were suffered to sink into oblivion; and (excepting only some + hostile intentions which are attributed to the emperor Aurelian + 125 the disciples of Christ passed above forty years in a state + of prosperity, far more dangerous to their virtue than the + severest trials of persecution. + + 123 (return) [ Euseb. l. vii. c. 10. Mosheim (p. 548) has very + clearly shown that the præfect Macrianus, and the Egyptian + _Magus_, are one and the same person.] + + 124 (return) [ Eusebius (l. vii. c. 13) gives us a Greek version + of this Latin edict, which seems to have been very concise. By + another edict, he directed that the _Cæmeteria_ should be + restored to the Christians.] + + 125 (return) [ Euseb. l. vii. c. 30. Lactantius de M. P. c. 6. + Hieronym. in Chron. p. 177. Orosius, l. vii. c. 23. Their + language is in general so ambiguous and incorrect, that we are at + a loss to determine how far Aurelian had carried his intentions + before he was assassinated. Most of the moderns (except Dodwell, + Dissertat. Cyprian. vi. 64) have seized the occasion of gaining a + few extraordinary martyrs. * Note: Dr. Lardner has detailed, with + his usual impartiality, all that has come down to us relating to + the persecution of Aurelian, and concludes by saying, “Upon more + carefully examining the words of Eusebius, and observing the + accounts of other authors, learned men have generally, and, as I + think, very judiciously, determined, that Aurelian not only + intended, but did actually persecute: but his persecution was + short, he having died soon after the publication of his edicts.” + Heathen Test. c. xxxvi.—Basmage positively pronounces the same + opinion: Non intentatum modo, sed executum quoque brevissimo + tempore mandatum, nobis infixum est in aniasis. Basn. Ann. 275, + No. 2 and compare Pagi Ann. 272, Nos. 4, 12, 27—G.] + + The story of Paul of Samosata, who filled the metropolitan see of + Antioch, while the East was in the hands of Odenathus and + Zenobia, may serve to illustrate the condition and character of + the times. The wealth of that prelate was a sufficient evidence + of his guilt, since it was neither derived from the inheritance + of his fathers, nor acquired by the arts of honest industry. But + Paul considered the service of the church as a very lucrative + profession. 126 His ecclesiastical jurisdiction was venal and + rapacious; he extorted frequent contributions from the most + opulent of the faithful, and converted to his own use a + considerable part of the public revenue. By his pride and luxury, + the Christian religion was rendered odious in the eyes of the + Gentiles. His council chamber and his throne, the splendor with + which he appeared in public, the suppliant crowd who solicited + his attention, the multitude of letters and petitions to which he + dictated his answers, and the perpetual hurry of business in + which he was involved, were circumstances much better suited to + the state of a civil magistrate, 127 than to the humility of a + primitive bishop. When he harangued his people from the pulpit, + Paul affected the figurative style and the theatrical gestures of + an Asiatic sophist, while the cathedral resounded with the + loudest and most extravagant acclamations in the praise of his + divine eloquence. Against those who resisted his power, or + refused to flatter his vanity, the prelate of Antioch was + arrogant, rigid, and inexorable; but he relaxed the discipline, + and lavished the treasures of the church on his dependent clergy, + who were permitted to imitate their master in the gratification + of every sensual appetite. For Paul indulged himself very freely + in the pleasures of the table, and he had received into the + episcopal palace two young and beautiful women as the constant + companions of his leisure moments. 128 + + 126 (return) [ Paul was better pleased with the title of + _Ducenarius_, than with that of bishop. The _Ducenarius_ was an + Imperial procurator, so called from his salary of two hundred + _Sestertia_, or 1600_l_. a year. (See Salmatius ad Hist. August. + p. 124.) Some critics suppose that the bishop of Antioch had + actually obtained such an office from Zenobia, while others + consider it only as a figurative expression of his pomp and + insolence.] + + 127 (return) [ Simony was not unknown in those times; and the + clergy some times bought what they intended to sell. It appears + that the bishopric of Carthage was purchased by a wealthy matron, + named Lucilla, for her servant Majorinus. The price was 400 + _Folles_. (Monument. Antiq. ad calcem Optati, p. 263.) Every + _Follis_ contained 125 pieces of silver, and the whole sum may be + computed at about 2400_l_.] + + 128 (return) [ If we are desirous of extenuating the vices of + Paul, we must suspect the assembled bishops of the East of + publishing the most malicious calumnies in circular epistles + addressed to all the churches of the empire, (ap. Euseb. l. vii. + c. 30.)] + + Notwithstanding these scandalous vices, if Paul of Samosata had + preserved the purity of the orthodox faith, his reign over the + capital of Syria would have ended only with his life; and had a + seasonable persecution intervened, an effort of courage might + perhaps have placed him in the rank of saints and martyrs. 1281 + + Some nice and subtle errors, which he imprudently adopted and + obstinately maintained, concerning the doctrine of the Trinity, + excited the zeal and indignation of the Eastern churches. 129 + + From Egypt to the Euxine Sea, the bishops were in arms and in + motion. Several councils were held, confutations were published, + excommunications were pronounced, ambiguous explanations were by + turns accepted and refused, treaties were concluded and violated, + and at length Paul of Samosata was degraded from his episcopal + character, by the sentence of seventy or eighty bishops, who + assembled for that purpose at Antioch, and who, without + consulting the rights of the clergy or people, appointed a + successor by their own authority. The manifest irregularity of + this proceeding increased the numbers of the discontented + faction; and as Paul, who was no stranger to the arts of courts, + had insinuated himself into the favor of Zenobia, he maintained + above four years the possession of the episcopal house and + office. 1291 The victory of Aurelian changed the face of the + East, and the two contending parties, who applied to each other + the epithets of schism and heresy, were either commanded or + permitted to plead their cause before the tribunal of the + conqueror. This public and very singular trial affords a + convincing proof that the existence, the property, the + privileges, and the internal policy of the Christians, were + acknowledged, if not by the laws, at least by the magistrates, of + the empire. As a Pagan and as a soldier, it could scarcely be + expected that Aurelian should enter into the discussion, whether + the sentiments of Paul or those of his adversaries were most + agreeable to the true standard of the orthodox faith. His + determination, however, was founded on the general principles of + equity and reason. He considered the bishops of Italy as the most + impartial and respectable judges among the Christians, and as + soon as he was informed that they had unanimously approved the + sentence of the council, he acquiesced in their opinion, and + immediately gave orders that Paul should be compelled to + relinquish the temporal possessions belonging to an office, of + which, in the judgment of his brethren, he had been regularly + deprived. But while we applaud the justice, we should not + overlook the policy, of Aurelian, who was desirous of restoring + and cementing the dependence of the provinces on the capital, by + every means which could bind the interest or prejudices of any + part of his subjects. 130 + + 1281 (return) [ It appears, nevertheless, that the vices and + immoralities of Paul of Samosata had much weight in the sentence + pronounced against him by the bishops. The object of the letter, + addressed by the synod to the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, was + to inform them of the change in the faith of Paul, the + altercations and discussions to which it had given rise, as well + as of his morals and the whole of his conduct. Euseb. Hist. Eccl. + l. vii c. xxx—G.] + + 129 (return) [ His heresy (like those of Noetus and Sabellius, in + the same century) tended to confound the mysterious distinction + of the divine persons. See Mosheim, p. 702, &c.] + + 1291 (return) [ “Her favorite, (Zenobia’s,) Paul of Samosata, + seems to have entertained some views of attempting a union + between Judaism and Christianity; both parties rejected the + unnatural alliance.” Hist. of Jews, iii. 175, and Jost. + Geschichte der Israeliter, iv. 167. The protection of the severe + Zenobia is the only circumstance which may raise a doubt of the + notorious immorality of Paul.—M.] + + 130 (return) [ Euseb. Hist. Ecclesiast. l. vii. c. 30. We are + entirely indebted to him for the curious story of Paul of + Samosata.] + + Amidst the frequent revolutions of the empire, the Christians + still flourished in peace and prosperity; and notwithstanding a + celebrated æra of martyrs has been deduced from the accession of + Diocletian, 131 the new system of policy, introduced and + maintained by the wisdom of that prince, continued, during more + than eighteen years, to breathe the mildest and most liberal + spirit of religious toleration. The mind of Diocletian himself + was less adapted indeed to speculative inquiries, than to the + active labors of war and government. His prudence rendered him + averse to any great innovation, and though his temper was not + very susceptible of zeal or enthusiasm, he always maintained an + habitual regard for the ancient deities of the empire. But the + leisure of the two empresses, of his wife Prisca, and of Valeria, + his daughter, permitted them to listen with more attention and + respect to the truths of Christianity, which in every age has + acknowledged its important obligations to female devotion. 132 + The principal eunuchs, Lucian 133 and Dorotheus, Gorgonius and + Andrew, who attended the person, possessed the favor, and + governed the household of Diocletian, protected by their powerful + influence the faith which they had embraced. Their example was + imitated by many of the most considerable officers of the palace, + who, in their respective stations, had the care of the Imperial + ornaments, of the robes, of the furniture, of the jewels, and + even of the private treasury; and, though it might sometimes be + incumbent on them to accompany the emperor when he sacrificed in + the temple, 134 they enjoyed, with their wives, their children, + and their slaves, the free exercise of the Christian religion. + Diocletian and his colleagues frequently conferred the most + important offices on those persons who avowed their abhorrence + for the worship of the gods, but who had displayed abilities + proper for the service of the state. The bishops held an + honorable rank in their respective provinces, and were treated + with distinction and respect, not only by the people, but by the + magistrates themselves. Almost in every city, the ancient + churches were found insufficient to contain the increasing + multitude of proselytes; and in their place more stately and + capacious edifices were erected for the public worship of the + faithful. The corruption of manners and principles, so forcibly + lamented by Eusebius, 135 may be considered, not only as a + consequence, but as a proof, of the liberty which the Christians + enjoyed and abused under the reign of Diocletian. Prosperity had + relaxed the nerves of discipline. Fraud, envy, and malice + prevailed in every congregation. The presbyters aspired to the + episcopal office, which every day became an object more worthy of + their ambition. The bishops, who contended with each other for + ecclesiastical preëminence, appeared by their conduct to claim a + secular and tyrannical power in the church; and the lively faith + which still distinguished the Christians from the Gentiles, was + shown much less in their lives, than in their controversial + writings. + + 131 (return) [ The Æra of Martyrs, which is still in use among + the Copts and the Abyssinians, must be reckoned from the 29th of + August, A. D. 284; as the beginning of the Egyptian year was + nineteen days earlier than the real accession of Diocletian. See + Dissertation Preliminaire a l’Art de verifier les Dates. * Note: + On the æra of martyrs see the very curious dissertations of Mons + Letronne on some recently discovered inscriptions in Egypt and + Nubis, p. 102, &c.—M.] + + 132 (return) [ The expression of Lactantius, (de M. P. c. 15,) + “sacrificio pollui coegit,” implies their antecedent conversion + to the faith, but does not seem to justify the assertion of + Mosheim, (p. 912,) that they had been privately baptized.] + + 133 (return) [ M. de Tillemont (Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. v. + part i. p. 11, 12) has quoted from the Spicilegium of Dom Luc + d’Archeri a very curious instruction which Bishop Theonas + composed for the use of Lucian.] + + 134 (return) [ Lactantius, de M. P. c. 10.] + + 135 (return) [ Eusebius, Hist. Ecclesiast. l. viii. c. 1. The + reader who consults the original will not accuse me of + heightening the picture. Eusebius was about sixteen years of age + at the accession of the emperor Diocletian.] + + Notwithstanding this seeming security, an attentive observer + might discern some symptoms that threatened the church with a + more violent persecution than any which she had yet endured. The + zeal and rapid progress of the Christians awakened the + Polytheists from their supine indifference in the cause of those + deities, whom custom and education had taught them to revere. The + mutual provocations of a religious war, which had already + continued above two hundred years, exasperated the animosity of + the contending parties. The Pagans were incensed at the rashness + of a recent and obscure sect, which presumed to accuse their + countrymen of error, and to devote their ancestors to eternal + misery. The habits of justifying the popular mythology against + the invectives of an implacable enemy, produced in their minds + some sentiments of faith and reverence for a system which they + had been accustomed to consider with the most careless levity. + The supernatural powers assumed by the church inspired at the + same time terror and emulation. The followers of the established + religion intrenched themselves behind a similar fortification of + prodigies; invented new modes of sacrifice, of expiation, and of + initiation; 136 attempted to revive the credit of their expiring + oracles; 137 and listened with eager credulity to every impostor, + who flattered their prejudices by a tale of wonders. 138 Both + parties seemed to acknowledge the truth of those miracles which + were claimed by their adversaries; and while they were contented + with ascribing them to the arts of magic, and to the power of + dæmons, they mutually concurred in restoring and establishing the + reign of superstition. 139 Philosophy, her most dangerous enemy, + was now converted into her most useful ally. The groves of the + academy, the gardens of Epicurus, and even the portico of the + Stoics, were almost deserted, as so many different schools of + scepticism or impiety; 140 and many among the Romans were + desirous that the writings of Cicero should be condemned and + suppressed by the authority of the senate. 141 The prevailing + sect of the new Platonicians judged it prudent to connect + themselves with the priests, whom perhaps they despised, against + the Christians, whom they had reason to fear. These fashionable + Philosophers prosecuted the design of extracting allegorical + wisdom from the fictions of the Greek poets; instituted + mysterious rites of devotion for the use of their chosen + disciples; recommended the worship of the ancient gods as the + emblems or ministers of the Supreme Deity, and composed against + the faith of the gospel many elaborate treatises, 142 which have + since been committed to the flames by the prudence of orthodox + emperors. 143 + + 136 (return) [ We might quote, among a great number of instances, + the mysterious worship of Mythras, and the Taurobolia; the latter + of which became fashionable in the time of the Antonines, (see a + Dissertation of M. de Boze, in the Mémoires de l’Académie des + Inscriptions, tom. ii. p. 443.) The romance of Apuleius is as + full of devotion as of satire. * Note: On the extraordinary + progress of the Mahriac rites, in the West, see De Guigniaud’s + translation of Creuzer, vol. i. p. 365, and Note 9, tom. i. part + 2, p. 738, &c.—M.] + + 137 (return) [ The impostor Alexander very strongly recommended + the oracle of Trophonius at Mallos, and those of Apollo at Claros + and Miletus, (Lucian, tom. ii. p. 236, edit. Reitz.) The last of + these, whose singular history would furnish a very curious + episode, was consulted by Diocletian before he published his + edicts of persecution, (Lactantius, de M. P. c. 11.)] + + 138 (return) [ Besides the ancient stories of Pythagoras and + Aristeas, the cures performed at the shrine of Æsculapius, and + the fables related of Apollonius of Tyana, were frequently + opposed to the miracles of Christ; though I agree with Dr. + Lardner, (see Testimonies, vol. iii. p. 253, 352,) that when + Philostratus composed the life of Apollonius, he had no such + intention.] + + 139 (return) [ It is seriously to be lamented, that the Christian + fathers, by acknowledging the supernatural, or, as they deem it, + the infernal part of Paganism, destroy with their own hands the + great advantage which we might otherwise derive from the liberal + concessions of our adversaries.] + + 140 (return) [ Julian (p. 301, edit. Spanheim) expresses a pious + joy, that the providence of the gods had extinguished the impious + sects, and for the most part destroyed the books of the + Pyrrhonians and Epicuræans, which had been very numerous, since + Epicurus himself composed no less than 300 volumes. See Diogenes + Laertius, l. x. c. 26.] + + 141 (return) [ Cumque alios audiam mussitare indignanter, et + dicere opportere statui per Senatum, aboleantur ut hæc scripta, + quibus Christiana Religio comprobetur, et vetustatis opprimatur + auctoritas. Arnobius adversus Gentes, l. iii. p. 103, 104. He + adds very properly, Erroris convincite Ciceronem... nam + intercipere scripta, et publicatam velle submergere lectionem, + non est Deum defendere sed veritatis testificationem timere.] + + 142 (return) [ Lactantius (Divin. Institut. l. v. c. 2, 3) gives + a very clear and spirited account of two of these philosophic + adversaries of the faith. The large treatise of Porphyry against + the Christians consisted of thirty books, and was composed in + Sicily about the year 270.] + + 143 (return) [ See Socrates, Hist. Ecclesiast. l. i. c. 9, and + Codex Justinian. l. i. i. l. s.] + + + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part VI. + + + Although the policy of Diocletian and the humanity of Constantius + inclined them to preserve inviolate the maxims of toleration, it + was soon discovered that their two associates, Maximian and + Galerius, entertained the most implacable aversion for the name + and religion of the Christians. The minds of those princes had + never been enlightened by science; education had never softened + their temper. They owed their greatness to their swords, and in + their most elevated fortune they still retained their + superstitious prejudices of soldiers and peasants. In the general + administration of the provinces they obeyed the laws which their + benefactor had established; but they frequently found occasions + of exercising within their camp and palaces a secret persecution, + 144 for which the imprudent zeal of the Christians sometimes + offered the most specious pretences. A sentence of death was + executed upon Maximilianus, an African youth, who had been + produced by his own father 1441 before the magistrate as a + sufficient and legal recruit, but who obstinately persisted in + declaring, that his conscience would not permit him to embrace + the profession of a soldier. 145 It could scarcely be expected + that any government should suffer the action of Marcellus the + Centurion to pass with impunity. On the day of a public festival, + that officer threw away his belt, his arms, and the ensigns of + his office, and exclaimed with a loud voice, that he would obey + none but Jesus Christ the eternal King, and that he renounced + forever the use of carnal weapons, and the service of an + idolatrous master. The soldiers, as soon as they recovered from + their astonishment, secured the person of Marcellus. He was + examined in the city of Tingi by the president of that part of + Mauritania; and as he was convicted by his own confession, he was + condemned and beheaded for the crime of desertion. 146 Examples + of such a nature savor much less of religious persecution than of + martial or even civil law; but they served to alienate the mind + of the emperors, to justify the severity of Galerius, who + dismissed a great number of Christian officers from their + employments; and to authorize the opinion, that a sect of + enthusiastics, which avowed principles so repugnant to the public + safety, must either remain useless, or would soon become + dangerous, subjects of the empire. + + 144 (return) [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. 4, c. 17. He limits the + number of military martyrs, by a remarkable expression, of which + neither his Latin nor French translator have rendered the energy. + Notwithstanding the authority of Eusebius, and the silence of + Lactantius, Ambrose, Sulpicius, Orosius, &c., it has been long + believed, that the Thebæan legion, consisting of 6000 Christians, + suffered martyrdom by the order of Maximian, in the valley of the + Pennine Alps. The story was first published about the middle of + the 5th century, by Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, who received it + from certain persons, who received it from Isaac, bishop of + Geneva, who is said to have received it from Theodore, bishop of + Octodurum. The abbey of St. Maurice still subsists, a rich + monument of the credulity of Sigismund, king of Burgundy. See an + excellent Dissertation in xxxvith volume of the Bibliothèque + Raisonnée, p. 427-454.] + + 1441 (return) [ M. Guizot criticizes Gibbon’s account of this + incident. He supposes that Maximilian was not “produced by his + father as a recruit,” but was obliged to appear by the law, which + compelled the sons of soldiers to serve at 21 years old. Was not + this a law of Constantine? Neither does this circumstance appear + in the acts. His father had clearly expected him to serve, as he + had bought him a new dress for the occasion; yet he refused to + force the conscience of his son. and when Maximilian was + condemned to death, the father returned home in joy, blessing God + for having bestowed upon him such a son.—M.] + + 145 (return) [ See the Acta Sincera, p. 299. The accounts of his + martyrdom and that of Marcellus, bear every mark of truth and + authenticity.] + + 146 (return) [ Acta Sincera, p. 302. * Note: M. Guizot here + justly observes, that it was the necessity of sacrificing to the + gods, which induced Marcellus to act in this manner.—M.] + + After the success of the Persian war had raised the hopes and the + reputation of Galerius, he passed a winter with Diocletian in the + palace of Nicomedia; and the fate of Christianity became the + object of their secret consultations. 147 The experienced emperor + was still inclined to pursue measures of lenity; and though he + readily consented to exclude the Christians from holding any + employments in the household or the army, he urged in the + strongest terms the danger as well as cruelty of shedding the + blood of those deluded fanatics. Galerius at length extorted 1471 + from him the permission of summoning a council, composed of a few + persons the most distinguished in the civil and military + departments of the state. + + The important question was agitated in their presence, and those + ambitious courtiers easily discerned, that it was incumbent on + them to second, by their eloquence, the importunate violence of + the Cæsar. It may be presumed, that they insisted on every topic + which might interest the pride, the piety, or the fears, of their + sovereign in the destruction of Christianity. Perhaps they + represented, that the glorious work of the deliverance of the + empire was left imperfect, as long as an independent people was + permitted to subsist and multiply in the heart of the provinces. + The Christians, (it might specially be alleged,) renouncing the + gods and the institutions of Rome, had constituted a distinct + republic, which might yet be suppressed before it had acquired + any military force; but which was already governed by its own + laws and magistrates, was possessed of a public treasure, and was + intimately connected in all its parts by the frequent assemblies + of the bishops, to whose decrees their numerous and opulent + congregations yielded an implicit obedience. Arguments like these + may seem to have determined the reluctant mind of Diocletian to + embrace a new system of persecution; but though we may suspect, + it is not in our power to relate, the secret intrigues of the + palace, the private views and resentments, the jealousy of women + or eunuchs, and all those trifling but decisive causes which so + often influence the fate of empires, and the councils of the + wisest monarchs. 148 + + 147 (return) [ De M. P. c. 11. Lactantius (or whoever was the + author of this little treatise) was, at that time, an inhabitant + of Nicomedia; but it seems difficult to conceive how he could + acquire so accurate a knowledge of what passed in the Imperial + cabinet. Note: * Lactantius, who was subsequently chosen by + Constantine to educate Crispus, might easily have learned these + details from Constantine himself, already of sufficient age to + interest himself in the affairs of the government, and in a + position to obtain the best information.—G. This assumes the + doubtful point of the authorship of the Treatise.—M.] + + 1471 (return) [ This permission was not extorted from Diocletian; + he took the step of his own accord. Lactantius says, in truth, + Nec tamen deflectere potuit (Diocletianus) præcipitis hominis + insaniam; placuit ergo amicorum sententiam experiri. (De Mort. + Pers. c. 11.) But this measure was in accordance with the + artificial character of Diocletian, who wished to have the + appearance of doing good by his own impulse and evil by the + impulse of others. Nam erat hujus malitiæ, cum bonum quid facere + decrevisse sine consilio faciebat, ut ipse laudaretur. Cum autem + malum. quoniam id reprehendendum sciebat, in consilium multos + advocabat, ut alioram culpæ adscriberetur quicquid ipse + deliquerat. Lact. ib. Eutropius says likewise, Miratus callide + fuit, sagax præterea et admodum subtilis ingenio, et qui + severitatem suam aliena invidia vellet explere. Eutrop. ix. c. + 26.—G.——The manner in which the coarse and unfriendly pencil of + the author of the Treatise de Mort. Pers. has drawn the character + of Diocletian, seems inconsistent with this profound subtilty. + Many readers will perhaps agree with Gibbon.—M.] + + 148 (return) [ The only circumstance which we can discover, is + the devotion and jealousy of the mother of Galerius. She is + described by Lactantius, as Deorum montium cultrix; mulier + admodum superstitiosa. She had a great influence over her son, + and was offended by the disregard of some of her Christian + servants. * Note: This disregard consisted in the Christians + fasting and praying instead of participating in the banquets and + sacrifices which she celebrated with the Pagans. Dapibus + sacrificabat pœne quotidie ac vicariis suis epulis exhibebat. + Christiani abstinebant, et illa cum gentibus epulante, jejuniis + hi et oratiomibus insisteban; hine concepit odium Lact de Hist. + Pers. c. 11.—G.] + + The pleasure of the emperors was at length signified to the + Christians, who, during the course of this melancholy winter, had + expected, with anxiety, the result of so many secret + consultations. The twenty-third of February, which coincided with + the Roman festival of the Terminalia, 149 was appointed (whether + from accident or design) to set bounds to the progress of + Christianity. At the earliest dawn of day, the Prætorian præfect, + 150 accompanied by several generals, tribunes, and officers of + the revenue, repaired to the principal church of Nicomedia, which + was situated on an eminence in the most populous and beautiful + part of the city. The doors were instantly broke open; they + rushed into the sanctuary; and as they searched in vain for some + visible object of worship, they were obliged to content + themselves with committing to the flames the volumes of the holy + Scripture. The ministers of Diocletian were followed by a + numerous body of guards and pioneers, who marched in order of + battle, and were provided with all the instruments used in the + destruction of fortified cities. By their incessant labor, a + sacred edifice, which towered above the Imperial palace, and had + long excited the indignation and envy of the Gentiles, was in a + few hours levelled with the ground. 151 + + 149 (return) [ The worship and festival of the god Terminus are + elegantly illustrated by M. de Boze, Mém. de l’Académie des + Inscriptions, tom. i. p. 50.] + + 150 (return) [ In our only MS. of Lactantius, we read + _profectus;_ but reason, and the authority of all the critics, + allow us, instead of that word, which destroys the sense of the + passage, to substitute _prœfectus_.] + + 151 (return) [ Lactantius, de M. P. c. 12, gives a very lively + picture of the destruction of the church.] + + The next day the general edict of persecution was published; 152 + and though Diocletian, still averse to the effusion of blood, had + moderated the fury of Galerius, who proposed, that every one + refusing to offer sacrifice should immediately be burnt alive, + the penalties inflicted on the obstinacy of the Christians might + be deemed sufficiently rigorous and effectual. It was enacted, + that their churches, in all the provinces of the empire, should + be demolished to their foundations; and the punishment of death + was denounced against all who should presume to hold any secret + assemblies for the purpose of religious worship. The + philosophers, who now assumed the unworthy office of directing + the blind zeal of persecution, had diligently studied the nature + and genius of the Christian religion; and as they were not + ignorant that the speculative doctrines of the faith were + supposed to be contained in the writings of the prophets, of the + evangelists, and of the apostles, they most probably suggested + the order, that the bishops and presbyters should deliver all + their sacred books into the hands of the magistrates; who were + commanded, under the severest penalties, to burn them in a public + and solemn manner. By the same edict, the property of the church + was at once confiscated; and the several parts of which it might + consist were either sold to the highest bidder, united to the + Imperial domain, bestowed on the cities and corporations, or + granted to the solicitations of rapacious courtiers. After taking + such effectual measures to abolish the worship, and to dissolve + the government of the Christians, it was thought necessary to + subject to the most intolerable hardships the condition of those + perverse individuals who should still reject the religion of + nature, of Rome, and of their ancestors. Persons of a liberal + birth were declared incapable of holding any honors or + employments; slaves were forever deprived of the hopes of + freedom, and the whole body of the people were put out of the + protection of the law. The judges were authorized to hear and to + determine every action that was brought against a Christian. But + the Christians were not permitted to complain of any injury which + they themselves had suffered; and thus those unfortunate + sectaries were exposed to the severity, while they were excluded + from the benefits, of public justice. This new species of + martyrdom, so painful and lingering, so obscure and ignominious, + was, perhaps, the most proper to weary the constancy of the + faithful: nor can it be doubted that the passions and interest of + mankind were disposed on this occasion to second the designs of + the emperors. But the policy of a well-ordered government must + sometimes have interposed in behalf of the oppressed Christians; + 1521 nor was it possible for the Roman princes entirely to remove + the apprehension of punishment, or to connive at every act of + fraud and violence, without exposing their own authority and the + rest of their subjects to the most alarming dangers. 153 + + 152 (return) [ Mosheim, (p. 922—926,) from man scattered passages + of Lactantius and Eusebius, has collected a very just and + accurate notion of this edict though he sometimes deviates into + conjecture and refinement.] + + 1521 (return) [ This wants proof. The edict of Diocletian was + executed in all its right during the rest of his reign. Euseb. + Hist. Eccl. l viii. c. 13.—G.] + + 153 (return) [ Many ages afterwards, Edward J. practised, with + great success, the same mode of persecution against the clergy of + England. See Hume’s History of England, vol. ii. p. 300, last 4to + edition.] + + This edict was scarcely exhibited to the public view, in the most + conspicuous place of Nicomedia, before it was torn down by the + hands of a Christian, who expressed at the same time, by the + bitterest invectives, his contempt as well as abhorrence for such + impious and tyrannical governors. His offence, according to the + mildest laws, amounted to treason, and deserved death. And if it + be true that he was a person of rank and education, those + circumstances could serve only to aggravate his guilt. He was + burnt, or rather roasted, by a slow fire; and his executioners, + zealous to revenge the personal insult which had been offered to + the emperors, exhausted every refinement of cruelty, without + being able to subdue his patience, or to alter the steady and + insulting smile which in his dying agonies he still preserved in + his countenance. The Christians, though they confessed that his + conduct had not been strictly conformable to the laws of + prudence, admired the divine fervor of his zeal; and the + excessive commendations which they lavished on the memory of + their hero and martyr, contributed to fix a deep impression of + terror and hatred in the mind of Diocletian. 154 + + 154 (return) [ Lactantius only calls him quidam, et si non recte, + magno tamer animo, &c., c. 12. Eusebius (l. viii. c. 5) adorns + him with secular honora Neither have condescended to mention his + name; but the Greeks celebrate his memory under that of John. See + Tillemont, Memones Ecclésiastiques, tom. v. part ii. p. 320.] + + His fears were soon alarmed by the view of a danger from which he + very narrowly escaped. Within fifteen days the palace of + Nicomedia, and even the bed-chamber of Diocletian, were twice in + flames; and though both times they were extinguished without any + material damage, the singular repetition of the fire was justly + considered as an evident proof that it had not been the effect of + chance or negligence. The suspicion naturally fell on the + Christians; and it was suggested, with some degree of + probability, that those desperate fanatics, provoked by their + present sufferings, and apprehensive of impending calamities, had + entered into a conspiracy with their faithful brethren, the + eunuchs of the palace, against the lives of two emperors, whom + they detested as the irreconcilable enemies of the church of God. + + Jealousy and resentment prevailed in every breast, but especially + in that of Diocletian. A great number of persons, distinguished + either by the offices which they had filled, or by the favor + which they had enjoyed, were thrown into prison. Every mode of + torture was put in practice, and the court, as well as city, was + polluted with many bloody executions. 155 But as it was found + impossible to extort any discovery of this mysterious + transaction, it seems incumbent on us either to presume the + innocence, or to admire the resolution, of the sufferers. A few + days afterwards Galerius hastily withdrew himself from Nicomedia, + declaring, that if he delayed his departure from that devoted + palace, he should fall a sacrifice to the rage of the Christians. + + The ecclesiastical historians, from whom alone we derive a + partial and imperfect knowledge of this persecution, are at a + loss how to account for the fears and dangers of the emperors. + Two of these writers, a prince and a rhetorician, were + eye-witnesses of the fire of Nicomedia. The one ascribes it to + lightning, and the divine wrath; the other affirms, that it was + kindled by the malice of Galerius himself. 156 + + 155 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 13, 14. Potentissimi + quondam Eunuchi necati, per quos Palatium et ipse constabat. + Eusebius (l. viii. c. 6) mentions the cruel executions of the + eunuchs, Gorgonius and Dorotheus, and of Anthimius, bishop of + Nicomedia; and both those writers describe, in a vague but + tragical manner, the horrid scenes which were acted even in the + Imperial presence.] + + 156 (return) [ See Lactantius, Eusebius, and Constantine, ad + Cœtum Sanctorum, c. xxv. Eusebius confesses his ignorance of the + cause of this fire. Note: As the history of these times affords + us no example of any attempts made by the Christians against + their persecutors, we have no reason, not the slightest + probability, to attribute to them the fire in the palace; and the + authority of Constantine and Lactantius remains to explain it. M. + de Tillemont has shown how they can be reconciled. Hist. des + Empereurs, Vie de Diocletian, xix.—G. Had it been done by a + Christian, it would probably have been a fanatic, who would have + avowed and gloried in it. Tillemont’s supposition that the fire + was first caused by lightning, and fed and increased by the + malice of Galerius, seems singularly improbable.—M.] + + As the edict against the Christians was designed for a general + law of the whole empire, and as Diocletian and Galerius, though + they might not wait for the consent, were assured of the + concurrence, of the Western princes, it would appear more + consonant to our ideas of policy, that the governors of all the + provinces should have received secret instructions to publish, on + one and the same day, this declaration of war within their + respective departments. It was at least to be expected, that the + convenience of the public highways and established posts would + have enabled the emperors to transmit their orders with the + utmost despatch from the palace of Nicomedia to the extremities + of the Roman world; and that they would not have suffered fifty + days to elapse, before the edict was published in Syria, and near + four months before it was signified to the cities of Africa. 157 + + This delay may perhaps be imputed to the cautious temper of + Diocletian, who had yielded a reluctant consent to the measures + of persecution, and who was desirous of trying the experiment + under his more immediate eye, before he gave way to the disorders + and discontent which it must inevitably occasion in the distant + provinces. At first, indeed, the magistrates were restrained from + the effusion of blood; but the use of every other severity was + permitted, and even recommended to their zeal; nor could the + Christians, though they cheerfully resigned the ornaments of + their churches, resolve to interrupt their religious assemblies, + or to deliver their sacred books to the flames. The pious + obstinacy of Felix, an African bishop, appears to have + embarrassed the subordinate ministers of the government. The + curator of his city sent him in chains to the proconsul. The + proconsul transmitted him to the Prætorian præfect of Italy; and + Felix, who disdained even to give an evasive answer, was at + length beheaded at Venusia, in Lucania, a place on which the + birth of Horace has conferred fame. 158 This precedent, and + perhaps some Imperial rescript, which was issued in consequence + of it, appeared to authorize the governors of provinces, in + punishing with death the refusal of the Christians to deliver up + their sacred books. There were undoubtedly many persons who + embraced this opportunity of obtaining the crown of martyrdom; + but there were likewise too many who purchased an ignominious + life, by discovering and betraying the holy Scripture into the + hands of infidels. A great number even of bishops and presbyters + acquired, by this criminal compliance, the opprobrious epithet of + _Traditors;_ and their offence was productive of much present + scandal and of much future discord in the African church. 159 + + 157 (return) [ Tillemont, Mémoires Ecclesiast. tom. v. part i. p. + 43.] + + 158 (return) [ See the Acta Sincera of Ruinart, p. 353; those of + Felix of Thibara, or Tibiur, appear much less corrupted than in + the other editions, which afford a lively specimen of legendary + license.] + + 159 (return) [ See the first book of Optatus of Milevis against + the Donatiste, Paris, 1700, edit. Dupin. He lived under the reign + of Valens.] + + The copies as well as the versions of Scripture, were already so + multiplied in the empire, that the most severe inquisition could + no longer be attended with any fatal consequences; and even the + sacrifice of those volumes, which, in every congregation, were + preserved for public use, required the consent of some + treacherous and unworthy Christians. But the ruin of the churches + was easily effected by the authority of the government, and by + the labor of the Pagans. In some provinces, however, the + magistrates contented themselves with shutting up the places of + religious worship. In others, they more literally complied with + the terms of the edict; and after taking away the doors, the + benches, and the pulpit, which they burnt as it were in a funeral + pile, they completely demolished the remainder of the edifice. + 160 It is perhaps to this melancholy occasion that we should + apply a very remarkable story, which is related with so many + circumstances of variety and improbability, that it serves rather + to excite than to satisfy our curiosity. In a small town in + Phrygia, of whose name as well as situation we are left ignorant, + it should seem that the magistrates and the body of the people + had embraced the Christian faith; and as some resistance might be + apprehended to the execution of the edict, the governor of the + province was supported by a numerous detachment of legionaries. + On their approach the citizens threw themselves into the church, + with the resolution either of defending by arms that sacred + edifice, or of perishing in its ruins. They indignantly rejected + the notice and permission which was given them to retire, till + the soldiers, provoked by their obstinate refusal, set fire to + the building on all sides, and consumed, by this extraordinary + kind of martyrdom, a great number of Phrygians, with their wives + and children. 161 + + 160 (return) [ The ancient monuments, published at the end of + Optatus, p. 261, &c. describe, in a very circumstantial manner, + the proceedings of the governors in the destruction of churches. + They made a minute inventory of the plate, &c., which they found + in them. That of the church of Cirta, in Numidia, is still + extant. It consisted of two chalices of gold, and six of silver; + six urns, one kettle, seven lamps, all likewise of silver; + besides a large quantity of brass utensils, and wearing apparel.] + + 161 (return) [ Lactantius (Institut. Divin. v. 11) confines the + calamity to the _conventiculum_, with its congregation. Eusebius + (viii. 11) extends it to a whole city, and introduces something + very like a regular siege. His ancient Latin translator, Rufinus, + adds the important circumstance of the permission given to the + inhabitants of retiring from thence. As Phrygia reached to the + confines of Isauria, it is possible that the restless temper of + those independent barbarians may have contributed to this + misfortune. Note: Universum populum. Lact. Inst. Div. v. 11.—G.] + + Some slight disturbances, though they were suppressed almost as + soon as excited, in Syria and the frontiers of Armenia, afforded + the enemies of the church a very plausible occasion to insinuate, + that those troubles had been secretly fomented by the intrigues + of the bishops, who had already forgotten their ostentatious + professions of passive and unlimited obedience. 162 + + The resentment, or the fears, of Diocletian, at length + transported him beyond the bounds of moderation, which he had + hitherto preserved, and he declared, in a series of cruel edicts, + 1621 his intention of abolishing the Christian name. By the first + of these edicts, the governors of the provinces were directed to + apprehend all persons of the ecclesiastical order; and the + prisons, destined for the vilest criminals, were soon filled with + a multitude of bishops, presbyters, deacons, readers, and + exorcists. By a second edict, the magistrates were commanded to + employ every method of severity, which might reclaim them from + their odious superstition, and oblige them to return to the + established worship of the gods. This rigorous order was + extended, by a subsequent edict, to the whole body of Christians, + who were exposed to a violent and general persecution. 163 + + Instead of those salutary restraints, which had required the + direct and solemn testimony of an accuser, it became the duty as + well as the interest of the Imperial officers to discover, to + pursue, and to torment the most obnoxious among the faithful. + Heavy penalties were denounced against all who should presume to + save a prescribed sectary from the just indignation of the gods, + and of the emperors. Yet, notwithstanding the severity of this + law, the virtuous courage of many of the Pagans, in concealing + their friends or relations, affords an honorable proof, that the + rage of superstition had not extinguished in their minds the + sentiments of nature and humanity. 164 + + 162 (return) [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. 6. M. de Valois (with some + probability) thinks that he has discovered the Syrian rebellion + in an oration of Libanius; and that it was a rash attempt of the + tribune Eugenius, who with only five hundred men seized Antioch, + and might perhaps allure the Christians by the promise of + religious toleration. From Eusebius, (l. ix. c. 8,) as well as + from Moses of Chorene, (Hist. Armen. l. ii. 77, &c.,) it may be + inferred, that Christianity was already introduced into Armenia.] + + 1621 (return) [ He had already passed them in his first edict. It + does not appear that resentment or fear had any share in the new + persecutions: perhaps they originated in superstition, and a + specious apparent respect for its ministers. The oracle of + Apollo, consulted by Diocletian, gave no answer; and said that + just men hindered it from speaking. Constantine, who assisted at + the ceremony, affirms, with an oath, that when questioned about + these men, the high priest named the Christians. “The Emperor + eagerly seized on this answer; and drew against the innocent a + sword, destined only to punish the guilty: he instantly issued + edicts, written, if I may use the expression, with a poniard; and + ordered the judges to employ all their skill to invent new modes + of punishment. Euseb. Vit Constant. l. ii c 54.”—G.] + + 163 (return) [ See Mosheim, p. 938: the text of Eusebius very + plainly shows that the governors, whose powers were enlarged, not + restrained, by the new laws, could punish with death the most + obstinate Christians as an example to their brethren.] + + 164 (return) [ Athanasius, p. 833, ap. Tillemont, Mém. + Ecclesiast. tom v part i. 90.] + + + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part VII. + + + Diocletian had no sooner published his edicts against the + Christians, than, as if he had been desirous of committing to + other hands the work of persecution, he divested himself of the + Imperial purple. The character and situation of his colleagues + and successors sometimes urged them to enforce and sometimes + inclined them to suspend, the execution of these rigorous laws; + nor can we acquire a just and distinct idea of this important + period of ecclesiastical history, unless we separately consider + the state of Christianity, in the different parts of the empire, + during the space of ten years, which elapsed between the first + edicts of Diocletian and the final peace of the church. + + The mild and humane temper of Constantius was averse to the + oppression of any part of his subjects. The principal offices of + his palace were exercised by Christians. He loved their persons, + esteemed their fidelity, and entertained not any dislike to their + religious principles. But as long as Constantius remained in the + subordinate station of Cæsar, it was not in his power openly to + reject the edicts of Diocletian, or to disobey the commands of + Maximian. His authority contributed, however, to alleviate the + sufferings which he pitied and abhorred. He consented with + reluctance to the ruin of the churches; but he ventured to + protect the Christians themselves from the fury of the populace, + and from the rigor of the laws. The provinces of Gaul (under + which we may probably include those of Britain) were indebted for + the singular tranquillity which they enjoyed, to the gentle + interposition of their sovereign. 165 But Datianus, the president + or governor of Spain, actuated either by zeal or policy, chose + rather to execute the public edicts of the emperors, than to + understand the secret intentions of Constantius; and it can + scarcely be doubted, that his provincial administration was + stained with the blood of a few martyrs. 166 + + The elevation of Constantius to the supreme and independent + dignity of Augustus, gave a free scope to the exercise of his + virtues, and the shortness of his reign did not prevent him from + establishing a system of toleration, of which he left the precept + and the example to his son Constantine. His fortunate son, from + the first moment of his accession, declaring himself the + protector of the church, at length deserved the appellation of + the first emperor who publicly professed and established the + Christian religion. The motives of his conversion, as they may + variously be deduced from benevolence, from policy, from + conviction, or from remorse, and the progress of the revolution, + which, under his powerful influence and that of his sons, + rendered Christianity the reigning religion of the Roman empire, + will form a very interesting and important chapter in the present + volume of this history. At present it may be sufficient to + observe, that every victory of Constantine was productive of some + relief or benefit to the church. + + 165 (return) [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. 13. Lactantius de M. P. c. + 15. Dodwell (Dissertat. Cyprian. xi. 75) represents them as + inconsistent with each other. But the former evidently speaks of + Constantius in the station of Cæsar, and the latter of the same + prince in the rank of Augustus.] + + 166 (return) [ Datianus is mentioned, in Gruter’s Inscriptions, + as having determined the limits between the territories of Pax + Julia, and those of Ebora, both cities in the southern part of + Lusitania. If we recollect the neighborhood of those places to + Cape St. Vincent, we may suspect that the celebrated deacon and + martyr of that name had been inaccurately assigned by Prudentius, + &c., to Saragossa, or Valentia. See the pompous history of his + sufferings, in the Mémoires de Tillemont, tom. v. part ii. p. + 58-85. Some critics are of opinion, that the department of + Constantius, as Cæsar, did not include Spain, which still + continued under the immediate jurisdiction of Maximian.] + + The provinces of Italy and Africa experienced a short but violent + persecution. The rigorous edicts of Diocletian were strictly and + cheerfully executed by his associate Maximian, who had long hated + the Christians, and who delighted in acts of blood and violence. + In the autumn of the first year of the persecution, the two + emperors met at Rome to celebrate their triumph; several + oppressive laws appear to have issued from their secret + consultations, and the diligence of the magistrates was animated + by the presence of their sovereigns. After Diocletian had + divested himself of the purple, Italy and Africa were + administered under the name of Severus, and were exposed, without + defence, to the implacable resentment of his master Galerius. + Among the martyrs of Rome, Adauctus deserves the notice of + posterity. He was of a noble family in Italy, and had raised + himself, through the successive honors of the palace, to the + important office of treasurer of the private Jemesnes. Adauctus + is the more remarkable for being the only person of rank and + distinction who appears to have suffered death, during the whole + course of this general persecution. 167 + + 167 (return) [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. 11. Gruter, Inscrip. p. + 1171, No. 18. Rufinus has mistaken the office of Adauctus, as + well as the place of his martyrdom. * Note: M. Guizot suggests + the powerful cunuchs of the palace. Dorotheus, Gorgonius, and + Andrew, admitted by Gibbon himself to have been put to death, p. + 66.] + + The revolt of Maxentius immediately restored peace to the + churches of Italy and Africa; and the same tyrant who oppressed + every other class of his subjects, showed himself just, humane, + and even partial, towards the afflicted Christians. He depended + on their gratitude and affection, and very naturally presumed, + that the injuries which they had suffered, and the dangers which + they still apprehended from his most inveterate enemy, would + secure the fidelity of a party already considerable by their + numbers and opulence. 168 Even the conduct of Maxentius towards + the bishops of Rome and Carthage may be considered as the proof + of his toleration, since it is probable that the most orthodox + princes would adopt the same measures with regard to their + established clergy. Marcellus, the former of these prelates, had + thrown the capital into confusion, by the severe penance which he + imposed on a great number of Christians, who, during the late + persecution, had renounced or dissembled their religion. The rage + of faction broke out in frequent and violent seditions; the blood + of the faithful was shed by each other’s hands, and the exile of + Marcellus, whose prudence seems to have been less eminent than + his zeal, was found to be the only measure capable of restoring + peace to the distracted church of Rome. 169 The behavior of + Mensurius, bishop of Carthage, appears to have been still more + reprehensible. A deacon of that city had published a libel + against the emperor. The offender took refuge in the episcopal + palace; and though it was somewhat early to advance any claims of + ecclesiastical immunities, the bishop refused to deliver him up + to the officers of justice. For this treasonable resistance, + Mensurius was summoned to court, and instead of receiving a legal + sentence of death or banishment, he was permitted, after a short + examination, to return to his diocese. 170 Such was the happy + condition of the Christian subjects of Maxentius, that whenever + they were desirous of procuring for their own use any bodies of + martyrs, they were obliged to purchase them from the most distant + provinces of the East. A story is related of Aglae, a Roman lady, + descended from a consular family, and possessed of so ample an + estate, that it required the management of seventy-three + stewards. Among these Boniface was the favorite of his mistress; + and as Aglae mixed love with devotion, it is reported that he was + admitted to share her bed. Her fortune enabled her to gratify the + pious desire of obtaining some sacred relics from the East. She + intrusted Boniface with a considerable sum of gold, and a large + quantity of aromatics; and her lover, attended by twelve horsemen + and three covered chariots, undertook a remote pilgrimage, as far + as Tarsus in Cilicia. 171 + + 168 (return) [ Eusebius, l. viii. c. 14. But as Maxentius was + vanquished by Constantine, it suited the purpose of Lactantius to + place his death among those of the persecutors. * Note: M. Guizot + directly contradicts this statement of Gibbon, and appeals to + Eusebius. Maxentius, who assumed the power in Italy, pretended at + first to be a Christian, to gain the favor of the Roman people; + he ordered his ministers to cease to persecute the Christians, + affecting a hypocritical piety, in order to appear more mild than + his predecessors; but his actions soon proved that he was very + different from what they had at first hoped. The actions of + Maxentius were those of a cruel tyrant, but not those of a + persecutor: the Christians, like the rest of his subjects, + suffered from his vices, but they were not oppressed as a sect. + Christian females were exposed to his lusts, as well as to the + brutal violence of his colleague Maximian, but they were not + selected as Christians.—M.] + + 169 (return) [ The epitaph of Marcellus is to be found in Gruter, + Inscrip. p 1172, No. 3, and it contains all that we know of his + history. Marcellinus and Marcellus, whose names follow in the + list of popes, are supposed by many critics to be different + persons; but the learned Abbé de Longuerue was convinced that + they were one and the same. + + Veridicus rector lapsis quia crimina flere + Prædixit miseris, fuit omnibus hostis amarus. + Hinc furor, hinc odium; sequitur discordia, lites, + Seditio, cædes; solvuntur fœdera pacis. + Crimen ob alterius, Christum qui in pace negavit + Finibus expulsus patriæ est feritate Tyranni. + Hæc breviter Damasus voluit comperta referre: + Marcelli populus meritum cognoscere posset. + + We may observe that Damasus was made Bishop of Rome, A. D. 366.] + + 170 (return) [ Optatus contr. Donatist. l. i. c. 17, 18. * Note: + The words of Optatus are, Profectus (Roman) causam dixit; jussus + con reverti Carthaginem; perhaps, in pleading his cause, he + exculpated himself, since he received an order to return to + Carthage.—G.] + + 171 (return) [ The Acts of the Passion of St. Boniface, which + abound in miracles and declamation, are published by Ruinart, (p. + 283—291,) both in Greek and Latin, from the authority of very + ancient manuscripts. Note: We are ignorant whether Aglae and + Boniface were Christians at the time of their unlawful + connection. See Tillemont. Mem, Eccles. Note on the Persecution + of Domitian, tom. v. note 82. M. de Tillemont proves also that + the history is doubtful.—G. ——Sir D. Dalrymple (Lord Hailes) + calls the story of Aglae and Boniface as of equal authority with + our _popular_ histories of Whittington and Hickathrift. Christian + Antiquities, ii. 64.—M.] + + The sanguinary temper of Galerius, the first and principal author + of the persecution, was formidable to those Christians whom their + misfortunes had placed within the limits of his dominions; and it + may fairly be presumed that many persons of a middle rank, who + were not confined by the chains either of wealth or of poverty, + very frequently deserted their native country, and sought a + refuge in the milder climate of the West. 1711 As long as he + commanded only the armies and provinces of Illyricum, he could + with difficulty either find or make a considerable number of + martyrs, in a warlike country, which had entertained the + missionaries of the gospel with more coldness and reluctance than + any other part of the empire. 172 But when Galerius had obtained + the supreme power, and the government of the East, he indulged in + their fullest extent his zeal and cruelty, not only in the + provinces of Thrace and Asia, which acknowledged his immediate + jurisdiction, but in those of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, where + Maximin gratified his own inclination, by yielding a rigorous + obedience to the stern commands of his benefactor. 173 The + frequent disappointments of his ambitious views, the experience + of six years of persecution, and the salutary reflections which a + lingering and painful distemper suggested to the mind of + Galerius, at length convinced him that the most violent efforts + of despotism are insufficient to extirpate a whole people, or to + subdue their religious prejudices. Desirous of repairing the + mischief that he had occasioned, he published in his own name, + and in those of Licinius and Constantine, a general edict, which, + after a pompous recital of the Imperial titles, proceeded in the + following manner:— + + 1711 (return) [ A little after this, Christianity was propagated + to the north of the Roman provinces, among the tribes of Germany: + a multitude of Christians, forced by the persecutions of the + Emperors to take refuge among the Barbarians, were received with + kindness. Euseb. de Vit. Constant. ii. 53. Semler Select. cap. H. + E. p. 115. The Goths owed their first knowledge of Christianity + to a young girl, a prisoner of war; she continued in the midst of + them her exercises of piety; she fasted, prayed, and praised God + day and night. When she was asked what good would come of so much + painful trouble she answered, “It is thus that Christ, the Son of + God, is to be honored.” Sozomen, ii. c. 6.—G.] + + 172 (return) [ During the four first centuries, there exist few + traces of either bishops or bishoprics in the western Illyricum. + It has been thought probable that the primate of Milan extended + his jurisdiction over Sirmium, the capital of that great + province. See the Geographia Sacra of Charles de St. Paul, p. + 68-76, with the observations of Lucas Holstenius.] + + 173 (return) [ The viiith book of Eusebius, as well as the + supplement concerning the martyrs of Palestine, principally + relate to the persecution of Galerius and Maximin. The general + lamentations with which Lactantius opens the vth book of his + Divine Institutions allude to their cruelty.] “Among the + important cares which have occupied our mind for the utility and + preservation of the empire, it was our intention to correct and + reestablish all things according to the ancient laws and public + discipline of the Romans. We were particularly desirous of + reclaiming into the way of reason and nature, the deluded + Christians who had renounced the religion and ceremonies + instituted by their fathers; and presumptuously despising the + practice of antiquity, had invented extravagant laws and + opinions, according to the dictates of their fancy, and had + collected a various society from the different provinces of our + empire. The edicts, which we have published to enforce the + worship of the gods, having exposed many of the Christians to + danger and distress, many having suffered death, and many more, + who still persist in their impious folly, being left destitute of + _any_ public exercise of religion, we are disposed to extend to + those unhappy men the effects of our wonted clemency. We permit + them therefore freely to profess their private opinions, and to + assemble in their conventicles without fear or molestation, + provided always that they preserve a due respect to the + established laws and government. By another rescript we shall + signify our intentions to the judges and magistrates; and we hope + that our indulgence will engage the Christians to offer up their + prayers to the Deity whom they adore, for our safety and + prosperity for their own, and for that of the republic.” 174 It + is not usually in the language of edicts and manifestos that we + should search for the real character or the secret motives of + princes; but as these were the words of a dying emperor, his + situation, perhaps, may be admitted as a pledge of his sincerity. + + 174 (return) [ Eusebius (l. viii. c. 17) has given us a Greek + version, and Lactantius (de M. P. c. 34) the Latin original, of + this memorable edict. Neither of these writers seems to recollect + how directly it contradicts whatever they have just affirmed of + the remorse and repentance of Galerius. Note: But Gibbon has + answered this by his just observation, that it is not in the + language of edicts and manifestos that we should search * * for + the secre motives of princes.—M.] + + When Galerius subscribed this edict of toleration, he was well + assured that Licinius would readily comply with the inclinations + of his friend and benefactor, and that any measures in favor of + the Christians would obtain the approbation of Constantine. But + the emperor would not venture to insert in the preamble the name + of Maximin, whose consent was of the greatest importance, and who + succeeded a few days afterwards to the provinces of Asia. In the + first six months, however, of his new reign, Maximin affected to + adopt the prudent counsels of his predecessor; and though he + never condescended to secure the tranquillity of the church by a + public edict, Sabinus, his Prætorian præfect, addressed a + circular letter to all the governors and magistrates of the + provinces, expatiating on the Imperial clemency, acknowledging + the invincible obstinacy of the Christians, and directing the + officers of justice to cease their ineffectual prosecutions, and + to connive at the secret assemblies of those enthusiasts. In + consequence of these orders, great numbers of Christians were + released from prison, or delivered from the mines. The + confessors, singing hymns of triumph, returned into their own + countries; and those who had yielded to the violence of the + tempest, solicited with tears of repentance their readmission + into the bosom of the church. 175 + + 175 (return) [ Eusebius, l. ix. c. 1. He inserts the epistle of + the præfect.] + + But this treacherous calm was of short duration; nor could the + Christians of the East place any confidence in the character of + their sovereign. Cruelty and superstition were the ruling + passions of the soul of Maximin. The former suggested the means, + the latter pointed out the objects of persecution. The emperor + was devoted to the worship of the gods, to the study of magic, + and to the belief of oracles. The prophets or philosophers, whom + he revered as the favorites of Heaven, were frequently raised to + the government of provinces, and admitted into his most secret + councils. They easily convinced him that the Christians had been + indebted for their victories to their regular discipline, and + that the weakness of polytheism had principally flowed from a + want of union and subordination among the ministers of religion. + A system of government was therefore instituted, which was + evidently copied from the policy of the church. In all the great + cities of the empire, the temples were repaired and beautified by + the order of Maximin, and the officiating priests of the various + deities were subjected to the authority of a superior pontiff + destined to oppose the bishop, and to promote the cause of + paganism. These pontiffs acknowledged, in their turn, the supreme + jurisdiction of the metropolitans or high priests of the + province, who acted as the immediate vicegerents of the emperor + himself. A white robe was the ensign of their dignity; and these + new prelates were carefully selected from the most noble and + opulent families. By the influence of the magistrates, and of the + sacerdotal order, a great number of dutiful addresses were + obtained, particularly from the cities of Nicomedia, Antioch, and + Tyre, which artfully represented the well-known intentions of the + court as the general sense of the people; solicited the emperor + to consult the laws of justice rather than the dictates of his + clemency; expressed their abhorrence of the Christians, and + humbly prayed that those impious sectaries might at least be + excluded from the limits of their respective territories. The + answer of Maximin to the address which he obtained from the + citizens of Tyre is still extant. He praises their zeal and + devotion in terms of the highest satisfaction, descants on the + obstinate impiety of the Christians, and betrays, by the + readiness with which he consents to their banishment, that he + considered himself as receiving, rather than as conferring, an + obligation. The priests as well as the magistrates were empowered + to enforce the execution of his edicts, which were engraved on + tables of brass; and though it was recommended to them to avoid + the effusion of blood, the most cruel and ignominious punishments + were inflicted on the refractory Christians. 176 + + 176 (return) [ See Eusebius, l. viii. c. 14, l. ix. c. 2—8. + Lactantius de M. P. c. 36. These writers agree in representing + the arts of Maximin; but the former relates the execution of + several martyrs, while the latter expressly affirms, occidi + servos Dei vetuit. * Note: It is easy to reconcile them; it is + sufficient to quote the entire text of Lactantius: Nam cum + clementiam specie tenus profiteretur, occidi servos Dei vetuit, + debilitari jussit. Itaque confessoribus effodiebantur oculi, + amputabantur manus, nares vel auriculæ desecabantur. Hæc ille + moliens Constantini litteris deterretur. Dissimulavit ergo, et + tamen, si quis inciderit. mari occulte mergebatur. This detail of + torments inflicted on the Christians easily reconciles Lactantius + and Eusebius. Those who died in consequence of their tortures, + those who were plunged into the sea, might well pass for martyrs. + The mutilation of the words of Lactantius has alone given rise to + the apparent contradiction.—G. ——Eusebius. ch. vi., relates the + public martyrdom of the aged bishop of Emesa, with two others, + who were thrown to the wild beasts, the beheading of Peter, + bishop of Alexandria, with several others, and the death of + Lucian, presbyter of Antioch, who was carried to Numidia, and put + to death in prison. The contradiction is direct and undeniable, + for although Eusebius may have misplaced the former martyrdoms, + it may be doubted whether the authority of Maximin extended to + Nicomedia till after the death of Galerius. The last edict of + toleration issued by Maximin and published by Eusebius himself, + Eccl. Hist. ix. 9. confirms the statement of Lactantius.—M.] + + The Asiatic Christians had every thing to dread from the severity + of a bigoted monarch who prepared his measures of violence with + such deliberate policy. But a few months had scarcely elapsed + before the edicts published by the two Western emperors obliged + Maximin to suspend the prosecution of his designs: the civil war + which he so rashly undertook against Licinius employed all his + attention; and the defeat and death of Maximin soon delivered the + church from the last and most implacable of her enemies. 177 + + 177 (return) [ A few days before his death, he published a very + ample edict of toleration, in which he imputes all the severities + which the Christians suffered to the judges and governors, who + had misunderstood his intentions.See the edict of Eusebius, l. + ix. c. 10.] + + In this general view of the persecution, which was first + authorized by the edicts of Diocletian, I have purposely + refrained from describing the particular sufferings and deaths of + the Christian martyrs. It would have been an easy task, from the + history of Eusebius, from the declamations of Lactantius, and + from the most ancient acts, to collect a long series of horrid + and disgustful pictures, and to fill many pages with racks and + scourges, with iron hooks and red-hot beds, and with all the + variety of tortures which fire and steel, savage beasts, and more + savage executioners, could inflict upon the human body. These + melancholy scenes might be enlivened by a crowd of visions and + miracles destined either to delay the death, to celebrate the + triumph, or to discover the relics of those canonized saints who + suffered for the name of Christ. But I cannot determine what I + ought to transcribe, till I am satisfied how much I ought to + believe. The gravest of the ecclesiastical historians, Eusebius + himself, indirectly confesses, that he has related whatever might + redound to the glory, and that he has suppressed all that could + tend to the disgrace, of religion. 178 Such an acknowledgment + will naturally excite a suspicion that a writer who has so openly + violated one of the fundamental laws of history, has not paid a + very strict regard to the observance of the other; and the + suspicion will derive additional credit from the character of + Eusebius, 1781 which was less tinctured with credulity, and more + practised in the arts of courts, than that of almost any of his + contemporaries. On some particular occasions, when the + magistrates were exasperated by some personal motives of interest + or resentment, the rules of prudence, and perhaps of decency, to + overturn the altars, to pour out imprecations against the + emperors, or to strike the judge as he sat on his tribunal, it + may be presumed, that every mode of torture which cruelty could + invent, or constancy could endure, was exhausted on those devoted + victims. 179 Two circumstances, however, have been unwarily + mentioned, which insinuate that the general treatment of the + Christians, who had been apprehended by the officers of justice, + was less intolerable than it is usually imagined to have been. 1. + The confessors who were condemned to work in the mines were + permitted by the humanity or the negligence of their keepers to + build chapels, and freely to profess their religion in the midst + of those dreary habitations. 180 2. The bishops were obliged to + check and to censure the forward zeal of the Christians, who + voluntarily threw themselves into the hands of the magistrates. + Some of these were persons oppressed by poverty and debts, who + blindly sought to terminate a miserable existence by a glorious + death. Others were allured by the hope that a short confinement + would expiate the sins of a whole life; and others again were + actuated by the less honorable motive of deriving a plentiful + subsistence, and perhaps a considerable profit, from the alms + which the charity of the faithful bestowed on the prisoners. 181 + After the church had triumphed over all her enemies, the interest + as well as vanity of the captives prompted them to magnify the + merit of their respective sufferings. A convenient distance of + time or place gave an ample scope to the progress of fiction; and + the frequent instances which might be alleged of holy martyrs, + whose wounds had been instantly healed, whose strength had been + renewed, and whose lost members had miraculously been restored, + were extremely convenient for the purpose of removing every + difficulty, and of silencing every objection. The most + extravagant legends, as they conduced to the honor of the church, + were applauded by the credulous multitude, countenanced by the + power of the clergy, and attested by the suspicious evidence of + ecclesiastical history. + + 178 (return) [ Such is the _fair_ deduction from two remarkable + passages in Eusebius, l. viii. c. 2, and de Martyr. Palestin. c. + 12. The prudence of the historian has exposed his own character + to censure and suspicion. It was well known that he himself had + been thrown into prison; and it was suggested that he had + purchased his deliverance by some dishonorable compliance. The + reproach was urged in his lifetime, and even in his presence, at + the council of Tyre. See Tillemont, Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, + tom. viii. part i. p. 67.] + + 1781 (return) [ Historical criticism does not consist in + rejecting indiscriminately all the facts which do not agree with + a particular system, as Gibbon does in this chapter, in which, + except at the last extremity, he will not consent to believe a + martyrdom. Authorities are to be weighed, not excluded from + examination. Now, the Pagan historians justify in many places the + detail which have been transmitted to us by the historians of the + church, concerning the tortures endured by the Christians. Celsus + reproaches the Christians with holding their assemblies in + secret, on account of the fear inspired by their sufferings, “for + when you are arrested,” he says, “you are dragged to punishment: + and, before you are put to death, you have to suffer all kinds of + tortures.” Origen cont. Cels. l. i. ii. vi. viii. passing. + Libanius, the panegyrist of Julian, says, while speaking of the + Christians. “Those who followed a corrupt religion were in + continual apprehensions; they feared lest Julian should invent + tortures still more refined than those to which they had been + exposed before, as mutilation, burning alive, &c.; for the + emperors had inflicted upon them all these barbarities.” Lib. + Parent in Julian. ap. Fab. Bib. Græc. No. 9, No. 58, p. 283—G. + ——This sentence of Gibbon has given rise to several learned + dissertation: Möller, de Fide Eusebii Cæsar, &c., Havniæ, 1813. + Danzius, de Eusebio Cæs. Hist. Eccl. Scriptore, ejusque tide + historica recte æstimandâ, &c., Jenæ, 1815. Kestner Commentatio + de Eusebii Hist. Eccles. conditoris auctoritate et fide, &c. See + also Reuterdahl, de Fontibus Historiæ Eccles. Eusebianæ, Lond. + Goth., 1826. Gibbon’s inference may appear stronger than the text + will warrant, yet it is difficult, after reading the passages, to + dismiss all suspicion of partiality from the mind.—M.] + + 179 (return) [ The ancient, and perhaps authentic, account of the + sufferings of Tarachus and his companions, (Acta Sincera Ruinart, + p. 419—448,) is filled with strong expressions of resentment and + contempt, which could not fail of irritating the magistrate. The + behavior of Ædesius to Hierocles, præfect of Egypt, was still + more extraordinary. Euseb. de Martyr. Palestin. c. 5. * Note: M. + Guizot states, that the acts of Tarachus and his companion + contain nothing that appears dictated by violent feelings, + (sentiment outré.) Nothing can be more painful than the constant + attempt of Gibbon throughout this discussion, to find some flaw + in the virtue and heroism of the martyrs, some extenuation for + the cruelty of the persecutors. But truth must not be sacrificed + even to well-grounded moral indignation. Though the language of + these martyrs is in great part that of calm de fiance, of noble + firmness, yet there are many expressions which betray “resentment + and contempt.” “Children of Satan, worshippers of Devils,” is + their common appellation of the heathen. One of them calls the + judge another, one curses, and declares that he will curse the + Emperors, as pestilential and bloodthirsty tyrants, whom God will + soon visit in his wrath. On the other hand, though at first they + speak the milder language of persuasion, the cold barbarity of + the judges and officers might surely have called forth one + sentence of abhorrence from Gibbon. On the first unsatisfactory + answer, “Break his jaw,” is the order of the judge. They direct + and witness the most excruciating tortures; the people, as M. + Guizot observers, were so much revolted by the cruelty of Maximus + that when the martyrs appeared in the amphitheatre, fear seized + on all hearts, and general murmurs against the unjust judge rank + through the assembly. It is singular, at least, that Gibbon + should have quoted “as probably authentic,” acts so much + embellished with miracle as these of Tarachus are, particularly + towards the end.—M. * Note: Scarcely were the authorities + informed of this, than the president of the province, a man, says + Eusebius, harsh and cruel, banished the confessors, some to + Cyprus, others to different parts of Palestine, and ordered them + to be tormented by being set to the most painful labors. Four of + them, whom he required to abjure their faith and refused, were + burnt alive. Euseb. de Mart. Palest. c. xiii.—G. Two of these + were bishops; a fifth, Silvanus, bishop of Gaza, was the last + martyr; another, named John was blinded, but used to officiate, + and recite from memory long passages of the sacred writings—M.] + + 180 (return) [ Euseb. de Martyr. Palestin. c. 13.] + + 181 (return) [ Augustin. Collat. Carthagin. Dei, iii. c. 13, ap. + Tillanant, Mémoires Ecclésiastiques, tom. v. part i. p. 46. The + controversy with the Donatists, has reflected some, though + perhaps a partial, light on the history of the African church.] + + + + + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part VIII. + + + The vague descriptions of exile and imprisonment, of pain and + torture, are so easily exaggerated or softened by the pencil of + an artful orator, 1811 that we are naturally induced to inquire + into a fact of a more distinct and stubborn kind; the number of + persons who suffered death in consequence of the edicts published + by Diocletian, his associates, and his successors. The recent + legendaries record whole armies and cities, which were at once + swept away by the undistinguishing rage of persecution. The more + ancient writers content themselves with pouring out a liberal + effusion of loose and tragical invectives, without condescending + to ascertain the precise number of those persons who were + permitted to seal with their blood their belief of the gospel. + From the history of Eusebius, it may, however, be collected, that + only nine bishops were punished with death; and we are assured, + by his particular enumeration of the martyrs of Palestine, 182 + that no more than ninety-two Christians were entitled to that + honorable appellation. 1821 As we are unacquainted with the + degree of episcopal zeal and courage which prevailed at that + time, it is not in our power to draw any useful inferences from + the former of these facts: but the latter may serve to justify a + very important and probable conclusion. According to the + distribution of Roman provinces, Palestine may be considered as + the sixteenth part of the Eastern empire: 183 and since there + were some governors, who from a real or affected clemency had + preserved their hands unstained with the blood of the faithful, + 184 it is reasonable to believe, that the country which had given + birth to Christianity, produced at least the sixteenth part of + the martyrs who suffered death within the dominions of Galerius + and Maximin; the whole might consequently amount to about fifteen + hundred, a number which, if it is equally divided between the ten + years of the persecution, will allow an annual consumption of one + hundred and fifty martyrs. Allotting the same proportion to the + provinces of Italy, Africa, and perhaps Spain, where, at the end + of two or three years, the rigor of the penal laws was either + suspended or abolished, the multitude of Christians in the Roman + empire, on whom a capital punishment was inflicted by a judicia, + sentence, will be reduced to somewhat less than two thousand + persons. Since it cannot be doubted that the Christians were more + numerous, and their enemies more exasperated, in the time of + Diocletian, than they had ever been in any former persecution, + this probable and moderate computation may teach us to estimate + the number of primitive saints and martyrs who sacrificed their + lives for the important purpose of introducing Christianity into + the world. + + 1811 (return) [ Perhaps there never was an instance of an author + committing so deliberately the fault which he reprobates so + strongly in others. What is the dexterous management of the more + inartificial historians of Christianity, in exaggerating the + numbers of the martyrs, compared to the unfair address with which + Gibbon here quietly dismisses from the account all the horrible + and excruciating tortures which fell short of death? The reader + may refer to the xiith chapter (book viii.) of Eusebius for the + description and for the scenes of these tortures.—M.] + + 182 (return) [ Eusebius de Martyr. Palestin. c. 13. He closes his + narration by assuring us that these were the martyrdoms inflicted + in Palestine, during the _whole_ course of the persecution. The + 9th chapter of his viiith book, which relates to the province of + Thebais in Egypt, may seem to contradict our moderate + computation; but it will only lead us to admire the artful + management of the historian. Choosing for the scene of the most + exquisite cruelty the most remote and sequestered country of the + Roman empire, he relates that in Thebais from ten to one hundred + persons had frequently suffered martyrdom in the same day. But + when he proceeds to mention his own journey into Egypt, his + language insensibly becomes more cautious and moderate. Instead + of a large, but definite number, he speaks of many Christians, + and most artfully selects two ambiguous words, which may signify + either what he had seen, or what he had heard; either the + expectation, or the execution of the punishment. Having thus + provided a secure evasion, he commits the equivocal passage to + his readers and translators; justly conceiving that their piety + would induce them to prefer the most favorable sense. There was + perhaps some malice in the remark of Theodorus Metochita, that + all who, like Eusebius, had been conversant with the Egyptians, + delighted in an obscure and intricate style. (See Valesius ad + loc.)] + + 1821 (return) [ This calculation is made from the martyrs, of + whom Eusebius speaks by name; but he recognizes a much greater + number. Thus the ninth and tenth chapters of his work are + entitled, “Of Antoninus, Zebinus, Germanus, and other martyrs; of + Peter the monk. of Asclepius the Maroionite, and other martyrs.” + [Are these vague contents of chapters very good authority?—M.] + Speaking of those who suffered under Diocletian, he says, “I will + only relate the death of one of these, from which, the reader may + divine what befell the rest.” Hist. Eccl. viii. 6. [This relates + only to the martyrs in the royal household.—M.] Dodwell had made, + before Gibbon, this calculation and these objections; but Ruinart + (Act. Mart. Pref p. 27, _et seq_.) has answered him in a + peremptory manner: Nobis constat Eusebium in historia infinitos + passim martyres admisisse. quamvis revera paucorum nomina + recensuerit. Nec alium Eusebii interpretem quam ipsummet Eusebium + proferimus, qui (l. iii. c. 33) ait sub Trajano plurimosa ex + fidelibus martyrii certamen subiisse (l. v. init.) sub Antonino + et Vero innumerabiles prope martyres per universum orbem + enituisse affirmat. (L. vi. c. 1.) Severum persecutionem + concitasse refert, in qua per omnes ubique locorum Ecclesias, ab + athletis pro pietate certantibus, illustria confecta fuerunt + martyria. Sic de Decii, sic de Valeriani, persecutionibus + loquitur, quæ an Dodwelli faveant conjectionibus judicet æquus + lector. Even in the persecutions which Gibbon has represented as + much more mild than that of Diocletian, the number of martyrs + appears much greater than that to which he limits the martyrs of + the latter: and this number is attested by incontestable + monuments. I will quote but one example. We find among the + letters of St. Cyprian one from Lucianus to Celerinus, written + from the depth of a prison, in which Lucianus names seventeen of + his brethren dead, some in the quarries, some in the midst of + tortures some of starvation in prison. Jussi sumus (he proceeds) + secundum præ ceptum imperatoris, fame et siti necari, et reclusi + sumus in duabus cellis, ta ut nos afficerent fame et siti et + ignis vapore.—G.] + + 183 (return) [ When Palestine was divided into three, the + præfecture of the East contained forty-eight provinces. As the + ancient distinctions of nations were long since abolished, the + Romans distributed the provinces according to a general + proportion of their extent and opulence.] + + 184 (return) [ Ut gloriari possint nullam se innocentium + poremisse, nam et ipse audivi aloquos gloriantes, quia + administratio sua, in hac paris merit incruenta. Lactant. + Institur. Divin v. 11.] + + We shall conclude this chapter by a melancholy truth, which + obtrudes itself on the reluctant mind; that even admitting, + without hesitation or inquiry, all that history has recorded, or + devotion has feigned, on the subject of martyrdoms, it must still + be acknowledged, that the Christians, in the course of their + intestine dissensions, have inflicted far greater severities on + each other, than they had experienced from the zeal of infidels. + During the ages of ignorance which followed the subversion of the + Roman empire in the West, the bishops of the Imperial city + extended their dominion over the laity as well as clergy of the + Latin church. The fabric of superstition which they had erected, + and which might long have defied the feeble efforts of reason, + was at length assaulted by a crowd of daring fanatics, who from + the twelfth to the sixteenth century assumed the popular + character of reformers. The church of Rome defended by violence + the empire which she had acquired by fraud; a system of peace and + benevolence was soon disgraced by proscriptions, war, massacres, + and the institution of the holy office. And as the reformers were + animated by the love of civil as well as of religious freedom, + the Catholic princes connected their own interest with that of + the clergy, and enforced by fire and the sword the terrors of + spiritual censures. In the Netherlands alone, more than one + hundred thousand of the subjects of Charles V. are said to have + suffered by the hand of the executioner; and this extraordinary + number is attested by Grotius, 185 a man of genius and learning, + who preserved his moderation amidst the fury of contending sects, + and who composed the annals of his own age and country, at a time + when the invention of printing had facilitated the means of + intelligence, and increased the danger of detection. + + If we are obliged to submit our belief to the authority of + Grotius, it must be allowed, that the number of Protestants, who + were executed in a single province and a single reign, far + exceeded that of the primitive martyrs in the space of three + centuries, and of the Roman empire. But if the improbability of + the fact itself should prevail over the weight of evidence; if + Grotius should be convicted of exaggerating the merit and + sufferings of the Reformers; 186 we shall be naturally led to + inquire what confidence can be placed in the doubtful and + imperfect monuments of ancient credulity; what degree of credit + can be assigned to a courtly bishop, and a passionate declaimer, + 1861 who, under the protection of Constantine, enjoyed the + exclusive privilege of recording the persecutions inflicted on + the Christians by the vanquished rivals or disregarded + predecessors of their gracious sovereign. + + 185 (return) [ Grot. Annal. de Rebus Belgicis, l. i. p. 12, edit. + fol.] + + 186 (return) [ Fra Paola (Istoria del Concilio Tridentino, l. + iii.) reduces the number of the Belgic martyrs to 50,000. In + learning and moderation Fra Paola was not inferior to Grotius. + The priority of time gives some advantage to the evidence of the + former, which he loses, on the other hand, by the distance of + Venice from the Netherlands.] + + 1861 (return) [ Eusebius and the author of the Treatise de + Mortibus Persecutorum. It is deeply to be regretted that the + history of this period rest so much on the loose and, it must be + admitted, by no means scrupulous authority of Eusebius. + Ecclesiastical history is a solemn and melancholy lesson that the + best, even the most sacred, cause will eventually the least + departure from truth!—M.] + + + + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part I. + + Foundation Of Constantinople.—Political System Constantine, And + His Successors.—Military Discipline.—The Palace.—The Finances. + + + The unfortunate Licinius was the last rival who opposed the + greatness, and the last captive who adorned the triumph, of + Constantine. After a tranquil and prosperous reign, the conquerer + bequeathed to his family the inheritance of the Roman empire; a + new capital, a new policy, and a new religion; and the + innovations which he established have been embraced and + consecrated by succeeding generations. The age of the great + Constantine and his sons is filled with important events; but the + historian must be oppressed by their number and variety, unless + he diligently separates from each other the scenes which are + connected only by the order of time. He will describe the + political institutions that gave strength and stability to the + empire, before he proceeds to relate the wars and revolutions + which hastened its decline. He will adopt the division unknown to + the ancients of civil and ecclesiastical affairs: the victory of + the Christians, and their intestine discord, will supply copious + and distinct materials both for edification and for scandal. + + After the defeat and abdication of Licinius, his victorious rival + proceeded to lay the foundations of a city destined to reign in + future times, the mistress of the East, and to survive the empire + and religion of Constantine. The motives, whether of pride or of + policy, which first induced Diocletian to withdraw himself from + the ancient seat of government, had acquired additional weight by + the example of his successors, and the habits of forty years. + Rome was insensibly confounded with the dependent kingdoms which + had once acknowledged her supremacy; and the country of the + Cæsars was viewed with cold indifference by a martial prince, + born in the neighborhood of the Danube, educated in the courts + and armies of Asia, and invested with the purple by the legions + of Britain. The Italians, who had received Constantine as their + deliverer, submissively obeyed the edicts which he sometimes + condescended to address to the senate and people of Rome; but + they were seldom honored with the presence of their new + sovereign. During the vigor of his age, Constantine, according to + the various exigencies of peace and war, moved with slow dignity, + or with active diligence, along the frontiers of his extensive + dominions; and was always prepared to take the field either + against a foreign or a domestic enemy. But as he gradually + reached the summit of prosperity and the decline of life, he + began to meditate the design of fixing in a more permanent + station the strength as well as majesty of the throne. In the + choice of an advantageous situation, he preferred the confines of + Europe and Asia; to curb with a powerful arm the barbarians who + dwelt between the Danube and the Tanais; to watch with an eye of + jealousy the conduct of the Persian monarch, who indignantly + supported the yoke of an ignominious treaty. With these views, + Diocletian had selected and embellished the residence of + Nicomedia: but the memory of Diocletian was justly abhorred by + the protector of the church: and Constantine was not insensible + to the ambition of founding a city which might perpetuate the + glory of his own name. During the late operations of the war + against Licinius, he had sufficient opportunity to contemplate, + both as a soldier and as a statesman, the incomparable position + of Byzantium; and to observe how strongly it was guarded by + nature against a hostile attack, whilst it was accessible on + every side to the benefits of commercial intercourse. Many ages + before Constantine, one of the most judicious historians of + antiquity1 had described the advantages of a situation, from + whence a feeble colony of Greeks derived the command of the sea, + and the honors of a flourishing and independent republic. 2 + + 1 (return) [ Polybius, l. iv. p. 423, edit. Casaubon. He observes + that the peace of the Byzantines was frequently disturbed, and + the extent of their territory contracted, by the inroads of the + wild Thracians.] + + 2 (return) [ The navigator Byzas, who was styled the son of + Neptune, founded the city 656 years before the Christian æra. His + followers were drawn from Argos and Megara. Byzantium was + afterwards rebuild and fortified by the Spartan general + Pausanias. See Scaliger Animadvers. ad Euseb. p. 81. Ducange, + Constantinopolis, l. i part i. cap 15, 16. With regard to the + wars of the Byzantines against Philip, the Gauls, and the kings + of Bithynia, we should trust none but the ancient writers who + lived before the greatness of the Imperial city had excited a + spirit of flattery and fiction.] + + If we survey Byzantium in the extent which it acquired with the + august name of Constantinople, the figure of the Imperial city + may be represented under that of an unequal triangle. The obtuse + point, which advances towards the east and the shores of Asia, + meets and repels the waves of the Thracian Bosphorus. The + northern side of the city is bounded by the harbor; and the + southern is washed by the Propontis, or Sea of Marmara. The basis + of the triangle is opposed to the west, and terminates the + continent of Europe. But the admirable form and division of the + circumjacent land and water cannot, without a more ample + explanation, be clearly or sufficiently understood. The winding + channel through which the waters of the Euxine flow with a rapid + and incessant course towards the Mediterranean, received the + appellation of Bosphorus, a name not less celebrated in the + history, than in the fables, of antiquity. 3 A crowd of temples + and of votive altars, profusely scattered along its steep and + woody banks, attested the unskilfulness, the terrors, and the + devotion of the Grecian navigators, who, after the example of the + Argonauts, explored the dangers of the inhospitable Euxine. On + these banks tradition long preserved the memory of the palace of + Phineus, infested by the obscene harpies; 4 and of the sylvan + reign of Amycus, who defied the son of Leda to the combat of the + cestus. 5 The straits of the Bosphorus are terminated by the + Cyanean rocks, which, according to the description of the poets, + had once floated on the face of the waters; and were destined by + the gods to protect the entrance of the Euxine against the eye of + profane curiosity. 6 From the Cyanean rocks to the point and + harbor of Byzantium, the winding length of the Bosphorus extends + about sixteen miles, 7 and its most ordinary breadth may be + computed at about one mile and a half. The new castles of Europe + and Asia are constructed, on either continent, upon the + foundations of two celebrated temples, of Serapis and of Jupiter + Urius. The _old_ castles, a work of the Greek emperors, command + the narrowest part of the channel in a place where the opposite + banks advance within five hundred paces of each other. These + fortresses were destroyed and strengthened by Mahomet the Second, + when he meditated the siege of Constantinople: 8 but the Turkish + conqueror was most probably ignorant, that near two thousand + years before his reign, Darius had chosen the same situation to + connect the two continents by a bridge of boats. 9 At a small + distance from the old castles we discover the little town of + Chrysopolis, or Scutari, which may almost be considered as the + Asiatic suburb of Constantinople. The Bosphorus, as it begins to + open into the Propontis, passes between Byzantium and Chalcedon. + The latter of those cities was built by the Greeks, a few years + before the former; and the blindness of its founders, who + overlooked the superior advantages of the opposite coast, has + been stigmatized by a proverbial expression of contempt. 10 + + 3 (return) [ The Bosphorus has been very minutely described by + Dionysius of Byzantium, who lived in the time of Domitian, + (Hudson, Geograph Minor, tom. iii.,) and by Gilles or Gyllius, a + French traveller of the XVIth century. Tournefort (Lettre XV.) + seems to have used his own eyes, and the learning of Gyllius. Add + Von Hammer, Constantinopolis und der Bosphoros, 8vo.—M.] + + 4 (return) [ There are very few conjectures so happy as that of + Le Clere, (Bibliotehque Universelle, tom. i. p. 148,) who + supposes that the harpies were only locusts. The Syriac or + Phœnician name of those insects, their noisy flight, the stench + and devastation which they occasion, and the north wind which + drives them into the sea, all contribute to form the striking + resemblance.] + + 5 (return) [ The residence of Amycus was in Asia, between the old + and the new castles, at a place called Laurus Insana. That of + Phineus was in Europe, near the village of Mauromole and the + Black Sea. See Gyllius de Bosph. l. ii. c. 23. Tournefort, Lettre + XV.] + + 6 (return) [ The deception was occasioned by several pointed + rocks, alternately sovered and abandoned by the waves. At present + there are two small islands, one towards either shore; that of + Europe is distinguished by the column of Pompey.] + + 7 (return) [ The ancients computed one hundred and twenty stadia, + or fifteen Roman miles. They measured only from the new castles, + but they carried the straits as far as the town of Chalcedon.] + + 8 (return) [ Ducas. Hist. c. 34. Leunclavius Hist. Turcica + Mussulmanica, l. xv. p. 577. Under the Greek empire these castles + were used as state prisons, under the tremendous name of Lethe, + or towers of oblivion.] + + 9 (return) [ Darius engraved in Greek and Assyrian letters, on + two marble columns, the names of his subject nations, and the + amazing numbers of his land and sea forces. The Byzantines + afterwards transported these columns into the city, and used them + for the altars of their tutelar deities. Herodotus, l. iv. c. + 87.] + + 10 (return) [ Namque arctissimo inter Europam Asiamque divortio + Byzantium in extremâ Europâ posuere Greci, quibus, Pythium + Apollinem consulentibus ubi conderent urbem, redditum oraculum + est, quærerent sedem _cæcerum_ terris adversam. Ea ambage + Chalcedonii monstrabantur quod priores illuc advecti, prævisâ + locorum utilitate pejora legissent Tacit. Annal. xii. 63.] + + The harbor of Constantinople, which may be considered as an arm + of the Bosphorus, obtained, in a very remote period, the + denomination of the _Golden Horn_. The curve which it describes + might be compared to the horn of a stag, or as it should seem, + with more propriety, to that of an ox. 11 The epithet of _golden_ + was expressive of the riches which every wind wafted from the + most distant countries into the secure and capacious port of + Constantinople. The River Lycus, formed by the conflux of two + little streams, pours into the harbor a perpetual supply of fresh + water, which serves to cleanse the bottom, and to invite the + periodical shoals of fish to seek their retreat in that + convenient recess. As the vicissitudes of tides are scarcely felt + in those seas, the constant depth of the harbor allows goods to + be landed on the quays without the assistance of boats; and it + has been observed, that in many places the largest vessels may + rest their prows against the houses, while their sterns are + floating in the water. 12 From the mouth of the Lycus to that of + the harbor, this arm of the Bosphorus is more than seven miles in + length. The entrance is about five hundred yards broad, and a + strong chain could be occasionally drawn across it, to guard the + port and city from the attack of a hostile navy. 13 + + 11 (return) [ Strabo, l. vii. p. 492, [edit. Casaub.] Most of the + antlers are now broken off; or, to speak less figuratively, most + of the recesses of the harbor are filled up. See Gill. de + Bosphoro Thracio, l. i. c. 5.] + + 12 (return) [ Procopius de Ædificiis, l. i. c. 5. His description + is confirmed by modern travellers. See Thevenot, part i. l. i. c. + 15. Tournefort, Lettre XII. Niebuhr, Voyage d’Arabie, p. 22.] + + 13 (return) [ See Ducange, C. P. l. i. part i. c. 16, and his + Observations sur Villehardouin, p. 289. The chain was drawn from + the Acropolis near the modern Kiosk, to the tower of Galata; and + was supported at convenient distances by large wooden piles.] + + Between the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, the shores of Europe + and Asia, receding on either side, enclose the sea of Marmara, + which was known to the ancients by the denomination of Propontis. + The navigation from the issue of the Bosphorus to the entrance of + the Hellespont is about one hundred and twenty miles. + + Those who steer their westward course through the middle of the + Propontis, may at once descry the high lands of Thrace and + Bithynia, and never lose sight of the lofty summit of Mount + Olympus, covered with eternal snows. 14 They leave on the left a + deep gulf, at the bottom of which Nicomedia was seated, the + Imperial residence of Diocletian; and they pass the small islands + of Cyzicus and Proconnesus before they cast anchor at Gallipoli; + where the sea, which separates Asia from Europe, is again + contracted into a narrow channel. + + 14 (return) [ Thevenot (Voyages au Levant, part i. l. i. c. 14) + contracts the measure to 125 small Greek miles. Belon + (Observations, l. ii. c. 1.) gives a good description of the + Propontis, but contents himself with the vague expression of one + day and one night’s sail. When Sandy’s (Travels, p. 21) talks of + 150 furlongs in length, as well as breadth we can only suppose + some mistake of the press in the text of that judicious + traveller.] + + The geographers who, with the most skilful accuracy, have + surveyed the form and extent of the Hellespont, assign about + sixty miles for the winding course, and about three miles for the + ordinary breadth of those celebrated straits. 15 But the + narrowest part of the channel is found to the northward of the + old Turkish castles between the cities of Sestus and Abydus. It + was here that the adventurous Leander braved the passage of the + flood for the possession of his mistress. 16 It was here + likewise, in a place where the distance between the opposite + banks cannot exceed five hundred paces, that Xerxes imposed a + stupendous bridge of boats, for the purpose of transporting into + Europe a hundred and seventy myriads of barbarians. 17 A sea + contracted within such narrow limits may seem but ill to deserve + the singular epithet of _broad_, which Homer, as well as Orpheus, + has frequently bestowed on the Hellespont. 1711 But our ideas of + greatness are of a relative nature: the traveller, and especially + the poet, who sailed along the Hellespont, who pursued the + windings of the stream, and contemplated the rural scenery, which + appeared on every side to terminate the prospect, insensibly lost + the remembrance of the sea; and his fancy painted those + celebrated straits, with all the attributes of a mighty river + flowing with a swift current, in the midst of a woody and inland + country, and at length, through a wide mouth, discharging itself + into the Ægean or Archipelago. 18 Ancient Troy, 19 seated on a an + eminence at the foot of Mount Ida, overlooked the mouth of the + Hellespont, which scarcely received an accession of waters from + the tribute of those immortal rivulets the Simois and Scamander. + The Grecian camp had stretched twelve miles along the shore from + the Sigæan to the Rhætean promontory; and the flanks of the army + were guarded by the bravest chiefs who fought under the banners + of Agamemnon. The first of those promontories was occupied by + Achilles with his invincible myrmidons, and the dauntless Ajax + pitched his tents on the other. After Ajax had fallen a sacrifice + to his disappointed pride, and to the ingratitude of the Greeks, + his sepulchre was erected on the ground where he had defended the + navy against the rage of Jove and of Hector; and the citizens of + the rising town of Rhæteum celebrated his memory with divine + honors. 20 Before Constantine gave a just preference to the + situation of Byzantium, he had conceived the design of erecting + the seat of empire on this celebrated spot, from whence the + Romans derived their fabulous origin. The extensive plain which + lies below ancient Troy, towards the Rhætean promontory and the + tomb of Ajax, was first chosen for his new capital; and though + the undertaking was soon relinquished the stately remains of + unfinished walls and towers attracted the notice of all who + sailed through the straits of the Hellespont. 21 + + 15 (return) [ See an admirable dissertation of M. d’Anville upon + the Hellespont or Dardanelles, in the Mémoires tom. xxviii. p. + 318—346. Yet even that ingenious geographer is too fond of + supposing new, and perhaps imaginary _measures_, for the purpose + of rendering ancient writers as accurate as himself. The stadia + employed by Herodotus in the description of the Euxine, the + Bosphorus, &c., (l. iv. c. 85,) must undoubtedly be all of the + same species; but it seems impossible to reconcile them either + with truth or with each other.] + + 16 (return) [ The oblique distance between Sestus and Abydus was + thirty stadia. The improbable tale of Hero and Leander is exposed + by M. Mahudel, but is defended on the authority of poets and + medals by M. de la Nauze. See the Académie des Inscriptions, tom. + vii. Hist. p. 74. elem. p. 240. Note: The practical illustration + of the possibility of Leander’s feat by Lord Byron and other + English swimmers is too well known to need particularly + reference—M.] + + 17 (return) [ See the seventh book of Herodotus, who has erected + an elegant trophy to his own fame and to that of his country. The + review appears to have been made with tolerable accuracy; but the + vanity, first of the Persians, and afterwards of the Greeks, was + interested to magnify the armament and the victory. I should much + doubt whether the _invaders_ have ever outnumbered the _men_ of + any country which they attacked.] + + 1711 (return) [ Gibbon does not allow greater width between the + two nearest points of the shores of the Hellespont than between + those of the Bosphorus; yet all the ancient writers speak of the + Hellespontic strait as broader than the other: they agree in + giving it seven stadia in its narrowest width, (Herod. in Melp. + c. 85. Polym. c. 34. Strabo, p. 591. Plin. iv. c. 12.) which make + 875 paces. It is singular that Gibbon, who in the fifteenth note + of this chapter reproaches d’Anville with being fond of supposing + new and perhaps imaginary measures, has here adopted the peculiar + measurement which d’Anville has assigned to the stadium. This + great geographer believes that the ancients had a stadium of + fifty-one toises, and it is that which he applies to the walls of + Babylon. Now, seven of these stadia are equal to about 500 paces, + 7 stadia = 2142 feet: 500 paces = 2135 feet 5 inches.—G. See + Rennell, Geog. of Herod. p. 121. Add Ukert, Geographie der + Griechen und Romer, v. i. p. 2, 71.—M.] + + 18 (return) [ See Wood’s Observations on Homer, p. 320. I have, + with pleasure, selected this remark from an author who in general + seems to have disappointed the expectation of the public as a + critic, and still more as a traveller. He had visited the banks + of the Hellespont; and had read Strabo; he ought to have + consulted the Roman itineraries. How was it possible for him to + confound Ilium and Alexandria Troas, (Observations, p. 340, 341,) + two cities which were sixteen miles distant from each other? * + Note: Compare Walpole’s Memoirs on Turkey, v. i. p. 101. Dr. + Clarke adopted Mr. Walpole’s interpretation of the salt + Hellespont. But the old interpretation is more graphic and + Homeric. Clarke’s Travels, ii. 70.—M.] + + 19 (return) [ Demetrius of Scepsis wrote sixty books on thirty + lines of Homer’s catalogue. The XIIIth Book of Strabo is + sufficient for _our_ curiosity.] + + 20 (return) [ Strabo, l. xiii. p. 595, [890, edit. Casaub.] The + disposition of the ships, which were drawn upon dry land, and the + posts of Ajax and Achilles, are very clearly described by Homer. + See Iliad, ix. 220.] + + 21 (return) [ Zosim. l. ii. [c. 30,] p. 105. Sozomen, l. ii. c. + 3. Theophanes, p. 18. Nicephorus Callistus, l. vii. p. 48. + Zonaras, tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 6. Zosimus places the new city + between Ilium and Alexandria, but this apparent difference may be + reconciled by the large extent of its circumference. Before the + foundation of Constantinople, Thessalonica is mentioned by + Cedrenus, (p. 283,) and Sardica by Zonaras, as the intended + capital. They both suppose with very little probability, that the + emperor, if he had not been prevented by a prodigy, would have + repeated the mistake of the _blind_ Chalcedonians.] + + We are at present qualified to view the advantageous position of + Constantinople; which appears to have been formed by nature for + the centre and capital of a great monarchy. Situated in the + forty-first degree of latitude, the Imperial city commanded, from + her seven hills, 22 the opposite shores of Europe and Asia; the + climate was healthy and temperate, the soil fertile, the harbor + secure and capacious; and the approach on the side of the + continent was of small extent and easy defence. The Bosphorus and + the Hellespont may be considered as the two gates of + Constantinople; and the prince who possessed those important + passages could always shut them against a naval enemy, and open + them to the fleets of commerce. The preservation of the eastern + provinces may, in some degree, be ascribed to the policy of + Constantine, as the barbarians of the Euxine, who in the + preceding age had poured their armaments into the heart of the + Mediterranean, soon desisted from the exercise of piracy, and + despaired of forcing this insurmountable barrier. When the gates + of the Hellespont and Bosphorus were shut, the capital still + enjoyed within their spacious enclosure every production which + could supply the wants, or gratify the luxury, of its numerous + inhabitants. The sea-coasts of Thrace and Bithynia, which + languish under the weight of Turkish oppression, still exhibit a + rich prospect of vineyards, of gardens, and of plentiful + harvests; and the Propontis has ever been renowned for an + inexhaustible store of the most exquisite fish, that are taken in + their stated seasons, without skill, and almost without labor. 23 + But when the passages of the straits were thrown open for trade, + they alternately admitted the natural and artificial riches of + the north and south, of the Euxine, and of the Mediterranean. + Whatever rude commodities were collected in the forests of + Germany and Scythia, and far as the sources of the Tanais and the + Borysthenes; whatsoever was manufactured by the skill of Europe + or Asia; the corn of Egypt, and the gems and spices of the + farthest India, were brought by the varying winds into the port + of Constantinople, which for many ages attracted the commerce of + the ancient world. 24 + + [See Basilica Of Constantinople] + + 22 (return) [ Pocock’s Description of the East, vol. ii. part ii. + p. 127. His plan of the seven hills is clear and accurate. That + traveller is seldom unsatisfactory.] + + 23 (return) [ See Belon, Observations, c. 72—76. Among a variety + of different species, the Pelamides, a sort of Thunnies, were the + most celebrated. We may learn from Polybius, Strabo, and Tacitus, + that the profits of the fishery constituted the principal revenue + of Byzantium.] + + 24 (return) [ See the eloquent description of Busbequius, + epistol. i. p. 64. Est in Europa; habet in conspectu Asiam, + Egyptum. Africamque a dextrâ: quæ tametsi contiguæ non sunt, + maris tamen navigandique commoditate veluti junguntur. A sinistra + vero Pontus est Euxinus, &c.] + + The prospect of beauty, of safety, and of wealth, united in a + single spot, was sufficient to justify the choice of Constantine. + But as some decent mixture of prodigy and fable has, in every + age, been supposed to reflect a becoming majesty on the origin of + great cities, 25 the emperor was desirous of ascribing his + resolution, not so much to the uncertain counsels of human + policy, as to the infallible and eternal decrees of divine + wisdom. In one of his laws he has been careful to instruct + posterity, that in obedience to the commands of God, he laid the + everlasting foundations of Constantinople: 26 and though he has + not condescended to relate in what manner the celestial + inspiration was communicated to his mind, the defect of his + modest silence has been liberally supplied by the ingenuity of + succeeding writers; who describe the nocturnal vision which + appeared to the fancy of Constantine, as he slept within the + walls of Byzantium. The tutelar genius of the city, a venerable + matron sinking under the weight of years and infirmities, was + suddenly transformed into a blooming maid, whom his own hands + adorned with all the symbols of Imperial greatness. 27 The + monarch awoke, interpreted the auspicious omen, and obeyed, + without hesitation, the will of Heaven. The day which gave birth + to a city or colony was celebrated by the Romans with such + ceremonies as had been ordained by a generous superstition; 28 + and though Constantine might omit some rites which savored too + strongly of their Pagan origin, yet he was anxious to leave a + deep impression of hope and respect on the minds of the + spectators. On foot, with a lance in his hand, the emperor + himself led the solemn procession; and directed the line, which + was traced as the boundary of the destined capital: till the + growing circumference was observed with astonishment by the + assistants, who, at length, ventured to observe, that he had + already exceeded the most ample measure of a great city. “I shall + still advance,” replied Constantine, “till He, the invisible + guide who marches before me, thinks proper to stop.” 29 Without + presuming to investigate the nature or motives of this + extraordinary conductor, we shall content ourselves with the more + humble task of describing the extent and limits of + Constantinople. 30 + + 25 (return) [ Datur hæc venia antiquitati, ut miscendo humana + divinis, primordia urbium augustiora faciat. T. Liv. in proœm.] + + 26 (return) [ He says in one of his laws, pro commoditate urbis + quam æterno nomine, jubente Deo, donavimus. Cod. Theodos. l. + xiii. tit. v. leg. 7.] + + 27 (return) [ The Greeks, Theophanes, Cedrenus, and the author of + the Alexandrian Chronicle, confine themselves to vague and + general expressions. For a more particular account of the vision, + we are obliged to have recourse to such Latin writers as William + of Malmesbury. See Ducange, C. P. l. i. p. 24, 25.] + + 28 (return) [ See Plutarch in Romul. tom. i. p. 49, edit. Bryan. + Among other ceremonies, a large hole, which had been dug for that + purpose, was filled up with handfuls of earth, which each of the + settlers brought from the place of his birth, and thus adopted + his new country.] + + 29 (return) [ Philostorgius, l. ii. c. 9. This incident, though + borrowed from a suspected writer, is characteristic and + probable.] + + 30 (return) [ See in the Mémoires de l’Académie, tom. xxxv p. + 747-758, a dissertation of M. d’Anville on the extent of + Constantinople. He takes the plan inserted in the Imperium + Orientale of Banduri as the most complete; but, by a series of + very nice observations, he reduced the extravagant proportion of + the scale, and instead of 9500, determines the circumference of + the city as consisting of about 7800 French _toises_.] + + In the actual state of the city, the palace and gardens of the + Seraglio occupy the eastern promontory, the first of the seven + hills, and cover about one hundred and fifty acres of our own + measure. The seat of Turkish jealousy and despotism is erected on + the foundations of a Grecian republic; but it may be supposed + that the Byzantines were tempted by the conveniency of the harbor + to extend their habitations on that side beyond the modern limits + of the Seraglio. The new walls of Constantine stretched from the + port to the Propontis across the enlarged breadth of the + triangle, at the distance of fifteen stadia from the ancient + fortification; and with the city of Byzantium they enclosed five + of the seven hills, which, to the eyes of those who approach + Constantinople, appear to rise above each other in beautiful + order. 31 About a century after the death of the founder, the new + buildings, extending on one side up the harbor, and on the other + along the Propontis, already covered the narrow ridge of the + sixth, and the broad summit of the seventh hill. The necessity of + protecting those suburbs from the incessant inroads of the + barbarians engaged the younger Theodosius to surround his capital + with an adequate and permanent enclosure of walls. 32 From the + eastern promontory to the golden gate, the extreme length of + Constantinople was about three Roman miles; 33 the circumference + measured between ten and eleven; and the surface might be + computed as equal to about two thousand English acres. It is + impossible to justify the vain and credulous exaggerations of + modern travellers, who have sometimes stretched the limits of + Constantinople over the adjacent villages of the European, and + even of the Asiatic coast. 34 But the suburbs of Pera and Galata, + though situate beyond the harbor, may deserve to be considered as + a part of the city; 35 and this addition may perhaps authorize + the measure of a Byzantine historian, who assigns sixteen Greek + (about fourteen Roman) miles for the circumference of his native + city. 36 Such an extent may not seem unworthy of an Imperial + residence. Yet Constantinople must yield to Babylon and Thebes, + 37 to ancient Rome, to London, and even to Paris. 38 + + 31 (return) [ Codinus, Antiquitat. Const. p. 12. He assigns the + church of St. Anthony as the boundary on the side of the harbor. + It is mentioned in Ducange, l. iv. c. 6; but I have tried, + without success, to discover the exact place where it was + situated.] + + 32 (return) [ The new wall of Theodosius was constructed in the + year 413. In 447 it was thrown down by an earthquake, and rebuilt + in three months by the diligence of the præfect Cyrus. The suburb + of the Blanchernæ was first taken into the city in the reign of + Heraclius Ducange, Const. l. i. c. 10, 11.] + + 33 (return) [ The measurement is expressed in the Notitia by + 14,075 feet. It is reasonable to suppose that these were Greek + feet, the proportion of which has been ingeniously determined by + M. d’Anville. He compares the 180 feet with 78 Hashemite cubits, + which in different writers are assigned for the heights of St. + Sophia. Each of these cubits was equal to 27 French inches.] + + 34 (return) [ The accurate Thevenot (l. i. c. 15) walked in one + hour and three quarters round two of the sides of the triangle, + from the Kiosk of the Seraglio to the seven towers. D’Anville + examines with care, and receives with confidence, this decisive + testimony, which gives a circumference of ten or twelve miles. + The extravagant computation of Tournefort (Lettre XI) of + thirty-tour or thirty miles, without including Scutari, is a + strange departure from his usual character.] + + 35 (return) [ The sycæ, or fig-trees, formed the thirteenth + region, and were very much embellished by Justinian. It has since + borne the names of Pera and Galata. The etymology of the former + is obvious; that of the latter is unknown. See Ducange, Const. l. + i. c. 22, and Gyllius de Byzant. l. iv. c. 10.] + + 36 (return) [ One hundred and eleven stadia, which may be + translated into modern Greek miles each of seven stadia, or 660, + sometimes only 600 French toises. See D’Anville, Mesures + Itineraires, p. 53.] + + 37 (return) [ When the ancient texts, which describe the size of + Babylon and Thebes, are settled, the exaggerations reduced, and + the measures ascertained, we find that those famous cities filled + the great but not incredible circumference of about twenty-five + or thirty miles. Compare D’Anville, Mém. de l’Académie, tom. + xxviii. p. 235, with his Description de l’Egypte, p. 201, 202.] + + 38 (return) [ If we divide Constantinople and Paris into equal + squares of 50 French _toises_, the former contains 850, and the + latter 1160, of those divisions.] + + + + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part II. + + + The master of the Roman world, who aspired to erect an eternal + monument of the glories of his reign could employ in the + prosecution of that great work, the wealth, the labor, and all + that yet remained of the genius of obedient millions. Some + estimate may be formed of the expense bestowed with Imperial + liberality on the foundation of Constantinople, by the allowance + of about two millions five hundred thousand pounds for the + construction of the walls, the porticos, and the aqueducts. 39 + The forests that overshadowed the shores of the Euxine, and the + celebrated quarries of white marble in the little island of + Proconnesus, supplied an inexhaustible stock of materials, ready + to be conveyed, by the convenience of a short water carriage, to + the harbor of Byzantium. 40 A multitude of laborers and + artificers urged the conclusion of the work with incessant toil: + but the impatience of Constantine soon discovered, that, in the + decline of the arts, the skill as well as numbers of his + architects bore a very unequal proportion to the greatness of his + designs. The magistrates of the most distant provinces were + therefore directed to institute schools, to appoint professors, + and by the hopes of rewards and privileges, to engage in the + study and practice of architecture a sufficient number of + ingenious youths, who had received a liberal education. 41 The + buildings of the new city were executed by such artificers as the + reign of Constantine could afford; but they were decorated by the + hands of the most celebrated masters of the age of Pericles and + Alexander. To revive the genius of Phidias and Lysippus, + surpassed indeed the power of a Roman emperor; but the immortal + productions which they had bequeathed to posterity were exposed + without defence to the rapacious vanity of a despot. By his + commands the cities of Greece and Asia were despoiled of their + most valuable ornaments. 42 The trophies of memorable wars, the + objects of religious veneration, the most finished statues of the + gods and heroes, of the sages and poets, of ancient times, + contributed to the splendid triumph of Constantinople; and gave + occasion to the remark of the historian Cedrenus, 43 who + observes, with some enthusiasm, that nothing seemed wanting + except the souls of the illustrious men whom these admirable + monuments were intended to represent. But it is not in the city + of Constantine, nor in the declining period of an empire, when + the human mind was depressed by civil and religious slavery, that + we should seek for the souls of Homer and of Demosthenes. + + 39 (return) [ Six hundred centenaries, or sixty thousand pounds’ + weight of gold. This sum is taken from Codinus, Antiquit. Const. + p. 11; but unless that contemptible author had derived his + information from some purer sources, he would probably have been + unacquainted with so obsolete a mode of reckoning.] + + 40 (return) [ For the forests of the Black Sea, consult + Tournefort, Lettre XVI. for the marble quarries of Proconnesus, + see Strabo, l. xiii. p. 588, (881, edit. Casaub.) The latter had + already furnished the materials of the stately buildings of + Cyzicus.] + + 41 (return) [ See the Codex Theodos. l. xiii. tit. iv. leg. 1. + This law is dated in the year 334, and was addressed to the + præfect of Italy, whose jurisdiction extended over Africa. The + commentary of Godefroy on the whole title well deserves to be + consulted.] + + 42 (return) [ Constantinopolis dedicatur pœne omnium urbium + nuditate. Hieronym. Chron. p. 181. See Codinus, p. 8, 9. The + author of the Antiquitat. Const. l. iii. (apud Banduri Imp. + Orient. tom. i. p. 41) enumerates Rome, Sicily, Antioch, Athens, + and a long list of other cities. The provinces of Greece and Asia + Minor may be supposed to have yielded the richest booty.] + + 43 (return) [ Hist. Compend. p. 369. He describes the statue, or + rather bust, of Homer with a degree of taste which plainly + indicates that Cadrenus copied the style of a more fortunate + age.] + + During the siege of Byzantium, the conqueror had pitched his tent + on the commanding eminence of the second hill. To perpetuate the + memory of his success, he chose the same advantageous position + for the principal Forum; 44 which appears to have been of a + circular, or rather elliptical form. The two opposite entrances + formed triumphal arches; the porticos, which enclosed it on every + side, were filled with statues; and the centre of the Forum was + occupied by a lofty column, of which a mutilated fragment is now + degraded by the appellation of the _burnt pillar_. This column + was erected on a pedestal of white marble twenty feet high; and + was composed of ten pieces of porphyry, each of which measured + about ten feet in height, and about thirty-three in + circumference. 45 On the summit of the pillar, above one hundred + and twenty feet from the ground, stood the colossal statue of + Apollo. It was a bronze, had been transported either from Athens + or from a town of Phrygia, and was supposed to be the work of + Phidias. The artist had represented the god of day, or, as it was + afterwards interpreted, the emperor Constantine himself, with a + sceptre in his right hand, the globe of the world in his left, + and a crown of rays glittering on his head. 46 The Circus, or + Hippodrome, was a stately building about four hundred paces in + length, and one hundred in breadth. 47 The space between the two + _metæ_ or goals were filled with statues and obelisks; and we may + still remark a very singular fragment of antiquity; the bodies of + three serpents, twisted into one pillar of brass. Their triple + heads had once supported the golden tripod which, after the + defeat of Xerxes, was consecrated in the temple of Delphi by the + victorious Greeks. 48 The beauty of the Hippodrome has been long + since defaced by the rude hands of the Turkish conquerors; 4811 + but, under the similar appellation of Atmeidan, it still serves + as a place of exercise for their horses. From the throne, whence + the emperor viewed the Circensian games, a winding staircase 49 + descended to the palace; a magnificent edifice, which scarcely + yielded to the residence of Rome itself, and which, together with + the dependent courts, gardens, and porticos, covered a + considerable extent of ground upon the banks of the Propontis + between the Hippodrome and the church of St. Sophia. 50 We might + likewise celebrate the baths, which still retained the name of + Zeuxippus, after they had been enriched, by the munificence of + Constantine, with lofty columns, various marbles, and above + threescore statues of bronze. 51 But we should deviate from the + design of this history, if we attempted minutely to describe the + different buildings or quarters of the city. It may be sufficient + to observe, that whatever could adorn the dignity of a great + capital, or contribute to the benefit or pleasure of its numerous + inhabitants, was contained within the walls of Constantinople. A + particular description, composed about a century after its + foundation, enumerates a capitol or school of learning, a circus, + two theatres, eight public, and one hundred and fifty-three + private baths, fifty-two porticos, five granaries, eight + aqueducts or reservoirs of water, four spacious halls for the + meetings of the senate or courts of justice, fourteen churches, + fourteen palaces, and four thousand three hundred and + eighty-eight houses, which, for their size or beauty, deserved to + be distinguished from the multitude of plebeian inhabitants. 52 + + 44 (return) [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 106. Chron. Alexandrin. vel + Paschal. p. 284, Ducange, Const. l. i. c. 24. Even the last of + those writers seems to confound the Forum of Constantine with the + Augusteum, or court of the palace. I am not satisfied whether I + have properly distinguished what belongs to the one and the + other.] + + 45 (return) [ The most tolerable account of this column is given + by Pocock. Description of the East, vol. ii. part ii. p. 131. But + it is still in many instances perplexed and unsatisfactory.] + + 46 (return) [ Ducange, Const. l. i. c. 24, p. 76, and his notes + ad Alexiad. p. 382. The statue of Constantine or Apollo was + thrown down under the reign of Alexius Comnenus. * Note: On this + column (says M. von Hammer) Constantine, with singular + shamelessness, placed his own statue with the attributes of + Apollo and Christ. He substituted the nails of the Passion for + the rays of the sun. Such is the direct testimony of the author + of the Antiquit. Constantinop. apud Banduri. Constantine was + replaced by the “great and religious” Julian, Julian, by + Theodosius. A. D. 1412, the key stone was loosened by an + earthquake. The statue fell in the reign of Alexius Comnenus, and + was replaced by the cross. The Palladium was said to be buried + under the pillar. Von Hammer, Constantinopolis und der Bosporos, + i. 162.—M.] + + 47 (return) [ Tournefort (Lettre XII.) computes the Atmeidan at + four hundred paces. If he means geometrical paces of five feet + each, it was three hundred _toises_ in length, about forty more + than the great circus of Rome. See D’Anville, Mesures + Itineraires, p. 73.] + + 48 (return) [ The guardians of the most holy relics would rejoice + if they were able to produce such a chain of evidence as may be + alleged on this occasion. See Banduri ad Antiquitat. Const. p. + 668. Gyllius de Byzant. l. ii. c. 13. 1. The original + consecration of the tripod and pillar in the temple of Delphi may + be proved from Herodotus and Pausanias. 2. The Pagan Zosimus + agrees with the three ecclesiastical historians, Eusebius, + Socrates, and Sozomen, that the sacred ornaments of the temple of + Delphi were removed to Constantinople by the order of + Constantine; and among these the serpentine pillar of the + Hippodrome is particularly mentioned. 3. All the European + travellers who have visited Constantinople, from Buondelmonte to + Pocock, describe it in the same place, and almost in the same + manner; the differences between them are occasioned only by the + injuries which it has sustained from the Turks. Mahomet the + Second broke the under jaw of one of the serpents with a stroke + of his battle axe Thevenot, l. i. c. 17. * Note: See note 75, ch. + lxviii. for Dr. Clarke’s rejection of Thevenot’s authority. Von + Hammer, however, repeats the story of Thevenot without + questioning its authenticity.—M.] + + 4811 (return) [ In 1808 the Janizaries revolted against the + vizier Mustapha Baisactar, who wished to introduce a new system + of military organization, besieged the quarter of the Hippodrome, + in which stood the palace of the viziers, and the Hippodrome was + consumed in the conflagration.—G.] + + 49 (return) [ The Latin name _Cochlea_ was adopted by the Greeks, + and very frequently occurs in the Byzantine history. Ducange, + Const. i. c. l, p. 104.] + + 50 (return) [ There are three topographical points which indicate + the situation of the palace. 1. The staircase which connected it + with the Hippodrome or Atmeidan. 2. A small artificial port on + the Propontis, from whence there was an easy ascent, by a flight + of marble steps, to the gardens of the palace. 3. The Augusteum + was a spacious court, one side of which was occupied by the front + of the palace, and another by the church of St. Sophia.] + + 51 (return) [ Zeuxippus was an epithet of Jupiter, and the baths + were a part of old Byzantium. The difficulty of assigning their + true situation has not been felt by Ducange. History seems to + connect them with St. Sophia and the palace; but the original + plan inserted in Banduri places them on the other side of the + city, near the harbor. For their beauties, see Chron. Paschal. p. + 285, and Gyllius de Byzant. l. ii. c. 7. Christodorus (see + Antiquitat. Const. l. vii.) composed inscriptions in verse for + each of the statues. He was a Theban poet in genius as well as in + birth:—Bæotum in crasso jurares aëre natum. * Note: Yet, for his + age, the description of the statues of Hecuba and of Homer are by + no means without merit. See Antholog. Palat. (edit. Jacobs) i. + 37—M.] + + 52 (return) [ See the Notitia. Rome only reckoned 1780 large + houses, _domus;_ but the word must have had a more dignified + signification. No _insulæ_ are mentioned at Constantinople. The + old capital consisted of 42 streets, the new of 322.] + + The populousness of his favored city was the next and most + serious object of the attention of its founder. In the dark ages + which succeeded the translation of the empire, the remote and the + immediate consequences of that memorable event were strangely + confounded by the vanity of the Greeks and the credulity of the + Latins. 53 It was asserted, and believed, that all the noble + families of Rome, the senate, and the equestrian order, with + their innumerable attendants, had followed their emperor to the + banks of the Propontis; that a spurious race of strangers and + plebeians was left to possess the solitude of the ancient + capital; and that the lands of Italy, long since converted into + gardens, were at once deprived of cultivation and inhabitants. 54 + In the course of this history, such exaggerations will be reduced + to their just value: yet, since the growth of Constantinople + cannot be ascribed to the general increase of mankind and of + industry, it must be admitted that this artificial colony was + raised at the expense of the ancient cities of the empire. Many + opulent senators of Rome, and of the eastern provinces, were + probably invited by Constantine to adopt for their country the + fortunate spot, which he had chosen for his own residence. The + invitations of a master are scarcely to be distinguished from + commands; and the liberality of the emperor obtained a ready and + cheerful obedience. He bestowed on his favorites the palaces + which he had built in the several quarters of the city, assigned + them lands and pensions for the support of their dignity, 55 and + alienated the demesnes of Pontus and Asia to grant hereditary + estates by the easy tenure of maintaining a house in the capital. + 56 But these encouragements and obligations soon became + superfluous, and were gradually abolished. Wherever the seat of + government is fixed, a considerable part of the public revenue + will be expended by the prince himself, by his ministers, by the + officers of justice, and by the domestics of the palace. The most + wealthy of the provincials will be attracted by the powerful + motives of interest and duty, of amusement and curiosity. A third + and more numerous class of inhabitants will insensibly be formed, + of servants, of artificers, and of merchants, who derive their + subsistence from their own labor, and from the wants or luxury of + the superior ranks. In less than a century, Constantinople + disputed with Rome itself the preëminence of riches and numbers. + New piles of buildings, crowded together with too little regard + to health or convenience, scarcely allowed the intervals of + narrow streets for the perpetual throng of men, of horses, and of + carriages. The allotted space of ground was insufficient to + contain the increasing people; and the additional foundations, + which, on either side, were advanced into the sea, might alone + have composed a very considerable city. 57 + + 53 (return) [ Liutprand, Legatio ad Imp. Nicephornm, p. 153. The + modern Greeks have strangely disfigured the antiquities of + Constantinople. We might excuse the errors of the Turkish or + Arabian writers; but it is somewhat astonishing, that the Greeks, + who had access to the authentic materials preserved in their own + language, should prefer fiction to truth, and loose tradition to + genuine history. In a single page of Codinus we may detect twelve + unpardonable mistakes; the reconciliation of Severus and Niger, + the marriage of their son and daughter, the siege of Byzantium by + the Macedonians, the invasion of the Gauls, which recalled + Severus to Rome, the _sixty_ years which elapsed from his death + to the foundation of Constantinople, &c.] + + 54 (return) [ Montesquieu, Grandeur et Décadence des Romains, c. + 17.] + + 55 (return) [ Themist. Orat. iii. p. 48, edit. Hardouin. Sozomen, + l. ii. c. 3. Zosim. l. ii. p. 107. Anonym. Valesian. p. 715. If + we could credit Codinus, (p. 10,) Constantine built houses for + the senators on the exact model of their Roman palaces, and + gratified them, as well as himself, with the pleasure of an + agreeable surprise; but the whole story is full of fictions and + inconsistencies.] + + 56 (return) [ The law by which the younger Theodosius, in the + year 438, abolished this tenure, may be found among the Novellæ + of that emperor at the end of the Theodosian Code, tom. vi. nov. + 12. M. de Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 371) has + evidently mistaken the nature of these estates. With a grant from + the Imperial demesnes, the same condition was accepted as a + favor, which would justly have been deemed a hardship, if it had + been imposed upon private property.] + + 57 (return) [ The passages of Zosimus, of Eunapius, of Sozomen, + and of Agathias, which relate to the increase of buildings and + inhabitants at Constantinople, are collected and connected by + Gyllius de Byzant. l. i. c. 3. Sidonius Apollinaris (in Panegyr. + Anthem. 56, p. 279, edit. Sirmond) describes the moles that were + pushed forwards into the sea, they consisted of the famous + Puzzolan sand, which hardens in the water.] + + The frequent and regular distributions of wine and oil, of corn + or bread, of money or provisions, had almost exempted the poorest + citizens of Rome from the necessity of labor. The magnificence of + the first Cæsars was in some measure imitated by the founder of + Constantinople: 58 but his liberality, however it might excite + the applause of the people, has incurred the censure of + posterity. A nation of legislators and conquerors might assert + their claim to the harvests of Africa, which had been purchased + with their blood; and it was artfully contrived by Augustus, + that, in the enjoyment of plenty, the Romans should lose the + memory of freedom. But the prodigality of Constantine could not + be excused by any consideration either of public or private + interest; and the annual tribute of corn imposed upon Egypt for + the benefit of his new capital, was applied to feed a lazy and + insolent populace, at the expense of the husbandmen of an + industrious province. 59 5911 Some other regulations of this + emperor are less liable to blame, but they are less deserving of + notice. He divided Constantinople into fourteen regions or + quarters, 60 dignified the public council with the appellation of + senate, 61 communicated to the citizens the privileges of Italy, + 62 and bestowed on the rising city the title of Colony, the first + and most favored daughter of ancient Rome. The venerable parent + still maintained the legal and acknowledged supremacy, which was + due to her age, her dignity, and to the remembrance of her former + greatness. 63 + + 58 (return) [ Sozomen, l. ii. c. 3. Philostorg. l. ii. c. 9. + Codin. Antiquitat. Const. p. 8. It appears by Socrates, l. ii. c. + 13, that the daily allowance of the city consisted of eight + myriads of σίτου, which we may either translate, with Valesius, by the + words modii of corn, or consider us expressive of the number of + loaves of bread. * Note: At Rome the poorer citizens who received + these gratuities were inscribed in a register; they had only a + personal right. Constantine attached the right to the houses in + his new capital, to engage the lower classes of the people to + build their houses with expedition. Codex Therodos. l. xiv.—G.] + + 59 (return) [ See Cod. Theodos. l. xiii. and xiv., and Cod. + Justinian. Edict. xii. tom. ii. p. 648, edit. Genev. See the + beautiful complaint of Rome in the poem of Claudian de Bell. + Gildonico, ver. 46-64.——Cum subiit par Roma mihi, divisaque + sumsit Æquales aurora togas; Ægyptia rura In partem cessere + novam.] + + 5911 (return) [ This was also at the expense of Rome. The emperor + ordered that the fleet of Alexandria should transport to + Constantinople the grain of Egypt which it carried before to + Rome: this grain supplied Rome during four months of the year. + Claudian has described with force the famine occasioned by this + measure:— + + Hæc nobis, hæc ante dabas; nunc pabula tantum Roma precor: + miserere tuæ; pater optime, gentis: Extremam defende famem. Claud. + de Bell. Gildon. v. 34.—G. + + It was scarcely this measure. Gildo had cut off the African as + well as the Egyptian supplies.—M.] + + 60 (return) [ The regions of Constantinople are mentioned in the + code of Justinian, and particularly described in the Notitia of + the younger Theodosius; but as the four last of them are not + included within the wall of Constantine, it may be doubted + whether this division of the city should be referred to the + founder.] + + 61 (return) [ Senatum constituit secundi ordinis; _Claros_ + vocavit. Anonym Valesian. p. 715. The senators of old Rome were + styled _Clarissimi_. See a curious note of Valesius ad Ammian. + Marcellin. xxii. 9. From the eleventh epistle of Julian, it + should seem that the place of senator was considered as a burden, + rather than as an honor; but the Abbé de la Bleterie (Vie de + Jovien, tom. ii. p. 371) has shown that this epistle could not + relate to Constantinople. Might we not read, instead of the + celebrated name of the obscure but more probable word Bisanthe or + Rhœdestus, now Rhodosto, was a small maritime city of Thrace. See + Stephan. Byz. de Urbibus, p. 225, and Cellar. Geograph. tom. i. + p. 849.] + + 62 (return) [ Cod. Theodos. l. xiv. 13. The commentary of + Godefroy (tom. v. p. 220) is long, but perplexed; nor indeed is + it easy to ascertain in what the Jus Italicum could consist, + after the freedom of the city had been communicated to the whole + empire. * Note: “This right, (the Jus Italicum,) which by most + writers is referred with out foundation to the personal condition + of the citizens, properly related to the city as a whole, and + contained two parts. First, the Roman or quiritarian property in + the soil, (commercium,) and its capability of mancipation, + usucaption, and vindication; moreover, as an inseparable + consequence of this, exemption from land-tax. Then, secondly, a + free constitution in the Italian form, with Duumvirs, + Quinquennales. and Ædiles, and especially with Jurisdiction.” + Savigny, Geschichte des Rom. Rechts i. p. 51—M.] + + 63 (return) [ Julian (Orat. i. p. 8) celebrates Constantinople as + not less superior to all other cities than she was inferior to + Rome itself. His learned commentator (Spanheim, p. 75, 76) + justifies this language by several parallel and contemporary + instances. Zosimus, as well as Socrates and Sozomen, flourished + after the division of the empire between the two sons of + Theodosius, which established a perfect _equality_ between the + old and the new capital.] + + As Constantine urged the progress of the work with the impatience + of a lover, the walls, the porticos, and the principal edifices + were completed in a few years, or, according to another account, + in a few months; 64 but this extraordinary diligence should + excite the less admiration, since many of the buildings were + finished in so hasty and imperfect a manner, that under the + succeeding reign, they were preserved with difficulty from + impending ruin. 65 But while they displayed the vigor and + freshness of youth, the founder prepared to celebrate the + dedication of his city. 66 The games and largesses which crowned + the pomp of this memorable festival may easily be supposed; but + there is one circumstance of a more singular and permanent + nature, which ought not entirely to be overlooked. As often as + the birthday of the city returned, the statue of Constantine, + framed by his order, of gilt wood, and bearing in his right hand + a small image of the genius of the place, was erected on a + triumphal car. The guards, carrying white tapers, and clothed in + their richest apparel, accompanied the solemn procession as it + moved through the Hippodrome. When it was opposite to the throne + of the reigning emperor, he rose from his seat, and with grateful + reverence adored the memory of his predecessor. 67 At the + festival of the dedication, an edict, engraved on a column of + marble, bestowed the title of Second or New Rome on the city of + Constantine. 68 But the name of Constantinople 69 has prevailed + over that honorable epithet; and after the revolution of fourteen + centuries, still perpetuates the fame of its author. 70 + + 64 (return) [ Codinus (Antiquitat. p. 8) affirms, that the + foundations of Constantinople were laid in the year of the world + 5837, (A. D. 329,) on the 26th of September, and that the city + was dedicated the 11th of May, 5838, (A. D. 330.) He connects + those dates with several characteristic epochs, but they + contradict each other; the authority of Codinus is of little + weight, and the space which he assigns must appear insufficient. + The term of ten years is given us by Julian, (Orat. i. p. 8;) and + Spanheim labors to establish the truth of it, (p. 69-75,) by the + help of two passages from Themistius, (Orat. iv. p. 58,) and of + Philostorgius, (l. ii. c. 9,) which form a period from the year + 324 to the year 334. Modern critics are divided concerning this + point of chronology and their different sentiments are very + accurately described by Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. + p. 619-625.] + + 65 (return) [ Themistius. Orat. iii. p. 47. Zosim. l. ii. p. 108. + Constantine himself, in one of his laws, (Cod. Theod. l. xv. tit. + i.,) betrays his impatience.] + + 66 (return) [ Cedrenus and Zonaras, faithful to the mode of + superstition which prevailed in their own times, assure us that + Constantinople was consecrated to the virgin Mother of God.] + + 67 (return) [ The earliest and most complete account of this + extraordinary ceremony may be found in the Alexandrian Chronicle, + p. 285. Tillemont, and the other friends of Constantine, who are + offended with the air of Paganism which seems unworthy of a + Christian prince, had a right to consider it as doubtful, but + they were not authorized to omit the mention of it.] + + 68 (return) [ Sozomen, l. ii. c. 2. Ducange C. P. l. i. c. 6. + Velut ipsius Romæ filiam, is the expression of Augustin. de + Civitat. Dei, l. v. c. 25.] + + 69 (return) [ Eutropius, l. x. c. 8. Julian. Orat. i. p. 8. + Ducange C. P. l. i. c. 5. The name of Constantinople is extant on + the medals of Constantine.] + + 70 (return) [ The lively Fontenelle (Dialogues des Morts, xii.) + affects to deride the vanity of human ambition, and seems to + triumph in the disappointment of Constantine, whose immortal name + is now lost in the vulgar appellation of Istambol, a Turkish + corruption of είς τήν πόλιω. Yet the original name is still preserved, 1. By + the nations of Europe. 2. By the modern Greeks. 3. By the Arabs, + whose writings are diffused over the wide extent of their + conquests in Asia and Africa. See D’Herbelot, Bibliothèque + Orientale, p. 275. 4. By the more learned Turks, and by the + emperor himself in his public mandates Cantemir’s History of the + Othman Empire, p. 51.] + + The foundation of a new capital is naturally connected with the + establishment of a new form of civil and military administration. + The distinct view of the complicated system of policy, introduced + by Diocletian, improved by Constantine, and completed by his + immediate successors, may not only amuse the fancy by the + singular picture of a great empire, but will tend to illustrate + the secret and internal causes of its rapid decay. In the pursuit + of any remarkable institution, we may be frequently led into the + more early or the more recent times of the Roman history; but the + proper limits of this inquiry will be included within a period of + about one hundred and thirty years, from the accession of + Constantine to the publication of the Theodosian code; 71 from + which, as well as from the _Notitia_ 7111 of the East and West, + 72 we derive the most copious and authentic information of the + state of the empire. This variety of objects will suspend, for + some time, the course of the narrative; but the interruption will + be censured only by those readers who are insensible to the + importance of laws and manners, while they peruse, with eager + curiosity, the transient intrigues of a court, or the accidental + event of a battle. + + 71 (return) [ The Theodosian code was promulgated A. D. 438. See + the Prolegomena of Godefroy, c. i. p. 185.] + + 7111 (return) [ The Notitia Dignitatum Imperii is a description + of all the offices in the court and the state, of the legions, + &c. It resembles our court almanacs, (Red Books,) with this + single difference, that our almanacs name the persons in office, + the Notitia only the offices. It is of the time of the emperor + Theodosius II., that is to say, of the fifth century, when the + empire was divided into the Eastern and Western. It is probable + that it was not made for the first time, and that descriptions of + the same kind existed before.—G.] + + 72 (return) [ Pancirolus, in his elaborate Commentary, assigns to + the Notitia a date almost similar to that of the Theodosian Code; + but his proofs, or rather conjectures, are extremely feeble. I + should be rather inclined to place this useful work between the + final division of the empire (A. D. 395) and the successful + invasion of Gaul by the barbarians, (A. D. 407.) See Histoire des + Anciens Peuples de l’Europe, tom. vii. p. 40.] + + + + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part III. + + + The manly pride of the Romans, content with substantial power, + had left to the vanity of the East the forms and ceremonies of + ostentatious greatness. 73 But when they lost even the semblance + of those virtues which were derived from their ancient freedom, + the simplicity of Roman manners was insensibly corrupted by the + stately affectation of the courts of Asia. The distinctions of + personal merit and influence, so conspicuous in a republic, so + feeble and obscure under a monarchy, were abolished by the + despotism of the emperors; who substituted in their room a severe + subordination of rank and office from the titled slaves who were + seated on the steps of the throne, to the meanest instruments of + arbitrary power. This multitude of abject dependants was + interested in the support of the actual government from the dread + of a revolution, which might at once confound their hopes and + intercept the reward of their services. In this divine hierarchy + (for such it is frequently styled) every rank was marked with the + most scrupulous exactness, and its dignity was displayed in a + variety of trifling and solemn ceremonies, which it was a study + to learn, and a sacrilege to neglect. 74 The purity of the Latin + language was debased, by adopting, in the intercourse of pride + and flattery, a profusion of epithets, which Tully would scarcely + have understood, and which Augustus would have rejected with + indignation. The principal officers of the empire were saluted, + even by the sovereign himself, with the deceitful titles of your + _Sincerity_, your _Gravity_, your _Excellency_, your _Eminence_, + your _sublime and wonderful Magnitude_, your _illustrious and + magnificent Highness_. 75 The codicils or patents of their office + were curiously emblazoned with such emblems as were best adapted + to explain its nature and high dignity; the image or portrait of + the reigning emperors; a triumphal car; the book of mandates + placed on a table, covered with a rich carpet, and illuminated by + four tapers; the allegorical figures of the provinces which they + governed; or the appellations and standards of the troops whom + they commanded. Some of these official ensigns were really + exhibited in their hall of audience; others preceded their + pompous march whenever they appeared in public; and every + circumstance of their demeanor, their dress, their ornaments, and + their train, was calculated to inspire a deep reverence for the + representatives of supreme majesty. By a philosophic observer, + the system of the Roman government might have been mistaken for a + splendid theatre, filled with players of every character and + degree, who repeated the language, and imitated the passions, of + their original model. 76 + + 73 (return) [ Scilicet externæ superbiæ sueto, non inerat notitia + nostri, (perhaps _nostræ;_) apud quos vis Imperii valet, inania + transmittuntur. Tacit. Annal. xv. 31. The gradation from the + style of freedom and simplicity, to that of form and servitude, + may be traced in the Epistles of Cicero, of Pliny, and of + Symmachus.] + + 74 (return) [ The emperor Gratian, after confirming a law of + precedency published by Valentinian, the father of his + _Divinity_, thus continues: Siquis igitur indebitum sibi locum + usurpaverit, nulla se ignoratione defendat; sitque plane + _sacrilegii_ reus, qui _divina_ præcepta neglexerit. Cod. Theod. + l. vi. tit. v. leg. 2.] + + 75 (return) [ Consult the _Notitia Dignitatum_ at the end of the + Theodosian code, tom. vi. p. 316. * Note: Constantin, qui + remplaca le grand Patriciat par une noblesse titree et qui + changea avec d’autres institutions la nature de la societe + Latine, est le veritable fondateur de la royaute moderne, dans ce + quelle conserva de Romain. Chateaubriand, Etud. Histor. Preface, + i. 151. Manso, (Leben Constantins des Grossen,) p. 153, &c., has + given a lucid view of the dignities and duties of the officers in + the Imperial court.—M.] + + 76 (return) [ Pancirolus ad Notitiam utriusque Imperii, p. 39. + But his explanations are obscure, and he does not sufficiently + distinguish the painted emblems from the effective ensigns of + office.] + + All the magistrates of sufficient importance to find a place in + the general state of the empire, were accurately divided into + three classes. 1. The _Illustrious_. 2. The _Spectabiles_, or + _Respectable_. And, 3. the _Clarissimi;_ whom we may translate by + the word _Honorable_. In the times of Roman simplicity, the + last-mentioned epithet was used only as a vague expression of + deference, till it became at length the peculiar and appropriated + title of all who were members of the senate, 77 and consequently + of all who, from that venerable body, were selected to govern the + provinces. The vanity of those who, from their rank and office, + might claim a superior distinction above the rest of the + senatorial order, was long afterwards indulged with the new + appellation of _Respectable;_ but the title of _Illustrious_ was + always reserved to some eminent personages who were obeyed or + reverenced by the two subordinate classes. It was communicated + only, I. To the consuls and patricians; II. To the Prætorian + præfects, with the præfects of Rome and Constantinople; III. To + the masters-general of the cavalry and the infantry; and IV. To + the seven ministers of the palace, who exercised their _sacred_ + functions about the person of the emperor. 78 Among those + illustrious magistrates who were esteemed coordinate with each + other, the seniority of appointment gave place to the union of + dignities. 79 By the expedient of honorary codicils, the + emperors, who were fond of multiplying their favors, might + sometimes gratify the vanity, though not the ambition, of + impatient courtiers. 80 + + 77 (return) [ In the Pandects, which may be referred to the + reigns of the Antonines, Clarissimus is the ordinary and legal + title of a senator.] + + 78 (return) [ Pancirol. p. 12-17. I have not taken any notice of + the two inferior ranks, _Prefectissimus_ and _Egregius_, which + were given to many persons who were not raised to the senatorial + dignity.] + + 79 (return) [ Cod. Theodos. l. vi. tit. vi. The rules of + precedency are ascertained with the most minute accuracy by the + emperors, and illustrated with equal prolixity by their learned + interpreter.] + + 80 (return) [ Cod. Theodos. l. vi. tit. xxii.] + + I. As long as the Roman consuls were the first magistrates of a + free state, they derived their right to power from the choice of + the people. As long as the emperors condescended to disguise the + servitude which they imposed, the consuls were still elected by + the real or apparent suffrage of the senate. From the reign of + Diocletian, even these vestiges of liberty were abolished, and + the successful candidates who were invested with the annual + honors of the consulship, affected to deplore the humiliating + condition of their predecessors. The Scipios and the Catos had + been reduced to solicit the votes of plebeians, to pass through + the tedious and expensive forms of a popular election, and to + expose their dignity to the shame of a public refusal; while + their own happier fate had reserved them for an age and + government in which the rewards of virtue were assigned by the + unerring wisdom of a gracious sovereign. 81 In the epistles which + the emperor addressed to the two consuls elect, it was declared, + that they were created by his sole authority. 82 Their names and + portraits, engraved on gilt tables of ivory, were dispersed over + the empire as presents to the provinces, the cities, the + magistrates, the senate, and the people. 83 Their solemn + inauguration was performed at the place of the Imperial + residence; and during a period of one hundred and twenty years, + Rome was constantly deprived of the presence of her ancient + magistrates. 84 + + 81 (return) [ Ausonius (in Gratiarum Actione) basely expatiates + on this unworthy topic, which is managed by Mamertinus (Panegyr. + Vet. xi. [x.] 16, 19) with somewhat more freedom and ingenuity.] + + 82 (return) [ Cum de Consulibus in annum creandis, solus mecum + volutarem.... te Consulem et designavi, et declaravi, et priorem + nuncupavi; are some of the expressions employed by the emperor + Gratian to his preceptor, the poet Ausonius.] + + 83 (return) [ Immanesque... dentes Qui secti ferro in tabulas + auroque micantes, Inscripti rutilum cœlato Consule nomen Per + proceres et vulgus eant. —Claud. in ii. Cons. Stilichon. 456. + + Montfaucon has represented some of these tablets or dypticks see + Supplement à l’Antiquité expliquée, tom. iii. p. 220.] + + 84 (return) [ + + Consule lætatur post plurima seculo viso Pallanteus apex: + agnoscunt rostra curules Auditas quondam proavis: desuetaque + cingit Regius auratis Fora fascibus Ulpia lictor. —Claud. in vi. + Cons. Honorii, 643. + + From the reign of Carus to the sixth consulship of Honorius, + there was an interval of one hundred and twenty years, during + which the emperors were always absent from Rome on the first day + of January. See the Chronologie de Tillemonte, tom. iii. iv. and + v.] + + On the morning of the first of January, the consuls assumed the + ensigns of their dignity. Their dress was a robe of purple, + embroidered in silk and gold, and sometimes ornamented with + costly gems. 85 On this solemn occasion they were attended by the + most eminent officers of the state and army, in the habit of + senators; and the useless fasces, armed with the once formidable + axes, were borne before them by the lictors. The procession moved + from the palace 87 to the Forum or principal square of the city; + where the consuls ascended their tribunal, and seated themselves + in the curule chairs, which were framed after the fashion of + ancient times. They immediately exercised an act of jurisdiction, + by the manumission of a slave, who was brought before them for + that purpose; and the ceremony was intended to represent the + celebrated action of the elder Brutus, the author of liberty and + of the consulship, when he admitted among his fellow-citizens the + faithful Vindex, who had revealed the conspiracy of the Tarquins. + 88 The public festival was continued during several days in all + the principal cities in Rome, from custom; in Constantinople, + from imitation in Carthage, Antioch, and Alexandria, from the + love of pleasure, and the superfluity of wealth. 89 In the two + capitals of the empire the annual games of the theatre, the + circus, and the amphitheatre, 90 cost four thousand pounds of + gold, (about) one hundred and sixty thousand pounds sterling: and + if so heavy an expense surpassed the faculties or the + inclinations of the magistrates themselves, the sum was supplied + from the Imperial treasury. 91 As soon as the consuls had + discharged these customary duties, they were at liberty to retire + into the shade of private life, and to enjoy, during the + remainder of the year, the undisturbed contemplation of their own + greatness. They no longer presided in the national councils; they + no longer executed the resolutions of peace or war. Their + abilities (unless they were employed in more effective offices) + were of little moment; and their names served only as the legal + date of the year in which they had filled the chair of Marius and + of Cicero. Yet it was still felt and acknowledged, in the last + period of Roman servitude, that this empty name might be + compared, and even preferred, to the possession of substantial + power. The title of consul was still the most splendid object of + ambition, the noblest reward of virtue and loyalty. The emperors + themselves, who disdained the faint shadow of the republic, were + conscious that they acquired an additional splendor and majesty + as often as they assumed the annual honors of the consular + dignity. 92 + + 85 (return) [ See Claudian in Cons. Prob. et Olybrii, 178, &c.; + and in iv. Cons. Honorii, 585, &c.; though in the latter it is + not easy to separate the ornaments of the emperor from those of + the consul. Ausonius received from the liberality of Gratian a + _vestis palmata_, or robe of state, in which the figure of the + emperor Constantius was embroidered. Cernis et armorum proceres + legumque potentes: Patricios sumunt habitus; et more Gabino + Discolor incedit legio, positisque parumper Bellorum signis, + sequitur vexilla Quirini. Lictori cedunt aquilæ, ridetque togatus + Miles, et in mediis effulget curia castris. —Claud. in iv. Cons. + Honorii, 5. —_strictaque_ procul radiare _secures_. —In Cons. + Prob. 229] + + 87 (return) [ See Valesius ad Ammian. Marcellin. l. xxii. c. 7.] + + 88 (return) [ Auspice mox læto sonuit clamore tribunal; Te fastos + ineunte quater; solemnia ludit Omina libertas; deductum Vindice + morem Lex servat, famulusque jugo laxatus herili Ducitur, et + grato remeat securior ictu. —Claud. in iv Cons. Honorii, 611] + + 89 (return) [ Celebrant quidem solemnes istos dies omnes ubique + urbes quæ sub legibus agunt; et Roma de more, et Constantinopolis + de imitatione, et Antiochia pro luxu, et discincta Carthago, et + domus fluminis Alexandria, sed Treviri Principis beneficio. + Ausonius in Grat. Actione.] + + 90 (return) [ Claudian (in Cons. Mall. Theodori, 279-331) + describes, in a lively and fanciful manner, the various games of + the circus, the theatre, and the amphitheatre, exhibited by the + new consul. The sanguinary combats of gladiators had already been + prohibited.] + + 91 (return) [ Procopius in Hist. Arcana, c. 26.] + + 92 (return) [ In Consulatu honos sine labore suscipitur. + (Mamertin. in Panegyr. Vet. xi. [x.] 2.) This exalted idea of the + consulship is borrowed from an oration (iii. p. 107) pronounced + by Julian in the servile court of Constantius. See the Abbé de la + Bleterie, (Mémoires de l’Académie, tom. xxiv. p. 289,) who + delights to pursue the vestiges of the old constitution, and who + sometimes finds them in his copious fancy] + + The proudest and most perfect separation which can be found in + any age or country, between the nobles and the people, is perhaps + that of the Patricians and the Plebeians, as it was established + in the first age of the Roman republic. Wealth and honors, the + offices of the state, and the ceremonies of religion, were almost + exclusively possessed by the former who, preserving the purity of + their blood with the most insulting jealousy, 93 held their + clients in a condition of specious vassalage. But these + distinctions, so incompatible with the spirit of a free people, + were removed, after a long struggle, by the persevering efforts + of the Tribunes. The most active and successful of the Plebeians + accumulated wealth, aspired to honors, deserved triumphs, + contracted alliances, and, after some generations, assumed the + pride of ancient nobility. 94 The Patrician families, on the + other hand, whose original number was never recruited till the + end of the commonwealth, either failed in the ordinary course of + nature, or were extinguished in so many foreign and domestic + wars, or, through a want of merit or fortune, insensibly mingled + with the mass of the people. 95 Very few remained who could + derive their pure and genuine origin from the infancy of the + city, or even from that of the republic, when Cæsar and Augustus, + Claudius and Vespasian, created from the body of the senate a + competent number of new Patrician families, in the hope of + perpetuating an order, which was still considered as honorable + and sacred. 96 But these artificial supplies (in which the + reigning house was always included) were rapidly swept away by + the rage of tyrants, by frequent revolutions, by the change of + manners, and by the intermixture of nations. 97 Little more was + left when Constantine ascended the throne, than a vague and + imperfect tradition, that the Patricians had once been the first + of the Romans. To form a body of nobles, whose influence may + restrain, while it secures the authority of the monarch, would + have been very inconsistent with the character and policy of + Constantine; but had he seriously entertained such a design, it + might have exceeded the measure of his power to ratify, by an + arbitrary edict, an institution which must expect the sanction of + time and of opinion. He revived, indeed, the title of Patricians, + but he revived it as a personal, not as an hereditary + distinction. They yielded only to the transient superiority of + the annual consuls; but they enjoyed the pre-eminence over all + the great officers of state, with the most familiar access to the + person of the prince. This honorable rank was bestowed on them + for life; and as they were usually favorites, and ministers who + had grown old in the Imperial court, the true etymology of the + word was perverted by ignorance and flattery; and the Patricians + of Constantine were reverenced as the adopted _Fathers_ of the + emperor and the republic. 98 + + 93 (return) [ Intermarriages between the Patricians and Plebeians + were prohibited by the laws of the XII Tables; and the uniform + operations of human nature may attest that the custom survived + the law. See in Livy (iv. 1-6) the pride of family urged by the + consul, and the rights of mankind asserted by the tribune + Canuleius.] + + 94 (return) [ See the animated picture drawn by Sallust, in the + Jugurthine war, of the pride of the nobles, and even of the + virtuous Metellus, who was unable to brook the idea that the + honor of the consulship should be bestowed on the obscure merit + of his lieutenant Marius. (c. 64.) Two hundred years before, the + race of the Metelli themselves were confounded among the + Plebeians of Rome; and from the etymology of their name of + _Cæcilius_, there is reason to believe that those haughty nobles + derived their origin from a sutler.] + + 95 (return) [ In the year of Rome 800, very few remained, not + only of the old Patrician families, but even of those which had + been created by Cæsar and Augustus. (Tacit. Annal. xi. 25.) The + family of Scaurus (a branch of the Patrician Æmilii) was degraded + so low that his father, who exercised the trade of a charcoal + merchant, left him only teu slaves, and somewhat less than three + hundred pounds sterling. (Valerius Maximus, l. iv. c. 4, n. 11. + Aurel. Victor in Scauro.) The family was saved from oblivion by + the merit of the son.] + + 96 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xi. 25. Dion Cassius, l. iii. p. 698. + The virtues of Agricola, who was created a Patrician by the + emperor Vespasian, reflected honor on that ancient order; but his + ancestors had not any claim beyond an Equestrian nobility.] + + 97 (return) [ This failure would have been almost impossible if + it were true, as Casaubon compels Aurelius Victor to affirm (ad + Sueton, in Cæsar v. 24. See Hist. August p. 203 and Casaubon + Comment., p. 220) that Vespasian created at once a thousand + Patrician families. But this extravagant number is too much even + for the whole Senatorial order. unless we should include all the + Roman knights who were distinguished by the permission of wearing + the laticlave.] + + 98 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 118; and Godefroy ad Cod. + Theodos. l. vi. tit. vi.] + + II. The fortunes of the Prætorian præfects were essentially + different from those of the consuls and Patricians. The latter + saw their ancient greatness evaporate in a vain title. + + The former, rising by degrees from the most humble condition, + were invested with the civil and military administration of the + Roman world. From the reign of Severus to that of Diocletian, the + guards and the palace, the laws and the finances, the armies and + the provinces, were intrusted to their superintending care; and, + like the Viziers of the East, they held with one hand the seal, + and with the other the standard, of the empire. The ambition of + the præfects, always formidable, and sometimes fatal to the + masters whom they served, was supported by the strength of the + Prætorian bands; but after those haughty troops had been weakened + by Diocletian, and finally suppressed by Constantine, the + præfects, who survived their fall, were reduced without + difficulty to the station of useful and obedient ministers. When + they were no longer responsible for the safety of the emperor’s + person, they resigned the jurisdiction which they had hitherto + claimed and exercised over all the departments of the palace. + They were deprived by Constantine of all military command, as + soon as they had ceased to lead into the field, under their + immediate orders, the flower of the Roman troops; and at length, + by a singular revolution, the captains of the guards were + transformed into the civil magistrates of the provinces. + According to the plan of government instituted by Diocletian, the + four princes had each their Prætorian præfect; and after the + monarchy was once more united in the person of Constantine, he + still continued to create the same number of Four Præfects, and + intrusted to their care the same provinces which they already + administered. 1. The præfect of the East stretched his ample + jurisdiction into the three parts of the globe which were subject + to the Romans, from the cataracts of the Nile to the banks of the + Phasis, and from the mountains of Thrace to the frontiers of + Persia. 2. The important provinces of Pannonia, Dacia, Macedonia, + and Greece, once acknowledged the authority of the præfect of + Illyricum. 3. The power of the præfect of Italy was not confined + to the country from whence he derived his title; it extended over + the additional territory of Rhætia as far as the banks of the + Danube, over the dependent islands of the Mediterranean, and over + that part of the continent of Africa which lies between the + confines of Cyrene and those of Tingitania. 4. The præfect of the + Gauls comprehended under that plural denomination the kindred + provinces of Britain and Spain, and his authority was obeyed from + the wall of Antoninus to the foot of Mount Atlas. 99 + + 99 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 109, 110. If we had not + fortunately possessed this satisfactory account of the division + of the power and provinces of the Prætorian præfects, we should + frequently have been perplexed amidst the copious details of the + Code, and the circumstantial minuteness of the Notitia.] + + After the Prætorian præfects had been dismissed from all military + command, the civil functions which they were ordained to exercise + over so many subject nations, were adequate to the ambition and + abilities of the most consummate ministers. To their wisdom was + committed the supreme administration of justice and of the + finances, the two objects which, in a state of peace, comprehend + almost all the respective duties of the sovereign and of the + people; of the former, to protect the citizens who are obedient + to the laws; of the latter, to contribute the share of their + property which is required for the expenses of the state. The + coin, the highways, the posts, the granaries, the manufactures, + whatever could interest the public prosperity, was moderated by + the authority of the Prætorian præfects. As the immediate + representatives of the Imperial majesty, they were empowered to + explain, to enforce, and on some occasions to modify, the general + edicts by their discretionary proclamations. They watched over + the conduct of the provincial governors, removed the negligent, + and inflicted punishments on the guilty. From all the inferior + jurisdictions, an appeal in every matter of importance, either + civil or criminal, might be brought before the tribunal of the + præfect; but _his_ sentence was final and absolute; and the + emperors themselves refused to admit any complaints against the + judgment or the integrity of a magistrate whom they honored with + such unbounded confidence. 100 His appointments were suitable to + his dignity; 101 and if avarice was his ruling passion, he + enjoyed frequent opportunities of collecting a rich harvest of + fees, of presents, and of perquisites. Though the emperors no + longer dreaded the ambition of their præfects, they were + attentive to counterbalance the power of this great office by the + uncertainty and shortness of its duration. 102 + + 100 (return) [ See a law of Constantine himself. A præfectis + autem prætorio provocare, non sinimus. Cod. Justinian. l. vii. + tit. lxii. leg. 19. Charisius, a lawyer of the time of + Constantine, (Heinec. Hist. Romani, p. 349,) who admits this law + as a fundamental principle of jurisprudence, compares the + Prætorian præfects to the masters of the horse of the ancient + dictators. Pandect. l. i. tit. xi.] + + 101 (return) [ When Justinian, in the exhausted condition of the + empire, instituted a Prætorian præfect for Africa, he allowed him + a salary of one hundred pounds of gold. Cod. Justinian. l. i. + tit. xxvii. leg. i.] + + 102 (return) [ For this, and the other dignities of the empire, + it may be sufficient to refer to the ample commentaries of + Pancirolus and Godefroy, who have diligently collected and + accurately digested in their proper order all the legal and + historical materials. From those authors, Dr. Howell (History of + the World, vol. ii. p. 24-77) has deduced a very distinct + abridgment of the state of the Roman empire] + + From their superior importance and dignity, Rome and + Constantinople were alone excepted from the jurisdiction of the + Prætorian præfects. The immense size of the city, and the + experience of the tardy, ineffectual operation of the laws, had + furnished the policy of Augustus with a specious pretence for + introducing a new magistrate, who alone could restrain a servile + and turbulent populace by the strong arm of arbitrary power. 103 + Valerius Messalla was appointed the first præfect of Rome, that + his reputation might countenance so invidious a measure; but, at + the end of a few days, that accomplished citizen 104 resigned his + office, declaring, with a spirit worthy of the friend of Brutus, + that he found himself incapable of exercising a power + incompatible with public freedom. 105 As the sense of liberty + became less exquisite, the advantages of order were more clearly + understood; and the præfect, who seemed to have been designed as + a terror only to slaves and vagrants, was permitted to extend his + civil and criminal jurisdiction over the equestrian and noble + families of Rome. The prætors, annually created as the judges of + law and equity, could not long dispute the possession of the + Forum with a vigorous and permanent magistrate, who was usually + admitted into the confidence of the prince. Their courts were + deserted, their number, which had once fluctuated between twelve + and eighteen, 106 was gradually reduced to two or three, and + their important functions were confined to the expensive + obligation 107 of exhibiting games for the amusement of the + people. After the office of the Roman consuls had been changed + into a vain pageant, which was rarely displayed in the capital, + the præfects assumed their vacant place in the senate, and were + soon acknowledged as the ordinary presidents of that venerable + assembly. They received appeals from the distance of one hundred + miles; and it was allowed as a principle of jurisprudence, that + all municipal authority was derived from them alone. 108 In the + discharge of his laborious employment, the governor of Rome was + assisted by fifteen officers, some of whom had been originally + his equals, or even his superiors. The principal departments were + relative to the command of a numerous watch, established as a + safeguard against fires, robberies, and nocturnal disorders; the + custody and distribution of the public allowance of corn and + provisions; the care of the port, of the aqueducts, of the common + sewers, and of the navigation and bed of the Tyber; the + inspection of the markets, the theatres, and of the private as + well as the public works. Their vigilance insured the three + principal objects of a regular police, safety, plenty, and + cleanliness; and as a proof of the attention of government to + preserve the splendor and ornaments of the capital, a particular + inspector was appointed for the statues; the guardian, as it + were, of that inanimate people, which, according to the + extravagant computation of an old writer, was scarcely inferior + in number to the living inhabitants of Rome. About thirty years + after the foundation of Constantinople, a similar magistrate was + created in that rising metropolis, for the same uses and with the + same powers. A perfect equality was established between the + dignity of the _two_ municipal, and that of the _four_ Prætorian + præfects. 109 + + 103 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. vi. 11. Euseb. in Chron. p. 155. + Dion Cassius, in the oration of Mæcenas, (l. lvii. p. 675,) + describes the prerogatives of the præfect of the city as they + were established in his own time.] + + 104 (return) [ The fame of Messalla has been scarcely equal to + his merit. In the earliest youth he was recommended by Cicero to + the friendship of Brutus. He followed the standard of the + republic till it was broken in the fields of Philippi; he then + accepted and deserved the favor of the most moderate of the + conquerors; and uniformly asserted his freedom and dignity in the + court of Augustus. The triumph of Messalla was justified by the + conquest of Aquitain. As an orator, he disputed the palm of + eloquence with Cicero himself. Messalla cultivated every muse, + and was the patron of every man of genius. He spent his evenings + in philosophic conversation with Horace; assumed his place at + table between Delia and Tibullus; and amused his leisure by + encouraging the poetical talents of young Ovid.] + + 105 (return) [ Incivilem esse potestatem contestans, says the + translator of Eusebius. Tacitus expresses the same idea in other + words; quasi nescius exercendi.] + + 106 (return) [ See Lipsius, Excursus D. ad 1 lib. Tacit. Annal.] + + 107 (return) [ Heineccii. Element. Juris Civilis secund ordinem + Pandect i. p. 70. See, likewise, Spanheim de Usu. Numismatum, + tom. ii. dissertat. x. p. 119. In the year 450, Marcian published + a law, that _three_ citizens should be annually created Prætors + of Constantinople by the choice of the senate, but with their own + consent. Cod. Justinian. li. i. tit. xxxix. leg. 2.] + + 108 (return) [ Quidquid igitur intra urbem admittitur, ad P. U. + videtur pertinere; sed et siquid intra contesimum milliarium. + Ulpian in Pandect l. i. tit. xiii. n. 1. He proceeds to enumerate + the various offices of the præfect, who, in the code of + Justinian, (l. i. tit. xxxix. leg. 3,) is declared to precede and + command all city magistrates sine injuria ac detrimento honoris + alieni.] + + 109 (return) [ Besides our usual guides, we may observe that + Felix Cantelorius has written a separate treatise, De Præfecto + Urbis; and that many curious details concerning the police of + Rome and Constantinople are contained in the fourteenth book of + the Theodosian Code.] + + + + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part IV. + + + Those who, in the imperial hierarchy, were distinguished by the + title of _Respectable_, formed an intermediate class between the + _illustrious_ præfects, and the _honorable_ magistrates of the + provinces. In this class the proconsuls of Asia, Achaia, and + Africa, claimed a preëminence, which was yielded to the + remembrance of their ancient dignity; and the appeal from their + tribunal to that of the præfects was almost the only mark of + their dependence. 110 But the civil government of the empire was + distributed into thirteen great Dioceses, each of which equalled + the just measure of a powerful kingdom. The first of these + dioceses was subject to the jurisdiction of the _count_ of the + east; and we may convey some idea of the importance and variety + of his functions, by observing, that six hundred apparitors, who + would be styled at present either secretaries, or clerks, or + ushers, or messengers, were employed in his immediate office. 111 + The place of _Augustal præfect_ of Egypt was no longer filled by + a Roman knight; but the name was retained; and the extraordinary + powers which the situation of the country, and the temper of the + inhabitants, had once made indispensable, were still continued to + the governor. The eleven remaining dioceses, of Asiana, Pontica, + and Thrace; of Macedonia, Dacia, and Pannonia, or Western + Illyricum; of Italy and Africa; of Gaul, Spain, and Britain; were + governed by twelve _vicars_ or _vice-præfects_, 112 whose name + sufficiently explains the nature and dependence of their office. + It may be added, that the lieutenant-generals of the Roman + armies, the military counts and dukes, who will be hereafter + mentioned, were allowed the rank and title of _Respectable_. + + 110 (return) [ Eunapius affirms, that the proconsul of Asia was + independent of the præfect; which must, however, be understood + with some allowance. the jurisdiction of the vice-præfect he most + assuredly disclaimed. Pancirolus, p. 161.] + + 111 (return) [ The proconsul of Africa had four hundred + apparitors; and they all received large salaries, either from the + treasury or the province See Pancirol. p. 26, and Cod. Justinian. + l. xii. tit. lvi. lvii.] + + 112 (return) [ In Italy there was likewise the _Vicar of Rome_. + It has been much disputed whether his jurisdiction measured one + hundred miles from the city, or whether it stretched over the ten + thousand provinces of Italy.] + + As the spirit of jealousy and ostentation prevailed in the + councils of the emperors, they proceeded with anxious diligence + to divide the substance and to multiply the titles of power. The + vast countries which the Roman conquerors had united under the + same simple form of administration, were imperceptibly crumbled + into minute fragments; till at length the whole empire was + distributed into one hundred and sixteen provinces, each of which + supported an expensive and splendid establishment. Of these, + three were governed by _proconsuls_, thirty-seven by _consulars_, + five by _correctors_, and seventy-one by _presidents_. The + appellations of these magistrates were different; they ranked in + successive order, and the ensigns of and their situation, from + accidental circumstances, might be more or less agreeable or + advantageous. But they were all (excepting only the pro-consuls) + alike included in the class of _honorable_ persons; and they were + alike intrusted, during the pleasure of the prince, and under the + authority of the præfects or their deputies, with the + administration of justice and the finances in their respective + districts. The ponderous volumes of the Codes and Pandects 113 + would furnish ample materials for a minute inquiry into the + system of provincial government, as in the space of six centuries + it was approved by the wisdom of the Roman statesmen and lawyers. + + It may be sufficient for the historian to select two singular and + salutary provisions, intended to restrain the abuse of authority. + + 1. For the preservation of peace and order, the governors of the + provinces were armed with the sword of justice. They inflicted + corporal punishments, and they exercised, in capital offences, + the power of life and death. But they were not authorized to + indulge the condemned criminal with the choice of his own + execution, or to pronounce a sentence of the mildest and most + honorable kind of exile. These prerogatives were reserved to the + præfects, who alone could impose the heavy fine of fifty pounds + of gold: their vicegerents were confined to the trifling weight + of a few ounces. 114 This distinction, which seems to grant the + larger, while it denies the smaller degree of authority, was + founded on a very rational motive. The smaller degree was + infinitely more liable to abuse. The passions of a provincial + magistrate might frequently provoke him into acts of oppression, + which affected only the freedom or the fortunes of the subject; + though, from a principle of prudence, perhaps of humanity, he + might still be terrified by the guilt of innocent blood. It may + likewise be considered, that exile, considerable fines, or the + choice of an easy death, relate more particularly to the rich and + the noble; and the persons the most exposed to the avarice or + resentment of a provincial magistrate, were thus removed from his + obscure persecution to the more august and impartial tribunal of + the Prætorian præfect. 2. As it was reasonably apprehended that + the integrity of the judge might be biased, if his interest was + concerned, or his affections were engaged, the strictest + regulations were established, to exclude any person, without the + special dispensation of the emperor, from the government of the + province where he was born; 115 and to prohibit the governor or + his son from contracting marriage with a native, or an + inhabitant; 116 or from purchasing slaves, lands, or houses, + within the extent of his jurisdiction. 117 Notwithstanding these + rigorous precautions, the emperor Constantine, after a reign of + twenty-five years, still deplores the venal and oppressive + administration of justice, and expresses the warmest indignation + that the audience of the judge, his despatch of business, his + seasonable delays, and his final sentence, were publicly sold, + either by himself or by the officers of his court. The + continuance, and perhaps the impunity, of these crimes, is + attested by the repetition of impotent laws and ineffectual + menaces. 118 + + 113 (return) [ Among the works of the celebrated Ulpian, there + was one in ten books, concerning the office of a proconsul, whose + duties in the most essential articles were the same as those of + an ordinary governor of a province.] + + 114 (return) [ The presidents, or consulars, could impose only + two ounces; the vice-præfects, three; the proconsuls, count of + the east, and præfect of Egypt, six. See Heineccii Jur. Civil. + tom. i. p. 75. Pandect. l. xlviii. tit. xix. n. 8. Cod. + Justinian. l. i. tit. liv. leg. 4, 6.] + + 115 (return) [ Ut nulli patriæ suæ administratio sine speciali + principis permissu permittatur. Cod. Justinian. l. i. tit. xli. + This law was first enacted by the emperor Marcus, after the + rebellion of Cassius. (Dion. l. lxxi.) The same regulation is + observed in China, with equal strictness, and with equal effect.] + + 116 (return) [ Pandect. l. xxiii. tit. ii. n. 38, 57, 63.] + + 117 (return) [ In jure continetur, ne quis in administratione + constitutus aliquid compararet. Cod. Theod. l. viii. tit. xv. + leg. l. This maxim of common law was enforced by a series of + edicts (see the remainder of the title) from Constantine to + Justin. From this prohibition, which is extended to the meanest + officers of the governor, they except only clothes and + provisions. The purchase within five years may be recovered; + after which on information, it devolves to the treasury.] + + 118 (return) [ Cessent rapaces jam nunc officialium manus; + cessent, inquam nam si moniti non cessaverint, gladiis + præcidentur, &c. Cod. Theod. l. i. tit. vii. leg. l. Zeno enacted + that all governors should remain in the province, to answer any + accusations, fifty days after the expiration of their power. Cod + Justinian. l. ii. tit. xlix. leg. l.] + + All the civil magistrates were drawn from the profession of the + law. The celebrated Institutes of Justinian are addressed to the + youth of his dominions, who had devoted themselves to the study + of Roman jurisprudence; and the sovereign condescends to animate + their diligence, by the assurance that their skill and ability + would in time be rewarded by an adequate share in the government + of the republic. 119 The rudiments of this lucrative science were + taught in all the considerable cities of the east and west; but + the most famous school was that of Berytus, 120 on the coast of + Phœnicia; which flourished above three centuries from the time of + Alexander Severus, the author perhaps of an institution so + advantageous to his native country. After a regular course of + education, which lasted five years, the students dispersed + themselves through the provinces, in search of fortune and + honors; nor could they want an inexhaustible supply of business + in a great empire already corrupted by the multiplicity of laws, + of arts, and of vices. The court of the Prætorian præfect of the + east could alone furnish employment for one hundred and fifty + advocates, sixty-four of whom were distinguished by peculiar + privileges, and two were annually chosen, with a salary of sixty + pounds of gold, to defend the causes of the treasury. The first + experiment was made of their judicial talents, by appointing them + to act occasionally as assessors to the magistrates; from thence + they were often raised to preside in the tribunals before which + they had pleaded. They obtained the government of a province; + and, by the aid of merit, of reputation, or of favor, they + ascended, by successive steps, to the _illustrious_ dignities of + the state. 121 In the practice of the bar, these men had + considered reason as the instrument of dispute; they interpreted + the laws according to the dictates of private interest and the + same pernicious habits might still adhere to their characters in + the public administration of the state. The honor of a liberal + profession has indeed been vindicated by ancient and modern + advocates, who have filled the most important stations, with pure + integrity and consummate wisdom: but in the decline of Roman + jurisprudence, the ordinary promotion of lawyers was pregnant + with mischief and disgrace. The noble art, which had once been + preserved as the sacred inheritance of the patricians, was fallen + into the hands of freedmen and plebeians, 122 who, with cunning + rather than with skill, exercised a sordid and pernicious trade. + Some of them procured admittance into families for the purpose of + fomenting differences, of encouraging suits, and of preparing a + harvest of gain for themselves or their brethren. Others, recluse + in their chambers, maintained the dignity of legal professors, by + furnishing a rich client with subtleties to confound the plainest + truths, and with arguments to color the most unjustifiable + pretensions. The splendid and popular class was composed of the + advocates, who filled the Forum with the sound of their turgid + and loquacious rhetoric. Careless of fame and of justice, they + are described, for the most part, as ignorant and rapacious + guides, who conducted their clients through a maze of expense, of + delay, and of disappointment; from whence, after a tedious series + of years, they were at length dismissed, when their patience and + fortune were almost exhausted. 123 + + 119 (return) [ Summâ igitur ope, et alacri studio has leges + nostras accipite; et vosmetipsos sic eruditos ostendite, ut spes + vos pulcherrima foveat; toto legitimo opere perfecto, posse etiam + nostram rempublicam in par tibus ejus vobis credendis gubernari. + Justinian in proem. Institutionum.] + + 120 (return) [ The splendor of the school of Berytus, which + preserved in the east the language and jurisprudence of the + Romans, may be computed to have lasted from the third to the + middle of the sixth century Heinecc. Jur. Rom. Hist. p. 351-356.] + + 121 (return) [ As in a former period I have traced the civil and + military promotion of Pertinax, I shall here insert the civil + honors of Mallius Theodorus. 1. He was distinguished by his + eloquence, while he pleaded as an advocate in the court of the + Prætorian præfect. 2. He governed one of the provinces of Africa, + either as president or consular, and deserved, by his + administration, the honor of a brass statue. 3. He was appointed + vicar, or vice-præfect, of Macedonia. 4. Quæstor. 5. Count of the + sacred largesses. 6. Prætorian præfect of the Gauls; whilst he + might yet be represented as a young man. 7. After a retreat, + perhaps a disgrace of many years, which Mallius (confounded by + some critics with the poet Manilius; see Fabricius Bibliothec. + Latin. Edit. Ernest. tom. i.c. 18, p. 501) employed in the study + of the Grecian philosophy he was named Prætorian præfect of + Italy, in the year 397. 8. While he still exercised that great + office, he was created, it the year 399, consul for the West; and + his name, on account of the infamy of his colleague, the eunuch + Eutropius, often stands alone in the Fasti. 9. In the year 408, + Mallius was appointed a second time Prætorian præfect of Italy. + Even in the venal panegyric of Claudian, we may discover the + merit of Mallius Theodorus, who, by a rare felicity, was the + intimate friend, both of Symmachus and of St. Augustin. See + Tillemont, Hist. des Emp. tom. v. p. 1110-1114.] + + 122 (return) [ Mamertinus in Panegyr. Vet. xi. [x.] 20. Asterius + apud Photium, p. 1500.] + + 123 (return) [ The curious passage of Ammianus, (l. xxx. c. 4,) + in which he paints the manners of contemporary lawyers, affords a + strange mixture of sound sense, false rhetoric, and extravagant + satire. Godefroy (Prolegom. ad. Cod. Theod. c. i. p. 185) + supports the historian by similar complaints and authentic facts. + In the fourth century, many camels might have been laden with + law-books. Eunapius in Vit. Ædesii, p. 72.] + + III. In the system of policy introduced by Augustus, the + governors, those at least of the Imperial provinces, were + invested with the full powers of the sovereign himself. Ministers + of peace and war, the distribution of rewards and punishments + depended on them alone, and they successively appeared on their + tribunal in the robes of civil magistracy, and in complete armor + at the head of the Roman legions. 124 The influence of the + revenue, the authority of law, and the command of a military + force, concurred to render their power supreme and absolute; and + whenever they were tempted to violate their allegiance, the loyal + province which they involved in their rebellion was scarcely + sensible of any change in its political state. From the time of + Commodus to the reign of Constantine, near one hundred governors + might be enumerated, who, with various success, erected the + standard of revolt; and though the innocent were too often + sacrificed, the guilty might be sometimes prevented, by the + suspicious cruelty of their master. 125 To secure his throne and + the public tranquillity from these formidable servants, + Constantine resolved to divide the military from the civil + administration, and to establish, as a permanent and professional + distinction, a practice which had been adopted only as an + occasional expedient. The supreme jurisdiction exercised by the + Prætorian præfects over the armies of the empire, was transferred + to the two _masters-general_ whom he instituted, the one for the + _cavalry_, the other for the _infantry;_ and though each of these + _illustrious_ officers was more peculiarly responsible for the + discipline of those troops which were under his immediate + inspection, they both indifferently commanded in the field the + several bodies, whether of horse or foot, which were united in + the same army. 126 Their number was soon doubled by the division + of the east and west; and as separate generals of the same rank + and title were appointed on the four important frontiers of the + Rhine, of the Upper and the Lower Danube, and of the Euphrates, + the defence of the Roman empire was at length committed to eight + masters-general of the cavalry and infantry. Under their orders, + thirty-five military commanders were stationed in the provinces: + three in Britain, six in Gaul, one in Spain, one in Italy, five + on the Upper, and four on the Lower Danube; in Asia, eight, three + in Egypt, and four in Africa. The titles of _counts_, and + _dukes_, 127 by which they were properly distinguished, have + obtained in modern languages so very different a sense, that the + use of them may occasion some surprise. But it should be + recollected, that the second of those appellations is only a + corruption of the Latin word, which was indiscriminately applied + to any military chief. All these provincial generals were + therefore _dukes;_ but no more than ten among them were dignified + with the rank of _counts_ or companions, a title of honor, or + rather of favor, which had been recently invented in the court of + Constantine. A gold belt was the ensign which distinguished the + office of the counts and dukes; and besides their pay, they + received a liberal allowance sufficient to maintain one hundred + and ninety servants, and one hundred and fifty-eight horses. They + were strictly prohibited from interfering in any matter which + related to the administration of justice or the revenue; but the + command which they exercised over the troops of their department, + was independent of the authority of the magistrates. About the + same time that Constantine gave a legal sanction to the + ecclesiastical order, he instituted in the Roman empire the nice + balance of the civil and the military powers. The emulation, and + sometimes the discord, which reigned between two professions of + opposite interests and incompatible manners, was productive of + beneficial and of pernicious consequences. It was seldom to be + expected that the general and the civil governor of a province + should either conspire for the disturbance, or should unite for + the service, of their country. While the one delayed to offer the + assistance which the other disdained to solicit, the troops very + frequently remained without orders or without supplies; the + public safety was betrayed, and the defenceless subjects were + left exposed to the fury of the Barbarians. The divided + administration which had been formed by Constantine, relaxed the + vigor of the state, while it secured the tranquillity of the + monarch. + + 124 (return) [ See a very splendid example in the life of + Agricola, particularly c. 20, 21. The lieutenant of Britain was + intrusted with the same powers which Cicero, proconsul of + Cilicia, had exercised in the name of the senate and people.] + + 125 (return) [ The Abbé Dubos, who has examined with accuracy + (see Hist. de la Monarchie Françoise, tom. i. p. 41-100, edit. + 1742) the institutions of Augustus and of Constantine, observes, + that if Otho had been put to death the day before he executed his + conspiracy, Otho would now appear in history as innocent as + Corbulo.] + + 126 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 110. Before the end of the + reign of Constantius, the _magistri militum_ were already + increased to four. See Velesius ad Ammian. l. xvi. c. 7.] + + 127 (return) [ Though the military counts and dukes are + frequently mentioned, both in history and the codes, we must have + recourse to the Notitia for the exact knowledge of their number + and stations. For the institution, rank, privileges, &c., of the + counts in general see Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. xii.—xx., with the + commentary of Godefroy.] + + The memory of Constantine has been deservedly censured for + another innovation, which corrupted military discipline and + prepared the ruin of the empire. The nineteen years which + preceded his final victory over Licinius, had been a period of + license and intestine war. The rivals who contended for the + possession of the Roman world, had withdrawn the greatest part of + their forces from the guard of the general frontier; and the + principal cities which formed the boundary of their respective + dominions were filled with soldiers, who considered their + countrymen as their most implacable enemies. After the use of + these internal garrisons had ceased with the civil war, the + conqueror wanted either wisdom or firmness to revive the severe + discipline of Diocletian, and to suppress a fatal indulgence, + which habit had endeared and almost confirmed to the military + order. From the reign of Constantine, a popular and even legal + distinction was admitted between the _Palatines_ 128 and the + _Borderers;_ the troops of the court, as they were improperly + styled, and the troops of the frontier. The former, elevated by + the superiority of their pay and privileges, were permitted, + except in the extraordinary emergencies of war, to occupy their + tranquil stations in the heart of the provinces. The most + flourishing cities were oppressed by the intolerable weight of + quarters. The soldiers insensibly forgot the virtues of their + profession, and contracted only the vices of civil life. They + were either degraded by the industry of mechanic trades, or + enervated by the luxury of baths and theatres. They soon became + careless of their martial exercises, curious in their diet and + apparel; and while they inspired terror to the subjects of the + empire, they trembled at the hostile approach of the Barbarians. + 129 The chain of fortifications which Diocletian and his + colleagues had extended along the banks of the great rivers, was + no longer maintained with the same care, or defended with the + same vigilance. The numbers which still remained under the name + of the troops of the frontier, might be sufficient for the + ordinary defence; but their spirit was degraded by the + humiliating reflection, that _they_ who were exposed to the + hardships and dangers of a perpetual warfare, were rewarded only + with about two thirds of the pay and emoluments which were + lavished on the troops of the court. Even the bands or legions + that were raised the nearest to the level of those unworthy + favorites, were in some measure disgraced by the title of honor + which they were allowed to assume. It was in vain that + Constantine repeated the most dreadful menaces of fire and sword + against the Borderers who should dare desert their colors, to + connive at the inroads of the Barbarians, or to participate in + the spoil. 130 The mischiefs which flow from injudicious counsels + are seldom removed by the application of partial severities; and + though succeeding princes labored to restore the strength and + numbers of the frontier garrisons, the empire, till the last + moment of its dissolution, continued to languish under the mortal + wound which had been so rashly or so weakly inflicted by the hand + of Constantine. + + 128 (return) [ Zosimus, l ii. p. 111. The distinction between the + two classes of Roman troops, is very darkly expressed in the + historians, the laws, and the Notitia. Consult, however, the + copious _paratitlon_, or abstract, which Godefroy has drawn up of + the seventh book, de Re Militari, of the Theodosian Code, l. vii. + tit. i. leg. 18, l. viii. tit. i. leg. 10.] + + 129 (return) [ Ferox erat in suos miles et rapax, ignavus vero in + hostes et fractus. Ammian. l. xxii. c. 4. He observes, that they + loved downy beds and houses of marble; and that their cups were + heavier than their swords.] + + 130 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. vii. tit. i. leg. 1, tit. xii. leg. + i. See Howell’s Hist. of the World, vol. ii. p. 19. That learned + historian, who is not sufficiently known, labors to justify the + character and policy of Constantine.] + + The same timid policy, of dividing whatever is united, of + reducing whatever is eminent, of dreading every active power, and + of expecting that the most feeble will prove the most obedient, + seems to pervade the institutions of several princes, and + particularly those of Constantine. The martial pride of the + legions, whose victorious camps had so often been the scene of + rebellion, was nourished by the memory of their past exploits, + and the consciousness of their actual strength. As long as they + maintained their ancient establishment of six thousand men, they + subsisted, under the reign of Diocletian, each of them singly, a + visible and important object in the military history of the Roman + empire. A few years afterwards, these gigantic bodies were shrunk + to a very diminutive size; and when _seven_ legions, with some + auxiliaries, defended the city of Amida against the Persians, the + total garrison, with the inhabitants of both sexes, and the + peasants of the deserted country, did not exceed the number of + twenty thousand persons. 131 From this fact, and from similar + examples, there is reason to believe, that the constitution of + the legionary troops, to which they partly owed their valor and + discipline, was dissolved by Constantine; and that the bands of + Roman infantry, which still assumed the same names and the same + honors, consisted only of one thousand or fifteen hundred men. + 132 The conspiracy of so many separate detachments, each of which + was awed by the sense of its own weakness, could easily be + checked; and the successors of Constantine might indulge their + love of ostentation, by issuing their orders to one hundred and + thirty-two legions, inscribed on the muster-roll of their + numerous armies. The remainder of their troops was distributed + into several hundred cohorts of infantry, and squadrons of + cavalry. Their arms, and titles, and ensigns, were calculated to + inspire terror, and to display the variety of nations who marched + under the Imperial standard. And not a vestige was left of that + severe simplicity, which, in the ages of freedom and victory, had + distinguished the line of battle of a Roman army from the + confused host of an Asiatic monarch. 133 A more particular + enumeration, drawn from the_ Notitia_, might exercise the + diligence of an antiquary; but the historian will content himself + with observing, that the number of permanent stations or + garrisons established on the frontiers of the empire, amounted to + five hundred and eighty-three; and that, under the successors of + Constantine, the complete force of the military establishment was + computed at six hundred and forty-five thousand soldiers. 134 An + effort so prodigious surpassed the wants of a more ancient, and + the faculties of a later, period. + + 131 (return) [ Ammian. l. xix. c. 2. He observes, (c. 5,) that + the desperate sallies of two Gallic legions were like a handful + of water thrown on a great conflagration.] + + 132 (return) [ Pancirolus ad Notitiam, p. 96. Mémoires de + l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxv. p. 491.] + + 133 (return) [ Romana acies unius prope formæ erat et hominum et + armorum genere.—Regia acies varia magis multis gentibus + dissimilitudine armorum auxiliorumque erat. T. Liv. l. xxxvii. c. + 39, 40. Flaminius, even before the event, had compared the army + of Antiochus to a supper in which the flesh of one vile animal + was diversified by the skill of the cooks. See the Life of + Flaminius in Plutarch.] + + 134 (return) [ Agathias, l. v. p. 157, edit. Louvre.] + + In the various states of society, armies are recruited from very + different motives. Barbarians are urged by the love of war; the + citizens of a free republic may be prompted by a principle of + duty; the subjects, or at least the nobles, of a monarchy, are + animated by a sentiment of honor; but the timid and luxurious + inhabitants of a declining empire must be allured into the + service by the hopes of profit, or compelled by the dread of + punishment. The resources of the Roman treasury were exhausted by + the increase of pay, by the repetition of donatives, and by the + invention of new emolument and indulgences, which, in the opinion + of the provincial youth might compensate the hardships and + dangers of a military life. Yet, although the stature was + lowered, 135 although slaves, least by a tacit connivance, were + indiscriminately received into the ranks, the insurmountable + difficulty of procuring a regular and adequate supply of + volunteers, obliged the emperors to adopt more effectual and + coercive methods. The lands bestowed on the veterans, as the free + reward of their valor were henceforward granted under a condition + which contain the first rudiments of the feudal tenures; that + their sons, who succeeded to the inheritance, should devote + themselves to the profession of arms, as soon as they attained + the age of manhood; and their cowardly refusal was punished by + the loss of honor, of fortune, or even of life. 136 But as the + annual growth of the sons of the veterans bore a very small + proportion to the demands of the service, levies of men were + frequently required from the provinces, and every proprietor was + obliged either to take up arms, or to procure a substitute, or to + purchase his exemption by the payment of a heavy fine. The sum of + forty-two pieces of gold, to which it was _reduced_ ascertains + the exorbitant price of volunteers, and the reluctance with which + the government admitted of this alternative. 137 Such was the + horror for the profession of a soldier, which had affected the + minds of the degenerate Romans, that many of the youth of Italy + and the provinces chose to cut off the fingers of their right + hand, to escape from being pressed into the service; and this + strange expedient was so commonly practised, as to deserve the + severe animadversion of the laws, 138 and a peculiar name in the + Latin language. 139 + + 135 (return) [ Valentinian (Cod. Theodos. l. vii. tit. xiii. leg. + 3) fixes the standard at five feet seven inches, about five feet + four inches and a half, English measure. It had formerly been + five feet ten inches, and in the best corps, six Roman feet. Sed + tunc erat amplior multitude se et plures sequebantur militiam + armatam. Vegetius de Re Militari l. i. c. v.] + + 136 (return) [ See the two titles, De Veteranis and De Filiis + Veteranorum, in the seventh book of the Theodosian Code. The age + at which their military service was required, varied from + twenty-five to sixteen. If the sons of the veterans appeared with + a horse, they had a right to serve in the cavalry; two horses + gave them some valuable privileges] + + 137 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. vii. tit. xiii. leg. 7. According + to the historian Socrates, (see Godefroy ad loc.,) the same + emperor Valens sometimes required eighty pieces of gold for a + recruit. In the following law it is faintly expressed, that + slaves shall not be admitted inter optimas lectissimorum militum + turmas.] + + 138 (return) [ The person and property of a Roman knight, who had + mutilated his two sons, were sold at public auction by order of + Augustus. (Sueton. in August. c. 27.) The moderation of that + artful usurper proves, that this example of severity was + justified by the spirit of the times. Ammianus makes a + distinction between the effeminate Italians and the hardy Gauls. + (L. xv. c. 12.) Yet only 15 years afterwards, Valentinian, in a + law addressed to the præfect of Gaul, is obliged to enact that + these cowardly deserters shall be burnt alive. (Cod. Theod. l. + vii. tit. xiii. leg. 5.) Their numbers in Illyricum were so + considerable, that the province complained of a scarcity of + recruits. (Id. leg. 10.)] + + 139 (return) [ They were called _Murci. Murcidus_ is found in + Plautus and Festus, to denote a lazy and cowardly person, who, + according to Arnobius and Augustin, was under the immediate + protection of the goddess _Murcia_. From this particular instance + of cowardice, _murcare_ is used as synonymous to _mutilare_, by + the writers of the middle Latinity. See Linder brogius and + Valesius ad Ammian. Marcellin, l. xv. c. 12] + + + + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part V. + + + The introduction of Barbarians into the Roman armies became every + day more universal, more necessary, and more fatal. The most + daring of the Scythians, of the Goths, and of the Germans, who + delighted in war, and who found it more profitable to defend than + to ravage the provinces, were enrolled, not only in the + auxiliaries of their respective nations, but in the legions + themselves, and among the most distinguished of the Palatine + troops. As they freely mingled with the subjects of the empire, + they gradually learned to despise their manners, and to imitate + their arts. They abjured the implicit reverence which the pride + of Rome had exacted from their ignorance, while they acquired the + knowledge and possession of those advantages by which alone she + supported her declining greatness. The Barbarian soldiers, who + displayed any military talents, were advanced, without exception, + to the most important commands; and the names of the tribunes, of + the counts and dukes, and of the generals themselves, betray a + foreign origin, which they no longer condescended to disguise. + They were often intrusted with the conduct of a war against their + countrymen; and though most of them preferred the ties of + allegiance to those of blood, they did not always avoid the + guilt, or at least the suspicion, of holding a treasonable + correspondence with the enemy, of inviting his invasion, or of + sparing his retreat. The camps and the palace of the son of + Constantine were governed by the powerful faction of the Franks, + who preserved the strictest connection with each other, and with + their country, and who resented every personal affront as a + national indignity. 140 When the tyrant Caligula was suspected of + an intention to invest a very extraordinary candidate with the + consular robes, the sacrilegious profanation would have scarcely + excited less astonishment, if, instead of a horse, the noblest + chieftain of Germany or Britain had been the object of his + choice. The revolution of three centuries had produced so + remarkable a change in the prejudices of the people, that, with + the public approbation, Constantine showed his successors the + example of bestowing the honors of the consulship on the + Barbarians, who, by their merit and services, had deserved to be + ranked among the first of the Romans. 141 But as these hardy + veterans, who had been educated in the ignorance or contempt of + the laws, were incapable of exercising any civil offices, the + powers of the human mind were contracted by the irreconcilable + separation of talents as well as of professions. The accomplished + citizens of the Greek and Roman republics, whose characters could + adapt themselves to the bar, the senate, the camp, or the + schools, had learned to write, to speak, and to act with the same + spirit, and with equal abilities. + + 140 (return) [ Malarichus—adhibitis Francis quorum ea tempestate + in palatio multitudo florebat, erectius jam loquebatur + tumultuabaturque. Ammian. l. xv. c. 5.] + + 141 (return) [ Barbaros omnium primus, ad usque fasces auxerat et + trabeas consulares. Ammian. l. xx. c. 10. Eusebius (in Vit. + Constantin. l. iv c.7) and Aurelius Victor seem to confirm the + truth of this assertion yet in the thirty-two consular Fasti of + the reign of Constantine cannot discover the name of a single + Barbarian. I should therefore interpret the liberality of that + prince as relative to the ornaments rather than to the office, of + the consulship.] + + IV. Besides the magistrates and generals, who at a distance from + the court diffused their delegated authority over the provinces + and armies, the emperor conferred the rank of _Illustrious_ on + seven of his more immediate servants, to whose fidelity he + intrusted his safety, or his counsels, or his treasures. 1. The + private apartments of the palace were governed by a favorite + eunuch, who, in the language of that age, was styled the + _præpositus_, or præfect of the sacred bed-chamber. His duty was + to attend the emperor in his hours of state, or in those of + amusement, and to perform about his person all those menial + services, which can only derive their splendor from the influence + of royalty. Under a prince who deserved to reign, the great + chamberlain (for such we may call him) was a useful and humble + domestic; but an artful domestic, who improves every occasion of + unguarded confidence, will insensibly acquire over a feeble mind + that ascendant which harsh wisdom and uncomplying virtue can + seldom obtain. The degenerate grandsons of Theodosius, who were + invisible to their subjects, and contemptible to their enemies, + exalted the præfects of their bed-chamber above the heads of all + the ministers of the palace; 142 and even his deputy, the first + of the splendid train of slaves who waited in the presence, was + thought worthy to rank before the _respectable_ proconsuls of + Greece or Asia. The jurisdiction of the chamberlain was + acknowledged by the _counts_, or superintendents, who regulated + the two important provinces of the magnificence of the wardrobe, + and of the luxury of the Imperial table. 143 2. The principal + administration of public affairs was committed to the diligence + and abilities of the _master of the offices_. 144 He was the + supreme magistrate of the palace, inspected the discipline of the + civil and military _schools_, and received appeals from all parts + of the empire, in the causes which related to that numerous army + of privileged persons, who, as the servants of the court, had + obtained for themselves and families a right to decline the + authority of the ordinary judges. The correspondence between the + prince and his subjects was managed by the four _scrinia_, or + offices of this minister of state. The first was appropriated to + memorials, the second to epistles, the third to petitions, and + the fourth to papers and orders of a miscellaneous kind. Each of + these was directed by an _inferior_ master of _respectable_ + dignity, and the whole business was despatched by a hundred and + forty-eight secretaries, chosen for the most part from the + profession of the law, on account of the variety of abstracts of + reports and references which frequently occurred in the exercise + of their several functions. From a condescension, which in former + ages would have been esteemed unworthy the Roman majesty, a + particular secretary was allowed for the Greek language; and + interpreters were appointed to receive the ambassadors of the + Barbarians; but the department of foreign affairs, which + constitutes so essential a part of modern policy, seldom diverted + the attention of the master of the offices. His mind was more + seriously engaged by the general direction of the posts and + arsenals of the empire. There were thirty-four cities, fifteen in + the East, and nineteen in the West, in which regular companies of + workmen were perpetually employed in fabricating defensive armor, + offensive weapons of all sorts, and military engines, which were + deposited in the arsenals, and occasionally delivered for the + service of the troops. 3. In the course of nine centuries, the + office of _quæstor_ had experienced a very singular revolution. + In the infancy of Rome, two inferior magistrates were annually + elected by the people, to relieve the consuls from the invidious + management of the public treasure; 145 a similar assistant was + granted to every proconsul, and to every prætor, who exercised a + military or provincial command; with the extent of conquest, the + two quæstors were gradually multiplied to the number of four, of + eight, of twenty, and, for a short time, perhaps, of forty; 146 + and the noblest citizens ambitiously solicited an office which + gave them a seat in the senate, and a just hope of obtaining the + honors of the republic. Whilst Augustus affected to maintain the + freedom of election, he consented to accept the annual privilege + of recommending, or rather indeed of nominating, a certain + proportion of candidates; and it was his custom to select one of + these distinguished youths, to read his orations or epistles in + the assemblies of the senate. 147 The practice of Augustus was + imitated by succeeding princes; the occasional commission was + established as a permanent office; and the favored quæstor, + assuming a new and more illustrious character, alone survived the + suppression of his ancient and useless colleagues. 148 As the + orations which he composed in the name of the emperor, 149 + acquired the force, and, at length, the form, of absolute edicts, + he was considered as the representative of the legislative power, + the oracle of the council, and the original source of the civil + jurisprudence. He was sometimes invited to take his seat in the + supreme judicature of the Imperial consistory, with the Prætorian + præfects, and the master of the offices; and he was frequently + requested to resolve the doubts of inferior judges: but as he was + not oppressed with a variety of subordinate business, his leisure + and talents were employed to cultivate that dignified style of + eloquence, which, in the corruption of taste and language, still + preserves the majesty of the Roman laws. 150 In some respects, + the office of the Imperial quæstor may be compared with that of a + modern chancellor; but the use of a great seal, which seems to + have been adopted by the illiterate barbarians, was never + introduced to attest the public acts of the emperors. 4. The + extraordinary title of _count of the sacred largesses_ was + bestowed on the treasurer-general of the revenue, with the + intention perhaps of inculcating, that every payment flowed from + the voluntary bounty of the monarch. To conceive the almost + infinite detail of the annual and daily expense of the civil and + military administration in every part of a great empire, would + exceed the powers of the most vigorous imagination. + + The actual account employed several hundred persons, distributed + into eleven different offices, which were artfully contrived to + examine and control their respective operations. The multitude of + these agents had a natural tendency to increase; and it was more + than once thought expedient to dismiss to their native homes the + useless supernumeraries, who, deserting their honest labors, had + pressed with too much eagerness into the lucrative profession of + the finances. 151 Twenty-nine provincial receivers, of whom + eighteen were honored with the title of count, corresponded with + the treasurer; and he extended his jurisdiction over the mines + from whence the precious metals were extracted, over the mints, + in which they were converted into the current coin, and over the + public treasuries of the most important cities, where they were + deposited for the service of the state. The foreign trade of the + empire was regulated by this minister, who directed likewise all + the linen and woollen manufactures, in which the successive + operations of spinning, weaving, and dyeing were executed, + chiefly by women of a servile condition, for the use of the + palace and army. Twenty-six of these institutions are enumerated + in the West, where the arts had been more recently introduced, + and a still larger proportion may be allowed for the industrious + provinces of the East. 152 5. Besides the public revenue, which + an absolute monarch might levy and expend according to his + pleasure, the emperors, in the capacity of opulent citizens, + possessed a very extensive property, which was administered by + the _count_ or treasurer of _the private estate_. Some part had + perhaps been the ancient demesnes of kings and republics; some + accessions might be derived from the families which were + successively invested with the purple; but the most considerable + portion flowed from the impure source of confiscations and + forfeitures. The Imperial estates were scattered through the + provinces, from Mauritania to Britain; but the rich and fertile + soil of Cappadocia tempted the monarch to acquire in that country + his fairest possessions, 153 and either Constantine or his + successors embraced the occasion of justifying avarice by + religious zeal. They suppressed the rich temple of Comana, where + the high priest of the goddess of war supported the dignity of a + sovereign prince; and they applied to their private use the + consecrated lands, which were inhabited by six thousand subjects + or slaves of the deity and her ministers. 154 But these were not + the valuable inhabitants: the plains that stretch from the foot + of Mount Argæus to the banks of the Sarus, bred a generous race + of horses, renowned above all others in the ancient world for + their majestic shape and incomparable swiftness. These _sacred_ + animals, destined for the service of the palace and the Imperial + games, were protected by the laws from the profanation of a + vulgar master. 155 The demesnes of Cappadocia were important + enough to require the inspection of a count; 156 officers of an + inferior rank were stationed in the other parts of the empire; + and the deputies of the private, as well as those of the public, + treasurer were maintained in the exercise of their independent + functions, and encouraged to control the authority of the + provincial magistrates. 157 6, 7. The chosen bands of cavalry and + infantry, which guarded the person of the emperor, were under the + immediate command of the _two counts of the domestics_. The whole + number consisted of three thousand five hundred men, divided into + seven _schools_, or troops, of five hundred each; and in the + East, this honorable service was almost entirely appropriated to + the Armenians. Whenever, on public ceremonies, they were drawn up + in the courts and porticos of the palace, their lofty stature, + silent order, and splendid arms of silver and gold, displayed a + martial pomp not unworthy of the Roman majesty. 158 From the + seven schools two companies of horse and foot were selected, of + the _protectors_, whose advantageous station was the hope and + reward of the most deserving soldiers. They mounted guard in the + interior apartments, and were occasionally despatched into the + provinces, to execute with celerity and vigor the orders of their + master. 159 The counts of the domestics had succeeded to the + office of the Prætorian præfects; like the præfects, they aspired + from the service of the palace to the command of armies. + + 142 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. 8.] + + 143 (return) [ By a very singular metaphor, borrowed from the + military character of the first emperors, the steward of their + household was styled the count of their camp, (comes castrensis.) + Cassiodorus very seriously represents to him, that his own fame, + and that of the empire, must depend on the opinion which foreign + ambassadors may conceive of the plenty and magnificence of the + royal table. (Variar. l. vi. epistol. 9.)] + + 144 (return) [ Gutherius (de Officiis Domûs Augustæ, l. ii. c. + 20, l. iii.) has very accurately explained the functions of the + master of the offices, and the constitution of the subordinate + _scrinia_. But he vainly attempts, on the most doubtful + authority, to deduce from the time of the Antonines, or even of + Nero, the origin of a magistrate who cannot be found in history + before the reign of Constantine.] + + 145 (return) [ Tacitus (Annal. xi. 22) says, that the first + quæstors were elected by the people, sixty-four years after the + foundation of the republic; but he is of opinion, that they had, + long before that period, been annually appointed by the consuls, + and even by the kings. But this obscure point of antiquity is + contested by other writers.] + + 146 (return) [ Tacitus (Annal. xi. 22) seems to consider twenty + as the highest number of quæstors; and Dion (l. xliii. p 374) + insinuates, that if the dictator Cæsar once created forty, it was + only to facilitate the payment of an immense debt of gratitude. + Yet the augmentation which he made of prætors subsisted under the + succeeding reigns.] + + 147 (return) [ Sueton. in August. c. 65, and Torrent. ad loc. + Dion. Cas. p. 755.] + + 148 (return) [ The youth and inexperience of the quæstors, who + entered on that important office in their twenty-fifth year, + (Lips. Excurs. ad Tacit. l. iii. D.,) engaged Augustus to remove + them from the management of the treasury; and though they were + restored by Claudius, they seem to have been finally dismissed by + Nero. (Tacit Annal. xiii. 29. Sueton. in Aug. c. 36, in Claud. c. + 24. Dion, p. 696, 961, &c. Plin. Epistol. x. 20, et alibi.) In + the provinces of the Imperial division, the place of the quæstors + was more ably supplied by the _procurators_, (Dion Cas. p. 707. + Tacit. in Vit. Agricol. c. 15;) or, as they were afterwards + called, _rationales_. (Hist. August. p. 130.) But in the + provinces of the senate we may still discover a series of + quæstors till the reign of Marcus Antoninus. (See the + Inscriptions of Gruter, the Epistles of Pliny, and a decisive + fact in the Augustan History, p. 64.) From Ulpian we may learn, + (Pandect. l. i. tit. 13,) that under the government of the house + of Severus, their provincial administration was abolished; and in + the subsequent troubles, the annual or triennial elections of + quæstors must have naturally ceased.] + + 149 (return) [ Cum patris nomine et epistolas ipse dictaret, et + edicta conscrib eret, orationesque in senatu recitaret, etiam + quæstoris vice. Sueton, in Tit. c. 6. The office must have + acquired new dignity, which was occasionally executed by the heir + apparent of the empire. Trajan intrusted the same care to + Hadrian, his quæstor and cousin. See Dodwell, Prælection. + Cambden, x. xi. p. 362-394.] + + 150 (return) [ Terris edicta daturus; Supplicibus + responsa.—Oracula regis Eloquio crevere tuo; nec dignius unquam + Majestas meminit sese Romana locutam.——Claudian in Consulat. + Mall. Theodor. 33. See likewise Symmachus (Epistol. i. 17) and + Cassiodorus. (Variar. iv. 5.)] + + 151 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. 30. Cod. Justinian. l. + xii. tit. 24.] + + 152 (return) [ In the departments of the two counts of the + treasury, the eastern part of the _Notitia_ happens to be very + defective. It may be observed, that we had a treasury chest in + London, and a gyneceum or manufacture at Winchester. But Britain + was not thought worthy either of a mint or of an arsenal. Gaul + alone possessed three of the former, and eight of the latter.] + + 153 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. xxx. leg. 2, and Godefroy + ad loc.] + + 154 (return) [ Strabon. Geograph. l. xxii. p. 809, [edit. + Casaub.] The other temple of Comana, in Pontus, was a colony from + that of Cappadocia, l. xii. p. 835. The President Des Brosses + (see his Saluste, tom. ii. p. 21, [edit. Causub.]) conjectures + that the deity adored in both Comanas was Beltis, the Venus of + the east, the goddess of generation; a very different being + indeed from the goddess of war.] + + 155 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. x. tit. vi. de Grege Dominico. + Godefroy has collected every circumstance of antiquity relative + to the Cappadocian horses. One of the finest breeds, the + Palmatian, was the forfeiture of a rebel, whose estate lay about + sixteen miles from Tyana, near the great road between + Constantinople and Antioch.] + + 156 (return) [ Justinian (Novell. 30) subjected the province of + the count of Cappadocia to the immediate authority of the + favorite eunuch, who presided over the sacred bed-chamber.] + + 157 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. xxx. leg. 4, &c.] + + 158 (return) [ Pancirolus, p. 102, 136. The appearance of these + military domestics is described in the Latin poem of Corippus, de + Laudibus Justin. l. iii. 157-179. p. 419, 420 of the Appendix + Hist. Byzantin. Rom. 177.] + + 159 (return) [ Ammianus Marcellinus, who served so many years, + obtained only the rank of a protector. The first ten among these + honorable soldiers were _Clarissimi_.] + + The perpetual intercourse between the court and the provinces was + facilitated by the construction of roads and the institution of + posts. But these beneficial establishments were accidentally + connected with a pernicious and intolerable abuse. Two or three + hundred _agents_ or messengers were employed, under the + jurisdiction of the master of the offices, to announce the names + of the annual consuls, and the edicts or victories of the + emperors. They insensibly assumed the license of reporting + whatever they could observe of the conduct either of magistrates + or of private citizens; and were soon considered as the eyes of + the monarch, 160 and the scourge of the people. Under the warm + influence of a feeble reign, they multiplied to the incredible + number of ten thousand, disdained the mild though frequent + admonitions of the laws, and exercised in the profitable + management of the posts a rapacious and insolent oppression. + These official spies, who regularly corresponded with the palace, + were encouraged by favor and reward, anxiously to watch the + progress of every treasonable design, from the faint and latent + symptoms of disaffection, to the actual preparation of an open + revolt. Their careless or criminal violation of truth and justice + was covered by the consecrated mask of zeal; and they might + securely aim their poisoned arrows at the breast either of the + guilty or the innocent, who had provoked their resentment, or + refused to purchase their silence. A faithful subject, of Syria + perhaps, or of Britain, was exposed to the danger, or at least to + the dread, of being dragged in chains to the court of Milan or + Constantinople, to defend his life and fortune against the + malicious charge of these privileged informers. The ordinary + administration was conducted by those methods which extreme + necessity can alone palliate; and the defects of evidence were + diligently supplied by the use of torture. 161 + + 160 (return) [ Xenophon, Cyropæd. l. viii. Brisson, de Regno + Persico, l. i No 190, p. 264. The emperors adopted with pleasure + this Persian metaphor.] + + 161 (return) [ For the _Agentes in Rebus_, see Ammian. l. xv. c. + 3, l. xvi. c. 5, l. xxii. c. 7, with the curious annotations of + Valesius. Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. Among the + passages collected in the Commentary of Godefroy, the most + remarkable is one from Libanius, in his discourse concerning the + death of Julian.] + + The deceitful and dangerous experiment of the criminal + _quæstion_, as it is emphatically styled, was admitted, rather + than approved, in the jurisprudence of the Romans. They applied + this sanguinary mode of examination only to servile bodies, whose + sufferings were seldom weighed by those haughty republicans in + the scale of justice or humanity; but they would never consent to + violate the sacred person of a citizen, till they possessed the + clearest evidence of his guilt. 162 The annals of tyranny, from + the reign of Tiberius to that of Domitian, circumstantially + relate the executions of many innocent victims; but, as long as + the faintest remembrance was kept alive of the national freedom + and honor, the last hours of a Roman were secured from the danger + of ignominions torture. 163 The conduct of the provincial + magistrates was not, however, regulated by the practice of the + city, or the strict maxims of the civilians. They found the use + of torture established not only among the slaves of oriental + despotism, but among the Macedonians, who obeyed a limited + monarch; among the Rhodians, who flourished by the liberty of + commerce; and even among the sage Athenians, who had asserted and + adorned the dignity of human kind. 164 The acquiescence of the + provincials encouraged their governors to acquire, or perhaps to + usurp, a discretionary power of employing the rack, to extort + from vagrants or plebeian criminals the confession of their + guilt, till they insensibly proceeded to confound the distinction + of rank, and to disregard the privileges of Roman citizens. The + apprehensions of the subjects urged them to solicit, and the + interest of the sovereign engaged him to grant, a variety of + special exemptions, which tacitly allowed, and even authorized, + the general use of torture. They protected all persons of + illustrious or honorable rank, bishops and their presbyters, + professors of the liberal arts, soldiers and their families, + municipal officers, and their posterity to the third generation, + and all children under the age of puberty. 165 But a fatal maxim + was introduced into the new jurisprudence of the empire, that in + the case of treason, which included every offence that the + subtlety of lawyers could derive from a _hostile intention_ + towards the prince or republic, 166 all privileges were + suspended, and all conditions were reduced to the same + ignominious level. As the safety of the emperor was avowedly + preferred to every consideration of justice or humanity, the + dignity of age and the tenderness of youth were alike exposed to + the most cruel tortures; and the terrors of a malicious + information, which might select them as the accomplices, or even + as the witnesses, perhaps, of an imaginary crime, perpetually + hung over the heads of the principal citizens of the Roman world. + 167 + + 162 (return) [ The Pandects (l. xlviii. tit. xviii.) contain the + sentiments of the most celebrated civilians on the subject of + torture. They strictly confine it to slaves; and Ulpian himself + is ready to acknowledge that Res est fragilis, et periculosa, et + quæ veritatem fallat.] + + 163 (return) [ In the conspiracy of Piso against Nero, Epicharis + (libertina mulier) was the only person tortured; the rest were + _intacti tormentis_. It would be superfluous to add a weaker, and + it would be difficult to find a stronger, example. Tacit. Annal. + xv. 57.] + + 164 (return) [ Dicendum... de Institutis Atheniensium, Rhodiorum, + doctissimorum hominum, apud quos etiam (id quod acerbissimum est) + liberi, civesque torquentur. Cicero, Partit. Orat. c. 34. We may + learn from the trial of Philotas the practice of the Macedonians. + (Diodor. Sicul. l. xvii. p. 604. Q. Curt. l. vi. c. 11.)] + + 165 (return) [ Heineccius (Element. Jur. Civil. part vii. p. 81) + has collected these exemptions into one view.] + + 166 (return) [ This definition of the sage Ulpian (Pandect. l. + xlviii. tit. iv.) seems to have been adapted to the court of + Caracalla, rather than to that of Alexander Severus. See the + Codes of Theodosius and ad leg. Juliam majestatis.] + + 167 (return) [ Arcadius Charisius is the oldest lawyer quoted to + justify the universal practice of torture in all cases of + treason; but this maxim of tyranny, which is admitted by Ammianus + with the most respectful terror, is enforced by several laws of + the successors of Constantine. See Cod. Theod. l. ix. tit. xxxv. + majestatis crimine omnibus æqua est conditio.] + + These evils, however terrible they may appear, were confined to + the smaller number of Roman subjects, whose dangerous situation + was in some degree compensated by the enjoyment of those + advantages, either of nature or of fortune, which exposed them to + the jealousy of the monarch. The obscure millions of a great + empire have much less to dread from the cruelty than from the + avarice of their masters, and _their_ humble happiness is + principally affected by the grievance of excessive taxes, which, + gently pressing on the wealthy, descend with accelerated weight + on the meaner and more indigent classes of society. An ingenious + philosopher 168 has calculated the universal measure of the + public impositions by the degrees of freedom and servitude; and + ventures to assert, that, according to an invariable law of + nature, it must always increase with the former, and diminish in + a just proportion to the latter. But this reflection, which would + tend to alleviate the miseries of despotism, is contradicted at + least by the history of the Roman empire; which accuses the same + princes of despoiling the senate of its authority, and the + provinces of their wealth. Without abolishing all the various + customs and duties on merchandises, which are imperceptibly + discharged by the apparent choice of the purchaser, the policy of + Constantine and his successors preferred a simple and direct mode + of taxation, more congenial to the spirit of an arbitrary + government. 169 + + 168 (return) [ Montesquieu, Esprit des Loix, l. xii. c. 13.] + + 169 (return) [ Mr. Hume (Essays, vol. i. p. 389) has seen this + importance with some degree of perplexity.] + + + + + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part VI. + + + The name and use of the _indictions_, 170 which serve to + ascertain the chronology of the middle ages, were derived from + the regular practice of the Roman tributes. 171 The emperor + subscribed with his own hand, and in purple ink, the solemn + edict, or indiction, which was fixed up in the principal city of + each diocese, during two months previous to the first day of + September. And by a very easy connection of ideas, the word + _indiction_ was transferred to the measure of tribute which it + prescribed, and to the annual term which it allowed for the + payment. This general estimate of the supplies was proportioned + to the real and imaginary wants of the state; but as often as the + expense exceeded the revenue, or the revenue fell short of the + computation, an additional tax, under the name of + _superindiction_, was imposed on the people, and the most + valuable attribute of sovereignty was communicated to the + Prætorian præfects, who, on some occasions, were permitted to + provide for the unforeseen and extraordinary exigencies of the + public service. The execution of these laws (which it would be + tedious to pursue in their minute and intricate detail) consisted + of two distinct operations: the resolving the general imposition + into its constituent parts, which were assessed on the provinces, + the cities, and the individuals of the Roman world; and the + collecting the separate contributions of the individuals, the + cities, and the provinces, till the accumulated sums were poured + into the Imperial treasuries. But as the account between the + monarch and the subject was perpetually open, and as the renewal + of the demand anticipated the perfect discharge of the preceding + obligation, the weighty machine of the finances was moved by the + same hands round the circle of its yearly revolution. Whatever + was honorable or important in the administration of the revenue, + was committed to the wisdom of the præfects, and their provincia. + representatives; the lucrative functions were claimed by a crowd + of subordinate officers, some of whom depended on the treasurer, + others on the governor of the province; and who, in the + inevitable conflicts of a perplexed jurisdiction, had frequent + opportunities of disputing with each other the spoils of the + people. The laborious offices, which could be productive only of + envy and reproach, of expense and danger, were imposed on the + _Decurions_, who formed the corporations of the cities, and whom + the severity of the Imperial laws had condemned to sustain the + burdens of civil society. 172 The whole landed property of the + empire (without excepting the patrimonial estates of the monarch) + was the object of ordinary taxation; and every new purchaser + contracted the obligations of the former proprietor. An accurate + _census_, 173 or survey, was the only equitable mode of + ascertaining the proportion which every citizen should be obliged + to contribute for the public service; and from the well-known + period of the indictions, there is reason to believe that this + difficult and expensive operation was repeated at the regular + distance of fifteen years. The lands were measured by surveyors, + who were sent into the provinces; their nature, whether arable or + pasture, or vineyards or woods, was distinctly reported; and an + estimate was made of their common value from the average produce + of five years. The numbers of slaves and of cattle constituted an + essential part of the report; an oath was administered to the + proprietors, which bound them to disclose the true state of their + affairs; and their attempts to prevaricate, or elude the + intention of the legislator, were severely watched, and punished + as a capital crime, which included the double guilt of treason + and sacrilege. 174 A large portion of the tribute was paid in + money; and of the current coin of the empire, gold alone could be + legally accepted. 175 The remainder of the taxes, according to + the proportions determined by the annual indiction, was furnished + in a manner still more direct, and still more oppressive. + According to the different nature of lands, their real produce in + the various articles of wine or oil, corn or barley, wood or + iron, was transported by the labor or at the expense of the + provincials 17511 to the Imperial magazines, from whence they + were occasionally distributed for the use of the court, of the + army, and of two capitals, Rome and Constantinople. The + commissioners of the revenue were so frequently obliged to make + considerable purchases, that they were strictly prohibited from + allowing any compensation, or from receiving in money the value + of those supplies which were exacted in kind. In the primitive + simplicity of small communities, this method may be well adapted + to collect the almost voluntary offerings of the people; but it + is at once susceptible of the utmost latitude, and of the utmost + strictness, which in a corrupt and absolute monarchy must + introduce a perpetual contest between the power of oppression and + the arts of fraud. 176 The agriculture of the Roman provinces was + insensibly ruined, and, in the progress of despotism which tends + to disappoint its own purpose, the emperors were obliged to + derive some merit from the forgiveness of debts, or the remission + of tributes, which their subjects were utterly incapable of + paying. According to the new division of Italy, the fertile and + happy province of Campania, the scene of the early victories and + of the delicious retirements of the citizens of Rome, extended + between the sea and the Apennine, from the Tiber to the Silarus. + Within sixty years after the death of Constantine, and on the + evidence of an actual survey, an exemption was granted in favor + of three hundred and thirty thousand English acres of desert and + uncultivated land; which amounted to one eighth of the whole + surface of the province. As the footsteps of the Barbarians had + not yet been seen in Italy, the cause of this amazing desolation, + which is recorded in the laws, can be ascribed only to the + administration of the Roman emperors. 177 + + 170 (return) [ The cycle of indictions, which may be traced as + high as the reign of Constantius, or perhaps of his father, + Constantine, is still employed by the Papal court; but the + commencement of the year has been very reasonably altered to the + first of January. See l’Art de Verifier les Dates, p. xi.; and + Dictionnaire Raison. de la Diplomatique, tom. ii. p. 25; two + accurate treatises, which come from the workshop of the + Benedictines. —— It does not appear that the establishment of the + indiction is to be at tributed to Constantine: it existed before + he had been created _Augustus_ at Rome, and the remission granted + by him to the city of Autun is the proof. He would not have + ventured while only _Cæsar_, and under the necessity of courting + popular favor, to establish such an odious impost. Aurelius + Victor and Lactantius agree in designating Diocletian as the + author of this despotic institution. Aur. Vict. de Cæs. c. 39. + Lactant. de Mort. Pers. c. 7—G.] + + 171 (return) [ The first twenty-eight titles of the eleventh book + of the Theodosian Code are filled with the circumstantial + regulations on the important subject of tributes; but they + suppose a clearer knowledge of fundamental principles than it is + at present in our power to attain.] + + 172 (return) [ The title concerning the Decurions (l. xii. tit. + i.) is the most ample in the whole Theodosian Code; since it + contains not less than one hundred and ninety-two distinct laws + to ascertain the duties and privileges of that useful order of + citizens. * Note: The Decurions were charged with assessing, + according to the census of property prepared by the tabularii, + the payment due from each proprietor. This odious office was + authoritatively imposed on the richest citizens of each town; + they had no salary, and all their compensation was, to be exempt + from certain corporal punishments, in case they should have + incurred them. The Decurionate was the ruin of all the rich. + Hence they tried every way of avoiding this dangerous honor; they + concealed themselves, they entered into military service; but + their efforts were unavailing; they were seized, they were + compelled to become Decurions, and the dread inspired by this + title was termed _Impiety_.—G. ——The Decurions were mutually + responsible; they were obliged to undertake for pieces of ground + abandoned by their owners on account of the pressure of the + taxes, and, finally, to make up all deficiencies. Savigny chichte + des Rom. Rechts, i. 25.—M.] + + 173 (return) [ Habemus enim et hominum numerum qui delati sunt, + et agrun modum. Eumenius in Panegyr. Vet. viii. 6. See Cod. + Theod. l. xiii. tit. x. xi., with Godefroy’s Commentary.] + + 174 (return) [ Siquis sacrilegâ vitem falce succiderit, aut + feracium ramorum fœtus hebetaverit, quo delinet fidem Censuum, et + mentiatur callide paupertatis ingenium, mox detectus capitale + subibit exitium, et bona ejus in Fisci jura migrabunt. Cod. + Theod. l. xiii. tit. xi. leg. 1. Although this law is not without + its studied obscurity, it is, however clear enough to prove the + minuteness of the inquisition, and the disproportion of the + penalty.] + + 175 (return) [ The astonishment of Pliny would have ceased. + Equidem miror P. R. victis gentibus argentum semper imperitasse + non aurum. Hist Natur. xxxiii. 15.] + + 17511 (return) [ The proprietors were not charged with the + expense of this transport in the provinces situated on the + sea-shore or near the great rivers, there were companies of + boatmen, and of masters of vessels, who had this commission, and + furnished the means of transport at their own expense. In return, + they were themselves exempt, altogether, or in part, from the + indiction and other imposts. They had certain privileges; + particular regulations determined their rights and obligations. + (Cod. Theod. l. xiii. tit. v. ix.) The transports by land were + made in the same manner, by the intervention of a privileged + company called Bastaga; the members were called Bastagarii Cod. + Theod. l. viii. tit. v.—G.] + + 176 (return) [ Some precautions were taken (see Cod. Theod. l. + xi. tit. ii. and Cod. Justinian. l. x. tit. xxvii. leg. 1, 2, 3) + to restrain the magistrates from the abuse of their authority, + either in the exaction or in the purchase of corn: but those who + had learning enough to read the orations of Cicero against + Verres, (iii. de Frumento,) might instruct themselves in all the + various arts of oppression, with regard to the weight, the price, + the quality, and the carriage. The avarice of an unlettered + governor would supply the ignorance of precept or precedent.] + + 177 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. xi. tit. xxviii. leg. 2, published + the 24th of March, A. D. 395, by the emperor Honorius, only two + months after the death of his father, Theodosius. He speaks of + 528,042 Roman jugera, which I have reduced to the English + measure. The jugerum contained 28,800 square Roman feet.] + + Either from design or from accident, the mode of assessment + seemed to unite the substance of a land tax with the forms of a + capitation. 178 The returns which were sent of every province or + district, expressed the number of tributary subjects, and the + amount of the public impositions. The latter of these sums was + divided by the former; and the estimate, that such a province + contained so many _capita_, or heads of tribute; and that each + _head_ was rated at such a price, was universally received, not + only in the popular, but even in the legal computation. The value + of a tributary head must have varied, according to many + accidental, or at least fluctuating circumstances; but some + knowledge has been preserved of a very curious fact, the more + important, since it relates to one of the richest provinces of + the Roman empire, and which now flourishes as the most splendid + of the European kingdoms. The rapacious ministers of Constantius + had exhausted the wealth of Gaul, by exacting twenty-five pieces + of gold for the annual tribute of every head. The humane policy + of his successor reduced the capitation to seven pieces. 179 A + moderate proportion between these opposite extremes of + extraordinary oppression and of transient indulgence, may + therefore be fixed at sixteen pieces of gold, or about nine + pounds sterling, the common standard, perhaps, of the impositions + of Gaul. 180 But this calculation, or rather, indeed, the facts + from whence it is deduced, cannot fail of suggesting two + difficulties to a thinking mind, who will be at once surprised by + the _equality_, and by the _enormity_, of the capitation. An + attempt to explain them may perhaps reflect some light on the + interesting subject of the finances of the declining empire. + + 178 (return) [ Godefroy (Cod. Theod. tom. vi. p. 116) argues with + weight and learning on the subject of the capitation; but while + he explains the _caput_, as a share or measure of property, he + too absolutely excludes the idea of a personal assessment.] + + 179 (return) [ Quid profuerit (_Julianus_) anhelantibus extremâ + penuriâ Gallis, hinc maxime claret, quod primitus partes eas + ingressus, pro _capitibus_ singulis tributi nomine vicenos quinos + aureos reperit flagitari; discedens vero septenos tantum numera + universa complentes. Ammian. l. xvi. c. 5.] + + 180 (return) [ In the calculation of any sum of money under + Constantine and his successors, we need only refer to the + excellent discourse of Mr. Greaves on the Denarius, for the proof + of the following principles; 1. That the ancient and modern Roman + pound, containing 5256 grains of Troy weight, is about one + twelfth lighter than the English pound, which is composed of 5760 + of the same grains. 2. That the pound of gold, which had once + been divided into forty-eight _aurei_, was at this time coined + into seventy-two smaller pieces of the same denomination. 3. That + five of these aurei were the legal tender for a pound of silver, + and that consequently the pound of gold was exchanged for + fourteen pounds eight ounces of silver, according to the Roman, + or about thirteen pounds according to the English weight. 4. That + the English pound of silver is coined into sixty-two shillings. + From these elements we may compute the Roman pound of gold, the + usual method of reckoning large sums, at forty pounds sterling, + and we may fix the currency of the _aureus_ at somewhat more than + eleven shillings. * Note: See, likewise, a Dissertation of M. + Letronne, “Considerations Génerales sur l’Evaluation des Monnaies + Grecques et Romaines” Paris, 1817—M.] + + I. It is obvious, that, as long as the immutable constitution of + human nature produces and maintains so unequal a division of + property, the most numerous part of the community would be + deprived of their subsistence, by the equal assessment of a tax + from which the sovereign would derive a very trifling revenue. + Such indeed might be the theory of the Roman capitation; but in + the practice, this unjust equality was no longer felt, as the + tribute was collected on the principle of a _real_, not of a + _personal_ imposition. 18011 Several indigent citizens + contributed to compose a single _head_, or share of taxation; + while the wealthy provincial, in proportion to his fortune, alone + represented several of those imaginary beings. In a poetical + request, addressed to one of the last and most deserving of the + Roman princes who reigned in Gaul, Sidonius Apollinaris + personifies his tribute under the figure of a triple monster, the + Geryon of the Grecian fables, and entreats the new Hercules that + he would most graciously be pleased to save his life by cutting + off three of his heads. 181 The fortune of Sidonius far exceeded + the customary wealth of a poet; but if he had pursued the + allusion, he might have painted many of the Gallic nobles with + the hundred heads of the deadly Hydra, spreading over the face of + the country, and devouring the substance of a hundred families. + II. The difficulty of allowing an annual sum of about nine pounds + sterling, even for the average of the capitation of Gaul, may be + rendered more evident by the comparison of the present state of + the same country, as it is now governed by the absolute monarch + of an industrious, wealthy, and affectionate people. The taxes of + France cannot be magnified, either by fear or by flattery, beyond + the annual amount of eighteen millions sterling, which ought + perhaps to be shared among four and twenty millions of + inhabitants. 182 Seven millions of these, in the capacity of + fathers, or brothers, or husbands, may discharge the obligations + of the remaining multitude of women and children; yet the equal + proportion of each tributary subject will scarcely rise above + fifty shillings of our money, instead of a proportion almost four + times as considerable, which was regularly imposed on their + Gallic ancestors. The reason of this difference may be found, not + so much in the relative scarcity or plenty of gold and silver, as + in the different state of society, in ancient Gaul and in modern + France. In a country where personal freedom is the privilege of + every subject, the whole mass of taxes, whether they are levied + on property or on consumption, may be fairly divided among the + whole body of the nation. But the far greater part of the lands + of ancient Gaul, as well as of the other provinces of the Roman + world, were cultivated by slaves, or by peasants, whose dependent + condition was a less rigid servitude. 183 In such a state the + poor were maintained at the expense of the masters who enjoyed + the fruits of their labor; and as the rolls of tribute were + filled only with the names of those citizens who possessed the + means of an honorable, or at least of a decent subsistence, the + comparative smallness of their numbers explains and justifies the + high rate of their capitation. The truth of this assertion may be + illustrated by the following example: The Ædui, one of the most + powerful and civilized tribes or _cities_ of Gaul, occupied an + extent of territory, which now contains about five hundred + thousand inhabitants, in the two ecclesiastical dioceses of Autun + and Nevers; 184 and with the probable accession of those of + Châlons and Maçon, 185 the population would amount to eight + hundred thousand souls. In the time of Constantine, the territory + of the Ædui afforded no more than twenty-five thousand _heads_ of + capitation, of whom seven thousand were discharged by that prince + from the intolerable weight of tribute. 186 A just analogy would + seem to countenance the opinion of an ingenious historian, 187 + that the free and tributary citizens did not surpass the number + of half a million; and if, in the ordinary administration of + government, their annual payments may be computed at about four + millions and a half of our money, it would appear, that although + the share of each individual was four times as considerable, a + fourth part only of the modern taxes of France was levied on the + Imperial province of Gaul. The exactions of Constantius may be + calculated at seven millions sterling, which were reduced to two + millions by the humanity or the wisdom of Julian. + + 18011 (return) [ Two masterly dissertations of M. Savigny, in the + Mem. of the Berlin Academy (1822 and 1823) have thrown new light + on the taxation system of the Empire. Gibbon, according to M. + Savigny, is mistaken in supposing that there was but one kind of + capitation tax; there was a land tax, and a capitation tax, + strictly so called. The land tax was, in its operation, a + proprietor’s or landlord’s tax. But, besides this, there was a + direct capitation tax on all who were not possessed of landed + property. This tax dates from the time of the Roman conquests; + its amount is not clearly known. Gradual exemptions released + different persons and classes from this tax. One edict exempts + painters. In Syria, all under twelve or fourteen, or above + sixty-five, were exempted; at a later period, all under twenty, + and all unmarried females; still later, all under twenty-five, + widows and nuns, soldiers, veterani and clerici—whole dioceses, + that of Thrace and Illyricum. Under Galerius and Licinius, the + plebs urbana became exempt; though this, perhaps, was only an + ordinance for the East. By degrees, however, the exemption was + extended to all the inhabitants of towns; and as it was strictly + capitatio plebeia, from which all possessors were exempted it + fell at length altogether on the coloni and agricultural slaves. + These were registered in the same cataster (capitastrum) with the + land tax. It was paid by the proprietor, who raised it again from + his coloni and laborers.—M.] + + 181 (return) [ + + Geryones nos esse puta, monstrumque tributum, Hîc _capita_ ut + vivam, tu mihi tolle _tria_. Sidon. Apollinar. Carm. xiii. + + The reputation of Father Sirmond led me to expect more + satisfaction than I have found in his note (p. 144) on this + remarkable passage. The words, suo vel _suorum_ nomine, betray + the perplexity of the commentator.] + + 182 (return) [ This assertion, however formidable it may seem, is + founded on the original registers of births, deaths, and + marriages, collected by public authority, and now deposited in + the _Contrôlee General_ at Paris. The annual average of births + throughout the whole kingdom, taken in five years, (from 1770 to + 1774, both inclusive,) is 479,649 boys, and 449,269 girls, in all + 928,918 children. The province of French Hainault alone furnishes + 9906 births; and we are assured, by an actual enumeration of the + people, annually repeated from the year 1773 to the year 1776, + that upon an average, Hainault contains 257,097 inhabitants. By + the rules of fair analogy, we might infer, that the ordinary + proportion of annual births to the whole people, is about 1 to + 26; and that the kingdom of France contains 24,151,868 persons of + both sexes and of every age. If we content ourselves with the + more moderate proportion of 1 to 25, the whole population will + amount to 23,222,950. From the diligent researches of the French + Government, (which are not unworthy of our own imitation,) we may + hope to obtain a still greater degree of certainty on this + important subject * Note: On no subject has so much valuable + information been collected since the time of Gibbon, as the + statistics of the different countries of Europe but much is still + wanting as to our own—M.] + + 183 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. v. tit. ix. x. xi. Cod. Justinian. + l. xi. tit. lxiii. Coloni appellantur qui conditionem debent + genitali solo, propter agriculturum sub dominio possessorum. + Augustin. de Civitate Dei, l. x. c. i.] + + 184 (return) [ The ancient jurisdiction of (_Augustodunum_) Autun + in Burgundy, the capital of the Ædui, comprehended the adjacent + territory of (_Noviodunum_) Nevers. See D’Anville, Notice de + l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 491. The two dioceses of Autun and Nevers + are now composed, the former of 610, and the latter of 160 + parishes. The registers of births, taken during eleven years, in + 476 parishes of the same province of Burgundy, and multiplied by + the moderate proportion of 25, (see Messance Recherches sur la + Population, p. 142,) may authorizes us to assign an average + number of 656 persons for each parish, which being again + multiplied by the 770 parishes of the dioceses of Nevers and + Autun, will produce the sum of 505,120 persons for the extent of + country which was once possessed by the Ædui.] + + 185 (return) [ We might derive an additional supply of 301,750 + inhabitants from the dioceses of Châlons (_Cabillonum_) and of + Maçon, (_Matisco_,) since they contain, the one 200, and the + other 260 parishes. This accession of territory might be + justified by very specious reasons. 1. Châlons and Maçon were + undoubtedly within the original jurisdiction of the Ædui. (See + D’Anville, Notice, p. 187, 443.) 2. In the Notitia of Gaul, they + are enumerated not as _Civitates_, but merely as _Castra_. 3. + They do not appear to have been episcopal seats before the fifth + and sixth centuries. Yet there is a passage in Eumenius (Panegyr. + Vet. viii. 7) which very forcibly deters me from extending the + territory of the Ædui, in the reign of Constantine, along the + beautiful banks of the navigable Saône. * Note: In this passage + of Eumenius, Savigny supposes the original number to have been + 32,000: 7000 being discharged, there remained 25,000 liable to + the tribute. See Mem. quoted above.—M.] + + 186 (return) [ Eumenius in Panegyr Vet. viii. 11.] + + 187 (return) [ L’Abbé du Bos, Hist. Critique de la M. F. tom. i. + p. 121] + + But this tax, or capitation, on the proprietors of land, would + have suffered a rich and numerous class of free citizens to + escape. With the view of sharing that species of wealth which is + derived from art or labor, and which exists in money or in + merchandise, the emperors imposed a distinct and personal tribute + on the trading part of their subjects. 188 Some exemptions, very + strictly confined both in time and place, were allowed to the + proprietors who disposed of the produce of their own estates. + Some indulgence was granted to the profession of the liberal + arts: but every other branch of commercial industry was affected + by the severity of the law. The honorable merchant of Alexandria, + who imported the gems and spices of India for the use of the + western world; the usurer, who derived from the interest of money + a silent and ignominious profit; the ingenious manufacturer, the + diligent mechanic, and even the most obscure retailer of a + sequestered village, were obliged to admit the officers of the + revenue into the partnership of their gain; and the sovereign of + the Roman empire, who tolerated the profession, consented to + share the infamous salary, of public prostitutes. 18811 As this + general tax upon industry was collected every fourth year, it was + styled the _Lustral Contribution:_ and the historian Zosimus 189 + laments that the approach of the fatal period was announced by + the tears and terrors of the citizens, who were often compelled + by the impending scourge to embrace the most abhorred and + unnatural methods of procuring the sum at which their property + had been assessed. The testimony of Zosimus cannot indeed be + justified from the charge of passion and prejudice; but, from the + nature of this tribute it seems reasonable to conclude, that it + was arbitrary in the distribution, and extremely rigorous in the + mode of collecting. The secret wealth of commerce, and the + precarious profits of art or labor, are susceptible only of a + discretionary valuation, which is seldom disadvantageous to the + interest of the treasury; and as the person of the trader + supplies the want of a visible and permanent security, the + payment of the imposition, which, in the case of a land tax, may + be obtained by the seizure of property, can rarely be extorted by + any other means than those of corporal punishments. The cruel + treatment of the insolvent debtors of the state, is attested, and + was perhaps mitigated by a very humane edict of Constantine, who, + disclaiming the use of racks and of scourges, allots a spacious + and airy prison for the place of their confinement. 190 + + 188 (return) [ See Cod. Theod. l. xiii. tit. i. and iv.] + + 18811 (return) [ The emperor Theodosius put an end, by a law. to + this disgraceful source of revenue. (Godef. ad Cod. Theod. xiii. + tit. i. c. 1.) But before he deprived himself of it, he made sure + of some way of replacing this deficit. A rich patrician, + Florentius, indignant at this legalized licentiousness, had made + representations on the subject to the emperor. To induce him to + tolerate it no longer, he offered his own property to supply the + diminution of the revenue. The emperor had the baseness to accept + his offer—G.] + + 189 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 115. There is probably as much + passion and prejudice in the attack of Zosimus, as in the + elaborate defence of the memory of Constantine by the zealous Dr. + Howell. Hist. of the World, vol. ii. p. 20.] + + 190 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. xi. tit vii. leg. 3.] + + These general taxes were imposed and levied by the absolute + authority of the monarch; but the occasional offerings of the + _coronary gold_ still retained the name and semblance of popular + consent. It was an ancient custom that the allies of the + republic, who ascribed their safety or deliverance to the success + of the Roman arms, and even the cities of Italy, who admired the + virtues of their victorious general, adorned the pomp of his + triumph by their voluntary gifts of crowns of gold, which after + the ceremony were consecrated in the temple of Jupiter, to remain + a lasting monument of his glory to future ages. The progress of + zeal and flattery soon multiplied the number, and increased the + size, of these popular donations; and the triumph of Cæsar was + enriched with two thousand eight hundred and twenty-two massy + crowns, whose weight amounted to twenty thousand four hundred and + fourteen pounds of gold. This treasure was immediately melted + down by the prudent dictator, who was satisfied that it would be + more serviceable to his soldiers than to the gods: his example + was imitated by his successors; and the custom was introduced of + exchanging these splendid ornaments for the more acceptable + present of the current gold coin of the empire. 191 The + spontaneous offering was at length exacted as the debt of duty; + and instead of being confined to the occasion of a triumph, it + was supposed to be granted by the several cities and provinces of + the monarchy, as often as the emperor condescended to announce + his accession, his consulship, the birth of a son, the creation + of a Cæsar, a victory over the Barbarians, or any other real or + imaginary event which graced the annals of his reign. The + peculiar free gift of the senate of Rome was fixed by custom at + sixteen hundred pounds of gold, or about sixty-four thousand + pounds sterling. The oppressed subjects celebrated their own + felicity, that their sovereign should graciously consent to + accept this feeble but voluntary testimony of their loyalty and + gratitude. 192 + + 191 (return) [ See Lipsius de Magnitud. Romana, l. ii. c. 9. The + Tarragonese Spain presented the emperor Claudius with a crown of + gold of seven, and Gaul with another of nine, _hundred_ pounds + weight. I have followed the rational emendation of Lipsius. * + Note: This custom is of still earlier date, the Romans had + borrowed it from Greece. Who is not acquainted with the famous + oration of Demosthenes for the golden crown, which his citizens + wished to bestow, and Æschines to deprive him of?—G.] + + 192 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. xii. tit. xiii. The senators were + supposed to be exempt from the _Aurum Coronarium;_ but the _Auri + Oblatio_, which was required at their hands, was precisely of the + same nature.] + + A people elated by pride, or soured by discontent, are seldom + qualified to form a just estimate of their actual situation. The + subjects of Constantine were incapable of discerning the decline + of genius and manly virtue, which so far degraded them below the + dignity of their ancestors; but they could feel and lament the + rage of tyranny, the relaxation of discipline, and the increase + of taxes. The impartial historian, who acknowledges the justice + of their complaints, will observe some favorable circumstances + which tended to alleviate the misery of their condition. The + threatening tempest of Barbarians, which so soon subverted the + foundations of Roman greatness, was still repelled, or suspended, + on the frontiers. The arts of luxury and literature were + cultivated, and the elegant pleasures of society were enjoyed, by + the inhabitants of a considerable portion of the globe. The + forms, the pomp, and the expense of the civil administration + contributed to restrain the irregular license of the soldiers; + and although the laws were violated by power, or perverted by + subtlety, the sage principles of the Roman jurisprudence + preserved a sense of order and equity, unknown to the despotic + governments of the East. The rights of mankind might derive some + protection from religion and philosophy; and the name of freedom, + which could no longer alarm, might sometimes admonish, the + successors of Augustus, that they did not reign over a nation of + Slaves or Barbarians. 193 + + 193 (return) [ The great Theodosius, in his judicious advice to + his son, (Claudian in iv. Consulat. Honorii, 214, &c.,) + distinguishes the station of a Roman prince from that of a + Parthian monarch. Virtue was necessary for the one; birth might + suffice for the other.] + + + + + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part I. + + Character Of Constantine.—Gothic War.—Death Of + Constantine.—Division Of The Empire Among His Three Sons.— Persian + War.—Tragic Deaths Of Constantine The Younger And + Constans.—Usurpation Of Magnentius.—Civil War.—Victory Of + Constantius. + + + The character of the prince who removed the seat of empire, and + introduced such important changes into the civil and religious + constitution of his country, has fixed the attention, and divided + the opinions, of mankind. By the grateful zeal of the Christians, + the deliverer of the church has been decorated with every + attribute of a hero, and even of a saint; while the discontent of + the vanquished party has compared Constantine to the most + abhorred of those tyrants, who, by their vice and weakness, + dishonored the Imperial purple. The same passions have in some + degree been perpetuated to succeeding generations, and the + character of Constantine is considered, even in the present age, + as an object either of satire or of panegyric. By the impartial + union of those defects which are confessed by his warmest + admirers, and of those virtues which are acknowledged by his + most-implacable enemies, we might hope to delineate a just + portrait of that extraordinary man, which the truth and candor of + history should adopt without a blush. 1 But it would soon appear, + that the vain attempt to blend such discordant colors, and to + reconcile such inconsistent qualities, must produce a figure + monstrous rather than human, unless it is viewed in its proper + and distinct lights, by a careful separation of the different + periods of the reign of Constantine. + + 1 (return) [ On ne se trompera point sur Constantin, en croyant + tout le mal ru’en dit Eusebe, et tout le bien qu’en dit Zosime. + Fleury, Hist. Ecclesiastique, tom. iii. p. 233. Eusebius and + Zosimus form indeed the two extremes of flattery and invective. + The intermediate shades are expressed by those writers, whose + character or situation variously tempered the influence of their + religious zeal.] + + The person, as well as the mind, of Constantine, had been + enriched by nature with her choicest endowments. His stature was + lofty, his countenance majestic, his deportment graceful; his + strength and activity were displayed in every manly exercise, and + from his earliest youth, to a very advanced season of life, he + preserved the vigor of his constitution by a strict adherence to + the domestic virtues of chastity and temperance. He delighted in + the social intercourse of familiar conversation; and though he + might sometimes indulge his disposition to raillery with less + reserve than was required by the severe dignity of his station, + the courtesy and liberality of his manners gained the hearts of + all who approached him. The sincerity of his friendship has been + suspected; yet he showed, on some occasions, that he was not + incapable of a warm and lasting attachment. The disadvantage of + an illiterate education had not prevented him from forming a just + estimate of the value of learning; and the arts and sciences + derived some encouragement from the munificent protection of + Constantine. In the despatch of business, his diligence was + indefatigable; and the active powers of his mind were almost + continually exercised in reading, writing, or meditating, in + giving audiences to ambassadors, and in examining the complaints + of his subjects. Even those who censured the propriety of his + measures were compelled to acknowledge, that he possessed + magnanimity to conceive, and patience to execute, the most + arduous designs, without being checked either by the prejudices + of education, or by the clamors of the multitude. In the field, + he infused his own intrepid spirit into the troops, whom he + conducted with the talents of a consummate general; and to his + abilities, rather than to his fortune, we may ascribe the signal + victories which he obtained over the foreign and domestic foes of + the republic. He loved glory as the reward, perhaps as the + motive, of his labors. The boundless ambition, which, from the + moment of his accepting the purple at York, appears as the ruling + passion of his soul, may be justified by the dangers of his own + situation, by the character of his rivals, by the consciousness + of superior merit, and by the prospect that his success would + enable him to restore peace and order to the distracted empire. + In his civil wars against Maxentius and Licinius, he had engaged + on his side the inclinations of the people, who compared the + undissembled vices of those tyrants with the spirit of wisdom and + justice which seemed to direct the general tenor of the + administration of Constantine. 2 + + 2 (return) [ The virtues of Constantine are collected for the + most part from Eutropius and the younger Victor, two sincere + pagans, who wrote after the extinction of his family. Even + Zosimus, and the _Emperor_ Julian, acknowledge his personal + courage and military achievements.] + + Had Constantine fallen on the banks of the Tyber, or even in the + plains of Hadrianople, such is the character which, with a few + exceptions, he might have transmitted to posterity. But the + conclusion of his reign (according to the moderate and indeed + tender sentence of a writer of the same age) degraded him from + the rank which he had acquired among the most deserving of the + Roman princes. 3 In the life of Augustus, we behold the tyrant of + the republic, converted, almost by imperceptible degrees, into + the father of his country, and of human kind. In that of + Constantine, we may contemplate a hero, who had so long inspired + his subjects with love, and his enemies with terror, degenerating + into a cruel and dissolute monarch, corrupted by his fortune, or + raised by conquest above the necessity of dissimulation. The + general peace which he maintained during the last fourteen years + of his reign, was a period of apparent splendor rather than of + real prosperity; and the old age of Constantine was disgraced by + the opposite yet reconcilable vices of rapaciousness and + prodigality. The accumulated treasures found in the palaces of + Maxentius and Licinius, were lavishly consumed; the various + innovations introduced by the conqueror, were attended with an + increasing expense; the cost of his buildings, his court, and his + festivals, required an immediate and plentiful supply; and the + oppression of the people was the only fund which could support + the magnificence of the sovereign. 4 His unworthy favorites, + enriched by the boundless liberality of their master, usurped + with impunity the privilege of rapine and corruption. 5 A secret + but universal decay was felt in every part of the public + administration, and the emperor himself, though he still retained + the obedience, gradually lost the esteem, of his subjects. The + dress and manners, which, towards the decline of life, he chose + to affect, served only to degrade him in the eyes of mankind. The + Asiatic pomp, which had been adopted by the pride of Diocletian, + assumed an air of softness and effeminacy in the person of + Constantine. He is represented with false hair of various colors, + laboriously arranged by the skilful artists to the times; a + diadem of a new and more expensive fashion; a profusion of gems + and pearls, of collars and bracelets, and a variegated flowing + robe of silk, most curiously embroidered with flowers of gold. In + such apparel, scarcely to be excused by the youth and folly of + Elagabalus, we are at a loss to discover the wisdom of an aged + monarch, and the simplicity of a Roman veteran. 6 A mind thus + relaxed by prosperity and indulgence, was incapable of rising to + that magnanimity which disdains suspicion, and dares to forgive. + The deaths of Maximian and Licinius may perhaps be justified by + the maxims of policy, as they are taught in the schools of + tyrants; but an impartial narrative of the executions, or rather + murders, which sullied the declining age of Constantine, will + suggest to our most candid thoughts the idea of a prince who + could sacrifice without reluctance the laws of justice, and the + feelings of nature, to the dictates either of his passions or of + his interest. + + 3 (return) [ See Eutropius, x. 6. In primo Imperii tempore + optimis principibus, ultimo mediis comparandus. From the ancient + Greek version of Poeanius, (edit. Havercamp. p. 697,) I am + inclined to suspect that Eutropius had originally written _vix_ + mediis; and that the offensive monosyllable was dropped by the + wilful inadvertency of transcribers. Aurelius Victor expresses + the general opinion by a vulgar and indeed obscure proverb. + _Trachala_ decem annis præstantissimds; duodecim sequentibus + _latro;_ decem novissimis _pupillus_ ob immouicas profusiones.] + + 4 (return) [ Julian, Orat. i. p. 8, in a flattering discourse + pronounced before the son of Constantine; and Cæsares, p. 336. + Zosimus, p. 114, 115. The stately buildings of Constantinople, + &c., may be quoted as a lasting and unexceptionable proof of the + profuseness of their founder.] + + 5 (return) [ The impartial Ammianus deserves all our confidence. + Proximorum fauces aperuit primus omnium Constantinus. L. xvi. c. + 8. Eusebius himself confesses the abuse, (Vit. Constantin. l. iv. + c. 29, 54;) and some of the Imperial laws feebly point out the + remedy. See above, p. 146 of this volume.] + + 6 (return) [ Julian, in the Cæsars, attempts to ridicule his + uncle. His suspicious testimony is confirmed, however, by the + learned Spanheim, with the authority of medals, (see Commentaire, + p. 156, 299, 397, 459.) Eusebius (Orat. c. 5) alleges, that + Constantine dressed for the public, not for himself. Were this + admitted, the vainest coxcomb could never want an excuse.] + + The same fortune which so invariably followed the standard of + Constantine, seemed to secure the hopes and comforts of his + domestic life. Those among his predecessors who had enjoyed the + longest and most prosperous reigns, Augustus Trajan, and + Diocletian, had been disappointed of posterity; and the frequent + revolutions had never allowed sufficient time for any Imperial + family to grow up and multiply under the shade of the purple. But + the royalty of the Flavian line, which had been first ennobled by + the Gothic Claudius, descended through several generations; and + Constantine himself derived from his royal father the hereditary + honors which he transmitted to his children. The emperor had been + twice married. Minervina, the obscure but lawful object of his + youthful attachment, 7 had left him only one son, who was called + Crispus. By Fausta, the daughter of Maximian, he had three + daughters, and three sons known by the kindred names of + Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. The unambitious brothers + of the great Constantine, Julius Constantius, Dalmatius, and + Hannibalianus, 8 were permitted to enjoy the most honorable rank, + and the most affluent fortune, that could be consistent with a + private station. The youngest of the three lived without a name, + and died without posterity. His two elder brothers obtained in + marriage the daughters of wealthy senators, and propagated new + branches of the Imperial race. Gallus and Julian afterwards + became the most illustrious of the children of Julius + Constantius, the _Patrician_. The two sons of Dalmatius, who had + been decorated with the vain title of _Censor_, were named + Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The two sisters of the great + Constantine, Anastasia and Eutropia, were bestowed on Optatus and + Nepotianus, two senators of noble birth and of consular dignity. + His third sister, Constantia, was distinguished by her + preëminence of greatness and of misery. She remained the widow of + the vanquished Licinius; and it was by her entreaties, that an + innocent boy, the offspring of their marriage, preserved, for + some time, his life, the title of Cæsar, and a precarious hope of + the succession. Besides the females, and the allies of the + Flavian house, ten or twelve males, to whom the language of + modern courts would apply the title of princes of the blood, + seemed, according to the order of their birth, to be destined + either to inherit or to support the throne of Constantine. But in + less than thirty years, this numerous and increasing family was + reduced to the persons of Constantius and Julian, who alone had + survived a series of crimes and calamities, such as the tragic + poets have deplored in the devoted lines of Pelops and of Cadmus. + + 7 (return) [ Zosimus and Zonaras agree in representing Minervina + as the concubine of Constantine; but Ducange has very gallantly + rescued her character, by producing a decisive passage from one + of the panegyrics: “Ab ipso fine pueritiæ te matrimonii legibus + dedisti.”] + + 8 (return) [ Ducange (Familiæ Byzantinæ, p. 44) bestows on him, + after Zosimus, the name of Constantine; a name somewhat unlikely, + as it was already occupied by the elder brother. That of + Hannibalianus is mentioned in the Paschal Chronicle, and is + approved by Tillemont. Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 527.] + + Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, and the presumptive heir + of the empire, is represented by impartial historians as an + amiable and accomplished youth. The care of his education, or at + least of his studies, was intrusted to Lactantius, the most + eloquent of the Christians; a preceptor admirably qualified to + form the taste, and the excite the virtues, of his illustrious + disciple. 9 At the age of seventeen, Crispus was invested with + the title of Cæsar, and the administration of the Gallic + provinces, where the inroads of the Germans gave him an early + occasion of signalizing his military prowess. In the civil war + which broke out soon afterwards, the father and son divided their + powers; and this history has already celebrated the valor as well + as conduct displayed by the latter, in forcing the straits of the + Hellespont, so obstinately defended by the superior fleet of + Lacinius. This naval victory contributed to determine the event + of the war; and the names of Constantine and of Crispus were + united in the joyful acclamations of their eastern subjects; who + loudly proclaimed, that the world had been subdued, and was now + governed, by an emperor endowed with every virtue; and by his + illustrious son, a prince beloved of Heaven, and the lively image + of his father’s perfections. The public favor, which seldom + accompanies old age, diffused its lustre over the youth of + Crispus. He deserved the esteem, and he engaged the affections, + of the court, the army, and the people. The experienced merit of + a reigning monarch is acknowledged by his subjects with + reluctance, and frequently denied with partial and discontented + murmurs; while, from the opening virtues of his successor, they + fondly conceive the most unbounded hopes of private as well as + public felicity. 10 + + 9 (return) [ Jerom. in Chron. The poverty of Lactantius may be + applied either to the praise of the disinterested philosopher, or + to the shame of the unfeeling patron. See Tillemont, Mém. + Ecclesiast. tom. vi. part 1. p. 345. Dupin, Bibliothèque + Ecclesiast. tom. i. p. 205. Lardner’s Credibility of the Gospel + History, part ii. vol. vii. p. 66.] + + 10 (return) [ Euseb. Hist. Ecclesiast. l. x. c. 9. Eutropius (x. + 6) styles him “egregium virum;” and Julian (Orat. i.) very + plainly alludes to the exploits of Crispus in the civil war. See + Spanheim, Comment. p. 92.] + + This dangerous popularity soon excited the attention of + Constantine, who, both as a father and as a king, was impatient + of an equal. Instead of attempting to secure the allegiance of + his son by the generous ties of confidence and gratitude, he + resolved to prevent the mischiefs which might be apprehended from + dissatisfied ambition. Crispus soon had reason to complain, that + while his infant brother Constantius was sent, with the title of + Cæsar, to reign over his peculiar department of the Gallic + provinces, 11 _he_, a prince of mature years, who had performed + such recent and signal services, instead of being raised to the + superior rank of Augustus, was confined almost a prisoner to his + father’s court; and exposed, without power or defence, to every + calumny which the malice of his enemies could suggest. Under such + painful circumstances, the royal youth might not always be able + to compose his behavior, or suppress his discontent; and we may + be assured, that he was encompassed by a train of indiscreet or + perfidious followers, who assiduously studied to inflame, and who + were perhaps instructed to betray, the unguarded warmth of his + resentment. An edict of Constantine, published about this time, + manifestly indicates his real or affected suspicions, that a + secret conspiracy had been formed against his person and + government. By all the allurements of honors and rewards, he + invites informers of every degree to accuse without exception his + magistrates or ministers, his friends or his most intimate + favorites, protesting, with a solemn asseveration, that he + himself will listen to the charge, that he himself will revenge + his injuries; and concluding with a prayer, which discovers some + apprehension of danger, that the providence of the Supreme Being + may still continue to protect the safety of the emperor and of + the empire. 12 + + 11 (return) [ Compare Idatius and the Paschal Chronicle, with + Ammianus, (l, xiv. c. 5.) The _year_ in which Constantius was + created Cæsar seems to be more accurately fixed by the two + chronologists; but the historian who lived in his court could not + be ignorant of the _day_ of the anniversary. For the appointment + of the new Cæsar to the provinces of Gaul, see Julian, Orat. i. + p. 12, Godefroy, Chronol. Legum, p. 26. and Blondel, de Primauté + de l’Eglise, p. 1183.] + + 12 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. ix. tit. iv. Godefroy suspected the + secret motives of this law. Comment. tom. iii. p. 9.] + + The informers, who complied with so liberal an invitation, were + sufficiently versed in the arts of courts to select the friends + and adherents of Crispus as the guilty persons; nor is there any + reason to distrust the veracity of the emperor, who had promised + an ample measure of revenge and punishment. The policy of + Constantine maintained, however, the same appearances of regard + and confidence towards a son, whom he began to consider as his + most irreconcilable enemy. Medals were struck with the customary + vows for the long and auspicious reign of the young Cæsar; 13 and + as the people, who were not admitted into the secrets of the + palace, still loved his virtues, and respected his dignity, a + poet who solicits his recall from exile, adores with equal + devotion the majesty of the father and that of the son. 14 The + time was now arrived for celebrating the august ceremony of the + twentieth year of the reign of Constantine; and the emperor, for + that purpose, removed his court from Nicomedia to Rome, where the + most splendid preparations had been made for his reception. Every + eye, and every tongue, affected to express their sense of the + general happiness, and the veil of ceremony and dissimulation was + drawn for a while over the darkest designs of revenge and murder. + 15 In the midst of the festival, the unfortunate Crispus was + apprehended by order of the emperor, who laid aside the + tenderness of a father, without assuming the equity of a judge. + The examination was short and private; 16 and as it was thought + decent to conceal the fate of the young prince from the eyes of + the Roman people, he was sent under a strong guard to Pola, in + Istria, where, soon afterwards, he was put to death, either by + the hand of the executioner, or by the more gentle operations of + poison. 17 The Cæsar Licinius, a youth of amiable manners, was + involved in the ruin of Crispus: 18 and the stern jealousy of + Constantine was unmoved by the prayers and tears of his favorite + sister, pleading for the life of a son, whose rank was his only + crime, and whose loss she did not long survive. The story of + these unhappy princes, the nature and evidence of their guilt, + the forms of their trial, and the circumstances of their death, + were buried in mysterious obscurity; and the courtly bishop, who + has celebrated in an elaborate work the virtues and piety of his + hero, observes a prudent silence on the subject of these tragic + events. 19 Such haughty contempt for the opinion of mankind, + whilst it imprints an indelible stain on the memory of + Constantine, must remind us of the very different behavior of one + of the greatest monarchs of the present age. The Czar Peter, in + the full possession of despotic power, submitted to the judgment + of Russia, of Europe, and of posterity, the reasons which had + compelled him to subscribe the condemnation of a criminal, or at + least of a degenerate son. 20 + + 13 (return) [ Ducange, Fam. Byzant. p. 28. Tillemont, tom. iv. p. + 610.] + + 14 (return) [ His name was Porphyrius Optatianus. The date of his + panegyric, written, according to the taste of the age, in vile + acrostics, is settled by Scaliger ad Euseb. p. 250, Tillemont, + tom. iv. p. 607, and Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin, l. iv. c. 1.] + + 15 (return) [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 103. Godefroy, Chronol. Legum, p. + 28.] + + 16 (return) [ The elder Victor, who wrote under the next reign, + speaks with becoming caution. “Natu grandior incertum qua causa, + patris judicio occidisset.” If we consult the succeeding writers, + Eutropius, the younger Victor, Orosius, Jerom, Zosimus, + Philostorgius, and Gregory of Tours, their knowledge will appear + gradually to increase, as their means of information must have + diminished—a circumstance which frequently occurs in historical + disquisition.] + + 17 (return) [ Ammianus (l. xiv. c. 11) uses the general + expression of peremptum Codinus (p. 34) beheads the young prince; + but Sidonius Apollinaris (Epistol. v. 8,) for the sake perhaps of + an antithesis to Fausta’s _warm_ bath, chooses to administer a + draught of _cold_ poison.] + + 18 (return) [ Sororis filium, commodæ indolis juvenem. Eutropius, + x. 6 May I not be permitted to conjecture that Crispus had + married Helena the daughter of the emperor Licinius, and that on + the happy delivery of the princess, in the year 322, a general + pardon was granted by Constantine? See Ducange, Fam. Byzant. p. + 47, and the law (l. ix. tit. xxxvii.) of the Theodosian code, + which has so much embarrassed the interpreters. Godefroy, tom. + iii. p. 267 * Note: This conjecture is very doubtful. The + obscurity of the law quoted from the Theodosian code scarcely + allows any inference, and there is extant but one meda which can + be attributed to a Helena, wife of Crispus.] + + 19 (return) [ See the life of Constantine, particularly l. ii. c. + 19, 20. Two hundred and fifty years afterwards Evagrius (l. iii. + c. 41) deduced from the silence of Eusebius a vain argument + against the reality of the fact.] + + 20 (return) [ Histoire de Pierre le Grand, par Voltaire, part ii. + c. 10.] + + The innocence of Crispus was so universally acknowledged, that + the modern Greeks, who adore the memory of their founder, are + reduced to palliate the guilt of a parricide, which the common + feelings of human nature forbade them to justify. They pretend, + that as soon as the afflicted father discovered the falsehood of + the accusation by which his credulity had been so fatally misled, + he published to the world his repentance and remorse; that he + mourned forty days, during which he abstained from the use of the + bath, and all the ordinary comforts of life; and that, for the + lasting instruction of posterity, he erected a golden statue of + Crispus, with this memorable inscription: To my son, whom I + unjustly condemned. 21 A tale so moral and so interesting would + deserve to be supported by less exceptionable authority; but if + we consult the more ancient and authentic writers, they will + inform us, that the repentance of Constantine was manifested only + in acts of blood and revenge; and that he atoned for the murder + of an innocent son, by the execution, perhaps, of a guilty wife. + They ascribe the misfortunes of Crispus to the arts of his + step-mother Fausta, whose implacable hatred, or whose + disappointed love, renewed in the palace of Constantine the + ancient tragedy of Hippolitus and of Phædra. 22 Like the daughter + of Minos, the daughter of Maximian accused her son-in-law of an + incestuous attempt on the chastity of his father’s wife; and + easily obtained, from the jealousy of the emperor, a sentence of + death against a young prince, whom she considered with reason as + the most formidable rival of her own children. But Helena, the + aged mother of Constantine, lamented and revenged the untimely + fate of her grandson Crispus; nor was it long before a real or + pretended discovery was made, that Fausta herself entertained a + criminal connection with a slave belonging to the Imperial + stables. 23 Her condemnation and punishment were the instant + consequences of the charge; and the adulteress was suffocated by + the steam of a bath, which, for that purpose, had been heated to + an extraordinary degree. 24 By some it will perhaps be thought, + that the remembrance of a conjugal union of twenty years, and the + honor of their common offspring, the destined heirs of the + throne, might have softened the obdurate heart of Constantine, + and persuaded him to suffer his wife, however guilty she might + appear, to expiate her offences in a solitary prison. But it + seems a superfluous labor to weigh the propriety, unless we could + ascertain the truth, of this singular event, which is attended + with some circumstances of doubt and perplexity. Those who have + attacked, and those who have defended, the character of + Constantine, have alike disregarded two very remarkable passages + of two orations pronounced under the succeeding reign. The former + celebrates the virtues, the beauty, and the fortune of the + empress Fausta, the daughter, wife, sister, and mother of so many + princes. 25 The latter asserts, in explicit terms, that the + mother of the younger Constantine, who was slain three years + after his father’s death, survived to weep over the fate of her + son. 26 Notwithstanding the positive testimony of several writers + of the Pagan as well as of the Christian religion, there may + still remain some reason to believe, or at least to suspect, that + Fausta escaped the blind and suspicious cruelty of her husband. + 2611 The deaths of a son and a nephew, with the execution of a + great number of respectable, and perhaps innocent friends, 27 who + were involved in their fall, may be sufficient, however, to + justify the discontent of the Roman people, and to explain the + satirical verses affixed to the palace gate, comparing the + splendid and bloody reigns of Constantine and Nero. 28 + + 21 (return) [ In order to prove that the statue was erected by + Constantine, and afterwards concealed by the malice of the + Arians, Codinus very readily creates (p. 34) two witnesses, + Hippolitus, and the younger Herodotus, to whose imaginary + histories he appeals with unblushing confidence.] + + 22 (return) [ Zosimus (l. ii. p. 103) may be considered as our + original. The ingenuity of the moderns, assisted by a few hints + from the ancients, has illustrated and improved his obscure and + imperfect narrative.] + + 23 (return) [ Philostorgius, l. ii. c. 4. Zosimus (l. ii. p. 104, + 116) imputes to Constantine the death of two wives, of the + innocent Fausta, and of an adulteress, who was the mother of his + three successors. According to Jerom, three or four years elapsed + between the death of Crispus and that of Fausta. The elder Victor + is prudently silent.] + + 24 (return) [ If Fausta was put to death, it is reasonable to + believe that the private apartments of the palace were the scene + of her execution. The orator Chrysostom indulges his fancy by + exposing the naked desert mountain to be devoured by wild + beasts.] + + 25 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. He seems to call her the mother of + Crispus. She might assume that title by adoption. At least, she + was not considered as his mortal enemy. Julian compares the + fortune of Fausta with that of Parysatis, the Persian queen. A + Roman would have more naturally recollected the second Agrippina: + Et moi, qui sur le trone ai suivi mes ancêtres: Moi, fille, + femme,sœur, et mere de vos maitres.] + + 26 (return) [ Monod. in Constantin. Jun. c. 4, ad Calcem Eutrop. + edit. Havercamp. The orator styles her the most divine and pious + of queens.] + + 2611 (return) [ Manso (Leben Constantins, p. 65) treats this + inference o: Gibbon, and the authorities to which he appeals, + with too much contempt, considering the general scantiness of + proof on this curious question.—M.] + + 27 (return) [ Interfecit numerosos amicos. Eutrop. xx. 6.] + + 28 (return) [ Saturni aurea sæcula quis requirat? Sunt hæc + gemmea, sed Neroniana. Sidon. Apollinar. v. 8. ——It is somewhat + singular that these satirical lines should be attributed, not to + an obscure libeller, or a disappointed patriot, but to Ablavius, + prime minister and favorite of the emperor. We may now perceive + that the imprecations of the Roman people were dictated by + humanity, as well as by superstition. Zosim. l. ii. p. 105.] + + + + + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part II. + + + By the death of Crispus, the inheritance of the empire seemed to + devolve on the three sons of Fausta, who have been already + mentioned under the names of Constantine, of Constantius, and of + Constans. These young princes were successively invested with the + title of Cæsar; and the dates of their promotion may be referred + to the tenth, the twentieth, and the thirtieth years of the reign + of their father. 29 This conduct, though it tended to multiply + the future masters of the Roman world, might be excused by the + partiality of paternal affection; but it is not so easy to + understand the motives of the emperor, when he endangered the + safety both of his family and of his people, by the unnecessary + elevation of his two nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The + former was raised, by the title of Cæsar, to an equality with his + cousins. In favor of the latter, Constantine invented the new and + singular appellation of _Nobilissimus;_ 30 to which he annexed + the flattering distinction of a robe of purple and gold. But of + the whole series of Roman princes in any age of the empire, + Hannibalianus alone was distinguished by the title of King; a + name which the subjects of Tiberius would have detested, as the + profane and cruel insult of capricious tyranny. The use of such a + title, even as it appears under the reign of Constantine, is a + strange and unconnected fact, which can scarcely be admitted on + the joint authority of Imperial medals and contemporary writers. + 31 3111 + + 29 (return) [ Euseb. Orat. in Constantin. c. 3. These dates are + sufficiently correct to justify the orator.] + + 30 (return) [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 117. Under the predecessors of + Constantine, _Nobilissimus_ was a vague epithet, rather than a + legal and determined title.] + + 31 (return) [ Adstruunt nummi veteres ac singulares. Spanheim de + Usu Numismat. Dissertat. xii. vol. ii. p. 357. Ammianus speaks of + this Roman king (l. xiv. c. l, and Valesius ad loc.) The Valesian + fragment styles him King of kings; and the Paschal Chronicle + acquires the weight of Latin evidence.] + + 3111 (return) [ Hannibalianus is always designated in these + authors by the title of king. There still exist medals struck to + his honor, on which the same title is found, Fl. Hannibaliano + Regi. See Eckhel, Doct. Num. t. viii. 204. Armeniam nationesque + circum socias habebat, says Aur. Victor, p. 225. The writer means + the Lesser Armenia. Though it is not possible to question a fact + supported by such respectable authorities, Gibbon considers it + inexplicable and incredible. It is a strange abuse of the + privilege of doubting, to refuse all belief in a fact of such + little importance in itself, and attested thus formally by + contemporary authors and public monuments. St. Martin note to Le + Beau i. 341.—M.] + + The whole empire was deeply interested in the education of these + five youths, the acknowledged successors of Constantine. The + exercise of the body prepared them for the fatigues of war and + the duties of active life. Those who occasionally mention the + education or talents of Constantius, allow that he excelled in + the gymnastic arts of leaping and running that he was a dexterous + archer, a skilful horseman, and a master of all the different + weapons used in the service either of the cavalry or of the + infantry. 32 The same assiduous cultivation was bestowed, though + not perhaps with equal success, to improve the minds of the sons + and nephews of Constantine. 33 The most celebrated professors of + the Christian faith, of the Grecian philosophy, and of the Roman + jurisprudence, were invited by the liberality of the emperor, who + reserved for himself the important task of instructing the royal + youths in the science of government, and the knowledge of + mankind. But the genius of Constantine himself had been formed by + adversity and experience. In the free intercourse of private + life, and amidst the dangers of the court of Galerius, he had + learned to command his own passions, to encounter those of his + equals, and to depend for his present safety and future greatness + on the prudence and firmness of his personal conduct. His + destined successors had the misfortune of being born and educated + in the imperial purple. Incessantly surrounded with a train of + flatterers, they passed their youth in the enjoyment of luxury, + and the expectation of a throne; nor would the dignity of their + rank permit them to descend from that elevated station from + whence the various characters of human nature appear to wear a + smooth and uniform aspect. The indulgence of Constantine admitted + them, at a very tender age, to share the administration of the + empire; and they studied the art of reigning, at the expense of + the people intrusted to their care. The younger Constantine was + appointed to hold his court in Gaul; and his brother Constantius + exchanged that department, the ancient patrimony of their father, + for the more opulent, but less martial, countries of the East. + Italy, the Western Illyricum, and Africa, were accustomed to + revere Constans, the third of his sons, as the representative of + the great Constantine. He fixed Dalmatius on the Gothic frontier, + to which he annexed the government of Thrace, Macedonia, and + Greece. The city of Cæsarea was chosen for the residence of + Hannibalianus; and the provinces of Pontus, Cappadocia, and the + Lesser Armenia, were destined to form the extent of his new + kingdom. For each of these princes a suitable establishment was + provided. A just proportion of guards, of legions, and of + auxiliaries, was allotted for their respective dignity and + defence. The ministers and generals, who were placed about their + persons, were such as Constantine could trust to assist, and even + to control, these youthful sovereigns in the exercise of their + delegated power. As they advanced in years and experience, the + limits of their authority were insensibly enlarged: but the + emperor always reserved for himself the title of Augustus; and + while he showed the _Cæsars_ to the armies and provinces, he + maintained every part of the empire in equal obedience to its + supreme head. 34 The tranquillity of the last fourteen years of + his reign was scarcely interrupted by the contemptible + insurrection of a camel-driver in the Island of Cyprus, 35 or by + the active part which the policy of Constantine engaged him to + assume in the wars of the Goths and Sarmatians. + + 32 (return) [ His dexterity in martial exercises is celebrated by + Julian, (Orat. i. p. 11, Orat. ii. p. 53,) and allowed by + Ammianus, (l. xxi. c. 16.)] + + 33 (return) [ Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. l. iv. c. 51. Julian, + Orat. i. p. 11-16, with Spanheim’s elaborate Commentary. + Libanius, Orat. iii. p. 109. Constantius studied with laudable + diligence; but the dulness of his fancy prevented him from + succeeding in the art of poetry, or even of rhetoric.] + + 34 (return) [ Eusebius, (l. iv. c. 51, 52,) with a design of + exalting the authority and glory of Constantine, affirms, that he + divided the Roman empire as a private citizen might have divided + his patrimony. His distribution of the provinces may be collected + from Eutropius, the two Victors and the Valesian fragment.] + + 35 (return) [ Calocerus, the obscure leader of this rebellion, or + rather tumult, was apprehended and burnt alive in the + market-place of Tarsus, by the vigilance of Dalmatius. See the + elder Victor, the Chronicle of Jerom, and the doubtful traditions + of Theophanes and Cedrenus.] + + Among the different branches of the human race, the Sarmatians + form a very remarkable shade; as they seem to unite the manners + of the Asiatic barbarians with the figure and complexion of the + ancient inhabitants of Europe. According to the various accidents + of peace and war, of alliance or conquest, the Sarmatians were + sometimes confined to the banks of the Tanais; and they sometimes + spread themselves over the immense plains which lie between the + Vistula and the Volga. 36 The care of their numerous flocks and + herds, the pursuit of game, and the exercises of war, or rather + of rapine, directed the vagrant motions of the Sarmatians. The + movable camps or cities, the ordinary residence of their wives + and children, consisted only of large wagons drawn by oxen, and + covered in the form of tents. The military strength of the nation + was composed of cavalry; and the custom of their warriors, to + lead in their hand one or two spare horses, enabled them to + advance and to retreat with a rapid diligence, which surprised + the security, and eluded the pursuit, of a distant enemy. 37 + Their poverty of iron prompted their rude industry to invent a + sort of cuirass, which was capable of resisting a sword or + javelin, though it was formed only of horses’ hoofs, cut into + thin and polished slices, carefully laid over each other in the + manner of scales or feathers, and strongly sewed upon an under + garment of coarse linen. 38 The offensive arms of the Sarmatians + were short daggers, long lances, and a weighty bow with a quiver + of arrows. They were reduced to the necessity of employing + fish-bones for the points of their weapons; but the custom of + dipping them in a venomous liquor, that poisoned the wounds which + they inflicted, is alone sufficient to prove the most savage + manners, since a people impressed with a sense of humanity would + have abhorred so cruel a practice, and a nation skilled in the + arts of war would have disdained so impotent a resource. 39 + Whenever these Barbarians issued from their deserts in quest of + prey, their shaggy beards, uncombed locks, the furs with which + they were covered from head to foot, and their fierce + countenances, which seemed to express the innate cruelty of their + minds, inspired the more civilized provincials of Rome with + horror and dismay. + + 36 (return) [ Cellarius has collected the opinions of the + ancients concerning the European and Asiatic Sarmatia; and M. + D’Anville has applied them to modern geography with the skill and + accuracy which always distinguish that excellent writer.] + + 37 (return) [ Ammian. l. xvii. c. 12. The Sarmatian horses were + castrated to prevent the mischievous accidents which might happen + from the noisy and ungovernable passions of the males.] + + 38 (return) [ Pausanius, l. i. p. 50,. edit. Kuhn. That + inquisitive traveller had carefully examined a Sarmatian cuirass, + which was preserved in the temple of Æsculapius at Athens.] + + 39 (return) [ Aspicis et mitti sub adunco toxica ferro, Et telum + causas mortis habere duas. Ovid, ex Ponto, l. iv. ep. 7, ver. + 7.——See in the Recherches sur les Americains, tom. ii. p. + 236—271, a very curious dissertation on poisoned darts. The venom + was commonly extracted from the vegetable reign: but that + employed by the Scythians appears to have been drawn from the + viper, and a mixture of human blood.] + + The use of poisoned arms, which has been spread over both worlds, + never preserved a savage tribe from the arms of a disciplined + enemy. The tender Ovid, after a youth spent in the enjoyment of + fame and luxury, was condemned to a hopeless exile on the frozen + banks of the Danube, where he was exposed, almost without + defence, to the fury of these monsters of the desert, with whose + stern spirits he feared that his gentle shade might hereafter be + confounded. In his pathetic, but sometimes unmanly lamentations, + 40 he describes in the most lively colors the dress and manners, + the arms and inroads, of the Getæ and Sarmatians, who were + associated for the purposes of destruction; and from the accounts + of history there is some reason to believe that these Sarmatians + were the Jazygæ, one of the most numerous and warlike tribes of + the nation. The allurements of plenty engaged them to seek a + permanent establishment on the frontiers of the empire. Soon + after the reign of Augustus, they obliged the Dacians, who + subsisted by fishing on the banks of the River Teyss or Tibiscus, + to retire into the hilly country, and to abandon to the + victorious Sarmatians the fertile plains of the Upper Hungary, + which are bounded by the course of the Danube and the + semicircular enclosure of the Carpathian Mountains. 41 In this + advantageous position, they watched or suspended the moment of + attack, as they were provoked by injuries or appeased by + presents; they gradually acquired the skill of using more + dangerous weapons, and although the Sarmatians did not illustrate + their name by any memorable exploits, they occasionally assisted + their eastern and western neighbors, the Goths and the Germans, + with a formidable body of cavalry. They lived under the irregular + aristocracy of their chieftains: 42 but after they had received + into their bosom the fugitive Vandals, who yielded to the + pressure of the Gothic power, they seem to have chosen a king + from that nation, and from the illustrious race of the Astingi, + who had formerly dwelt on the hores of the northern ocean. 43 + + 40 (return) [ The nine books of Poetical Epistles which Ovid + composed during the seven first years of his melancholy exile, + possess, beside the merit of elegance, a double value. They + exhibit a picture of the human mind under very singular + circumstances; and they contain many curious observations, which + no Roman except Ovid, could have an opportunity of making. Every + circumstance which tends to illustrate the history of the + Barbarians, has been drawn together by the very accurate Count de + Buat. Hist. Ancienne des Peuples de l’Europe, tom. iv. c. xvi. p. + 286-317] + + 41 (return) [ The Sarmatian Jazygæ were settled on the banks of + Pathissus or Tibiscus, when Pliny, in the year 79, published his + Natural History. See l. iv. c. 25. In the time of Strabo and + Ovid, sixty or seventy years before, they appear to have + inhabited beyond the Getæ, along the coast of the Euxine.] + + 42 (return) [ Principes Sarmaturum Jazygum penes quos civitatis + regimen plebem quoque et vim equitum, qua sola valent, + offerebant. Tacit. Hist. iii. p. 5. This offer was made in the + civil war between Vitellino and Vespasian.] + + 43 (return) [ This hypothesis of a Vandal king reigning over + Sarmatian subjects, seems necessary to reconcile the Goth + Jornandes with the Greek and Latin historians of Constantine. It + may be observed that Isidore, who lived in Spain under the + dominion of the Goths, gives them for enemies, not the Vandals, + but the Sarmatians. See his Chronicle in Grotius, p. 709. Note: I + have already noticed the confusion which must necessarily arise + in history, when names purely _geographical_, as this of + Sarmatia, are taken for _historical_ names belonging to a single + nation. We perceive it here; it has forced Gibbon to suppose, + without any reason but the necessity of extricating himself from + his perplexity, that the Sarmatians had taken a king from among + the Vandals; a supposition entirely contrary to the usages of + Barbarians Dacia, at this period, was occupied, not by + Sarmatians, who have never formed a distinct race, but by + Vandals, whom the ancients have often confounded under the + general term Sarmatians. See Gatterer’s Welt-Geschiehte p. + 464—G.] + + This motive of enmity must have inflamed the subjects of + contention, which perpetually arise on the confines of warlike + and independent nations. The Vandal princes were stimulated by + fear and revenge; the Gothic kings aspired to extend their + dominion from the Euxine to the frontiers of Germany; and the + waters of the Maros, a small river which falls into the Teyss, + were stained with the blood of the contending Barbarians. After + some experience of the superior strength and numbers of their + adversaries, the Sarmatians implored the protection of the Roman + monarch, who beheld with pleasure the discord of the nations, but + who was justly alarmed by the progress of the Gothic arms. As + soon as Constantine had declared himself in favor of the weaker + party, the haughty Araric, king of the Goths, instead of + expecting the attack of the legions, boldly passed the Danube, + and spread terror and devastation through the province of Mæsia. + + To oppose the inroad of this destroying host, the aged emperor + took the field in person; but on this occasion either his conduct + or his fortune betrayed the glory which he had acquired in so + many foreign and domestic wars. He had the mortification of + seeing his troops fly before an inconsiderable detachment of the + Barbarians, who pursued them to the edge of their fortified camp, + and obliged him to consult his safety by a precipitate and + ignominious retreat. 4311 The event of a second and more + successful action retrieved the honor of the Roman name; and the + powers of art and discipline prevailed, after an obstinate + contest, over the efforts of irregular valor. The broken army of + the Goths abandoned the field of battle, the wasted province, and + the passage of the Danube: and although the eldest of the sons of + Constantine was permitted to supply the place of his father, the + merit of the victory, which diffused universal joy, was ascribed + to the auspicious counsels of the emperor himself. + + 4311 (return) [ Gibbon states, that Constantine was defeated by + the Goths in a first battle. No ancient author mentions such an + event. It is, no doubt, a mistake in Gibbon. St Martin, note to + Le Beau. i. 324.—M.] + + He contributed at least to improve this advantage, by his + negotiations with the free and warlike people of Chersonesus, 44 + whose capital, situate on the western coast of the Tauric or + Crimæan peninsula, still retained some vestiges of a Grecian + colony, and was governed by a perpetual magistrate, assisted by a + council of senators, emphatically styled the Fathers of the City. + + The Chersonites were animated against the Goths, by the memory of + the wars, which, in the preceding century, they had maintained + with unequal forces against the invaders of their country. They + were connected with the Romans by the mutual benefits of + commerce; as they were supplied from the provinces of Asia with + corn and manufactures, which they purchased with their only + productions, salt, wax, and hides. Obedient to the requisition of + Constantine, they prepared, under the conduct of their magistrate + Diogenes, a considerable army, of which the principal strength + consisted in cross-bows and military chariots. The speedy march + and intrepid attack of the Chersonites, by diverting the + attention of the Goths, assisted the operations of the Imperial + generals. The Goths, vanquished on every side, were driven into + the mountains, where, in the course of a severe campaign, above a + hundred thousand were computed to have perished by cold and + hunger. Peace was at length granted to their humble + supplications; the eldest son of Araric was accepted as the most + valuable hostage; and Constantine endeavored to convince their + chiefs, by a liberal distribution of honors and rewards, how far + the friendship of the Romans was preferable to their enmity. In + the expressions of his gratitude towards the faithful + Chersonites, the emperor was still more magnificent. The pride of + the nation was gratified by the splendid and almost royal + decorations bestowed on their magistrate and his successors. A + perpetual exemption from all duties was stipulated for their + vessels which traded to the ports of the Black Sea. A regular + subsidy was promised, of iron, corn, oil, and of every supply + which could be useful either in peace or war. But it was thought + that the Sarmatians were sufficiently rewarded by their + deliverance from impending ruin; and the emperor, perhaps with + too strict an economy, deducted some part of the expenses of the + war from the customary gratifications which were allowed to that + turbulent nation. + + 44 (return) [ I may stand in need of some apology for having + used, without scruple, the authority of Constantine + Porphyrogenitus, in all that relates to the wars and negotiations + of the Chersonites. I am aware that he was a Greek of the tenth + century, and that his accounts of ancient history are frequently + confused and fabulous. But on this occasion his narrative is, for + the most part, consistent and probable nor is there much + difficulty in conceiving that an emperor might have access to + some secret archives, which had escaped the diligence of meaner + historians. For the situation and history of Chersone, see + Peyssonel, des Peuples barbares qui ont habite les Bords du + Danube, c. xvi. 84-90. ——Gibbon has confounded the inhabitants of + the city of Cherson, the ancient Chersonesus, with the people of + the Chersonesus Taurica. If he had read with more attention the + chapter of Constantius Porphyrogenitus, from which this narrative + is derived, he would have seen that the author clearly + distinguishes the republic of Cherson from the rest of the Tauric + Peninsula, then possessed by the kings of the Cimmerian + Bosphorus, and that the city of Cherson alone furnished succors + to the Romans. The English historian is also mistaken in saying + that the Stephanephoros of the Chersonites was a perpetual + magistrate; since it is easy to discover from the great number of + Stephanephoroi mentioned by Constantine Porphyrogenitus, that + they were annual magistrates, like almost all those which + governed the Grecian republics. St. Martin, note to Le Beau i. + 326.—M.] + + Exasperated by this apparent neglect, the Sarmatians soon forgot, + with the levity of barbarians, the services which they had so + lately received, and the dangers which still threatened their + safety. Their inroads on the territory of the empire provoked the + indignation of Constantine to leave them to their fate; and he no + longer opposed the ambition of Geberic, a renowned warrior, who + had recently ascended the Gothic throne. Wisumar, the Vandal + king, whilst alone, and unassisted, he defended his dominions + with undaunted courage, was vanquished and slain in a decisive + battle, which swept away the flower of the Sarmatian youth. 4411 + The remainder of the nation embraced the desperate expedient of + arming their slaves, a hardy race of hunters and herdsmen, by + whose tumultuary aid they revenged their defeat, and expelled the + invader from their confines. But they soon discovered that they + had exchanged a foreign for a domestic enemy, more dangerous and + more implacable. Enraged by their former servitude, elated by + their present glory, the slaves, under the name of Limigantes, + claimed and usurped the possession of the country which they had + saved. Their masters, unable to withstand the ungoverned fury of + the populace, preferred the hardships of exile to the tyranny of + their servants. Some of the fugitive Sarmatians solicited a less + ignominious dependence, under the hostile standard of the Goths. + A more numerous band retired beyond the Carpathian Mountains, + among the Quadi, their German allies, and were easily admitted to + share a superfluous waste of uncultivated land. But the far + greater part of the distressed nation turned their eyes towards + the fruitful provinces of Rome. Imploring the protection and + forgiveness of the emperor, they solemnly promised, as subjects + in peace, and as soldiers in war, the most inviolable fidelity to + the empire which should graciously receive them into its bosom. + According to the maxims adopted by Probus and his successors, the + offers of this barbarian colony were eagerly accepted; and a + competent portion of lands in the provinces of Pannonia, Thrace, + Macedonia, and Italy, were immediately assigned for the + habitation and subsistence of three hundred thousand Sarmatians. + 45 4511 + + 4411 (return) [ Gibbon supposes that this war took place because + Constantine had deducted a part of the customary gratifications, + granted by his predecessors to the Sarmatians. Nothing of this + kind appears in the authors. We see, on the contrary, that after + his victory, and to punish the Sarmatia is for the ravages they + had committed, he withheld the sums which it had been the custom + to bestow. St. Martin, note to Le Beau, i. 327.—M.] + + 45 (return) [ The Gothic and Sarmatian wars are related in so + broken and imperfect a manner, that I have been obliged to + compare the following writers, who mutually supply, correct, and + illustrate each other. Those who will take the same trouble, may + acquire a right of criticizing my narrative. Ammianus, l. xvii. + c. 12. Anonym. Valesian. p. 715. Eutropius, x. 7. Sextus Rufus de + Provinciis, c. 26. Julian Orat. i. p. 9, and Spanheim, Comment. + p. 94. Hieronym. in Chron. Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. l. iv. c. + 6. Socrates, l. i. c. 18. Sozomen, l. i. c. 8. Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 108. Jornandes de Reb. Geticis, c. 22. Isidorus in Chron. p. 709; + in Hist. Gothorum Grotii. Constantin. Porphyrogenitus de + Administrat. Imperii, c. 53, p. 208, edit. Meursii.] + + 4511 (return) [ Compare, on this very obscure but remarkable war, + Manso, Leben Coa xantius, p. 195—M.] + + By chastising the pride of the Goths, and by accepting the homage + of a suppliant nation, Constantine asserted the majesty of the + Roman empire; and the ambassadors of Æthiopia, Persia, and the + most remote countries of India, congratulated the peace and + prosperity of his government. 46 If he reckoned, among the favors + of fortune, the death of his eldest son, of his nephew, and + perhaps of his wife, he enjoyed an uninterrupted flow of private + as well as public felicity, till the thirtieth year of his reign; + a period which none of his predecessors, since Augustus, had been + permitted to celebrate. Constantine survived that solemn festival + about ten months; and at the mature age of sixty-four, after a + short illness, he ended his memorable life at the palace of + Aquyrion, in the suburbs of Nicomedia, whither he had retired for + the benefit of the air, and with the hope of recruiting his + exhausted strength by the use of the warm baths. The excessive + demonstrations of grief, or at least of mourning, surpassed + whatever had been practised on any former occasion. + Notwithstanding the claims of the senate and people of ancient + Rome, the corpse of the deceased emperor, according to his last + request, was transported to the city, which was destined to + preserve the name and memory of its founder. The body of + Constantine adorned with the vain symbols of greatness, the + purple and diadem, was deposited on a golden bed in one of the + apartments of the palace, which for that purpose had been + splendidly furnished and illuminated. The forms of the court were + strictly maintained. Every day, at the appointed hours, the + principal officers of the state, the army, and the household, + approaching the person of their sovereign with bended knees and a + composed countenance, offered their respectful homage as + seriously as if he had been still alive. From motives of policy, + this theatrical representation was for some time continued; nor + could flattery neglect the opportunity of remarking that + Constantine alone, by the peculiar indulgence of Heaven, had + reigned after his death. 47 + + 46 (return) [ Eusebius (in Vit. Const. l. iv. c. 50) remarks + three circumstances relative to these Indians. 1. They came from + the shores of the eastern ocean; a description which might be + applied to the coast of China or Coromandel. 2. They presented + shining gems, and unknown animals. 3. They protested their kings + had erected statues to represent the supreme majesty of + Constantine.] + + 47 (return) [ Funus relatum in urbem sui nominis, quod sane P. R. + ægerrime tulit. Aurelius Victor. Constantine prepared for himself + a stately tomb in the church of the Holy Apostles. Euseb. l. iv. + c. 60. The best, and indeed almost the only account of the + sickness, death, and funeral of Constantine, is contained in the + fourth book of his Life by Eusebius.] + + But this reign could subsist only in empty pageantry; and it was + soon discovered that the will of the most absolute monarch is + seldom obeyed, when his subjects have no longer anything to hope + from his favor, or to dread from his resentment. The same + ministers and generals, who bowed with such referential awe + before the inanimate corpse of their deceased sovereign, were + engaged in secret consultations to exclude his two nephews, + Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, from the share which he had assigned + them in the succession of the empire. We are too imperfectly + acquainted with the court of Constantine to form any judgment of + the real motives which influenced the leaders of the conspiracy; + unless we should suppose that they were actuated by a spirit of + jealousy and revenge against the præfect Ablavius, a proud + favorite, who had long directed the counsels and abused the + confidence of the late emperor. The arguments, by which they + solicited the concurrence of the soldiers and people, are of a + more obvious nature; and they might with decency, as well as + truth, insist on the superior rank of the children of + Constantine, the danger of multiplying the number of sovereigns, + and the impending mischiefs which threatened the republic, from + the discord of so many rival princes, who were not connected by + the tender sympathy of fraternal affection. The intrigue was + conducted with zeal and secrecy, till a loud and unanimous + declaration was procured from the troops, that they would suffer + none except the sons of their lamented monarch to reign over the + Roman empire. 48 The younger Dalmatius, who was united with his + collateral relations by the ties of friendship and interest, is + allowed to have inherited a considerable share of the abilities + of the great Constantine; but, on this occasion, he does not + appear to have concerted any measure for supporting, by arms, the + just claims which himself and his royal brother derived from the + liberality of their uncle. Astonished and overwhelmed by the tide + of popular fury, they seem to have remained, without the power of + flight or of resistance, in the hands of their implacable + enemies. Their fate was suspended till the arrival of + Constantius, the second, and perhaps the most favored, of the + sons of Constantine. 49 + + 48 (return) [ Eusebius (l. iv. c. 6) terminates his narrative by + this loyal declaration of the troops, and avoids all the + invidious circumstances of the subsequent massacre.] + + 49 (return) [ The character of Dalmatius is advantageously, + though concisely drawn by Eutropius. (x. 9.) Dalmatius Cæsar + prosperrimâ indole, neque patrou absimilis, _haud multo_ post + oppressus est factione militari. As both Jerom and the + Alexandrian Chronicle mention the third year of the Cæsar, which + did not commence till the 18th or 24th of September, A. D. 337, + it is certain that these military factions continued above four + months.] + + + + + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part III. + + + The voice of the dying emperor had recommended the care of his + funeral to the piety of Constantius; and that prince, by the + vicinity of his eastern station, could easily prevent the + diligence of his brothers, who resided in their distant + government of Italy and Gaul. As soon as he had taken possession + of the palace of Constantinople, his first care was to remove the + apprehensions of his kinsmen, by a solemn oath which he pledged + for their security. His next employment was to find some specious + pretence which might release his conscience from the obligation + of an imprudent promise. The arts of fraud were made subservient + to the designs of cruelty; and a manifest forgery was attested by + a person of the most sacred character. From the hands of the + Bishop of Nicomedia, Constantius received a fatal scroll, + affirmed to be the genuine testament of his father; in which the + emperor expressed his suspicions that he had been poisoned by his + brothers; and conjured his sons to revenge his death, and to + consult their own safety, by the punishment of the guilty. 50 + Whatever reasons might have been alleged by these unfortunate + princes to defend their life and honor against so incredible an + accusation, they were silenced by the furious clamors of the + soldiers, who declared themselves, at once, their enemies, their + judges, and their executioners. The spirit, and even the forms of + legal proceedings were repeatedly violated in a promiscuous + massacre; which involved the two uncles of Constantius, seven of + his cousins, of whom Dalmatius and Hannibalianus were the most + illustrious, the Patrician Optatus, who had married a sister of + the late emperor, and the Præfect Ablavius, whose power and + riches had inspired him with some hopes of obtaining the purple. + If it were necessary to aggravate the horrors of this bloody + scene, we might add, that Constantius himself had espoused the + daughter of his uncle Julius, and that he had bestowed his sister + in marriage on his cousin Hannibalianus. These alliances, which + the policy of Constantine, regardless of the public prejudice, 51 + had formed between the several branches of the Imperial house, + served only to convince mankind, that these princes were as cold + to the endearments of conjugal affection, as they were insensible + to the ties of consanguinity, and the moving entreaties of youth + and innocence. Of so numerous a family, Gallus and Julian alone, + the two youngest children of Julius Constantius, were saved from + the hands of the assassins, till their rage, satiated with + slaughter, had in some measure subsided. The emperor Constantius, + who, in the absence of his brothers, was the most obnoxious to + guilt and reproach, discovered, on some future occasions, a faint + and transient remorse for those cruelties which the perfidious + counsels of his ministers, and the irresistible violence of the + troops, had extorted from his unexperienced youth. 52 + + 50 (return) [ I have related this singular anecdote on the + authority of Philostorgius, l. ii. c. 16. But if such a pretext + was ever used by Constantius and his adherents, it was laid aside + with contempt, as soon as it served their immediate purpose. + Athanasius (tom. i. p. 856) mention the oath which Constantius + had taken for the security of his kinsmen. ——The authority of + Philostorgius is so suspicious, as not to be sufficient to + establish this fact, which Gibbon has inserted in his history as + certain, while in the note he appears to doubt it.—G.] + + 51 (return) [ Conjugia sobrinarum diu ignorata, tempore addito + percrebuisse. Tacit. Annal. xii. 6, and Lipsius ad loc. The + repeal of the ancient law, and the practice of five hundred + years, were insufficient to eradicate the prejudices of the + Romans, who still considered the marriages of cousins-german as a + species of imperfect incest. (Augustin de Civitate Dei, xv. 6;) + and Julian, whose mind was biased by superstition and resentment, + stigmatizes these unnatural alliances between his own cousins + with the opprobrious epithet (Orat. vii. p. 228.). The + jurisprudence of the canons has since received and enforced this + prohibition, without being able to introduce it either into the + civil or the common law of Europe. See on the subject of these + marriages, Taylor’s Civil Law, p. 331. Brouer de Jure Connub. l. + ii. c. 12. Hericourt des Loix Ecclésiastiques, part iii. c. 5. + Fleury, Institutions du Droit Canonique, tom. i. p. 331. Paris, + 1767, and Fra Paolo, Istoria del Concilio Trident, l. viii.] + + 52 (return) [ Julian (ad S. P.. Q. Athen. p. 270) charges his + cousin Constantius with the whole guilt of a massacre, from which + he himself so narrowly escaped. His assertion is confirmed by + Athanasius, who, for reasons of a very different nature, was not + less an enemy of Constantius, (tom. i. p. 856.) Zosimus joins in + the same accusation. But the three abbreviators, Eutropius and + the Victors, use very qualifying expressions: “sinente potius + quam jubente;” “incertum quo suasore;” “vi militum.”] + + The massacre of the Flavian race was succeeded by a new division + of the provinces; which was ratified in a personal interview of + the three brothers. Constantine, the eldest of the Cæsars, + obtained, with a certain preëminence of rank, the possession of + the new capital, which bore his own name and that of his father. + Thrace, and the countries of the East, were allotted for the + patrimony of Constantius; and Constans was acknowledged as the + lawful sovereign of Italy, Africa, and the Western Illyricum. The + armies submitted to their hereditary right; and they + condescended, after some delay, to accept from the Roman senate + the title of _Augustus_. When they first assumed the reins of + government, the eldest of these princes was twenty-one, the + second twenty, and the third only seventeen, years of age. 53 + + 53 (return) [ Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. l. iv. c. 69. Zosimus, + l. ii. p. 117. Idat. in Chron. See two notes of Tillemont, Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 1086-1091. The reign of the eldest + brother at Constantinople is noticed only in the Alexandrian + Chronicle.] + + While the martial nations of Europe followed the standards of his + brothers, Constantius, at the head of the effeminate troops of + Asia, was left to sustain the weight of the Persian war. At the + decease of Constantine, the throne of the East was filled by + Sapor, son of Hormouz, or Hormisdas, and grandson of Narses, who, + after the victory of Galerius, had humbly confessed the + superiority of the Roman power. Although Sapor was in the + thirtieth year of his long reign, he was still in the vigor of + youth, as the date of his accession, by a very strange fatality, + had preceded that of his birth. The wife of Hormouz remained + pregnant at the time of her husband’s death; and the uncertainty + of the sex, as well as of the event, excited the ambitious hopes + of the princes of the house of Sassan. The apprehensions of civil + war were at length removed, by the positive assurance of the + Magi, that the widow of Hormouz had conceived, and would safely + produce a son. Obedient to the voice of superstition, the + Persians prepared, without delay, the ceremony of his coronation. + + A royal bed, on which the queen lay in state, was exhibited in + the midst of the palace; the diadem was placed on the spot, which + might be supposed to conceal the future heir of Artaxerxes, and + the prostrate satraps adored the majesty of their invisible and + insensible sovereign. 54 If any credit can be given to this + marvellous tale, which seems, however, to be countenanced by the + manners of the people, and by the extraordinary duration of his + reign, we must admire not only the fortune, but the genius, of + Sapor. In the soft, sequestered education of a Persian harem, the + royal youth could discover the importance of exercising the vigor + of his mind and body; and, by his personal merit, deserved a + throne, on which he had been seated, while he was yet unconscious + of the duties and temptations of absolute power. His minority was + exposed to the almost inevitable calamities of domestic discord; + his capital was surprised and plundered by Thair, a powerful king + of Yemen, or Arabia; and the majesty of the royal family was + degraded by the captivity of a princess, the sister of the + deceased king. But as soon as Sapor attained the age of manhood, + the presumptuous Thair, his nation, and his country, fell beneath + the first effort of the young warrior; who used his victory with + so judicious a mixture of rigor and clemency, that he obtained + from the fears and gratitude of the Arabs the title of + _Dhoulacnaf_, or protector of the nation. 55 5511 + + 54 (return) [ Agathias, who lived in the sixth century, is the + author of this story, (l. iv. p. 135, edit. Louvre.) He derived + his information from some extracts of the Persian Chronicles, + obtained and translated by the interpreter Sergius, during his + embassy at that country. The coronation of the mother of Sapor is + likewise mentioned by Snikard, (Tarikh. p. 116,) and D’Herbelot + (Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 703.) ——The author of the + Zenut-ul-Tarikh states, that the lady herself affirmed her belief + of this from the extraordinary liveliness of the infant, and its + lying on the right side. Those who are sage on such subjects must + determine what right she had to be positive from these symptoms. + Malcolm, Hist. of Persia, i 83.—M.] + + 55 (return) [ D’Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 764.] + + 5511 (return) [ Gibbon, according to Sir J. Malcolm, has greatly + mistaken the derivation of this name; it means Zoolaktaf, the + Lord of the Shoulders, from his directing the shoulders of his + captives to be pierced and then dislocated by a string passed + through them. Eastern authors are agreed with respect to the + origin of this title. Malcolm, i. 84. Gibbon took his derivation + from D’Herbelot, who gives both, the latter on the authority of + the Leb. Tarikh.—M.] + + The ambition of the Persian, to whom his enemies ascribe the + virtues of a soldier and a statesman, was animated by the desire + of revenging the disgrace of his fathers, and of wresting from + the hands of the Romans the five provinces beyond the Tigris. The + military fame of Constantine, and the real or apparent strength + of his government, suspended the attack; and while the hostile + conduct of Sapor provoked the resentment, his artful negotiations + amused the patience of the Imperial court. The death of + Constantine was the signal of war, 56 and the actual condition of + the Syrian and Armenian frontier seemed to encourage the Persians + by the prospect of a rich spoil and an easy conquest. The example + of the massacres of the palace diffused a spirit of + licentiousness and sedition among the troops of the East, who + were no longer restrained by their habits of obedience to a + veteran commander. By the prudence of Constantius, who, from the + interview with his brothers in Pannonia, immediately hastened to + the banks of the Euphrates, the legions were gradually restored + to a sense of duty and discipline; but the season of anarchy had + permitted Sapor to form the siege of Nisibis, and to occupy + several of the mo st important fortresses of Mesopotamia. 57 In + Armenia, the renowned Tiridates had long enjoyed the peace and + glory which he deserved by his valor and fidelity to the cause of + Rome. 5711 The firm alliance which he maintained with Constantine + was productive of spiritual as well as of temporal benefits; by + the conversion of Tiridates, the character of a saint was applied + to that of a hero, the Christian faith was preached and + established from the Euphrates to the shores of the Caspian, and + Armenia was attached to the empire by the double ties of policy + and religion. But as many of the Armenian nobles still refused to + abandon the plurality of their gods and of their wives, the + public tranquillity was disturbed by a discontented faction, + which insulted the feeble age of their sovereign, and impatiently + expected the hour of his death. He died at length after a reign + of fifty-six years, and the fortune of the Armenian monarchy + expired with Tiridates. His lawful heir was driven into exile, + the Christian priests were either murdered or expelled from their + churches, the barbarous tribes of Albania were solicited to + descend from their mountains; and two of the most powerful + governors, usurping the ensigns or the powers of royalty, + implored the assistance of Sapor, and opened the gates of their + cities to the Persian garrisons. The Christian party, under the + guidance of the Archbishop of Artaxata, the immediate successor + of St. Gregory the Illuminator, had recourse to the piety of + Constantius. After the troubles had continued about three years, + Antiochus, one of the officers of the household, executed with + success the Imperial commission of restoring Chosroes, 5712 the + son of Tiridates, to the throne of his fathers, of distributing + honors and rewards among the faithful servants of the house of + Arsaces, and of proclaiming a general amnesty, which was accepted + by the greater part of the rebellious satraps. But the Romans + derived more honor than advantage from this revolution. Chosroes + was a prince of a puny stature and a pusillanimous spirit. + Unequal to the fatigues of war, averse to the society of mankind, + he withdrew from his capital to a retired palace, which he built + on the banks of the River Eleutherus, and in the centre of a + shady grove; where he consumed his vacant hours in the rural + sports of hunting and hawking. To secure this inglorious ease, he + submitted to the conditions of peace which Sapor condescended to + impose; the payment of an annual tribute, and the restitution of + the fertile province of Atropatene, which the courage of + Tiridates, and the victorious arms of Galerius, had annexed to + the Armenian monarchy. 58 5811 + + 56 (return) [ Sextus Rufus, (c. 26,) who on this occasion is no + contemptible authority, affirms, that the Persians sued in vain + for peace, and that Constantine was preparing to march against + them: yet the superior weight of the testimony of Eusebius + obliges us to admit the preliminaries, if not the ratification, + of the treaty. See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. + 420. ——Constantine had endeavored to allay the fury of the + prosecutions, which, at the instigation of the Magi and the Jews, + Sapor had commenced against the Christians. Euseb Vit. Hist. + Theod. i. 25. Sozom. ii. c. 8, 15.—M.] + + 57 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 20.] + + 5711 (return) [ Tiridates had sustained a war against Maximin. + caused by the hatred of the latter against Christianity. Armenia + was the first _nation_ which embraced Christianity. About the + year 276 it was the religion of the king, the nobles, and the + people of Armenia. From St. Martin, Supplement to Le Beau, v. i. + p. 78.——Compare Preface to History of Vartan by Professor + Neumann, p ix.—M.] + + 5712 (return) [ Chosroes was restored probably by Licinius, + between 314 and 319. There was an Antiochus who was præfectus + vigilum at Rome, as appears from the Theodosian Code, (l. iii. de + inf. his quæ sub ty.,) in 326, and from a fragment of the same + work published by M. Amedee Peyron, in 319. He may before this + have been sent into Armenia. St. M. p. 407. [Is it not more + probable that Antiochus was an officer in the service of the + Cæsar who ruled in the East?—M.] Chosroes was succeeded in the + year 322 by his son Diran. Diran was a weak prince, and in the + sixteenth year of his reign. A. D. 337. was betrayed into the + power of the Persians by the treachery of his chamberlain and the + Persian governor of Atropatene or Aderbidjan. He was blinded: his + wife and his son Arsaces shared his captivity, but the princes + and nobles of Armenia claimed the protection of Rome; and this + was the cause of Constantine’s declaration of war against the + Persians.—The king of Persia attempted to make himself master of + Armenia; but the brave resistance of the people, the advance of + Constantius, and a defeat which his army suffered at Oskha in + Armenia, and the failure before Nisibis, forced Shahpour to + submit to terms of peace. Varaz-Shahpour, the perfidious governor + of Atropatene, was flayed alive; Diran and his son were released + from captivity; Diran refused to ascend the throne, and retired + to an obscure retreat: his son Arsaces was crowned king of + Armenia. Arsaces pursued a vacillating policy between the + influence of Rome and Persia, and the war recommenced in the year + 345. At least, that was the period of the expedition of + Constantius to the East. See St. Martin, additions to Le Beau, i. + 442. The Persians have made an extraordinary romance out of the + history of Shahpour, who went as a spy to Constantinople, was + taken, harnessed like a horse, and carried to witness the + devastation of his kingdom. Malcolm. 84—M.] + + 58 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 20, 21. Moses of Chorene, l. + ii. c. 89, l. iii. c. 1—9, p. 226—240. The perfect agreement + between the vague hints of the contemporary orator, and the + circumstantial narrative of the national historian, gives light + to the former, and weight to the latter. For the credit of Moses, + it may be likewise observed, that the name of Antiochus is found + a few years before in a civil office of inferior dignity. See + Godefroy, Cod. Theod. tom. vi. p. 350.] + + 5811 (return) [ Gibbon has endeavored, in his History, to make + use of the information furnished by Moses of Chorene, the only + Armenian historian then translated into Latin. Gibbon has not + perceived all the chronological difficulties which occur in the + narrative of that writer. He has not thought of all the critical + discussions which his text ought to undergo before it can be + combined with the relations of the western writers. From want of + this attention, Gibbon has made the facts which he has drawn from + this source more erroneous than they are in the original. This + judgment applies to all which the English historian has derived + from the Armenian author. I have made the History of Moses a + subject of particular attention; and it is with confidence that I + offer the results, which I insert here, and which will appear in + the course of my notes. In order to form a judgment of the + difference which exists between me and Gibbon, I will content + myself with remarking, that throughout he has committed an + anachronism of thirty years, from whence it follows, that he + assigns to the reign of Constantius many events which took place + during that of Constantine. He could not, therefore, discern the + true connection which exists between the Roman history and that + of Armenia, or form a correct notion of the reasons which induced + Constantine, at the close of his life, to make war upon the + Persians, or of the motives which detained Constantius so long in + the East; he does not even mention them. St. Martin, note on Le + Beau, i. 406. I have inserted M. St. Martin’s observations, but I + must add, that the chronology which he proposes, is not generally + received by Armenian scholars, not, I believe, by Professor + Neumann.—M.] + + During the long period of the reign of Constantius, the provinces + of the East were afflicted by the calamities of the Persian war. + 5813 The irregular incursions of the light troops alternately + spread terror and devastation beyond the Tigris and beyond the + Euphrates, from the gates of Ctesiphon to those of Antioch; and + this active service was performed by the Arabs of the desert, who + were divided in their interest and affections; some of their + independent chiefs being enlisted in the party of Sapor, whilst + others had engaged their doubtful fidelity to the emperor. 59 The + more grave and important operations of the war were conducted + with equal vigor; and the armies of Rome and Persia encountered + each other in nine bloody fields, in two of which Constantius + himself commanded in person. 60 The event of the day was most + commonly adverse to the Romans, but in the battle of Singara, + their imprudent valor had almost achieved a signal and decisive + victory. The stationary troops of Singara 6011 retired on the + approach of Sapor, who passed the Tigris over three bridges, and + occupied near the village of Hilleh an advantageous camp, which, + by the labor of his numerous pioneers, he surrounded in one day + with a deep ditch and a lofty rampart. His formidable host, when + it was drawn out in order of battle, covered the banks of the + river, the adjacent heights, and the whole extent of a plain of + above twelve miles, which separated the two armies. Both were + alike impatient to engage; but the Barbarians, after a slight + resistance, fled in disorder; unable to resist, or desirous to + weary, the strength of the heavy legions, who, fainting with heat + and thirst, pursued them across the plain, and cut in pieces a + line of cavalry, clothed in complete armor, which had been posted + before the gates of the camp to protect their retreat. + Constantius, who was hurried along in the pursuit, attempted, + without effect, to restrain the ardor of his troops, by + representing to them the dangers of the approaching night, and + the certainty of completing their success with the return of day. + As they depended much more on their own valor than on the + experience or the abilities of their chief, they silenced by + their clamors his timid remonstrances; and rushing with fury to + the charge, filled up the ditch, broke down the rampart, and + dispersed themselves through the tents to recruit their exhausted + strength, and to enjoy the rich harvest of their labors. But the + prudent Sapor had watched the moment of victory. His army, of + which the greater part, securely posted on the heights, had been + spectators of the action, advanced in silence, and under the + shadow of the night; and his Persian archers, guided by the + illumination of the camp, poured a shower of arrows on a disarmed + and licentious crowd. The sincerity of history 61 declares, that + the Romans were vanquished with a dreadful slaughter, and that + the flying remnant of the legions was exposed to the most + intolerable hardships. Even the tenderness of panegyric, + confessing that the glory of the emperor was sullied by the + disobedience of his soldiers, chooses to draw a veil over the + circumstances of this melancholy retreat. Yet one of those venal + orators, so jealous of the fame of Constantius, relates, with + amazing coolness, an act of such incredible cruelty, as, in the + judgment of posterity, must imprint a far deeper stain on the + honor of the Imperial name. The son of Sapor, the heir of his + crown, had been made a captive in the Persian camp. The unhappy + youth, who might have excited the compassion of the most savage + enemy, was scourged, tortured, and publicly executed by the + inhuman Romans. 62 + + 5813 (return) [ It was during this war that a bold flatterer + (whose name is unknown) published the Itineraries of Alexander + and Trajan, in order to direct the _victorious_ Constantius in + the footsteps of those great conquerors of the East. The former + of these has been published for the first time by M. Angelo Mai + (Milan, 1817, reprinted at Frankfort, 1818.) It adds so little to + our knowledge of Alexander’s campaigns, that it only excites our + regret that it is not the Itinerary of Trajan, of whose eastern + victories we have no distinct record—M] + + 59 (return) [ Ammianus (xiv. 4) gives a lively description of the + wandering and predatory life of the Saracens, who stretched from + the confines of Assyria to the cataracts of the Nile. It appears + from the adventures of Malchus, which Jerom has related in so + entertaining a manner, that the high road between Beræa and + Edessa was infested by these robbers. See Hieronym. tom. i. p. + 256.] + + 60 (return) [ We shall take from Eutropius the general idea of + the war. A Persis enim multa et gravia perpessus, sæpe captis, + oppidis, obsessis urbibus, cæsis exercitibus, nullumque ei contra + Saporem prosperum prælium fuit, nisi quod apud Singaram, &c. This + honest account is confirmed by the hints of Ammianus, Rufus, and + Jerom. The two first orations of Julian, and the third oration of + Libanius, exhibit a more flattering picture; but the recantation + of both those orators, after the death of Constantius, while it + restores us to the possession of the truth, degrades their own + character, and that of the emperor. The Commentary of Spanheim on + the first oration of Julian is profusely learned. See likewise + the judicious observations of Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, + tom. iv. p. 656.] + + 6011 (return) [ Now Sinjar, or the River Claboras.—M.] + + 61 (return) [ Acerrimâ nocturnâ concertatione pugnatum est, + nostrorum copiis ngenti strage confossis. Ammian. xviii. 5. See + likewise Eutropius, x. 10, and S. Rufus, c. 27. ——The Persian + historians, or romancers, do not mention the battle of Singara, + but make the captive Shahpour escape, defeat, and take prisoner, + the Roman emperor. The Roman captives were forced to repair all + the ravages they had committed, even to replanting the smallest + trees. Malcolm. i. 82.—M.] + + 62 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. iii. p. 133, with Julian. Orat. i. + p. 24, and Spanneism’s Commentary, p. 179.] + + Whatever advantages might attend the arms of Sapor in the field, + though nine repeated victories diffused among the nations the + fame of his valor and conduct, he could not hope to succeed in + the execution of his designs, while the fortified towns of + Mesopotamia, and, above all, the strong and ancient city of + Nisibis, remained in the possession of the Romans. In the space + of twelve years, Nisibis, which, since the time of Lucullus, had + been deservedly esteemed the bulwark of the East, sustained three + memorable sieges against the power of Sapor; and the disappointed + monarch, after urging his attacks above sixty, eighty, and a + hundred days, was thrice repulsed with loss and ignominy. 63 This + large and populous city was situate about two days’ journey from + the Tigris, in the midst of a pleasant and fertile plain at the + foot of Mount Masius. A treble enclosure of brick walls was + defended by a deep ditch; 64 and the intrepid resistance of Count + Lucilianus, and his garrison, was seconded by the desperate + courage of the people. The citizens of Nisibis were animated by + the exhortations of their bishop, 65 inured to arms by the + presence of danger, and convinced of the intentions of Sapor to + plant a Persian colony in their room, and to lead them away into + distant and barbarous captivity. The event of the two former + sieges elated their confidence, and exasperated the haughty + spirit of the Great King, who advanced a third time towards + Nisibis, at the head of the united forces of Persia and India. + The ordinary machines, invented to batter or undermine the walls, + were rendered ineffectual by the superior skill of the Romans; + and many days had vainly elapsed, when Sapor embraced a + resolution worthy of an eastern monarch, who believed that the + elements themselves were subject to his power. At the stated + season of the melting of the snows in Armenia, the River + Mygdonius, which divides the plain and the city of Nisibis, + forms, like the Nile, 66 an inundation over the adjacent country. + By the labor of the Persians, the course of the river was stopped + below the town, and the waters were confined on every side by + solid mounds of earth. On this artificial lake, a fleet of armed + vessels filled with soldiers, and with engines which discharged + stones of five hundred pounds weight, advanced in order of + battle, and engaged, almost upon a level, the troops which + defended the ramparts. 6611 The irresistible force of the waters + was alternately fatal to the contending parties, till at length a + portion of the walls, unable to sustain the accumulated pressure, + gave way at once, and exposed an ample breach of one hundred and + fifty feet. The Persians were instantly driven to the assault, + and the fate of Nisibis depended on the event of the day. The + heavy-armed cavalry, who led the van of a deep column, were + embarrassed in the mud, and great numbers were drowned in the + unseen holes which had been filled by the rushing waters. The + elephants, made furious by their wounds, increased the disorder, + and trampled down thousands of the Persian archers. The Great + King, who, from an exalted throne, beheld the misfortunes of his + arms, sounded, with reluctant indignation, the signal of the + retreat, and suspended for some hours the prosecution of the + attack. But the vigilant citizens improved the opportunity of the + night; and the return of day discovered a new wall of six feet in + height, rising every moment to fill up the interval of the + breach. Notwithstanding the disappointment of his hopes, and the + loss of more than twenty thousand men, Sapor still pressed the + reduction of Nisibis, with an obstinate firmness, which could + have yielded only to the necessity of defending the eastern + provinces of Persia against a formidable invasion of the + Massagetæ. 67 Alarmed by this intelligence, he hastily + relinquished the siege, and marched with rapid diligence from the + banks of the Tigris to those of the Oxus. The danger and + difficulties of the Scythian war engaged him soon afterwards to + conclude, or at least to observe, a truce with the Roman emperor, + which was equally grateful to both princes; as Constantius + himself, after the death of his two brothers, was involved, by + the revolutions of the West, in a civil contest, which required + and seemed to exceed the most vigorous exertion of his undivided + strength. + + 63 (return) [ See Julian. Orat. i. p. 27, Orat. ii. p. 62, &c., + with the Commentary of Spanheim, (p. 188-202,) who illustrates + the circumstances, and ascertains the time of the three sieges of + Nisibis. Their dates are likewise examined by Tillemont, (Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 668, 671, 674.) Something is added + from Zosimus, l. iii. p. 151, and the Alexandrine Chronicle, p. + 290.] + + 64 (return) [ Sallust. Fragment. lxxxiv. edit. Brosses, and + Plutarch in Lucull. tom. iii. p. 184. Nisibis is now reduced to + one hundred and fifty houses: the marshy lands produce rice, and + the fertile meadows, as far as Mosul and the Tigris, are covered + with the ruins of towns and allages. See Niebuhr, Voyages, tom. + ii. p. 300-309.] + + 65 (return) [ The miracles which Theodoret (l. ii. c. 30) + ascribes to St. James, Bishop of Edessa, were at least performed + in a worthy cause, the defence of his couutry. He appeared on the + walls under the figure of the Roman emperor, and sent an army of + gnats to sting the trunks of the elephants, and to discomfit the + host of the new Sennacherib.] + + 66 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 27. Though Niebuhr (tom. ii. p. + 307) allows a very considerable swell to the Mygdonius, over + which he saw a bridge of _twelve_ arches: it is difficult, + however, to understand this parallel of a trifling rivulet with a + mighty river. There are many circumstances obscure, and almost + unintelligible, in the description of these stupendous + water-works.] + + 6611 (return) [ Macdonald Kinnier observes on these floating + batteries, “As the elevation of place is considerably above the + level of the country in its immediate vicinity, and the Mygdonius + is a very insignificant stream, it is difficult to imagine how + this work could have been accomplished, even with the wonderful + resources which the king must have had at his disposal” + Geographical Memoir. p. 262.—M.] + + 67 (return) [ We are obliged to Zonaras (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 11) + for this invasion of the Massagetæ, which is perfectly consistent + with the general series of events to which we are darkly led by + the broken history of Ammianus.] + + After the partition of the empire, three years had scarcely + elapsed before the sons of Constantine seemed impatient to + convince mankind that they were incapable of contenting + themselves with the dominions which they were unqualified to + govern. The eldest of those princes soon complained, that he was + defrauded of his just proportion of the spoils of their murdered + kinsmen; and though he might yield to the superior guilt and + merit of Constantius, he exacted from Constans the cession of the + African provinces, as an equivalent for the rich countries of + Macedonia and Greece, which his brother had acquired by the death + of Dalmatius. The want of sincerity, which Constantine + experienced in a tedious and fruitless negotiation, exasperated + the fierceness of his temper; and he eagerly listened to those + favorites, who suggested to him that his honor, as well as his + interest, was concerned in the prosecution of the quarrel. At the + head of a tumultuary band, suited for rapine rather than for + conquest, he suddenly broke onto the dominions of Constans, by + the way of the Julian Alps, and the country round Aquileia felt + the first effects of his resentment. The measures of Constans, + who then resided in Dacia, were directed with more prudence and + ability. On the news of his brother’s invasion, he detached a + select and disciplined body of his Illyrian troops, proposing to + follow them in person, with the remainder of his forces. But the + conduct of his lieutenants soon terminated the unnatural contest. + + By the artful appearances of flight, Constantine was betrayed + into an ambuscade, which had been concealed in a wood, where the + rash youth, with a few attendants, was surprised, surrounded, and + slain. His body, after it had been found in the obscure stream of + the Alsa, obtained the honors of an Imperial sepulchre; but his + provinces transferred their allegiance to the conqueror, who, + refusing to admit his elder brother Constantius to any share in + these new acquisitions, maintained the undisputed possession of + more than two thirds of the Roman empire. 68 + + 68 (return) [ The causes and the events of this civil war are + related with much perplexity and contradiction. I have chiefly + followed Zonaras and the younger Victor. The monody (ad Calcem + Eutrop. edit. Havercamp.) pronounced on the death of Constantine, + might have been very instructive; but prudence and false taste + engaged the orator to involve himself in vague declamation.] + + + + + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part IV. + + + The fate of Constans himself was delayed about ten years longer, + and the revenge of his brother’s death was reserved for the more + ignoble hand of a domestic traitor. The pernicious tendency of + the system introduced by Constantine was displayed in the feeble + administration of his sons; who, by their vices and weakness, + soon lost the esteem and affections of their people. The pride + assumed by Constans, from the unmerited success of his arms, was + rendered more contemptible by his want of abilities and + application. His fond partiality towards some German captives, + distinguished only by the charms of youth, was an object of + scandal to the people; 69 and Magnentius, an ambitious soldier, + who was himself of Barbarian extraction, was encouraged by the + public discontent to assert the honor of the Roman name. 70 The + chosen bands of Jovians and Herculians, who acknowledged + Magnentius as their leader, maintained the most respectable and + important station in the Imperial camp. The friendship of + Marcellinus, count of the sacred largesses, supplied with a + liberal hand the means of seduction. The soldiers were convinced + by the most specious arguments, that the republic summoned them + to break the bonds of hereditary servitude; and, by the choice of + an active and vigilant prince, to reward the same virtues which + had raised the ancestors of the degenerate Constans from a + private condition to the throne of the world. As soon as the + conspiracy was ripe for execution, Marcellinus, under the + pretence of celebrating his son’s birthday, gave a splendid + entertainment to the _illustrious_ and _honorable_ persons of the + court of Gaul, which then resided in the city of Autun. The + intemperance of the feast was artfully protracted till a very + late hour of the night; and the unsuspecting guests were tempted + to indulge themselves in a dangerous and guilty freedom of + conversation. On a sudden the doors were thrown open, and + Magnentius, who had retired for a few moments, returned into the + apartment, invested with the diadem and purple. The conspirators + instantly saluted him with the titles of Augustus and Emperor. + The surprise, the terror, the intoxication, the ambitious hopes, + and the mutual ignorance of the rest of the assembly, prompted + them to join their voices to the general acclamation. The guards + hastened to take the oath of fidelity; the gates of the town were + shut; and before the dawn of day, Magnentius became master of the + troops and treasure of the palace and city of Autun. By his + secrecy and diligence he entertained some hopes of surprising the + person of Constans, who was pursuing in the adjacent forest his + favorite amusement of hunting, or perhaps some pleasures of a + more private and criminal nature. The rapid progress of fame + allowed him, however, an instant for flight, though the desertion + of his soldiers and subjects deprived him of the power of + resistance. Before he could reach a seaport in Spain, where he + intended to embark, he was overtaken near Helena, 71 at the foot + of the Pyrenees, by a party of light cavalry, whose chief, + regardless of the sanctity of a temple, executed his commission + by the murder of the son of Constantine. 72 + + 69 (return) [ Quarum (_gentium_) obsides pretio quæsitos pueros + venustiore quod cultius habuerat libidine hujusmodi arsisse _pro + certo_ habet. Had not the depraved taste of Constans been + publicly avowed, the elder Victor, who held a considerable office + in his brother’s reign, would not have asserted it in such + positive terms.] + + 70 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. and ii. Zosim. l. ii. p. 134. + Victor in Epitome. There is reason to believe that Magnentius was + born in one of those Barbarian colonies which Constantius Chlorus + had established in Gaul, (see this History, vol. i. p. 414.) His + behavior may remind us of the patriot earl of Leicester, the + famous Simon de Montfort, who could persuade the good people of + England, that he, a Frenchman by birth had taken arms to deliver + them from foreign favorites.] + + 71 (return) [ This ancient city had once flourished under the + name of Illiberis (Pomponius Mela, ii. 5.) The munificence of + Constantine gave it new splendor, and his mother’s name. Helena + (it is still called Elne) became the seat of a bishop, who long + afterwards transferred his residence to Perpignan, the capital of + modern Rousillon. See D’Anville. Notice de l’Ancienne Gaule, p. + 380. Longuerue, Description de la France, p. 223, and the Marca + Hispanica, l. i. c. 2.] + + 72 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 119, 120. Zonaras, tom. ii. l. + xiii. p. 13, and the Abbreviators.] + + As soon as the death of Constans had decided this easy but + important revolution, the example of the court of Autun was + imitated by the provinces of the West. The authority of + Magnentius was acknowledged through the whole extent of the two + great præfectures of Gaul and Italy; and the usurper prepared, by + every act of oppression, to collect a treasure, which might + discharge the obligation of an immense donative, and supply the + expenses of a civil war. The martial countries of Illyricum, from + the Danube to the extremity of Greece, had long obeyed the + government of Vetranio, an aged general, beloved for the + simplicity of his manners, and who had acquired some reputation + by his experience and services in war. 73 Attached by habit, by + duty, and by gratitude, to the house of Constantine, he + immediately gave the strongest assurances to the only surviving + son of his late master, that he would expose, with unshaken + fidelity, his person and his troops, to inflict a just revenge on + the traitors of Gaul. But the legions of Vetranio were seduced, + rather than provoked, by the example of rebellion; their leader + soon betrayed a want of firmness, or a want of sincerity; and his + ambition derived a specious pretence from the approbation of the + princess Constantina. That cruel and aspiring woman, who had + obtained from the great Constantine, her father, the rank of + _Augusta_, placed the diadem with her own hands on the head of + the Illyrian general; and seemed to expect from his victory the + accomplishment of those unbounded hopes, of which she had been + disappointed by the death of her husband Hannibalianus. Perhaps + it was without the consent of Constantina, that the new emperor + formed a necessary, though dishonorable, alliance with the + usurper of the West, whose purple was so recently stained with + her brother’s blood. 74 + + 73 (return) [ Eutropius (x. 10) describes Vetranio with more + temper, and probably with more truth, than either of the two + Victors. Vetranio was born of obscure parents in the wildest + parts of Mæsia; and so much had his education been neglected, + that, after his elevation, he studied the alphabet.] + + 74 (return) [ The doubtful, fluctuating conduct of Vetranio is + described by Julian in his first oration, and accurately + explained by Spanheim, who discusses the situation and behavior + of Constantina.] + + The intelligence of these important events, which so deeply + affected the honor and safety of the Imperial house, recalled the + arms of Constantius from the inglorious prosecution of the + Persian war. He recommended the care of the East to his + lieutenants, and afterwards to his cousin Gallus, whom he raised + from a prison to a throne; and marched towards Europe, with a + mind agitated by the conflict of hope and fear, of grief and + indignation. On his arrival at Heraclea in Thrace, the emperor + gave audience to the ambassadors of Magnentius and Vetranio. The + first author of the conspiracy Marcellinus, who in some measure + had bestowed the purple on his new master, boldly accepted this + dangerous commission; and his three colleagues were selected from + the illustrious personages of the state and army. These deputies + were instructed to soothe the resentment, and to alarm the fears, + of Constantius. They were empowered to offer him the friendship + and alliance of the western princes, to cement their union by a + double marriage; of Constantius with the daughter of Magnentius, + and of Magnentius himself with the ambitious Constantina; and to + acknowledge in the treaty the preëminence of rank, which might + justly be claimed by the emperor of the East. Should pride and + mistaken piety urge him to refuse these equitable conditions, the + ambassadors were ordered to expatiate on the inevitable ruin + which must attend his rashness, if he ventured to provoke the + sovereigns of the West to exert their superior strength; and to + employ against him that valor, those abilities, and those + legions, to which the house of Constantine had been indebted for + so many triumphs. Such propositions and such arguments appeared + to deserve the most serious attention; the answer of Constantius + was deferred till the next day; and as he had reflected on the + importance of justifying a civil war in the opinion of the + people, he thus addressed his council, who listened with real or + affected credulity: “Last night,” said he, “after I retired to + rest, the shade of the great Constantine, embracing the corpse of + my murdered brother, rose before my eyes; his well-known voice + awakened me to revenge, forbade me to despair of the republic, + and assured me of the success and immortal glory which would + crown the justice of my arms.” The authority of such a vision, or + rather of the prince who alleged it, silenced every doubt, and + excluded all negotiation. The ignominious terms of peace were + rejected with disdain. One of the ambassadors of the tyrant was + dismissed with the haughty answer of Constantius; his colleagues, + as unworthy of the privileges of the law of nations, were put in + irons; and the contending powers prepared to wage an implacable + war. 75 + + 75 (return) [ See Peter the Patrician, in the Excerpta Legationem + p. 27.] + + Such was the conduct, and such perhaps was the duty, of the + brother of Constans towards the perfidious usurper of Gaul. The + situation and character of Vetranio admitted of milder measures; + and the policy of the Eastern emperor was directed to disunite + his antagonists, and to separate the forces of Illyricum from the + cause of rebellion. It was an easy task to deceive the frankness + and simplicity of Vetranio, who, fluctuating some time between + the opposite views of honor and interest, displayed to the world + the insincerity of his temper, and was insensibly engaged in the + snares of an artful negotiation. Constantius acknowledged him as + a legitimate and equal colleague in the empire, on condition that + he would renounce his disgraceful alliance with Magnentius, and + appoint a place of interview on the frontiers of their respective + provinces; where they might pledge their friendship by mutual + vows of fidelity, and regulate by common consent the future + operations of the civil war. In consequence of this agreement, + Vetranio advanced to the city of Sardica, 76 at the head of + twenty thousand horse, and of a more numerous body of infantry; a + power so far superior to the forces of Constantius, that the + Illyrian emperor appeared to command the life and fortunes of his + rival, who, depending on the success of his private negotiations, + had seduced the troops, and undermined the throne, of Vetranio. + The chiefs, who had secretly embraced the party of Constantius, + prepared in his favor a public spectacle, calculated to discover + and inflame the passions of the multitude. 77 The united armies + were commanded to assemble in a large plain near the city. In the + centre, according to the rules of ancient discipline, a military + tribunal, or rather scaffold, was erected, from whence the + emperors were accustomed, on solemn and important occasions, to + harangue the troops. The well-ordered ranks of Romans and + Barbarians, with drawn swords, or with erected spears, the + squadrons of cavalry, and the cohorts of infantry, distinguished + by the variety of their arms and ensigns, formed an immense + circle round the tribunal; and the attentive silence which they + preserved was sometimes interrupted by loud bursts of clamor or + of applause. In the presence of this formidable assembly, the two + emperors were called upon to explain the situation of public + affairs: the precedency of rank was yielded to the royal birth of + Constantius; and though he was indifferently skilled in the arts + of rhetoric, he acquitted himself, under these difficult + circumstances, with firmness, dexterity, and eloquence. The first + part of his oration seemed to be pointed only against the tyrant + of Gaul; but while he tragically lamented the cruel murder of + Constans, he insinuated, that none, except a brother, could claim + a right to the succession of his brother. He displayed, with some + complacency, the glories of his Imperial race; and recalled to + the memory of the troops the valor, the triumphs, the liberality + of the great Constantine, to whose sons they had engaged their + allegiance by an oath of fidelity, which the ingratitude of his + most favored servants had tempted them to violate. The officers, + who surrounded the tribunal, and were instructed to act their + part in this extraordinary scene, confessed the irresistible + power of reason and eloquence, by saluting the emperor + Constantius as their lawful sovereign. The contagion of loyalty + and repentance was communicated from rank to rank; till the plain + of Sardica resounded with the universal acclamation of “Away with + these upstart usurpers! Long life and victory to the son of + Constantine! Under his banners alone we will fight and conquer.” + The shout of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce + clashing of their arms, astonished and subdued the courage of + Vetranio, who stood, amidst the defection of his followers, in + anxious and silent suspense. Instead of embracing the last refuge + of generous despair, he tamely submitted to his fate; and taking + the diadem from his head, in the view of both armies fell + prostrate at the feet of his conqueror. Constantius used his + victory with prudence and moderation; and raising from the ground + the aged suppliant, whom he affected to style by the endearing + name of Father, he gave him his hand to descend from the throne. + The city of Prusa was assigned for the exile or retirement of the + abdicated monarch, who lived six years in the enjoyment of ease + and affluence. He often expressed his grateful sense of the + goodness of Constantius, and, with a very amiable simplicity, + advised his benefactor to resign the sceptre of the world, and to + seek for content (where alone it could be found) in the peaceful + obscurity of a private condition. 78 + + 76 (return) [ Zonaras, tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 16. The position of + Sardica, near the modern city of Sophia, appears better suited to + this interview than the situation of either Naissus or Sirmium, + where it is placed by Jerom, Socrates, and Sozomen.] + + 77 (return) [ See the two first orations of Julian, particularly + p. 31; and Zosimus, l. ii. p. 122. The distinct narrative of the + historian serves to illustrate the diffuse but vague descriptions + of the orator.] + + 78 (return) [ The younger Victor assigns to his exile the + emphatical appellation of “Voluptarium otium.” Socrates (l. ii. + c. 28) is the voucher for the correspondence with the emperor, + which would seem to prove that Vetranio was indeed, prope ad + stultitiam simplicissimus.] + + The behavior of Constantius on this memorable occasion was + celebrated with some appearance of justice; and his courtiers + compared the studied orations which a Pericles or a Demosthenes + addressed to the populace of Athens, with the victorious + eloquence which had persuaded an armed multitude to desert and + depose the object of their partial choice. 79 The approaching + contest with Magnentius was of a more serious and bloody kind. + The tyrant advanced by rapid marches to encounter Constantius, at + the head of a numerous army, composed of Gauls and Spaniards, of + Franks and Saxons; of those provincials who supplied the strength + of the legions, and of those barbarians who were dreaded as the + most formidable enemies of the republic. The fertile plains 80 of + the Lower Pannonia, between the Drave, the Save, and the Danube, + presented a spacious theatre; and the operations of the civil war + were protracted during the summer months by the skill or timidity + of the combatants. 81 Constantius had declared his intention of + deciding the quarrel in the fields of Cibalis, a name that would + animate his troops by the remembrance of the victory, which, on + the same auspicious ground, had been obtained by the arms of his + father Constantine. Yet by the impregnable fortifications with + which the emperor encompassed his camp, he appeared to decline, + rather than to invite, a general engagement. + + It was the object of Magnentius to tempt or to compel his + adversary to relinquish this advantageous position; and he + employed, with that view, the various marches, evolutions, and + stratagems, which the knowledge of the art of war could suggest + to an experienced officer. He carried by assault the important + town of Siscia; made an attack on the city of Sirmium, which lay + in the rear of the Imperial camp, attempted to force a passage + over the Save into the eastern provinces of Illyricum; and cut in + pieces a numerous detachment, which he had allured into the + narrow passes of Adarne. During the greater part of the summer, + the tyrant of Gaul showed himself master of the field. The troops + of Constantius were harassed and dispirited; his reputation + declined in the eye of the world; and his pride condescended to + solicit a treaty of peace, which would have resigned to the + assassin of Constans the sovereignty of the provinces beyond the + Alps. These offers were enforced by the eloquence of Philip the + Imperial ambassador; and the council as well as the army of + Magnentius were disposed to accept them. But the haughty usurper, + careless of the remonstrances of his friends, gave orders that + Philip should be detained as a captive, or, at least, as a + hostage; while he despatched an officer to reproach Constantius + with the weakness of his reign, and to insult him by the promise + of a pardon if he would instantly abdicate the purple. “That he + should confide in the justice of his cause, and the protection of + an avenging Deity,” was the only answer which honor permitted the + emperor to return. But he was so sensible of the difficulties of + his situation, that he no longer dared to retaliate the indignity + which had been offered to his representative. The negotiation of + Philip was not, however, ineffectual, since he determined + Sylvanus the Frank, a general of merit and reputation, to desert + with a considerable body of cavalry, a few days before the battle + of Mursa. + + 79 (return) [ Eum Constantius..... facundiæ vi dejectum Imperio + in pri vatum otium removit. Quæ gloria post natum Imperium soli + proces sit eloquio clementiâque, &c. Aurelius Victor, Julian, and + Themistius (Orat. iii. and iv.) adorn this exploit with all the + artificial and gaudy coloring of their rhetoric.] + + 80 (return) [ Busbequius (p. 112) traversed the Lower Hungary and + Sclavonia at a time when they were reduced almost to a desert, by + the reciprocal hostilities of the Turks and Christians. Yet he + mentions with admiration the unconquerable fertility of the soil; + and observes that the height of the grass was sufficient to + conceal a loaded wagon from his sight. See likewise Browne’s + Travels, in Harris’s Collection, vol ii. p. 762 &c.] + + 81 (return) [ Zosimus gives a very large account of the war, and + the negotiation, (l. ii. p. 123-130.) But as he neither shows + himself a soldier nor a politician, his narrative must be weighed + with attention, and received with caution.] + + The city of Mursa, or Essek, celebrated in modern times for a + bridge of boats, five miles in length, over the River Drave, and + the adjacent morasses, 82 has been always considered as a place + of importance in the wars of Hungary. Magnentius, directing his + march towards Mursa, set fire to the gates, and, by a sudden + assault, had almost scaled the walls of the town. The vigilance + of the garrison extinguished the flames; the approach of + Constantius left him no time to continue the operations of the + siege; and the emperor soon removed the only obstacle that could + embarrass his motions, by forcing a body of troops which had + taken post in an adjoining amphitheatre. The field of battle + round Mursa was a naked and level plain: on this ground the army + of Constantius formed, with the Drave on their right; while their + left, either from the nature of their disposition, or from the + superiority of their cavalry, extended far beyond the right flank + of Magnentius. 83 The troops on both sides remained under arms, + in anxious expectation, during the greatest part of the morning; + and the son of Constantine, after animating his soldiers by an + eloquent speech, retired into a church at some distance from the + field of battle, and committed to his generals the conduct of + this decisive day. 84 They deserved his confidence by the valor + and military skill which they exerted. They wisely began the + action upon the left; and advancing their whole wing of cavalry + in an oblique line, they suddenly wheeled it on the right flank + of the enemy, which was unprepared to resist the impetuosity of + their charge. But the Romans of the West soon rallied, by the + habits of discipline; and the Barbarians of Germany supported the + renown of their national bravery. The engagement soon became + general; was maintained with various and singular turns of + fortune; and scarcely ended with the darkness of the night. The + signal victory which Constantius obtained is attributed to the + arms of his cavalry. His cuirassiers are described as so many + massy statues of steel, glittering with their scaly armor, and + breaking with their ponderous lances the firm array of the Gallic + legions. As soon as the legions gave way, the lighter and more + active squadrons of the second line rode sword in hand into the + intervals, and completed the disorder. In the mean while, the + huge bodies of the Germans were exposed almost naked to the + dexterity of the Oriental archers; and whole troops of those + Barbarians were urged by anguish and despair to precipitate + themselves into the broad and rapid stream of the Drave. 85 The + number of the slain was computed at fifty-four thousand men, and + the slaughter of the conquerors was more considerable than that + of the vanquished; 86 a circumstance which proves the obstinacy + of the contest, and justifies the observation of an ancient + writer, that the forces of the empire were consumed in the fatal + battle of Mursa, by the loss of a veteran army, sufficient to + defend the frontiers, or to add new triumphs to the glory of + Rome. 87 Notwithstanding the invectives of a servile orator, + there is not the least reason to believe that the tyrant deserted + his own standard in the beginning of the engagement. He seems to + have displayed the virtues of a general and of a soldier till the + day was irrecoverably lost, and his camp in the possession of the + enemy. Magnentius then consulted his safety, and throwing away + the Imperial ornaments, escaped with some difficulty from the + pursuit of the light horse, who incessantly followed his rapid + flight from the banks of the Drave to the foot of the Julian + Alps. 88 + + 82 (return) [ This remarkable bridge, which is flanked with + towers, and supported on large wooden piles, was constructed A. + D. 1566, by Sultan Soliman, to facilitate the march of his armies + into Hungary.] + + 83 (return) [ This position, and the subsequent evolutions, are + clearly, though concisely, described by Julian, Orat. i. p. 36.] + + 84 (return) [ Sulpicius Severus, l. ii. p. 405. The emperor + passed the day in prayer with Valens, the Arian bishop of Mursa, + who gained his confidence by announcing the success of the + battle. M. de Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 1110) + very properly remarks the silence of Julian with regard to the + personal prowess of Constantius in the battle of Mursa. The + silence of flattery is sometimes equal to the most positive and + authentic evidence.] + + 85 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 36, 37; and Orat. ii. p. 59, + 60. Zonaras, tom ii. l. xiii. p. 17. Zosimus, l. ii. p. 130-133. + The last of these celebrates the dexterity of the archer + Menelaus, who could discharge three arrows at the same time; an + advantage which, according to his apprehension of military + affairs, materially contributed to the victory of Constantius.] + + 86 (return) [ According to Zonaras, Constantius, out of 80,000 + men, lost 30,000; and Magnentius lost 24,000 out of 36,000. The + other articles of this account seem probable and authentic, but + the numbers of the tyrant’s army must have been mistaken, either + by the author or his transcribers. Magnentius had collected the + whole force of the West, Romans and Barbarians, into one + formidable body, which cannot fairly be estimated at less than + 100,000 men. Julian. Orat. i. p. 34, 35.] + + 87 (return) [ Ingentes R. I. vires eâ dimicatione consumptæ sunt, + ad quælibet bella externa idoneæ, quæ multum triumphorum possent + securitatisque conferre. Eutropius, x. 13. The younger Victor + expresses himself to the same effect.] + + 88 (return) [ On this occasion, we must prefer the unsuspected + testimony of Zosimus and Zonaras to the flattering assertions of + Julian. The younger Victor paints the character of Magnentius in + a singular light: “Sermonis acer, animi tumidi, et immodice + timidus; artifex tamen ad occultandam audaciæ specie formidinem.” + Is it most likely that in the battle of Mursa his behavior was + governed by nature or by art should incline for the latter.] + + The approach of winter supplied the indolence of Constantius with + specious reasons for deferring the prosecution of the war till + the ensuing spring. Magnentius had fixed his residence in the + city of Aquileia, and showed a seeming resolution to dispute the + passage of the mountains and morasses which fortified the + confines of the Venetian province. The surprisal of a castle in + the Alps by the secret march of the Imperialists, could scarcely + have determined him to relinquish the possession of Italy, if the + inclinations of the people had supported the cause of their + tyrant. 89 But the memory of the cruelties exercised by his + ministers, after the unsuccessful revolt of Nepotian, had left a + deep impression of horror and resentment on the minds of the + Romans. That rash youth, the son of the princess Eutropia, and + the nephew of Constantine, had seen with indignation the sceptre + of the West usurped by a perfidious barbarian. Arming a desperate + troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered the feeble guard + of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage of the + senate, and assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned + during a tumult of twenty-eight days. The march of some regular + forces put an end to his ambitious hopes: the rebellion was + extinguished in the blood of Nepotian, of his mother Eutropia, + and of his adherents; and the proscription was extended to all + who had contracted a fatal alliance with the name and family of + Constantine. 90 But as soon as Constantius, after the battle of + Mursa, became master of the sea-coast of Dalmatia, a band of + noble exiles, who had ventured to equip a fleet in some harbor of + the Adriatic, sought protection and revenge in his victorious + camp. By their secret intelligence with their countrymen, Rome + and the Italian cities were persuaded to display the banners of + Constantius on their walls. The grateful veterans, enriched by + the liberality of the father, signalized their gratitude and + loyalty to the son. The cavalry, the legions, and the auxiliaries + of Italy, renewed their oath of allegiance to Constantius; and + the usurper, alarmed by the general desertion, was compelled, + with the remains of his faithful troops, to retire beyond the + Alps into the provinces of Gaul. The detachments, however, which + were ordered either to press or to intercept the flight of + Magnentius, conducted themselves with the usual imprudence of + success; and allowed him, in the plains of Pavia, an opportunity + of turning on his pursuers, and of gratifying his despair by the + carnage of a useless victory. 91 + + 89 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 38, 39. In that place, however, + as well as in Oration ii. p. 97, he insinuates the general + disposition of the senate, the people, and the soldiers of Italy, + towards the party of the emperor.] + + 90 (return) [ The elder Victor describes, in a pathetic manner, + the miserable condition of Rome: “Cujus stolidum ingenium adeo P. + R. patribusque exitio fuit, uti passim domus, fora, viæ, + templaque, cruore, cadaveri busque opplerentur bustorum modo.” + Athanasius (tom. i. p. 677) deplores the fate of several + illustrious victims, and Julian (Orat. ii p 58) execrates the + cruelty of Marcellinus, the implacable enemy of the house of + Constantine.] + + 91 (return) [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 133. Victor in Epitome. The + panegyrists of Constantius, with their usual candor, forget to + mention this accidental defeat.] + + The pride of Magnentius was reduced, by repeated misfortunes, to + sue, and to sue in vain, for peace. He first despatched a + senator, in whose abilities he confided, and afterwards several + bishops, whose holy character might obtain a more favorable + audience, with the offer of resigning the purple, and the promise + of devoting the remainder of his life to the service of the + emperor. But Constantius, though he granted fair terms of pardon + and reconciliation to all who abandoned the standard of + rebellion, 92 avowed his inflexible resolution to inflict a just + punishment on the crimes of an assassin, whom he prepared to + overwhelm on every side by the effort of his victorious arms. An + Imperial fleet acquired the easy possession of Africa and Spain, + confirmed the wavering faith of the Moorish nations, and landed a + considerable force, which passed the Pyrenees, and advanced + towards Lyons, the last and fatal station of Magnentius. 93 The + temper of the tyrant, which was never inclined to clemency, was + urged by distress to exercise every act of oppression which could + extort an immediate supply from the cities of Gaul. 94 Their + patience was at length exhausted; and Treves, the seat of + Prætorian government, gave the signal of revolt, by shutting her + gates against Decentius, who had been raised by his brother to + the rank either of Cæsar or of Augustus. 95 From Treves, + Decentius was obliged to retire to Sens, where he was soon + surrounded by an army of Germans, whom the pernicious arts of + Constantius had introduced into the civil dissensions of Rome. 96 + In the mean time, the Imperial troops forced the passages of the + Cottian Alps, and in the bloody combat of Mount Seleucus + irrevocably fixed the title of rebels on the party of Magnentius. + 97 He was unable to bring another army into the field; the + fidelity of his guards was corrupted; and when he appeared in + public to animate them by his exhortations, he was saluted with a + unanimous shout of “Long live the emperor Constantius!” The + tyrant, who perceived that they were preparing to deserve pardon + and rewards by the sacrifice of the most obnoxious criminal, + prevented their design by falling on his sword; 98 a death more + easy and more honorable than he could hope to obtain from the + hands of an enemy, whose revenge would have been colored with the + specious pretence of justice and fraternal piety. The example of + suicide was imitated by Decentius, who strangled himself on the + news of his brother’s death. The author of the conspiracy, + Marcellinus, had long since disappeared in the battle of Mursa, + 99 and the public tranquillity was confirmed by the execution of + the surviving leaders of a guilty and unsuccessful faction. A + severe inquisition was extended over all who, either from choice + or from compulsion, had been involved in the cause of rebellion. + Paul, surnamed Catena from his superior skill in the judicial + exercise of tyranny, 9911 was sent to explore the latent remains + of the conspiracy in the remote province of Britain. The honest + indignation expressed by Martin, vice-præfect of the island, was + interpreted as an evidence of his own guilt; and the governor was + urged to the necessity of turning against his breast the sword + with which he had been provoked to wound the Imperial minister. + The most innocent subjects of the West were exposed to exile and + confiscation, to death and torture; and as the timid are always + cruel, the mind of Constantius was inaccessible to mercy. 100 + + 92 (return) [ Zonaras, tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 17. Julian, in + several places of the two orations, expatiates on the clemency of + Constantius to the rebels.] + + 93 (return) [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 133. Julian. Orat. i. p. 40, ii. + p. 74.] + + 94 (return) [ Ammian. xv. 6. Zosim. l. ii. p. 123. Julian, who + (Orat. i. p. 40) unveighs against the cruel effects of the + tyrant’s despair, mentions (Orat. i. p. 34) the oppressive edicts + which were dictated by his necessities, or by his avarice. His + subjects were compelled to purchase the Imperial demesnes; a + doubtful and dangerous species of property, which, in case of a + revolution, might be imputed to them as a treasonable + usurpation.] + + 95 (return) [ The medals of Magnentius celebrate the victories of + the _two_ Augusti, and of the Cæsar. The Cæsar was another + brother, named Desiderius. See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, + tom. iv. p. 757.] + + 96 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 40, ii. p. 74; with Spanheim, + p. 263. His Commentary illustrates the transactions of this civil + war. Mons Seleuci was a small place in the Cottian Alps, a few + miles distant from Vapincum, or Gap, an episcopal city of + Dauphine. See D’Anville, Notice de la Gaule, p. 464; and + Longuerue, Description de la France, p. 327.—— The Itinerary of + Antoninus (p. 357, ed. Wess.) places Mons Seleucu twenty-four + miles from Vapinicum, (Gap,) and twenty-six from Lucus. (le Luc,) + on the road to Die, (Dea Vocontiorum.) The situation answers to + Mont Saleon, a little place on the right of the small river + Buech, which falls into the Durance. Roman antiquities have been + found in this place. St. Martin. Note to Le Beau, ii. 47.—M.] + + 97 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 134. Liban. Orat. x. p. 268, + 269. The latter most vehemently arraigns this cruel and selfish + policy of Constantius.] + + 98 (return) [ Julian. Orat. i. p. 40. Zosimus, l. ii. p. 134. + Socrates, l. ii. c. 32. Sozomen, l. iv. c. 7. The younger Victor + describes his death with some horrid circumstances: Transfosso + latere, ut erat vasti corporis, vulnere naribusque et ore cruorem + effundens, exspiravit. If we can give credit to Zonaras, the + tyrant, before he expired, had the pleasure of murdering, with + his own hand, his mother and his brother Desiderius.] + + 99 (return) [ Julian (Orat. i. p. 58, 59) seems at a loss to + determine, whether he inflicted on himself the punishment of his + crimes, whether he was drowned in the Drave, or whether he was + carried by the avenging dæmons from the field of battle to his + destined place of eternal tortures.] + + 9911 (return) [ This is scarcely correct, ut erat in complicandis + negotiis artifex dirum made ei Catenæ inditum est cognomentum. + Amm. Mar. loc. cit.—M.] + + 100 (return) [ Ammian. xiv. 5, xxi. 16.] + + + + + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part I. + + Constantius Sole Emperor.—Elevation And Death Of Gallus.— Danger + And Elevation Of Julian.—Sarmatian And Persian Wars.—Victories Of + Julian In Gaul. + + + The divided provinces of the empire were again united by the + victory of Constantius; but as that feeble prince was destitute + of personal merit, either in peace or war; as he feared his + generals, and distrusted his ministers; the triumph of his arms + served only to establish the reign of the _eunuchs_ over the + Roman world. Those unhappy beings, the ancient production of + Oriental jealousy and despotism, 1 were introduced into Greece + and Rome by the contagion of Asiatic luxury. 2 Their progress was + rapid; and the eunuchs, who, in the time of Augustus, had been + abhorred, as the monstrous retinue of an Egyptian queen, 3 were + gradually admitted into the families of matrons, of senators, and + of the emperors themselves. 4 Restrained by the severe edicts of + Domitian and Nerva, cherished by the pride of Diocletian, reduced + to an humble station by the prudence of Constantine, 6 they + multiplied in the palaces of his degenerate sons, and insensibly + acquired the knowledge, and at length the direction, of the + secret councils of Constantius. The aversion and contempt which + mankind had so uniformly entertained for that imperfect species, + appears to have degraded their character, and to have rendered + them almost as incapable as they were supposed to be, of + conceiving any generous sentiment, or of performing any worthy + action. 7 But the eunuchs were skilled in the arts of flattery + and intrigue; and they alternately governed the mind of + Constantius by his fears, his indolence, and his vanity. 8 Whilst + he viewed in a deceitful mirror the fair appearance of public + prosperity, he supinely permitted them to intercept the + complaints of the injured provinces, to accumulate immense + treasures by the sale of justice and of honors; to disgrace the + most important dignities, by the promotion of those who had + purchased at their hands the powers of oppression, 9 and to + gratify their resentment against the few independent spirits, who + arrogantly refused to solicit the protection of slaves. Of these + slaves the most distinguished was the chamberlain Eusebius, who + ruled the monarch and the palace with such absolute sway, that + Constantius, according to the sarcasm of an impartial historian, + possessed some credit with this haughty favorite. 10 By his + artful suggestions, the emperor was persuaded to subscribe the + condemnation of the unfortunate Gallus, and to add a new crime to + the long list of unnatural murders which pollute the honor of the + house of Constantine. + + 1 (return) [ Ammianus (l. xiv. c. 6) imputes the first practice + of castration to the cruel ingenuity of Semiramis, who is + supposed to have reigned above nineteen hundred years before + Christ. The use of eunuchs is of high antiquity, both in Asia and + Egypt. They are mentioned in the law of Moses, Deuteron. xxxiii. + 1. See Goguet, Origines des Loix, &c., Part i. l. i. c. 3.] + + 2 (return) [ Eunuchum dixti velle te; Quia solæ utuntur his + reginæ—Terent. Eunuch. act i. scene 2. This play is translated + from Meander, and the original must have appeared soon after the + eastern conquests of Alexander.] + + 3 (return) [ Miles.... spadonibus Servire rugosis potest. Horat. + Carm. v. 9, and Dacier ad loe. By the word _spado_, the Romans + very forcibly expressed their abhorrence of this mutilated + condition. The Greek appellation of eunuchs, which insensibly + prevailed, had a milder sound, and a more ambiguous sense.] + + 4 (return) [ We need only mention Posides, a freedman and eunuch + of Claudius, in whose favor the emperor prostituted some of the + most honorable rewards of military valor. See Sueton. in Claudio, + c. 28. Posides employed a great part of his wealth in building. + + Ut _Spado_ vincebat Capitolia Nostra Posides. Juvenal. Sat. xiv.] + + Castrari mares vetuit. Sueton. in Domitian. c. 7. See Dion + Cassius, l. lxvii. p. 1107, l. lxviii. p. 1119.] + + 6 (return) [ There is a passage in the Augustan History, p. 137, + in which Lampridius, whilst he praises Alexander Severus and + Constantine for restraining the tyranny of the eunuchs, deplores + the mischiefs which they occasioned in other reigns. Huc accedit + quod eunuchos nec in consiliis nec in ministeriis habuit; qui + soli principes perdunt, dum eos more gentium aut regum Persarum + volunt vivere; qui a populo etiam amicissimum semovent; qui + internuntii sunt, aliud quam respondetur, referentes; claudentes + principem suum, et agentes ante omnia ne quid sciat.] + + 7 (return) [ Xenophon (Cyropædia, l. viii. p. 540) has stated the + specious reasons which engaged Cyrus to intrust his person to the + guard of eunuchs. He had observed in animals, that although the + practice of castration might tame their ungovernable fierceness, + it did not diminish their strength or spirit; and he persuaded + himself, that those who were separated from the rest of human + kind, would be more firmly attached to the person of their + benefactor. But a long experience has contradicted the judgment + of Cyrus. Some particular instances may occur of eunuchs + distinguished by their fidelity, their valor, and their + abilities; but if we examine the general history of Persia, + India, and China, we shall find that the power of the eunuchs has + uniformly marked the decline and fall of every dynasty.] + + 8 (return) [ See Ammianus Marcellinus, l. xxi. c. 16, l. xxii. c. + 4. The whole tenor of his impartial history serves to justify the + invectives of Mamertinus, of Libanius, and of Julian himself, who + have insulted the vices of the court of Constantius.] + + 9 (return) [ Aurelius Victor censures the negligence of his + sovereign in choosing the governors of the provinces, and the + generals of the army, and concludes his history with a very bold + observation, as it is much more dangerous under a feeble reign to + attack the ministers than the master himself. “Uti verum absolvam + brevi, ut Imperatore ipso clarius ita apparitorum plerisque magis + atrox nihil.”] + + 10 (return) [ Apud quem (si vere dici debeat) multum Constantius + potuit. Ammian. l. xviii. c. 4.] + + When the two nephews of Constantine, Gallus and Julian, were + saved from the fury of the soldiers, the former was about twelve, + and the latter about six, years of age; and, as the eldest was + thought to be of a sickly constitution, they obtained with the + less difficulty a precarious and dependent life, from the + affected pity of Constantius, who was sensible that the execution + of these helpless orphans would have been esteemed, by all + mankind, an act of the most deliberate cruelty. 11 Different + cities of Ionia and Bithynia were assigned for the places of + their exile and education; but as soon as their growing years + excited the jealousy of the emperor, he judged it more prudent to + secure those unhappy youths in the strong castle of Macellum, + near Cæsarea. The treatment which they experienced during a six + years’ confinement, was partly such as they could hope from a + careful guardian, and partly such as they might dread from a + suspicious tyrant. 12 Their prison was an ancient palace, the + residence of the kings of Cappadocia; the situation was pleasant, + the buildings stately, the enclosure spacious. They pursued their + studies, and practised their exercises, under the tuition of the + most skilful masters; and the numerous household appointed to + attend, or rather to guard, the nephews of Constantine, was not + unworthy of the dignity of their birth. But they could not + disguise to themselves that they were deprived of fortune, of + freedom, and of safety; secluded from the society of all whom + they could trust or esteem, and condemned to pass their + melancholy hours in the company of slaves devoted to the commands + of a tyrant who had already injured them beyond the hope of + reconciliation. At length, however, the emergencies of the state + compelled the emperor, or rather his eunuchs, to invest Gallus, + in the twenty-fifth year of his age, with the title of Cæsar, and + to cement this political connection by his marriage with the + princess Constantina. After a formal interview, in which the two + princes mutually engaged their faith never to undertake any thing + to the prejudice of each other, they repaired without delay to + their respective stations. Constantius continued his march + towards the West, and Gallus fixed his residence at Antioch; from + whence, with a delegated authority, he administered the five + great dioceses of the eastern præfecture. 13 In this fortunate + change, the new Cæsar was not unmindful of his brother Julian, + who obtained the honors of his rank, the appearances of liberty, + and the restitution of an ample patrimony. 14 + + 11 (return) [ Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. iii. p. 90) reproaches the + apostate with his ingratitude towards Mark, bishop of Arethusa, + who had contributed to save his life; and we learn, though from a + less respectable authority, (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. + iv. p. 916,) that Julian was concealed in the sanctuary of a + church. * Note: Gallus and Julian were not sons of the same + mother. Their father, Julius Constantius, had had Gallus by his + first wife, named Galla: Julian was the son of Basilina, whom he + had espoused in a second marriage. Tillemont. Hist. des Emp. Vie + de Constantin. art. 3.—G.] + + 12 (return) [ The most authentic account of the education and + adventures of Julian is contained in the epistle or manifesto + which he himself addressed to the senate and people of Athens. + Libanius, (Orat. Parentalis,) on the side of the Pagans, and + Socrates, (l. iii. c. 1,) on that of the Christians, have + preserved several interesting circumstances.] + + 13 (return) [ For the promotion of Gallus, see Idatius, Zosimus, + and the two Victors. According to Philostorgius, (l. iv. c. 1,) + Theophilus, an Arian bishop, was the witness, and, as it were, + the guarantee of this solemn engagement. He supported that + character with generous firmness; but M. de Tillemont (Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 1120) thinks it very improbable that a + heretic should have possessed such virtue.] + + 14 (return) [ Julian was at first permitted to pursue his studies + at Constantinople, but the reputation which he acquired soon + excited the jealousy of Constantius; and the young prince was + advised to withdraw himself to the less conspicuous scenes of + Bithynia and Ionia.] + + The writers the most indulgent to the memory of Gallus, and even + Julian himself, though he wished to cast a veil over the + frailties of his brother, are obliged to confess that the Cæsar + was incapable of reigning. Transported from a prison to a throne, + he possessed neither genius nor application, nor docility to + compensate for the want of knowledge and experience. A temper + naturally morose and violent, instead of being corrected, was + soured by solitude and adversity; the remembrance of what he had + endured disposed him to retaliation rather than to sympathy; and + the ungoverned sallies of his rage were often fatal to those who + approached his person, or were subject to his power. 15 + Constantina, his wife, is described, not as a woman, but as one + of the infernal furies tormented with an insatiate thirst of + human blood. 16 Instead of employing her influence to insinuate + the mild counsels of prudence and humanity, she exasperated the + fierce passions of her husband; and as she retained the vanity, + though she had renounced, the gentleness of her sex, a pearl + necklace was esteemed an equivalent price for the murder of an + innocent and virtuous nobleman. 17 The cruelty of Gallus was + sometimes displayed in the undissembled violence of popular or + military executions; and was sometimes disguised by the abuse of + law, and the forms of judicial proceedings. The private houses of + Antioch, and the places of public resort, were besieged by spies + and informers; and the Cæsar himself, concealed in a a plebeian + habit, very frequently condescended to assume that odious + character. Every apartment of the palace was adorned with the + instruments of death and torture, and a general consternation was + diffused through the capital of Syria. The prince of the East, as + if he had been conscious how much he had to fear, and how little + he deserved to reign, selected for the objects of his resentment + the provincials accused of some imaginary treason, and his own + courtiers, whom with more reason he suspected of incensing, by + their secret correspondence, the timid and suspicious mind of + Constantius. But he forgot that he was depriving himself of his + only support, the affection of the people; whilst he furnished + the malice of his enemies with the arms of truth, and afforded + the emperor the fairest pretence of exacting the forfeit of his + purple, and of his life. 18 + + 15 (return) [ See Julian. ad S. P. Q. A. p. 271. Jerom. in Chron. + Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, x. 14. I shall copy the words of + Eutropius, who wrote his abridgment about fifteen years after the + death of Gallus, when there was no longer any motive either to + flatter or to depreciate his character. “Multis incivilibus + gestis Gallus Cæsar.... vir natura ferox et ad tyrannidem + pronior, si suo jure imperare licuisset.”] + + 16 (return) [ Megæra quidem mortalis, inflammatrix sævientis + assidua, humani cruoris avida, &c. Ammian. Marcellin. l. xiv. c. + 1. The sincerity of Ammianus would not suffer him to misrepresent + facts or characters, but his love of _ambitious_ ornaments + frequently betrayed him into an unnatural vehemence of + expression.] + + 17 (return) [ His name was Clematius of Alexandria, and his only + crime was a refusal to gratify the desires of his mother-in-law; + who solicited his death, because she had been disappointed of his + love. Ammian. xiv. c. i.] + + 18 (return) [ See in Ammianus (l. xiv. c. 1, 7) a very ample + detail of the cruelties of Gallus. His brother Julian (p. 272) + insinuates, that a secret conspiracy had been formed against him; + and Zosimus names (l. ii. p. 135) the persons engaged in it; a + minister of considerable rank, and two obscure agents, who were + resolved to make their fortune.] + + As long as the civil war suspended the fate of the Roman world, + Constantius dissembled his knowledge of the weak and cruel + administration to which his choice had subjected the East; and + the discovery of some assassins, secretly despatched to Antioch + by the tyrant of Gaul, was employed to convince the public, that + the emperor and the Cæsar were united by the same interest, and + pursued by the same enemies. 19 But when the victory was decided + in favor of Constantius, his dependent colleague became less + useful and less formidable. Every circumstance of his conduct was + severely and suspiciously examined, and it was privately + resolved, either to deprive Gallus of the purple, or at least to + remove him from the indolent luxury of Asia to the hardships and + dangers of a German war. The death of Theophilus, consular of the + province of Syria, who in a time of scarcity had been massacred + by the people of Antioch, with the connivance, and almost at the + instigation, of Gallus, was justly resented, not only as an act + of wanton cruelty, but as a dangerous insult on the supreme + majesty of Constantius. Two ministers of illustrious rank, + Domitian the Oriental præfect, and Montius, quæstor of the + palace, were empowered by a special commission 1911 to visit and + reform the state of the East. They were instructed to behave + towards Gallus with moderation and respect, and, by the gentlest + arts of persuasion, to engage him to comply with the invitation + of his brother and colleague. The rashness of the præfect + disappointed these prudent measures, and hastened his own ruin, + as well as that of his enemy. On his arrival at Antioch, Domitian + passed disdainfully before the gates of the palace, and alleging + a slight pretence of indisposition, continued several days in + sullen retirement, to prepare an inflammatory memorial, which he + transmitted to the Imperial court. Yielding at length to the + pressing solicitations of Gallus, the præfect condescended to + take his seat in council; but his first step was to signify a + concise and haughty mandate, importing that the Cæsar should + immediately repair to Italy, and threatening that he himself + would punish his delay or hesitation, by suspending the usual + allowance of his household. The nephew and daughter of + Constantine, who could ill brook the insolence of a subject, + expressed their resentment by instantly delivering Domitian to + the custody of a guard. The quarrel still admitted of some terms + of accommodation. They were rendered impracticable by the + imprudent behavior of Montius, a statesman whose arts and + experience were frequently betrayed by the levity of his + disposition. 20 The quæstor reproached Gallus in a haughty + language, that a prince who was scarcely authorized to remove a + municipal magistrate, should presume to imprison a Prætorian + præfect; convoked a meeting of the civil and military officers; + and required them, in the name of their sovereign, to defend the + person and dignity of his representatives. By this rash + declaration of war, the impatient temper of Gallus was provoked + to embrace the most desperate counsels. He ordered his guards to + stand to their arms, assembled the populace of Antioch, and + recommended to their zeal the care of his safety and revenge. His + commands were too fatally obeyed. They rudely seized the præfect + and the quæstor, and tying their legs together with ropes, they + dragged them through the streets of the city, inflicted a + thousand insults and a thousand wounds on these unhappy victims, + and at last precipitated their mangled and lifeless bodies into + the stream of the Orontes. 21 + + 19 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xiii. tom. ii. p. 17, 18. The assassins + had seduced a great number of legionaries; but their designs were + discovered and revealed by an old woman in whose cottage they + lodged.] + + 1911 (return) [ The commission seems to have been granted to + Domitian alone. Montius interfered to support his authority. Amm. + Marc. loc. cit.—M] + + 20 (return) [ In the present text of Ammianus, we read _Asper_, + quidem, sed ad _lenitatem_ propensior; which forms a sentence of + contradictory nonsense. With the aid of an old manuscript, + Valesius has rectified the first of these corruptions, and we + perceive a ray of light in the substitution of the word _vafer_. + If we venture to change _lenitatem_ into _levitatem_, this + alteration of a single letter will render the whole passage clear + and consistent.] + + 21 (return) [ Instead of being obliged to collect scattered and + imperfect hints from various sources, we now enter into the full + stream of the history of Ammianus, and need only refer to the + seventh and ninth chapters of his fourteenth book. Philostorgius, + however, (l. iii. c. 28) though partial to Gallus, should not be + entirely overlooked.] + + After such a deed, whatever might have been the designs of + Gallus, it was only in a field of battle that he could assert his + innocence with any hope of success. But the mind of that prince + was formed of an equal mixture of violence and weakness. Instead + of assuming the title of Augustus, instead of employing in his + defence the troops and treasures of the East, he suffered himself + to be deceived by the affected tranquillity of Constantius, who, + leaving him the vain pageantry of a court, imperceptibly recalled + the veteran legions from the provinces of Asia. But as it still + appeared dangerous to arrest Gallus in his capital, the slow and + safer arts of dissimulation were practised with success. The + frequent and pressing epistles of Constantius were filled with + professions of confidence and friendship; exhorting the Cæsar to + discharge the duties of his high station, to relieve his + colleague from a part of the public cares, and to assist the West + by his presence, his counsels, and his arms. After so many + reciprocal injuries, Gallus had reason to fear and to distrust. + But he had neglected the opportunities of flight and of + resistance; he was seduced by the flattering assurances of the + tribune Scudilo, who, under the semblance of a rough soldier, + disguised the most artful insinuation; and he depended on the + credit of his wife Constantina, till the unseasonable death of + that princess completed the ruin in which he had been involved by + her impetuous passions. 22 + + 22 (return) [ She had preceded her husband, but died of a fever + on the road at a little place in Bithynia, called Coenum + Gallicanum.] + + + + + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part II. + + + After a long delay, the reluctant Cæsar set forwards on his + journey to the Imperial court. From Antioch to Hadrianople, he + traversed the wide extent of his dominions with a numerous and + stately train; and as he labored to conceal his apprehensions + from the world, and perhaps from himself, he entertained the + people of Constantinople with an exhibition of the games of the + circus. The progress of the journey might, however, have warned + him of the impending danger. In all the principal cities he was + met by ministers of confidence, commissioned to seize the offices + of government, to observe his motions, and to prevent the hasty + sallies of his despair. The persons despatched to secure the + provinces which he left behind, passed him with cold salutations, + or affected disdain; and the troops, whose station lay along the + public road, were studiously removed on his approach, lest they + might be tempted to offer their swords for the service of a civil + war. 23 After Gallus had been permitted to repose himself a few + days at Hadrianople, he received a mandate, expressed in the most + haughty and absolute style, that his splendid retinue should halt + in that city, while the Cæsar himself, with only ten + post-carriages, should hasten to the Imperial residence at Milan. + + In this rapid journey, the profound respect which was due to the + brother and colleague of Constantius, was insensibly changed into + rude familiarity; and Gallus, who discovered in the countenances + of the attendants that they already considered themselves as his + guards, and might soon be employed as his executioners, began to + accuse his fatal rashness, and to recollect, with terror and + remorse, the conduct by which he had provoked his fate. The + dissimulation which had hitherto been preserved, was laid aside + at Petovio, 2311 in Pannonia. He was conducted to a palace in the + suburbs, where the general Barbatio, with a select band of + soldiers, who could neither be moved by pity, nor corrupted by + rewards, expected the arrival of his illustrious victim. In the + close of the evening he was arrested, ignominiously stripped of + the ensigns of Cæsar, and hurried away to Pola, [23b] in Istria, + a sequestered prison, which had been so recently polluted with + royal blood. The horror which he felt was soon increased by the + appearance of his implacable enemy the eunuch Eusebius, who, with + the assistance of a notary and a tribune, proceeded to + interrogate him concerning the administration of the East. The + Cæsar sank under the weight of shame and guilt, confessed all the + criminal actions and all the treasonable designs with which he + was charged; and by imputing them to the advice of his wife, + exasperated the indignation of Constantius, who reviewed with + partial prejudice the minutes of the examination. The emperor was + easily convinced, that his own safety was incompatible with the + life of his cousin: the sentence of death was signed, despatched, + and executed; and the nephew of Constantine, with his hands tied + behind his back, was beheaded in prison like the vilest + malefactor. 24 Those who are inclined to palliate the cruelties + of Constantius, assert that he soon relented, and endeavored to + recall the bloody mandate; but that the second messenger, + intrusted with the reprieve, was detained by the eunuchs, who + dreaded the unforgiving temper of Gallus, and were desirous of + reuniting to _their_ empire the wealthy provinces of the East. 25 + + 23 (return) [ The Thebæan legions, which were then quartered at + Hadrianople, sent a deputation to Gallus, with a tender of their + services. Ammian. l. xiv. c. 11. The Notitia (s. 6, 20, 38, edit. + Labb.) mentions three several legions which bore the name of + Thebæan. The zeal of M. de Voltaire to destroy a despicable + though celebrated legion, has tempted him on the slightest + grounds to deny the existence of a Thebæan legion in the Roman + armies. See Œuvres de Voltaire, tom. xv. p. 414, quarto edition.] + + 2311 (return) [ Pettau in Styria.—M ---- Rather to Flanonia. now + Fianone, near Pola. St. Martin.—M.] + + 24 (return) [ See the complete narrative of the journey and death + of Gallus in Ammianus, l. xiv. c. 11. Julian complains that his + brother was put to death without a trial; attempts to justify, or + at least to excuse, the cruel revenge which he had inflicted on + his enemies; but seems at last to acknowledge that he might + justly have been deprived of the purple.] + + 25 (return) [ Philostorgius, l. iv. c. 1. Zonaras, l. xiii. tom. + ii. p. 19. But the former was partial towards an Arian monarch, + and the latter transcribed, without choice or criticism, whatever + he found in the writings of the ancients.] + + Besides the reigning emperor, Julian alone survived, of all the + numerous posterity of Constantius Chlorus. The misfortune of his + royal birth involved him in the disgrace of Gallus. From his + retirement in the happy country of Ionia, he was conveyed under a + strong guard to the court of Milan; where he languished above + seven months, in the continual apprehension of suffering the same + ignominious death, which was daily inflicted almost before his + eyes, on the friends and adherents of his persecuted family. His + looks, his gestures, his silence, were scrutinized with malignant + curiosity, and he was perpetually assaulted by enemies whom he + had never offended, and by arts to which he was a stranger. 26 + But in the school of adversity, Julian insensibly acquired the + virtues of firmness and discretion. He defended his honor, as + well as his life, against the insnaring subtleties of the + eunuchs, who endeavored to extort some declaration of his + sentiments; and whilst he cautiously suppressed his grief and + resentment, he nobly disdained to flatter the tyrant, by any + seeming approbation of his brother’s murder. Julian most devoutly + ascribes his miraculous deliverance to the protection of the + gods, who had exempted his innocence from the sentence of + destruction pronounced by their justice against the impious house + of Constantine. 27 As the most effectual instrument of their + providence, he gratefully acknowledges the steady and generous + friendship of the empress Eusebia, 28 a woman of beauty and + merit, who, by the ascendant which she had gained over the mind + of her husband, counterbalanced, in some measure, the powerful + conspiracy of the eunuchs. By the intercession of his patroness, + Julian was admitted into the Imperial presence: he pleaded his + cause with a decent freedom, he was heard with favor; and, + notwithstanding the efforts of his enemies, who urged the danger + of sparing an avenger of the blood of Gallus, the milder + sentiment of Eusebia prevailed in the council. But the effects of + a second interview were dreaded by the eunuchs; and Julian was + advised to withdraw for a while into the neighborhood of Milan, + till the emperor thought proper to assign the city of Athens for + the place of his honorable exile. As he had discovered, from his + earliest youth, a propensity, or rather passion, for the + language, the manners, the learning, and the religion of the + Greeks, he obeyed with pleasure an order so agreeable to his + wishes. Far from the tumult of arms, and the treachery of courts, + he spent six months under the groves of the academy, in a free + intercourse with the philosophers of the age, who studied to + cultivate the genius, to encourage the vanity, and to inflame the + devotion of their royal pupil. Their labors were not + unsuccessful; and Julian inviolably preserved for Athens that + tender regard which seldom fails to arise in a liberal mind, from + the recollection of the place where it has discovered and + exercised its growing powers. The gentleness and affability of + manners, which his temper suggested and his situation imposed, + insensibly engaged the affections of the strangers, as well as + citizens, with whom he conversed. Some of his fellow-students + might perhaps examine his behavior with an eye of prejudice and + aversion; but Julian established, in the schools of Athens, a + general prepossession in favor of his virtues and talents, which + was soon diffused over the Roman world. 29 + + 26 (return) [ See Ammianus Marcellin. l. xv. c. 1, 3, 8. Julian + himself in his epistle to the Athenians, draws a very lively and + just picture of his own danger, and of his sentiments. He shows, + however, a tendency to exaggerate his sufferings, by insinuating, + though in obscure terms, that they lasted above a year; a period + which cannot be reconciled with the truth of chronology.] + + 27 (return) [ Julian has worked the crimes and misfortunes of the + family of Constantine into an allegorical fable, which is happily + conceived and agreeably related. It forms the conclusion of the + seventh Oration, from whence it has been detached and translated + by the Abbé de la Bleterie, Vie de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 385-408.] + + 28 (return) [ She was a native of Thessalonica, in Macedonia, of + a noble family, and the daughter, as well as sister, of consuls. + Her marriage with the emperor may be placed in the year 352. In a + divided age, the historians of all parties agree in her praises. + See their testimonies collected by Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 750-754.] + + 29 (return) [ Libanius and Gregory Nazianzen have exhausted the + arts as well as the powers of their eloquence, to represent + Julian as the first of heroes, or the worst of tyrants. Gregory + was his fellow-student at Athens; and the symptoms which he so + tragically describes, of the future wickedness of the apostate, + amount only to some bodily imperfections, and to some + peculiarities in his speech and manner. He protests, however, + that he _then_ foresaw and foretold the calamities of the church + and state. (Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. iv. p. 121, 122.)] + + Whilst his hours were passed in studious retirement, the empress, + resolute to achieve the generous design which she had undertaken, + was not unmindful of the care of his fortune. The death of the + late Cæsar had left Constantius invested with the sole command, + and oppressed by the accumulated weight, of a mighty empire. + Before the wounds of civil discord could be healed, the provinces + of Gaul were overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians. The + Sarmatians no longer respected the barrier of the Danube. The + impunity of rapine had increased the boldness and numbers of the + wild Isaurians: those robbers descended from their craggy + mountains to ravage the adjacent country, and had even presumed, + though without success, to besiege the important city of + Seleucia, which was defended by a garrison of three Roman + legions. Above all, the Persian monarch, elated by victory, again + threatened the peace of Asia, and the presence of the emperor was + indispensably required, both in the West and in the East. For the + first time, Constantius sincerely acknowledged, that his single + strength was unequal to such an extent of care and of dominion. + 30 Insensible to the voice of flattery, which assured him that + his all-powerful virtue, and celestial fortune, would still + continue to triumph over every obstacle, he listened with + complacency to the advice of Eusebia, which gratified his + indolence, without offending his suspicious pride. As she + perceived that the remembrance of Gallus dwelt on the emperor’s + mind, she artfully turned his attention to the opposite + characters of the two brothers, which from their infancy had been + compared to those of Domitian and of Titus. 31 She accustomed her + husband to consider Julian as a youth of a mild, unambitious + disposition, whose allegiance and gratitude might be secured by + the gift of the purple, and who was qualified to fill with honor + a subordinate station, without aspiring to dispute the commands, + or to shade the glories, of his sovereign and benefactor. After + an obstinate, though secret struggle, the opposition of the + favorite eunuchs submitted to the ascendency of the empress; and + it was resolved that Julian, after celebrating his nuptials with + Helena, sister of Constantius, should be appointed, with the + title of Cæsar, to reign over the countries beyond the Alps. 32 + + 30 (return) [ Succumbere tot necessitatibus tamque crebris unum + se, quod nunquam fecerat, aperte demonstrans. Ammian. l. xv. c. + 8. He then expresses, in their own words, the fattering + assurances of the courtiers.] + + 31 (return) [ Tantum a temperatis moribus Juliani differens + fratris quantum inter Vespasiani filios fuit, Domitianum et + Titum. Ammian. l. xiv. c. 11. The circumstances and education of + the two brothers, were so nearly the same, as to afford a strong + example of the innate difference of characters.] + + 32 (return) [ Ammianus, l. xv. c. 8. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 137, + 138.] + + Although the order which recalled him to court was probably + accompanied by some intimation of his approaching greatness, he + appeals to the people of Athens to witness his tears of + undissembled sorrow, when he was reluctantly torn away from his + beloved retirement. 33 He trembled for his life, for his fame, + and even for his virtue; and his sole confidence was derived from + the persuasion, that Minerva inspired all his actions, and that + he was protected by an invisible guard of angels, whom for that + purpose she had borrowed from the Sun and Moon. He approached, + with horror, the palace of Milan; nor could the ingenuous youth + conceal his indignation, when he found himself accosted with + false and servile respect by the assassins of his family. + Eusebia, rejoicing in the success of her benevolent schemes, + embraced him with the tenderness of a sister; and endeavored, by + the most soothing caresses, to dispel his terrors, and reconcile + him to his fortune. But the ceremony of shaving his beard, and + his awkward demeanor, when he first exchanged the cloak of a + Greek philosopher for the military habit of a Roman prince, + amused, during a few days, the levity of the Imperial court. 34 + + 33 (return) [ Julian. ad S. P. Q. A. p. 275, 276. Libanius, Orat. + x. p. 268. Julian did not yield till the gods had signified their + will by repeated visions and omens. His piety then forbade him to + resist.] + + 34 (return) [ Julian himself relates, (p. 274) with some humor, + the circumstances of his own metamorphoses, his downcast looks, + and his perplexity at being thus suddenly transported into a new + world, where every object appeared strange and hostile.] + + The emperors of the age of Constantine no longer deigned to + consult with the senate in the choice of a colleague; but they + were anxious that their nomination should be ratified by the + consent of the army. On this solemn occasion, the guards, with + the other troops whose stations were in the neighborhood of + Milan, appeared under arms; and Constantius ascended his lofty + tribunal, holding by the hand his cousin Julian, who entered the + same day into the twenty-fifth year of his age. 35 In a studied + speech, conceived and delivered with dignity, the emperor + represented the various dangers which threatened the prosperity + of the republic, the necessity of naming a Cæsar for the + administration of the West, and his own intention, if it was + agreeable to their wishes, of rewarding with the honors of the + purple the promising virtues of the nephew of Constantine. The + approbation of the soldiers was testified by a respectful murmur; + they gazed on the manly countenance of Julian, and observed with + pleasure, that the fire which sparkled in his eyes was tempered + by a modest blush, on being thus exposed, for the first time, to + the public view of mankind. As soon as the ceremony of his + investiture had been performed, Constantius addressed him with + the tone of authority which his superior age and station + permitted him to assume; and exhorting the new Cæsar to deserve, + by heroic deeds, that sacred and immortal name, the emperor gave + his colleague the strongest assurances of a friendship which + should never be impaired by time, nor interrupted by their + separation into the most distant climes. As soon as the speech + was ended, the troops, as a token of applause, clashed their + shields against their knees; 36 while the officers who surrounded + the tribunal expressed, with decent reserve, their sense of the + merits of the representative of Constantius. + + 35 (return) [ See Ammian. Marcellin. l. xv. c. 8. Zosimus, l. + iii. p. 139. Aurelius Victor. Victor Junior in Epitom. Eutrop. x. + 14.] + + 36 (return) [ Militares omnes horrendo fragore scuta genibus + illidentes; quod est prosperitatis indicium plenum; nam contra + cum hastis clypei feriuntur, iræ documentum est et doloris... ... + Ammianus adds, with a nice distinction, Eumque ut potiori + reverentia servaretur, nec supra modum laudabant nec infra quam + decebat.] + + The two princes returned to the palace in the same chariot; and + during the slow procession, Julian repeated to himself a verse of + his favorite Homer, which he might equally apply to his fortune + and to his fears. 37 The four-and-twenty days which the Cæsar + spent at Milan after his investiture, and the first months of his + Gallic reign, were devoted to a splendid but severe captivity; + nor could the acquisition of honor compensate for the loss of + freedom. 38 His steps were watched, his correspondence was + intercepted; and he was obliged, by prudence, to decline the + visits of his most intimate friends. Of his former domestics, + four only were permitted to attend him; two pages, his physician, + and his librarian; the last of whom was employed in the care of a + valuable collection of books, the gift of the empress, who + studied the inclinations as well as the interest of her friend. + In the room of these faithful servants, a household was formed, + such indeed as became the dignity of a Cæsar; but it was filled + with a crowd of slaves, destitute, and perhaps incapable, of any + attachment for their new master, to whom, for the most part, they + were either unknown or suspected. His want of experience might + require the assistance of a wise council; but the minute + instructions which regulated the service of his table, and the + distribution of his hours, were adapted to a youth still under + the discipline of his preceptors, rather than to the situation of + a prince intrusted with the conduct of an important war. If he + aspired to deserve the esteem of his subjects, he was checked by + the fear of displeasing his sovereign; and even the fruits of his + marriage-bed were blasted by the jealous artifices of Eusebia 39 + herself, who, on this occasion alone, seems to have been + unmindful of the tenderness of her sex, and the generosity of her + character. The memory of his father and of his brothers reminded + Julian of his own danger, and his apprehensions were increased by + the recent and unworthy fate of Sylvanus. In the summer which + preceded his own elevation, that general had been chosen to + deliver Gaul from the tyranny of the Barbarians; but Sylvanus + soon discovered that he had left his most dangerous enemies in + the Imperial court. A dexterous informer, countenanced by several + of the principal ministers, procured from him some recommendatory + letters; and erasing the whole of the contents, except the + signature, filled up the vacant parchment with matters of high + and treasonable import. By the industry and courage of his + friends, the fraud was however detected, and in a great council + of the civil and military officers, held in the presence of the + emperor himself, the innocence of Sylvanus was publicly + acknowledged. But the discovery came too late; the report of the + calumny, and the hasty seizure of his estate, had already + provoked the indignant chief to the rebellion of which he was so + unjustly accused. He assumed the purple at his head- quarters of + Cologne, and his active powers appeared to menace Italy with an + invasion, and Milan with a siege. In this emergency, Ursicinus, a + general of equal rank, regained, by an act of treachery, the + favor which he had lost by his eminent services in the East. + Exasperated, as he might speciously allege, by the injuries of a + similar nature, he hastened with a few followers to join the + standard, and to betray the confidence, of his too credulous + friend. After a reign of only twenty-eight days, Sylvanus was + assassinated: the soldiers who, without any criminal intention, + had blindly followed the example of their leader, immediately + returned to their allegiance; and the flatterers of Constantius + celebrated the wisdom and felicity of the monarch who had + extinguished a civil war without the hazard of a battle. 40 + + 37 (return) [ The word _purple_ which Homer had used as a vague + but common epithet for death, was applied by Julian to express, + very aptly, the nature and object of his own apprehensions.] + + 38 (return) [ He represents, in the most pathetic terms, (p. + 277,) the distress of his new situation. The provision for his + table was, however, so elegant and sumptuous, that the young + philosopher rejected it with disdain. Quum legeret libellum + assidue, quem Constantius ut privignum ad studia mittens manû suâ + conscripserat, prælicenter disponens quid in convivio Cæsaris + impendi deberit: Phasianum, et vulvam et sumen exigi vetuit et + inferri. Ammian. Marcellin. l. xvi. c. 5.] + + 39 (return) [ If we recollect that Constantine, the father of + Helena, died above eighteen years before, in a mature old age, it + will appear probable, that the daughter, though a virgin, could + not be very young at the time of her marriage. She was soon + afterwards delivered of a son, who died immediately, quod + obstetrix corrupta mercede, mox natum præsecto plusquam + convenerat umbilico necavit. She accompanied the emperor and + empress in their journey to Rome, and the latter, quæsitum + venenum bibere per fraudem illexit, ut quotiescunque concepisset, + immaturum abjicerit partum. Ammian. l. xvi. c. 10. Our physicians + will determine whether there exists such a poison. For my own + part I am inclined to hope that the public malignity imputed the + effects of accident as the guilt of Eusebia.] + + 40 (return) [ Ammianus (xv. v.) was perfectly well informed of + the conduct and fate of Sylvanus. He himself was one of the few + followers who attended Ursicinus in his dangerous enterprise.] + + The protection of the Rhætian frontier, and the persecution of + the Catholic church, detained Constantius in Italy above eighteen + months after the departure of Julian. Before the emperor returned + into the East, he indulged his pride and curiosity in a visit to + the ancient capital. 41 He proceeded from Milan to Rome along the + Æmilian and Flaminian ways, and as soon as he approached within + forty miles of the city, the march of a prince who had never + vanquished a foreign enemy, assumed the appearance of a triumphal + procession. His splendid train was composed of all the ministers + of luxury; but in a time of profound peace, he was encompassed by + the glittering arms of the numerous squadrons of his guards and + cuirassiers. Their streaming banners of silk, embossed with gold, + and shaped in the form of dragons, waved round the person of the + emperor. Constantius sat alone in a lofty car, resplendent with + gold and precious gems; and, except when he bowed his head to + pass under the gates of the cities, he affected a stately + demeanor of inflexible, and, as it might seem, of insensible + gravity. The severe discipline of the Persian youth had been + introduced by the eunuchs into the Imperial palace; and such were + the habits of patience which they had inculcated, that during a + slow and sultry march, he was never seen to move his hand towards + his face, or to turn his eyes either to the right or to the left. + He was received by the magistrates and senate of Rome; and the + emperor surveyed, with attention, the civil honors of the + republic, and the consular images of the noble families. The + streets were lined with an innumerable multitude. Their repeated + acclamations expressed their joy at beholding, after an absence + of thirty-two years, the sacred person of their sovereign, and + Constantius himself expressed, with some pleasantry, he affected + surprise that the human race should thus suddenly be collected on + the same spot. The son of Constantine was lodged in the ancient + palace of Augustus: he presided in the senate, harangued the + people from the tribunal which Cicero had so often ascended, + assisted with unusual courtesy at the games of the Circus, and + accepted the crowns of gold, as well as the Panegyrics which had + been prepared for the ceremony by the deputies of the principal + cities. His short visit of thirty days was employed in viewing + the monuments of art and power which were scattered over the + seven hills and the interjacent valleys. He admired the awful + majesty of the Capitol, the vast extent of the baths of Caracalla + and Diocletian, the severe simplicity of the Pantheon, the massy + greatness of the amphitheatre of Titus, the elegant architecture + of the theatre of Pompey and the Temple of Peace, and, above all, + the stately structure of the Forum and column of Trajan; + acknowledging that the voice of fame, so prone to invent and to + magnify, had made an inadequate report of the metropolis of the + world. The traveller, who has contemplated the ruins of ancient + Rome, may conceive some imperfect idea of the sentiments which + they must have inspired when they reared their heads in the + splendor of unsullied beauty. + + [See The Pantheon: The severe simplicity of the Pantheon] + + 41 (return) [ For the particulars of the visit of Constantius to + Rome, see Ammianus, l. xvi. c. 10. We have only to add, that + Themistius was appointed deputy from Constantinople, and that he + composed his fourth oration for his ceremony.] + + The satisfaction which Constantius had received from this journey + excited him to the generous emulation of bestowing on the Romans + some memorial of his own gratitude and munificence. His first + idea was to imitate the equestrian and colossal statue which he + had seen in the Forum of Trajan; but when he had maturely weighed + the difficulties of the execution, 42 he chose rather to + embellish the capital by the gift of an Egyptian obelisk. In a + remote but polished age, which seems to have preceded the + invention of alphabetical writing, a great number of these + obelisks had been erected, in the cities of Thebes and + Heliopolis, by the ancient sovereigns of Egypt, in a just + confidence that the simplicity of their form, and the hardness of + their substance, would resist the injuries of time and violence. + 43 Several of these extraordinary columns had been transported to + Rome by Augustus and his successors, as the most durable + monuments of their power and victory; 44 but there remained one + obelisk, which, from its size or sanctity, escaped for a long + time the rapacious vanity of the conquerors. It was designed by + Constantine to adorn his new city; 45 and, after being removed by + his order from the pedestal where it stood before the Temple of + the Sun at Heliopolis, was floated down the Nile to Alexandria. + The death of Constantine suspended the execution of his purpose, + and this obelisk was destined by his son to the ancient capital + of the empire. A vessel of uncommon strength and capaciousness + was provided to convey this enormous weight of granite, at least + a hundred and fifteen feet in length, from the banks of the Nile + to those of the Tyber. The obelisk of Constantius was landed + about three miles from the city, and elevated, by the efforts of + art and labor, in the great Circus of Rome. 46 4611 + + 42 (return) [ Hormisdas, a fugitive prince of Persia, observed to + the emperor, that if he made such a horse, he must think of + preparing a similar stable, (the Forum of Trajan.) Another saying + of Hormisdas is recorded, “that one thing only had _displeased_ + him, to find that men died at Rome as well as elsewhere.” If we + adopt this reading of the text of Ammianus, (_displicuisse_, + instead of _placuisse_,) we may consider it as a reproof of Roman + vanity. The contrary sense would be that of a misanthrope.] + + 43 (return) [ When Germanicus visited the ancient monuments of + Thebes, the eldest of the priests explained to him the meaning of + these hiero glyphics. Tacit. Annal. ii. c. 60. But it seems + probable, that before the useful invention of an alphabet, these + natural or arbitrary signs were the common characters of the + Egyptian nation. See Warburton’s Divine Legation of Moses, vol. + iii. p. 69-243.] + + 44 (return) [ See Plin. Hist. Natur. l. xxxvi. c. 14, 15.] + + 45 (return) [ Ammian. Marcellin l. xvii. c. 4. He gives us a + Greek interpretation of the hieroglyphics, and his commentator + Lindenbrogius adds a Latin inscription, which, in twenty verses + of the age of Constantius, contain a short history of the + obelisk.] + + 46 (return) [ See Donat. Roma. Antiqua, l. iii. c. 14, l. iv. c. + 12, and the learned, though confused, Dissertation of Bargæus on + Obelisks, inserted in the fourth volume of Grævius’s Roman + Antiquities, p. 1897- 1936. This dissertation is dedicated to + Pope Sixtus V., who erected the obelisk of Constantius in the + square before the patriarchal church of at. John Lateran.] + + 4611 (return) [ It is doubtful whether the obelisk transported by + Constantius to Rome now exists. Even from the text of Ammianus, + it is uncertain whether the interpretation of Hermapion refers to + the older obelisk, (obelisco incisus est veteri quem videmus in + Circo,) raised, as he himself states, in the Circus Maximus, long + before, by Augustus, or to the one brought by Constantius. The + obelisk in the square before the church of St. John Lateran is + ascribed not to Rameses the Great but to Thoutmos II. + Champollion, 1. Lettre a M. de Blacas, p. 32.—M] + + The departure of Constantius from Rome was hastened by the + alarming intelligence of the distress and danger of the Illyrian + provinces. The distractions of civil war, and the irreparable + loss which the Roman legions had sustained in the battle of + Mursa, exposed those countries, almost without defence, to the + light cavalry of the Barbarians; and particularly to the inroads + of the Quadi, a fierce and powerful nation, who seem to have + exchanged the institutions of Germany for the arms and military + arts of their Sarmatian allies. 47 The garrisons of the frontiers + were insufficient to check their progress; and the indolent + monarch was at length compelled to assemble, from the extremities + of his dominions, the flower of the Palatine troops, to take the + field in person, and to employ a whole campaign, with the + preceding autumn and the ensuing spring, in the serious + prosecution of the war. The emperor passed the Danube on a bridge + of boats, cut in pieces all that encountered his march, + penetrated into the heart of the country of the Quadi, and + severely retaliated the calamities which they had inflicted on + the Roman province. The dismayed Barbarians were soon reduced to + sue for peace: they offered the restitution of his captive + subjects as an atonement for the past, and the noblest hostages + as a pledge of their future conduct. The generous courtesy which + was shown to the first among their chieftains who implored the + clemency of Constantius, encouraged the more timid, or the more + obstinate, to imitate their example; and the Imperial camp was + crowded with the princes and ambassadors of the most distant + tribes, who occupied the plains of the Lesser Poland, and who + might have deemed themselves secure behind the lofty ridge of the + Carpathian Mountains. While Constantius gave laws to the + Barbarians beyond the Danube, he distinguished, with specious + compassion, the Sarmatian exiles, who had been expelled from + their native country by the rebellion of their slaves, and who + formed a very considerable accession to the power of the Quadi. + The emperor, embracing a generous but artful system of policy, + released the Sarmatians from the bands of this humiliating + dependence, and restored them, by a separate treaty, to the + dignity of a nation united under the government of a king, the + friend and ally of the republic. He declared his resolution of + asserting the justice of their cause, and of securing the peace + of the provinces by the extirpation, or at least the banishment, + of the Limigantes, whose manners were still infected with the + vices of their servile origin. The execution of this design was + attended with more difficulty than glory. The territory of the + Limigantes was protected against the Romans by the Danube, + against the hostile Barbarians by the Teyss. The marshy lands + which lay between those rivers, and were often covered by their + inundations, formed an intricate wilderness, pervious only to the + inhabitants, who were acquainted with its secret paths and + inaccessible fortresses. On the approach of Constantius, the + Limigantes tried the efficacy of prayers, of fraud, and of arms; + but he sternly rejected their supplications, defeated their rude + stratagems, and repelled with skill and firmness the efforts of + their irregular valor. One of their most warlike tribes, + established in a small island towards the conflux of the Teyss + and the Danube, consented to pass the river with the intention of + surprising the emperor during the security of an amicable + conference. They soon became the victims of the perfidy which + they meditated. Encompassed on every side, trampled down by the + cavalry, slaughtered by the swords of the legions, they disdained + to ask for mercy; and with an undaunted countenance, still + grasped their weapons in the agonies of death. After this + victory, a considerable body of Romans was landed on the opposite + banks of the Danube; the Taifalæ, a Gothic tribe engaged in the + service of the empire, invaded the Limigantes on the side of the + Teyss; and their former masters, the free Sarmatians, animated by + hope and revenge, penetrated through the hilly country, into the + heart of their ancient possessions. A general conflagration + revealed the huts of the Barbarians, which were seated in the + depth of the wilderness; and the soldier fought with confidence + on marshy ground, which it was dangerous for him to tread. In + this extremity, the bravest of the Limigantes were resolved to + die in arms, rather than to yield: but the milder sentiment, + enforced by the authority of their elders, at length prevailed; + and the suppliant crowd, followed by their wives and children, + repaired to the Imperial camp, to learn their fate from the mouth + of the conqueror. After celebrating his own clemency, which was + still inclined to pardon their repeated crimes, and to spare the + remnant of a guilty nation, Constantius assigned for the place of + their exile a remote country, where they might enjoy a safe and + honorable repose. The Limigantes obeyed with reluctance; but + before they could reach, at least before they could occupy, their + destined habitations, they returned to the banks of the Danube, + exaggerating the hardships of their situation, and requesting, + with fervent professions of fidelity, that the emperor would + grant them an undisturbed settlement within the limits of the + Roman provinces. Instead of consulting his own experience of + their incurable perfidy, Constantius listened to his flatterers, + who were ready to represent the honor and advantage of accepting + a colony of soldiers, at a time when it was much easier to obtain + the pecuniary contributions than the military service of the + subjects of the empire. The Limigantes were permitted to pass the + Danube; and the emperor gave audience to the multitude in a large + plain near the modern city of Buda. They surrounded the tribunal, + and seemed to hear with respect an oration full of mildness and + dignity when one of the Barbarians, casting his shoe into the + air, exclaimed with a loud voice, _Marha! Marha!_ 4711 a word of + defiance, which was received as a signal of the tumult. They + rushed with fury to seize the person of the emperor; his royal + throne and golden couch were pillaged by these rude hands; but + the faithful defence of his guards, who died at his feet, allowed + him a moment to mount a fleet horse, and to escape from the + confusion. The disgrace which had been incurred by a treacherous + surprise was soon retrieved by the numbers and discipline of the + Romans; and the combat was only terminated by the extinction of + the name and nation of the Limigantes. The free Sarmatians were + reinstated in the possession of their ancient seats; and although + Constantius distrusted the levity of their character, he + entertained some hopes that a sense of gratitude might influence + their future conduct. He had remarked the lofty stature and + obsequious demeanor of Zizais, one of the noblest of their + chiefs. He conferred on him the title of King; and Zizais proved + that he was not unworthy to reign, by a sincere and lasting + attachment to the interests of his benefactor, who, after this + splendid success, received the name of _Sarmaticus_ from the + acclamations of his victorious army. 48 + + 47 (return) [ The events of this Quadian and Sarmatian war are + related by Ammianus, xvi. 10, xvii. 12, 13, xix. 11] + + 4711 (return) [ Reinesius reads Warrha, Warrha, Guerre, War. + Wagner note as a mm. Marc xix. ll.—M.] + + 48 (return) [ Genti Sarmatarum magno decori confidens apud eos + regem dedit. Aurelius Victor. In a pompous oration pronounced by + Constantius himself, he expatiates on his own exploits with much + vanity, and some truth] + + + + + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part III. + + + While the Roman emperor and the Persian monarch, at the distance + of three thousand miles, defended their extreme limits against + the Barbarians of the Danube and of the Oxus, their intermediate + frontier experienced the vicissitudes of a languid war, and a + precarious truce. Two of the eastern ministers of Constantius, + the Prætorian præfect Musonian, whose abilities were disgraced by + the want of truth and integrity, and Cassian, duke of + Mesopotamia, a hardy and veteran soldier, opened a secret + negotiation with the satrap Tamsapor. 49 4911 These overtures of + peace, translated into the servile and flattering language of + Asia, were transmitted to the camp of the Great King; who + resolved to signify, by an ambassador, the terms which he was + inclined to grant to the suppliant Romans. Narses, whom he + invested with that character, was honorably received in his + passage through Antioch and Constantinople: he reached Sirmium + after a long journey, and, at his first audience, respectfully + unfolded the silken veil which covered the haughty epistle of his + sovereign. Sapor, King of Kings, and Brother of the Sun and Moon, + (such were the lofty titles affected by Oriental vanity,) + expressed his satisfaction that his brother, Constantius Cæsar, + had been taught wisdom by adversity. As the lawful successor of + Darius Hystaspes, Sapor asserted, that the River Strymon, in + Macedonia, was the true and ancient boundary of his empire; + declaring, however, that as an evidence of his moderation, he + would content himself with the provinces of Armenia and + Mesopotamia, which had been fraudulently extorted from his + ancestors. He alleged, that, without the restitution of these + disputed countries, it was impossible to establish any treaty on + a solid and permanent basis; and he arrogantly threatened, that + if his ambassador returned in vain, he was prepared to take the + field in the spring, and to support the justice of his cause by + the strength of his invincible arms. Narses, who was endowed with + the most polite and amiable manners, endeavored, as far as was + consistent with his duty, to soften the harshness of the message. + 50 Both the style and substance were maturely weighed in the + Imperial council, and he was dismissed with the following answer: + “Constantius had a right to disclaim the officiousness of his + ministers, who had acted without any specific orders from the + throne: he was not, however, averse to an equal and honorable + treaty; but it was highly indecent, as well as absurd, to propose + to the sole and victorious emperor of the Roman world, the same + conditions of peace which he had indignantly rejected at the time + when his power was contracted within the narrow limits of the + East: the chance of arms was uncertain; and Sapor should + recollect, that if the Romans had sometimes been vanquished in + battle, they had almost always been successful in the event of + the war.” A few days after the departure of Narses, three + ambassadors were sent to the court of Sapor, who was already + returned from the Scythian expedition to his ordinary residence + of Ctesiphon. A count, a notary, and a sophist, had been selected + for this important commission; and Constantius, who was secretly + anxious for the conclusion of the peace, entertained some hopes + that the dignity of the first of these ministers, the dexterity + of the second, and the rhetoric of the third, 51 would persuade + the Persian monarch to abate of the rigor of his demands. But the + progress of their negotiation was opposed and defeated by the + hostile arts of Antoninus, 52 a Roman subject of Syria, who had + fled from oppression, and was admitted into the councils of + Sapor, and even to the royal table, where, according to the + custom of the Persians, the most important business was + frequently discussed. 53 The dexterous fugitive promoted his + interest by the same conduct which gratified his revenge. He + incessantly urged the ambition of his new master to embrace the + favorable opportunity when the bravest of the Palatine troops + were employed with the emperor in a distant war on the Danube. He + pressed Sapor to invade the exhausted and defenceless provinces + of the East, with the numerous armies of Persia, now fortified by + the alliance and accession of the fiercest Barbarians. The + ambassadors of Rome retired without success, and a second + embassy, of a still more honorable rank, was detained in strict + confinement, and threatened either with death or exile. + + 49 (return) [ Ammian. xvi. 9.] + + 4911 (return) [ In Persian, Ten-schah-pour. St. Martin, ii. + 177.—M.] + + 50 (return) [ Ammianus (xvii. 5) transcribes the haughty letter. + Themistius (Orat. iv. p. 57, edit. Petav.) takes notice of the + silken covering. Idatius and Zonaras mention the journey of the + ambassador; and Peter the Patrician (in Excerpt. Legat. p. 58) + has informed us of his behavior.] + + 51 (return) [ Ammianus, xvii. 5, and Valesius ad loc. The + sophist, or philosopher, (in that age these words were almost + synonymous,) was Eustathius the Cappadocian, the disciple of + Jamblichus, and the friend of St. Basil. Eunapius (in Vit. + Ædesii, p. 44-47) fondly attributes to this philosophic + ambassador the glory of enchanting the Barbarian king by the + persuasive charms of reason and eloquence. See Tillemont, Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 828, 1132.] + + 52 (return) [ Ammian. xviii. 5, 6, 8. The decent and respectful + behavior of Antoninus towards the Roman general, sets him in a + very interesting light; and Ammianus himself speaks of the + traitor with some compassion and esteem.] + + 53 (return) [ This circumstance, as it is noticed by Ammianus, + serves to prove the veracity of Herodotus, (l. i. c. 133,) and + the permanency of the Persian manners. In every age the Persians + have been addicted to intemperance, and the wines of Shiraz have + triumphed over the law of Mahomet. Brisson de Regno Pers. l. ii. + p. 462-472, and Voyages en Perse, tom, iii. p. 90.] + + The military historian, 54 who was himself despatched to observe + the army of the Persians, as they were preparing to construct a + bridge of boats over the Tigris, beheld from an eminence the + plain of Assyria, as far as the edge of the horizon, covered with + men, with horses, and with arms. Sapor appeared in the front, + conspicuous by the splendor of his purple. On his left hand, the + place of honor among the Orientals, Grumbates, king of the + Chionites, displayed the stern countenance of an aged and + renowned warrior. The monarch had reserved a similar place on his + right hand for the king of the Albanians, who led his independent + tribes from the shores of the Caspian. 5411 The satraps and + generals were distributed according to their several ranks, and + the whole army, besides the numerous train of Oriental luxury, + consisted of more than one hundred thousand effective men, inured + to fatigue, and selected from the bravest nations of Asia. The + Roman deserter, who in some measure guided the councils of Sapor, + had prudently advised, that, instead of wasting the summer in + tedious and difficult sieges, he should march directly to the + Euphrates, and press forwards without delay to seize the feeble + and wealthy metropolis of Syria. But the Persians were no sooner + advanced into the plains of Mesopotamia, than they discovered + that every precaution had been used which could retard their + progress, or defeat their design. The inhabitants, with their + cattle, were secured in places of strength, the green forage + throughout the country was set on fire, the fords of the rivers + were fortified by sharp stakes; military engines were planted on + the opposite banks, and a seasonable swell of the waters of the + Euphrates deterred the Barbarians from attempting the ordinary + passage of the bridge of Thapsacus. Their skilful guide, changing + his plan of operations, then conducted the army by a longer + circuit, but through a fertile territory, towards the head of the + Euphrates, where the infant river is reduced to a shallow and + accessible stream. Sapor overlooked, with prudent disdain, the + strength of Nisibis; but as he passed under the walls of Amida, + he resolved to try whether the majesty of his presence would not + awe the garrison into immediate submission. The sacrilegious + insult of a random dart, which glanced against the royal tiara, + convinced him of his error; and the indignant monarch listened + with impatience to the advice of his ministers, who conjured him + not to sacrifice the success of his ambition to the gratification + of his resentment. The following day Grumbates advanced towards + the gates with a select body of troops, and required the instant + surrender of the city, as the only atonement which could be + accepted for such an act of rashness and insolence. His proposals + were answered by a general discharge, and his only son, a + beautiful and valiant youth, was pierced through the heart by a + javelin, shot from one of the balistæ. The funeral of the prince + of the Chionites was celebrated according to the rites of the + country; and the grief of his aged father was alleviated by the + solemn promise of Sapor, that the guilty city of Amida should + serve as a funeral pile to expiate the death, and to perpetuate + the memory, of his son. + + 54 (return) [ Ammian. lxviii. 6, 7, 8, 10.] + + 5411 (return) [ These perhaps were the barbarous tribes who + inhabit the northern part of the present Schirwan, the Albania of + the ancients. This country, now inhabited by the Lezghis, the + terror of the neighboring districts, was then occupied by the + same people, called by the ancients Legæ, by the Armenians Gheg, + or Leg. The latter represent them as constant allies of the + Persians in their wars against Armenia and the Empire. A little + after this period, a certain Schergir was their king, and it is + of him doubtless Ammianus Marcellinus speaks. St. Martin, ii. + 285.—M.] + + The ancient city of Amid or Amida, 55 which sometimes assumes the + provincial appellation of Diarbekir, 56 is advantageously situate + in a fertile plain, watered by the natural and artificial + channels of the Tigris, of which the least inconsiderable stream + bends in a semicircular form round the eastern part of the city. + The emperor Constantius had recently conferred on Amida the honor + of his own name, and the additional fortifications of strong + walls and lofty towers. It was provided with an arsenal of + military engines, and the ordinary garrison had been reenforced + to the amount of seven legions, when the place was invested by + the arms of Sapor. 57 His first and most sanguine hopes depended + on the success of a general assault. To the several nations which + followed his standard, their respective posts were assigned; the + south to the Vertæ; the north to the Albanians; the east to the + Chionites, inflamed with grief and indignation; the west to the + Segestans, the bravest of his warriors, who covered their front + with a formidable line of Indian elephants. 58 The Persians, on + every side, supported their efforts, and animated their courage; + and the monarch himself, careless of his rank and safety, + displayed, in the prosecution of the siege, the ardor of a + youthful soldier. After an obstinate combat, the Barbarians were + repulsed; they incessantly returned to the charge; they were + again driven back with a dreadful slaughter, and two rebel + legions of Gauls, who had been banished into the East, signalized + their undisciplined courage by a nocturnal sally into the heart + of the Persian camp. In one of the fiercest of these repeated + assaults, Amida was betrayed by the treachery of a deserter, who + indicated to the Barbarians a secret and neglected staircase, + scooped out of the rock that hangs over the stream of the Tigris. + Seventy chosen archers of the royal guard ascended in silence to + the third story of a lofty tower, which commanded the precipice; + they elevated on high the Persian banner, the signal of + confidence to the assailants, and of dismay to the besieged; and + if this devoted band could have maintained their post a few + minutes longer, the reduction of the place might have been + purchased by the sacrifice of their lives. After Sapor had tried, + without success, the efficacy of force and of stratagem, he had + recourse to the slower but more certain operations of a regular + siege, in the conduct of which he was instructed by the skill of + the Roman deserters. The trenches were opened at a convenient + distance, and the troops destined for that service advanced under + the portable cover of strong hurdles, to fill up the ditch, and + undermine the foundations of the walls. Wooden towers were at the + same time constructed, and moved forwards on wheels, till the + soldiers, who were provided with every species of missile + weapons, could engage almost on level ground with the troops who + defended the rampart. Every mode of resistance which art could + suggest, or courage could execute, was employed in the defence of + Amida, and the works of Sapor were more than once destroyed by + the fire of the Romans. But the resources of a besieged city may + be exhausted. The Persians repaired their losses, and pushed + their approaches; a large preach was made by the battering-ram, + and the strength of the garrison, wasted by the sword and by + disease, yielded to the fury of the assault. The soldiers, the + citizens, their wives, their children, all who had not time to + escape through the opposite gate, were involved by the conquerors + in a promiscuous massacre. + + 55 (return) [ For the description of Amida, see D’Herbelot, + Bebliotheque Orientale, p. Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 108. + Histoire de Timur Bec, par Cherefeddin Ali, l. iii. c. 41. Ahmed + Arabsiades, tom. i. p. 331, c. 43. Voyages de Tavernier, tom. i. + p. 301. Voyages d’Otter, tom. ii. p. 273, and Voyages de Niebuhr, + tom. ii. p. 324-328. The last of these travellers, a learned and + accurate Dane, has given a plan of Amida, which illustrates the + operations of the siege.] + + 56 (return) [ Diarbekir, which is styled Amid, or Kara Amid, in + the public writings of the Turks, contains above 16,000 houses, + and is the residence of a pacha with three tails. The epithet of + _Kara_ is derived from the _blackness_ of the stone which + composes the strong and ancient wall of Amida. ——In my Mém. Hist. + sur l’Armenie, l. i. p. 166, 173, I conceive that I have proved + this city, still called, by the Armenians, Dirkranagerd, the city + of Tigranes, to be the same with the famous Tigranocerta, of + which the situation was unknown. St. Martin, i. 432. On the siege + of Amida, see St. Martin’s Notes, ii. 290. Faustus of Byzantium, + nearly a contemporary, (Armenian,) states that the Persians, on + becoming masters of it, destroyed 40,000 houses though Ammianus + describes the city as of no great extent, (civitatis ambitum non + nimium amplæ.) Besides the ordinary population, and those who + took refuge from the country, it contained 20,000 soldiers. St. + Martin, ii. 290. This interpretation is extremely doubtful. + Wagner (note on Ammianus) considers the whole population to + amount only to—M.] + + 57 (return) [ The operations of the siege of Amida are very + minutely described by Ammianus, (xix. 1-9,) who acted an + honorable part in the defence, and escaped with difficulty when + the city was stormed by the Persians.] + + 58 (return) [ Of these four nations, the Albanians are too well + known to require any description. The Segestans [_Sacastenè. St. + Martin._] inhabited a large and level country, which still + preserves their name, to the south of Khorasan, and the west of + Hindostan. (See Geographia Nubiensis. p. 133, and D’Herbelot, + Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 797.) Notwithstanding the boasted + victory of Bahram, (vol. i. p. 410,) the Segestans, above + fourscore years afterwards, appear as an independent nation, the + ally of Persia. We are ignorant of the situation of the Vertæ and + Chionites, but I am inclined to place them (at least the latter) + towards the confines of India and Scythia. See Ammian. ——Klaproth + considers the real Albanians the same with the ancient Alani, and + quotes a passage of the emperor Julian in support of his opinion. + They are the Ossetæ, now inhabiting part of Caucasus. Tableaux + Hist. de l’Asie, p. 179, 180.—M. ——The Vertæ are still unknown. + It is possible that the Chionites are the same as the Huns. These + people were already known; and we find from Armenian authors that + they were making, at this period, incursions into Asia. They were + often at war with the Persians. The name was perhaps pronounced + differently in the East and in the West, and this prevents us + from recognizing it. St. Martin, ii. 177.—M.] + + But the ruin of Amida was the safety of the Roman provinces. + + As soon as the first transports of victory had subsided, Sapor + was at leisure to reflect, that to chastise a disobedient city, + he had lost the flower of his troops, and the most favorable + season for conquest. 59 Thirty thousand of his veterans had + fallen under the walls of Amida, during the continuance of a + siege, which lasted seventy-three days; and the disappointed + monarch returned to his capital with affected triumph and secret + mortification. It is more than probable, that the inconstancy of + his Barbarian allies was tempted to relinquish a war in which + they had encountered such unexpected difficulties; and that the + aged king of the Chionites, satiated with revenge, turned away + with horror from a scene of action where he had been deprived of + the hope of his family and nation. The strength as well as the + spirit of the army with which Sapor took the field in the ensuing + spring was no longer equal to the unbounded views of his + ambition. Instead of aspiring to the conquest of the East, he was + obliged to content himself with the reduction of two fortified + cities of Mesopotamia, Singara and Bezabde; 60 the one situate in + the midst of a sandy desert, the other in a small peninsula, + surrounded almost on every side by the deep and rapid stream of + the Tigris. Five Roman legions, of the diminutive size to which + they had been reduced in the age of Constantine, were made + prisoners, and sent into remote captivity on the extreme confines + of Persia. After dismantling the walls of Singara, the conqueror + abandoned that solitary and sequestered place; but he carefully + restored the fortifications of Bezabde, and fixed in that + important post a garrison or colony of veterans; amply supplied + with every means of defence, and animated by high sentiments of + honor and fidelity. Towards the close of the campaign, the arms + of Sapor incurred some disgrace by an unsuccessful enterprise + against Virtha, or Tecrit, a strong, or, as it was universally + esteemed till the age of Tamerlane, an impregnable fortress of + the independent Arabs. 61 6111 + + 59 (return) [ Ammianus has marked the chronology of this year by + three signs, which do not perfectly coincide with each other, or + with the series of the history. 1 The corn was ripe when Sapor + invaded Mesopotamia; “Cum jam stipula flaveate turgerent;” a + circumstance, which, in the latitude of Aleppo, would naturally + refer us to the month of April or May. See Harmer’s Observations + on Scripture vol. i. p. 41. Shaw’s Travels, p. 335, edit 4to. 2. + The progress of Sapor was checked by the overflowing of the + Euphrates, which generally happens in July and August. Plin. + Hist. Nat. v. 21. Viaggi di Pietro della Valle, tom. i. p. 696. + 3. When Sapor had taken Amida, after a siege of seventy-three + days, the autumn was far advanced. “Autumno præcipiti hædorumque + improbo sidere exorto.” To reconcile these apparent + contradictions, we must allow for some delay in the Persian king, + some inaccuracy in the historian, and some disorder in the + seasons.] + + 60 (return) [ The account of these sieges is given by Ammianus, + xx. 6, 7. ——The Christian bishop of Bezabde went to the camp of + the king of Persia, to persuade him to check the waste of human + blood Amm. Mare xx. 7.—M.] + + 61 (return) [ For the identity of Virtha and Tecrit, see + D’Anville, Geographie. For the siege of that castle by Timur Bec + or Tamerlane, see Cherefeddin, l. iii. c. 33. The Persian + biographer exaggerates the merit and difficulty of this exploit, + which delivered the caravans of Bagdad from a formidable gang of + robbers.] + + 6111 (return) [ St. Martin doubts whether it lay so much to the + south. “The word Girtha means in Syriac a castle or fortress, and + might be applied to many places.”] + + The defence of the East against the arms of Sapor required and + would have exercised, the abilities of the most consummate + general; and it seemed fortunate for the state, that it was the + actual province of the brave Ursicinus, who alone deserved the + confidence of the soldiers and people. In the hour of danger, 62 + Ursicinus was removed from his station by the intrigues of the + eunuchs; and the military command of the East was bestowed, by + the same influence, on Sabinian, a wealthy and subtle veteran, + who had attained the infirmities, without acquiring the + experience, of age. By a second order, which issued from the same + jealous and inconstant councils, Ursicinus was again despatched + to the frontier of Mesopotamia, and condemned to sustain the + labors of a war, the honors of which had been transferred to his + unworthy rival. Sabinian fixed his indolent station under the + walls of Edessa; and while he amused himself with the idle parade + of military exercise, and moved to the sound of flutes in the + Pyrrhic dance, the public defence was abandoned to the boldness + and diligence of the former general of the East. But whenever + Ursicinus recommended any vigorous plan of operations; when he + proposed, at the head of a light and active army, to wheel round + the foot of the mountains, to intercept the convoys of the enemy, + to harass the wide extent of the Persian lines, and to relieve + the distress of Amida; the timid and envious commander alleged, + that he was restrained by his positive orders from endangering + the safety of the troops. Amida was at length taken; its bravest + defenders, who had escaped the sword of the Barbarians, died in + the Roman camp by the hand of the executioner: and Ursicinus + himself, after supporting the disgrace of a partial inquiry, was + punished for the misconduct of Sabinian by the loss of his + military rank. But Constantius soon experienced the truth of the + prediction which honest indignation had extorted from his injured + lieutenant, that as long as such maxims of government were + suffered to prevail, the emperor himself would find it is no easy + task to defend his eastern dominions from the invasion of a + foreign enemy. When he had subdued or pacified the Barbarians of + the Danube, Constantius proceeded by slow marches into the East; + and after he had wept over the smoking ruins of Amida, he formed, + with a powerful army, the siege of Becabde. The walls were shaken + by the reiterated efforts of the most enormous of the + battering-rams; the town was reduced to the last extremity; but + it was still defended by the patient and intrepid valor of the + garrison, till the approach of the rainy season obliged the + emperor to raise the siege, and ingloviously to retreat into his + winter quarters at Antioch. 63 The pride of Constantius, and the + ingenuity of his courtiers, were at a loss to discover any + materials for panegyric in the events of the Persian war; while + the glory of his cousin Julian, to whose military command he had + intrusted the provinces of Gaul, was proclaimed to the world in + the simple and concise narrative of his exploits. + + 62 (return) [ Ammianus (xviii. 5, 6, xix. 3, xx. 2) represents + the merit and disgrace of Ursicinus with that faithful attention + which a soldier owed to his general. Some partiality may be + suspected, yet the whole account is consistent and probable.] + + 63 (return) [ Ammian. xx. 11. Omisso vano incepto, hiematurus + Antiochiæ redit in Syriam ærumnosam, perpessus et ulcerum sed et + atrocia, diuque deflenda. It is _thus_ that James Gronovius has + restored an obscure passage; and he thinks that this correction + alone would have deserved a new edition of his author: whose + sense may now be darkly perceived. I expected some additional + light from the recent labors of the learned Ernestus. (Lipsiæ, + 1773.) * Note: The late editor (Wagner) has nothing better to + suggest, and le menta with Gibbon, the silence of Ernesti.—M.] + + In the blind fury of civil discord, Constantius had abandoned to + the Barbarians of Germany the countries of Gaul, which still + acknowledged the authority of his rival. A numerous swarm of + Franks and Alemanni were invited to cross the Rhine by presents + and promises, by the hopes of spoil, and by a perpetual grant of + all the territories which they should be able to subdue. 64 But + the emperor, who for a temporary service had thus imprudently + provoked the rapacious spirit of the Barbarians, soon discovered + and lamented the difficulty of dismissing these formidable + allies, after they had tasted the richness of the Roman soil. + Regardless of the nice distinction of loyalty and rebellion, + these undisciplined robbers treated as their natural enemies all + the subjects of the empire, who possessed any property which they + were desirous of acquiring Forty-five flourishing cities, + Tongres, Cologne, Treves, Worms, Spires, Strasburgh, &c., besides + a far greater number of towns and villages, were pillaged, and + for the most part reduced to ashes. The Barbarians of Germany, + still faithful to the maxims of their ancestors, abhorred the + confinement of walls, to which they applied the odious names of + prisons and sepulchres; and fixing their independent habitations + on the banks of rivers, the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Meuse, + they secured themselves against the danger of a surprise, by a + rude and hasty fortification of large trees, which were felled + and thrown across the roads. The Alemanni were established in the + modern countries of Alsace and Lorraine; the Franks occupied the + island of the Batavians, together with an extensive district of + Brabant, which was then known by the appellation of Toxandria, 65 + and may deserve to be considered as the original seat of their + Gallic monarchy. 66 From the sources, to the mouth, of the Rhine, + the conquests of the Germans extended above forty miles to the + west of that river, over a country peopled by colonies of their + own name and nation: and the scene of their devastations was + three times more extensive than that of their conquests. At a + still greater distance the open towns of Gaul were deserted, and + the inhabitants of the fortified cities, who trusted to their + strength and vigilance, were obliged to content themselves with + such supplies of corn as they could raise on the vacant land + within the enclosure of their walls. The diminished legions, + destitute of pay and provisions, of arms and discipline, trembled + at the approach, and even at the name, of the Barbarians. + + 64 (return) [ The ravages of the Germans, and the distress of + Gaul, may be collected from Julian himself. Orat. ad S. P. Q. + Athen. p. 277. Ammian. xv. ll. Libanius, Orat. x. Zosimus, l. + iii. p. 140. Sozomen, l. iii. c. l. (Mamertin. Grat. Art. c. + iv.)] + + 65 (return) [ Ammianus, xvi. 8. This name seems to be derived + from the Toxandri of Pliny, and very frequently occurs in the + histories of the middle age. Toxandria was a country of woods and + morasses, which extended from the neighborhood of Tongres to the + conflux of the Vahal and the Rhine. See Valesius, Notit. Galliar. + p. 558.] + + 66 (return) [ The paradox of P. Daniel, that the Franks never + obtained any permanent settlement on this side of the Rhine + before the time of Clovis, is refuted with much learning and good + sense by M. Biet, who has proved by a chain of evidence, their + uninterrupted possession of Toxandria, one hundred and thirty + years before the accession of Clovis. The Dissertation of M. Biet + was crowned by the Academy of Soissons, in the year 1736, and + seems to have been justly preferred to the discourse of his more + celebrated competitor, the Abbé le Bœuf, an antiquarian, whose + name was happily expressive of his talents.] + + + + + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part IV. + + + Under these melancholy circumstances, an unexperienced youth was + appointed to save and to govern the provinces of Gaul, or rather, + as he expressed it himself, to exhibit the vain image of Imperial + greatness. The retired scholastic education of Julian, in which + he had been more conversant with books than with arms, with the + dead than with the living, left him in profound ignorance of the + practical arts of war and government; and when he awkwardly + repeated some military exercise which it was necessary for him to + learn, he exclaimed with a sigh, “O Plato, Plato, what a task for + a philosopher!” Yet even this speculative philosophy, which men + of business are too apt to despise, had filled the mind of Julian + with the noblest precepts and the most shining examples; had + animated him with the love of virtue, the desire of fame, and the + contempt of death. The habits of temperance recommended in the + schools, are still more essential in the severe discipline of a + camp. The simple wants of nature regulated the measure of his + food and sleep. Rejecting with disdain the delicacies provided + for his table, he satisfied his appetite with the coarse and + common fare which was allotted to the meanest soldiers. During + the rigor of a Gallic winter, he never suffered a fire in his + bed-chamber; and after a short and interrupted slumber, he + frequently rose in the middle of the night from a carpet spread + on the floor, to despatch any urgent business, to visit his + rounds, or to steal a few moments for the prosecution of his + favorite studies. 67 The precepts of eloquence, which he had + hitherto practised on fancied topics of declamation, were more + usefully applied to excite or to assuage the passions of an armed + multitude: and although Julian, from his early habits of + conversation and literature, was more familiarly acquainted with + the beauties of the Greek language, he had attained a competent + knowledge of the Latin tongue. 68 Since Julian was not originally + designed for the character of a legislator, or a judge, it is + probable that the civil jurisprudence of the Romans had not + engaged any considerable share of his attention: but he derived + from his philosophic studies an inflexible regard for justice, + tempered by a disposition to clemency; the knowledge of the + general principles of equity and evidence, and the faculty of + patiently investigating the most intricate and tedious questions + which could be proposed for his discussion. The measures of + policy, and the operations of war, must submit to the various + accidents of circumstance and character, and the unpractised + student will often be perplexed in the application of the most + perfect theory. + + But in the acquisition of this important science, Julian was + assisted by the active vigor of his own genius, as well as by the + wisdom and experience of Sallust, and officer of rank, who soon + conceived a sincere attachment for a prince so worthy of his + friendship; and whose incorruptible integrity was adorned by the + talent of insinuating the harshest truths without wounding the + delicacy of a royal ear. 69 + + 67 (return) [ The private life of Julian in Gaul, and the severe + discipline which he embraced, are displayed by Ammianus, (xvi. + 5,) who professes to praise, and by Julian himself, who affects + to ridicule, (Misopogon, p. 340,) a conduct, which, in a prince + of the house of Constantine, might justly excite the surprise of + mankind.] + + 68 (return) [ Aderat Latine quoque disserenti sufficiens sermo. + Ammianus xvi. 5. But Julian, educated in the schools of Greece, + always considered the language of the Romans as a foreign and + popular dialect which he might use on necessary occasions.] + + 69 (return) [ We are ignorant of the actual office of this + excellent minister, whom Julian afterwards created præfect of + Gaul. Sallust was speedly recalled by the jealousy of the + emperor; and we may still read a sensible but pedantic discourse, + (p. 240-252,) in which Julian deplores the loss of so valuable a + friend, to whom he acknowledges himself indebted for his + reputation. See La Bleterie, Preface a la Vie de lovien, p. 20.] + + Immediately after Julian had received the purple at Milan, he was + sent into Gaul with a feeble retinue of three hundred and sixty + soldiers. At Vienna, where he passed a painful and anxious winter + in the hands of those ministers to whom Constantius had intrusted + the direction of his conduct, the Cæsar was informed of the siege + and deliverance of Autun. That large and ancient city, protected + only by a ruined wall and pusillanimous garrison, was saved by + the generous resolution of a few veterans, who resumed their arms + for the defence of their country. In his march from Autun, + through the heart of the Gallic provinces, Julian embraced with + ardor the earliest opportunity of signalizing his courage. At the + head of a small body of archers and heavy cavalry, he preferred + the shorter but the more dangerous of two roads; 6911 and + sometimes eluding, and sometimes resisting, the attacks of the + Barbarians, who were masters of the field, he arrived with honor + and safety at the camp near Rheims, where the Roman troops had + been ordered to assemble. The aspect of their young prince + revived the drooping spirits of the soldiers, and they marched + from Rheims in search of the enemy, with a confidence which had + almost proved fatal to them. The Alemanni, familiarized to the + knowledge of the country, secretly collected their scattered + forces, and seizing the opportunity of a dark and rainy day, + poured with unexpected fury on the rear-guard of the Romans. + Before the inevitable disorder could be remedied, two legions + were destroyed; and Julian was taught by experience that caution + and vigilance are the most important lessons of the art of war. + In a second and more successful action, he recovered and + established his military fame; but as the agility of the + Barbarians saved them from the pursuit, his victory was neither + bloody nor decisive. He advanced, however, to the banks of the + Rhine, surveyed the ruins of Cologne, convinced himself of the + difficulties of the war, and retreated on the approach of winter, + discontented with the court, with his army, and with his own + success. 70 The power of the enemy was yet unbroken; and the + Cæsar had no sooner separated his troops, and fixed his own + quarters at Sens, in the centre of Gaul, than he was surrounded + and besieged, by a numerous host of Germans. Reduced, in this + extremity, to the resources of his own mind, he displayed a + prudent intrepidity, which compensated for all the deficiencies + of the place and garrison; and the Barbarians, at the end of + thirty days, were obliged to retire with disappointed rage. + + 6911 (return) [ Aliis per Arbor—quibusdam per Sedelaucum et Coram + in debere firrantibus. Amm. Marc. xvi. 2. I do not know what + place can be meant by the mutilated name Arbor. Sedelanus is + Saulieu, a small town of the department of the Cote d’Or, six + leagues from Autun. Cora answers to the village of Cure, on the + river of the same name, between Autun and Nevera 4; Martin, ii. + 162.—M. ——Note: At Brocomages, Brumat, near Strasburgh. St. + Martin, ii. 184.—M.] + + 70 (return) [ Ammianus (xvi. 2, 3) appears much better satisfied + with the success of his first campaign than Julian himself; who + very fairly owns that he did nothing of consequence, and that he + fled before the enemy.] + + The conscious pride of Julian, who was indebted only to his sword + for this signal deliverance, was imbittered by the reflection, + that he was abandoned, betrayed, and perhaps devoted to + destruction, by those who were bound to assist him, by every tie + of honor and fidelity. Marcellus, master-general of the cavalry + in Gaul, interpreting too strictly the jealous orders of the + court, beheld with supine indifference the distress of Julian, + and had restrained the troops under his command from marching to + the relief of Sens. If the Cæsar had dissembled in silence so + dangerous an insult, his person and authority would have been + exposed to the contempt of the world; and if an action so + criminal had been suffered to pass with impunity, the emperor + would have confirmed the suspicions, which received a very + specious color from his past conduct towards the princes of the + Flavian family. Marcellus was recalled, and gently dismissed from + his office. 71 In his room Severus was appointed general of the + cavalry; an experienced soldier, of approved courage and + fidelity, who could advise with respect, and execute with zeal; + and who submitted, without reluctance to the supreme command + which Julian, by the inrerest of his patroness Eusebia, at length + obtained over the armies of Gaul. 72 A very judicious plan of + operations was adopted for the approaching campaign. Julian + himself, at the head of the remains of the veteran bands, and of + some new levies which he had been permitted to form, boldly + penetrated into the centre of the German cantonments, and + carefully reestablished the fortifications of Saverne, in an + advantageous post, which would either check the incursions, or + intercept the retreat, of the enemy. At the same time, Barbatio, + general of the infantry, advanced from Milan with an army of + thirty thousand men, and passing the mountains, prepared to throw + a bridge over the Rhine, in the neighborhood of Basil. It was + reasonable to expect that the Alemanni, pressed on either side by + the Roman arms, would soon be forced to evacuate the provinces of + Gaul, and to hasten to the defence of their native country. But + the hopes of the campaign were defeated by the incapacity, or the + envy, or the secret instructions, of Barbatio; who acted as if he + had been the enemy of the Cæsar, and the secret ally of the + Barbarians. The negligence with which he permitted a troop of + pillagers freely to pass, and to return almost before the gates + of his camp, may be imputed to his want of abilities; but the + treasonable act of burning a number of boats, and a superfluous + stock of provisions, which would have been of the most essential + service to the army of Gaul, was an evidence of his hostile and + criminal intentions. The Germans despised an enemy who appeared + destitute either of power or of inclination to offend them; and + the ignominious retreat of Barbatio deprived Julian of the + expected support; and left him to extricate himself from a + hazardous situation, where he could neither remain with safety, + nor retire with honor. 73 + + 71 (return) [ Ammian. xvi. 7. Libanius speaks rather more + advantageously of the military talents of Marcellus, Orat. x. p. + 272. And Julian insinuates, that he would not have been so easily + recalled, unless he had given other reasons of offence to the + court, p. 278.] + + 72 (return) [ Severus, non discors, non arrogans, sed longa + militiæ frugalitate compertus; et eum recta præeuntem secuturus, + ut duetorem morigeran miles. Ammian xvi. 11. Zosimus, l. iii. p. + 140.] + + 73 (return) [ On the design and failure of the cooperation + between Julian and Barbatio, see Ammianus (xvi. 11) and Libanius, + (Orat. x. p. 273.) Note: Barbatio seems to have allowed himself + to be surprised and defeated—M.] + + As soon as they were delivered from the fears of invasion, the + Alemanni prepared to chastise the Roman youth, who presumed to + dispute the possession of that country, which they claimed as + their own by the right of conquest and of treaties. They employed + three days, and as many nights, in transporting over the Rhine + their military powers. The fierce Chnodomar, shaking the + ponderous javelin which he had victoriously wielded against the + brother of Magnentius, led the van of the Barbarians, and + moderated by his experience the martial ardor which his example + inspired. 74 He was followed by six other kings, by ten princes + of regal extraction, by a long train of high-spirited nobles, and + by thirty-five thousand of the bravest warriors of the tribes of + Germany. The confidence derived from the view of their own + strength, was increased by the intelligence which they received + from a deserter, that the Cæsar, with a feeble army of thirteen + thousand men, occupied a post about one-and-twenty miles from + their camp of Strasburgh. With this inadequate force, Julian + resolved to seek and to encounter the Barbarian host; and the + chance of a general action was preferred to the tedious and + uncertain operation of separately engaging the dispersed parties + of the Alemanni. The Romans marched in close order, and in two + columns; the cavalry on the right, the infantry on the left; and + the day was so far spent when they appeared in sight of the + enemy, that Julian was desirous of deferring the battle till the + next morning, and of allowing his troops to recruit their + exhausted strength by the necessary refreshments of sleep and + food. Yielding, however, with some reluctance, to the clamors of + the soldiers, and even to the opinion of his council, he exhorted + them to justify by their valor the eager impatience, which, in + case of a defeat, would be universally branded with the epithets + of rashness and presumption. The trumpets sounded, the military + shout was heard through the field, and the two armies rushed with + equal fury to the charge. The Cæsar, who conducted in person his + right wing, depended on the dexterity of his archers, and the + weight of his cuirassiers. But his ranks were instantly broken by + an irregular mixture of light horse and of light infantry, and he + had the mortification of beholding the flight of six hundred of + his most renowned cuirassiers. 75 The fugitives were stopped and + rallied by the presence and authority of Julian, who, careless of + his own safety, threw himself before them, and urging every + motive of shame and honor, led them back against the victorious + enemy. The conflict between the two lines of infantry was + obstinate and bloody. The Germans possessed the superiority of + strength and stature, the Romans that of discipline and temper; + and as the Barbarians, who served under the standard of the + empire, united the respective advantages of both parties, their + strenuous efforts, guided by a skilful leader, at length + determined the event of the day. The Romans lost four tribunes, + and two hundred and forty-three soldiers, in this memorable + battle of Strasburgh, so glorious to the Cæsar, 76 and so + salutary to the afflicted provinces of Gaul. Six thousand of the + Alemanni were slain in the field, without including those who + were drowned in the Rhine, or transfixed with darts while they + attempted to swim across the river. 77 Chnodomar himself was + surrounded and taken prisoner, with three of his brave + companions, who had devoted themselves to follow in life or death + the fate of their chieftain. Julian received him with military + pomp in the council of his officers; and expressing a generous + pity for the fallen state, dissembled his inward contempt for the + abject humiliation, of his captive. Instead of exhibiting the + vanquished king of the Alemanni, as a grateful spectacle to the + cities of Gaul, he respectfully laid at the feet of the emperor + this splendid trophy of his victory. Chnodomar experienced an + honorable treatment: but the impatient Barbarian could not long + survive his defeat, his confinement, and his exile. 78 + + 74 (return) [ Ammianus (xvi. 12) describes with his inflated + eloquence the figure and character of Chnodomar. Audax et fidens + ingenti robore lacertorum, ubi ardor prœlii sperabatur immanis, + equo spumante sublimior, erectus in jaculum formidandæ + vastitatis, armorumque nitore conspicuus: antea strenuus et + miles, et utilis præter cæteros ductor... Decentium Cæsarem + superavit æquo marte congressus.] + + 75 (return) [ After the battle, Julian ventured to revive the + rigor of ancient discipline, by exposing these fugitives in + female apparel to the derision of the whole camp. In the next + campaign, these troops nobly retrieved their honor. Zosimus, l. + iii. p. 142.] + + 76 (return) [ Julian himself (ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 279) speaks + of the battle of Strasburgh with the modesty of conscious merit; + Zosimus compares it with the victory of Alexander over Darius; + and yet we are at a loss to discover any of those strokes of + military genius which fix the attention of ages on the conduct + and success of a single day.] + + 77 (return) [ Ammianus, xvi. 12. Libanius adds 2000 more to the + number of the slain, (Orat. x. p. 274.) But these trifling + differences disappear before the 60,000 Barbarians, whom Zosimus + has sacrificed to the glory of his hero, (l. iii. p. 141.) We + might attribute this extravagant number to the carelessness of + transcribers, if this credulous or partial historian had not + swelled the army of 35,000 Alemanni to an innumerable multitude + of Barbarians,. It is our own fault if this detection does not + inspire us with proper distrust on similar occasions.] + + 78 (return) [ Ammian. xvi. 12. Libanius, Orat. x. p. 276.] + + After Julian had repulsed the Alemanni from the provinces of the + Upper Rhine, he turned his arms against the Franks, who were + seated nearer to the ocean, on the confines of Gaul and Germany; + and who, from their numbers, and still more from their intrepid + valor, had ever been esteemed the most formidable of the + Barbarians. 79 Although they were strongly actuated by the + allurements of rapine, they professed a disinterested love of + war; which they considered as the supreme honor and felicity of + human nature; and their minds and bodies were so completely + hardened by perpetual action, that, according to the lively + expression of an orator, the snows of winter were as pleasant to + them as the flowers of spring. In the month of December, which + followed the battle of Strasburgh, Julian attacked a body of six + hundred Franks, who had thrown themselves into two castles on the + Meuse. 80 In the midst of that severe season they sustained, with + inflexible constancy, a siege of fifty-four days; till at length, + exhausted by hunger, and satisfied that the vigilance of the + enemy, in breaking the ice of the river, left them no hopes of + escape, the Franks consented, for the first time, to dispense + with the ancient law which commanded them to conquer or to die. + The Cæsar immediately sent his captives to the court of + Constantius, who, accepting them as a valuable present, 81 + rejoiced in the opportunity of adding so many heroes to the + choicest troops of his domestic guards. The obstinate resistance + of this handful of Franks apprised Julian of the difficulties of + the expedition which he meditated for the ensuing spring, against + the whole body of the nation. His rapid diligence surprised and + astonished the active Barbarians. Ordering his soldiers to + provide themselves with biscuit for twenty days, he suddenly + pitched his camp near Tongres, while the enemy still supposed him + in his winter quarters of Paris, expecting the slow arrival of + his convoys from Aquitain. Without allowing the Franks to unite + or deliberate, he skilfully spread his legions from Cologne to + the ocean; and by the terror, as well as by the success, of his + arms, soon reduced the suppliant tribes to implore the clemency, + and to obey the commands, of their conqueror. The Chamavians + submissively retired to their former habitations beyond the + Rhine; but the Salians were permitted to possess their new + establishment of Toxandria, as the subjects and auxiliaries of + the Roman empire. 82 The treaty was ratified by solemn oaths; and + perpetual inspectors were appointed to reside among the Franks, + with the authority of enforcing the strict observance of the + conditions. An incident is related, interesting enough in itself, + and by no means repugnant to the character of Julian, who + ingeniously contrived both the plot and the catastrophe of the + tragedy. When the Chamavians sued for peace, he required the son + of their king, as the only hostage on whom he could rely. A + mournful silence, interrupted by tears and groans, declared the + sad perplexity of the Barbarians; and their aged chief lamented + in pathetic language, that his private loss was now imbittered by + a sense of public calamity. While the Chamavians lay prostrate at + the foot of his throne, the royal captive, whom they believed to + have been slain, unexpectedly appeared before their eyes; and as + soon as the tumult of joy was hushed into attention, the Cæsar + addressed the assembly in the following terms: “Behold the son, + the prince, whom you wept. You had lost him by your fault. God + and the Romans have restored him to you. I shall still preserve + and educate the youth, rather as a monument of my own virtue, + than as a pledge of your sincerity. Should you presume to violate + the faith which you have sworn, the arms of the republic will + avenge the perfidy, not on the innocent, but on the guilty.” The + Barbarians withdrew from his presence, impressed with the warmest + sentiments of gratitude and admiration. 83 + + 79 (return) [ Libanius (Orat. iii. p. 137) draws a very lively + picture of the manners of the Franks.] + + 80 (return) [ Ammianus, xvii. 2. Libanius, Orat. x. p. 278. The + Greek orator, by misapprehending a passage of Julian, has been + induced to represent the Franks as consisting of a thousand men; + and as his head was always full of the Peloponnesian war, he + compares them to the Lacedæmonians, who were besieged and taken + in the Island of Sphatoria.] + + 81 (return) [ Julian. ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 280. Libanius, Orat. + x. p. 278. According to the expression of Libanius, the emperor, + which La Bleterie understands (Vie de Julien, p. 118) as an + honest confession, and Valesius (ad Ammian. xvii. 2) as a mean + evasion, of the truth. Dom Bouquet, (Historiens de France, tom. + i. p. 733,) by substituting another word, would suppress both the + difficulty and the spirit of this passage.] + + 82 (return) [ Ammian. xvii. 8. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 146-150, (his + narrative is darkened by a mixture of fable,) and Julian. ad S. + P. Q. Athen. p. 280. His expression. This difference of treatment + confirms the opinion that the Salian Franks were permitted to + retain the settlements in Toxandria. Note: A newly discovered + fragment of Eunapius, whom Zosimus probably transcribed, + illustrates this transaction. “Julian commanded the Romans to + abstain from all hostile measures against the Salians, neither to + waste or ravage _their own_ country, for he called every country + _their own_ which was surrendered without resistance or toil on + the part of the conquerors.” Mai, Script. Vez Nov. Collect. ii. + 256, and Eunapius in Niebuhr, Byzant. Hist.] + + 83 (return) [ This interesting story, which Zosimus has abridged, + is related by Eunapius, (in Excerpt. Legationum, p. 15, 16, 17,) + with all the amplifications of Grecian rhetoric: but the silence + of Libanius, of Ammianus, and of Julian himself, renders the + truth of it extremely suspicious.] + + It was not enough for Julian to have delivered the provinces of + Gaul from the Barbarians of Germany. He aspired to emulate the + glory of the first and most illustrious of the emperors; after + whose example, he composed his own commentaries of the Gallic + war. 84 Cæsar has related, with conscious pride, the manner in + which he _twice_ passed the Rhine. Julian could boast, that + before he assumed the title of Augustus, he had carried the Roman + eagles beyond that great river in _three_ successful expeditions. + 85 The consternation of the Germans, after the battle of + Strasburgh, encouraged him to the first attempt; and the + reluctance of the troops soon yielded to the persuasive eloquence + of a leader, who shared the fatigues and dangers which he imposed + on the meanest of the soldiers. The villages on either side of + the Meyn, which were plentifully stored with corn and cattle, + felt the ravages of an invading army. The principal houses, + constructed with some imitation of Roman elegance, were consumed + by the flames; and the Cæsar boldly advanced about ten miles, + till his progress was stopped by a dark and impenetrable forest, + undermined by subterraneous passages, which threatened with + secret snares and ambush every step of the assailants. The ground + was already covered with snow; and Julian, after repairing an + ancient castle which had been erected by Trajan, granted a truce + of ten months to the submissive Barbarians. At the expiration of + the truce, Julian undertook a second expedition beyond the Rhine, + to humble the pride of Surmar and Hortaire, two of the kings of + the Alemanni, who had been present at the battle of Strasburgh. + They promised to restore all the Roman captives who yet remained + alive; and as the Cæsar had procured an exact account from the + cities and villages of Gaul, of the inhabitants whom they had + lost, he detected every attempt to deceive him, with a degree of + readiness and accuracy, which almost established the belief of + his supernatural knowledge. His third expedition was still more + splendid and important than the two former. The Germans had + collected their military powers, and moved along the opposite + banks of the river, with a design of destroying the bridge, and + of preventing the passage of the Romans. But this judicious plan + of defence was disconcerted by a skilful diversion. Three hundred + light-armed and active soldiers were detached in forty small + boats, to fall down the stream in silence, and to land at some + distance from the posts of the enemy. They executed their orders + with so much boldness and celerity, that they had almost + surprised the Barbarian chiefs, who returned in the fearless + confidence of intoxication from one of their nocturnal festivals. + Without repeating the uniform and disgusting tale of slaughter + and devastation, it is sufficient to observe, that Julian + dictated his own conditions of peace to six of the haughtiest + kings of the Alemanni, three of whom were permitted to view the + severe discipline and martial pomp of a Roman camp. Followed by + twenty thousand captives, whom he had rescued from the chains of + the Barbarians, the Cæsar repassed the Rhine, after terminating a + war, the success of which has been compared to the ancient + glories of the Punic and Cimbric victories. + + 84 (return) [ Libanius, the friend of Julian, clearly insinuates + (Orat. ix. p. 178) that his hero had composed the history of his + Gallic campaigns But Zosimus (l. iii. p, 140) seems to have + derived his information only from the Orations and the Epistles + of Julian. The discourse which is addressed to the Athenians + contains an accurate, though general, account of the war against + the Germans.] + + 85 (return) [ See Ammian. xvii. 1, 10, xviii. 2, and Zosim. l. + iii. p. 144. Julian ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 280.] + + As soon as the valor and conduct of Julian had secured an + interval of peace, he applied himself to a work more congenial to + his humane and philosophic temper. The cities of Gaul, which had + suffered from the inroads of the Barbarians, he diligently + repaired; and seven important posts, between Mentz and the mouth + of the Rhine, are particularly mentioned, as having been rebuilt + and fortified by the order of Julian. 86 The vanquished Germans + had submitted to the just but humiliating condition of preparing + and conveying the necessary materials. The active zeal of Julian + urged the prosecution of the work; and such was the spirit which + he had diffused among the troops, that the auxiliaries + themselves, waiving their exemption from any duties of fatigue, + contended in the most servile labors with the diligence of the + Roman soldiers. It was incumbent on the Cæsar to provide for the + subsistence, as well as for the safety, of the inhabitants and of + the garrisons. The desertion of the former, and the mutiny of the + latter, must have been the fatal and inevitable consequences of + famine. The tillage of the provinces of Gaul had been interrupted + by the calamities of war; but the scanty harvests of the + continent were supplied, by his paternal care, from the plenty of + the adjacent island. Six hundred large barks, framed in the + forest of the Ardennes, made several voyages to the coast of + Britain; and returning from thence, laden with corn, sailed up + the Rhine, and distributed their cargoes to the several towns and + fortresses along the banks of the river. 87 The arms of Julian + had restored a free and secure navigation, which Constantinius + had offered to purchase at the expense of his dignity, and of a + tributary present of two thousand pounds of silver. The emperor + parsimoniously refused to his soldiers the sums which he granted + with a lavish and trembling hand to the Barbarians. The + dexterity, as well as the firmness, of Julian was put to a severe + trial, when he took the field with a discontented army, which had + already served two campaigns, without receiving any regular pay + or any extraordinary donative. 88 + + 86 (return) [ Ammian. xviii. 2. Libanius, Orat. x. p. 279, 280. + Of these seven posts, four are at present towns of some + consequence; Bingen, Andernach, Bonn, and Nuyss. The other three, + Tricesimæ, Quadriburgium, and Castra Herculis, or Heraclea, no + longer subsist; but there is room to believe, that on the ground + of Quadriburgium the Dutch have constructed the fort of Schenk, a + name so offensive to the fastidious delicacy of Boileau. See + D’Anville, Notice de l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 183. Boileau, Epitre + iv. and the notes. Note: Tricesimæ, Kellen, Mannert, quoted by + Wagner. Heraclea, Erkeleus in the district of Juliers. St. + Martin, ii. 311.—M.] + + 87 (return) [ We may credit Julian himself, (Orat. ad S. P. Q. + Atheniensem, p. 280,) who gives a very particular account of the + transaction. Zosimus adds two hundred vessels more, (l. iii. p. + 145.) If we compute the 600 corn ships of Julian at only seventy + tons each, they were capable of exporting 120,000 quarters, (see + Arbuthnot’s Weights and Measures, p. 237;) and the country which + could bear so large an exportation, must already have attained an + improved state of agriculture.] + + 88 (return) [ The troops once broke out into a mutiny, + immediately before the second passage of the Rhine. Ammian. xvii. + 9.] + + A tender regard for the peace and happiness of his subjects was + the ruling principle which directed, or seemed to direct, the + administration of Julian. 89 He devoted the leisure of his winter + quarters to the offices of civil government; and affected to + assume, with more pleasure, the character of a magistrate than + that of a general. Before he took the field, he devolved on the + provincial governors most of the public and private causes which + had been referred to his tribunal; but, on his return, he + carefully revised their proceedings, mitigated the rigor of the + law, and pronounced a second judgment on the judges themselves. + Superior to the last temptation of virtuous minds, an indiscreet + and intemperate zeal for justice, he restrained, with calmness + and dignity, the warmth of an advocate, who prosecuted, for + extortion, the president of the Narbonnese province. “Who will + ever be found guilty,” exclaimed the vehement Delphidius, “if it + be enough to deny?” “And who,” replied Julian, “will ever be + innocent, if it be sufficient to affirm?” In the general + administration of peace and war, the interest of the sovereign is + commonly the same as that of his people; but Constantius would + have thought himself deeply injured, if the virtues of Julian had + defrauded him of any part of the tribute which he extorted from + an oppressed and exhausted country. The prince who was invested + with the ensigns of royalty, might sometimes presume to correct + the rapacious insolence of his inferior agents, to expose their + corrupt arts, and to introduce an equal and easier mode of + collection. But the management of the finances was more safely + intrusted to Florentius, prætorian præfect of Gaul, an effeminate + tyrant, incapable of pity or remorse: and the haughty minister + complained of the most decent and gentle opposition, while Julian + himself was rather inclined to censure the weakness of his own + behavior. The Cæsar had rejected, with abhorrence, a mandate for + the levy of an extraordinary tax; a new superindiction, which the + præfect had offered for his signature; and the faithful picture + of the public misery, by which he had been obliged to justify his + refusal, offended the court of Constantius. We may enjoy the + pleasure of reading the sentiments of Julian, as he expresses + them with warmth and freedom in a letter to one of his most + intimate friends. After stating his own conduct, he proceeds in + the following terms: “Was it possible for the disciple of Plato + and Aristotle to act otherwise than I have done? Could I abandon + the unhappy subjects intrusted to my care? Was I not called upon + to defend them from the repeated injuries of these unfeeling + robbers? A tribune who deserts his post is punished with death, + and deprived of the honors of burial. With what justice could I + pronounce _his_ sentence, if, in the hour of danger, I myself + neglected a duty far more sacred and far more important? God has + placed me in this elevated post; his providence will guard and + support me. Should I be condemned to suffer, I shall derive + comfort from the testimony of a pure and upright conscience. + Would to Heaven that I still possessed a counsellor like Sallust! + If they think proper to send me a successor, I shall submit + without reluctance; and had much rather improve the short + opportunity of doing good, than enjoy a long and lasting impunity + of evil.” 90 The precarious and dependent situation of Julian + displayed his virtues and concealed his defects. The young hero + who supported, in Gaul, the throne of Constantius, was not + permitted to reform the vices of the government; but he had + courage to alleviate or to pity the distress of the people. + Unless he had been able to revive the martial spirit of the + Romans, or to introduce the arts of industry and refinement among + their savage enemies, he could not entertain any rational hopes + of securing the public tranquillity, either by the peace or + conquest of Germany. Yet the victories of Julian suspended, for a + short time, the inroads of the Barbarians, and delayed the ruin + of the Western Empire. + + 89 (return) [ Ammian. xvi. 5, xviii. 1. Mamertinus in Panegyr. + Vet. xi. 4] + + 90 (return) [ Ammian. xvii. 3. Julian. Epistol. xv. edit. + Spanheim. Such a conduct almost justifies the encomium of + Mamertinus. Ita illi anni spatia divisa sunt, ut aut Barbaros + domitet, aut civibus jura restituat, perpetuum professus, aut + contra hostem, aut contra vitia, certamen.] + + His salutary influence restored the cities of Gaul, which had + been so long exposed to the evils of civil discord, Barbarian + war, and domestic tyranny; and the spirit of industry was revived + with the hopes of enjoyment. Agriculture, manufactures, and + commerce, again flourished under the protection of the laws; and + the _curiæ_, or civil corporations, were again filled with useful + and respectable members: the youth were no longer apprehensive of + marriage; and married persons were no longer apprehensive of + posterity: the public and private festivals were celebrated with + customary pomp; and the frequent and secure intercourse of the + provinces displayed the image of national prosperity. 91 A mind + like that of Julian must have felt the general happiness of which + he was the author; but he viewed, with particular satisfaction + and complacency, the city of Paris; the seat of his winter + residence, and the object even of his partial affection. 92 That + splendid capital, which now embraces an ample territory on either + side of the Seine, was originally confined to the small island in + the midst of the river, from whence the inhabitants derived a + supply of pure and salubrious water. The river bathed the foot of + the walls; and the town was accessible only by two wooden + bridges. A forest overspread the northern side of the Seine, but + on the south, the ground, which now bears the name of the + University, was insensibly covered with houses, and adorned with + a palace and amphitheatre, baths, an aqueduct, and a field of + Mars for the exercise of the Roman troops. The severity of the + climate was tempered by the neighborhood of the ocean; and with + some precautions, which experience had taught, the vine and + fig-tree were successfully cultivated. But in remarkable winters, + the Seine was deeply frozen; and the huge pieces of ice that + floated down the stream, might be compared, by an Asiatic, to the + blocks of white marble which were extracted from the quarries of + Phrygia. The licentiousness and corruption of Antioch recalled to + the memory of Julian the severe and simple manners of his beloved + Lutetia; 93 where the amusements of the theatre were unknown or + despised. He indignantly contrasted the effeminate Syrians with + the brave and honest simplicity of the Gauls, and almost forgave + the intemperance, which was the only stain of the Celtic + character. 94 If Julian could now revisit the capital of France, + he might converse with men of science and genius, capable of + understanding and of instructing a disciple of the Greeks; he + might excuse the lively and graceful follies of a nation, whose + martial spirit has never been enervated by the indulgence of + luxury; and he must applaud the perfection of that inestimable + art, which softens and refines and embellishes the intercourse of + social life. + + 91 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parental. in Imp. Julian. c. 38, in + Fabricius Bibliothec. Græc. tom. vii. p. 263, 264.] + + 92 (return) [ See Julian. in Misopogon, p. 340, 341. The + primitive state of Paris is illustrated by Henry Valesius, (ad + Ammian. xx. 4,) his brother Hadrian Valesius, or de Valois, and + M. D’Anville, (in their respective Notitias of ancient Gaul,) the + Abbé de Longuerue, (Description de la France, tom. i. p. 12, 13,) + and M. Bonamy, (in the Mém. de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. + xv. p. 656-691.)] + + 93 (return) [ Julian, in Misopogon, p. 340. Leuce tia, or + Lutetia, was the ancient name of the city, which, according to + the fashion of the fourth century, assumed the territorial + appellation of _Parisii_.] + + 94 (return) [ Julian in Misopogon, p. 359, 360.] + + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part I. + +The Motives, Progress, And Effects Of The Conversion Of +Constantine.—Legal Establishment And Constitution Of The Christian Or +Catholic Church. + +The public establishment of Christianity may be considered as one of +those important and domestic revolutions which excite the most lively +curiosity, and afford the most valuable instruction. The victories and +the civil policy of Constantine no longer influence the state of +Europe; but a considerable portion of the globe still retains the +impression which it received from the conversion of that monarch; and +the ecclesiastical institutions of his reign are still connected, by an +indissoluble chain, with the opinions, the passions, and the interests +of the present generation. In the consideration of a subject which may +be examined with impartiality, but cannot be viewed with indifference, +a difficulty immediately arises of a very unexpected nature; that of +ascertaining the real and precise date of the conversion of +Constantine. The eloquent Lactantius, in the midst of his court, seems +impatient 1 to proclaim to the world the glorious example of the +sovereign of Gaul; who, in the first moments of his reign, acknowledged +and adored the majesty of the true and only God. 2 The learned Eusebius +has ascribed the faith of Constantine to the miraculous sign which was +displayed in the heavens whilst he meditated and prepared the Italian +expedition. 3 The historian Zosimus maliciously asserts, that the +emperor had imbrued his hands in the blood of his eldest son, before he +publicly renounced the gods of Rome and of his ancestors. 4 The +perplexity produced by these discordant authorities is derived from the +behavior of Constantine himself. According to the strictness of +ecclesiastical language, the first of the _Christian_ emperors was +unworthy of that name, till the moment of his death; since it was only +during his last illness that he received, as a catechumen, the +imposition of hands, 5 and was afterwards admitted, by the initiatory +rites of baptism, into the number of the faithful. 6 The Christianity +of Constantine must be allowed in a much more vague and qualified +sense; and the nicest accuracy is required in tracing the slow and +almost imperceptible gradations by which the monarch declared himself +the protector, and at length the proselyte, of the church. It was an +arduous task to eradicate the habits and prejudices of his education, +to acknowledge the divine power of Christ, and to understand that the +truth of _his_ revelation was incompatible with the worship of the +gods. The obstacles which he had probably experienced in his own mind, +instructed him to proceed with caution in the momentous change of a +national religion; and he insensibly discovered his new opinions, as +far as he could enforce them with safety and with effect. During the +whole course of his reign, the stream of Christianity flowed with a +gentle, though accelerated, motion: but its general direction was +sometimes checked, and sometimes diverted, by the accidental +circumstances of the times, and by the prudence, or possibly by the +caprice, of the monarch. His ministers were permitted to signify the +intentions of their master in the various language which was best +adapted to their respective principles; 7 and he artfully balanced the +hopes and fears of his subjects, by publishing in the same year two +edicts; the first of which enjoined the solemn observance of Sunday, 8 +and the second directed the regular consultation of the Aruspices. 9 +While this important revolution yet remained in suspense, the +Christians and the Pagans watched the conduct of their sovereign with +the same anxiety, but with very opposite sentiments. The former were +prompted by every motive of zeal, as well as vanity, to exaggerate the +marks of his favor, and the evidences of his faith. The latter, till +their just apprehensions were changed into despair and resentment, +attempted to conceal from the world, and from themselves, that the gods +of Rome could no longer reckon the emperor in the number of their +votaries. The same passions and prejudices have engaged the partial +writers of the times to connect the public profession of Christianity +with the most glorious or the most ignominious æra of the reign of +Constantine. + +1 (return) [ The date of the Divine Institutions of Lactantius has been +accurately discussed, difficulties have been started, solutions +proposed, and an expedient imagined of two _original_ editions; the +former published during the persecution of Diocletian, the latter under +that of Licinius. See Dufresnoy, Prefat. p. v. Tillemont, Mém. +Ecclesiast. tom. vi. p. 465-470. Lardner’s Credibility, part ii. vol. +vii. p. 78-86. For my own part, I am _almost_ convinced that Lactantius +dedicated his Institutions to the sovereign of Gaul, at a time when +Galerius, Maximin, and even Licinius, persecuted the Christians; that +is, between the years 306 and 311.] + +2 (return) [ Lactant. Divin. Instit. i. l. vii. 27. The first and most +important of these passages is indeed wanting in twenty-eight +manuscripts; but it is found in nineteen. If we weigh the comparative +value of these manuscripts, one of 900 years old, in the king of +France’s library may be alleged in its favor; but the passage is +omitted in the correct manuscript of Bologna, which the P. de +Montfaucon ascribes to the sixth or seventh century (Diarium Italic. p. +489.) The taste of most of the editors (except Isæus; see Lactant. +edit. Dufresnoy, tom. i. p. 596) has felt the genuine style of +Lactantius.] + +3 (return) [ Euseb. in Vit. Constant. l. i. c. 27-32.] + +4 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 104.] + +5 (return) [ That rite was _always_ used in making a catechumen, (see +Bingham’s Antiquities. l. x. c. i. p. 419. Dom Chardon, Hist. des +Sacramens, tom. i. p. 62,) and Constantine received it for the _first_ +time (Euseb. in Vit Constant. l. iv. c. 61) immediately before his +baptism and death. From the connection of these two facts, Valesius (ad +loc. Euseb.) has drawn the conclusion which is reluctantly admitted by +Tillemont, (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 628,) and opposed with +feeble arguments by Mosheim, (p. 968.)] + +6 (return) [ Euseb. in Vit. Constant. l. iv. c. 61, 62, 63. The legend +of Constantine’s baptism at Rome, thirteen years before his death, was +invented in the eighth century, as a proper motive for his _donation_. +Such has been the gradual progress of knowledge, that a story, of which +Cardinal Baronius (Annual Ecclesiast. A. D. 324, No. 43-49) declared +himself the unblushing advocate, is now feebly supported, even within +the verge of the Vatican. See the Antiquitates Christianæ, tom. ii. p. +232; a work published with six approbations at Rome, in the year 1751 +by Father Mamachi, a learned Dominican.] + +7 (return) [ The quæstor, or secretary, who composed the law of the +Theodosian Code, makes his master say with indifference, “hominibus +supradictæ religionis,” (l. xvi. tit. ii. leg. 1.) The minister of +ecclesiastical affairs was allowed a more devout and respectful style, +[**Greek] the legal, most holy, and Catholic worship.] + +8 (return) [ Cod. Theodos. l. ii. viii. tit. leg. 1. Cod. Justinian. l. +iii. tit. xii. leg. 3. Constantine styles the Lord’s day _dies solis_, +a name which could not offend the ears of his pagan subjects.] + +9 (return) [ Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. x. leg. l. Godefroy, in the +character of a commentator, endeavors (tom. vi. p. 257) to excuse +Constantine; but the more zealous Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A. D. 321, +No. 17) censures his profane conduct with truth and asperity.] + +Whatever symptoms of Christian piety might transpire in the discourses +or actions of Constantine, he persevered till he was near forty years +of age in the practice of the established religion; 10 and the same +conduct which in the court of Nicomedia might be imputed to his fear, +could be ascribed only to the inclination or policy of the sovereign of +Gaul. His liberality restored and enriched the temples of the gods; the +medals which issued from his Imperial mint are impressed with the +figures and attributes of Jupiter and Apollo, of Mars and Hercules; and +his filial piety increased the council of Olympus by the solemn +apotheosis of his father Constantius. 11 But the devotion of +Constantine was more peculiarly directed to the genius of the Sun, the +Apollo of Greek and Roman mythology; and he was pleased to be +represented with the symbols of the God of Light and Poetry. The +unerring shafts of that deity, the brightness of his eyes, his laurel +wreath, immortal beauty, and elegant accomplishments, seem to point him +out as the patron of a young hero. The altars of Apollo were crowned +with the votive offerings of Constantine; and the credulous multitude +were taught to believe, that the emperor was permitted to behold with +mortal eyes the visible majesty of their tutelar deity; and that, +either walking or in a vision, he was blessed with the auspicious omens +of a long and victorious reign. The Sun was universally celebrated as +the invincible guide and protector of Constantine; and the Pagans might +reasonably expect that the insulted god would pursue with unrelenting +vengeance the impiety of his ungrateful favorite. 12 + +10 (return) [ Theodoret. (l. i. c. 18) seems to insinuate that Helena +gave her son a Christian education; but we may be assured, from the +superior authority of Eusebius, (in Vit. Constant. l. iii. c. 47,) that +she herself was indebted to Constantine for the knowledge of +Christianity.] + +11 (return) [ See the medals of Constantine in Ducange and Banduri. As +few cities had retained the privilege of coining, almost all the medals +of that age issued from the mint under the sanction of the Imperial +authority.] + +12 (return) [ The panegyric of Eumenius, (vii. inter Panegyr. Vet.,) +which was pronounced a few months before the Italian war, abounds with +the most unexceptionable evidence of the Pagan superstition of +Constantine, and of his particular veneration for Apollo, or the Sun; +to which Julian alludes.] + +As long as Constantine exercised a limited sovereignty over the +provinces of Gaul, his Christian subjects were protected by the +authority, and perhaps by the laws, of a prince, who wisely left to the +gods the care of vindicating their own honor. If we may credit the +assertion of Constantine himself, he had been an indignant spectator of +the savage cruelties which were inflicted, by the hands of Roman +soldiers, on those citizens whose religion was their only crime. 13 In +the East and in the West, he had seen the different effects of severity +and indulgence; and as the former was rendered still more odious by the +example of Galerius, his implacable enemy, the latter was recommended +to his imitation by the authority and advice of a dying father. The son +of Constantius immediately suspended or repealed the edicts of +persecution, and granted the free exercise of their religious +ceremonies to all those who had already professed themselves members of +the church. They were soon encouraged to depend on the favor as well as +on the justice of their sovereign, who had imbibed a secret and sincere +reverence for the name of Christ, and for the God of the Christians. 14 + +13 (return) [ Constantin. Orat. ad Sanctos, c. 25. But it might easily +be shown, that the Greek translator has improved the sense of the Latin +original; and the aged emperor might recollect the persecution of +Diocletian with a more lively abhorrence than he had actually felt to +the days of his youth and Paganism.] + +14 (return) [ See Euseb. Hist. Eccles. l. viii. 13, l. ix. 9, and in +Vit. Const. l. i. c. 16, 17 Lactant. Divin. Institut. i. l. Cæcilius de +Mort. Persecut. c. 25.] + +About five months after the conquest of Italy, the emperor made a +solemn and authentic declaration of his sentiments by the celebrated +edict of Milan, which restored peace to the Catholic church. In the +personal interview of the two western princes, Constantine, by the +ascendant of genius and power, obtained the ready concurrence of his +colleague, Licinius; the union of their names and authority disarmed +the fury of Maximin; and after the death of the tyrant of the East, the +edict of Milan was received as a general and fundamental law of the +Roman world. 15 + +15 (return) [ Cæcilius (de Mort. Persecut. c. 48) has preserved the +Latin original; and Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. l. x. c. 5) has given a +Greek translation of this perpetual edict, which refers to some +provisional regulations.] + +The wisdom of the emperors provided for the restitution of all the +civil and religious rights of which the Christians had been so unjustly +deprived. It was enacted that the places of worship, and public lands, +which had been confiscated, should be restored to the church, without +dispute, without delay, and without expense; and this severe injunction +was accompanied with a gracious promise, that if any of the purchasers +had paid a fair and adequate price, they should be indemnified from the +Imperial treasury. The salutary regulations which guard the future +tranquillity of the faithful are framed on the principles of enlarged +and equal toleration; and such an equality must have been interpreted +by a recent sect as an advantageous and honorable distinction. The two +emperors proclaim to the world, that they have granted a free and +absolute power to the Christians, and to all others, of following the +religion which each individual thinks proper to prefer, to which he has +addicted his mind, and which he may deem the best adapted to his own +use. They carefully explain every ambiguous word, remove every +exception, and exact from the governors of the provinces a strict +obedience to the true and simple meaning of an edict, which was +designed to establish and secure, without any limitation, the claims of +religious liberty. They condescend to assign two weighty reasons which +have induced them to allow this universal toleration: the humane +intention of consulting the peace and happiness of their people; and +the pious hope, that, by such a conduct, they shall appease and +propitiate _the Deity_, whose seat is in heaven. They gratefully +acknowledge the many signal proofs which they have received of the +divine favor; and they trust that the same Providence will forever +continue to protect the prosperity of the prince and people. From these +vague and indefinite expressions of piety, three suppositions may be +deduced, of a different, but not of an incompatible nature. The mind of +Constantine might fluctuate between the Pagan and the Christian +religions. According to the loose and complying notions of Polytheism, +he might acknowledge the God of the Christians as _one_ of the _many_ +deities who compose the hierarchy of heaven. Or perhaps he might +embrace the philosophic and pleasing idea, that, notwithstanding the +variety of names, of rites, and of opinions, all the sects, and all the +nations of mankind, are united in the worship of the common Father and +Creator of the universe. 16 + +16 (return) [ A panegyric of Constantine, pronounced seven or eight +months after the edict of Milan, (see Gothofred. Chronolog. Legum, p. +7, and Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 246,) uses the +following remarkable expression: “Summe rerum sator, cujus tot nomina +sant, quot linguas gentium esse voluisti, quem enim te ipse dici velin, +scire non possumus.” (Panegyr. Vet. ix. 26.) In explaining +Constantine’s progress in the faith, Mosheim (p. 971, &c.) is +ingenious, subtle, prolix.] + +But the counsels of princes are more frequently influenced by views of +temporal advantage, than by considerations of abstract and speculative +truth. The partial and increasing favor of Constantine may naturally be +referred to the esteem which he entertained for the moral character of +the Christians; and to a persuasion, that the propagation of the gospel +would inculcate the practice of private and public virtue. Whatever +latitude an absolute monarch may assume in his own conduct, whatever +indulgence he may claim for his own passions, it is undoubtedly his +interest that all his subjects should respect the natural and civil +obligations of society. But the operation of the wisest laws is +imperfect and precarious. They seldom inspire virtue, they cannot +always restrain vice. Their power is insufficient to prohibit all that +they condemn, nor can they always punish the actions which they +prohibit. The legislators of antiquity had summoned to their aid the +powers of education and of opinion. But every principle which had once +maintained the vigor and purity of Rome and Sparta, was long since +extinguished in a declining and despotic empire. Philosophy still +exercised her temperate sway over the human mind, but the cause of +virtue derived very feeble support from the influence of the Pagan +superstition. Under these discouraging circumstances, a prudent +magistrate might observe with pleasure the progress of a religion which +diffused among the people a pure, benevolent, and universal system of +ethics, adapted to every duty and every condition of life; recommended +as the will and reason of the supreme Deity, and enforced by the +sanction of eternal rewards or punishments. The experience of Greek and +Roman history could not inform the world how far the system of national +manners might be reformed and improved by the precepts of a divine +revelation; and Constantine might listen with some confidence to the +flattering, and indeed reasonable, assurances of Lactantius. The +eloquent apologist seemed firmly to expect, and almost ventured to +promise, _that_ the establishment of Christianity would restore the +innocence and felicity of the primitive age; _that_ the worship of the +true God would extinguish war and dissension among those who mutually +considered themselves as the children of a common parent; _that_ every +impure desire, every angry or selfish passion, would be restrained by +the knowledge of the gospel; and _that_ the magistrates might sheath +the sword of justice among a people who would be universally actuated +by the sentiments of truth and piety, of equity and moderation, of +harmony and universal love. 17 + +17 (return) [ See the elegant description of Lactantius, (Divin +Institut. v. 8,) who is much more perspicuous and positive than becomes +a discreet prophet.] + +The passive and unresisting obedience, which bows under the yoke of +authority, or even of oppression, must have appeared, in the eyes of an +absolute monarch, the most conspicuous and useful of the evangelic +virtues. 18 The primitive Christians derived the institution of civil +government, not from the consent of the people, but from the decrees of +Heaven. The reigning emperor, though he had usurped the sceptre by +treason and murder, immediately assumed the sacred character of +vicegerent of the Deity. To the Deity alone he was accountable for the +abuse of his power; and his subjects were indissolubly bound, by their +oath of fidelity, to a tyrant, who had violated every law of nature and +society. The humble Christians were sent into the world as sheep among +wolves; and since they were not permitted to employ force even in the +defence of their religion, they should be still more criminal if they +were tempted to shed the blood of their fellow-creatures in disputing +the vain privileges, or the sordid possessions, of this transitory +life. Faithful to the doctrine of the apostle, who in the reign of Nero +had preached the duty of unconditional submission, the Christians of +the three first centuries preserved their conscience pure and innocent +of the guilt of secret conspiracy, or open rebellion. While they +experienced the rigor of persecution, they were never provoked either +to meet their tyrants in the field, or indignantly to withdraw +themselves into some remote and sequestered corner of the globe. 19 The +Protestants of France, of Germany, and of Britain, who asserted with +such intrepid courage their civil and religious freedom, have been +insulted by the invidious comparison between the conduct of the +primitive and of the reformed Christians. 20 Perhaps, instead of +censure, some applause may be due to the superior sense and spirit of +our ancestors, who had convinced themselves that religion cannot +abolish the unalienable rights of human nature. 21 Perhaps the patience +of the primitive church may be ascribed to its weakness, as well as to +its virtue. + +A sect of unwarlike plebeians, without leaders, without arms, without +fortifications, must have encountered inevitable destruction in a rash +and fruitless resistance to the master of the Roman legions. But the +Christians, when they deprecated the wrath of Diocletian, or solicited +the favor of Constantine, could allege, with truth and confidence, that +they held the principle of passive obedience, and that, in the space of +three centuries, their conduct had always been conformable to their +principles. They might add, that the throne of the emperors would be +established on a fixed and permanent basis, if all their subjects, +embracing the Christian doctrine, should learn to suffer and to obey. + +18 (return) [ The political system of the Christians is explained by +Grotius, de Jure Belli et Pacis, l. i. c. 3, 4. Grotius was a +republican and an exile, but the mildness of his temper inclined him to +support the established powers.] + +19 (return) [ Tertullian. Apolog. c. 32, 34, 35, 36. Tamen nunquam +Albiniani, nec Nigriani vel Cassiani inveniri potuerunt Christiani. Ad +Scapulam, c. 2. If this assertion be strictly true, it excludes the +Christians of that age from all civil and military employments, which +would have compelled them to take an active part in the service of +their respective governors. See Moyle’s Works, vol. ii. p. 349.] + +20 (return) [ See the artful Bossuet, (Hist. des Variations des Eglises +Protestantes, tom. iii. p. 210-258.) and the malicious Bayle, (tom ii. +p. 820.) I _name_ Bayle, for he was certainly the author of the Avis +aux Refugies; consult the Dictionnaire Critique de Chauffepié, tom. i. +part ii. p. 145.] + +21 (return) [ Buchanan is the earliest, or at least the most +celebrated, of the reformers, who has justified the theory of +resistance. See his Dialogue de Jure Regni apud Scotos, tom. ii. p. 28, +30, edit. fol. Rudiman.] + +In the general order of Providence, princes and tyrants are considered +as the ministers of Heaven, appointed to rule or to chastise the +nations of the earth. But sacred history affords many illustrious +examples of the more immediate interposition of the Deity in the +government of his chosen people. The sceptre and the sword were +committed to the hands of Moses, of Joshua, of Gideon, of David, of the +Maccabees; the virtues of those heroes were the motive or the effect of +the divine favor, the success of their arms was destined to achieve the +deliverance or the triumph of the church. If the judges of Israel were +occasional and temporary magistrates, the kings of Judah derived from +the royal unction of their great ancestor an hereditary and +indefeasible right, which could not be forfeited by their own vices, +nor recalled by the caprice of their subjects. The same extraordinary +providence, which was no longer confined to the Jewish people, might +elect Constantine and his family as the protectors of the Christian +world; and the devout Lactantius announces, in a prophetic tone, the +future glories of his long and universal reign. 22 Galerius and +Maximin, Maxentius and Licinius, were the rivals who shared with the +favorite of heaven the provinces of the empire. The tragic deaths of +Galerius and Maximin soon gratified the resentment, and fulfilled the +sanguine expectations, of the Christians. The success of Constantine +against Maxentius and Licinius removed the two formidable competitors +who still opposed the triumph of the second David, and his cause might +seem to claim the peculiar interposition of Providence. The character +of the Roman tyrant disgraced the purple and human nature; and though +the Christians might enjoy his precarious favor, they were exposed, +with the rest of his subjects, to the effects of his wanton and +capricious cruelty. The conduct of Licinius soon betrayed the +reluctance with which he had consented to the wise and humane +regulations of the edict of Milan. The convocation of provincial synods +was prohibited in his dominions; his Christian officers were +ignominiously dismissed; and if he avoided the guilt, or rather danger, +of a general persecution, his partial oppressions were rendered still +more odious by the violation of a solemn and voluntary engagement. 23 +While the East, according to the lively expression of Eusebius, was +involved in the shades of infernal darkness, the auspicious rays of +celestial light warmed and illuminated the provinces of the West. The +piety of Constantine was admitted as an unexceptionable proof of the +justice of his arms; and his use of victory confirmed the opinion of +the Christians, that their hero was inspired, and conducted, by the +Lord of Hosts. The conquest of Italy produced a general edict of +toleration; and as soon as the defeat of Licinius had invested +Constantine with the sole dominion of the Roman world, he immediately, +by circular letters, exhorted all his subjects to imitate, without +delay, the example of their sovereign, and to embrace the divine truth +of Christianity. 24 + +22 (return) [ Lactant Divin. Institut. i. l. Eusebius in the course of +his history, his life, and his oration, repeatedly inculcates the +divine right of Constantine to the empire.] + +23 (return) [ Our imperfect knowledge of the persecution of Licinius is +derived from Eusebius, (Hist. l. x. c. 8. Vit. Constantin. l. i. c. +49-56, l. ii. c. 1, 2.) Aurelius Victor mentions his cruelty in general +terms.] + +24 (return) [ Euseb. in Vit. Constant. l. ii. c. 24-42 48-60.] + + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part II. + +The assurance that the elevation of Constantine was intimately +connected with the designs of Providence, instilled into the minds of +the Christians two opinions, which, by very different means, assisted +the accomplishment of the prophecy. Their warm and active loyalty +exhausted in his favor every resource of human industry; and they +confidently expected that their strenuous efforts would be seconded by +some divine and miraculous aid. The enemies of Constantine have imputed +to interested motives the alliance which he insensibly contracted with +the Catholic church, and which apparently contributed to the success of +his ambition. In the beginning of the fourth century, the Christians +still bore a very inadequate proportion to the inhabitants of the +empire; but among a degenerate people, who viewed the change of masters +with the indifference of slaves, the spirit and union of a religious +party might assist the popular leader, to whose service, from a +principle of conscience, they had devoted their lives and fortunes. 25 +The example of his father had instructed Constantine to esteem and to +reward the merit of the Christians; and in the distribution of public +offices, he had the advantage of strengthening his government, by the +choice of ministers or generals, in whose fidelity he could repose a +just and unreserved confidence. By the influence of these dignified +missionaries, the proselytes of the new faith must have multiplied in +the court and army; the Barbarians of Germany, who filled the ranks of +the legions, were of a careless temper, which acquiesced without +resistance in the religion of their commander; and when they passed the +Alps, it may fairly be presumed, that a great number of the soldiers +had already consecrated their swords to the service of Christ and of +Constantine. 26 The habits of mankind and the interests of religion +gradually abated the horror of war and bloodshed, which had so long +prevailed among the Christians; and in the councils which were +assembled under the gracious protection of Constantine, the authority +of the bishops was seasonably employed to ratify the obligation of the +military oath, and to inflict the penalty of excommunication on those +soldiers who threw away their arms during the peace of the church. 27 +While Constantine, in his own dominions, increased the number and zeal +of his faithful adherents, he could depend on the support of a powerful +faction in those provinces which were still possessed or usurped by his +rivals. A secret disaffection was diffused among the Christian subjects +of Maxentius and Licinius; and the resentment, which the latter did not +attempt to conceal, served only to engage them still more deeply in the +interest of his competitor. The regular correspondence which connected +the bishops of the most distant provinces, enabled them freely to +communicate their wishes and their designs, and to transmit without +danger any useful intelligence, or any pious contributions, which might +promote the service of Constantine, who publicly declared that he had +taken up arms for the deliverance of the church. 28 + +25 (return) [ In the beginning of the last century, the Papists of +England were only a _thirtieth_, and the Protestants of France only a +_fifteenth_, part of the respective nations, to whom their spirit and +power were a constant object of apprehension. See the relations which +Bentivoglio (who was then nuncio at Brussels, and afterwards cardinal) +transmitted to the court of Rome, (Relazione, tom. ii. p. 211, 241.) +Bentivoglio was curious, well informed, but somewhat partial.] + +26 (return) [ This careless temper of the Germans appears almost +uniformly on the history of the conversion of each of the tribes. The +legions of Constantine were recruited with Germans, (Zosimus, l. ii. p. +86;) and the court even of his father had been filled with Christians. +See the first book of the Life of Constantine, by Eusebius.] + +27 (return) [ De his qui arma projiciunt in _pace_, placuit eos +abstinere a communione. Council. Arelat. Canon. iii. The best critics +apply these words to the _peace of the church_.] + +28 (return) [ Eusebius always considers the second civil war against +Licinius as a sort of religious crusade. At the invitation of the +tyrant, some Christian officers had resumed their _zones;_ or, in other +words, had returned to the military service. Their conduct was +afterwards censured by the twelfth canon of the Council of Nice; if +this particular application may be received, instead of the lo se and +general sense of the Greek interpreters, Balsamor Zonaras, and Alexis +Aristenus. See Beveridge, Pandect. Eccles. Græc. tom. i. p. 72, tom. +ii. p. 73 Annotation.] + +The enthusiasm which inspired the troops, and perhaps the emperor +himself, had sharpened their swords while it satisfied their +conscience. They marched to battle with the full assurance, that the +same God, who had formerly opened a passage to the Israelites through +the waters of Jordan, and had thrown down the walls of Jericho at the +sound of the trumpets of Joshua, would display his visible majesty and +power in the victory of Constantine. The evidence of ecclesiastical +history is prepared to affirm, that their expectations were justified +by the conspicuous miracle to which the conversion of the first +Christian emperor has been almost unanimously ascribed. The real or +imaginary cause of so important an event, deserves and demands the +attention of posterity; and I shall endeavor to form a just estimate of +the famous vision of Constantine, by a distinct consideration of the +_standard_, the _dream_, and the _celestial sign;_ by separating the +historical, the natural, and the marvellous parts of this extraordinary +story, which, in the composition of a specious argument, have been +artfully confounded in one splendid and brittle mass. + +I. An instrument of the tortures which were inflicted only on slaves +and strangers, became on object of horror in the eyes of a Roman +citizen; and the ideas of guilt, of pain, and of ignominy, were closely +united with the idea of the cross. 29 The piety, rather than the +humanity, of Constantine soon abolished in his dominions the punishment +which the Savior of mankind had condescended to suffer; 30 but the +emperor had already learned to despise the prejudices of his education, +and of his people, before he could erect in the midst of Rome his own +statue, bearing a cross in its right hand; with an inscription which +referred the victory of his arms, and the deliverance of Rome, to the +virtue of that salutary sign, the true symbol of force and courage. 31 +The same symbol sanctified the arms of the soldiers of Constantine; the +cross glittered on their helmet, was engraved on their shields, was +interwoven into their banners; and the consecrated emblems which +adorned the person of the emperor himself, were distinguished only by +richer materials and more exquisite workmanship. 32 But the principal +standard which displayed the triumph of the cross was styled the +Labarum, 33 an obscure, though celebrated name, which has been vainly +derived from almost all the languages of the world. It is described 34 +as a long pike intersected by a transversal beam. The silken veil, +which hung down from the beam, was curiously inwrought with the images +of the reigning monarch and his children. The summit of the pike +supported a crown of gold which enclosed the mysterious monogram, at +once expressive of the figure of the cross, and the initial letters, of +the name of Christ. 35 The safety of the labarum was intrusted to fifty +guards, of approved valor and fidelity; their station was marked by +honors and emoluments; and some fortunate accidents soon introduced an +opinion, that as long as the guards of the labarum were engaged in the +execution of their office, they were secure and invulnerable amidst the +darts of the enemy. In the second civil war, Licinius felt and dreaded +the power of this consecrated banner, the sight of which, in the +distress of battle, animated the soldiers of Constantine with an +invincible enthusiasm, and scattered terror and dismay through the +ranks of the adverse legions. 36 The Christian emperors, who respected +the example of Constantine, displayed in all their military expeditions +the standard of the cross; but when the degenerate successors of +Theodosius had ceased to appear in person at the head of their armies, +the labarum was deposited as a venerable but useless relic in the +palace of Constantinople. 37 Its honors are still preserved on the +medals of the Flavian family. Their grateful devotion has placed the +monogram of Christ in the midst of the ensigns of Rome. The solemn +epithets of, safety of the republic, glory of the army, restoration of +public happiness, are equally applied to the religious and military +trophies; and there is still extant a medal of the emperor Constantius, +where the standard of the labarum is accompanied with these memorable +words, BY THIS SIGN THOU SHALT CONQUER. 38 + +29 (return) [ Nomen ipsum _crucis_ absit non modo a corpore civium +Romano rum, sed etiam a cogitatione, oculis, auribus. Cicero pro +Raberio, c. 5. The Christian writers, Justin, Minucius Felix, +Tertullian, Jerom, and Maximus of Turin, have investigated with +tolerable success the figure or likeness of a cross in almost every +object of nature or art; in the intersection of the meridian and +equator, the human face, a bird flying, a man swimming, a mast and +yard, a plough, a _standard_, &c., &c., &c. See Lipsius de Cruce, l. i. +c. 9.] + +30 (return) [ See Aurelius Victor, who considers this law as one of the +examples of Constantine’s piety. An edict so honorable to Christianity +deserved a place in the Theodosian Code, instead of the indirect +mention of it, which seems to result from the comparison of the fifth +and eighteenth titles of the ninth book.] + +31 (return) [ Eusebius, in Vit. Constantin. l. i. c. 40. This statue, +or at least the cross and inscription, may be ascribed with more +probability to the second, or even third, visit of Constantine to Rome. +Immediately after the defeat of Maxentius, the minds of the senate and +people were scarcely ripe for this public monument.] + +32 (return) +[ Agnoscas, regina, libens mea signa necesse est; +In quibus effigies crucis aut gemmata refulget +Aut longis solido ex auro præfertur in hastis. +Hoc signo invictus, transmissis Alpibus Ultor +Servitium solvit miserabile Constantinus. + +Christus _purpureum_ gemmanti textus in auro +Signabat _Labarum_, clypeorum insignia Christus +Scripserat; ardebat summis crux addita cristis. + +Prudent. in Symmachum, l. ii. 464, 486.] + +33 (return) [ The derivation and meaning of the word _Labarum_ or +_Laborum_, which is employed by Gregory Nazianzen, Ambrose, Prudentius, +&c., still remain totally unknown, in spite of the efforts of the +critics, who have ineffectually tortured the Latin, Greek, Spanish, +Celtic, Teutonic, Illyric, Armenian, &c., in search of an etymology. +See Ducange, in Gloss. Med. et infim. Latinitat. sub voce _Labarum_, +and Godefroy, ad Cod. Theodos. tom. ii. p. 143.] + +34 (return) [ Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. l. i. c. 30, 31. Baronius +(Annal. Eccles. A. D. 312, No. 26) has engraved a representation of the +Labarum.] + +35 (return) [ Transversâ X literâ, summo capite circumflexo, Christum +in scutis notat. Cæcilius de M. P. c. 44, Cuper, (ad M. P. in edit. +Lactant. tom. ii. p. 500,) and Baronius (A. D. 312, No. 25) have +engraved from ancient monuments several specimens (as thus of these +monograms) which became extremely fashionable in the Christian world.] + +36 (return) [ Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. l. ii. c. 7, 8, 9. He +introduces the Labarum before the Italian expedition; but his narrative +seems to indicate that it was never shown at the head of an army till +Constantine above ten years afterwards, declared himself the enemy of +Licinius, and the deliverer of the church.] + +37 (return) [ See Cod. Theod. l. vi. tit. xxv. Sozomen, l. i. c. 2. +Theophan. Chronograph. p. 11. Theophanes lived towards the end of the +eighth century, almost five hundred years after Constantine. The modern +Greeks were not inclined to display in the field the standard of the +empire and of Christianity; and though they depended on every +superstitious hope of _defence_, the promise of _victory_ would have +appeared too bold a fiction.] + +38 (return) [ The Abbé du Voisín, p. 103, &c., alleges several of these +medals, and quotes a particular dissertation of a Jesuit the Père de +Grainville, on this subject.] + +II. In all occasions of danger and distress, it was the practice of the +primitive Christians to fortify their minds and bodies by the sign of +the cross, which they used, in all their ecclesiastical rites, in all +the daily occurrences of life, as an infallible preservative against +every species of spiritual or temporal evil. 39 The authority of the +church might alone have had sufficient weight to justify the devotion +of Constantine, who in the same prudent and gradual progress +acknowledged the truth, and assumed the symbol, of Christianity. But +the testimony of a contemporary writer, who in a formal treatise has +avenged the cause of religion, bestows on the piety of the emperor a +more awful and sublime character. He affirms, with the most perfect +confidence, that in the night which preceded the last battle against +Maxentius, Constantine was admonished in a dream 39a to inscribe the +shields of his soldiers with the _celestial sign of God_, the sacred +monogram of the name of Christ; that he executed the commands of +Heaven, and that his valor and obedience were rewarded by the decisive +victory of the Milvian Bridge. Some considerations might perhaps +incline a sceptical mind to suspect the judgment or the veracity of the +rhetorician, whose pen, either from zeal or interest, was devoted to +the cause of the prevailing faction. 40 He appears to have published +his deaths of the persecutors at Nicomedia about three years after the +Roman victory; but the interval of a thousand miles, and a thousand +days, will allow an ample latitude for the invention of declaimers, the +credulity of party, and the tacit approbation of the emperor himself +who might listen without indignation to a marvellous tale, which +exalted his fame, and promoted his designs. In favor of Licinius, who +still dissembled his animosity to the Christians, the same author has +provided a similar vision, of a form of prayer, which was communicated +by an angel, and repeated by the whole army before they engaged the +legions of the tyrant Maximin. The frequent repetition of miracles +serves to provoke, where it does not subdue, the reason of mankind; 41 +but if the dream of Constantine is separately considered, it may be +naturally explained either by the policy or the enthusiasm of the +emperor. Whilst his anxiety for the approaching day, which must decide +the fate of the empire, was suspended by a short and interrupted +slumber, the venerable form of Christ, and the well-known symbol of his +religion, might forcibly offer themselves to the active fancy of a +prince who reverenced the name, and had perhaps secretly implored the +power, of the God of the Christians. As readily might a consummate +statesman indulge himself in the use of one of those military +stratagems, one of those pious frauds, which Philip and Sertorius had +employed with such art and effect. 42 The præternatural origin of +dreams was universally admitted by the nations of antiquity, and a +considerable part of the Gallic army was already prepared to place +their confidence in the salutary sign of the Christian religion. The +secret vision of Constantine could be disproved only by the event; and +the intrepid hero who had passed the Alps and the Apennine, might view +with careless despair the consequences of a defeat under the walls of +Rome. The senate and people, exulting in their own deliverance from an +odious tyrant, acknowledged that the victory of Constantine surpassed +the powers of man, without daring to insinuate that it had been +obtained by the protection of the _Gods_. The triumphal arch, which was +erected about three years after the event, proclaims, in ambiguous +language, that by the greatness of his own mind, and by an _instinct_ +or impulse of the Divinity, he had saved and avenged the Roman +republic. 43 The Pagan orator, who had seized an earlier opportunity of +celebrating the virtues of the conqueror, supposes that he alone +enjoyed a secret and intimate commerce with the Supreme Being, who +delegated the care of mortals to his subordinate deities; and thus +assigns a very plausible reason why the subjects of Constantine should +not presume to embrace the new religion of their sovereign. 44 + +39 (return) [ Tertullian de Corona, c. 3. Athanasius, tom. i. p. 101. +The learned Jesuit Petavius (Dogmata Theolog. l. xv. c. 9, 10) has +collected many similar passages on the virtues of the cross, which in +the last age embarrassed our Protestant disputants.] + +39a (return) [ Manso has observed, that Gibbon ought not to have +separated the vision of Constantine from the wonderful apparition in +the sky, as the two wonders are closely connected in Eusebius. Manso, +Leben Constantine, p. 82—M.] + +40 (return) [ Cæcilius de M. P. c. 44. It is certain, that this +historical declamation was composed and published while Licinius, +sovereign of the East, still preserved the friendship of Constantine +and of the Christians. Every reader of taste must perceive that the +style is of a very different and inferior character to that of +Lactantius; and such indeed is the judgment of Le Clerc and Lardner, +(Bibliothèque Ancienne et Moderne, tom. iii. p. 438. Credibility of the +Gospel, &c., part ii. vol. vii. p. 94.) Three arguments from the title +of the book, and from the names of Donatus and Cæcilius, are produced +by the advocates for Lactantius. (See the P. Lestocq, tom. ii. p. +46-60.) Each of these proofs is singly weak and defective; but their +concurrence has great weight. I have often fluctuated, and shall +_tamely_ follow the Colbert Ms. in calling the author (whoever he was) +Cæcilius.] + +41 (return) [ Cæcilius de M. P. c. 46. There seems to be some reason in +the observation of M. de Voltaire, (Œuvres, tom. xiv. p. 307.) who +ascribes to the success of Constantine the superior fame of his Labarum +above the angel of Licinius. Yet even this angel is favorably +entertained by Pagi, Tillemont, Fleury, &c., who are fond of increasing +their stock of miracles.] + +42 (return) [ Besides these well-known examples, Tollius (Preface to +Boileau’s translation of Longinus) has discovered a vision of +Antigonus, who assured his troops that he had seen a pentagon (the +symbol of safety) with these words, “In this conquer.” But Tollius has +most inexcusably omitted to produce his authority, and his own +character, literary as well as moral, is not free from reproach. (See +Chauffepié, Dictionnaire Critique, tom. iv. p. 460.) Without insisting +on the silence of Diodorus Plutarch, Justin, &c., it may be observed +that Polyænus, who in a separate chapter (l. iv. c. 6) has collected +nineteen military stratagems of Antigonus, is totally ignorant of this +remarkable vision.] + +43 (return) [ Instinctu Divinitatis, mentis magnitudine. The +inscription on the triumphal arch of Constantine, which has been copied +by Baronius, Gruter, &c., may still be perused by every curious +traveller.] + +44 (return) [ Habes profecto aliquid cum illa mente Divinâ secretum; +quæ delegatâ nostrâ Diis Minoribus curâ uni se tibi dignatur ostendere +Panegyr. Vet. ix. 2.] + +III. The philosopher, who with calm suspicion examines the dreams and +omens, the miracles and prodigies, of profane or even of ecclesiastical +history, will probably conclude, that if the eyes of the spectators +have sometimes been deceived by fraud, the understanding of the readers +has much more frequently been insulted by fiction. Every event, or +appearance, or accident, which seems to deviate from the ordinary +course of nature, has been rashly ascribed to the immediate action of +the Deity; and the astonished fancy of the multitude has sometimes +given shape and color, language and motion, to the fleeting but +uncommon meteors of the air. 45 Nazarius and Eusebius are the two most +celebrated orators, who, in studied panegyrics, have labored to exalt +the glory of Constantine. Nine years after the Roman victory, Nazarius +46 describes an army of divine warriors, who seemed to fall from the +sky: he marks their beauty, their spirit, their gigantic forms, the +stream of light which beamed from their celestial armor, their patience +in suffering themselves to be heard, as well as seen, by mortals; and +their declaration that they were sent, that they flew, to the +assistance of the great Constantine. For the truth of this prodigy, the +Pagan orator appeals to the whole Gallic nation, in whose presence he +was then speaking; and seems to hope that the ancient apparitions 47 +would now obtain credit from this recent and public event. The +Christian fable of Eusebius, which, in the space of twenty-six years, +might arise from the original dream, is cast in a much more correct and +elegant mould. In one of the marches of Constantine, he is reported to +have seen with his own eyes the luminous trophy of the cross, placed +above the meridian sun and inscribed with the following words: BY THIS +CONQUER. This amazing object in the sky astonished the whole army, as +well as the emperor himself, who was yet undetermined in the choice of +a religion: but his astonishment was converted into faith by the vision +of the ensuing night. Christ appeared before his eyes; and displaying +the same celestial sign of the cross, he directed Constantine to frame +a similar standard, and to march, with an assurance of victory, against +Maxentius and all his enemies. 48 The learned bishop of Cæsarea appears +to be sensible, that the recent discovery of this marvellous anecdote +would excite some surprise and distrust among the most pious of his +readers. Yet, instead of ascertaining the precise circumstances of time +and place, which always serve to detect falsehood or establish truth; +49 instead of collecting and recording the evidence of so many living +witnesses who must have been spectators of this stupendous miracle; 50 +Eusebius contents himself with alleging a very singular testimony; that +of the deceased Constantine, who, many years after the event, in the +freedom of conversation, had related to him this extraordinary incident +of his own life, and had attested the truth of it by a solemn oath. The +prudence and gratitude of the learned prelate forbade him to suspect +the veracity of his victorious master; but he plainly intimates, that +in a fact of such a nature, he should have refused his assent to any +meaner authority. This motive of credibility could not survive the +power of the Flavian family; and the celestial sign, which the Infidels +might afterwards deride, 51 was disregarded by the Christians of the +age which immediately followed the conversion of Constantine. 52 But +the Catholic church, both of the East and of the West, has adopted a +prodigy which favors, or seems to favor, the popular worship of the +cross. The vision of Constantine maintained an honorable place in the +legend of superstition, till the bold and sagacious spirit of criticism +presumed to depreciate the triumph, and to arraign the truth, of the +first Christian emperor. 53 + +45 (return) [ M. Freret (Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. +iv. p. 411-437) explains, by physical causes, many of the prodigies of +antiquity; and Fabricius, who is abused by both parties, vainly tries +to introduce the celestial cross of Constantine among the solar halos. +Bibliothec. Græc. tom. iv. p. 8-29. * Note: The great difficulty in +resolving it into a natural phenomenon, arises from the inscription; +even the most heated or awe-struck imagination would hardly discover +distinct and legible letters in a solar halo. But the inscription may +have been a later embellishment, or an interpretation of the meaning +which the sign was construed to convey. Compare Heirichen, Excur in +locum Eusebii, and the authors quoted.] + +46 (return) [ Nazarius inter Panegyr. Vet. x. 14, 15. It is unnecessary +to name the moderns, whose undistinguishing and ravenous appetite has +swallowed even the Pagan bait of Nazarius.] + +47 (return) [ The apparitions of Castor and Pollux, particularly to +announce the Macedonian victory, are attested by historians and public +monuments. See Cicero de Natura Deorum, ii. 2, iii. 5, 6. Florus, ii. +12. Valerius Maximus, l. i. c. 8, No. 1. Yet the most recent of these +miracles is omitted, and indirectly denied, by Livy, (xlv. i.)] + +48 (return) [ Eusebius, l. i. c. 28, 29, 30. The silence of the same +Eusebius, in his Ecclesiastical History, is deeply felt by those +advocates for the miracle who are not absolutely callous.] + +49 (return) [ The narrative of Constantine seems to indicate, that he +saw the cross in the sky before he passed the Alps against Maxentius. +The scene has been fixed by provincial vanity at Trèves, Besançon, &c. +See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 573.] + +50 (return) [ The pious Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1317) +rejects with a sigh the useful Acts of Artemius, a veteran and a +martyr, who attests as an eye-witness to the vision of Constantine.] + +51 (return) [ Gelasius Cyzic. in Act. Concil. Nicen. l. i. c. 4.] + +52 (return) [ The advocates for the vision are unable to produce a +single testimony from the Fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries, +who, in their voluminous writings, repeatedly celebrate the triumph of +the church and of Constantine. As these venerable men had not any +dislike to a miracle, we may suspect, (and the suspicion is confirmed +by the ignorance of Jerom,) that they were all unacquainted with the +life of Constantine by Eusebius. This tract was recovered by the +diligence of those who translated or continued his Ecclesiastical +History, and who have represented in various colors the vision of the +cross.] + +53 (return) [ Godefroy was the first, who, in the year 1643, (Not ad +Philostorgium, l. i. c. 6, p. 16,) expressed any doubt of a miracle +which had been supported with equal zeal by Cardinal Baronius, and the +Centuriators of Magdeburgh. Since that time, many of the Protestant +critics have inclined towards doubt and disbelief. The objections are +urged, with great force, by M. Chauffepié, (Dictionnaire Critique, tom. +iv. p. 6–11;) and, in the year 1774, a doctor of Sorbonne, the Abbé du +Voisin published an apology, which deserves the praise of learning and +moderation. * Note: The first Excursus of Heinichen (in Vitam +Constantini, p. 507) contains a full summary of the opinions and +arguments of the later writers who have discussed this interminable +subject. As to his conversion, where interest and inclination, state +policy, and, if not a sincere conviction of its truth, at least a +respect, an esteem, an awe of Christianity, thus coincided, Constantine +himself would probably have been unable to trace the actual history of +the workings of his own mind, or to assign its real influence to each +concurrent motive.—M] + +The Protestant and philosophic readers of the present age will incline +to believe, that in the account of his own conversion, Constantine +attested a wilful falsehood by a solemn and deliberate perjury. They +may not hesitate to pronounce, that in the choice of a religion, his +mind was determined only by a sense of interest; and that (according to +the expression of a profane poet) 54 he used the altars of the church +as a convenient footstool to the throne of the empire. A conclusion so +harsh and so absolute is not, however, warranted by our knowledge of +human nature, of Constantine, or of Christianity. In an age of +religious fervor, the most artful statesmen are observed to feel some +part of the enthusiasm which they inspire, and the most orthodox saints +assume the dangerous privilege of defending the cause of truth by the +arms of deceit and falsehood. + +Personal interest is often the standard of our belief, as well as of +our practice; and the same motives of temporal advantage which might +influence the public conduct and professions of Constantine, would +insensibly dispose his mind to embrace a religion so propitious to his +fame and fortunes. His vanity was gratified by the flattering +assurance, that _he_ had been chosen by Heaven to reign over the earth; +success had justified his divine title to the throne, and that title +was founded on the truth of the Christian revelation. As real virtue is +sometimes excited by undeserved applause, the specious piety of +Constantine, if at first it was only specious, might gradually, by the +influence of praise, of habit, and of example, be matured into serious +faith and fervent devotion. The bishops and teachers of the new sect, +whose dress and manners had not qualified them for the residence of a +court, were admitted to the Imperial table; they accompanied the +monarch in his expeditions; and the ascendant which one of them, an +Egyptian or a Spaniard, 55 acquired over his mind, was imputed by the +Pagans to the effect of magic. 56 Lactantius, who has adorned the +precepts of the gospel with the eloquence of Cicero, 57 and Eusebius, +who has consecrated the learning and philosophy of the Greeks to the +service of religion, 58 were both received into the friendship and +familiarity of their sovereign; and those able masters of controversy +could patiently watch the soft and yielding moments of persuasion, and +dexterously apply the arguments which were the best adapted to his +character and understanding. Whatever advantages might be derived from +the acquisition of an Imperial proselyte, he was distinguished by the +splendor of his purple, rather than by the superiority of wisdom, or +virtue, from the many thousands of his subjects who had embraced the +doctrines of Christianity. Nor can it be deemed incredible, that the +mind of an unlettered soldier should have yielded to the weight of +evidence, which, in a more enlightened age, has satisfied or subdued +the reason of a Grotius, a Pascal, or a Locke. In the midst of the +incessant labors of his great office, this soldier employed, or +affected to employ, the hours of the night in the diligent study of the +Scriptures, and the composition of theological discourses; which he +afterwards pronounced in the presence of a numerous and applauding +audience. In a very long discourse, which is still extant, the royal +preacher expatiates on the various proofs still extant, the royal +preacher expatiates on the various proofs of religion; but he dwells +with peculiar complacency on the Sibylline verses, 59 and the fourth +eclogue of Virgil. 60 Forty years before the birth of Christ, the +Mantuan bard, as if inspired by the celestial muse of Isaiah, had +celebrated, with all the pomp of oriental metaphor, the return of the +Virgin, the fall of the serpent, the approaching birth of a godlike +child, the offspring of the great Jupiter, who should expiate the guilt +of human kind, and govern the peaceful universe with the virtues of his +father; the rise and appearance of a heavenly race, primitive nation +throughout the world; and the gradual restoration of the innocence and +felicity of the golden age. The poet was perhaps unconscious of the +secret sense and object of these sublime predictions, which have been +so unworthily applied to the infant son of a consul, or a triumvir; 61 +but if a more splendid, and indeed specious interpretation of the +fourth eclogue contributed to the conversion of the first Christian +emperor, Virgil may deserve to be ranked among the most successful +missionaries of the gospel. 62 + +54 (return) [ + Lors Constantin dit ces propres paroles: + J’ai renversé le culte des idoles: + Sur les debris de leurs temples fumans + Au Dieu du Ciel j’ai prodigue l’encens. + Mais tous mes soins pour sa grandeur supreme + N’eurent jamais d’autre objêt que moi-même; + + Les saints autels n’etoient à mes regards + Qu’un marchepié du trone des Césars. + L’ambition, la fureur, les delices + Etoient mes Dieux, avoient mes sacrifices. + L’or des Chrêtiens, leur intrigues, leur sang + Ont cimenté ma fortune et mon rang. + +The poem which contains these lines may be read with pleasure, but +cannot be named with decency.] + +55 (return) [ This favorite was probably the great Osius, bishop of +Cordova, who preferred the pastoral care of the whole church to the +government of a particular diocese. His character is magnificently, +though concisely, expressed by Athanasius, (tom. i. p. 703.) See +Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 524-561. Osius was accused, +perhaps unjustly, of retiring from court with a very ample fortune.] + +56 (return) [ See Eusebius (in Vit. Constant. passim) and Zosimus, l. +ii. p. 104.] + +57 (return) [ The Christianity of Lactantius was of a moral rather than +of a mysterious cast. “Erat pæne rudis (says the orthodox Bull) +disciplinæ Christianæ, et in rhetorica melius quam in theologia +versatus.” Defensio Fidei Nicenæ, sect. ii. c. 14.] + +58 (return) [ Fabricius, with his usual diligence, has collected a list +of between three and four hundred authors quoted in the Evangelical +Preparation of Eusebius. See Bibl. Græc. l. v. c. 4, tom. vi. p. +37-56.] + +59 (return) [ See Constantin. Orat. ad Sanctos, c. 19 20. He chiefly +depends on a mysterious acrostic, composed in the sixth age after the +Deluge, by the Erythræan Sibyl, and translated by Cicero into Latin. +The initial letters of the thirty-four Greek verses form this prophetic +sentence: Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior of the World.] + +60 (return) [ In his paraphrase of Virgil, the emperor has frequently +assisted and improved the literal sense of the Latin ext. See Blondel +des Sibylles, l. i. c. 14, 15, 16.] + +61 (return) [ The different claims of an elder and younger son of +Pollio, of Julia, of Drusus, of Marcellus, are found to be incompatible +with chronology, history, and the good sense of Virgil.] + +62 (return) [ See Lowth de Sacra Poesi Hebræorum Prælect. xxi. p. 289- +293. In the examination of the fourth eclogue, the respectable bishop +of London has displayed learning, taste, ingenuity, and a temperate +enthusiasm, which exalts his fancy without degrading his judgment.] + + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part III. + +The awful mysteries of the Christian faith and worship were concealed +from the eyes of strangers, and even of catechu mens, with an affected +secrecy, which served to excite their wonder and curiosity. 63 But the +severe rules of discipline which the prudence of the bishops had +instituted, were relaxed by the same prudence in favor of an Imperial +proselyte, whom it was so important to allure, by every gentle +condescension, into the pale of the church; and Constantine was +permitted, at least by a tacit dispensation, to enjoy _most_ of the +privileges, before he had contracted _any_ of the obligations, of a +Christian. Instead of retiring from the congregation, when the voice of +the deacon dismissed the profane multitude, he prayed with the +faithful, disputed with the bishops, preached on the most sublime and +intricate subjects of theology, celebrated with sacred rites the vigil +of Easter, and publicly declared himself, not only a partaker, but, in +some measure, a priest and hierophant of the Christian mysteries. 64 +The pride of Constantine might assume, and his services had deserved, +some extraordinary distinction: and ill-timed rigor might have blasted +the unripened fruits of his conversion; and if the doors of the church +had been strictly closed against a prince who had deserted the altars +of the gods, the master of the empire would have been left destitute of +any form of religious worship. In his last visit to Rome, he piously +disclaimed and insulted the superstition of his ancestors, by refusing +to lead the military procession of the equestrian order, and to offer +the public vows to the Jupiter of the Capitoline Hill. 65 Many years +before his baptism and death, Constantine had proclaimed to the world, +that neither his person nor his image should ever more be seen within +the walls of an idolatrous temple; while he distributed through the +provinces a variety of medals and pictures, which represented the +emperor in an humble and suppliant posture of Christian devotion. 66 + +63 (return) [ The distinction between the public and the secret parts +of divine service, the _missa catechumenorum_ and the _missa fidelium_, +and the mysterious veil which piety or policy had cast over the latter, +are very judiciously explained by Thiers, Exposition du Saint +Sacrament, l. i. c. 8- 12, p. 59-91: but as, on this subject, the +Papists may reasonably be suspected, a Protestant reader will depend +with more confidence on the learned Bingham, Antiquities, l. x. c. 5.] + +64 (return) [ See Eusebius in Vit. Const. l. iv. c. 15-32, and the +whole tenor of Constantine’s Sermon. The faith and devotion of the +emperor has furnished Batonics with a specious argument in favor of his +early baptism. Note: Compare Heinichen, Excursus iv. et v., where these +questions are examined with candor and acuteness, and with constant +reference to the opinions of more modern writers.—M.] + +65 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 105.] + +66 (return) [ Eusebius in Vit. Constant. l. iv. c. 15, 16.] + +The pride of Constantine, who refused the privileges of a catechumen, +cannot easily be explained or excused; but the delay of his baptism may +be justified by the maxims and the practice of ecclesiastical +antiquity. The sacrament of baptism 67 was regularly administered by +the bishop himself, with his assistant clergy, in the cathedral church +of the diocese, during the fifty days between the solemn festivals of +Easter and Pentecost; and this holy term admitted a numerous band of +infants and adult persons into the bosom of the church. The discretion +of parents often suspended the baptism of their children till they +could understand the obligations which they contracted: the severity of +ancient bishops exacted from the new converts a novitiate of two or +three years; and the catechumens themselves, from different motives of +a temporal or a spiritual nature, were seldom impatient to assume the +character of perfect and initiated Christians. The sacrament of baptism +was supposed to contain a full and absolute expiation of sin; and the +soul was instantly restored to its original purity, and entitled to the +promise of eternal salvation. Among the proselytes of Christianity, +there are many who judged it imprudent to precipitate a salutary rite, +which could not be repeated; to throw away an inestimable privilege, +which could never be recovered. By the delay of their baptism, they +could venture freely to indulge their passions in the enjoyments of +this world, while they still retained in their own hands the means of a +sure and easy absolution. 68 The sublime theory of the gospel had made +a much fainter impression on the heart than on the understanding of +Constantine himself. He pursued the great object of his ambition +through the dark and bloody paths of war and policy; and, after the +victory, he abandoned himself, without moderation, to the abuse of his +fortune. Instead of asserting his just superiority above the imperfect +heroism and profane philosophy of Trajan and the Antonines, the mature +age of Constantine forfeited the reputation which he had acquired in +his youth. As he gradually advanced in the knowledge of truth, he +proportionally declined in the practice of virtue; and the same year of +his reign in which he convened the council of Nice, was polluted by the +execution, or rather murder, of his eldest son. This date is alone +sufficient to refute the ignorant and malicious suggestions of Zosimus, +69 who affirms, that, after the death of Crispus, the remorse of his +father accepted from the ministers of christianity the expiation which +he had vainly solicited from the Pagan pontiffs. At the time of the +death of Crispus, the emperor could no longer hesitate in the choice of +a religion; he could no longer be ignorant that the church was +possessed of an infallible remedy, though he chose to defer the +application of it till the approach of death had removed the temptation +and danger of a relapse. The bishops whom he summoned, in his last +illness, to the palace of Nicomedia, were edified by the fervor with +which he requested and received the sacrament of baptism, by the solemn +protestation that the remainder of his life should be worthy of a +disciple of Christ, and by his humble refusal to wear the Imperial +purple after he had been clothed in the white garment of a Neophyte. +The example and reputation of Constantine seemed to countenance the +delay of baptism. 70 Future tyrants were encouraged to believe, that +the innocent blood which they might shed in a long reign would +instantly be washed away in the waters of regeneration; and the abuse +of religion dangerously undermined the foundations of moral virtue. + +67 (return) [ The theory and practice of antiquity, with regard to the +sacrament of baptism, have been copiously explained by Dom Chardon, +Hist. des Sacremens, tom. i. p. 3-405; Dom Martenne de Ritibus Ecclesiæ +Antiquis, tom. i.; and by Bingham, in the tenth and eleventh books of +his Christian Antiquities. One circumstance may be observed, in which +the modern churches have materially departed from the ancient custom. +The sacrament of baptism (even when it was administered to infants) was +immediately followed by confirmation and the holy communion.] + +68 (return) [ The Fathers, who censured this criminal delay, could not +deny the certain and victorious efficacy even of a death-bed baptism. +The ingenious rhetoric of Chrysostom could find only three arguments +against these prudent Christians. 1. That we should love and pursue +virtue for her own sake, and not merely for the reward. 2. That we may +be surprised by death without an opportunity of baptism. 3. That +although we shall be placed in heaven, we shall only twinkle like +little stars, when compared to the suns of righteousness who have run +their appointed course with labor, with success, and with glory. +Chrysos tom in Epist. ad Hebræos, Homil. xiii. apud Chardon, Hist. des +Sacremens, tom. i. p. 49. I believe that this delay of baptism, though +attended with the most pernicious consequences, was never condemned by +any general or provincial council, or by any public act or declaration +of the church. The zeal of the bishops was easily kindled on much +slighter occasion. * Note: This passage of Chrysostom, though not in +his more forcible manner, is not quite fairly represented. He is +stronger in other places, in Act. Hom. xxiii.—and Hom. i. Compare, +likewise, the sermon of Gregory of Nysea on this subject, and Gregory +Nazianzen. After all, to those who believed in the efficacy of baptism, +what argument could be more conclusive, than the danger of dying +without it? Orat. xl.—M.] + +69 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 104. For this disingenuous falsehood +he has deserved and experienced the harshest treatment from all the +ecclesiastical writers, except Cardinal Baronius, (A. D. 324, No. +15-28,) who had occasion to employ the infidel on a particular service +against the Arian Eusebius. Note: Heyne, in a valuable note on this +passage of Zosimus, has shown decisively that this malicious way of +accounting for the conversion of Constantine was not an invention of +Zosimus. It appears to have been the current calumny eagerly adopted +and propagated by the exasperated Pagan party. Reitemeter, a later +editor of Zosimus, whose notes are retained in the recent edition, in +the collection of the Byzantine historians, has a disquisition on the +passage, as candid, but not more conclusive than some which have +preceded him—M.] + +70 (return) [ Eusebius, l. iv. c. 61, 62, 63. The bishop of Cæsarea +supposes the salvation of Constantine with the most perfect +confidence.] + +The gratitude of the church has exalted the virtues and excused the +failings of a generous patron, who seated Christianity on the throne of +the Roman world; and the Greeks, who celebrate the festival of the +Imperial saint, seldom mention the name of Constantine without adding +the title of _equal to the Apostles_. 71 Such a comparison, if it +allude to the character of those divine missionaries, must be imputed +to the extravagance of impious flattery. But if the parallel be +confined to the extent and number of their evangelic victories the +success of Constantine might perhaps equal that of the Apostles +themselves. By the edicts of toleration, he removed the temporal +disadvantages which had hitherto retarded the progress of Christianity; +and its active and numerous ministers received a free permission, a +liberal encouragement, to recommend the salutary truths of revelation +by every argument which could affect the reason or piety of mankind. +The exact balance of the two religions continued but a moment; and the +piercing eye of ambition and avarice soon discovered, that the +profession of Christianity might contribute to the interest of the +present, as well as of a future life. 72 The hopes of wealth and +honors, the example of an emperor, his exhortations, his irresistible +smiles, diffused conviction among the venal and obsequious crowds which +usually fill the apartments of a palace. The cities which signalized a +forward zeal by the voluntary destruction of their temples, were +distinguished by municipal privileges, and rewarded with popular +donatives; and the new capital of the East gloried in the singular +advantage that Constantinople was never profaned by the worship of +idols. 73 As the lower ranks of society are governed by imitation, the +conversion of those who possessed any eminence of birth, of power, or +of riches, was soon followed by dependent multitudes. 74 The salvation +of the common people was purchased at an easy rate, if it be true that, +in one year, twelve thousand men were baptized at Rome, besides a +proportionable number of women and children, and that a white garment, +with twenty pieces of gold, had been promised by the emperor to every +convert. 75 The powerful influence of Constantine was not circumscribed +by the narrow limits of his life, or of his dominions. The education +which he bestowed on his sons and nephews secured to the empire a race +of princes, whose faith was still more lively and sincere, as they +imbibed, in their earliest infancy, the spirit, or at least the +doctrine, of Christianity. War and commerce had spread the knowledge of +the gospel beyond the confines of the Roman provinces; and the +Barbarians, who had disdained as humble and proscribed sect, soon +learned to esteem a religion which had been so lately embraced by the +greatest monarch, and the most civilized nation, of the globe. 76 The +Goths and Germans, who enlisted under the standard of Rome, revered the +cross which glittered at the head of the legions, and their fierce +countrymen received at the same time the lessons of faith and of +humanity. The kings of Iberia and Armenia76a worshipped the god of +their protector; and their subjects, who have invariably preserved the +name of Christians, soon formed a sacred and perpetual connection with +their Roman brethren. The Christians of Persia were suspected, in time +of war, of preferring their religion to their country; but as long as +peace subsisted between the two empires, the persecuting spirit of the +Magi was effectually restrained by the interposition of Constantine. 77 +The rays of the gospel illuminated the coast of India. The colonies of +Jews, who had penetrated into Arabia and Ethiopia, 78 opposed the +progress of Christianity; but the labor of the missionaries was in some +measure facilitated by a previous knowledge of the Mosaic revelation; +and Abyssinia still reveres the memory of Frumentius, 78a who, in the +time of Constantine, devoted his life to the conversion of those +sequestered regions. Under the reign of his son Constantius, +Theophilus, 79 who was himself of Indian extraction, was invested with +the double character of ambassador and bishop. He embarked on the Red +Sea with two hundred horses of the purest breed of Cappadocia, which +were sent by the emperor to the prince of the Sabæans, or Homerites. +Theophilus was intrusted with many other useful or curious presents, +which might raise the admiration, and conciliate the friendship, of the +Barbarians; and he successfully employed several years in a pastoral +visit to the churches of the torrid zone. 80 + +71 (return) [ See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 429. The +Greeks, the Russians, and, in the darker ages, the Latins themselves, +have been desirous of placing Constantine in the catalogue of saints.] + +72 (return) [ See the third and fourth books of his life. He was +accustomed to say, that whether Christ was preached in pretence, or in +truth, he should still rejoice, (l. iii. c. 58.)] + +73 (return) [ M. de Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 374, +616) has defended, with strength and spirit, the virgin purity of +Constantinople against some malevolent insinuations of the Pagan +Zosimus.] + +74 (return) [ The author of the Histoire Politique et Philosophique des +deux Indes (tom. i. p. 9) condemns a law of Constantine, which gave +freedom to all the slaves who should embrace Christianity. The emperor +did indeed publish a law, which restrained the Jews from circumcising, +perhaps from keeping, any Christian slave. (See Euseb. in Vit. +Constant. l. iv. c. 27, and Cod. Theod. l. xvi. tit. ix., with +Godefroy’s Commentary, tom. vi. p. 247.) But this imperfect exception +related only to the Jews, and the great body of slaves, who were the +property of Christian or Pagan masters, could not improve their +temporal condition by changing their religion. I am ignorant by what +guides the Abbé Raynal was deceived; as the total absence of quotations +is the unpardonable blemish of his entertaining history.] + +75 (return) [ See Acta Sti Silvestri, and Hist. Eccles. Nicephor. +Callist. l. vii. c. 34, ap. Baronium Annal. Eccles. A. D. 324, No. 67, +74. Such evidence is contemptible enough; but these circumstances are +in themselves so probable, that the learned Dr. Howell (History of the +World, vol. iii. p. 14) has not scrupled to adopt them.] + +76 (return) [ The conversion of the Barbarians under the reign of +Constantine is celebrated by the ecclesiastical historians. (See +Sozomen, l. ii. c. 6, and Theodoret, l. i. c. 23, 24.) But Rufinus, the +Latin translator of Eusebius, deserves to be considered as an original +authority. His information was curiously collected from one of the +companions of the Apostle of Æthiopia, and from Bacurius, an Iberian +prince, who was count of the domestics. Father Mamachi has given an +ample compilation on the progress of Christianity, in the first and +second volumes of his great but imperfect work.] + +76a (return) [ According to the Georgian chronicles, Iberia (Georgia) +was converted by the virgin Nino, who effected an extraordinary cure on +the wife of the king Mihran. The temple of the god Aramazt, or Armaz, +not far from the capital Mtskitha, was destroyed, and the cross erected +in its place. Le Beau, i. 202, with St. Martin’s Notes.—St. Martin has +likewise clearly shown (St. Martin, Add. to Le Beau, i. 291) Armenia +was the first _nation_ which embraced Christianity, (Addition to Le +Beau, i. 76. and Mémoire sur l’Armenie, i. 305.) Gibbon himself +suspected this truth.—“Instead of maintaining that the conversion of +Armenia was not attempted with any degree of success, till the sceptre +was in the hands of an orthodox emperor,” I ought to have said, that +the seeds of the faith were deeply sown during the season of the last +and greatest persecution, that many Roman exiles might assist the +labors of Gregory, and that the renowned Tiridates, the hero of the +East, may dispute with Constantine the honor of being the first +sovereign who embraced the Christian religion Vindication] + +77 (return) [ See, in Eusebius, (in Vit. l. iv. c. 9,) the pressing and +pathetic epistle of Constantine in favor of his Christian brethren of +Persia.] + +78 (return) [ See Basnage, Hist. des Juifs, tom. vii. p. 182, tom. +viii. p. 333, tom. ix. p. 810. The curious diligence of this writer +pursues the Jewish exiles to the extremities of the globe.] + +78a (return) [ Abba Salama, or Fremonatus, is mentioned in the Tareek +Negushti, chronicle of the kings of Abyssinia. Salt’s Travels, vol. ii. +p. 464.—M.] + +79 (return) [ Theophilus had been given in his infancy as a hostage by +his countrymen of the Isle of Diva, and was educated by the Romans in +learning and piety. The Maldives, of which Male, or Diva, may be the +capital, are a cluster of 1900 or 2000 minute islands in the Indian +Ocean. The ancients were imperfectly acquainted with the Maldives; but +they are described in the two Mahometan travellers of the ninth +century, published by Renaudot, Geograph. Nubiensis, p. 30, 31 +D’Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale p. 704. Hist. Generale des Voy ages, +tom. viii.—See the dissertation of M. Letronne on this question. He +conceives that Theophilus was born in the island of Dahlak, in the +Arabian Gulf. His embassy was to Abyssinia rather than to India. +Letronne, Materiaux pour l’Hist. du Christianisme en Egypte Indie, et +Abyssinie. Paris, 1832 3d Dissert.—M.] + +80 (return) [ Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 4, 5, 6, with Godefroy’s +learned observations. The historical narrative is soon lost in an +inquiry concerning the seat of Paradise, strange monsters, &c.] + +The irresistible power of the Roman emperors was displayed in the +important and dangerous change of the national religion. The terrors of +a military force silenced the faint and unsupported murmurs of the +Pagans, and there was reason to expect, that the cheerful submission of +the Christian clergy, as well as people, would be the result of +conscience and gratitude. It was long since established, as a +fundamental maxim of the Roman constitution, that every rank of +citizens was alike subject to the laws, and that the care of religion +was the right as well as duty of the civil magistrate. Constantine and +his successors could not easily persuade themselves that they had +forfeited, by their conversion, any branch of the Imperial +prerogatives, or that they were incapable of giving laws to a religion +which they had protected and embraced. The emperors still continued to +exercise a supreme jurisdiction over the ecclesiastical order, and the +sixteenth book of the Theodosian code represents, under a variety of +titles, the authority which they assumed in the government of the +Catholic church. But the distinction of the spiritual and temporal +powers, 81 which had never been imposed on the free spirit of Greece +and Rome, was introduced and confirmed by the legal establishment of +Christianity. The office of supreme pontiff, which, from the time of +Numa to that of Augustus, had always been exercised by one of the most +eminent of the senators, was at length united to the Imperial dignity. +The first magistrate of the state, as often as he was prompted by +superstition or policy, performed with his own hands the sacerdotal +functions; 82 nor was there any order of priests, either at Rome or in +the provinces, who claimed a more sacred character among men, or a more +intimate communication with the gods. But in the Christian church, +which instrusts the service of the altar to a perpetual succession of +consecrated ministers, the monarch, whose spiritual rank is less +honorable than that of the meanest deacon, was seated below the rails +of the sanctuary, and confounded with the rest of the faithful +multitude. 83 The emperor might be saluted as the father of his people, +but he owed a filial duty and reverence to the fathers of the church; +and the same marks of respect, which Constantine had paid to the +persons of saints and confessors, were soon exacted by the pride of the +episcopal order. 84 A secret conflict between the civil and +ecclesiastical jurisdictions embarrassed the operation of the Roman +government; and a pious emperor was alarmed by the guilt and danger of +touching with a profane hand the ark of the covenant. The separation of +men into the two orders of the clergy and of the laity was, indeed, +familiar to many nations of antiquity; and the priests of India, of +Persia, of Assyria, of Judea, of Æthiopia, of Egypt, and of Gaul, +derived from a celestial origin the temporal power and possessions +which they had acquired. These venerable institutions had gradually +assimilated themselves to the manners and government of their +respective countries; 85 but the opposition or contempt of the civil +power served to cement the discipline of the primitive church. The +Christians had been obliged to elect their own magistrates, to raise +and distribute a peculiar revenue, and to regulate the internal policy +of their republic by a code of laws, which were ratified by the consent +of the people and the practice of three hundred years. When Constantine +embraced the faith of the Christians, he seemed to contract a perpetual +alliance with a distinct and independent society; and the privileges +granted or confirmed by that emperor, or by his successors, were +accepted, not as the precarious favors of the court, but as the just +and inalienable rights of the ecclesiastical order. + +81 (return) [ See the epistle of Osius, ap. Athanasium, vol. i. p. 840. +The public remonstrance which Osius was forced to address to the son, +contained the same principles of ecclesiastical and civil government +which he had secretly instilled into the mind of the father.] + +82 (return) [ M. de la Bastiel has evidently proved, that Augustus and +his successors exercised in person all the sacred functions of pontifex +maximus, of high priest, of the Roman empire.] + +83 (return) [ Something of a contrary practice had insensibly prevailed +in the church of Constantinople; but the rigid Ambrose commanded +Theodosius to retire below the rails, and taught him to know the +difference between a king and a priest. See Theodoret, l. v. c. 18.] + +84 (return) [ At the table of the emperor Maximus, Martin, bishop of +Tours, received the cup from an attendant, and gave it to the +presbyter, his companion, before he allowed the emperor to drink; the +empress waited on Martin at table. Sulpicius Severus, in Vit. Sti +Martin, c. 23, and Dialogue ii. 7. Yet it may be doubted, whether these +extraordinary compliments were paid to the bishop or the saint. The +honors usually granted to the former character may be seen in Bingham’s +Antiquities, l. ii. c. 9, and Vales ad Theodoret, l. iv. c. 6. See the +haughty ceremonial which Leontius, bishop of Tripoli, imposed on the +empress. Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 754. (Patres +Apostol. tom. ii. p. 179.)] + +85 (return) [ Plutarch, in his treatise of Isis and Osiris, informs us +that the kings of Egypt, who were not already priests, were initiated, +after their election, into the sacerdotal order.] + +The Catholic church was administered by the spiritual and legal +jurisdiction of eighteen hundred bishops; 86 of whom one thousand were +seated in the Greek, and eight hundred in the Latin, provinces of the +empire. The extent and boundaries of their respective dioceses had been +variously and accidentally decided by the zeal and success of the first +missionaries, by the wishes of the people, and by the propagation of +the gospel. Episcopal churches were closely planted along the banks of +the Nile, on the sea-coast of Africa, in the proconsular Asia, and +through the southern provinces of Italy. The bishops of Gaul and Spain, +of Thrace and Pontus, reigned over an ample territory, and delegated +their rural suffragans to execute the subordinate duties of the +pastoral office. 87 A Christian diocese might be spread over a +province, or reduced to a village; but all the bishops possessed an +equal and indelible character: they all derived the same powers and +privileges from the apostles, from the people, and from the laws. While +the _civil_ and _military_ professions were separated by the policy of +Constantine, a new and perpetual order of _ecclesiastical_ ministers, +always respectable, sometimes dangerous, was established in the church +and state. The important review of their station and attributes may be +distributed under the following heads: I. Popular Election. II. +Ordination of the Clergy. III. Property. IV. Civil Jurisdiction. V. +Spiritual censures. VI. Exercise of public oratory. VII. Privilege of +legislative assemblies. + +86 (return) [ The numbers are not ascertained by any ancient writer or +original catalogue; for the partial lists of the eastern churches are +comparatively modern. The patient diligence of Charles a Sto Paolo, of +Luke Holstentius, and of Bingham, has laboriously investigated all the +episcopal sees of the Catholic church, which was almost commensurate +with the Roman empire. The ninth book of the Christian antiquities is a +very accurate map of ecclesiastical geography.] + +87 (return) [ On the subject of rural bishops, or _Chorepiscopi_, who +voted in tynods, and conferred the minor orders, See Thomassin, +Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. p. 447, &c., and Chardon, Hist. des +Sacremens, tom. v. p. 395, &c. They do not appear till the fourth +century; and this equivocal character, which had excited the jealousy +of the prelates, was abolished before the end of the tenth, both in the +East and the West.] + +I. The freedom of election subsisted long after the legal establishment +of Christianity; 88 and the subjects of Rome enjoyed in the church the +privilege which they had lost in the republic, of choosing the +magistrates whom they were bound to obey. As soon as a bishop had +closed his eyes, the metropolitan issued a commission to one of his +suffragans to administer the vacant see, and prepare, within a limited +time, the future election. The right of voting was vested in the +inferior clergy, who were best qualified to judge of the merit of the +candidates; in the senators or nobles of the city, all those who were +distinguished by their rank or property; and finally in the whole body +of the people, who, on the appointed day, flocked in multitudes from +the most remote parts of the diocese, 89 and sometimes silenced by +their tumultuous acclamations, the voice of reason and the laws of +discipline. These acclamations might accidentally fix on the head of +the most deserving competitor; of some ancient presbyter, some holy +monk, or some layman, conspicuous for his zeal and piety. But the +episcopal chair was solicited, especially in the great and opulent +cities of the empire, as a temporal rather than as a spiritual dignity. +The interested views, the selfish and angry passions, the arts of +perfidy and dissimulation, the secret corruption, the open and even +bloody violence which had formerly disgraced the freedom of election in +the commonwealths of Greece and Rome, too often influenced the choice +of the successors of the apostles. While one of the candidates boasted +the honors of his family, a second allured his judges by the delicacies +of a plentiful table, and a third, more guilty than his rivals, offered +to share the plunder of the church among the accomplices of his +sacrilegious hopes 90 The civil as well as ecclesiastical laws +attempted to exclude the populace from this solemn and important +transaction. The canons of ancient discipline, by requiring several +episcopal qualifications, of age, station, &c., restrained, in some +measure, the indiscriminate caprice of the electors. The authority of +the provincial bishops, who were assembled in the vacant church to +consecrate the choice of the people, was interposed to moderate their +passions and to correct their mistakes. The bishops could refuse to +ordain an unworthy candidate, and the rage of contending factions +sometimes accepted their impartial mediation. The submission, or the +resistance, of the clergy and people, on various occasions, afforded +different precedents, which were insensibly converted into positive +laws and provincial customs; 91 but it was every where admitted, as a +fundamental maxim of religious policy, that no bishop could be imposed +on an orthodox church, without the consent of its members. The +emperors, as the guardians of the public peace, and as the first +citizens of Rome and Constantinople, might effectually declare their +wishes in the choice of a primate; but those absolute monarchs +respected the freedom of ecclesiastical elections; and while they +distributed and resumed the honors of the state and army, they allowed +eighteen hundred perpetual magistrates to receive their important +offices from the free suffrages of the people. 92 It was agreeable to +the dictates of justice, that these magistrates should not desert an +honorable station from which they could not be removed; but the wisdom +of councils endeavored, without much success, to enforce the residence, +and to prevent the translation, of bishops. The discipline of the West +was indeed less relaxed than that of the East; but the same passions +which made those regulations necessary, rendered them ineffectual. The +reproaches which angry prelates have so vehemently urged against each +other, serve only to expose their common guilt, and their mutual +indiscretion. + +88 (return) [ Thomassin (Discipline de l’Eglise, tom, ii. l. ii. c. +1-8, p. 673-721) has copiously treated of the election of bishops +during the five first centuries, both in the East and in the West; but +he shows a very partial bias in favor of the episcopal aristocracy. +Bingham, (l. iv. c. 2) is moderate; and Chardon (Hist. des Sacremens +tom. v. p. 108-128) is very clear and concise. * Note: This freedom was +extremely limited, and soon annihilated; already, from the third +century, the deacons were no longer nominated by the members of the +community, but by the bishops. Although it appears by the letters of +Cyprian, that even in his time, no priest could be elected without the +consent of the community. (Ep. 68,) that election was far from being +altogether free. The bishop proposed to his parishioners the candidate +whom he had chosen, and they were permitted to make such objections as +might be suggested by his conduct and morals. (St. Cyprian, Ep. 33.) +They lost this last right towards the middle of the fourth century.—G] + +89 (return) [ Incredibilis multitudo, non solum ex eo oppido, +(_Tours_,) sed etiam ex vicinis urbibus ad suffragia ferenda +convenerat, &c. Sulpicius Severus, in Vit. Martin. c. 7. The council of +Laodicea, (canon xiii.) prohibits mobs and tumults; and Justinian +confines confined the right of election to the nobility. Novel. cxxiii. +l.] + +90 (return) [ The epistles of Sidonius Apollinaris (iv. 25, vii. 5, 9) +exhibit some of the scandals of the Gallican church; and Gaul was less +polished and less corrupt than the East.] + +91 (return) [ A compromise was sometimes introduced by law or by +consent; either the bishops or the people chose one of the three +candidates who had been named by the other party.] + +92 (return) [ All the examples quoted by Thomassin (Discipline de +l’Eglise, tom. ii. l. iii. c. vi. p. 704-714) appear to be +extraordinary acts of power, and even of oppression. The confirmation +of the bishop of Alexandria is mentioned by Philostorgius as a more +regular proceeding. (Hist Eccles. l. ii. ll.) * Note: The statement of +Planck is more consistent with history: “From the middle of the fourth +century, the bishops of some of the larger churches, particularly those +of the Imperial residence, were almost always chosen under the +influence of the court, and often directly and immediately nominated by +the emperor.” Planck, Geschichte der Christlich-kirchlichen +Gesellschafteverfassung, verfassung, vol. i p 263.—M.] + +II. The bishops alone possessed the faculty of _spiritual_ generation: +and this extraordinary privilege might compensate, in some degree, for +the painful celibacy 93 which was imposed as a virtue, as a duty, and +at length as a positive obligation. The religions of antiquity, which +established a separate order of priests, dedicated a holy race, a tribe +or family, to the perpetual service of the gods. 94 Such institutions +were founded for possession, rather than conquest. The children of the +priests enjoyed, with proud and indolent security, their sacred +inheritance; and the fiery spirit of enthusiasm was abated by the +cares, the pleasures, and the endearments of domestic life. But the +Christian sanctuary was open to every ambitious candidate, who aspired +to its heavenly promises or temporal possessions. This office of +priests, like that of soldiers or magistrates, was strenuously +exercised by those men, whose temper and abilities had prompted them to +embrace the ecclesiastical profession, or who had been selected by a +discerning bishop, as the best qualified to promote the glory and +interest of the church. The bishops 95 (till the abuse was restrained +by the prudence of the laws) might constrain the reluctant, and protect +the distressed; and the imposition of hands forever bestowed some of +the most valuable privileges of civil society. The whole body of the +Catholic clergy, more numerous perhaps than the legions, was exempted +[95a] by the emperors from all service, private or public, all +municipal offices, and all personal taxes and contributions, which +pressed on their fellow- citizens with intolerable weight; and the +duties of their holy profession were accepted as a full discharge of +their obligations to the republic. 96 Each bishop acquired an absolute +and indefeasible right to the perpetual obedience of the clerk whom he +ordained: the clergy of each episcopal church, with its dependent +parishes, formed a regular and permanent society; and the cathedrals of +Constantinople 97 and Carthage 98 maintained their peculiar +establishment of five hundred ecclesiastical ministers. Their ranks 99 +and numbers were insensibly multiplied by the superstition of the +times, which introduced into the church the splendid ceremonies of a +Jewish or Pagan temple; and a long train of priests, deacons, +sub-deacons, acolythes, exorcists, readers, singers, and doorkeepers, +contributed, in their respective stations, to swell the pomp and +harmony of religious worship. The clerical name and privileges were +extended to many pious fraternities, who devoutly supported the +ecclesiastical throne. 100 Six hundred _parabolani_, or adventurers, +visited the sick at Alexandria; eleven hundred _copiatæ_, or +grave-diggers, buried the dead at Constantinople; and the swarms of +monks, who arose from the Nile, overspread and darkened the face of the +Christian world. + +93 (return) [ The celibacy of the clergy during the first five or six +centuries, is a subject of discipline, and indeed of controversy, which +has been very diligently examined. See in particular, Thomassin, +Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. l. ii. c. lx. lxi. p. 886-902, and +Bingham’s Antiquities, l. iv. c. 5. By each of these learned but +partial critics, one half of the truth is produced, and the other is +concealed.—Note: Compare Planck, (vol. i. p. 348.) This century, the +third, first brought forth the monks, or the spirit of monkery, the +celibacy of the clergy. Planck likewise observes, that from the history +of Eusebius alone, names of married bishops and presbyters may be +adduced by dozens.—M.] + +94 (return) [ Diodorus Siculus attests and approves the hereditary +succession of the priesthood among the Egyptians, the Chaldeans, and +the Indians, (l. i. p. 84, l. ii. p. 142, 153, edit. Wesseling.) The +magi are described by Ammianus as a very numerous family: “Per sæcula +multa ad præsens unâ eâdemque prosapiâ multitudo creata, Deorum +cultibus dedicata.” (xxiii. 6.) Ausonius celebrates the _Stirps +Druidarum_, (De Professorib. Burdigal. iv.;) but we may infer from the +remark of Cæsar, (vi. 13,) that in the Celtic hierarchy, some room was +left for choice and emulation.] + +95 (return) [ The subject of the vocation, ordination, obedience, &c., +of the clergy, is laboriously discussed by Thomassin (Discipline de +l’Eglise, tom. ii. p. 1-83) and Bingham, (in the 4th book of his +Antiquities, more especially the 4th, 6th, and 7th chapters.) When the +brother of St. Jerom was ordained in Cyprus, the deacons forcibly +stopped his mouth, lest he should make a solemn protestation, which +might invalidate the holy rites.] + + [ This exemption was very much limited. The municipal offices were of + two kinds; the one attached to the individual in his character of + inhabitant, the other in that of _proprietor_. Constantine had + exempted ecclesiastics from offices of the first description. (Cod. + Theod. xvi. t. ii. leg. 1, 2 Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. l. x. c. vii.) + They sought, also, to be exempted from those of the second, (munera + patrimoniorum.) The rich, to obtain this privilege, obtained + subordinate situations among the clergy. Constantine published in 320 + an edict, by which he prohibited the more opulent citizens (decuriones + and curiales) from embracing the ecclesiastical profession, and the + bishops from admitting new ecclesiastics, before a place should be + vacant by the death of the occupant, (Godefroy ad Cod. Theod.t. xii. + t. i. de Decur.) Valentinian the First, by a rescript still more + general enacted that no rich citizen should obtain a situation in the + church, (De Episc 1. lxvii.) He also enacted that ecclesiastics, who + wished to be exempt from offices which they were bound to discharge as + proprietors, should be obliged to give up their property to their + relations. Cod Theodos l. xii t. i. leb. 49—G.] + +96 (return) [ The charter of immunities, which the clergy obtained from +the Christian emperors, is contained in the 16th book of the Theodosian +code; and is illustrated with tolerable candor by the learned Godefroy, +whose mind was balanced by the opposite prejudices of a civilian and a +Protestant.] + +97 (return) [ Justinian. Novell. ciii. Sixty presbyters, or priests, +one hundred deacons, forty deaconesses, ninety sub-deacons, one hundred +and ten readers, twenty-five chanters, and one hundred door-keepers; in +all, five hundred and twenty-five. This moderate number was fixed by +the emperor to relieve the distress of the church, which had been +involved in debt and usury by the expense of a much higher +establishment.] + +98 (return) [ Universus clerus ecclesiæ Carthaginiensis.... fere +_quingenti_ vel amplius; inter quos quamplurima erant lectores +infantuli. Victor Vitensis, de Persecut. Vandal. v. 9, p. 78, edit. +Ruinart. This remnant of a more prosperous state still subsisted under +the oppression of the Vandals.] + +99 (return) [ The number of _seven_ orders has been fixed in the Latin +church, exclusive of the episcopal character. But the four inferior +ranks, the minor orders, are now reduced to empty and useless titles.] + +100 (return) [ See Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. ii. leg. 42, 43. +Godefroy’s Commentary, and the Ecclesiastical History of Alexandria, +show the danger of these pious institutions, which often disturbed the +peace of that turbulent capital.] + + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part IV. + +III. The edict of Milan secured the revenue as well as the peace of the +church. 101 The Christians not only recovered the lands and houses of +which they had been stripped by the persecuting laws of Diocletian, but +they acquired a perfect title to all the possessions which they had +hitherto enjoyed by the connivance of the magistrate. As soon as +Christianity became the religion of the emperor and the empire, the +national clergy might claim a decent and honorable maintenance; and the +payment of an annual tax might have delivered the people from the more +oppressive tribute, which superstition imposes on her votaries. But as +the wants and expenses of the church increased with her prosperity, the +ecclesiastical order was still supported and enriched by the voluntary +oblations of the faithful. Eight years after the edict of Milan, +Constantine granted to all his subjects the free and universal +permission of bequeathing their fortunes to the holy Catholic church; +102 and their devout liberality, which during their lives was checked +by luxury or avarice, flowed with a profuse stream at the hour of their +death. The wealthy Christians were encouraged by the example of their +sovereign. An absolute monarch, who is rich without patrimony, may be +charitable without merit; and Constantine too easily believed that he +should purchase the favor of Heaven, if he maintained the idle at the +expense of the industrious; and distributed among the saints the wealth +of the republic. The same messenger who carried over to Africa the head +of Maxentius, might be intrusted with an epistle to Cæcilian, bishop of +Carthage. The emperor acquaints him, that the treasurers of the +province are directed to pay into his hands the sum of three thousand +_folles_, or eighteen thousand pounds sterling, and to obey his further +requisitions for the relief of the churches of Africa, Numidia, and +Mauritania. 103 The liberality of Constantine increased in a just +proportion to his faith, and to his vices. He assigned in each city a +regular allowance of corn, to supply the fund of ecclesiastical +charity; and the persons of both sexes who embraced the monastic life +became the peculiar favorites of their sovereign. The Christian temples +of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Constantinople &c., displayed the +ostentatious piety of a prince, ambitious in a declining age to equal +the perfect labors of antiquity. 104 The form of these religious +edifices was simple and oblong; though they might sometimes swell into +the shape of a dome, and sometimes branch into the figure of a cross. +The timbers were framed for the most part of cedars of Libanus; the +roof was covered with tiles, perhaps of gilt brass; and the walls, the +columns, the pavement, were encrusted with variegated marbles. The most +precious ornaments of gold and silver, of silk and gems, were profusely +dedicated to the service of the altar; and this specious magnificence +was supported on the solid and perpetual basis of landed property. In +the space of two centuries, from the reign of Constantine to that of +Justinian, the eighteen hundred churches of the empire were enriched by +the frequent and unalienable gifts of the prince and people. An annual +income of six hundred pounds sterling may be reasonably assigned to the +bishops, who were placed at an equal distance between riches and +poverty, 105 but the standard of their wealth insensibly rose with the +dignity and opulence of the cities which they governed. An authentic +but imperfect 106 rent-roll specifies some houses, shops, gardens, and +farms, which belonged to the three _Basilicæ_ of Rome, St. Peter, St. +Paul, and St. John Lateran, in the provinces of Italy, Africa, and the +East. They produce, besides a reserved rent of oil, linen, paper, +aromatics, &c., a clear annual revenue of twenty-two thousand pieces of +gold, or twelve thousand pounds sterling. In the age of Constantine and +Justinian, the bishops no longer possessed, perhaps they no longer +deserved, the unsuspecting confidence of their clergy and people. The +ecclesiastical revenues of each diocese were divided into four parts +for the respective uses of the bishop himself, of his inferior clergy, +of the poor, and of the public worship; and the abuse of this sacred +trust was strictly and repeatedly checked. 107 The patrimony of the +church was still subject to all the public compositions of the state. +108 The clergy of Rome, Alexandria, Chessaionica, &c., might solicit +and obtain some partial exemptions; but the premature attempt of the +great council of Rimini, which aspired to universal freedom, was +successfully resisted by the son of Constantine. 109 + +101 (return) [ The edict of Milan (de M. P. c. 48) acknowledges, by +reciting, that there existed a species of landed property, ad jus +corporis eorum, id est, ecclesiarum non hominum singulorum pertinentia. +Such a solemn declaration of the supreme magistrate must have been +received in all the tribunals as a maxim of civil law.] + +102 (return) [ Habeat unusquisque licentiam sanctissimo Catholicæ +(_ecclesiæ_) venerabilique concilio, decedens bonorum quod optavit +relinquere. Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. ii. leg. 4. This law was +published at Rome, A. D. 321, at a time when Constantine might foresee +the probability of a rupture with the emperor of the East.] + +103 (return) [ Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. l. x. 6; in Vit. Constantin. l. +iv. c. 28. He repeatedly expatiates on the liberality of the Christian +hero, which the bishop himself had an opportunity of knowing, and even +of lasting.] + +104 (return) [ Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. l. x. c. 2, 3, 4. The bishop of +Cæsarea who studied and gratified the taste of his master, pronounced +in public an elaborate description of the church of Jerusalem, (in Vit +Cons. l. vi. c. 46.) It no longer exists, but he has inserted in the +life of Constantine (l. iii. c. 36) a short account of the architecture +and ornaments. He likewise mentions the church of the Holy Apostles at +Constantinople, (l. iv. c. 59.)] + +105 (return) [ See Justinian. Novell. cxxiii. 3. The revenue of the +patriarchs, and the most wealthy bishops, is not expressed: the highest +annual valuation of a bishopric is stated at _thirty_, and the lowest +at _two_, pounds of gold; the medium might be taken at _sixteen_, but +these valuations are much below the real value.] + +106 (return) [ See Baronius, (Annal. Eccles. A. D. 324, No. 58, 65, 70, +71.) Every record which comes from the Vatican is justly suspected; yet +these rent-rolls have an ancient and authentic color; and it is at +least evident, that, if forged, they were forged in a period when +_farms_ not _kingdoms_, were the objects of papal avarice.] + +107 (return) [ See Thomassin, Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. iii. l. ii. +c. 13, 14, 15, p. 689-706. The legal division of the ecclesiastical +revenue does not appear to have been established in the time of Ambrose +and Chrysostom. Simplicius and Gelasius, who were bishops of Rome in +the latter part of the fifth century, mention it in their pastoral +letters as a general law, which was already confirmed by the custom of +Italy.] + +108 (return) [ Ambrose, the most strenuous assertor of ecclesiastical +privileges, submits without a murmur to the payment of the land tax. +“Si tri butum petit Imperator, non negamus; agri ecclesiæ solvunt +tributum solvimus quæ sunt Cæsaris Cæsari, et quæ sunt Dei Deo; +tributum Cæsaris est; non negatur.” Baronius labors to interpret this +tribute as an act of charity rather than of duty, (Annal. Eccles. A. D. +387;) but the words, if not the intentions of Ambrose are more candidly +explained by Thomassin, Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. iii. l. i. c. 34. +p. 668.] + +109 (return) [ In Ariminense synodo super ecclesiarum et clericorum +privilegiis tractatu habito, usque eo dispositio progressa est, ut juqa +quæ viderentur ad ecclesiam pertinere, a publica functione cessarent +inquietudine desistente; quod nostra videtur dudum sanctio repulsisse. +Cod. Theod. l. xvi. tit. ii. leg. 15. Had the synod of Rimini carried +this point, such practical merit might have atoned for some speculative +heresies.] + +IV. The Latin clergy, who erected their tribunal on the ruins of the +civil and common law, have modestly accepted, as the gift of +Constantine, 110 the independent jurisdiction, which was the fruit of +time, of accident, and of their own industry. But the liberality of the +Christian emperors had actually endowed them with some legal +prerogatives, which secured and dignified the sacerdotal character. 111 +1. Under a despotic government, the bishops alone enjoyed and asserted +the inestimable privilege of being tried only by their _peers_, and +even in a capital accusation, a synod of their brethren were the sole +judges of their guilt or innocence. Such a tribunal, unless it was +inflamed by personal resentment or religious discord, might be +favorable, or even partial, to the sacerdotal order: but Constantine +was satisfied, 112 that secret impunity would be less pernicious than +public scandal: and the Nicene council was edited by his public +declaration, that if he surprised a bishop in the act of adultery, he +should cast his Imperial mantle over the episcopal sinner. 2. The +domestic jurisdiction of the bishops was at once a privilege and a +restraint of the ecclesiastical order, whose civil causes were decently +withdrawn from the cognizance of a secular judge. Their venial offences +were not exposed to the shame of a public trial or punishment; and the +gentle correction which the tenderness of youth may endure from its +parents or instructors, was inflicted by the temperate severity of the +bishops. But if the clergy were guilty of any crime which could not be +sufficiently expiated by their degradation from an honorable and +beneficial profession, the Roman magistrate drew the sword of justice, +without any regard to ecclesiastical immunities. 3. The arbitration of +the bishops was ratified by a positive law; and the judges were +instructed to execute, without appeal or delay, the episcopal decrees, +whose validity had hitherto depended on the consent of the parties. The +conversion of the magistrates themselves, and of the whole empire, +might gradually remove the fears and scruples of the Christians. But +they still resorted to the tribunal of the bishops, whose abilities and +integrity they esteemed; and the venerable Austin enjoyed the +satisfaction of complaining that his spiritual functions were +perpetually interrupted by the invidious labor of deciding the claim or +the possession of silver and gold, of lands and cattle. 4. The ancient +privilege of sanctuary was transferred to the Christian temples, and +extended, by the liberal piety of the younger Theodosius, to the +precincts of consecrated ground. 113 The fugitive, and even guilty +suppliants,were permitted to implore either the justice, or the mercy, +of the Deity and his ministers. The rash violence of despotism was +suspended by the mild interposition of the church; and the lives or +fortunes of the most eminent subjects might be protected by the +mediation of the bishop. + +110 (return) [ From Eusebius (in Vit. Constant. l. iv. c. 27) and +Sozomen (l. i. c. 9) we are assured that the episcopal jurisdiction was +extended and confirmed by Constantine; but the forgery of a famous +edict, which was never fairly inserted in the Theodosian Code (see at +the end, tom. vi. p. 303,) is demonstrated by Godefroy in the most +satisfactory manner. It is strange that M. de Montesquieu, who was a +lawyer as well as a philosopher, should allege this edict of +Constantine (Esprit des Loix, l. xxix. c. 16) without intimating any +suspicion.] + +111 (return) [ The subject of ecclesiastical jurisdiction has been +involved in a mist of passion, of prejudice, and of interest. Two of +the fairest books which have fallen into my hands, are the Institutes +of Canon Law, by the Abbé de Fleury, and the Civil History of Naples, +by Giannone. Their moderation was the effect of situation as well as of +temper. Fleury was a French ecclesiastic, who respected the authority +of the parliaments; Giannone was an Italian lawyer, who dreaded the +power of the church. And here let me observe, that as the general +propositions which I advance are the result of _many_ particular and +imperfect facts, I must either refer the reader to those modern authors +who have expressly treated the subject, or swell these notes +disproportioned size.] + +112 (return) [ Tillemont has collected from Rufinus, Theodoret, &c., +the sentiments and language of Constantine. Mém Eccles tom. iii p. 749, +759.] + +113 (return) [ See Cod. Theod. l. ix. tit. xlv. leg. 4. In the works of +Fra Paolo. (tom. iv. p. 192, &c.,) there is an excellent discourse on +the origin, claims, abuses, and limits of sanctuaries. He justly +observes, that ancient Greece might perhaps contain fifteen or twenty +_azyla_ or sanctuaries; a number which at present may be found in Italy +within the walls of a single city.] + +V. The bishop was the perpetual censor of the morals of his people The +discipline of penance was digested into a system of canonical +jurisprudence, 114 which accurately defined the duty of private or +public confession, the rules of evidence, the degrees of guilt, and the +measure of punishment. It was impossible to execute this spiritual +censure, if the Christian pontiff, who punished the obscure sins of the +multitude, respected the conspicuous vices and destructive crimes of +the magistrate: but it was impossible to arraign the conduct of the +magistrate, without, controlling the administration of civil +government. Some considerations of religion, or loyalty, or fear, +protected the sacred persons of the emperors from the zeal or +resentment of the bishops; but they boldly censured and excommunicated +the subordinate tyrants, who were not invested with the majesty of the +purple. St. Athanasius excommunicated one of the ministers of Egypt; +and the interdict which he pronounced, of fire and water, was solemnly +transmitted to the churches of Cappadocia. 115 Under the reign of the +younger Theodosius, the polite and eloquent Synesius, one of the +descendants of Hercules, 116 filled the episcopal seat of Ptolemais, +near the ruins of ancient Cyrene, 117 and the philosophic bishop +supported with dignity the character which he had assumed with +reluctance. 118 He vanquished the monster of Libya, the president +Andronicus, who abused the authority of a venal office, invented new +modes of rapine and torture, and aggravated the guilt of oppression by +that of sacrilege. 119 After a fruitless attempt to reclaim the haughty +magistrate by mild and religious admonition, Synesius proceeds to +inflict the last sentence of ecclesiastical justice, 120 which devotes +Andronicus, with his associates and their _families_, to the abhorrence +of earth and heaven. The impenitent sinners, more cruel than Phalaris +or Sennacherib, more destructive than war, pestilence, or a cloud of +locusts, are deprived of the name and privileges of Christians, of the +participation of the sacraments, and of the hope of Paradise. The +bishop exhorts the clergy, the magistrates, and the people, to renounce +all society with the enemies of Christ; to exclude them from their +houses and tables; and to refuse them the common offices of life, and +the decent rites of burial. The church of Ptolemais, obscure and +contemptible as she may appear, addresses this declaration to all her +sister churches of the world; and the profane who reject her decrees, +will be involved in the guilt and punishment of Andronicus and his +impious followers. These spiritual terrors were enforced by a dexterous +application to the Byzantine court; the trembling president implored +the mercy of the church; and the descendants of Hercules enjoyed the +satisfaction of raising a prostrate tyrant from the ground. 121 Such +principles and such examples insensibly prepared the triumph of the +Roman pontiffs, who have trampled on the necks of kings. + +114 (return) [ The penitential jurisprudence was continually improved +by the canons of the councils. But as many cases were still left to the +discretion of the bishops, they occasionally published, after the +example of the Roman Prætor, the rules of discipline which they +proposed to observe. Among the canonical epistles of the fourth +century, those of Basil the Great were the most celebrated. They are +inserted in the Pandects of Beveridge, (tom. ii. p. 47-151,) and are +translated by Chardon, Hist. des Sacremens, tom. iv. p. 219-277.] + +115 (return) [ Basil, Epistol. xlvii. in Baronius, (Annal. Eccles. A. +D. 370. N. 91,) who declares that he purposely relates it, to convince +govern that they were not exempt from a sentence of excommunication his +opinion, even a royal head is not safe from the thunders of the +Vatican; and the cardinal shows himself much more consistent than the +lawyers and theologians of the Gallican church.] + +116 (return) [ The long series of his ancestors, as high as +Eurysthenes, the first Doric king of Sparta, and the fifth in lineal +descent from Hercules, was inscribed in the public registers of Cyrene, +a Lacedæmonian colony. (Synes. Epist. lvii. p. 197, edit. Petav.) Such +a pure and illustrious pedigree of seventeen hundred years, without +adding the royal ancestors of Hercules, cannot be equalled in the +history of mankind.] + +117 (return) [ Synesius (de Regno, p. 2) pathetically deplores the +fallen and ruined state of Cyrene, [**Greek]. Ptolemais, a new city, 82 +miles to the westward of Cyrene, assumed the metropolitan honors of the +Pentapolis, or Upper Libya, which were afterwards transferred to +Sozusa.] + +118 (return) [ Synesius had previously represented his own +disqualifications. He loved profane studies and profane sports; he was +incapable of supporting a life of celibacy; he disbelieved the +resurrection; and he refused to preach _fables_ to the people unless he +might be permitted to _philosophize_ at home. Theophilus primate of +Egypt, who knew his merit, accepted this extraordinary compromise.] + +119 (return) [ The promotion of Andronicus was illegal; since he was a +native of Berenice, in the same province. The instruments of torture +are curiously specified; the press that variously pressed on distended +the fingers, the feet, the nose, the ears, and the lips of the +victims.] + +120 (return) [ The sentence of excommunication is expressed in a +rhetorical style. (Synesius, Epist. lviii. p. 201-203.) The method of +involving whole families, though somewhat unjust, was improved into +national interdicts.] + +121 (return) [ See Synesius, Epist. xlvii. p. 186, 187. Epist. lxxii. +p. 218, 219 Epist. lxxxix. p. 230, 231.] + +VI. Every popular government has experienced the effects of rude or +artificial eloquence. The coldest nature is animated, the firmest +reason is moved, by the rapid communication of the prevailing impulse; +and each hearer is affected by his own passions, and by those of the +surrounding multitude. The ruin of civil liberty had silenced the +demagogues of Athens, and the tribunes of Rome; the custom of preaching +which seems to constitute a considerable part of Christian devotion, +had not been introduced into the temples of antiquity; and the ears of +monarchs were never invaded by the harsh sound of popular eloquence, +till the pulpits of the empire were filled with sacred orators, who +possessed some advantages unknown to their profane predecessors. 122 +The arguments and rhetoric of the tribune were instantly opposed with +equal arms, by skilful and resolute antagonists; and the cause of truth +and reason might derive an accidental support from the conflict of +hostile passions. The bishop, or some distinguished presbyter, to whom +he cautiously delegated the powers of preaching, harangued, without the +danger of interruption or reply, a submissive multitude, whose minds +had been prepared and subdued by the awful ceremonies of religion. Such +was the strict subordination of the Catholic church, that the same +concerted sounds might issue at once from a hundred pulpits of Italy or +Egypt, if they were _tuned_ 123 by the master hand of the Roman or +Alexandrian primate. The design of this institution was laudable, but +the fruits were not always salutary. The preachers recommended the +practice of the social duties; but they exalted the perfection of +monastic virtue, which is painful to the individual, and useless to +mankind. Their charitable exhortations betrayed a secret wish that the +clergy might be permitted to manage the wealth of the faithful, for the +benefit of the poor. The most sublime representations of the attributes +and laws of the Deity were sullied by an idle mixture of metaphysical +subleties, puerile rites, and fictitious miracles: and they expatiated, +with the most fervent zeal, on the religious merit of hating the +adversaries, and obeying the ministers of the church. When the public +peace was distracted by heresy and schism, the sacred orators sounded +the trumpet of discord, and, perhaps, of sedition. The understandings +of their congregations were perplexed by mystery, their passions were +inflamed by invectives; and they rushed from the Christian temples of +Antioch or Alexandria, prepared either to suffer or to inflict +martyrdom. The corruption of taste and language is strongly marked in +the vehement declamations of the Latin bishops; but the compositions of +Gregory and Chrysostom have been compared with the most splendid models +of Attic, or at least of Asiatic, eloquence. 124 + +122 (return) [ See Thomassin (Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. ii. l. iii. +c. 83, p. 1761-1770,) and Bingham, (Antiquities, vol. i. l. xiv. c. 4, +p. 688- 717.) Preaching was considered as the most important office of +the bishop but this function was sometimes intrusted to such presbyters +as Chrysostom and Augustin.] + +123 (return) [ Queen Elizabeth used this expression, and practised this +art whenever she wished to prepossess the minds of her people in favor +of any extraordinary measure of government. The hostile effects of this +_music_ were apprehended by her successor, and severely felt by his +son. “When pulpit, drum ecclesiastic,” &c. See Heylin’s Life of +Archbishop Laud, p. 153.] + +124 (return) [ Those modest orators acknowledged, that, as they were +destitute of the gift of miracles, they endeavored to acquire the arts +of eloquence.] + +VII. The representatives of the Christian republic were regularly +assembled in the spring and autumn of each year; and these synods +diffused the spirit of ecclesiastical discipline and legislation +through the hundred and twenty provinces of the Roman world. 125 The +archbishop or metropolitan was empowered, by the laws, to summon the +suffragan bishops of his province; to revise their conduct, to +vindicate their rights, to declare their faith, and to examine the +merits of the candidates who were elected by the clergy and people to +supply the vacancies of the episcopal college. The primates of Rome, +Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, and afterwards Constantinople, who +exercised a more ample jurisdiction, convened the numerous assembly of +their dependent bishops. But the convocation of great and extraordinary +synods was the prerogative of the emperor alone. Whenever the +emergencies of the church required this decisive measure, he despatched +a peremptory summons to the bishops, or the deputies of each province, +with an order for the use of post-horses, and a competent allowance for +the expenses of their journey. At an early period, when Constantine was +the protector, rather than the proselyte, of Christianity, he referred +the African controversy to the council of Arles; in which the bishops +of York of Trèves, of Milan, and of Carthage, met as friends and +brethren, to debate in their native tongue on the common interest of +the Latin or Western church. 126 Eleven years afterwards, a more +numerous and celebrated assembly was convened at Nice in Bithynia, to +extinguish, by their final sentence, the subtle disputes which had +arisen in Egypt on the subject of the Trinity. Three hundred and +eighteen bishops obeyed the summons of their indulgent master; the +ecclesiastics of every rank, and sect, and denomination, have been +computed at two thousand and forty-eight persons; 127 the Greeks +appeared in person; and the consent of the Latins was expressed by the +legates of the Roman pontiff. The session, which lasted about two +months, was frequently honored by the presence of the emperor. Leaving +his guards at the door, he seated himself (with the permission of the +council) on a low stool in the midst of the hall. Constantine listened +with patience, and spoke with modesty: and while he influenced the +debates, he humbly professed that he was the minister, not the judge, +of the successors of the apostles, who had been established as priests +and as gods upon earth. 128 Such profound reverence of an absolute +monarch towards a feeble and unarmed assembly of his own subjects, can +only be compared to the respect with which the senate had been treated +by the Roman princes who adopted the policy of Augustus. Within the +space of fifty years, a philosophic spectator of the vicissitudes of +human affairs might have contemplated Tacitus in the senate of Rome, +and Constantine in the council of Nice. The fathers of the Capitol and +those of the church had alike degenerated from the virtues of their +founders; but as the bishops were more deeply rooted in the public +opinion, they sustained their dignity with more decent pride, and +sometimes opposed with a manly spirit the wishes of their sovereign. +The progress of time and superstition erased the memory of the +weakness, the passion, the ignorance, which disgraced these +ecclesiastical synods; and the Catholic world has unanimously submitted +129 to the _infallible_ decrees of the general councils. 130 + +125 (return) [ The council of Nice, in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and +seventh canons, has made some fundamental regulations concerning +synods, metropolitan, and primates. The Nicene canons have been +variously tortured, abused, interpolated, or forged, according to the +interest of the clergy. The _Suburbicarian_ churches, assigned (by +Rufinus) to the bishop of Rome, have been made the subject of vehement +controversy (See Sirmond, Opera, tom. iv. p. 1-238.)] + +126 (return) [ We have only thirty-three or forty-seven episcopal +subscriptions: but Addo, a writer indeed of small account, reckons six +hundred bishops in the council of Arles. Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. +vi. p. 422.] + +127 (return) [ See Tillemont, tom. vi. p. 915, and Beausobre, Hist. du +Mani cheisme, tom i p. 529. The name of _bishop_, which is given by +Eusychius to the 2048 ecclesiastics, (Annal. tom. i. p. 440, vers. +Pocock,) must be extended far beyond the limits of an orthodox or even +episcopal ordination.] + +128 (return) [ See Euseb. in Vit. Constantin. l. iii. c. 6-21. +Tillemont, Mém. Ecclésiastiques, tom. vi. p. 669-759.] + +129 (return) [ Sancimus igitur vicem legum obtinere, quæ a quatuor +Sanctis Conciliis.... expositæ sunt act firmatæ. Prædictarum enim quat +uor synodorum dogmata sicut sanctas Scripturas et regulas sicut leges +observamus. Justinian. Novell. cxxxi. Beveridge (ad Pandect. proleg. p. +2) remarks, that the emperors never made new laws in ecclesiastical +matters; and Giannone observes, in a very different spirit, that they +gave a legal sanction to the canons of councils. Istoria Civile di +Napoli, tom. i. p. 136.] + +130 (return) [ See the article Concile in the Eucyclopedie, tom. iii. +p. 668-879, edition de Lucques. The author, M. de docteur Bouchaud, has +discussed, according to the principles of the Gallican church, the +principal questions which relate to the form and constitution of +general, national, and provincial councils. The editors (see Preface, +p. xvi.) have reason to be proud of _this_ article. Those who consult +their immense compilation, seldom depart so well satisfied.] + + + + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part I. + + + Persecution Of Heresy.—The Schism Of The Donatists.—The Arian + Controversy.—Athanasius.—Distracted State Of The Church And Empire + Under Constantine And His Sons.— Toleration Of Paganism. + + The grateful applause of the clergy has consecrated the memory of + a prince who indulged their passions and promoted their interest. + Constantine gave them security, wealth, honors, and revenge; and + the support of the orthodox faith was considered as the most + sacred and important duty of the civil magistrate. The edict of + Milan, the great charter of toleration, had confirmed to each + individual of the Roman world the privilege of choosing and + professing his own religion. But this inestimable privilege was + soon violated; with the knowledge of truth, the emperor imbibed + the maxims of persecution; and the sects which dissented from the + Catholic church were afflicted and oppressed by the triumph of + Christianity. Constantine easily believed that the Heretics, who + presumed to dispute _his_ opinions, or to oppose _his_ commands, + were guilty of the most absurd and criminal obstinacy; and that a + seasonable application of moderate severities might save those + unhappy men from the danger of an everlasting condemnation. Not a + moment was lost in excluding the ministers and teachers of the + separated congregations from any share of the rewards and + immunities which the emperor had so liberally bestowed on the + orthodox clergy. But as the sectaries might still exist under the + cloud of royal disgrace, the conquest of the East was immediately + followed by an edict which announced their total destruction. 1 + After a preamble filled with passion and reproach, Constantine + absolutely prohibits the assemblies of the Heretics, and + confiscates their public property to the use either of the + revenue or of the Catholic church. The sects against whom the + Imperial severity was directed, appear to have been the adherents + of Paul of Samosata; the Montanists of Phrygia, who maintained an + enthusiastic succession of prophecy; the Novatians, who sternly + rejected the temporal efficacy of repentance; the Marcionites and + Valentinians, under whose leading banners the various Gnostics of + Asia and Egypt had insensibly rallied; and perhaps the + Manichæans, who had recently imported from Persia a more artful + composition of Oriental and Christian theology. 2 The design of + extirpating the name, or at least of restraining the progress, of + these odious Heretics, was prosecuted with vigor and effect. Some + of the penal regulations were copied from the edicts of + Diocletian; and this method of conversion was applauded by the + same bishops who had felt the hand of oppression, and pleaded for + the rights of humanity. Two immaterial circumstances may serve, + however, to prove that the mind of Constantine was not entirely + corrupted by the spirit of zeal and bigotry. Before he condemned + the Manichæans and their kindred sects, he resolved to make an + accurate inquiry into the nature of their religious principles. + As if he distrusted the impartiality of his ecclesiastical + counsellors, this delicate commission was intrusted to a civil + magistrate, whose learning and moderation he justly esteemed, and + of whose venal character he was probably ignorant. 3 The emperor + was soon convinced, that he had too hastily proscribed the + orthodox faith and the exemplary morals of the Novatians, who had + dissented from the church in some articles of discipline which + were not perhaps essential to salvation. By a particular edict, + he exempted them from the general penalties of the law; 4 allowed + them to build a church at Constantinople, respected the miracles + of their saints, invited their bishop Acesius to the council of + Nice; and gently ridiculed the narrow tenets of his sect by a + familiar jest; which, from the mouth of a sovereign, must have + been received with applause and gratitude. 5 + + 1 (return) [ Eusebius in Vit. Constantin. l. iii. c. 63, 64, 65, + 66.] + + 2 (return) [ After some examination of the various opinions of + Tillemont, Beausobre, Lardner, &c., I am convinced that Manes did + not propagate his sect, even in Persia, before the year 270. It + is strange, that a philosophic and foreign heresy should have + penetrated so rapidly into the African provinces; yet I cannot + easily reject the edict of Diocletian against the Manichæans, + which may be found in Baronius. (Annal Eccl. A. D. 287.)] + + 3 (return) [ Constantinus enim, cum limatius superstitionum + quæroret sectas, Manichæorum et similium, &c. Ammian. xv. 15. + Strategius, who from this commission obtained the surname of + _Musonianus_, was a Christian of the Arian sect. He acted as one + of the counts at the council of Sardica. Libanius praises his + mildness and prudence. Vales. ad locum Ammian.] + + 4 (return) [ Cod. Theod. l. xvi. tit. 5, leg. 2. As the general + law is not inserted in the Theodosian Code, it probable that, in + the year 438, the sects which it had condemned were already + extinct.] + + 5 (return) [ Sozomen, l. i. c. 22. Socrates, l. i. c. 10. These + historians have been suspected, but I think without reason, of an + attachment to the Novatian doctrine. The emperor said to the + bishop, “Acesius, take a ladder, and get up to heaven by + yourself.” Most of the Christian sects have, by turns, borrowed + the ladder of Acesius.] + + The complaints and mutual accusations which assailed the throne + of Constantine, as soon as the death of Maxentius had submitted + Africa to his victorious arms, were ill adapted to edify an + imperfect proselyte. He learned, with surprise, that the + provinces of that great country, from the confines of Cyrene to + the columns of Hercules, were distracted with religious discord. + 6 The source of the division was derived from a double election + in the church of Carthage; the second, in rank and opulence, of + the ecclesiastical thrones of the West. Cæcilian and Majorinus + were the two rival prelates of Africa; and the death of the + latter soon made room for Donatus, who, by his superior abilities + and apparent virtues, was the firmest support of his party. The + advantage which Cæcilian might claim from the priority of his + ordination, was destroyed by the illegal, or at least indecent, + haste, with which it had been performed, without expecting the + arrival of the bishops of Numidia. The authority of these + bishops, who, to the number of seventy, condemned Cæcilian, and + consecrated Majorinus, is again weakened by the infamy of some of + their personal characters; and by the female intrigues, + sacrilegious bargains, and tumultuous proceedings, which are + imputed to this Numidian council. 7 The bishops of the contending + factions maintained, with equal ardor and obstinacy, that their + adversaries were degraded, or at least dishonored, by the odious + crime of delivering the Holy Scriptures to the officers of + Diocletian. From their mutual reproaches, as well as from the + story of this dark transaction, it may justly be inferred, that + the late persecution had imbittered the zeal, without reforming + the manners, of the African Christians. That divided church was + incapable of affording an impartial judicature; the controversy + was solemnly tried in five successive tribunals, which were + appointed by the emperor; and the whole proceeding, from the + first appeal to the final sentence, lasted above three years. A + severe inquisition, which was taken by the Prætorian vicar, and + the proconsul of Africa, the report of two episcopal visitors who + had been sent to Carthage, the decrees of the councils of Rome + and of Arles, and the supreme judgment of Constantine himself in + his sacred consistory, were all favorable to the cause of + Cæcilian; and he was unanimously acknowledged by the civil and + ecclesiastical powers, as the true and lawful primate of Africa. + The honors and estates of the church were attributed to _his_ + suffragan bishops, and it was not without difficulty, that + Constantine was satisfied with inflicting the punishment of exile + on the principal leaders of the Donatist faction. As their cause + was examined with attention, perhaps it was determined with + justice. Perhaps their complaint was not without foundation, that + the credulity of the emperor had been abused by the insidious + arts of his favorite Osius. The influence of falsehood and + corruption might procure the condemnation of the innocent, or + aggravate the sentence of the guilty. Such an act, however, of + injustice, if it concluded an importunate dispute, might be + numbered among the transient evils of a despotic administration, + which are neither felt nor remembered by posterity. + + 6 (return) [ The best materials for this part of ecclesiastical + history may be found in the edition of Optatus Milevitanus, + published (Paris, 1700) by M. Dupin, who has enriched it with + critical notes, geographical discussions, original records, and + an accurate abridgment of the whole controversy. M. de Tillemont + has bestowed on the Donatists the greatest part of a volume, + (tom. vi. part i.;) and I am indebted to him for an ample + collection of all the passages of his favorite St. Augustin, + which relate to those heretics.] + + 7 (return) [ Schisma igitur illo tempore confusæ mulieris + iracundia peperit; ambitus nutrivit; avaritia roboravit. Optatus, + l. i. c. 19. The language of Purpurius is that of a furious + madman. Dicitur te necasse lilios sororis tuæ duos. Purpurius + respondit: Putas me terreri a te.. occidi; et occido eos qui + contra me faciunt. Acta Concil. Cirtenais, ad calc. Optat. p. + 274. When Cæcilian was invited to an assembly of bishops, + Purpurius said to his brethren, or rather to his accomplices, + “Let him come hither to receive our imposition of hands, and we + will break his head by way of penance.” Optat. l. i. c. 19.] + + But this incident, so inconsiderable that it scarcely deserves a + place in history, was productive of a memorable schism which + afflicted the provinces of Africa above three hundred years, and + was extinguished only with Christianity itself. The inflexible + zeal of freedom and fanaticism animated the Donatists to refuse + obedience to the usurpers, whose election they disputed, and + whose spiritual powers they denied. Excluded from the civil and + religious communion of mankind, they boldly excommunicated the + rest of mankind, who had embraced the impious party of Cæcilian, + and of the Traditors, from which he derived his pretended + ordination. They asserted with confidence, and almost with + exultation, that the Apostolical succession was interrupted; that + _all_ the bishops of Europe and Asia were infected by the + contagion of guilt and schism; and that the prerogatives of the + Catholic church were confined to the chosen portion of the + African believers, who alone had preserved inviolate the + integrity of their faith and discipline. This rigid theory was + supported by the most uncharitable conduct. Whenever they + acquired a proselyte, even from the distant provinces of the + East, they carefully repeated the sacred rites of baptism 8 and + ordination; as they rejected the validity of those which he had + already received from the hands of heretics or schismatics. + Bishops, virgins, and even spotless infants, were subjected to + the disgrace of a public penance, before they could be admitted + to the communion of the Donatists. If they obtained possession of + a church which had been used by their Catholic adversaries, they + purified the unhallowed building with the same zealous care which + a temple of idols might have required. They washed the pavement, + scraped the walls, burnt the altar, which was commonly of wood, + melted the consecrated plate, and cast the Holy Eucharist to the + dogs, with every circumstance of ignominy which could provoke and + perpetuate the animosity of religious factions. 9 Notwithstanding + this irreconcilable aversion, the two parties, who were mixed and + separated in all the cities of Africa, had the same language and + manners, the same zeal and learning, the same faith and worship. + Proscribed by the civil and ecclesiastical powers of the empire, + the Donatists still maintained in some provinces, particularly in + Numidia, their superior numbers; and four hundred bishops + acknowledged the jurisdiction of their primate. But the + invincible spirit of the sect sometimes preyed on its own vitals: + and the bosom of their schismatical church was torn by intestine + divisions. A fourth part of the Donatist bishops followed the + independent standard of the Maximianists. The narrow and solitary + path which their first leaders had marked out, continued to + deviate from the great society of mankind. Even the imperceptible + sect of the Rogatians could affirm, without a blush, that when + Christ should descend to judge the earth, he would find his true + religion preserved only in a few nameless villages of the + Cæsarean Mauritania. 10 + + 8 (return) [ The councils of Arles, of Nice, and of Trent, + confirmed the wise and moderate practice of the church of Rome. + The Donatists, however, had the advantage of maintaining the + sentiment of Cyprian, and of a considerable part of the primitive + church. Vincentius Lirinesis (p. 532, ap. Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. + tom. vi. p. 138) has explained why the Donatists are eternally + burning with the Devil, while St. Cyprian reigns in heaven with + Jesus Christ.] + + 9 (return) [ See the sixth book of Optatus Milevitanus, p. + 91-100.] + + 10 (return) [ Tillemont, Mém. Ecclésiastiques, tom. vi. part i. + p. 253. He laughs at their partial credulity. He revered + Augustin, the great doctor of the system of predestination.] + + The schism of the Donatists was confined to Africa: the more + diffusive mischief of the Trinitarian controversy successively + penetrated into every part of the Christian world. The former was + an accidental quarrel, occasioned by the abuse of freedom; the + latter was a high and mysterious argument, derived from the abuse + of philosophy. From the age of Constantine to that of Clovis and + Theodoric, the temporal interests both of the Romans and + Barbarians were deeply involved in the theological disputes of + Arianism. The historian may therefore be permitted respectfully + to withdraw the veil of the sanctuary; and to deduce the progress + of reason and faith, of error and passion from the school of + Plato, to the decline and fall of the empire. + + The genius of Plato, informed by his own meditation, or by the + traditional knowledge of the priests of Egypt, 11 had ventured to + explore the mysterious nature of the Deity. When he had elevated + his mind to the sublime contemplation of the first self-existent, + necessary cause of the universe, the Athenian sage was incapable + of conceiving _how_ the simple unity of his essence could admit + the infinite variety of distinct and successive ideas which + compose the model of the intellectual world; _how_ a Being purely + incorporeal could execute that perfect model, and mould with a + plastic hand the rude and independent chaos. The vain hope of + extricating himself from these difficulties, which must ever + oppress the feeble powers of the human mind, might induce Plato + to consider the divine nature under the threefold modification—of + the first cause, the reason, or _Logos_, and the soul or spirit + of the universe. His poetical imagination sometimes fixed and + animated these metaphysical abstractions; the three _archical_ on + original principles were represented in the Platonic system as + three Gods, united with each other by a mysterious and ineffable + generation; and the Logos was particularly considered under the + more accessible character of the Son of an Eternal Father, and + the Creator and Governor of the world. Such appear to have been + the secret doctrines which were cautiously whispered in the + gardens of the academy; and which, according to the more recent + disciples of Plato, 1111 could not be perfectly understood, till + after an assiduous study of thirty years. 12 + + 11 (return) [ Plato Ægyptum peragravit ut a sacerdotibus Barbaris + numeros et _cælestia_ acciperet. Cicero de Finibus, v. 25. The + Egyptians might still preserve the traditional creed of the + Patriarchs. Josephus has persuaded many of the Christian fathers, + that Plato derived a part of his knowledge from the Jews; but + this vain opinion cannot be reconciled with the obscure state and + unsocial manners of the Jewish people, whose scriptures were not + accessible to Greek curiosity till more than one hundred years + after the death of Plato. See Marsham Canon. Chron. p. 144 Le + Clerc, Epistol. Critic. vii. p. 177-194.] + + 1111 (return) [ This exposition of the doctrine of Plato appears + to me contrary to the true sense of that philosopher’s writings. + The brilliant imagination which he carried into metaphysical + inquiries, his style, full of allegories and figures, have misled + those interpreters who did not seek, from the whole tenor of his + works and beyond the images which the writer employs, the system + of this philosopher. In my opinion, there is no Trinity in Plato; + he has established no mysterious generation between the three + pretended principles which he is made to distinguish. Finally, he + conceives only as _attributes_ of the Deity, or of matter, those + ideas, of which it is supposed that he made _substances_, real + beings. + According to Plato, God and matter existed from all eternity. + Before the creation of the world, matter had in itself a + principle of motion, but without end or laws: it is this + principle which Plato calls the irrational soul of the world, + because, according to his doctrine, every spontaneous and + original principle of motion is called soul. God wished to + impress _form_ upon matter, that is to say, 1. To mould + matter, and make it into a body; 2. To regulate its motion, + and subject it to some end and to certain laws. The Deity, in + this operation, could not act but according to the ideas + existing in his intelligence: their union filled this, and + formed the ideal type of the world. It is this ideal world, + this divine intelligence, existing with God from all + eternity, and called by Plato which he is supposed to + personify, to substantialize; while an attentive examination + is sufficient to convince us that he has never assigned it an + existence external to the Deity, (hors de la Divinité,) and + that he considered the as the aggregate of the ideas of God, + the divine understanding in its relation to the world. The + contrary opinion is irreconcilable with all his philosophy: + thus he says (Timæus, p. 348, edit. Bip.) that to the idea of + the Deity is essentially united that of intelligence, of a + _logos_. He would thus have admitted a double _logos;_ one + inherent in the Deity as an attribute, the other + independently existing as a substance. He affirms that the + intelligence, the principle of order cannot exist but as an + attribute of a soul, the principle of motion and of life, of + which the nature is unknown to us. How, then, according to + this, could he consider the _logos_ as a substance endowed + with an independent existence? In other places, he explains + it by these two words, knowledge, science, and intelligence + which signify the attributes of the Deity. When Plato + separates God, the ideal archetype of the world and matter, + it is to explain how, according to his system, God has + proceeded, at the creation, to unite the principle of order + which he had within himself, his proper intelligence, the + principle of motion, to the principle of motion, the + irrational soul which was in matter. When he speaks of the + place occupied by the ideal world, it is to designate the + divine intelligence, which is its cause. Finally, in no part + of his writings do we find a true personification of the + pretended beings of which he is said to have formed a + trinity: and if this personification existed, it would + equally apply to many other notions, of which might be formed + many different trinities. + This error, into which many ancient as well as modern + interpreters of Plato have fallen, was very natural. Besides + the snares which were concealed in his figurative style; + besides the necessity of comprehending as a whole the system + of his ideas, and not to explain isolated passages, the + nature of his doctrine itself would conduce to this error. + When Plato appeared, the uncertainty of human knowledge, and + the continual illusions of the senses, were acknowledged, and + had given rise to a general scepticism. Socrates had aimed at + raising morality above the influence of this scepticism: + Plato endeavored to save metaphysics, by seeking in the human + intellect a source of certainty which the senses could not + furnish. He invented the system of innate ideas, of which the + aggregate formed, according to him, the ideal world, and + affirmed that these ideas were real attributes, not only + attached to our conceptions of objects, but to the nature of + the objects themselves; a nature of which from them we might + obtain a knowledge. He gave, then, to these ideas a positive + existence as attributes; his commentators could easily give + them a real existence as substances; especially as the terms + which he used to designate them, essential beauty, essential + goodness, lent themselves to this substantialization, + (hypostasis.)—G. + We have retained this view of the original philosophy of + Plato, in which there is probably much truth. The genius of + Plato was rather metaphysical than impersonative: his poetry + was in his language, rather than, like that of the Orientals, + in his conceptions.—M.] + + 12 (return) [ The modern guides who lead me to the knowledge of + the Platonic system are Cudworth, Basnage, Le Clerc, and Brucker. + As the learning of these writers was equal, and their intention + different, an inquisitive observer may derive instruction from + their disputes, and certainty from their agreement.] + + The arms of the Macedonians diffused over Asia and Egypt the + language and learning of Greece; and the theological system of + Plato was taught, with less reserve, and perhaps with some + improvements, in the celebrated school of Alexandria. 13 A + numerous colony of Jews had been invited, by the favor of the + Ptolemies, to settle in their new capital. 14 While the bulk of + the nation practised the legal ceremonies, and pursued the + lucrative occupations of commerce, a few Hebrews, of a more + liberal spirit, devoted their lives to religious and + philosophical contemplation. 15 They cultivated with diligence, + and embraced with ardor, the theological system of the Athenian + sage. But their national pride would have been mortified by a + fair confession of their former poverty: and they boldly marked, + as the sacred inheritance of their ancestors, the gold and jewels + which they had so lately stolen from their Egyptian masters. One + hundred years before the birth of Christ, a philosophical + treatise, which manifestly betrays the style and sentiments of + the school of Plato, was produced by the Alexandrian Jews, and + unanimously received as a genuine and valuable relic of the + inspired Wisdom of Solomon. 16 A similar union of the Mosaic + faith and the Grecian philosophy, distinguishes the works of + Philo, which were composed, for the most part, under the reign of + Augustus. 17 The material soul of the universe 18 might offend + the piety of the Hebrews: but they applied the character of the + Logos to the Jehovah of Moses and the patriarchs; and the Son of + God was introduced upon earth under a visible, and even human + appearance, to perform those familiar offices which seem + incompatible with the nature and attributes of the Universal + Cause. 19 + + 13 (return) [ Brucker, Hist. Philosoph. tom. i. p. 1349-1357. The + Alexandrian school is celebrated by Strabo (l. xvii.) and + Ammianus, (xxii. 6.) Note: The philosophy of Plato was not the + only source of that professed in the school of Alexandria. That + city, in which Greek, Jewish, and Egyptian men of letters were + assembled, was the scene of a strange fusion of the system of + these three people. The Greeks brought a Platonism, already much + changed; the Jews, who had acquired at Babylon a great number of + Oriental notions, and whose theological opinions had undergone + great changes by this intercourse, endeavored to reconcile + Platonism with their new doctrine, and disfigured it entirely: + lastly, the Egyptians, who were not willing to abandon notions + for which the Greeks themselves entertained respect, endeavored + on their side to reconcile their own with those of their + neighbors. It is in Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon that + we trace the influence of Oriental philosophy rather than that of + Platonism. We find in these books, and in those of the later + prophets, as in Ezekiel, notions unknown to the Jews before the + Babylonian captivity, of which we do not discover the germ in + Plato, but which are manifestly derived from the Orientals. Thus + God represented under the image of light, and the principle of + evil under that of darkness; the history of the good and bad + angels; paradise and hell, &c., are doctrines of which the + origin, or at least the positive determination, can only be + referred to the Oriental philosophy. Plato supposed matter + eternal; the Orientals and the Jews considered it as a creation + of God, who alone was eternal. It is impossible to explain the + philosophy of the Alexandrian school solely by the blending of + the Jewish theology with the Greek philosophy. The Oriental + philosophy, however little it may be known, is recognized at + every instant. Thus, according to the Zend Avesta, it is by the + Word (honover) more ancient than the world, that Ormuzd created + the universe. This word is the logos of Philo, consequently very + different from that of Plato. I have shown that Plato never + personified the logos as the ideal archetype of the world: Philo + ventured this personification. The Deity, according to him, has a + double logos; the first is the ideal archetype of the world, the + ideal world, the _first-born_ of the Deity; the second is the + word itself of God, personified under the image of a being acting + to create the sensible world, and to make it like to the ideal + world: it is the second-born of God. Following out his + imaginations, Philo went so far as to personify anew the ideal + world, under the image of a celestial man, the primitive type of + man, and the sensible world under the image of another man less + perfect than the celestial man. Certain notions of the Oriental + philosophy may have given rise to this strange abuse of allegory, + which it is sufficient to relate, to show what alterations + Platonism had already undergone, and what was their source. + Philo, moreover, of all the Jews of Alexandria, is the one whose + Platonism is the most pure. It is from this mixture of + Orientalism, Platonism, and Judaism, that Gnosticism arose, which + had produced so many theological and philosophical + extravagancies, and in which Oriental notions evidently + predominate.—G.] + + 14 (return) [ Joseph. Antiquitat, l. xii. c. 1, 3. Basnage, Hist. + des Juifs, l. vii. c. 7.] + + 15 (return) [ For the origin of the Jewish philosophy, see + Eusebius, Præparat. Evangel. viii. 9, 10. According to Philo, the + Therapeutæ studied philosophy; and Brucker has proved (Hist. + Philosoph. tom. ii. p. 787) that they gave the preference to that + of Plato.] + + 16 (return) [ See Calmet, Dissertations sur la Bible, tom. ii. p. + 277. The book of the Wisdom of Solomon was received by many of + the fathers as the work of that monarch: and although rejected by + the Protestants for want of a Hebrew original, it has obtained, + with the rest of the Vulgate, the sanction of the council of + Trent.] + + 17 (return) [ The Platonism of Philo, which was famous to a + proverb, is proved beyond a doubt by Le Clerc, (Epist. Crit. + viii. p. 211-228.) Basnage (Hist. des Juifs, l. iv. c. 5) has + clearly ascertained, that the theological works of Philo were + composed before the death, and most probably before the birth, of + Christ. In such a time of darkness, the knowledge of Philo is + more astonishing than his errors. Bull, Defens. Fid. Nicen. s. i. + c. i. p. 12.] + + 18 (return) [ Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore _miscet_. + Besides this material soul, Cudworth has discovered (p. 562) in + Amelius, Porphyry, Plotinus, and, as he thinks, in Plato himself, + a superior, spiritual _upercosmian_ soul of the universe. But + this double soul is exploded by Brucker, Basnage, and Le Clerc, + as an idle fancy of the latter Platonists.] + + 19 (return) [ Petav. Dogmata Theologica, tom. ii. l. viii. c. 2, + p. 791. Bull, Defens. Fid. Nicen. s. i. c. l. p. 8, 13. This + notion, till it was abused by the Arians, was freely adopted in + the Christian theology. Tertullian (adv. Praxeam, c. 16) has a + remarkable and dangerous passage. After contrasting, with + indiscreet wit, the nature of God, and the actions of Jehovah, he + concludes: Scilicet ut hæc de filio Dei non credenda fuisse, si + non scripta essent; fortasse non credenda de l’atre licet + scripta. * Note: Tertullian is here arguing against the + Patripassians; those who asserted that the Father was born of the + Virgin, died and was buried.—M.] + + + + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part II. + + + The eloquence of Plato, the name of Solomon, the authority of the + school of Alexandria, and the consent of the Jews and Greeks, + were insufficient to establish the truth of a mysterious + doctrine, which might please, but could not satisfy, a rational + mind. A prophet, or apostle, inspired by the Deity, can alone + exercise a lawful dominion over the faith of mankind: and the + theology of Plato might have been forever confounded with the + philosophical visions of the Academy, the Porch, and the Lycæum, + if the name and divine attributes of the _Logos_ had not been + confirmed by the celestial pen of the last and most sublime of + the Evangelists. 20 The Christian Revelation, which was + consummated under the reign of Nerva, disclosed to the world the + amazing secret, that the Logos, who was with God from the + beginning, and was God, who had made all things, and for whom all + things had been made, was incarnate in the person of Jesus of + Nazareth; who had been born of a virgin, and suffered death on + the cross. Besides the general design of fixing on a perpetual + basis the divine honors of Christ, the most ancient and + respectable of the ecclesiastical writers have ascribed to the + evangelic theologian a particular intention to confute two + opposite heresies, which disturbed the peace of the primitive + church. 21 I. The faith of the Ebionites, 22 perhaps of the + Nazarenes, 23 was gross and imperfect. They revered Jesus as the + greatest of the prophets, endowed with supernatural virtue and + power. They ascribed to his person and to his future reign all + the predictions of the Hebrew oracles which relate to the + spiritual and everlasting kingdom of the promised Messiah. 24 + Some of them might confess that he was born of a virgin; but they + obstinately rejected the preceding existence and divine + perfections of the _Logos_, or Son of God, which are so clearly + defined in the Gospel of St. John. About fifty years afterwards, + the Ebionites, whose errors are mentioned by Justin Martyr with + less severity than they seem to deserve, 25 formed a very + inconsiderable portion of the Christian name. II. The Gnostics, + who were distinguished by the epithet of _Docetes_, deviated into + the contrary extreme; and betrayed the human, while they asserted + the divine, nature of Christ. Educated in the school of Plato, + accustomed to the sublime idea of the Logos, they readily + conceived that the brightest _Æon_, or _Emanation_ of the Deity, + might assume the outward shape and visible appearances of a + mortal; 26 but they vainly pretended, that the imperfections of + matter are incompatible with the purity of a celestial substance. + + While the blood of Christ yet smoked on Mount Calvary, the + Docetes invented the impious and extravagant hypothesis, that, + instead of issuing from the womb of the Virgin, 27 he had + descended on the banks of the Jordan in the form of perfect + manhood; that he had imposed on the senses of his enemies, and of + his disciples; and that the ministers of Pilate had wasted their + impotent rage on an ury phantom, who _seemed_ to expire on the + cross, and, after three days, to rise from the dead. 28 + + 20 (return) [ The Platonists admired the beginning of the Gospel + of St. John as containing an exact transcript of their own + principles. Augustin de Civitat. Dei, x. 29. Amelius apud Cyril. + advers. Julian. l. viii. p. 283. But in the third and fourth + centuries, the Platonists of Alexandria might improve their + Trinity by the secret study of the Christian theology. Note: A + short discussion on the sense in which St. John has used the word + Logos, will prove that he has not borrowed it from the philosophy + of Plato. The evangelist adopts this word without previous + explanation, as a term with which his contemporaries were already + familiar, and which they could at once comprehend. To know the + sense which he gave to it, we must inquire that which it + generally bore in his time. We find two: the one attached to the + word _logos_ by the Jews of Palestine, the other by the school of + Alexandria, particularly by Philo. The Jews had feared at all + times to pronounce the name of Jehovah; they had formed a habit + of designating God by one of his attributes; they called him + sometimes Wisdom, sometimes the Word. _By the word of the Lord + were the heavens made_. (Psalm xxxiii. 6.) Accustomed to + allegories, they often addressed themselves to this attribute of + the Deity as a real being. Solomon makes Wisdom say “The Lord + possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of + old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever + the earth was.” (Prov. viii. 22, 23.) Their residence in Persia + only increased this inclination to sustained allegories. In the + Ecclesiasticus of the son of Sirach, and the Book of Wisdom, we + find allegorical descriptions of Wisdom like the following: “I + came out of the mouth of the Most High; I covered the earth as a + cloud;... I alone compassed the circuit of heaven, and walked in + the bottom of the deep... The Creator created me from the + beginning, before the world, and I shall never fail.” (Eccles. + xxiv. 35- 39.) See also the Wisdom of Solomon, c. vii. v. 9. [The + latter book is clearly Alexandrian.—M.] We see from this that the + Jews understood from the Hebrew and Chaldaic words which signify + Wisdom, the Word, and which were translated into Greek, a simple + attribute of the Deity, allegorically personified, but of which + they did not make a real particular being separate from the + Deity. + The school of Alexandria, on the contrary, and Philo among + the rest, mingling Greek with Jewish and Oriental notions, + and abandoning himself to his inclination to mysticism, + personified the logos, and represented it a distinct being, + created by God, and intermediate between God and man. This is + the second _logos_ of Philo, that which acts from the + beginning of the world, alone in its kind, creator of the + sensible world, formed by God according to the ideal world + which he had in himself, and which was the first logos, the + first- born of the Deity. The logos taken in this sense, + then, was a created being, but, anterior to the creation of + the world, near to God, and charged with his revelations to + mankind. + Which of these two senses is that which St. John intended to + assign to the word logos in the first chapter of his Gospel, + and in all his writings? St. John was a Jew, born and + educated in Palestine; he had no knowledge, at least very + little, of the philosophy of the Greeks, and that of the + Grecizing Jews: he would naturally, then, attach to the word + _logos_ the sense attached to it by the Jews of Palestine. + If, in fact, we compare the attributes which he assigns to + the _logos_ with those which are assigned to it in Proverbs, + in the Wisdom of Solomon, in Ecclesiasticus, we shall see + that they are the same. The Word was in the world, and the + world was made by him; in him was life, and the life was the + light of men, (c. i. v. 10-14.) It is impossible not to trace + in this chapter the ideas which the Jews had formed of the + allegorized logos. The evangelist afterwards really + personifies that which his predecessors have personified only + poetically; for he affirms “_that the Word became flesh_,” + (v. 14.) It was to prove this that he wrote. Closely + examined, the ideas which he gives of the logos cannot agree + with those of Philo and the school of Alexandria; they + correspond, on the contrary, with those of the Jews of + Palestine. Perhaps St. John, employing a well-known term to + explain a doctrine which was yet unknown, has slightly + altered the sense; it is this alteration which we appear to + discover on comparing different passages of his writings. + It is worthy of remark, that the Jews of Palestine, who did + not perceive this alteration, could find nothing + extraordinary in what St. John said of the Logos; at least + they comprehended it without difficulty, while the Greeks and + Grecizing Jews, on their part, brought to it prejudices and + preconceptions easily reconciled with those of the + evangelist, who did not expressly contradict them. This + circumstance must have much favored the progress of + Christianity. Thus the fathers of the church in the two first + centuries and later, formed almost all in the school of + Alexandria, gave to the Logos of St. John a sense nearly + similar to that which it received from Philo. Their doctrine + approached very near to that which in the fourth century the + council of Nice condemned in the person of Arius.—G. + M. Guizot has forgotten the long residence of St. John at + Ephesus, the centre of the mingling opinions of the East and + West, which were gradually growing up into Gnosticism. (See + Matter. Hist. du Gnosticisme, vol. i. p. 154.) St. John’s + sense of the Logos seems as far removed from the simple + allegory ascribed to the Palestinian Jews as from the + Oriental impersonation of the Alexandrian. The simple truth + may be that St. John took the familiar term, and, as it were + infused into it the peculiar and Christian sense in which it + is used in his writings.—M.] + + 21 (return) [ See Beausobre, Hist. Critique du Manicheisme, tom. + i. p. 377. The Gospel according to St. John is supposed to have + been published about seventy years after the death of Christ.] + + 22 (return) [ The sentiments of the Ebionites are fairly stated + by Mosheim (p. 331) and Le Clerc, (Hist. Eccles. p. 535.) The + Clementines, published among the apostolical fathers, are + attributed by the critics to one of these sectaries.] + + 23 (return) [ Stanch polemics, like a Bull, (Judicium Eccles. + Cathol. c. 2,) insist on the orthodoxy of the Nazarenes; which + appears less pure and certain in the eyes of Mosheim, (p. 330.)] + + 24 (return) [ The humble condition and sufferings of Jesus have + always been a stumbling-block to the Jews. “Deus... contrariis + coloribus Messiam depinxerat: futurus erat Rex, Judex, Pastor,” + &c. See Limborch et Orobio Amica Collat. p. 8, 19, 53-76, + 192-234. But this objection has obliged the believing Christians + to lift up their eyes to a spiritual and everlasting kingdom.] + + 25 (return) [ Justin Martyr, Dialog. cum Tryphonte, p. 143, 144. + See Le Clerc, Hist. Eccles. p. 615. Bull and his editor Grabe + (Judicium Eccles. Cathol. c. 7, and Appendix) attempt to distort + either the sentiments or the words of Justin; but their violent + correction of the text is rejected even by the Benedictine + editors.] + + 26 (return) [ The Arians reproached the orthodox party with + borrowing their Trinity from the Valentinians and Marcionites. + See Beausobre, Hist. de Manicheisme, l. iii. c. 5, 7.] + + 27 (return) [ Non dignum est ex utero credere Deum, et Deum + Christum.... non dignum est ut tanta majestas per sordes et + squalores muli eris transire credatur. The Gnostics asserted the + impurity of matter, and of marriage; and they were scandalized by + the gross interpretations of the fathers, and even of Augustin + himself. See Beausobre, tom. ii. p. 523, * Note: The greater part + of the Docetæ rejected the true divinity of Jesus Christ, as well + as his human nature. They belonged to the Gnostics, whom some + philosophers, in whose party Gibbon has enlisted, make to derive + their opinions from those of Plato. These philosophers did not + consider that Platonism had undergone continual alterations, and + that those who gave it some analogy with the notions of the + Gnostics were later in their origin than most of the sects + comprehended under this name Mosheim has proved (in his Instit. + Histor. Eccles. Major. s. i. p. 136, sqq and p. 339, sqq.) that + the Oriental philosophy, combined with the cabalistical + philosophy of the Jews, had given birth to Gnosticism. The + relations which exist between this doctrine and the records which + remain to us of that of the Orientals, the Chaldean and Persian, + have been the source of the errors of the Gnostic Christians, who + wished to reconcile their ancient notions with their new belief. + It is on this account that, denying the human nature of Christ, + they also denied his intimate union with God, and took him for + one of the substances (æons) created by God. As they believed in + the eternity of matter, and considered it to be the principle of + evil, in opposition to the Deity, the first cause and principle + of good, they were unwilling to admit that one of the pure + substances, one of the æons which came forth from God, had, by + partaking in the material nature, allied himself to the principle + of evil; and this was their motive for rejecting the real + humanity of Jesus Christ. See Ch. G. F. Walch, Hist. of Heresies + in Germ. t. i. p. 217, sqq. Brucker, Hist. Crit. Phil. ii. p + 639.—G.] + + 28 (return) [ Apostolis adhuc in sæculo superstitibus apud Judæam + Christi sanguine recente, et _phantasma_ corpus Domini + asserebatur. Cotelerius thinks (Patres Apostol. tom. ii. p. 24) + that those who will not allow the _Docetes_ to have arisen in the + time of the Apostles, may with equal reason deny that the sun + shines at noonday. These _Docetes_, who formed the most + considerable party among the Gnostics, were so called, because + they granted only a _seeming_ body to Christ. * Note: The name of + Docetæ was given to these sectaries only in the course of the + second century: this name did not designate a sect, properly so + called; it applied to all the sects who taught the non- reality + of the material body of Christ; of this number were the + Valentinians, the Basilidians, the Ophites, the Marcionites, + (against whom Tertullian wrote his book, De Carne Christi,) and + other Gnostics. In truth, Clement of Alexandria (l. iii. Strom. + c. 13, p. 552) makes express mention of a sect of Docetæ, and + even names as one of its heads a certain Cassianus; but every + thing leads us to believe that it was not a distinct sect. + Philastrius (de Hæres, c. 31) reproaches Saturninus with being a + Docete. Irenæus (adv. Hær. c. 23) makes the same reproach against + Basilides. Epiphanius and Philastrius, who have treated in detail + on each particular heresy, do not specially name that of the + Docetæ. Serapion, bishop of Antioch, (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. l. vi. + c. 12,) and Clement of Alexandria, (l. vii. Strom. p. 900,) + appear to be the first who have used the generic name. It is not + found in any earlier record, though the error which it points out + existed even in the time of the Apostles. See Ch. G. F. Walch, + Hist. of Her. v. i. p. 283. Tillemont, Mempour servir a la Hist + Eccles. ii. p. 50. Buddæus de Eccles. Apost. c. 5 & 7—G.] + + The divine sanction, which the Apostle had bestowed on the + fundamental principle of the theology of Plato, encouraged the + learned proselytes of the second and third centuries to admire + and study the writings of the Athenian sage, who had thus + marvellously anticipated one of the most surprising discoveries + of the Christian revelation. The respectable name of Plato was + used by the orthodox, 29 and abused by the heretics, 30 as the + common support of truth and error: the authority of his skilful + commentators, and the science of dialectics, were employed to + justify the remote consequences of his opinions and to supply the + discreet silence of the inspired writers. The same subtle and + profound questions concerning the nature, the generation, the + distinction, and the equality of the three divine persons of the + mysterious _Triad_, or _Trinity_, 31 were agitated in the + philosophical and in the Christian schools of Alexandria. An + eager spirit of curiosity urged them to explore the secrets of + the abyss; and the pride of the professors, and of their + disciples, was satisfied with the sciences of words. But the most + sagacious of the Christian theologians, the great Athanasius + himself, has candidly confessed, 32 that whenever he forced his + understanding to meditate on the divinity of the _Logos_, his + toilsome and unavailing efforts recoiled on themselves; that the + more he thought, the less he comprehended; and the more he wrote, + the less capable was he of expressing his thoughts. In every step + of the inquiry, we are compelled to feel and acknowledge the + immeasurable disproportion between the size of the object and the + capacity of the human mind. We may strive to abstract the notions + of time, of space, and of matter, which so closely adhere to all + the perceptions of our experimental knowledge. But as soon as we + presume to reason of infinite substance, of spiritual generation; + as often as we deduce any positive conclusions from a negative + idea, we are involved in darkness, perplexity, and inevitable + contradiction. As these difficulties arise from the nature of the + subject, they oppress, with the same insuperable weight, the + philosophic and the theological disputant; but we may observe two + essential and peculiar circumstances, which discriminated the + doctrines of the Catholic church from the opinions of the + Platonic school. + + 29 (return) [ Some proofs of the respect which the Christians + entertained for the person and doctrine of Plato may be found in + De la Mothe le Vayer, tom. v. p. 135, &c., edit. 1757; and + Basnage, Hist. des Juifs tom. iv. p. 29, 79, &c.] + + 30 (return) [ Doleo bona fide, Platonem omnium heræticorum + condimentarium factum. Tertullian. de Anima, c. 23. Petavius + (Dogm. Theolog. tom. iii. proleg. 2) shows that this was a + general complaint. Beausobre (tom. i. l. iii. c. 9, 10) has + deduced the Gnostic errors from Platonic principles; and as, in + the school of Alexandria, those principles were blended with the + Oriental philosophy, (Brucker, tom. i. p. 1356,) the sentiment of + Beausobre may be reconciled with the opinion of Mosheim, (General + History of the Church, vol. i. p. 37.)] + + 31 (return) [ If Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, (see Dupin, + Bibliothèque Ecclesiastique, tom. i. p. 66,) was the first who + employed the word _Triad_, _Trinity_, that abstract term, which + was already familiar to the schools of philosophy, must have been + introduced into the theology of the Christians after the middle + of the second century.] + + 32 (return) [ Athanasius, tom. i. p. 808. His expressions have an + uncommon energy; and as he was writing to monks, there could not + be any occasion for him to _affect_ a rational language.] + + I. A chosen society of philosophers, men of a liberal education + and curious disposition, might silently meditate, and temperately + discuss in the gardens of Athens or the library of Alexandria, + the abstruse questions of metaphysical science. The lofty + speculations, which neither convinced the understanding, nor + agitated the passions, of the Platonists themselves, were + carelessly overlooked by the idle, the busy, and even the + studious part of mankind. 33 But after the _Logos_ had been + revealed as the sacred object of the faith, the hope, and the + religious worship of the Christians, the mysterious system was + embraced by a numerous and increasing multitude in every province + of the Roman world. Those persons who, from their age, or sex, or + occupations, were the least qualified to judge, who were the + least exercised in the habits of abstract reasoning, aspired to + contemplate the economy of the Divine Nature: and it is the boast + of Tertullian, 34 that a Christian mechanic could readily answer + such questions as had perplexed the wisest of the Grecian sages. + Where the subject lies so far beyond our reach, the difference + between the highest and the lowest of human understandings may + indeed be calculated as infinitely small; yet the degree of + weakness may perhaps be measured by the degree of obstinacy and + dogmatic confidence. These speculations, instead of being treated + as the amusement of a vacant hour, became the most serious + business of the present, and the most useful preparation for a + future, life. A theology, which it was incumbent to believe, + which it was impious to doubt, and which it might be dangerous, + and even fatal, to mistake, became the familiar topic of private + meditation and popular discourse. The cold indifference of + philosophy was inflamed by the fervent spirit of devotion; and + even the metaphors of common language suggested the fallacious + prejudices of sense and experience. The Christians, who abhorred + the gross and impure generation of the Greek mythology, 35 were + tempted to argue from the familiar analogy of the filial and + paternal relations. The character of _Son_ seemed to imply a + perpetual subordination to the voluntary author of his existence; + 36 but as the act of generation, in the most spiritual and + abstracted sense, must be supposed to transmit the properties of + a common nature, 37 they durst not presume to circumscribe the + powers or the duration of the Son of an eternal and omnipotent + Father. Fourscore years after the death of Christ, the Christians + of Bithynia, declared before the tribunal of Pliny, that they + invoked him as a god: and his divine honors have been perpetuated + in every age and country, by the various sects who assume the + name of his disciples. 38 Their tender reverence for the memory + of Christ, and their horror for the profane worship of any + created being, would have engaged them to assert the equal and + absolute divinity of the _Logos_, if their rapid ascent towards + the throne of heaven had not been imperceptibly checked by the + apprehension of violating the unity and sole supremacy of the + great Father of Christ and of the Universe. The suspense and + fluctuation produced in the minds of the Christians by these + opposite tendencies, may be observed in the writings of the + theologians who flourished after the end of the apostolic age, + and before the origin of the Arian controversy. Their suffrage is + claimed, with equal confidence, by the orthodox and by the + heretical parties; and the most inquisitive critics have fairly + allowed, that if they had the good fortune of possessing the + Catholic verity, they have delivered their conceptions in loose, + inaccurate, and sometimes contradictory language. 39 + + 33 (return) [ In a treatise, which professed to explain the + opinions of the ancient philosophers concerning the nature of the + gods we might expect to discover the theological Trinity of + Plato. But Cicero very honestly confessed, that although he had + translated the Timæus, he could never understand that mysterious + dialogue. See Hieronym. præf. ad l. xii. in Isaiam, tom. v. p. + 154.] + + 34 (return) [ Tertullian. in Apolog. c. 46. See Bayle, + Dictionnaire, au mot _Simonide_. His remarks on the presumption + of Tertullian are profound and interesting.] + + 35 (return) [ Lactantius, iv. 8. Yet the _Probole_, or + _Prolatio_, which the most orthodox divines borrowed without + scruple from the Valentinians, and illustrated by the comparisons + of a fountain and stream, the sun and its rays, &c., either meant + nothing, or favored a material idea of the divine generation. See + Beausobre, tom. i. l. iii. c. 7, p. 548.] + + 36 (return) [ Many of the primitive writers have frankly + confessed, that the Son owed his being to the _will_ of the + Father.——See Clarke’s Scripture Trinity, p. 280-287. On the other + hand, Athanasius and his followers seem unwilling to grant what + they are afraid to deny. The schoolmen extricate themselves from + this difficulty by the distinction of a _preceding_ and a + _concomitant_ will. Petav. Dogm. Theolog. tom. ii. l. vi. c. 8, + p. 587-603.] + + 37 (return) [ See Petav. Dogm. Theolog. tom. ii. l. ii. c. 10, p. + 159.] + + 38 (return) [ Carmenque Christo quasi Deo dicere secum invicem. + Plin. Epist. x. 97. The sense of _Deus, Elohim_, in the ancient + languages, is critically examined by Le Clerc, (Ars Critica, p. + 150-156,) and the propriety of worshipping a very excellent + creature is ably defended by the Socinian Emlyn, (Tracts, p. + 29-36, 51-145.)] + + 39 (return) [ See Daille de Usu Patrum, and Le Clerc, + Bibliothèque Universelle, tom. x. p. 409. To arraign the faith of + the Ante-Nicene fathers, was the object, or at least has been the + effect, of the stupendous work of Petavius on the Trinity, (Dogm. + Theolog. tom. ii.;) nor has the deep impression been erased by + the learned defence of Bishop Bull. Note: Dr. Burton’s work on + the doctrine of the Ante-Nicene fathers must be consulted by + those who wish to obtain clear notions on this subject.—M.] + + + + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + III. + + + II. The devotion of individuals was the first circumstance which + distinguished the Christians from the Platonists: the second was + the authority of the church. The disciples of philosophy asserted + the rights of intellectual freedom, and their respect for the + sentiments of their teachers was a liberal and voluntary tribute, + which they offered to superior reason. But the Christians formed + a numerous and disciplined society; and the jurisdiction of their + laws and magistrates was strictly exercised over the minds of the + faithful. The loose wanderings of the imagination were gradually + confined by creeds and confessions; 40 the freedom of private + judgment submitted to the public wisdom of synods; the authority + of a theologian was determined by his ecclesiastical rank; and + the episcopal successors of the apostles inflicted the censures + of the church on those who deviated from the orthodox belief. But + in an age of religious controversy, every act of oppression adds + new force to the elastic vigor of the mind; and the zeal or + obstinacy of a spiritual rebel was sometimes stimulated by secret + motives of ambition or avarice. A metaphysical argument became + the cause or pretence of political contests; the subtleties of + the Platonic school were used as the badges of popular factions, + and the distance which separated their respective tenets were + enlarged or magnified by the acrimony of dispute. As long as the + dark heresies of Praxeas and Sabellius labored to confound the + _Father_ with the _Son_, 41 the orthodox party might be excused + if they adhered more strictly and more earnestly to the + _distinction_, than to the _equality_, of the divine persons. But + as soon as the heat of controversy had subsided, and the progress + of the Sabellians was no longer an object of terror to the + churches of Rome, of Africa, or of Egypt, the tide of theological + opinion began to flow with a gentle but steady motion towards the + contrary extreme; and the most orthodox doctors allowed + themselves the use of the terms and definitions which had been + censured in the mouth of the sectaries. 42 After the edict of + toleration had restored peace and leisure to the Christians, the + Trinitarian controversy was revived in the ancient seat of + Platonism, the learned, the opulent, the tumultuous city of + Alexandria; and the flame of religious discord was rapidly + communicated from the schools to the clergy, the people, the + province, and the East. The abstruse question of the eternity of + the _Logos_ was agitated in ecclesiastic conferences and popular + sermons; and the heterodox opinions of Arius 43 were soon made + public by his own zeal, and by that of his adversaries. His most + implacable adversaries have acknowledged the learning and + blameless life of that eminent presbyter, who, in a former + election, had declared, and perhaps generously declined, his + pretensions to the episcopal throne. 44 His competitor Alexander + assumed the office of his judge. The important cause was argued + before him; and if at first he seemed to hesitate, he at length + pronounced his final sentence, as an absolute rule of faith. 45 + The undaunted presbyter, who presumed to resist the authority of + his angry bishop, was separated from the community of the church. + But the pride of Arius was supported by the applause of a + numerous party. He reckoned among his immediate followers two + bishops of Egypt, seven presbyters, twelve deacons, and (what may + appear almost incredible) seven hundred virgins. A large majority + of the bishops of Asia appeared to support or favor his cause; + and their measures were conducted by Eusebius of Cæsarea, the + most learned of the Christian prelates; and by Eusebius of + Nicomedia, who had acquired the reputation of a statesman without + forfeiting that of a saint. Synods in Palestine and Bithynia were + opposed to the synods of Egypt. The attention of the prince and + people was attracted by this theological dispute; and the + decision, at the end of six years, 46 was referred to the supreme + authority of the general council of Nice. + + 40 (return) [ The most ancient creeds were drawn up with the + greatest latitude. See Bull, (Judicium Eccles. Cathol.,) who + tries to prevent Episcopius from deriving any advantage from this + observation.] + + 41 (return) [ The heresies of Praxeas, Sabellius, &c., are + accurately explained by Mosheim (p. 425, 680-714.) Praxeas, who + came to Rome about the end of the second century, deceived, for + some time, the simplicity of the bishop, and was confuted by the + pen of the angry Tertullian.] + + 42 (return) [ Socrates acknowledges, that the heresy of Arius + proceeded from his strong desire to embrace an opinion the most + diametrically opposite to that of Sabellius.] + + 43 (return) [ The figure and manners of Arius, the character and + numbers of his first proselytes, are painted in very lively + colors by Epiphanius, (tom. i. Hæres. lxix. 3, p. 729,) and we + cannot but regret that he should soon forget the historian, to + assume the task of controversy.] + + 44 (return) [ See Philostorgius (l. i. c. 3,) and Godefroy’s + ample Commentary. Yet the credibility of Philostorgius is + lessened, in the eyes of the orthodox, by his Arianism; and in + those of rational critics, by his passion, his prejudice, and his + ignorance.] + + 45 (return) [ Sozomen (l. i. c. 15) represents Alexander as + indifferent, and even ignorant, in the beginning of the + controversy; while Socrates (l. i. c. 5) ascribes the origin of + the dispute to the vain curiosity of his theological + speculations. Dr. Jortin (Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. + ii. p. 178) has censured, with his usual freedom, the conduct of + Alexander.] + + 46 (return) [ The flames of Arianism might burn for some time in + secret; but there is reason to believe that they burst out with + violence as early as the year 319. Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. + vi. p. 774-780.] + + When the mysteries of the Christian faith were dangerously + exposed to public debate, it might be observed, that the human + understanding was capable of forming three district, though + imperfect systems, concerning the nature of the Divine Trinity; + and it was pronounced, that none of these systems, in a pure and + absolute sense, were exempt from heresy and error. 47 I. + According to the first hypothesis, which was maintained by Arius + and his disciples, the _Logos_ was a dependent and spontaneous + production, created from nothing by the will of the father. The + Son, by whom all things were made, 48 had been begotten before + all worlds, and the longest of the astronomical periods could be + compared only as a fleeting moment to the extent of his duration; + yet this duration was not infinite, 49 and there _had_ been a + time which preceded the ineffable generation of the _Logos_. On + this only-begotten Son, the Almighty Father had transfused his + ample spirit, and impressed the effulgence of his glory. Visible + image of invisible perfection, he saw, at an immeasurable + distance beneath his feet, the thrones of the brightest + archangels; yet he shone only with a reflected light, and, like + the sons of the Romans emperors, who were invested with the + titles of Cæsar or Augustus, 50 he governed the universe in + obedience to the will of his Father and Monarch. II. In the + second hypothesis, the _Logos_ possessed all the inherent, + incommunicable perfections, which religion and philosophy + appropriate to the Supreme God. Three distinct and infinite minds + or substances, three coëqual and coëternal beings, composed the + Divine Essence; 51 and it would have implied contradiction, that + any of them should not have existed, or that they should ever + cease to exist. 52 The advocates of a system which seemed to + establish three independent Deities, attempted to preserve the + unity of the First Cause, so conspicuous in the design and order + of the world, by the perpetual concord of their administration, + and the essential agreement of their will. A faint resemblance of + this unity of action may be discovered in the societies of men, + and even of animals. The causes which disturb their harmony, + proceed only from the imperfection and inequality of their + faculties; but the omnipotence which is guided by infinite wisdom + and goodness, cannot fail of choosing the same means for the + accomplishment of the same ends. III. Three beings, who, by the + self-derived necessity of their existence, possess all the divine + attributes in the most perfect degree; who are eternal in + duration, infinite in space, and intimately present to each + other, and to the whole universe; irresistibly force themselves + on the astonished mind, as one and the same being, 53 who, in the + economy of grace, as well as in that of nature, may manifest + himself under different forms, and be considered under different + aspects. By this hypothesis, a real substantial trinity is + refined into a trinity of names, and abstract modifications, that + subsist only in the mind which conceives them. The _Logos_ is no + longer a person, but an attribute; and it is only in a figurative + sense that the epithet of Son can be applied to the eternal + reason, which was with God from the beginning, and by _which_, + not by _whom_, all things were made. The incarnation of the + _Logos_ is reduced to a mere inspiration of the Divine Wisdom, + which filled the soul, and directed all the actions, of the man + Jesus. Thus, after revolving around the theological circle, we + are surprised to find that the Sabellian ends where the Ebionite + had begun; and that the incomprehensible mystery which excites + our adoration, eludes our inquiry. 54 + + 47 (return) [ Quid credidit? Certe, _aut_ tria nomina audiens + tres Deos esse credidit, et idololatra effectus est; _aut_ in + tribus vocabulis trinominem credens Deum, in Sabellii hæresim + incurrit; _aut_ edoctus ab Arianis unum esse verum Deum Patrem, + filium et spiritum sanctum credidit creaturas. Aut extra hæc quid + credere potuerit nescio. Hieronym adv. Luciferianos. Jerom + reserves for the last the orthodox system, which is more + complicated and difficult.] + + 48 (return) [ As the doctrine of absolute creation from nothing + was gradually introduced among the Christians, (Beausobre, tom. + ii. p. 165- 215,) the dignity of the _workman_ very naturally + rose with that of the _work_.] + + 49 (return) [ The metaphysics of Dr. Clarke (Scripture Trinity, + p. 276-280) could digest an eternal generation from an infinite + cause.] + + 50 (return) [ This profane and absurd simile is employed by + several of the primitive fathers, particularly by Athenagoras, in + his Apology to the emperor Marcus and his son; and it is alleged, + without censure, by Bull himself. See Defens. Fid. Nicen. sect. + iii. c. 5, No. 4.] + + 51 (return) [ See Cudworth’s Intellectual System, p. 559, 579. + This dangerous hypothesis was countenanced by the two Gregories, + of Nyssa and Nazianzen, by Cyril of Alexandria, John of Damascus, + &c. See Cudworth, p. 603. Le Clerc, Bibliothèque Universelle, tom + xviii. p. 97-105.] + + 52 (return) [ Augustin seems to envy the freedom of the + Philosophers. Liberis verbis loquuntur philosophi.... Nos autem + non dicimus duo vel tria principia, duos vel tres Deos. De + Civitat. Dei, x. 23.] + + 53 (return) [ Boetius, who was deeply versed in the philosophy of + Plato and Aristotle, explains the unity of the Trinity by the + _indifference_ of the three persons. See the judicious remarks of + Le Clerc, Bibliothèque Choisie, tom. xvi. p. 225, &c.] + + 54 (return) [ If the Sabellians were startled at this conclusion, + they were driven another precipice into the confession, that the + Father was born of a virgin, that _he_ had suffered on the cross; + and thus deserved the epithet of _Patripassians_, with which they + were branded by their adversaries. See the invectives of + Tertullian against Praxeas, and the temperate reflections of + Mosheim, (p. 423, 681;) and Beausobre, tom. i. l. iii. c. 6, p. + 533.] + + If the bishops of the council of Nice 55 had been permitted to + follow the unbiased dictates of their conscience, Arius and his + associates could scarcely have flattered themselves with the + hopes of obtaining a majority of votes, in favor of an hypothesis + so directly averse to the two most popular opinions of the + Catholic world. The Arians soon perceived the danger of their + situation, and prudently assumed those modest virtues, which, in + the fury of civil and religious dissensions, are seldom + practised, or even praised, except by the weaker party. They + recommended the exercise of Christian charity and moderation; + urged the incomprehensible nature of the controversy, disclaimed + the use of any terms or definitions which could not be found in + the Scriptures; and offered, by very liberal concessions, to + satisfy their adversaries without renouncing the integrity of + their own principles. The victorious faction received all their + proposals with haughty suspicion; and anxiously sought for some + irreconcilable mark of distinction, the rejection of which might + involve the Arians in the guilt and consequences of heresy. A + letter was publicly read, and ignominiously torn, in which their + patron, Eusebius of Nicomedia, ingenuously confessed, that the + admission of the Homoousion, or Consubstantial, a word already + familiar to the Platonists, was incompatible with the principles + of their theological system. The fortunate opportunity was + eagerly embraced by the bishops, who governed the resolutions of + the synod; and, according to the lively expression of Ambrose, 56 + they used the sword, which heresy itself had drawn from the + scabbard, to cut off the head of the hated monster. The + consubstantiality of the Father and the Son was established by + the council of Nice, and has been unanimously received as a + fundamental article of the Christian faith, by the consent of the + Greek, the Latin, the Oriental, and the Protestant churches. But + if the same word had not served to stigmatize the heretics, and + to unite the Catholics, it would have been inadequate to the + purpose of the majority, by whom it was introduced into the + orthodox creed. This majority was divided into two parties, + distinguished by a contrary tendency to the sentiments of the + Tritheists and of the Sabellians. But as those opposite extremes + seemed to overthrow the foundations either of natural or revealed + religion, they mutually agreed to qualify the rigor of their + principles; and to disavow the just, but invidious, consequences, + which might be urged by their antagonists. The interest of the + common cause inclined them to join their numbers, and to conceal + their differences; their animosity was softened by the healing + counsels of toleration, and their disputes were suspended by the + use of the mysterious _Homoousion_, which either party was free + to interpret according to their peculiar tenets. The Sabellian + sense, which, about fifty years before, had obliged the council + of Antioch 57 to prohibit this celebrated term, had endeared it + to those theologians who entertained a secret but partial + affection for a nominal Trinity. But the more fashionable saints + of the Arian times, the intrepid Athanasius, the learned Gregory + Nazianzen, and the other pillars of the church, who supported + with ability and success the Nicene doctrine, appeared to + consider the expression of _substance_ as if it had been + synonymous with that of _nature;_ and they ventured to illustrate + their meaning, by affirming that three men, as they belong to the + same common species, are consubstantial, or homoousian to each + other. 58 This pure and distinct equality was tempered, on the + one hand, by the internal connection, and spiritual penetration + which indissolubly unites the divine persons; 59 and, on the + other, by the preëminence of the Father, which was acknowledged + as far as it is compatible with the independence of the Son. 60 + Within these limits, the almost invisible and tremulous ball of + orthodoxy was allowed securely to vibrate. On either side, beyond + this consecrated ground, the heretics and the dæmons lurked in + ambush to surprise and devour the unhappy wanderer. But as the + degrees of theological hatred depend on the spirit of the war, + rather than on the importance of the controversy, the heretics + who degraded, were treated with more severity than those who + annihilated, the person of the Son. The life of Athanasius was + consumed in irreconcilable opposition to the impious _madness_ of + the Arians; 61 but he defended above twenty years the + Sabellianism of Marcellus of Ancyra; and when at last he was + compelled to withdraw himself from his communion, he continued to + mention, with an ambiguous smile, the venial errors of his + respectable friend. 62 + + 55 (return) [ The transactions of the council of Nice are related + by the ancients, not only in a partial, but in a very imperfect + manner. Such a picture as Fra Paolo would have drawn, can never + be recovered; but such rude sketches as have been traced by the + pencil of bigotry, and that of reason, may be seen in Tillemont, + (Mém. Eccles. tom. v. p. 669-759,) and in Le Clerc, (Bibliothèque + Universelle, tom. x p. 435-454.)] + + 56 (return) [ We are indebted to Ambrose (De Fide, l. iii.) + knowledge of this curious anecdote. Hoc verbum quod viderunt + adversariis esse formidini; ut ipsis gladio, ipsum nefandæ caput + hæreseos.] + + 57 (return) [ See Bull, Defens. Fid. Nicen. sect. ii. c. i. p. + 25-36. He thinks it his duty to reconcile two orthodox synods.] + + 58 (return) [ According to Aristotle, the stars were homoousian + to each other. “That _Homoousios_ means of one substance in + _kind_, hath been shown by Petavius, Curcellæus, Cudworth, Le + Clerc, &c., and to prove it would be _actum agere_.” This is the + just remark of Dr. Jortin, (vol. ii p. 212,) who examines the + Arian controversy with learning, candor, and ingenuity.] + + 59 (return) [ See Petavius, (Dogm. Theolog. tom. ii. l. iv. c. + 16, p. 453, &c.,) Cudworth, (p. 559,) Bull, (sect. iv. p. + 285-290, edit. Grab.) The _circumincessio_, is perhaps the + deepest and darkest he whole theological abyss.] + + 60 (return) [ The third section of Bull’s Defence of the Nicene + Faith, which some of his antagonists have called nonsense, and + others heresy, is consecrated to the supremacy of the Father.] + + 61 (return) [ The ordinary appellation with which Athanasius and + his followers chose to compliment the Arians, was that of + _Ariomanites_.] + + 62 (return) [ Epiphanius, tom i. Hæres. lxxii. 4, p. 837. See the + adventures of Marcellus, in Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. tom. v. i. + p. 880- 899.) His work, in _one_ book, of the unity of God, was + answered in the _three_ books, which are still extant, of + Eusebius.——After a long and careful examination, Petavius (tom. + ii. l. i. c. 14, p. 78) has reluctantly pronounced the + condemnation of Marcellus.] + + The authority of a general council, to which the Arians + themselves had been compelled to submit, inscribed on the banners + of the orthodox party the mysterious characters of the word + _Homoousion_, which essentially contributed, notwithstanding some + obscure disputes, some nocturnal combats, to maintain and + perpetuate the uniformity of faith, or at least of language. The + consubstantialists, who by their success have deserved and + obtained the title of Catholics, gloried in the simplicity and + steadiness of their own creed, and insulted the repeated + variations of their adversaries, who were destitute of any + certain rule of faith. The sincerity or the cunning of the Arian + chiefs, the fear of the laws or of the people, their reverence + for Christ, their hatred of Athanasius, all the causes, human and + divine, that influence and disturb the counsels of a theological + faction, introduced among the sectaries a spirit of discord and + inconstancy, which, in the course of a few years, erected + eighteen different models of religion, 63 and avenged the + violated dignity of the church. The zealous Hilary, 64 who, from + the peculiar hardships of his situation, was inclined to + extenuate rather than to aggravate the errors of the Oriental + clergy, declares, that in the wide extent of the ten provinces of + Asia, to which he had been banished, there could be found very + few prelates who had preserved the knowledge of the true God. 65 + The oppression which he had felt, the disorders of which he was + the spectator and the victim, appeased, during a short interval, + the angry passions of his soul; and in the following passage, of + which I shall transcribe a few lines, the bishop of Poitiers + unwarily deviates into the style of a Christian philosopher. “It + is a thing,” says Hilary, “equally deplorable and dangerous, that + there are as many creeds as opinions among men, as many doctrines + as inclinations, and as many sources of blasphemy as there are + faults among us; because we make creeds arbitrarily, and explain + them as arbitrarily. The Homoousion is rejected, and received, + and explained away by successive synods. The partial or total + resemblance of the Father and of the Son is a subject of dispute + for these unhappy times. Every year, nay, every moon, we make new + creeds to describe invisible mysteries. We repent of what we have + done, we defend those who repent, we anathematize those whom we + defended. We condemn either the doctrine of others in ourselves, + or our own in that of others; and reciprocally tearing one + another to pieces, we have been the cause of each other’s ruin.” + 66 + + 63 (return) [ Athanasius, in his epistle concerning the Synods of + Seleucia and Rimini, (tom. i. p. 886-905,) has given an ample + list of Arian creeds, which has been enlarged and improved by the + labors of the indefatigable Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. + 477.)] + + 64 (return) [ Erasmus, with admirable sense and freedom, has + delineated the just character of Hilary. To revise his text, to + compose the annals of his life, and to justify his sentiments and + conduct, is the province of the Benedictine editors.] + + 65 (return) [ Absque episcopo Eleusio et paucis cum eo, ex majore + parte Asianæ decem provinciæ, inter quas consisto, vere Deum + nesciunt. Atque utinam penitus nescirent! cum procliviore enim + venia ignorarent quam obtrectarent. Hilar. de Synodis, sive de + Fide Orientalium, c. 63, p. 1186, edit. Benedict. In the + celebrated parallel between atheism and superstition, the bishop + of Poitiers would have been surprised in the philosophic society + of Bayle and Plutarch.] + + 66 (return) [ Hilarius ad Constantium, l. i. c. 4, 5, p. 1227, + 1228. This remarkable passage deserved the attention of Mr. + Locke, who has transcribed it (vol. iii. p. 470) into the model + of his new common-place book.] + + It will not be expected, it would not perhaps be endured, that I + should swell this theological digression, by a minute examination + of the eighteen creeds, the authors of which, for the most part, + disclaimed the odious name of their parent Arius. It is amusing + enough to delineate the form, and to trace the vegetation, of a + singular plant; but the tedious detail of leaves without flowers, + and of branches without fruit, would soon exhaust the patience, + and disappoint the curiosity, of the laborious student. One + question, which gradually arose from the Arian controversy, may, + however, be noticed, as it served to produce and discriminate the + three sects, who were united only by their common aversion to the + Homoousion of the Nicene synod. 1. If they were asked whether the + Son was _like_ unto the Father, the question was resolutely + answered in the negative, by the heretics who adhered to the + principles of Arius, or indeed to those of philosophy; which seem + to establish an infinite difference between the Creator and the + most excellent of his creatures. This obvious consequence was + maintained by Ætius, 67 on whom the zeal of his adversaries + bestowed the surname of the Atheist. His restless and aspiring + spirit urged him to try almost every profession of human life. He + was successively a slave, or at least a husbandman, a travelling + tinker, a goldsmith, a physician, a schoolmaster, a theologian, + and at last the apostle of a new church, which was propagated by + the abilities of his disciple Eunomius. 68 Armed with texts of + Scripture, and with captious syllogisms from the logic of + Aristotle, the subtle Ætius had acquired the fame of an + invincible disputant, whom it was impossible either to silence or + to convince. Such talents engaged the friendship of the Arian + bishops, till they were forced to renounce, and even to + persecute, a dangerous ally, who, by the accuracy of his + reasoning, had prejudiced their cause in the popular opinion, and + offended the piety of their most devoted followers. 2. The + omnipotence of the Creator suggested a specious and respectful + solution of the _likeness_ of the Father and the Son; and faith + might humbly receive what reason could not presume to deny, that + the Supreme God might communicate his infinite perfections, and + create a being similar only to himself. 69 These Arians were + powerfully supported by the weight and abilities of their + leaders, who had succeeded to the management of the Eusebian + interest, and who occupied the principal thrones of the East. + They detested, perhaps with some affectation, the impiety of + Ætius; they professed to believe, either without reserve, or + according to the Scriptures, that the Son was different from all + _other_ creatures, and similar only to the Father. But they + denied, the he was either of the same, or of a similar substance; + sometimes boldly justifying their dissent, and sometimes + objecting to the use of the word substance, which seems to imply + an adequate, or at least, a distinct, notion of the nature of the + Deity. 3. The sect which deserted the doctrine of a similar + substance, was the most numerous, at least in the provinces of + Asia; and when the leaders of both parties were assembled in the + council of Seleucia, 70 _their_ opinion would have prevailed by a + majority of one hundred and five to forty-three bishops. The + Greek word, which was chosen to express this mysterious + resemblance, bears so close an affinity to the orthodox symbol, + that the profane of every age have derided the furious contests + which the difference of a single diphthong excited between the + Homoousians and the Homoiousians. As it frequently happens, that + the sounds and characters which approach the nearest to each + other accidentally represent the most opposite ideas, the + observation would be itself ridiculous, if it were possible to + mark any real and sensible distinction between the doctrine of + the Semi-Arians, as they were improperly styled, and that of the + Catholics themselves. The bishop of Poitiers, who in his Phrygian + exile very wisely aimed at a coalition of parties, endeavors to + prove that by a pious and faithful interpretation, 71 the + _Homoiousion_ may be reduced to a consubstantial sense. Yet he + confesses that the word has a dark and suspicious aspect; and, as + if darkness were congenial to theological disputes, the + Semi-Arians, who advanced to the doors of the church, assailed + them with the most unrelenting fury. + + 67 (return) [ In Philostorgius (l. iii. c. 15) the character and + adventures of Ætius appear singular enough, though they are + carefully softened by the hand of a friend. The editor, Godefroy, + (p. 153,) who was more attached to his principles than to his + author, has collected the odious circumstances which his various + adversaries have preserved or invented.] + + 68 (return) [ According to the judgment of a man who respected + both these sectaries, Ætius had been endowed with a stronger + understanding and Eunomius had acquired more art and learning. + (Philostorgius l. viii. c. 18.) The confession and apology of + Eunomius (Fabricius, Bibliot. Græc. tom. viii. p. 258-305) is one + of the few heretical pieces which have escaped.] + + 69 (return) [ Yet, according to the opinion of Estius and Bull, + (p. 297,) there is one power—that of creation—which God _cannot_ + communicate to a creature. Estius, who so accurately defined the + limits of Omnipotence was a Dutchman by birth, and by trade a + scholastic divine. Dupin Bibliot. Eccles. tom. xvii. p. 45.] + + 70 (return) [ Sabinus ap. Socrat. (l. ii. c. 39) had copied the + acts: Athanasius and Hilary have explained the divisions of this + Arian synod; the other circumstances which are relative to it are + carefully collected by Baro and Tillemont] + + 71 (return) [ Fideli et piâ intelligentiâ... De Synod. c. 77, p. + 1193. In his his short apologetical notes (first published by the + Benedictines from a MS. of Chartres) he observes, that he used + this cautious expression, qui intelligerum et impiam, p. 1206. + See p. 1146. Philostorgius, who saw those objects through a + different medium, is inclined to forget the difference of the + important diphthong. See in particular viii. 17, and Godefroy, p. + 352.] + + The provinces of Egypt and Asia, which cultivated the language + and manners of the Greeks, had deeply imbibed the venom of the + Arian controversy. The familiar study of the Platonic system, a + vain and argumentative disposition, a copious and flexible idiom, + supplied the clergy and people of the East with an inexhaustible + flow of words and distinctions; and, in the midst of their fierce + contentions, they easily forgot the doubt which is recommended by + philosophy, and the submission which is enjoined by religion. The + inhabitants of the West were of a less inquisitive spirit; their + passions were not so forcibly moved by invisible objects, their + minds were less frequently exercised by the habits of dispute; + and such was the happy ignorance of the Gallican church, that + Hilary himself, above thirty years after the first general + council, was still a stranger to the Nicene creed. 72 The Latins + had received the rays of divine knowledge through the dark and + doubtful medium of a translation. The poverty and stubbornness of + their native tongue was not always capable of affording just + equivalents for the Greek terms, for the technical words of the + Platonic philosophy, 73 which had been consecrated, by the gospel + or by the church, to express the mysteries of the Christian + faith; and a verbal defect might introduce into the Latin + theology a long train of error or perplexity. 74 But as the + western provincials had the good fortune of deriving their + religion from an orthodox source, they preserved with steadiness + the doctrine which they had accepted with docility; and when the + Arian pestilence approached their frontiers, they were supplied + with the seasonable preservative of the Homoousion, by the + paternal care of the Roman pontiff. Their sentiments and their + temper were displayed in the memorable synod of Rimini, which + surpassed in numbers the council of Nice, since it was composed + of above four hundred bishops of Italy, Africa, Spain, Gaul, + Britain, and Illyricum. From the first debates it appeared, that + only fourscore prelates adhered to the party, though _they_ + affected to anathematize the name and memory, of Arius. But this + inferiority was compensated by the advantages of skill, of + experience, and of discipline; and the minority was conducted by + Valens and Ursacius, two bishops of Illyricum, who had spent + their lives in the intrigues of courts and councils, and who had + been trained under the Eusebian banner in the religious wars of + the East. By their arguments and negotiations, they embarrassed, + they confounded, they at last deceived, the honest simplicity of + the Latin bishops; who suffered the palladium of the faith to be + extorted from their hand by fraud and importunity, rather than by + open violence. The council of Rimini was not allowed to separate, + till the members had imprudently subscribed a captious creed, in + which some expressions, susceptible of an heretical sense, were + inserted in the room of the Homoousion. It was on this occasion, + that, according to Jerom, the world was surprised to find itself + Arian. 75 But the bishops of the Latin provinces had no sooner + reached their respective dioceses, than they discovered their + mistake, and repented of their weakness. The ignominious + capitulation was rejected with disdain and abhorrence; and the + Homoousian standard, which had been shaken but not overthrown, + was more firmly replanted in all the churches of the West. 76 + + 72 (return) [ Testor Deum cœli atque terræ me cum neutrum + audissem, semper tamen utrumque sensisse.... Regeneratus pridem + et in episcopatu aliquantisper manens fidem Nicenam nunquam nisi + exsulaturus audivi. Hilar. de Synodis, c. xci. p. 1205. The + Benedictines are persuaded that he governed the diocese of + Poitiers several years before his exile.] + + 73 (return) [ Seneca (Epist. lviii.) complains that even the of + the Platonists (the _ens_ of the bolder schoolmen) could not be + expressed by a Latin noun.] + + 74 (return) [ The preference which the fourth council of the + Lateran at length gave to a _numerical_ rather than a _generical_ + unity (See Petav. tom. ii. l. v. c. 13, p. 424) was favored by + the Latin language: seems to excite the idea of substance, + _trinitas_ of qualities.] + + 75 (return) [ Ingemuit totus orbis, et Arianum se esse miratus + est. Hieronym. adv. Lucifer. tom. i. p. 145.] + + 76 (return) [ The story of the council of Rimini is very + elegantly told by Sulpicius Severus, (Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. + 419-430, edit. Lugd. Bat. 1647,) and by Jerom, in his dialogue + against the Luciferians. The design of the latter is to apologize + for the conduct of the Latin bishops, who were deceived, and who + repented.] + + + + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part IV. + + + Such was the rise and progress, and such were the natural + revolutions of those theological disputes, which disturbed the + peace of Christianity under the reigns of Constantine and of his + sons. But as those princes presumed to extend their despotism + over the faith, as well as over the lives and fortunes, of their + subjects, the weight of their suffrage sometimes inclined the + ecclesiastical balance: and the prerogatives of the King of + Heaven were settled, or changed, or modified, in the cabinet of + an earthly monarch. The unhappy spirit of discord which pervaded + the provinces of the East, interrupted the triumph of + Constantine; but the emperor continued for some time to view, + with cool and careless indifference, the object of the dispute. + As he was yet ignorant of the difficulty of appeasing the + quarrels of theologians, he addressed to the contending parties, + to Alexander and to Arius, a moderating epistle; 77 which may be + ascribed, with far greater reason, to the untutored sense of a + soldier and statesman, than to the dictates of any of his + episcopal counsellors. He attributes the origin of the whole + controversy to a trifling and subtle question, concerning an + incomprehensible point of law, which was foolishly asked by the + bishop, and imprudently resolved by the presbyter. He laments + that the Christian people, who had the same God, the same + religion, and the same worship, should be divided by such + inconsiderable distinctions; and he seriously recommends to the + clergy of Alexandria the example of the Greek philosophers; who + could maintain their arguments without losing their temper, and + assert their freedom without violating their friendship. The + indifference and contempt of the sovereign would have been, + perhaps, the most effectual method of silencing the dispute, if + the popular current had been less rapid and impetuous, and if + Constantine himself, in the midst of faction and fanaticism, + could have preserved the calm possession of his own mind. But his + ecclesiastical ministers soon contrived to seduce the + impartiality of the magistrate, and to awaken the zeal of the + proselyte. He was provoked by the insults which had been offered + to his statues; he was alarmed by the real, as well as the + imaginary magnitude of the spreading mischief; and he + extinguished the hope of peace and toleration, from the moment + that he assembled three hundred bishops within the walls of the + same palace. The presence of the monarch swelled the importance + of the debate; his attention multiplied the arguments; and he + exposed his person with a patient intrepidity, which animated the + valor of the combatants. Notwithstanding the applause which has + been bestowed on the eloquence and sagacity of Constantine, 78 a + Roman general, whose religion might be still a subject of doubt, + and whose mind had not been enlightened either by study or by + inspiration, was indifferently qualified to discuss, in the Greek + language, a metaphysical question, or an article of faith. But + the credit of his favorite Osius, who appears to have presided in + the council of Nice, might dispose the emperor in favor of the + orthodox party; and a well-timed insinuation, that the same + Eusebius of Nicomedia, who now protected the heretic, had lately + assisted the tyrant, 79 might exasperate him against their + adversaries. The Nicene creed was ratified by Constantine; and + his firm declaration, that those who resisted the divine judgment + of the synod, must prepare themselves for an immediate exile, + annihilated the murmurs of a feeble opposition; which, from + seventeen, was almost instantly reduced to two, protesting + bishops. Eusebius of Cæsarea yielded a reluctant and ambiguous + consent to the Homoousion; 80 and the wavering conduct of the + Nicomedian Eusebius served only to delay, about three months, his + disgrace and exile. 81 The impious Arius was banished into one of + the remote provinces of Illyricum; his person and disciples were + branded by law with the odious name of Porphyrians; his writings + were condemned to the flames, and a capital punishment was + denounced against those in whose possession they should be found. + The emperor had now imbibed the spirit of controversy, and the + angry, sarcastic style of his edicts was designed to inspire his + subjects with the hatred which he had conceived against the + enemies of Christ. 82 + + 77 (return) [ Eusebius, in Vit. Constant. l. ii. c. 64-72. The + principles of toleration and religious indifference, contained in + this epistle, have given great offence to Baronius, Tillemont, + &c., who suppose that the emperor had some evil counsellor, + either Satan or Eusebius, at his elbow. See Cortin’s Remarks, + tom. ii. p. 183. * Note: Heinichen (Excursus xi.) quotes with + approbation the term “golden words,” applied by Ziegler to this + moderate and tolerant letter of Constantine. May an English + clergyman venture to express his regret that “the fine gold soon + became dim” in the Christian church?—M.] + + 78 (return) [ Eusebius in Vit. Constantin. l. iii. c. 13.] + + 79 (return) [ Theodoret has preserved (l. i. c. 20) an epistle + from Constantine to the people of Nicomedia, in which the monarch + declares himself the public accuser of one of his subjects; he + styles Eusebius and complains of his hostile behavior during the + civil war.] + + 80 (return) [ See in Socrates, (l. i. c. 8,) or rather in + Theodoret, (l. i. c. 12,) an original letter of Eusebius of + Cæsarea, in which he attempts to justify his subscribing the + Homoousion. The character of Eusebius has always been a problem; + but those who have read the second critical epistle of Le Clerc, + (Ars Critica, tom. iii. p. 30-69,) must entertain a very + unfavorable opinion of the orthodoxy and sincerity of the bishop + of Cæsarea.] + + 81 (return) [ Athanasius, tom. i. p. 727. Philostorgius, l. i. c. + 10, and Godefroy’s Commentary, p. 41.] + + 82 (return) [ Socrates, l. i. c. 9. In his circular letters, + which were addressed to the several cities, Constantine employed + against the heretics the arms of ridicule and _comic_ raillery.] + + But, as if the conduct of the emperor had been guided by passion + instead of principle, three years from the council of Nice were + scarcely elapsed before he discovered some symptoms of mercy, and + even of indulgence, towards the proscribed sect, which was + secretly protected by his favorite sister. The exiles were + recalled, and Eusebius, who gradually resumed his influence over + the mind of Constantine, was restored to the episcopal throne, + from which he had been ignominiously degraded. Arius himself was + treated by the whole court with the respect which would have been + due to an innocent and oppressed man. His faith was approved by + the synod of Jerusalem; and the emperor seemed impatient to + repair his injustice, by issuing an absolute command, that he + should be solemnly admitted to the communion in the cathedral of + Constantinople. On the same day, which had been fixed for the + triumph of Arius, he expired; and the strange and horrid + circumstances of his death might excite a suspicion, that the + orthodox saints had contributed more efficaciously than by their + prayers, to deliver the church from the most formidable of her + enemies. 83 The three principal leaders of the Catholics, + Athanasius of Alexandria, Eustathius of Antioch, and Paul of + Constantinople were deposed on various f accusations, by the + sentence of numerous councils; and were afterwards banished into + distant provinces by the first of the Christian emperors, who, in + the last moments of his life, received the rites of baptism from + the Arian bishop of Nicomedia. The ecclesiastical government of + Constantine cannot be justified from the reproach of levity and + weakness. But the credulous monarch, unskilled in the stratagems + of theological warfare, might be deceived by the modest and + specious professions of the heretics, whose sentiments he never + perfectly understood; and while he protected Arius, and + persecuted Athanasius, he still considered the council of Nice as + the bulwark of the Christian faith, and the peculiar glory of his + own reign. 84 + + 83 (return) [ We derive the original story from Athanasius, (tom. + i. p. 670,) who expresses some reluctance to stigmatize the + memory of the dead. He might exaggerate; but the perpetual + commerce of Alexandria and Constantinople would have rendered it + dangerous to invent. Those who press the literal narrative of the + death of Arius (his bowels suddenly burst out in a privy) must + make their option between _poison_ and _miracle_.] + + 84 (return) [ The change in the sentiments, or at least in the + conduct, of Constantine, may be traced in Eusebius, (in Vit. + Constant. l. iii. c. 23, l. iv. c. 41,) Socrates, (l. i. c. + 23-39,) Sozomen, (l. ii. c. 16-34,) Theodoret, (l. i. c. 14-34,) + and Philostorgius, (l. ii. c. 1-17.) But the first of these + writers was too near the scene of action, and the others were too + remote from it. It is singular enough, that the important task of + continuing the history of the church should have been left for + two laymen and a heretic.] + + The sons of Constantine must have been admitted from their + childhood into the rank of catechumens; but they imitated, in the + delay of their baptism, the example of their father. Like him + they presumed to pronounce their judgment on mysteries into which + they had never been regularly initiated; 85 and the fate of the + Trinitarian controversy depended, in a great measure, on the + sentiments of Constantius; who inherited the provinces of the + East, and acquired the possession of the whole empire. The Arian + presbyter or bishop, who had secreted for his use the testament + of the deceased emperor, improved the fortunate occasion which + had introduced him to the familiarity of a prince, whose public + counsels were always swayed by his domestic favorites. The + eunuchs and slaves diffused the spiritual poison through the + palace, and the dangerous infection was communicated by the + female attendants to the guards, and by the empress to her + unsuspicious husband. 86 The partiality which Constantius always + expressed towards the Eusebian faction, was insensibly fortified + by the dexterous management of their leaders; and his victory + over the tyrant Magnentius increased his inclination, as well as + ability, to employ the arms of power in the cause of Arianism. + While the two armies were engaged in the plains of Mursa, and the + fate of the two rivals depended on the chance of war, the son of + Constantine passed the anxious moments in a church of the martyrs + under the walls of the city. His spiritual comforter, Valens, the + Arian bishop of the diocese, employed the most artful precautions + to obtain such early intelligence as might secure either his + favor or his escape. A secret chain of swift and trusty + messengers informed him of the vicissitudes of the battle; and + while the courtiers stood trembling round their affrighted + master, Valens assured him that the Gallic legions gave way; and + insinuated with some presence of mind, that the glorious event + had been revealed to him by an angel. The grateful emperor + ascribed his success to the merits and intercession of the bishop + of Mursa, whose faith had deserved the public and miraculous + approbation of Heaven. 87 The Arians, who considered as their own + the victory of Constantius, preferred his glory to that of his + father. 88 Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, immediately composed the + description of a celestial cross, encircled with a splendid + rainbow; which during the festival of Pentecost, about the third + hour of the day, had appeared over the Mount of Olives, to the + edification of the devout pilgrims, and the people of the holy + city. 89 The size of the meteor was gradually magnified; and the + Arian historian has ventured to affirm, that it was conspicuous + to the two armies in the plains of Pannonia; and that the tyrant, + who is purposely represented as an idolater, fled before the + auspicious sign of orthodox Christianity. 90 + + 85 (return) [ Quia etiam tum catechumenus sacramentum fidei + merito videretiu potuisse nescire. Sulp. Sever. Hist. Sacra, l. + ii. p. 410.] + + 86 (return) [ Socrates, l. ii. c. 2. Sozomen, l. iii. c. 18. + Athanas. tom. i. p. 813, 834. He observes that the eunuchs are + the natural enemies of the _Son_. Compare Dr. Jortin’s Remarks on + Ecclesiastical History, vol. iv. p. 3 with a certain genealogy in + _Candide_, (ch. iv.,) which ends with one of the first companions + of Christopher Columbus.] + + 87 (return) [ Sulpicius Severus in Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 405, + 406.] + + 88 (return) [ Cyril (apud Baron. A. D. 353, No. 26) expressly + observes that in the reign of Constantine, the cross had been + found in the bowels of the earth; but that it had appeared, in + the reign of Constantius, in the midst of the heavens. This + opposition evidently proves, that Cyril was ignorant of the + stupendous miracle to which the conversion of Constantine is + attributed; and this ignorance is the more surprising, since it + was no more than twelve years after his death that Cyril was + consecrated bishop of Jerusalem, by the immediate successor of + Eusebius of Cæsarea. See Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. + 715.] + + 89 (return) [ It is not easy to determine how far the ingenuity + of Cyril might be assisted by some natural appearances of a solar + halo.] + + 90 (return) [ Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 26. He is followed by the + author of the Alexandrian Chronicle, by Cedrenus, and by + Nicephorus. (See Gothofred. Dissert. p. 188.) They could not + refuse a miracle, even from the hand of an enemy.] + + The sentiments of a judicious stranger, who has impartially + considered the progress of civil or ecclesiastical discord, are + always entitled to our notice; and a short passage of Ammianus, + who served in the armies, and studied the character of + Constantius, is perhaps of more value than many pages of + theological invectives. “The Christian religion, which, in + itself,” says that moderate historian, “is plain and simple, _he_ + confounded by the dotage of superstition. Instead of reconciling + the parties by the weight of his authority, he cherished and + promulgated, by verbal disputes, the differences which his vain + curiosity had excited. The highways were covered with troops of + bishops galloping from every side to the assemblies, which they + call synods; and while they labored to reduce the whole sect to + their own particular opinions, the public establishment of the + posts was almost ruined by their hasty and repeated journeys.” 91 + Our more intimate knowledge of the ecclesiastical transactions of + the reign of Constantius would furnish an ample commentary on + this remarkable passage, which justifies the rational + apprehensions of Athanasius, that the restless activity of the + clergy, who wandered round the empire in search of the true + faith, would excite the contempt and laughter of the unbelieving + world. 92 As soon as the emperor was relieved from the terrors of + the civil war, he devoted the leisure of his winter quarters at + Arles, Milan, Sirmium, and Constantinople, to the amusement or + toils of controversy: the sword of the magistrate, and even of + the tyrant, was unsheathed, to enforce the reasons of the + theologian; and as he opposed the orthodox faith of Nice, it is + readily confessed that his incapacity and ignorance were equal to + his presumption. 93 The eunuchs, the women, and the bishops, who + governed the vain and feeble mind of the emperor, had inspired + him with an insuperable dislike to the Homoousion; but his timid + conscience was alarmed by the impiety of Ætius. The guilt of that + atheist was aggravated by the suspicious favor of the unfortunate + Gallus; and even the death of the Imperial ministers, who had + been massacred at Antioch, were imputed to the suggestions of + that dangerous sophist. The mind of Constantius, which could + neither be moderated by reason, nor fixed by faith, was blindly + impelled to either side of the dark and empty abyss, by his + horror of the opposite extreme; he alternately embraced and + condemned the sentiments, he successively banished and recalled + the leaders, of the Arian and Semi-Arian factions. 94 During the + season of public business or festivity, he employed whole days, + and even nights, in selecting the words, and weighing the + syllables, which composed his fluctuating creeds. The subject of + his meditations still pursued and occupied his slumbers: the + incoherent dreams of the emperor were received as celestial + visions, and he accepted with complacency the lofty title of + bishop of bishops, from those ecclesiastics who forgot the + interest of their order for the gratification of their passions. + The design of establishing a uniformity of doctrine, which had + engaged him to convene so many synods in Gaul, Italy, Illyricum, + and Asia, was repeatedly baffled by his own levity, by the + divisions of the Arians, and by the resistance of the Catholics; + and he resolved, as the last and decisive effort, imperiously to + dictate the decrees of a general council. The destructive + earthquake of Nicomedia, the difficulty of finding a convenient + place, and perhaps some secret motives of policy, produced an + alteration in the summons. The bishops of the East were directed + to meet at Seleucia, in Isauria; while those of the West held + their deliberations at Rimini, on the coast of the Hadriatic; and + instead of two or three deputies from each province, the whole + episcopal body was ordered to march. The Eastern council, after + consuming four days in fierce and unavailing debate, separated + without any definitive conclusion. The council of the West was + protracted till the seventh month. Taurus, the Prætorian præfect + was instructed not to dismiss the prelates till they should all + be united in the same opinion; and his efforts were supported by + the power of banishing fifteen of the most refractory, and a + promise of the consulship if he achieved so difficult an + adventure. His prayers and threats, the authority of the + sovereign, the sophistry of Valens and Ursacius, the distress of + cold and hunger, and the tedious melancholy of a hopeless exile, + at length extorted the reluctant consent of the bishops of + Rimini. The deputies of the East and of the West attended the + emperor in the palace of Constantinople, and he enjoyed the + satisfaction of imposing on the world a profession of faith which + established the _likeness_, without expressing the + _consubstantiality_, of the Son of God. 95 But the triumph of + Arianism had been preceded by the removal of the orthodox clergy, + whom it was impossible either to intimidate or to corrupt; and + the reign of Constantius was disgraced by the unjust and + ineffectual persecution of the great Athanasius. + + 91 (return) [ So curious a passage well deserves to be + transcribed. Christianam religionem absolutam et simplicem, anili + superstitione confundens; in qua scrutanda perplexius, quam + componenda gravius excitaret discidia plurima; quæ progressa + fusius aluit concertatione verborum, ut catervis antistium + jumentis publicis ultro citroque discarrentibus, per synodos + (quas appellant) dum ritum omnem ad suum sahere conantur + (Valesius reads _conatur_) rei vehiculariæ concideret servos. + Ammianus, xxi. 16.] + + 92 (return) [ Athanas. tom. i. p. 870.] + + 93 (return) [ Socrates, l. ii. c. 35-47. Sozomen, l. iv. c. + 12-30. Theodore li. c. 18-32. Philostorg. l. iv. c. 4—12, l. v. + c. 1-4, l. vi. c. 1-5] + + 94 (return) [ Sozomen, l. iv. c. 23. Athanas. tom. i. p. 831. + Tillemont (Mem Eccles. tom. vii. p. 947) has collected several + instances of the haughty fanaticism of Constantius from the + detached treatises of Lucifer of Cagliari. The very titles of + these treaties inspire zeal and terror; “Moriendum pro Dei + Filio.” “De Regibus Apostaticis.” “De non conveniendo cum + Hæretico.” “De non parcendo in Deum delinquentibus.”] + + 95 (return) [ Sulp. Sever. Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 418-430. The + Greek historians were very ignorant of the affairs of the West.] + + We have seldom an opportunity of observing, either in active or + speculative life, what effect may be produced, or what obstacles + may be surmounted, by the force of a single mind, when it is + inflexibly applied to the pursuit of a single object. The + immortal name of Athanasius 96 will never be separated from the + Catholic doctrine of the Trinity, to whose defence he consecrated + every moment and every faculty of his being. Educated in the + family of Alexander, he had vigorously opposed the early progress + of the Arian heresy: he exercised the important functions of + secretary under the aged prelate; and the fathers of the Nicene + council beheld with surprise and respect the rising virtues of + the young deacon. In a time of public danger, the dull claims of + age and of rank are sometimes superseded; and within five months + after his return from Nice, the deacon Athanasius was seated on + the archiepiscopal throne of Egypt. He filled that eminent + station above forty-six years, and his long administration was + spent in a perpetual combat against the powers of Arianism. Five + times was Athanasius expelled from his throne; twenty years he + passed as an exile or a fugitive: and almost every province of + the Roman empire was successively witness to his merit, and his + sufferings in the cause of the Homoousion, which he considered as + the sole pleasure and business, as the duty, and as the glory of + his life. Amidst the storms of persecution, the archbishop of + Alexandria was patient of labor, jealous of fame, careless of + safety; and although his mind was tainted by the contagion of + fanaticism, Athanasius displayed a superiority of character and + abilities, which would have qualified him, far better than the + degenerate sons of Constantine, for the government of a great + monarchy. His learning was much less profound and extensive than + that of Eusebius of Cæsarea, and his rude eloquence could not be + compared with the polished oratory of Gregory of Basil; but + whenever the primate of Egypt was called upon to justify his + sentiments, or his conduct, his unpremeditated style, either of + speaking or writing, was clear, forcible, and persuasive. He has + always been revered, in the orthodox school, as one of the most + accurate masters of the Christian theology; and he was supposed + to possess two profane sciences, less adapted to the episcopal + character, the knowledge of jurisprudence, 97 and that of + divination. 98 Some fortunate conjectures of future events, which + impartial reasoners might ascribe to the experience and judgment + of Athanasius, were attributed by his friends to heavenly + inspiration, and imputed by his enemies to infernal magic. + + 96 (return) [ We may regret that Gregory Nazianzen composed a + panegyric instead of a life of Athanasius; but we should enjoy + and improve the advantage of drawing our most authentic materials + from the rich fund of his own epistles and apologies, (tom. i. p. + 670-951.) I shall not imitate the example of Socrates, (l. ii. c. + l.) who published the first edition of the history, without + giving himself the trouble to consult the writings of Athanasius. + Yet even Socrates, the more curious Sozomen, and the learned + Theodoret, connect the life of Athanasius with the series of + ecclesiastical history. The diligence of Tillemont, (tom. viii,) + and of the Benedictine editors, has collected every fact, and + examined every difficulty] + + 97 (return) [ Sulpicius Severus (Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 396) + calls him a lawyer, a jurisconsult. This character cannot now be + discovered either in the life or writings of Athanasius.] + + 98 (return) [ Dicebatur enim fatidicarum sortium fidem, quæve + augurales portenderent alites scientissime callens aliquoties + prædixisse futura. Ammianus, xv. 7. A prophecy, or rather a joke, + is related by Sozomen, (l. iv c. 10,) which evidently proves (if + the crows speak Latin) that Athanasius understood the language of + the crows.] + + But as Athanasius was continually engaged with the prejudices and + passions of every order of men, from the monk to the emperor, the + knowledge of human nature was his first and most important + science. He preserved a distinct and unbroken view of a scene + which was incessantly shifting; and never failed to improve those + decisive moments which are irrecoverably past before they are + perceived by a common eye. The archbishop of Alexandria was + capable of distinguishing how far he might boldly command, and + where he must dexterously insinuate; how long he might contend + with power, and when he must withdraw from persecution; and while + he directed the thunders of the church against heresy and + rebellion, he could assume, in the bosom of his own party, the + flexible and indulgent temper of a prudent leader. The election + of Athanasius has not escaped the reproach of irregularity and + precipitation; 99 but the propriety of his behavior conciliated + the affections both of the clergy and of the people. The + Alexandrians were impatient to rise in arms for the defence of an + eloquent and liberal pastor. In his distress he always derived + support, or at least consolation, from the faithful attachment of + his parochial clergy; and the hundred bishops of Egypt adhered, + with unshaken zeal, to the cause of Athanasius. In the modest + equipage which pride and policy would affect, he frequently + performed the episcopal visitation of his provinces, from the + mouth of the Nile to the confines of Æthiopia; familiarly + conversing with the meanest of the populace, and humbly saluting + the saints and hermits of the desert. 100 Nor was it only in + ecclesiastical assemblies, among men whose education and manners + were similar to his own, that Athanasius displayed the ascendancy + of his genius. He appeared with easy and respectful firmness in + the courts of princes; and in the various turns of his prosperous + and adverse fortune he never lost the confidence of his friends, + or the esteem of his enemies. + + 99 (return) [ The irregular ordination of Athanasius was slightly + mentioned in the councils which were held against him. See + Philostorg. l. ii. c. 11, and Godefroy, p. 71; but it can + scarcely be supposed that the assembly of the bishops of Egypt + would solemnly attest a _public_ falsehood. Athanas. tom. i. p. + 726.] + + 100 (return) [ See the history of the Fathers of the Desert, + published by Rosweide; and Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vii., in + the lives of Antony, Pachomius, &c. Athanasius himself, who did + not disdain to compose the life of his friend Antony, has + carefully observed how often the holy monk deplored and + prophesied the mischiefs of the Arian heresy Athanas. tom. ii. p. + 492, 498, &c.] + + In his youth, the primate of Egypt resisted the great + Constantine, who had repeatedly signified his will, that Arius + should be restored to the Catholic communion. 101 The emperor + respected, and might forgive, this inflexible resolution; and the + faction who considered Athanasius as their most formidable enemy, + was constrained to dissemble their hatred, and silently to + prepare an indirect and distant assault. They scattered rumors + and suspicions, represented the archbishop as a proud and + oppressive tyrant, and boldly accused him of violating the treaty + which had been ratified in the Nicene council, with the + schismatic followers of Meletius. 102 Athanasius had openly + disapproved that ignominious peace, and the emperor was disposed + to believe that he had abused his ecclesiastical and civil power, + to prosecute those odious sectaries: that he had sacrilegiously + broken a chalice in one of their churches of Mareotis; that he + had whipped or imprisoned six of their bishops; and that + Arsenius, a seventh bishop of the same party, had been murdered, + or at least mutilated, by the cruel hand of the primate. 103 + These charges, which affected his honor and his life, were + referred by Constantine to his brother Dalmatius the censor, who + resided at Antioch; the synods of Cæsarea and Tyre were + successively convened; and the bishops of the East were + instructed to judge the cause of Athanasius, before they + proceeded to consecrate the new church of the Resurrection at + Jerusalem. The primate might be conscious of his innocence; but + he was sensible that the same implacable spirit which had + dictated the accusation, would direct the proceeding, and + pronounce the sentence. He prudently declined the tribunal of his + enemies; despised the summons of the synod of Cæsarea; and, after + a long and artful delay, submitted to the peremptory commands of + the emperor, who threatened to punish his criminal disobedience + if he refused to appear in the council of Tyre. 104 Before + Athanasius, at the head of fifty Egyptian prelates, sailed from + Alexandria, he had wisely secured the alliance of the Meletians; + and Arsenius himself, his imaginary victim, and his secret + friend, was privately concealed in his train. The synod of Tyre + was conducted by Eusebius of Cæsarea, with more passion, and with + less art, than his learning and experience might promise; his + numerous faction repeated the names of homicide and tyrant; and + their clamors were encouraged by the seeming patience of + Athanasius, who expected the decisive moment to produce Arsenius + alive and unhurt in the midst of the assembly. The nature of the + other charges did not admit of such clear and satisfactory + replies; yet the archbishop was able to prove, that in the + village, where he was accused of breaking a consecrated chalice, + neither church nor altar nor chalice could really exist. + + The Arians, who had secretly determined the guilt and + condemnation of their enemy, attempted, however, to disguise + their injustice by the imitation of judicial forms: the synod + appointed an episcopal commission of six delegates to collect + evidence on the spot; and this measure which was vigorously + opposed by the Egyptian bishops, opened new scenes of violence + and perjury. 105 After the return of the deputies from + Alexandria, the majority of the council pronounced the final + sentence of degradation and exile against the primate of Egypt. + The decree, expressed in the fiercest language of malice and + revenge, was communicated to the emperor and the Catholic church; + and the bishops immediately resumed a mild and devout aspect, + such as became their holy pilgrimage to the Sepulchre of Christ. + 106 + + 101 (return) [ At first Constantine threatened in _speaking_, but + requested in _writing_. His letters gradually assumed a menacing + tone; by while he required that the entrance of the church should + be open to _all_, he avoided the odious name of Arius. + Athanasius, like a skilful politician, has accurately marked + these distinctions, (tom. i. p. 788.) which allowed him some + scope for excuse and delay] + + 102 (return) [ The Meletians in Egypt, like the Donatists in + Africa, were produced by an episcopal quarrel which arose from + the persecution. I have not leisure to pursue the obscure + controversy, which seems to have been misrepresented by the + partiality of Athanasius and the ignorance of Epiphanius. See + Mosheim’s General History of the Church, vol. i. p. 201.] + + 103 (return) [ The treatment of the six bishops is specified by + Sozomen, (l. ii. c. 25;) but Athanasius himself, so copious on + the subject of Arsenius and the chalice, leaves this grave + accusation without a reply. Note: This grave charge, if made, + (and it rests entirely on the authority of Soz omen,) seems to + have been silently dropped by the parties themselves: it is never + alluded to in the subsequent investigations. From Sozomen + himself, who gives the unfavorable report of the commission of + inquiry sent to Egypt concerning the cup. it does not appear that + they noticed this accusation of personal violence.—M] + + 104 (return) [ Athanas, tom. i. p. 788. Socrates, l. i.c. 28. + Sozomen, l. ii. c 25. The emperor, in his Epistle of Convocation, + (Euseb. in Vit. Constant. l. iv. c. 42,) seems to prejudge some + members of the clergy and it was more than probable that the + synod would apply those reproaches to Athanasius.] + + 105 (return) [ See, in particular, the second Apology of + Athanasius, (tom. i. p. 763-808,) and his Epistles to the Monks, + (p. 808-866.) They are justified by original and authentic + documents; but they would inspire more confidence if he appeared + less innocent, and his enemies less absurd.] + + 106 (return) [ Eusebius in Vit. Constantin. l. iv. c. 41-47.] + + + + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part V. + + + But the injustice of these ecclesiastical judges had not been + countenanced by the submission, or even by the presence, of + Athanasius. He resolved to make a bold and dangerous experiment, + whether the throne was inaccessible to the voice of truth; and + before the final sentence could be pronounced at Tyre, the + intrepid primate threw himself into a bark which was ready to + hoist sail for the Imperial city. The request of a formal + audience might have been opposed or eluded; but Athanasius + concealed his arrival, watched the moment of Constantine’s return + from an adjacent villa, and boldly encountered his angry + sovereign as he passed on horseback through the principal street + of Constantinople. So strange an apparition excited his surprise + and indignation; and the guards were ordered to remove the + importunate suitor; but his resentment was subdued by involuntary + respect; and the haughty spirit of the emperor was awed by the + courage and eloquence of a bishop, who implored his justice and + awakened his conscience. 107 Constantine listened to the + complaints of Athanasius with impartial and even gracious + attention; the members of the synod of Tyre were summoned to + justify their proceedings; and the arts of the Eusebian faction + would have been confounded, if they had not aggravated the guilt + of the primate, by the dexterous supposition of an unpardonable + offence; a criminal design to intercept and detain the corn-fleet + of Alexandria, which supplied the subsistence of the new capital. + 108 The emperor was satisfied that the peace of Egypt would be + secured by the absence of a popular leader; but he refused to + fill the vacancy of the archiepiscopal throne; and the sentence, + which, after long hesitation, he pronounced, was that of a + jealous ostracism, rather than of an ignominious exile. In the + remote province of Gaul, but in the hospitable court of Treves, + Athanasius passed about twenty eight months. The death of the + emperor changed the face of public affairs and, amidst the + general indulgence of a young reign, the primate was restored to + his country by an honorable edict of the younger Constantine, who + expressed a deep sense of the innocence and merit of his + venerable guest. 109 + + 107 (return) [ Athanas. tom. i. p. 804. In a church dedicated to + St. Athanasius this situation would afford a better subject for a + picture, than most of the stories of miracles and martyrdoms.] + + 108 (return) [ Athanas. tom. i. p. 729. Eunapius has related (in + Vit. Sophist. p. 36, 37, edit. Commelin) a strange example of the + cruelty and credulity of Constantine on a similar occasion. The + eloquent Sopater, a Syrian philosopher, enjoyed his friendship, + and provoked the resentment of Ablavius, his Prætorian præfect. + The corn-fleet was detained for want of a south wind; the people + of Constantinople were discontented; and Sopater was beheaded, on + a charge that he had _bound_ the winds by the power of magic. + Suidas adds, that Constantine wished to prove, by this execution, + that he had absolutely renounced the superstition of the + Gentiles.] + + 109 (return) [ In his return he saw Constantius twice, at + Viminiacum, and at Cæsarea in Cappadocia, (Athanas. tom. i. p. + 676.) Tillemont supposes that Constantine introduced him to the + meeting of the three royal brothers in Pannonia, (Mémoires + Eccles. tom. viii. p. 69.)] + + The death of that prince exposed Athanasius to a second + persecution; and the feeble Constantius, the sovereign of the + East, soon became the secret accomplice of the Eusebians. Ninety + bishops of that sect or faction assembled at Antioch, under the + specious pretence of dedicating the cathedral. They composed an + ambiguous creed, which is faintly tinged with the colors of + Semi-Arianism, and twenty-five canons, which still regulate the + discipline of the orthodox Greeks. 110 It was decided, with some + appearance of equity, that a bishop, deprived by a synod, should + not resume his episcopal functions till he had been absolved by + the judgment of an equal synod; the law was immediately applied + to the case of Athanasius; the council of Antioch pronounced, or + rather confirmed, his degradation: a stranger, named Gregory, was + seated on his throne; and Philagrius, 111 the præfect of Egypt, + was instructed to support the new primate with the civil and + military powers of the province. Oppressed by the conspiracy of + the Asiatic prelates, Athanasius withdrew from Alexandria, and + passed three years 112 as an exile and a suppliant on the holy + threshold of the Vatican. 113 By the assiduous study of the Latin + language, he soon qualified himself to negotiate with the western + clergy; his decent flattery swayed and directed the haughty + Julius; the Roman pontiff was persuaded to consider his appeal as + the peculiar interest of the Apostolic see: and his innocence was + unanimously declared in a council of fifty bishops of Italy. At + the end of three years, the primate was summoned to the court of + Milan by the emperor Constans, who, in the indulgence of unlawful + pleasures, still professed a lively regard for the orthodox + faith. The cause of truth and justice was promoted by the + influence of gold, 114 and the ministers of Constans advised + their sovereign to require the convocation of an ecclesiastical + assembly, which might act as the representatives of the Catholic + church. Ninety-four bishops of the West, seventy-six bishops of + the East, encountered each other at Sardica, on the verge of the + two empires, but in the dominions of the protector of Athanasius. + Their debates soon degenerated into hostile altercations; the + Asiatics, apprehensive for their personal safety, retired to + Philippopolis in Thrace; and the rival synods reciprocally hurled + their spiritual thunders against their enemies, whom they piously + condemned as the enemies of the true God. Their decrees were + published and ratified in their respective provinces: and + Athanasius, who in the West was revered as a saint, was exposed + as a criminal to the abhorrence of the East. 115 The council of + Sardica reveals the first symptoms of discord and schism between + the Greek and Latin churches which were separated by the + accidental difference of faith, and the permanent distinction of + language. + + 110 (return) [ See Beveridge, Pandect. tom. i. p. 429-452, and + tom. ii. Annotation. p. 182. Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. + 310-324. St. Hilary of Poitiers has mentioned this synod of + Antioch with too much favor and respect. He reckons ninety-seven + bishops.] + + 111 (return) [ This magistrate, so odious to Athanasius, is + praised by Gregory Nazianzen, tom. i. Orat. xxi. p. 390, 391. + + Sæpe premente Deo fert Deus alter opem. + + For the credit of human nature, I am always pleased to discover + some good qualities in those men whom party has represented as + tyrants and monsters.] + + 112 (return) [ The chronological difficulties which perplex the + residence of Athanasius at Rome, are strenuously agitated by + Valesius (Observat ad Calcem, tom. ii. Hist. Eccles. l. i. c. + 1-5) and Tillemont, (Men: Eccles. tom. viii. p. 674, &c.) I have + followed the simple hypothesis of Valesius, who allows only one + journey, after the intrusion Gregory.] + + 113 (return) [ I cannot forbear transcribing a judicious + observation of Wetstein, (Prolegomen. N.S. p. 19: ) Si tamen + Historiam Ecclesiasticam velimus consulere, patebit jam inde a + seculo quarto, cum, ortis controversiis, ecclesiæ Græciæ doctores + in duas partes scinderentur, ingenio, eloquentia, numero, tantum + non æquales, eam partem quæ vincere cupiebat Romam confugisse, + majestatemque pontificis comiter coluisse, eoque pacto oppressis + per pontificem et episcopos Latinos adversariis prævaluisse, + atque orthodoxiam in conciliis stabilivisse. Eam ob causam + Athanasius, non sine comitatu, Roman petiit, pluresque annos ibi + hæsit.] + + 114 (return) [ Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 12. If any corruption + was used to promote the interest of religion, an advocate of + Athanasius might justify or excuse this questionable conduct, by + the example of Cato and Sidney; the former of whom is _said_ to + have given, and the latter to have received, a bribe in the cause + of liberty.] + + 115 (return) [ The canon which allows appeals to the Roman + pontiffs, has almost raised the council of Sardica to the dignity + of a general council; and its acts have been ignorantly or + artfully confounded with those of the Nicene synod. See + Tillemont, tom. vii. p. 689, and Geddos’s Tracts, vol. ii. p. + 419-460.] + + During his second exile in the West, Athanasius was frequently + admitted to the Imperial presence; at Capua, Lodi, Milan, Verona, + Padua, Aquileia, and Treves. The bishop of the diocese usually + assisted at these interviews; the master of the offices stood + before the veil or curtain of the sacred apartment; and the + uniform moderation of the primate might be attested by these + respectable witnesses, to whose evidence he solemnly appeals. 116 + Prudence would undoubtedly suggest the mild and respectful tone + that became a subject and a bishop. In these familiar conferences + with the sovereign of the West, Athanasius might lament the error + of Constantius, but he boldly arraigned the guilt of his eunuchs + and his Arian prelates; deplored the distress and danger of the + Catholic church; and excited Constans to emulate the zeal and + glory of his father. The emperor declared his resolution of + employing the troops and treasures of Europe in the orthodox + cause; and signified, by a concise and peremptory epistle to his + brother Constantius, that unless he consented to the immediate + restoration of Athanasius, he himself, with a fleet and army, + would seat the archbishop on the throne of Alexandria. 117 But + this religious war, so horrible to nature, was prevented by the + timely compliance of Constantius; and the emperor of the East + condescended to solicit a reconciliation with a subject whom he + had injured. Athanasius waited with decent pride, till he had + received three successive epistles full of the strongest + assurances of the protection, the favor, and the esteem of his + sovereign; who invited him to resume his episcopal seat, and who + added the humiliating precaution of engaging his principal + ministers to attest the sincerity of his intentions. They were + manifested in a still more public manner, by the strict orders + which were despatched into Egypt to recall the adherents of + Athanasius, to restore their privileges, to proclaim their + innocence, and to erase from the public registers the illegal + proceedings which had been obtained during the prevalence of the + Eusebian faction. After every satisfaction and security had been + given, which justice or even delicacy could require, the primate + proceeded, by slow journeys, through the provinces of Thrace, + Asia, and Syria; and his progress was marked by the abject homage + of the Oriental bishops, who excited his contempt without + deceiving his penetration. 118 At Antioch he saw the emperor + Constantius; sustained, with modest firmness, the embraces and + protestations of his master, and eluded the proposal of allowing + the Arians a single church at Alexandria, by claiming, in the + other cities of the empire, a similar toleration for his own + party; a reply which might have appeared just and moderate in the + mouth of an independent prince. The entrance of the archbishop + into his capital was a triumphal procession; absence and + persecution had endeared him to the Alexandrians; his authority, + which he exercised with rigor, was more firmly established; and + his fame was diffused from Æthiopia to Britain, over the whole + extent of the Christian world. 119 + + 116 (return) [ As Athanasius dispersed secret invectives against + Constantius, (see the Epistle to the Monks,) at the same time + that he assured him of his profound respect, we might distrust + the professions of the archbishop. Tom. i. p. 677.] + + 117 (return) [ Notwithstanding the discreet silence of + Athanasius, and the manifest forgery of a letter inserted by + Socrates, these menaces are proved by the unquestionable evidence + of Lucifer of Cagliari, and even of Constantius himself. See + Tillemont, tom. viii. p. 693] + + 118 (return) [ I have always entertained some doubts concerning + the retraction of Ursacius and Valens, (Athanas. tom. i. p. 776.) + Their epistles to Julius, bishop of Rome, and to Athanasius + himself, are of so different a cast from each other, that they + cannot both be genuine. The one speaks the language of criminals + who confess their guilt and infamy; the other of enemies, who + solicit on equal terms an honorable reconciliation. * Note: I + cannot quite comprehend the ground of Gibbon’s doubts. Athanasius + distinctly asserts the fact of their retractation. (Athan. Op. i. + p. 124, edit. Benedict.) The epistles are apparently translations + from the Latin, if, in fact, more than the substance of the + epistles. That to Athanasius is brief, almost abrupt. Their + retractation is likewise mentioned in the address of the orthodox + bishops of Rimini to Constantius. Athan. de Synodis, Op t. i. p + 723-M.] + + 119 (return) [ The circumstances of his second return may be + collected from Athanasius himself, tom. i. p. 769, and 822, 843. + Socrates, l. ii. c. 18, Sozomen, l. iii. c. 19. Theodoret, l. ii. + c. 11, 12. Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 12.] + + But the subject who has reduced his prince to the necessity of + dissembling, can never expect a sincere and lasting forgiveness; + and the tragic fate of Constans soon deprived Athanasius of a + powerful and generous protector. The civil war between the + assassin and the only surviving brother of Constans, which + afflicted the empire above three years, secured an interval of + repose to the Catholic church; and the two contending parties + were desirous to conciliate the friendship of a bishop, who, by + the weight of his personal authority, might determine the + fluctuating resolutions of an important province. He gave + audience to the ambassadors of the tyrant, with whom he was + afterwards accused of holding a secret correspondence; 120 and + the emperor Constantius repeatedly assured his dearest father, + the most reverend Athanasius, that, notwithstanding the malicious + rumors which were circulated by their common enemies, he had + inherited the sentiments, as well as the throne, of his deceased + brother. 121 Gratitude and humanity would have disposed the + primate of Egypt to deplore the untimely fate of Constans, and to + abhor the guilt of Magnentius; but as he clearly understood that + the apprehensions of Constantius were his only safeguard, the + fervor of his prayers for the success of the righteous cause + might perhaps be somewhat abated. The ruin of Athanasius was no + longer contrived by the obscure malice of a few bigoted or angry + bishops, who abused the authority of a credulous monarch. The + monarch himself avowed the resolution, which he had so long + suppressed, of avenging his private injuries; 122 and the first + winter after his victory, which he passed at Arles, was employed + against an enemy more odious to him than the vanquished tyrant of + Gaul. + + 120 (return) [ Athanasius (tom. i. p. 677, 678) defends his + innocence by pathetic complaints, solemn assertions, and specious + arguments. He admits that letters had been forged in his name, + but he requests that his own secretaries and those of the tyrant + might be examined, whether those letters had been written by the + former, or received by the latter.] + + 121 (return) [ Athanas. tom. i. p. 825-844.] + + 122 (return) [ Athanas. tom. i. p. 861. Theodoret, l. ii. c. 16. + The emperor declared that he was more desirous to subdue + Athanasius, than he had been to vanquish Magnentius or Sylvanus.] + + If the emperor had capriciously decreed the death of the most + eminent and virtuous citizen of the republic, the cruel order + would have been executed without hesitation, by the ministers of + open violence or of specious injustice. The caution, the delay, + the difficulty with which he proceeded in the condemnation and + punishment of a popular bishop, discovered to the world that the + privileges of the church had already revived a sense of order and + freedom in the Roman government. The sentence which was + pronounced in the synod of Tyre, and subscribed by a large + majority of the Eastern bishops, had never been expressly + repealed; and as Athanasius had been once degraded from his + episcopal dignity by the judgment of his brethren, every + subsequent act might be considered as irregular, and even + criminal. But the memory of the firm and effectual support which + the primate of Egypt had derived from the attachment of the + Western church, engaged Constantius to suspend the execution of + the sentence till he had obtained the concurrence of the Latin + bishops. Two years were consumed in ecclesiastical negotiations; + and the important cause between the emperor and one of his + subjects was solemnly debated, first in the synod of Arles, and + afterwards in the great council of Milan, 123 which consisted of + above three hundred bishops. Their integrity was gradually + undermined by the arguments of the Arians, the dexterity of the + eunuchs, and the pressing solicitations of a prince who gratified + his revenge at the expense of his dignity, and exposed his own + passions, whilst he influenced those of the clergy. Corruption, + the most infallible symptom of constitutional liberty, was + successfully practised; honors, gifts, and immunities were + offered and accepted as the price of an episcopal vote; 124 and + the condemnation of the Alexandrian primate was artfully + represented as the only measure which could restore the peace and + union of the Catholic church. The friends of Athanasius were not, + however, wanting to their leader, or to their cause. With a manly + spirit, which the sanctity of their character rendered less + dangerous, they maintained, in public debate, and in private + conference with the emperor, the eternal obligation of religion + and justice. They declared, that neither the hope of his favor, + nor the fear of his displeasure, should prevail on them to join + in the condemnation of an absent, an innocent, a respectable + brother. 125 They affirmed, with apparent reason, that the + illegal and obsolete decrees of the council of Tyre had long + since been tacitly abolished by the Imperial edicts, the + honorable reestablishment of the archbishop of Alexandria, and + the silence or recantation of his most clamorous adversaries. + They alleged, that his innocence had been attested by the + unanimous bishops of Egypt, and had been acknowledged in the + councils of Rome and Sardica, 126 by the impartial judgment of + the Latin church. They deplored the hard condition of Athanasius, + who, after enjoying so many years his seat, his reputation, and + the seeming confidence of his sovereign, was again called upon to + confute the most groundless and extravagant accusations. Their + language was specious; their conduct was honorable: but in this + long and obstinate contest, which fixed the eyes of the whole + empire on a single bishop, the ecclesiastical factions were + prepared to sacrifice truth and justice to the more interesting + object of defending or removing the intrepid champion of the + Nicene faith. The Arians still thought it prudent to disguise, in + ambiguous language, their real sentiments and designs; but the + orthodox bishops, armed with the favor of the people, and the + decrees of a general council, insisted on every occasion, and + particularly at Milan, that their adversaries should purge + themselves from the suspicion of heresy, before they presumed to + arraign the conduct of the great Athanasius. 127 + + 123 (return) [ The affairs of the council of Milan are so + imperfectly and erroneously related by the Greek writers, that we + must rejoice in the supply of some letters of Eusebius, extracted + by Baronius from the archives of the church of Vercellæ, and of + an old life of Dionysius of Milan, published by Bollandus. See + Baronius, A.D. 355, and Tillemont, tom. vii. p. 1415.] + + 124 (return) [ The honors, presents, feasts, which seduced so + many bishops, are mentioned with indignation by those who were + too pure or too proud to accept them. “We combat (says Hilary of + Poitiers) against Constantius the Antichrist; who strokes the + belly instead of scourging the back;” qui non dorsa cædit; sed + ventrem palpat. Hilarius contra Constant c. 5, p. 1240.] + + 125 (return) [ Something of this opposition is mentioned by + Ammianus (x. 7,) who had a very dark and superficial knowledge of + ecclesiastical history. Liberius... perseveranter renitebatur, + nec visum hominem, nec auditum damnare, nefas ultimum sæpe + exclamans; aperte scilicet recalcitrans Imperatoris arbitrio. Id + enim ille Athanasio semper infestus, &c.] + + 126 (return) [ More properly by the orthodox part of the council + of Sardica. If the bishops of both parties had fairly voted, the + division would have been 94 to 76. M. de Tillemont (see tom. + viii. p. 1147-1158) is justly surprised that so small a majority + should have proceeded as vigorously against their adversaries, + the principal of whom they immediately deposed.] + + 127 (return) [ Sulp. Severus in Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. 412.] + + But the voice of reason (if reason was indeed on the side of + Athanasius) was silenced by the clamors of a factious or venal + majority; and the councils of Arles and Milan were not dissolved, + till the archbishop of Alexandria had been solemnly condemned and + deposed by the judgment of the Western, as well as of the + Eastern, church. The bishops who had opposed, were required to + subscribe, the sentence, and to unite in religious communion with + the suspected leaders of the adverse party. A formulary of + consent was transmitted by the messengers of state to the absent + bishops: and all those who refused to submit their private + opinion to the public and inspired wisdom of the councils of + Arles and Milan, were immediately banished by the emperor, who + affected to execute the decrees of the Catholic church. Among + those prelates who led the honorable band of confessors and + exiles, Liberius of Rome, Osius of Cordova, Paulinus of Treves, + Dionysius of Milan, Eusebius of Vercellæ, Lucifer of Cagliari and + Hilary of Poitiers, may deserve to be particularly distinguished. + The eminent station of Liberius, who governed the capital of the + empire; the personal merit and long experience of the venerable + Osius, who was revered as the favorite of the great Constantine, + and the father of the Nicene faith, placed those prelates at the + head of the Latin church: and their example, either of submission + or resistance, would probable be imitated by the episcopal crowd. + But the repeated attempts of the emperor to seduce or to + intimidate the bishops of Rome and Cordova, were for some time + ineffectual. The Spaniard declared himself ready to suffer under + Constantius, as he had suffered threescore years before under his + grandfather Maximian. The Roman, in the presence of his + sovereign, asserted the innocence of Athanasius and his own + freedom. When he was banished to Beræa in Thrace, he sent back a + large sum which had been offered for the accommodation of his + journey; and insulted the court of Milan by the haughty remark, + that the emperor and his eunuchs might want that gold to pay + their soldiers and their bishops. 128 The resolution of Liberius + and Osius was at length subdued by the hardships of exile and + confinement. The Roman pontiff purchased his return by some + criminal compliances; and afterwards expiated his guilt by a + seasonable repentance. Persuasion and violence were employed to + extort the reluctant signature of the decrepit bishop of Cordova, + whose strength was broken, and whose faculties were perhaps + impaired by the weight of a hundred years; and the insolent + triumph of the Arians provoked some of the orthodox party to + treat with inhuman severity the character, or rather the memory, + of an unfortunate old man, to whose former services Christianity + itself was so deeply indebted. 129 + + 128 (return) [ The exile of Liberius is mentioned by Ammianus, + xv. 7. See Theodoret, l. ii. c. 16. Athanas. tom. i. p. 834-837. + Hilar. Fragment l.] + + 129 (return) [ The life of Osius is collected by Tillemont, (tom. + vii. p. 524-561,) who in the most extravagant terms first + admires, and then reprobates, the bishop of Cordova. In the midst + of their lamentations on his fall, the prudence of Athanasius may + be distinguished from the blind and intemperate zeal of Hilary.] + + The fall of Liberius and Osius reflected a brighter lustre on the + firmness of those bishops who still adhered, with unshaken + fidelity, to the cause of Athanasius and religious truth. The + ingenious malice of their enemies had deprived them of the + benefit of mutual comfort and advice, separated those illustrious + exiles into distant provinces, and carefully selected the most + inhospitable spots of a great empire. 130 Yet they soon + experienced that the deserts of Libya, and the most barbarous + tracts of Cappadocia, were less inhospitable than the residence + of those cities in which an Arian bishop could satiate, without + restraint, the exquisite rancor of theological hatred. 131 Their + consolation was derived from the consciousness of rectitude and + independence, from the applause, the visits, the letters, and the + liberal alms of their adherents, 132 and from the satisfaction + which they soon enjoyed of observing the intestine divisions of + the adversaries of the Nicene faith. Such was the nice and + capricious taste of the emperor Constantius; and so easily was he + offended by the slightest deviation from his imaginary standard + of Christian truth, that he persecuted, with equal zeal, those + who defended the _consubstantiality_, those who asserted the + _similar substance_, and those who denied the _likeness_ of the + Son of God. Three bishops, degraded and banished for those + adverse opinions, might possibly meet in the same place of exile; + and, according to the difference of their temper, might either + pity or insult the blind enthusiasm of their antagonists, whose + present sufferings would never be compensated by future + happiness. + + 130 (return) [ The confessors of the West were successively + banished to the deserts of Arabia or Thebais, the lonely places + of Mount Taurus, the wildest parts of Phrygia, which were in the + possession of the impious Montanists, &c. When the heretic Ætius + was too favorably entertained at Mopsuestia in Cilicia, the place + of his exile was changed, by the advice of Acacius, to Amblada, a + district inhabited by savages and infested by war and pestilence. + Philostorg. l. v. c. 2.] + + 131 (return) [ See the cruel treatment and strange obstinacy of + Eusebius, in his own letters, published by Baronius, A.D. 356, + No. 92-102.] + + 132 (return) [ Cæterum exules satis constat, totius orbis studiis + celebratos pecuniasque eis in sumptum affatim congestas, + legationibus quoque plebis Catholicæ ex omnibus fere provinciis + frequentatos. Sulp. Sever Hist. Sacra, p. 414. Athanas. tom. i. + p. 836, 840.] + + The disgrace and exile of the orthodox bishops of the West were + designed as so many preparatory steps to the ruin of Athanasius + himself. 133 Six-and-twenty months had elapsed, during which the + Imperial court secretly labored, by the most insidious arts, to + remove him from Alexandria, and to withdraw the allowance which + supplied his popular liberality. But when the primate of Egypt, + deserted and proscribed by the Latin church, was left destitute + of any foreign support, Constantius despatched two of his + secretaries with a verbal commission to announce and execute the + order of his banishment. As the justice of the sentence was + publicly avowed by the whole party, the only motive which could + restrain Constantius from giving his messengers the sanction of a + written mandate, must be imputed to his doubt of the event; and + to a sense of the danger to which he might expose the second + city, and the most fertile province, of the empire, if the people + should persist in the resolution of defending, by force of arms, + the innocence of their spiritual father. Such extreme caution + afforded Athanasius a specious pretence respectfully to dispute + the truth of an order, which he could not reconcile, either with + the equity, or with the former declarations, of his gracious + master. The civil powers of Egypt found themselves inadequate to + the task of persuading or compelling the primate to abdicate his + episcopal throne; and they were obliged to conclude a treaty with + the popular leaders of Alexandria, by which it was stipulated, + that all proceedings and all hostilities should be suspended till + the emperor’s pleasure had been more distinctly ascertained. By + this seeming moderation, the Catholics were deceived into a false + and fatal security; while the legions of the Upper Egypt, and of + Libya, advanced, by secret orders and hasty marches, to besiege, + or rather to surprise, a capital habituated to sedition, and + inflamed by religious zeal. 134 The position of Alexandria, + between the sea and the Lake Mareotis, facilitated the approach + and landing of the troops; who were introduced into the heart of + the city, before any effectual measures could be taken either to + shut the gates or to occupy the important posts of defence. At + the hour of midnight, twenty-three days after the signature of + the treaty, Syrianus, duke of Egypt, at the head of five thousand + soldiers, armed and prepared for an assault, unexpectedly + invested the church of St. Theonas, where the archbishop, with a + part of his clergy and people, performed their nocturnal + devotions. The doors of the sacred edifice yielded to the + impetuosity of the attack, which was accompanied with every + horrid circumstance of tumult and bloodshed; but, as the bodies + of the slain, and the fragments of military weapons, remained the + next day an unexceptionable evidence in the possession of the + Catholics, the enterprise of Syrianus may be considered as a + successful irruption rather than as an absolute conquest. The + other churches of the city were profaned by similar outrages; + and, during at least four months, Alexandria was exposed to the + insults of a licentious army, stimulated by the ecclesiastics of + a hostile faction. Many of the faithful were killed; who may + deserve the name of martyrs, if their deaths were neither + provoked nor revenged; bishops and presbyters were treated with + cruel ignominy; consecrated virgins were stripped naked, scourged + and violated; the houses of wealthy citizens were plundered; and, + under the mask of religious zeal, lust, avarice, and private + resentment were gratified with impunity, and even with applause. + The Pagans of Alexandria, who still formed a numerous and + discontented party, were easily persuaded to desert a bishop whom + they feared and esteemed. The hopes of some peculiar favors, and + the apprehension of being involved in the general penalties of + rebellion, engaged them to promise their support to the destined + successor of Athanasius, the famous George of Cappadocia. The + usurper, after receiving the consecration of an Arian synod, was + placed on the episcopal throne by the arms of Sebastian, who had + been appointed Count of Egypt for the execution of that important + design. In the use, as well as in the acquisition, of power, the + tyrant, George disregarded the laws of religion, of justice, and + of humanity; and the same scenes of violence and scandal which + had been exhibited in the capital, were repeated in more than + ninety episcopal cities of Egypt. Encouraged by success, + Constantius ventured to approve the conduct of his minister. By a + public and passionate epistle, the emperor congratulates the + deliverance of Alexandria from a popular tyrant, who deluded his + blind votaries by the magic of his eloquence; expatiates on the + virtues and piety of the most reverend George, the elected + bishop; and aspires, as the patron and benefactor of the city to + surpass the fame of Alexander himself. But he solemnly declares + his unalterable resolution to pursue with fire and sword the + seditious adherents of the wicked Athanasius, who, by flying from + justice, has confessed his guilt, and escaped the ignominious + death which he had so often deserved. 135 + + 133 (return) [ Ample materials for the history of this third + persecution of Athanasius may be found in his own works. See + particularly his very able Apology to Constantius, (tom. i. p. + 673,) his first Apology for his flight (p. 701,) his prolix + Epistle to the Solitaries, (p. 808,) and the original protest of + the people of Alexandria against the violences committed by + Syrianus, (p. 866.) Sozomen (l. iv. c. 9) has thrown into the + narrative two or three luminous and important circumstances.] + + 134 (return) [ Athanasius had lately sent for Antony, and some of + his chosen monks. They descended from their mountains, announced + to the Alexandrians the sanctity of Athanasius, and were + honorably conducted by the archbishop as far as the gates of the + city. Athanas tom. ii. p. 491, 492. See likewise Rufinus, iii. + 164, in Vit. Patr. p. 524.] + + 135 (return) [ Athanas. tom. i. p. 694. The emperor, or his Arian + secretaries while they express their resentment, betray their + fears and esteem of Athanasius.] + + + + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part VI. + + + Athanasius had indeed escaped from the most imminent dangers; and + the adventures of that extraordinary man deserve and fix our + attention. On the memorable night when the church of St. Theonas + was invested by the troops of Syrianus, the archbishop, seated on + his throne, expected, with calm and intrepid dignity, the + approach of death. While the public devotion was interrupted by + shouts of rage and cries of terror, he animated his trembling + congregation to express their religious confidence, by chanting + one of the psalms of David which celebrates the triumph of the + God of Israel over the haughty and impious tyrant of Egypt. The + doors were at length burst open: a cloud of arrows was discharged + among the people; the soldiers, with drawn swords, rushed + forwards into the sanctuary; and the dreadful gleam of their arms + was reflected by the holy luminaries which burnt round the altar. + 136 Athanasius still rejected the pious importunity of the monks + and presbyters, who were attached to his person; and nobly + refused to desert his episcopal station, till he had dismissed in + safety the last of the congregation. The darkness and tumult of + the night favored the retreat of the archbishop; and though he + was oppressed by the waves of an agitated multitude, though he + was thrown to the ground, and left without sense or motion, he + still recovered his undaunted courage, and eluded the eager + search of the soldiers, who were instructed by their Arian + guides, that the head of Athanasius would be the most acceptable + present to the emperor. From that moment the primate of Egypt + disappeared from the eyes of his enemies, and remained above six + years concealed in impenetrable obscurity. 137 + + 136 (return) [ These minute circumstances are curious, as they + are literally transcribed from the protest, which was publicly + presented three days afterwards by the Catholics of Alexandria. + See Athanas. tom. l. n. 867] + + 137 (return) [ The Jansenists have often compared Athanasius and + Arnauld, and have expatiated with pleasure on the faith and zeal, + the merit and exile, of those celebrated doctors. This concealed + parallel is very dexterously managed by the Abbé de la Bleterie, + Vie de Jovien, tom. i. p. 130.] + + The despotic power of his implacable enemy filled the whole + extent of the Roman world; and the exasperated monarch had + endeavored, by a very pressing epistle to the Christian princes + of Ethiopia, 13711 to exclude Athanasius from the most remote and + sequestered regions of the earth. Counts, præfects, tribunes, + whole armies, were successively employed to pursue a bishop and a + fugitive; the vigilance of the civil and military powers was + excited by the Imperial edicts; liberal rewards were promised to + the man who should produce Athanasius, either alive or dead; and + the most severe penalties were denounced against those who should + dare to protect the public enemy. 138 But the deserts of Thebais + were now peopled by a race of wild, yet submissive fanatics, who + preferred the commands of their abbot to the laws of their + sovereign. The numerous disciples of Antony and Pachonnus + received the fugitive primate as their father, admired the + patience and humility with which he conformed to their strictest + institutions, collected every word which dropped from his lips as + the genuine effusions of inspired wisdom; and persuaded + themselves that their prayers, their fasts, and their vigils, + were less meritorious than the zeal which they expressed, and the + dangers which they braved, in the defence of truth and innocence. + 139 The monasteries of Egypt were seated in lonely and desolate + places, on the summit of mountains, or in the islands of the + Nile; and the sacred horn or trumpet of Tabenne was the + well-known signal which assembled several thousand robust and + determined monks, who, for the most part, had been the peasants + of the adjacent country. When their dark retreats were invaded by + a military force, which it was impossible to resist, they + silently stretched out their necks to the executioner; and + supported their national character, that tortures could never + wrest from an Egyptian the confession of a secret which he was + resolved not to disclose. 140 The archbishop of Alexandria, for + whose safety they eagerly devoted their lives, was lost among a + uniform and well-disciplined multitude; and on the nearer + approach of danger, he was swiftly removed, by their officious + hands, from one place of concealment to another, till he reached + the formidable deserts, which the gloomy and credulous temper of + superstition had peopled with dæmons and savage monsters. The + retirement of Athanasius, which ended only with the life of + Constantius, was spent, for the most part, in the society of the + monks, who faithfully served him as guards, as secretaries, and + as messengers; but the importance of maintaining a more intimate + connection with the Catholic party tempted him, whenever the + diligence of the pursuit was abated, to emerge from the desert, + to introduce himself into Alexandria, and to trust his person to + the discretion of his friends and adherents. His various + adventures might have furnished the subject of a very + entertaining romance. He was once secreted in a dry cistern, + which he had scarcely left before he was betrayed by the + treachery of a female slave; 141 and he was once concealed in a + still more extraordinary asylum, the house of a virgin, only + twenty years of age, and who was celebrated in the whole city for + her exquisite beauty. At the hour of midnight, as she related the + story many years afterwards, she was surprised by the appearance + of the archbishop in a loose undress, who, advancing with hasty + steps, conjured her to afford him the protection which he had + been directed by a celestial vision to seek under her hospitable + roof. The pious maid accepted and preserved the sacred pledge + which was intrusted to her prudence and courage. Without + imparting the secret to any one, she instantly conducted + Athanasius into her most secret chamber, and watched over his + safety with the tenderness of a friend and the assiduity of a + servant. As long as the danger continued, she regularly supplied + him with books and provisions, washed his feet, managed his + correspondence, and dexterously concealed from the eye of + suspicion this familiar and solitary intercourse between a saint + whose character required the most unblemished chastity, and a + female whose charms might excite the most dangerous emotions. 142 + During the six years of persecution and exile, Athanasius + repeated his visits to his fair and faithful companion; and the + formal declaration, that he _saw_ the councils of Rimini and + Seleucia, 143 forces us to believe that he was secretly present + at the time and place of their convocation. The advantage of + personally negotiating with his friends, and of observing and + improving the divisions of his enemies, might justify, in a + prudent statesman, so bold and dangerous an enterprise: and + Alexandria was connected by trade and navigation with every + seaport of the Mediterranean. From the depth of his inaccessible + retreat the intrepid primate waged an incessant and offensive war + against the protector of the Arians; and his seasonable writings, + which were diligently circulated and eagerly perused, contributed + to unite and animate the orthodox party. In his public apologies, + which he addressed to the emperor himself, he sometimes affected + the praise of moderation; whilst at the same time, in secret and + vehement invectives, he exposed Constantius as a weak and wicked + prince, the executioner of his family, the tyrant of the + republic, and the Antichrist of the church. In the height of his + prosperity, the victorious monarch, who had chastised the + rashness of Gallus, and suppressed the revolt of Sylvanus, who + had taken the diadem from the head of Vetranio, and vanquished in + the field the legions of Magnentius, received from an invisible + hand a wound, which he could neither heal nor revenge; and the + son of Constantine was the first of the Christian princes who + experienced the strength of those principles, which, in the cause + of religion, could resist the most violent exertions 144 of the + civil power. + + 13711 (return) [ These princes were called Aeizanas and + Saiazanas. Athanasius calls them the kings of Axum. In the + superscription of his letter, Constantius gives them no title. + Mr. Salt, during his first journey in Ethiopia, (in 1806,) + discovered, in the ruins of Axum, a long and very interesting + inscription relating to these princes. It was erected to + commemorate the victory of Aeizanas over the Bougaitæ, (St. + Martin considers them the Blemmyes, whose true name is Bedjah or + Bodjah.) Aeizanas is styled king of the Axumites, the Homerites, + of Raeidan, of the Ethiopians, of the Sabsuites, of Silea, of + Tiamo, of the Bougaites, and of Kaei. It appears that at this + time the king of the Ethiopians ruled over the Homerites, the + inhabitants of Yemen. He was not yet a Christian, as he calls + himself son of the invincible Mars. Another brother besides + Saiazanas, named Adephas, is mentioned, though Aeizanas seems to + have been sole king. See St. Martin, note on Le Beau, ii. 151. + Salt’s Travels. De Sacy, note in Annales des Voyages, xii. p. + 53.—M.] + + 138 (return) [ Hinc jam toto orbe profugus Athanasius, nec ullus + ci tutus ad latendum supererat locus. Tribuni, Præfecti, Comites, + exercitus quoque ad pervestigandum cum moventur edictis + Imperialibus; præmia dela toribus proponuntur, si quis eum vivum, + si id minus, caput certe Atha casii detulisset. Rufin. l. i. c. + 16.] + + 139 (return) [ Gregor. Nazianzen. tom. i. Orat. xxi. p. 384, 385. + See Tillemont Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 176-410, 820-830.] + + 140 (return) [ Et nulla tormentorum vis inveneri, adhuc potuit, + quæ obdurato illius tractus latroni invito elicere potuit, ut + nomen proprium dicat Ammian. xxii. 16, and Valesius ad locum.] + + 141 (return) [ Rufin. l. i. c. 18. Sozomen, l. iv. c. 10. This + and the following story will be rendered impossible, if we + suppose that Athanasius always inhabited the asylum which he + accidentally or occasionally had used.] + + 142 (return) [ Paladius, (Hist. Lausiac. c. 136, in Vit. Patrum, + p. 776,) the original author of this anecdote, had conversed with + the damsel, who in her old age still remembered with pleasure so + pious and honorable a connection. I cannot indulge the delicacy + of Baronius, Valesius, Tillemont, &c., who almost reject a story + so unworthy, as they deem it, of the gravity of ecclesiastical + history.] + + 143 (return) [ Athanas. tom. i. p. 869. I agree with Tillemont, + (tom. iii. p. 1197,) that his expressions imply a personal, + though perhaps secret visit to the synods.] + + 144 (return) [ The epistle of Athanasius to the monks is filled + with reproaches, which the public must feel to be true, (vol. i. + p. 834, 856;) and, in compliment to his readers, he has + introduced the comparisons of Pharaoh, Ahab, Belshazzar, &c. The + boldness of Hilary was attended with less danger, if he published + his invective in Gaul after the revolt of Julian; but Lucifer + sent his libels to Constantius, and almost challenged the reward + of martyrdom. See Tillemont, tom. vii. p. 905.] + + The persecution of Athanasius, and of so many respectable + bishops, who suffered for the truth of their opinions, or at + least for the integrity of their conscience, was a just subject + of indignation and discontent to all Christians, except those who + were blindly devoted to the Arian faction. The people regretted + the loss of their faithful pastors, whose banishment was usually + followed by the intrusion of a stranger 145 into the episcopal + chair; and loudly complained, that the right of election was + violated, and that they were condemned to obey a mercenary + usurper, whose person was unknown, and whose principles were + suspected. The Catholics might prove to the world, that they were + not involved in the guilt and heresy of their ecclesiastical + governor, by publicly testifying their dissent, or by totally + separating themselves from his communion. The first of these + methods was invented at Antioch, and practised with such success, + that it was soon diffused over the Christian world. The doxology + or sacred hymn, which celebrates the _glory_ of the Trinity, is + susceptible of very nice, but material, inflections; and the + substance of an orthodox, or an heretical, creed, may be + expressed by the difference of a disjunctive, or a copulative, + particle. Alternate responses, and a more regular psalmody, 146 + were introduced into the public service by Flavianus and + Diodorus, two devout and active laymen, who were attached to the + Nicene faith. Under their conduct a swarm of monks issued from + the adjacent desert, bands of well-disciplined singers were + stationed in the cathedral of Antioch, the Glory to the Father, + And the Son, And the Holy Ghost, 147 was triumphantly chanted by + a full chorus of voices; and the Catholics insulted, by the + purity of their doctrine, the Arian prelate, who had usurped the + throne of the venerable Eustathius. The same zeal which inspired + their songs prompted the more scrupulous members of the orthodox + party to form separate assemblies, which were governed by the + presbyters, till the death of their exiled bishop allowed the + election and consecration of a new episcopal pastor. 148 The + revolutions of the court multiplied the number of pretenders; and + the same city was often disputed, under the reign of Constantius, + by two, or three, or even four, bishops, who exercised their + spiritual jurisdiction over their respective followers, and + alternately lost and regained the temporal possessions of the + church. The abuse of Christianity introduced into the Roman + government new causes of tyranny and sedition; the bands of civil + society were torn asunder by the fury of religious factions; and + the obscure citizen, who might calmly have surveyed the elevation + and fall of successive emperors, imagined and experienced, that + his own life and fortune were connected with the interests of a + popular ecclesiastic. The example of the two capitals, Rome and + Constantinople, may serve to represent the state of the empire, + and the temper of mankind, under the reign of the sons of + Constantine. + + 145 (return) [ Athanasius (tom. i. p. 811) complains in general + of this practice, which he afterwards exemplifies (p. 861) in the + pretended election of Fælix. Three eunuchs represented the Roman + people, and three prelates, who followed the court, assumed the + functions of the bishops of the Suburbicarian provinces.] + + 146 (return) [ Thomassin (Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. l. ii. + c. 72, 73, p. 966-984) has collected many curious facts + concerning the origin and progress of church singing, both in the + East and West. * Note: Arius appears to have been the first who + availed himself of this means of impressing his doctrines on the + popular ear: he composed songs for sailors, millers, and + travellers, and set them to common airs; “beguiling the ignorant, + by the sweetness of his music, into the impiety of his + doctrines.” Philostorgius, ii. 2. Arian singers used to parade + the streets of Constantinople by night, till Chrysostom arrayed + against them a band of orthodox choristers. Sozomen, viii. 8.—M.] + + 147 (return) [ Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 13. Godefroy has + examined this subject with singular accuracy, (p. 147, &c.) There + were three heterodox forms: “To the Father _by_ the Son, _and_ in + the Holy Ghost.” “To the Father, _and_ the Son _in_ the Holy + Ghost;” and “To the Father _in_ the Son _and_ the Holy Ghost.”] + + 148 (return) [ After the exile of Eustathius, under the reign of + Constantine, the rigid party of the orthodox formed a separation + which afterwards degenerated into a schism, and lasted about + fourscore years. See Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 35-54, + 1137-1158, tom. viii. p. 537-632, 1314-1332. In many churches, + the Arians and Homoousians, who had renounced each other’s + _communion_, continued for some time to join in prayer. + Philostorgius, l. iii. c. 14.] + + I. The Roman pontiff, as long as he maintained his station and + his principles, was guarded by the warm attachment of a great + people; and could reject with scorn the prayers, the menaces, and + the oblations of an heretical prince. When the eunuchs had + secretly pronounced the exile of Liberius, the well-grounded + apprehension of a tumult engaged them to use the utmost + precautions in the execution of the sentence. The capital was + invested on every side, and the præfect was commanded to seize + the person of the bishop, either by stratagem or by open force. + The order was obeyed, and Liberius, with the greatest difficulty, + at the hour of midnight, was swiftly conveyed beyond the reach of + the Roman people, before their consternation was turned into + rage. As soon as they were informed of his banishment into + Thrace, a general assembly was convened, and the clergy of Rome + bound themselves, by a public and solemn oath, never to desert + their bishop, never to acknowledge the usurper Fælix; who, by the + influence of the eunuchs, had been irregularly chosen and + consecrated within the walls of a profane palace. At the end of + two years, their pious obstinacy subsisted entire and unshaken; + and when Constantius visited Rome, he was assailed by the + importunate solicitations of a people, who had preserved, as the + last remnant of their ancient freedom, the right of treating + their sovereign with familiar insolence. The wives of many of the + senators and most honorable citizens, after pressing their + husbands to intercede in favor of Liberius, were advised to + undertake a commission, which in their hands would be less + dangerous, and might prove more successful. The emperor received + with politeness these female deputies, whose wealth and dignity + were displayed in the magnificence of their dress and ornaments: + he admired their inflexible resolution of following their beloved + pastor to the most distant regions of the earth; and consented + that the two bishops, Liberius and Fælix, should govern in peace + their respective congregations. But the ideas of toleration were + so repugnant to the practice, and even to the sentiments, of + those times, that when the answer of Constantius was publicly + read in the Circus of Rome, so reasonable a project of + accommodation was rejected with contempt and ridicule. The eager + vehemence which animated the spectators in the decisive moment of + a horse-race, was now directed towards a different object; and + the Circus resounded with the shout of thousands, who repeatedly + exclaimed, “One God, One Christ, One Bishop!” The zeal of the + Roman people in the cause of Liberius was not confined to words + alone; and the dangerous and bloody sedition which they excited + soon after the departure of Constantius determined that prince to + accept the submission of the exiled prelate, and to restore him + to the undivided dominion of the capital. After some ineffectual + resistance, his rival was expelled from the city by the + permission of the emperor and the power of the opposite faction; + the adherents of Fælix were inhumanly murdered in the streets, in + the public places, in the baths, and even in the churches; and + the face of Rome, upon the return of a Christian bishop, renewed + the horrid image of the massacres of Marius, and the + proscriptions of Sylla. 149 + + 149 (return) [ See, on this ecclesiastical revolution of Rome, + Ammianus, xv. 7 Athanas. tom. i. p. 834, 861. Sozomen, l. iv. c. + 15. Theodoret, l. ii c. 17. Sulp. Sever. Hist. Sacra, l. ii. p. + 413. Hieronym. Chron. Marcellin. et Faustin. Libell. p. 3, 4. + Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p.] + + II. Notwithstanding the rapid increase of Christians under the + reign of the Flavian family, Rome, Alexandria, and the other + great cities of the empire, still contained a strong and powerful + faction of Infidels, who envied the prosperity, and who + ridiculed, even in their theatres, the theological disputes of + the church. Constantinople alone enjoyed the advantage of being + born and educated in the bosom of the faith. The capital of the + East had never been polluted by the worship of idols; and the + whole body of the people had deeply imbibed the opinions, the + virtues, and the passions, which distinguished the Christians of + that age from the rest of mankind. After the death of Alexander, + the episcopal throne was disputed by Paul and Macedonius. By + their zeal and abilities they both deserved the eminent station + to which they aspired; and if the moral character of Macedonius + was less exceptionable, his competitor had the advantage of a + prior election and a more orthodox doctrine. His firm attachment + to the Nicene creed, which has given Paul a place in the calendar + among saints and martyrs, exposed him to the resentment of the + Arians. In the space of fourteen years he was five times driven + from his throne; to which he was more frequently restored by the + violence of the people, than by the permission of the prince; and + the power of Macedonius could be secured only by the death of his + rival. The unfortunate Paul was dragged in chains from the sandy + deserts of Mesopotamia to the most desolate places of Mount + Taurus, 150 confined in a dark and narrow dungeon, left six days + without food, and at length strangled, by the order of Philip, + one of the principal ministers of the emperor Constantius. 151 + The first blood which stained the new capital was spilt in this + ecclesiastical contest; and many persons were slain on both + sides, in the furious and obstinate seditions of the people. The + commission of enforcing a sentence of banishment against Paul had + been intrusted to Hermogenes, the master-general of the cavalry; + but the execution of it was fatal to himself. The Catholics rose + in the defence of their bishop; the palace of Hermogenes was + consumed; the first military officer of the empire was dragged by + the heels through the streets of Constantinople, and, after he + expired, his lifeless corpse was exposed to their wanton insults. + 152 The fate of Hermogenes instructed Philip, the Prætorian + præfect, to act with more precaution on a similar occasion. In + the most gentle and honorable terms, he required the attendance + of Paul in the baths of Xeuxippus, which had a private + communication with the palace and the sea. A vessel, which lay + ready at the garden stairs, immediately hoisted sail; and, while + the people were still ignorant of the meditated sacrilege, their + bishop was already embarked on his voyage to Thessalonica. They + soon beheld, with surprise and indignation, the gates of the + palace thrown open, and the usurper Macedonius seated by the side + of the præfect on a lofty chariot, which was surrounded by troops + of guards with drawn swords. The military procession advanced + towards the cathedral; the Arians and the Catholics eagerly + rushed to occupy that important post; and three thousand one + hundred and fifty persons lost their lives in the confusion of + the tumult. Macedonius, who was supported by a regular force, + obtained a decisive victory; but his reign was disturbed by + clamor and sedition; and the causes which appeared the least + connected with the subject of dispute, were sufficient to nourish + and to kindle the flame of civil discord. As the chapel in which + the body of the great Constantine had been deposited was in a + ruinous condition, the bishop transported those venerable remains + into the church of St. Acacius. This prudent and even pious + measure was represented as a wicked profanation by the whole + party which adhered to the Homoousian doctrine. The factions + immediately flew to arms, the consecrated ground was used as + their field of battle; and one of the ecclesiastical historians + has observed, as a real fact, not as a figure of rhetoric, that + the well before the church overflowed with a stream of blood, + which filled the porticos and the adjacent courts. The writer who + should impute these tumults solely to a religious principle, + would betray a very imperfect knowledge of human nature; yet it + must be confessed that the motive which misled the sincerity of + zeal, and the pretence which disguised the licentiousness of + passion, suppressed the remorse which, in another cause, would + have succeeded to the rage of the Christians at Constantinople. + 153 + + 150 (return) [ Cucusus was the last stage of his life and + sufferings. The situation of that lonely town, on the confines of + Cappadocia, Cilicia, and the Lesser Armenia, has occasioned some + geographical perplexity; but we are directed to the true spot by + the course of the Roman road from Cæsarea to Anazarbus. See + Cellarii Geograph. tom. ii. p. 213. Wesseling ad Itinerar. p. + 179, 703.] + + 151 (return) [ Athanasius (tom. i. p. 703, 813, 814) affirms, in + the most positive terms, that Paul was murdered; and appeals, not + only to common fame, but even to the unsuspicious testimony of + Philagrius, one of the Arian persecutors. Yet he acknowledges + that the heretics attributed to disease the death of the bishop + of Constantinople. Athanasius is servilely copied by Socrates, + (l. ii. c. 26;) but Sozomen, who discovers a more liberal temper. + presumes (l. iv. c. 2) to insinuate a prudent doubt.] + + 152 (return) [ Ammianus (xiv. 10) refers to his own account of + this tragic event. But we no longer possess that part of his + history. Note: The murder of Hermogenes took place at the first + expulsion of Paul from the see of Constantinople.—M.] + + 153 (return) [ See Socrates, l. ii. c. 6, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 26, + 27, 38, and Sozomen, l. iii. 3, 4, 7, 9, l. iv. c. ii. 21. The + acts of St. Paul of Constantinople, of which Photius has made an + abstract, (Phot. Bibliot. p. 1419-1430,) are an indifferent copy + of these historians; but a modern Greek, who could write the life + of a saint without adding fables and miracles, is entitled to + some commendation.] + + + + + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part + VII. + + + The cruel and arbitrary disposition of Constantius, which did not + always require the provocations of guilt and resistance, was + justly exasperated by the tumults of his capital, and the + criminal behavior of a faction, which opposed the authority and + religion of their sovereign. The ordinary punishments of death, + exile, and confiscation, were inflicted with partial vigor; and + the Greeks still revere the holy memory of two clerks, a reader, + and a sub-deacon, who were accused of the murder of Hermogenes, + and beheaded at the gates of Constantinople. By an edict of + Constantius against the Catholics which has not been judged + worthy of a place in the Theodosian code, those who refused to + communicate with the Arian bishops, and particularly with + Macedonius, were deprived of the immunities of ecclesiastics, and + of the rights of Christians; they were compelled to relinquish + the possession of the churches; and were strictly prohibited from + holding their assemblies within the walls of the city. The + execution of this unjust law, in the provinces of Thrace and Asia + Minor, was committed to the zeal of Macedonius; the civil and + military powers were directed to obey his commands; and the + cruelties exercised by this Semi- Arian tyrant in the support of + the _Homoiousion_, exceeded the commission, and disgraced the + reign, of Constantius. The sacraments of the church were + administered to the reluctant victims, who denied the vocation, + and abhorred the principles, of Macedonius. The rites of baptism + were conferred on women and children, who, for that purpose, had + been torn from the arms of their friends and parents; the mouths + of the communicants were held open by a wooden engine, while the + consecrated bread was forced down their throat; the breasts of + tender virgins were either burnt with red-hot egg-shells, or + inhumanly compressed betweens harp and heavy boards. 154 The + Novatians of Constantinople and the adjacent country, by their + firm attachment to the Homoousian standard, deserved to be + confounded with the Catholics themselves. Macedonius was + informed, that a large district of Paphlagonia 155 was almost + entirely inhabited by those sectaries. He resolved either to + convert or to extirpate them; and as he distrusted, on this + occasion, the efficacy of an ecclesiastical mission, he commanded + a body of four thousand legionaries to march against the rebels, + and to reduce the territory of Mantinium under his spiritual + dominion. The Novatian peasants, animated by despair and + religious fury, boldly encountered the invaders of their country; + and though many of the Paphlagonians were slain, the Roman + legions were vanquished by an irregular multitude, armed only + with scythes and axes; and, except a few who escaped by an + ignominious flight, four thousand soldiers were left dead on the + field of battle. The successor of Constantius has expressed, in a + concise but lively manner, some of the theological calamities + which afflicted the empire, and more especially the East, in the + reign of a prince who was the slave of his own passions, and of + those of his eunuchs: “Many were imprisoned, and persecuted, and + driven into exile. Whole troops of those who are styled heretics, + were massacred, particularly at Cyzicus, and at Samosata. In + Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Galatia, and in many other provinces, + towns and villages were laid waste, and utterly destroyed.” 156 + + 154 (return) [ Socrates, l. ii. c. 27, 38. Sozomen, l. iv. c. 21. + The principal assistants of Macedonius, in the work of + persecution, were the two bishops of Nicomedia and Cyzicus, who + were esteemed for their virtues, and especially for their + charity. I cannot forbear reminding the reader, that the + difference between the _Homoousion_ and _Homoiousion_, is almost + invisible to the nicest theological eye.] + + 155 (return) [ We are ignorant of the precise situation of + Mantinium. In speaking of these four bands of legionaries, + Socrates, Sozomen, and the author of the acts of St. Paul, use + the indefinite terms of, which Nicephorus very properly + translates thousands. Vales. ad Socrat. l. ii. c. 38.] + + 156 (return) [ Julian. Epist. lii. p. 436, edit. Spanheim.] + + While the flames of the Arian controversy consumed the vitals of + the empire, the African provinces were infested by their peculiar + enemies, the savage fanatics, who, under the name of + _Circumcellions_, formed the strength and scandal of the Donatist + party. 157 The severe execution of the laws of Constantine had + excited a spirit of discontent and resistance, the strenuous + efforts of his son Constans, to restore the unity of the church, + exasperated the sentiments of mutual hatred, which had first + occasioned the separation; and the methods of force and + corruption employed by the two Imperial commissioners, Paul and + Macarius, furnished the schismatics with a specious contrast + between the maxims of the apostles and the conduct of their + pretended successors. 158 The peasants who inhabited the villages + of Numidia and Mauritania, were a ferocious race, who had been + imperfectly reduced under the authority of the Roman laws; who + were imperfectly converted to the Christian faith; but who were + actuated by a blind and furious enthusiasm in the cause of their + Donatist teachers. They indignantly supported the exile of their + bishops, the demolition of their churches, and the interruption + of their secret assemblies. The violence of the officers of + justice, who were usually sustained by a military guard, was + sometimes repelled with equal violence; and the blood of some + popular ecclesiastics, which had been shed in the quarrel, + inflamed their rude followers with an eager desire of revenging + the death of these holy martyrs. By their own cruelty and + rashness, the ministers of persecution sometimes provoked their + fate; and the guilt of an accidental tumult precipitated the + criminals into despair and rebellion. Driven from their native + villages, the Donatist peasants assembled in formidable gangs on + the edge of the Getulian desert; and readily exchanged the habits + of labor for a life of idleness and rapine, which was consecrated + by the name of religion, and faintly condemned by the doctors of + the sect. The leaders of the Circumcellions assumed the title of + captains of the saints; their principal weapon, as they were + indifferently provided with swords and spears, was a huge and + weighty club, which they termed an _Israelite;_ and the + well-known sound of “Praise be to God,” which they used as their + cry of war, diffused consternation over the unarmed provinces of + Africa. At first their depredations were colored by the plea of + necessity; but they soon exceeded the measure of subsistence, + indulged without control their intemperance and avarice, burnt + the villages which they had pillaged, and reigned the licentious + tyrants of the open country. The occupations of husbandry, and + the administration of justice, were interrupted; and as the + Circumcellions pretended to restore the primitive equality of + mankind, and to reform the abuses of civil society, they opened a + secure asylum for the slaves and debtors, who flocked in crowds + to their holy standard. When they were not resisted, they usually + contented themselves with plunder, but the slightest opposition + provoked them to acts of violence and murder; and some Catholic + priests, who had imprudently signalized their zeal, were tortured + by the fanatics with the most refined and wanton barbarity. The + spirit of the Circumcellions was not always exerted against their + defenceless enemies; they engaged, and sometimes defeated, the + troops of the province; and in the bloody action of Bagai, they + attacked in the open field, but with unsuccessful valor, an + advanced guard of the Imperial cavalry. The Donatists who were + taken in arms, received, and they soon deserved, the same + treatment which might have been shown to the wild beasts of the + desert. The captives died, without a murmur, either by the sword, + the axe, or the fire; and the measures of retaliation were + multiplied in a rapid proportion, which aggravated the horrors of + rebellion, and excluded the hope of mutual forgiveness. In the + beginning of the present century, the example of the + Circumcellions has been renewed in the persecution, the boldness, + the crimes, and the enthusiasm of the Camisards; and if the + fanatics of Languedoc surpassed those of Numidia, by their + military achievements, the Africans maintained their fierce + independence with more resolution and perseverance. 159 + + 157 (return) [ See Optatus Milevitanus, (particularly iii. 4,) + with the Donatis history, by M. Dupin, and the original pieces at + the end of his edition. The numerous circumstances which Augustin + has mentioned, of the fury of the Circumcellions against others, + and against themselves, have been laboriously collected by + Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 147-165; and he has often, + though without design, exposed injuries which had provoked those + fanatics.] + + 158 (return) [ It is amusing enough to observe the language of + opposite parties, when they speak of the same men and things. + Gratus, bishop of Carthage, begins the acclamations of an + orthodox synod, “Gratias Deo omnipotenti et Christu Jesu... qui + imperavit religiosissimo Constanti Imperatori, ut votum gereret + unitatis, et mitteret ministros sancti operis _famulos Dei_ + Paulum et Macarium.” Monument. Vet. ad Calcem Optati, p. 313. + “Ecce subito,” (says the Donatist author of the Passion of + Marculus), “de Constantis regif tyrannica domo.. pollutum + Macarianæ persecutionis murmur increpuit, et _duabus bestiis_ ad + Africam missis, eodem scilicet Macario et Paulo, execrandum + prorsus ac dirum ecclesiæ certamen indictum est; ut populus + Christianus ad unionem cum traditoribus faciendam, nudatis + militum gladiis et draconum præsentibus signis, et tubarum + vocibus cogeretur.” Monument. p. 304.] + + 159 (return) [ The Histoire des Camisards, in 3 vols. 12mo. + Villefranche, 1760 may be recommended as accurate and impartial. + It requires some attention to discover the religion of the + author.] + + Such disorders are the natural effects of religious tyranny, but + the rage of the Donatists was inflamed by a frenzy of a very + extraordinary kind; and which, if it really prevailed among them + in so extravagant a degree, cannot surely be paralleled in any + country or in any age. Many of these fanatics were possessed with + the horror of life, and the desire of martyrdom; and they deemed + it of little moment by what means, or by what hands, they + perished, if their conduct was sanctified by the intention of + devoting themselves to the glory of the true faith, and the hope + of eternal happiness. 160 Sometimes they rudely disturbed the + festivals, and profaned the temples of Paganism, with the design + of exciting the most zealous of the idolaters to revenge the + insulted honor of their gods. They sometimes forced their way + into the courts of justice, and compelled the affrighted judge to + give orders for their immediate execution. They frequently + stopped travellers on the public highways, and obliged them to + inflict the stroke of martyrdom, by the promise of a reward, if + they consented, and by the threat of instant death, if they + refused to grant so very singular a favor. When they were + disappointed of every other resource, they announced the day on + which, in the presence of their friends and brethren, they should + cast themselves headlong from some lofty rock; and many + precipices were shown, which had acquired fame by the number of + religious suicides. In the actions of these desperate + enthusiasts, who were admired by one party as the martyrs of God, + and abhorred by the other as the victims of Satan, an impartial + philosopher may discover the influence and the last abuse of that + inflexible spirit which was originally derived from the character + and principles of the Jewish nation. + + 160 (return) [ The Donatist suicides alleged in their + justification the example of Razias, which is related in the 14th + chapter of the second book of the Maccabees.] + + The simple narrative of the intestine divisions, which distracted + the peace, and dishonored the triumph, of the church, will + confirm the remark of a Pagan historian, and justify the + complaint of a venerable bishop. The experience of Ammianus had + convinced him, that the enmity of the Christians towards each + other, surpassed the fury of savage beasts against man; 161 and + Gregory Nazianzen most pathetically laments, that the kingdom of + heaven was converted, by discord, into the image of chaos, of a + nocturnal tempest, and of hell itself. 162 The fierce and partial + writers of the times, ascribing _all_ virtue to themselves, and + imputing _all_ guilt to their adversaries, have painted the + battle of the angels and dæmons. Our calmer reason will reject + such pure and perfect monsters of vice or sanctity, and will + impute an equal, or at least an indiscriminate, measure of good + and evil to the hostile sectaries, who assumed and bestowed the + appellations of orthodox and heretics. They had been educated in + the same religion and the same civil society. Their hopes and + fears in the present, or in a future life, were balanced in the + same proportion. On either side, the error might be innocent, the + faith sincere, the practice meritorious or corrupt. Their + passions were excited by similar objects; and they might + alternately abuse the favor of the court, or of the people. The + metaphysical opinions of the Athanasians and the Arians could not + influence their moral character; and they were alike actuated by + the intolerant spirit which has been extracted from the pure and + simple maxims of the gospel. + + 161 (return) [ Nullus infestas hominibus bestias, ut sunt sibi + ferales plerique Christianorum, expertus. Ammian. xxii. 5.] + + 162 (return) [ Gregor, Nazianzen, Orav. i. p. 33. See Tillemont, + tom vi. p. 501, qua to edit.] + + A modern writer, who, with a just confidence, has prefixed to his + own history the honorable epithets of political and + philosophical, 163 accuses the timid prudence of Montesquieu, for + neglecting to enumerate, among the causes of the decline of the + empire, a law of Constantine, by which the exercise of the Pagan + worship was absolutely suppressed, and a considerable part of his + subjects was left destitute of priests, of temples, and of any + public religion. The zeal of the philosophic historian for the + rights of mankind, has induced him to acquiesce in the ambiguous + testimony of those ecclesiastics, who have too lightly ascribed + to their favorite hero the _merit_ of a general persecution. 164 + Instead of alleging this imaginary law, which would have blazed + in the front of the Imperial codes, we may safely appeal to the + original epistle, which Constantine addressed to the followers of + the ancient religion; at a time when he no longer disguised his + conversion, nor dreaded the rivals of his throne. He invites and + exhorts, in the most pressing terms, the subjects of the Roman + empire to imitate the example of their master; but he declares, + that those who still refuse to open their eyes to the celestial + light, may freely enjoy their temples and their fancied gods. A + report, that the ceremonies of paganism were suppressed, is + formally contradicted by the emperor himself, who wisely assigns, + as the principle of his moderation, the invincible force of + habit, of prejudice, and of superstition. 165 Without violating + the sanctity of his promise, without alarming the fears of the + Pagans, the artful monarch advanced, by slow and cautious steps, + to undermine the irregular and decayed fabric of polytheism. The + partial acts of severity which he occasionally exercised, though + they were secretly promoted by a Christian zeal, were colored by + the fairest pretences of justice and the public good; and while + Constantine designed to ruin the foundations, he seemed to reform + the abuses, of the ancient religion. After the example of the + wisest of his predecessors, he condemned, under the most rigorous + penalties, the occult and impious arts of divination; which + excited the vain hopes, and sometimes the criminal attempts, of + those who were discontented with their present condition. An + ignominious silence was imposed on the oracles, which had been + publicly convicted of fraud and falsehood; the effeminate priests + of the Nile were abolished; and Constantine discharged the duties + of a Roman censor, when he gave orders for the demolition of + several temples of Phœnicia; in which every mode of prostitution + was devoutly practised in the face of day, and to the honor of + Venus. 166 The Imperial city of Constantinople was, in some + measure, raised at the expense, and was adorned with the spoils, + of the opulent temples of Greece and Asia; the sacred property + was confiscated; the statues of gods and heroes were transported, + with rude familiarity, among a people who considered them as + objects, not of adoration, but of curiosity; the gold and silver + were restored to circulation; and the magistrates, the bishops, + and the eunuchs, improved the fortunate occasion of gratifying, + at once, their zeal, their avarice, and their resentment. But + these depredations were confined to a small part of the Roman + world; and the provinces had been long since accustomed to endure + the same sacrilegious rapine, from the tyranny of princes and + proconsuls, who could not be suspected of any design to subvert + the established religion. 167 + + 163 (return) [ Histoire Politique et Philosophique des + Etablissemens des Europeens dans les deux Indes, tom. i. p. 9.] + + 164 (return) [ According to Eusebius, (in Vit. Constantin. l. ii. + c. 45,) the emperor prohibited, both in cities and in the + country, the abominable acts or parts of idolatry. l Socrates (l. + i. c. 17) and Sozomen (l. ii. c. 4, 5) have represented the + conduct of Constantine with a just regard to truth and history; + which has been neglected by Theodoret (l. v. c. 21) and Orosius, + (vii. 28.) Tum deinde (says the latter) primus Constantinus + _justo_ ordine et _pio_ vicem vertit edicto; siquidem statuit + citra ullam hominum cædem, paganorum templa claudi.] + + 165 (return) [ See Eusebius in Vit. Constantin. l. ii. c. 56, 60. + In the sermon to the assembly of saints, which the emperor + pronounced when he was mature in years and piety, he declares to + the idolaters (c. xii.) that they are permitted to offer + sacrifices, and to exercise every part of their religious + worship.] + + 166 (return) [ See Eusebius, in Vit. Constantin. l. iii. c. + 54-58, and l. iv. c. 23, 25. These acts of authority may be + compared with the suppression of the Bacchanals, and the + demolition of the temple of Isis, by the magistrates of Pagan + Rome.] + + 167 (return) [ Eusebius (in Vit. Constan. l. iii. c. 54-58) and + Libanius (Orat. pro Templis, p. 9, 10, edit. Gothofred) both + mention the pious sacrilege of Constantine, which they viewed in + very different lights. The latter expressly declares, that “he + made use of the sacred money, but made no alteration in the legal + worship; the temples indeed were impoverished, but the sacred + rites were performed there.” Lardner’s Jewish and Heathen + Testimonies, vol. iv. p. 140.] + + The sons of Constantine trod in the footsteps of their father, + with more zeal, and with less discretion. The pretences of rapine + and oppression were insensibly multiplied; 168 every indulgence + was shown to the illegal behavior of the Christians; every doubt + was explained to the disadvantage of Paganism; and the demolition + of the temples was celebrated as one of the auspicious events of + the reign of Constans and Constantius. 169 The name of + Constantius is prefixed to a concise law, which might have + superseded the necessity of any future prohibitions. “It is our + pleasure, that in all places, and in all cities, the temples be + immediately shut, and carefully guarded, that none may have the + power of offending. It is likewise our pleasure, that all our + subjects should abstain from sacrifices. If any one should be + guilty of such an act, let him feel the sword of vengeance, and + after his execution, let his property be confiscated to the + public use. We denounce the same penalties against the governors + of the provinces, if they neglect to punish the criminals.” 170 + But there is the strongest reason to believe, that this + formidable edict was either composed without being published, or + was published without being executed. The evidence of facts, and + the monuments which are still extant of brass and marble, + continue to prove the public exercise of the Pagan worship during + the whole reign of the sons of Constantine. In the East, as well + as in the West, in cities, as well as in the country, a great + number of temples were respected, or at least were spared; and + the devout multitude still enjoyed the luxury of sacrifices, of + festivals, and of processions, by the permission, or by the + connivance, of the civil government. About four years after the + supposed date of this bloody edict, Constantius visited the + temples of Rome; and the decency of his behavior is recommended + by a pagan orator as an example worthy of the imitation of + succeeding princes. “That emperor,” says Symmachus, “suffered the + privileges of the vestal virgins to remain inviolate; he bestowed + the sacerdotal dignities on the nobles of Rome, granted the + customary allowance to defray the expenses of the public rites + and sacrifices; and, though he had embraced a different religion, + he never attempted to deprive the empire of the sacred worship of + antiquity.” 171 The senate still presumed to consecrate, by + solemn decrees, the _divine_ memory of their sovereigns; and + Constantine himself was associated, after his death, to those + gods whom he had renounced and insulted during his life. The + title, the ensigns, the prerogatives, of sovereign pontiff, which + had been instituted by Numa, and assumed by Augustus, were + accepted, without hesitation, by seven Christian emperors; who + were invested with a more absolute authority over the religion + which they had deserted, than over that which they professed. 172 + + 168 (return) [ Ammianus (xxii. 4) speaks of some court eunuchs + who were spoliis templorum pasti. Libanius says (Orat. pro Templ. + p. 23) that the emperor often gave away a temple, like a dog, or + a horse, or a slave, or a gold cup; but the devout philosopher + takes care to observe that these sacrilegious favorites very + seldom prospered.] + + 169 (return) [ See Gothofred. Cod. Theodos. tom. vi. p. 262. + Liban. Orat. Parental c. x. in Fabric. Bibl. Græc. tom. vii. p. + 235.] + + 170 (return) [ Placuit omnibus locis atque urbibus universis + claudi protinus empla, et accessu vetitis omnibus licentiam + delinquendi perditis abnegari. Volumus etiam cunctos a + sacrificiis abstinere. Quod siquis aliquid forte hujusmodi + perpetraverit, gladio sternatur: facultates etiam perempti fisco + decernimus vindicari: et similiter adfligi rectores provinciarum + si facinora vindicare neglexerint. Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. x. + leg. 4. Chronology has discovered some contradiction in the date + of this extravagant law; the only one, perhaps, by which the + negligence of magistrates is punished by death and confiscation. + M. de la Bastie (Mém. de l’Académie, tom. xv. p. 98) conjectures, + with a show of reason, that this was no more than the minutes of + a law, the heads of an intended bill, which were found in + Scriniis Memoriæ among the papers of Constantius, and afterwards + inserted, as a worthy model, in the Theodosian Code.] + + 171 (return) [ Symmach. Epistol. x. 54.] + + 172 (return) [ The fourth Dissertation of M. de la Bastie, sur le + Souverain Pontificat des Empereurs Romains, (in the Mém. de + l’Acad. tom. xv. p. 75- 144,) is a very learned and judicious + performance, which explains the state, and prove the toleration, + of Paganism from Constantino to Gratian. The assertion of + Zosimus, that Gratian was the first who refused the pontifical + robe, is confirmed beyond a doubt; and the murmurs of bigotry on + that subject are almost silenced.] + + The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of _Paganism;_ + 173 and the holy war against the infidels was less vigorously + prosecuted by princes and bishops, who were more immediately + alarmed by the guilt and danger of domestic rebellion. The + extirpation of _idolatry_ 174 might have been justified by the + established principles of intolerance: but the hostile sects, + which alternately reigned in the Imperial court were mutually + apprehensive of alienating, and perhaps exasperating, the minds + of a powerful, though declining faction. Every motive of + authority and fashion, of interest and reason, now militated on + the side of Christianity; but two or three generations elapsed, + before their victorious influence was universally felt. The + religion which had so long and so lately been established in the + Roman empire was still revered by a numerous people, less + attached indeed to speculative opinion, than to ancient custom. + The honors of the state and army were indifferently bestowed on + all the subjects of Constantine and Constantius; and a + considerable portion of knowledge and wealth and valor was still + engaged in the service of polytheism. The superstition of the + senator and of the peasant, of the poet and the philosopher, was + derived from very different causes, but they met with equal + devotion in the temples of the gods. Their zeal was insensibly + provoked by the insulting triumph of a proscribed sect; and their + hopes were revived by the well-grounded confidence, that the + presumptive heir of the empire, a young and valiant hero, who had + delivered Gaul from the arms of the Barbarians, had secretly + embraced the religion of his ancestors. + + 173 (return) [ As I have freely anticipated the use of _pagans_ + and _paganism_, I shall now trace the singular revolutions of + those celebrated words. 1. in the Doric dialect, so familiar to + the Italians, signifies a fountain; and the rural neighborhood, + which frequented the same fountain, derived the common + appellation of _pagus_ and _pagans_. (Festus sub voce, and + Servius ad Virgil. Georgic. ii. 382.) 2. By an easy extension of + the word, pagan and rural became almost synonymous, (Plin. Hist. + Natur. xxviii. 5;) and the meaner rustics acquired that name, + which has been corrupted into _peasants_ in the modern languages + of Europe. 3. The amazing increase of the military order + introduced the necessity of a correlative term, (Hume’s Essays, + vol. i. p. 555;) and all the _people_ who were not enlisted in + the service of the prince were branded with the contemptuous + epithets of pagans. (Tacit. Hist. iii. 24, 43, 77. Juvenal. + Satir. 16. Tertullian de Pallio, c. 4.) 4. The Christians were + the soldiers of Christ; their adversaries, who refused his + _sacrament_, or military oath of baptism might deserve the + metaphorical name of pagans; and this popular reproach was + introduced as early as the reign of Valentinian (A. D. 365) into + Imperial laws (Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. ii. leg. 18) and + theological writings. 5. Christianity gradually filled the cities + of the empire: the old religion, in the time of Prudentius + (advers. Symmachum, l. i. ad fin.) and Orosius, (in Præfat. + Hist.,) retired and languished in obscure villages; and the word + _pagans_, with its new signification, reverted to its primitive + origin. 6. Since the worship of Jupiter and his family has + expired, the vacant title of pagans has been successively applied + to all the idolaters and polytheists of the old and new world. 7. + The Latin Christians bestowed it, without scruple, on their + mortal enemies, the Mahometans; and the purest _Unitarians_ were + branded with the unjust reproach of idolatry and paganism. See + Gerard Vossius, Etymologicon Linguæ Latinæ, in his works, tom. i. + p. 420; Godefroy’s Commentary on the Theodosian Code, tom. vi. p. + 250; and Ducange, Mediæ et Infimæ Latinitat. Glossar.] + + 174 (return) [ In the pure language of Ionia and Athens were + ancient and familiar words. The former expressed a likeness, an + apparition (Homer. Odys. xi. 601,) a representation, an _image_, + created either by fancy or art. The latter denoted any sort of + _service_ or slavery. The Jews of Egypt, who translated the + Hebrew Scriptures, restrained the use of these words (Exod. xx. + 4, 5) to the religious worship of an image. The peculiar idiom of + the Hellenists, or Grecian Jews, has been adopted by the sacred + and ecclesiastical writers and the reproach of _idolatry_ has + stigmatized that visible and abject mode of superstition, which + some sects of Christianity should not hastily impute to the + polytheists of Greece and Rome.] + + + + + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part I. + + Julian Is Declared Emperor By The Legions Of Gaul.—His March And + Success.—The Death Of Constantius.—Civil Administration Of Julian. + + + While the Romans languished under the ignominious tyranny of + eunuchs and bishops, the praises of Julian were repeated with + transport in every part of the empire, except in the palace of + Constantius. The barbarians of Germany had felt, and still + dreaded, the arms of the young Cæsar; his soldiers were the + companions of his victory; the grateful provincials enjoyed the + blessings of his reign; but the favorites, who had opposed his + elevation, were offended by his virtues; and they justly + considered the friend of the people as the enemy of the court. As + long as the fame of Julian was doubtful, the buffoons of the + palace, who were skilled in the language of satire, tried the + efficacy of those arts which they had so often practised with + success. They easily discovered, that his simplicity was not + exempt from affectation: the ridiculous epithets of a hairy + savage, of an ape invested with the purple, were applied to the + dress and person of the philosophic warrior; and his modest + despatches were stigmatized as the vain and elaborate fictions of + a loquacious Greek, a speculative soldier, who had studied the + art of war amidst the groves of the academy. 1 The voice of + malicious folly was at length silenced by the shouts of victory; + the conqueror of the Franks and Alemanni could no longer be + painted as an object of contempt; and the monarch himself was + meanly ambitious of stealing from his lieutenant the honorable + reward of his labors. In the letters crowned with laurel, which, + according to ancient custom, were addressed to the provinces, the + name of Julian was omitted. “Constantius had made his + dispositions in person; _he_ had signalized his valor in the + foremost ranks; _his_ military conduct had secured the victory; + and the captive king of the barbarians was presented to _him_ on + the field of battle,” from which he was at that time distant + about forty days’ journey. 2 So extravagant a fable was + incapable, however, of deceiving the public credulity, or even of + satisfying the pride of the emperor himself. Secretly conscious + that the applause and favor of the Romans accompanied the rising + fortunes of Julian, his discontented mind was prepared to receive + the subtle poison of those artful sycophants, who colored their + mischievous designs with the fairest appearances of truth and + candor. 3 Instead of depreciating the merits of Julian, they + acknowledged, and even exaggerated, his popular fame, superior + talents, and important services. But they darkly insinuated, that + the virtues of the Cæsar might instantly be converted into the + most dangerous crimes, if the inconstant multitude should prefer + their inclinations to their duty; or if the general of a + victorious army should be tempted from his allegiance by the + hopes of revenge and independent greatness. The personal fears of + Constantius were interpreted by his council as a laudable anxiety + for the public safety; whilst in private, and perhaps in his own + breast, he disguised, under the less odious appellation of fear, + the sentiments of hatred and envy, which he had secretly + conceived for the inimitable virtues of Julian. + + 1 (return) [ Omnes qui plus poterant in palatio, adulandi + professores jam docti, recte consulta, prospereque completa + vertebant in deridiculum: talia sine modo strepentes insulse; in + odium venit cum victoriis suis; capella, non homo; ut hirsutum + Julianum carpentes, appellantesque loquacem talpam, et purpuratam + simiam, et litterionem Græcum: et his congruentia plurima atque + vernacula principi resonantes, audire hæc taliaque gestienti, + virtutes ejus obruere verbis impudentibus conabantur, et segnem + incessentes et timidum et umbratilem, gestaque secus verbis + comptioribus exornantem. Ammianus, s. xvii. 11. * Note: The + philosophers retaliated on the courtiers. Marius (says Eunapius + in a newly-discovered fragment) was wont to call his antagonist + Sylla a beast half lion and half fox. Constantius had nothing of + the lion, but was surrounded by a whole litter of foxes. Mai. + Script. Byz. Nov. Col. ii. 238. Niebuhr. Byzant. Hist. 66.—M.] + + 2 (return) [ Ammian. xvi. 12. The orator Themistius (iv. p. 56, + 57) believed whatever was contained in the Imperial letters, + which were addressed to the senate of Constantinople Aurelius + Victor, who published his Abridgment in the last year of + Constantius, ascribes the German victories to the _wisdom_ of the + emperor, and the _fortune_ of the Cæsar. Yet the historian, soon + afterwards, was indebted to the favor or esteem of Julian for the + honor of a brass statue, and the important offices of consular of + the second Pannonia, and præfect of the city, Ammian. xxi. 10.] + + 3 (return) [ Callido nocendi artificio, accusatoriam diritatem + laudum titulis peragebant. .. Hæ voces fuerunt ad inflammanda + odia probria omnibus potentiores. See Mamertin, in Actione + Gratiarum in Vet Panegyr. xi. 5, 6.] + + The apparent tranquillity of Gaul, and the imminent danger of the + eastern provinces, offered a specious pretence for the design + which was artfully concerted by the Imperial ministers. They + resolved to disarm the Cæsar; to recall those faithful troops who + guarded his person and dignity; and to employ, in a distant war + against the Persian monarch, the hardy veterans who had + vanquished, on the banks of the Rhine, the fiercest nations of + Germany. While Julian used the laborious hours of his winter + quarters at Paris in the administration of power, which, in his + hands, was the exercise of virtue, he was surprised by the hasty + arrival of a tribune and a notary, with positive orders, from the + emperor, which _they_ were directed to execute, and _he_ was + commanded not to oppose. Constantius signified his pleasure, that + four entire legions, the Celtæ, and Petulants, the Heruli, and + the Batavians, should be separated from the standard of Julian, + under which they had acquired their fame and discipline; that in + each of the remaining bands three hundred of the bravest youths + should be selected; and that this numerous detachment, the + strength of the Gallic army, should instantly begin their march, + and exert their utmost diligence to arrive, before the opening of + the campaign, on the frontiers of Persia. 4 The Cæsar foresaw and + lamented the consequences of this fatal mandate. Most of the + auxiliaries, who engaged their voluntary service, had stipulated, + that they should never be obliged to pass the Alps. The public + faith of Rome, and the personal honor of Julian, had been pledged + for the observance of this condition. Such an act of treachery + and oppression would destroy the confidence, and excite the + resentment, of the independent warriors of Germany, who + considered truth as the noblest of their virtues, and freedom as + the most valuable of their possessions. The legionaries, who + enjoyed the title and privileges of Romans, were enlisted for the + general defence of the republic; but those mercenary troops heard + with cold indifference the antiquated names of the republic and + of Rome. Attached, either from birth or long habit, to the + climate and manners of Gaul, they loved and admired Julian; they + despised, and perhaps hated, the emperor; they dreaded the + laborious march, the Persian arrows, and the burning deserts of + Asia. They claimed as their own the country which they had saved; + and excused their want of spirit, by pleading the sacred and more + immediate duty of protecting their families and friends. + + The apprehensions of the Gauls were derived from the knowledge of + the impending and inevitable danger. As soon as the provinces + were exhausted of their military strength, the Germans would + violate a treaty which had been imposed on their fears; and + notwithstanding the abilities and valor of Julian, the general of + a nominal army, to whom the public calamities would be imputed, + must find himself, after a vain resistance, either a prisoner in + the camp of the barbarians, or a criminal in the palace of + Constantius. If Julian complied with the orders which he had + received, he subscribed his own destruction, and that of a people + who deserved his affection. But a positive refusal was an act of + rebellion, and a declaration of war. The inexorable jealousy of + the emperor, the peremptory, and perhaps insidious, nature of his + commands, left not any room for a fair apology, or candid + interpretation; and the dependent station of the Cæsar scarcely + allowed him to pause or to deliberate. Solitude increased the + perplexity of Julian; he could no longer apply to the faithful + counsels of Sallust, who had been removed from his office by the + judicious malice of the eunuchs: he could not even enforce his + representations by the concurrence of the ministers, who would + have been afraid or ashamed to approve the ruin of Gaul. The + moment had been chosen, when Lupicinus, 5 the general of the + cavalry, was despatched into Britain, to repulse the inroads of + the Scots and Picts; and Florentius was occupied at Vienna by the + assessment of the tribute. The latter, a crafty and corrupt + statesman, declining to assume a responsible part on this + dangerous occasion, eluded the pressing and repeated invitations + of Julian, who represented to him, that in every important + measure, the presence of the præfect was indispensable in the + council of the prince. In the mean while the Cæsar was oppressed + by the rude and importunate solicitations of the Imperial + messengers, who presumed to suggest, that if he expected the + return of his ministers, he would charge himself with the guilt + of the delay, and reserve for them the merit of the execution. + Unable to resist, unwilling to comply, Julian expressed, in the + most serious terms, his wish, and even his intention, of + resigning the purple, which he could not preserve with honor, but + which he could not abdicate with safety. + + 4 (return) [ The minute interval, which may be interposed, + between the _hyeme adultâ_ and the _primo vere_ of Ammianus, (xx. + l. 4,) instead of allowing a sufficient space for a march of + three thousand miles, would render the orders of Constantius as + extravagant as they were unjust. The troops of Gaul could not + have reached Syria till the end of autumn. The memory of Ammianus + must have been inaccurate, and his language incorrect. * Note: + The late editor of Ammianus attempts to vindicate his author from + the charge of inaccuracy. “It is clear, from the whole course of + the narrative, that Constantius entertained this design of + demanding his troops from Julian, immediately after the taking of + Amida, in the autumn of the preceding year, and had transmitted + his orders into Gaul, before it was known that Lupicinus had gone + into Britain with the Herulians and Batavians.” Wagner, note to + Amm. xx. 4. But it seems also clear that the troops were in + winter quarters (hiemabant) when the orders arrived. Ammianus can + scarcely be acquitted of incorrectness in his language at + least.—M] + + 5 (return) [ Ammianus, xx. l. The valor of Lupicinus, and his + military skill, are acknowledged by the historian, who, in his + affected language, accuses the general of exalting the horns of + his pride, bellowing in a tragic tone, and exciting a doubt + whether he was more cruel or avaricious. The danger from the + Scots and Picts was so serious that Julian himself had some + thoughts of passing over into the island.] + + After a painful conflict, Julian was compelled to acknowledge, + that obedience was the virtue of the most eminent subject, and + that the sovereign alone was entitled to judge of the public + welfare. He issued the necessary orders for carrying into + execution the commands of Constantius; a part of the troops began + their march for the Alps; and the detachments from the several + garrisons moved towards their respective places of assembly. They + advanced with difficulty through the trembling and affrighted + crowds of provincials, who attempted to excite their pity by + silent despair, or loud lamentations, while the wives of the + soldiers, holding their infants in their arms, accused the + desertion of their husbands, in the mixed language of grief, of + tenderness, and of indignation. This scene of general distress + afflicted the humanity of the Cæsar; he granted a sufficient + number of post-wagons to transport the wives and families of the + soldiers, 6 endeavored to alleviate the hardships which he was + constrained to inflict, and increased, by the most laudable arts, + his own popularity, and the discontent of the exiled troops. The + grief of an armed multitude is soon converted into rage; their + licentious murmurs, which every hour were communicated from tent + to tent with more boldness and effect, prepared their minds for + the most daring acts of sedition; and by the connivance of their + tribunes, a seasonable libel was secretly dispersed, which + painted in lively colors the disgrace of the Cæsar, the + oppression of the Gallic army, and the feeble vices of the tyrant + of Asia. The servants of Constantius were astonished and alarmed + by the progress of this dangerous spirit. They pressed the Cæsar + to hasten the departure of the troops; but they imprudently + rejected the honest and judicious advice of Julian; who proposed + that they should not march through Paris, and suggested the + danger and temptation of a last interview. + + 6 (return) [ He granted them the permission of the _cursus + clavularis_, or _clabularis_. These post-wagons are often + mentioned in the Code, and were supposed to carry fifteen hundred + pounds weight. See Vales. ad Ammian. xx. 4.] + + As soon as the approach of the troops was announced, the Cæsar + went out to meet them, and ascended his tribunal, which had been + erected in a plain before the gates of the city. After + distinguishing the officers and soldiers, who by their rank or + merit deserved a peculiar attention, Julian addressed himself in + a studied oration to the surrounding multitude: he celebrated + their exploits with grateful applause; encouraged them to accept, + with alacrity, the honor of serving under the eye of a powerful + and liberal monarch; and admonished them, that the commands of + Augustus required an instant and cheerful obedience. The + soldiers, who were apprehensive of offending their general by an + indecent clamor, or of belying their sentiments by false and + venal acclamations, maintained an obstinate silence; and after a + short pause, were dismissed to their quarters. The principal + officers were entertained by the Cæsar, who professed, in the + warmest language of friendship, his desire and his inability to + reward, according to their deserts, the brave companions of his + victories. They retired from the feast, full of grief and + perplexity; and lamented the hardship of their fate, which tore + them from their beloved general and their native country. The + only expedient which could prevent their separation was boldly + agitated and approved; the popular resentment was insensibly + moulded into a regular conspiracy; their just reasons of + complaint were heightened by passion, and their passions were + inflamed by wine; as, on the eve of their departure, the troops + were indulged in licentious festivity. At the hour of midnight, + the impetuous multitude, with swords, and bows, and torches in + their hands, rushed into the suburbs; encompassed the palace; 7 + and, careless of future dangers, pronounced the fatal and + irrevocable words, Julian Augustus! The prince, whose anxious + suspense was interrupted by their disorderly acclamations, + secured the doors against their intrusion; and as long as it was + in his power, secluded his person and dignity from the accidents + of a nocturnal tumult. At the dawn of day, the soldiers, whose + zeal was irritated by opposition, forcibly entered the palace, + seized, with respectful violence, the object of their choice, + guarded Julian with drawn swords through the streets of Paris, + placed him on the tribunal, and with repeated shouts saluted him + as their emperor. Prudence, as well as loyalty, inculcated the + propriety of resisting their treasonable designs; and of + preparing, for his oppressed virtue, the excuse of violence. + Addressing himself by turns to the multitude and to individuals, + he sometimes implored their mercy, and sometimes expressed his + indignation; conjured them not to sully the fame of their + immortal victories; and ventured to promise, that if they would + immediately return to their allegiance, he would undertake to + obtain from the emperor not only a free and gracious pardon, but + even the revocation of the orders which had excited their + resentment. But the soldiers, who were conscious of their guilt, + chose rather to depend on the gratitude of Julian, than on the + clemency of the emperor. Their zeal was insensibly turned into + impatience, and their impatience into rage. The inflexible Cæsar + sustained, till the third hour of the day, their prayers, their + reproaches, and their menaces; nor did he yield, till he had been + repeatedly assured, that if he wished to live, he must consent to + reign. He was exalted on a shield in the presence, and amidst the + unanimous acclamations, of the troops; a rich military collar, + which was offered by chance, supplied the want of a diadem; 8 the + ceremony was concluded by the promise of a moderate donative; and + the new emperor, overwhelmed with real or affected grief retired + into the most secret recesses of his apartment. 10 + + 7 (return) [ Most probably the palace of the baths, + (_Thermarum_,) of which a solid and lofty hall still subsists in + the _Rue de la Harpe_. The buildings covered a considerable space + of the modern quarter of the university; and the gardens, under + the Merovingian kings, communicated with the abbey of St. Germain + des Prez. By the injuries of time and the Normans, this ancient + palace was reduced, in the twelfth century, to a maze of ruins, + whose dark recesses were the scene of licentious love. + + Explicat aula sinus montemque amplectitur alis; Multiplici latebra + scelerum tersura ruborem. .... pereuntis sæpe pudoris Celatura + nefas, Venerisque accommoda furtis. + + (These lines are quoted from the Architrenius, l. iv. c. 8, a + poetical work of John de Hauteville, or Hanville, a monk of St. + Alban’s, about the year 1190. See Warton’s History of English + Poetry, vol. i. dissert. ii.) Yet such _thefts_ might be less + pernicious to mankind than the theological disputes of the + Sorbonne, which have been since agitated on the same ground. + Bonamy, Mém. de l’Académie, tom. xv. p. 678-632] + + 8 (return) [ Even in this tumultuous moment, Julian attended to + the forms of superstitious ceremony, and obstinately refused the + inauspicious use of a female necklace, or a horse collar, which + the impatient soldiers would have employed in the room of a + diadem. ----An equal proportion of gold and silver, five pieces + of the former one pound of the latter; the whole amounting to + about five pounds ten shillings of our money.] + + 10 (return) [ For the whole narrative of this revolt, we may + appeal to authentic and original materials; Julian himself, (ad + S. P. Q. Atheniensem, p. 282, 283, 284,) Libanius, (Orat. + Parental. c. 44-48, in Fabricius, Bibliot. Græc. tom. vii. p. + 269-273,) Ammianus, (xx. 4,) and Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 151, 152, + 153.) who, in the reign of Julian, appears to follow the more + respectable authority of Eunapius. With such guides we _might_ + neglect the abbreviators and ecclesiastical historians.] + + The grief of Julian could proceed only from his innocence; out + his innocence must appear extremely doubtful 11 in the eyes of + those who have learned to suspect the motives and the professions + of princes. His lively and active mind was susceptible of the + various impressions of hope and fear, of gratitude and revenge, + of duty and of ambition, of the love of fame, and of the fear of + reproach. But it is impossible for us to calculate the respective + weight and operation of these sentiments; or to ascertain the + principles of action which might escape the observation, while + they guided, or rather impelled, the steps of Julian himself. The + discontent of the troops was produced by the malice of his + enemies; their tumult was the natural effect of interest and of + passion; and if Julian had tried to conceal a deep design under + the appearances of chance, he must have employed the most + consummate artifice without necessity, and probably without + success. He solemnly declares, in the presence of Jupiter, of the + Sun, of Mars, of Minerva, and of all the other deities, that till + the close of the evening which preceded his elevation, he was + utterly ignorant of the designs of the soldiers; 12 and it may + seem ungenerous to distrust the honor of a hero and the truth of + a philosopher. Yet the superstitious confidence that Constantius + was the enemy, and that he himself was the favorite, of the gods, + might prompt him to desire, to solicit, and even to hasten the + auspicious moment of his reign, which was predestined to restore + the ancient religion of mankind. When Julian had received the + intelligence of the conspiracy, he resigned himself to a short + slumber; and afterwards related to his friends that he had seen + the genius of the empire waiting with some impatience at his + door, pressing for admittance, and reproaching his want of spirit + and ambition. 13 Astonished and perplexed, he addressed his + prayers to the great Jupiter, who immediately signified, by a + clear and manifest omen, that he should submit to the will of + heaven and of the army. The conduct which disclaims the ordinary + maxims of reason, excites our suspicion and eludes our inquiry. + Whenever the spirit of fanaticism, at once so credulous and so + crafty, has insinuated itself into a noble mind, it insensibly + corrodes the vital principles of virtue and veracity. + + 11 (return) [ Eutropius, a respectable witness, uses a doubtful + expression, “consensu militum.” (x. 15.) Gregory Nazianzen, whose + ignorance night excuse his fanaticism, directly charges the + apostate with presumption, madness, and impious rebellion, Orat. + iii. p. 67.] + + 12 (return) [ Julian. ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 284. The _devout_ + Abbé de la Bleterie (Vie de Julien, p. 159) is almost inclined to + respect the _devout_ protestations of a Pagan.] + + 13 (return) [ Ammian. xx. 5, with the note of Lindenbrogius on + the Genius of the empire. Julian himself, in a confidential + letter to his friend and physician, Oribasius, (Epist. xvii. p. + 384,) mentions another dream, to which, before the event, he gave + credit; of a stately tree thrown to the ground, of a small plant + striking a deep root into the earth. Even in his sleep, the mind + of the Cæsar must have been agitated by the hopes and fears of + his fortune. Zosimus (l. iii. p. 155) relates a subsequent + dream.] + + To moderate the zeal of his party, to protect the persons of his + enemies, 14 to defeat and to despise the secret enterprises which + were formed against his life and dignity, were the cares which + employed the first days of the reign of the new emperor. Although + he was firmly resolved to maintain the station which he had + assumed, he was still desirous of saving his country from the + calamities of civil war, of declining a contest with the superior + forces of Constantius, and of preserving his own character from + the reproach of perfidy and ingratitude. Adorned with the ensigns + of military and imperial pomp, Julian showed himself in the field + of Mars to the soldiers, who glowed with ardent enthusiasm in the + cause of their pupil, their leader, and their friend. He + recapitulated their victories, lamented their sufferings, + applauded their resolution, animated their hopes, and checked + their impetuosity; nor did he dismiss the assembly, till he had + obtained a solemn promise from the troops, that if the emperor of + the East would subscribe an equitable treaty, they would renounce + any views of conquest, and satisfy themselves with the tranquil + possession of the Gallic provinces. On this foundation he + composed, in his own name, and in that of the army, a specious + and moderate epistle, 15 which was delivered to Pentadius, his + master of the offices, and to his chamberlain Eutherius; two + ambassadors whom he appointed to receive the answer, and observe + the dispositions of Constantius. This epistle is inscribed with + the modest appellation of Cæsar; but Julian solicits in a + peremptory, though respectful, manner, the confirmation of the + title of Augustus. He acknowledges the irregularity of his own + election, while he justifies, in some measure, the resentment and + violence of the troops which had extorted his reluctant consent. + He allows the supremacy of his brother Constantius; and engages + to send him an annual present of Spanish horses, to recruit his + army with a select number of barbarian youths, and to accept from + his choice a Prætorian præfect of approved discretion and + fidelity. But he reserves for himself the nomination of his other + civil and military officers, with the troops, the revenue, and + the sovereignty of the provinces beyond the Alps. He admonishes + the emperor to consult the dictates of justice; to distrust the + arts of those venal flatterers, who subsist only by the discord + of princes; and to embrace the offer of a fair and honorable + treaty, equally advantageous to the republic and to the house of + Constantine. In this negotiation Julian claimed no more than he + already possessed. The delegated authority which he had long + exercised over the provinces of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, was + still obeyed under a name more independent and august. The + soldiers and the people rejoiced in a revolution which was not + stained even with the blood of the guilty. Florentius was a + fugitive; Lupicinus a prisoner. The persons who were disaffected + to the new government were disarmed and secured; and the vacant + offices were distributed, according to the recommendation of + merit, by a prince who despised the intrigues of the palace, and + the clamors of the soldiers. 16 + + 14 (return) [ The difficult situation of the prince of a + rebellious army is finely described by Tacitus, (Hist. 1, 80-85.) + But Otho had much more guilt, and much less abilities, than + Julian.] + + 15 (return) [ To this ostensible epistle he added, says Ammianus, + private letters, objurgatorias et mordaces, which the historian + had not seen, and would not have published. Perhaps they never + existed.] + + 16 (return) [ See the first transactions of his reign, in Julian. + ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 285, 286. Ammianus, xx. 5, 8. Liban. Orat. + Parent. c. 49, 50, p. 273-275.] + + The negotiations of peace were accompanied and supported by the + most vigorous preparations for war. The army, which Julian held + in readiness for immediate action, was recruited and augmented by + the disorders of the times. The cruel persecutions of the faction + of Magnentius had filled Gaul with numerous bands of outlaws and + robbers. They cheerfully accepted the offer of a general pardon + from a prince whom they could trust, submitted to the restraints + of military discipline, and retained only their implacable hatred + to the person and government of Constantius. 17 As soon as the + season of the year permitted Julian to take the field, he + appeared at the head of his legions; threw a bridge over the + Rhine in the neighborhood of Cleves; and prepared to chastise the + perfidy of the Attuarii, a tribe of Franks, who presumed that + they might ravage, with impunity, the frontiers of a divided + empire. The difficulty, as well as glory, of this enterprise, + consisted in a laborious march; and Julian had conquered, as soon + as he could penetrate into a country, which former princes had + considered as inaccessible. After he had given peace to the + Barbarians, the emperor carefully visited the fortifications + along the Qhine from Cleves to Basil; surveyed, with peculiar + attention, the territories which he had recovered from the hands + of the Alemanni, passed through Besançon, 18 which had severely + suffered from their fury, and fixed his headquarters at Vienna + for the ensuing winter. The barrier of Gaul was improved and + strengthened with additional fortifications; and Julian + entertained some hopes that the Germans, whom he had so often + vanquished, might, in his absence, be restrained by the terror of + his name. Vadomair 19 was the only prince of the Alemanni whom he + esteemed or feared and while the subtle Barbarian affected to + observe the faith of treaties, the progress of his arms + threatened the state with an unseasonable and dangerous war. The + policy of Julian condescended to surprise the prince of the + Alemanni by his own arts: and Vadomair, who, in the character of + a friend, had incautiously accepted an invitation from the Roman + governors, was seized in the midst of the entertainment, and sent + away prisoner into the heart of Spain. Before the Barbarians were + recovered from their amazement, the emperor appeared in arms on + the banks of the Rhine, and, once more crossing the river, + renewed the deep impressions of terror and respect which had been + already made by four preceding expeditions. 20 + + 17 (return) [ Liban. Orat. Parent. c. 50, p. 275, 276. A strange + disorder, since it continued above seven years. In the factions + of the Greek republics, the exiles amounted to 20,000 persons; + and Isocrates assures Philip, that it would be easier to raise an + army from the vagabonds than from the cities. See Hume’s Essays, + tom. i. p. 426, 427.] + + 18 (return) [ Julian (Epist. xxxviii. p. 414) gives a short + description of Vesontio, or Besançon; a rocky peninsula almost + encircled by the River Doux; once a magnificent city, filled with + temples, &c., now reduced to a small town, emerging, however, + from its ruins.] + + 19 (return) [ Vadomair entered into the Roman service, and was + promoted from a barbarian kingdom to the military rank of duke of + Phœnicia. He still retained the same artful character, (Ammian. + xxi. 4;) but under the reign of Valens, he signalized his valor + in the Armenian war, (xxix. 1.)] + + 20 (return) [ Ammian. xx. 10, xxi. 3, 4. Zosimus, l. iii. p. + 155.] + + + + + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part II. + + + The ambassadors of Julian had been instructed to execute, with + the utmost diligence, their important commission. But, in their + passage through Italy and Illyricum, they were detained by the + tedious and affected delays of the provincial governors; they + were conducted by slow journeys from Constantinople to Cæsarea in + Cappadocia; and when at length they were admitted to the presence + of Constantius, they found that he had already conceived, from + the despatches of his own officers, the most unfavorable opinion + of the conduct of Julian, and of the Gallic army. The letters + were heard with impatience; the trembling messengers were + dismissed with indignation and contempt; and the looks, gestures, + the furious language of the monarch, expressed the disorder of + his soul. The domestic connection, which might have reconciled + the brother and the husband of Helena, was recently dissolved by + the death of that princess, whose pregnancy had been several + times fruitless, and was at last fatal to herself. 21 The empress + Eusebia had preserved, to the last moment of her life, the warm, + and even jealous, affection which she had conceived for Julian; + and her mild influence might have moderated the resentment of a + prince, who, since her death, was abandoned to his own passions, + and to the arts of his eunuchs. But the terror of a foreign + invasion obliged him to suspend the punishment of a private + enemy: he continued his march towards the confines of Persia, and + thought it sufficient to signify the conditions which might + entitle Julian and his guilty followers to the clemency of their + offended sovereign. He required, that the presumptuous Cæsar + should expressly renounce the appellation and rank of Augustus, + which he had accepted from the rebels; that he should descend to + his former station of a limited and dependent minister; that he + should vest the powers of the state and army in the hands of + those officers who were appointed by the Imperial court; and that + he should trust his safety to the assurances of pardon, which + were announced by Epictetus, a Gallic bishop, and one of the + Arian favorites of Constantius. Several months were ineffectually + consumed in a treaty which was negotiated at the distance of + three thousand miles between Paris and Antioch; and, as soon as + Julian perceived that his modest and respectful behavior served + only to irritate the pride of an implacable adversary, he boldly + resolved to commit his life and fortune to the chance of a civil + war. He gave a public and military audience to the quæstor + Leonas: the haughty epistle of Constantius was read to the + attentive multitude; and Julian protested, with the most + flattering deference, that he was ready to resign the title of + Augustus, if he could obtain the consent of those whom he + acknowledged as the authors of his elevation. The faint proposal + was impetuously silenced; and the acclamations of “Julian + Augustus, continue to reign, by the authority of the army, of the + people, of the republic which you have saved,” thundered at once + from every part of the field, and terrified the pale ambassador + of Constantius. A part of the letter was afterwards read, in + which the emperor arraigned the ingratitude of Julian, whom he + had invested with the honors of the purple; whom he had educated + with so much care and tenderness; whom he had preserved in his + infancy, when he was left a helpless orphan. + + “An orphan!” interrupted Julian, who justified his cause by + indulging his passions: “does the assassin of my family reproach + me that I was left an orphan? He urges me to revenge those + injuries which I have long studied to forget.” The assembly was + dismissed; and Leonas, who, with some difficulty, had been + protected from the popular fury, was sent back to his master with + an epistle, in which Julian expressed, in a strain of the most + vehement eloquence, the sentiments of contempt, of hatred, and of + resentment, which had been suppressed and imbittered by the + dissimulation of twenty years. After this message, which might be + considered as a signal of irreconcilable war, Julian, who, some + weeks before, had celebrated the Christian festival of the + Epiphany, 22 made a public declaration that he committed the care + of his safety to the Immortal Gods; and thus publicly renounced + the religion as well as the friendship of Constantius. 23 + + 21 (return) [ Her remains were sent to Rome, and interred near + those of her sister Constantina, in the suburb of the _Via + Nomentana_. Ammian. xxi. 1. Libanius has composed a very weak + apology, to justify his hero from a very absurd charge of + poisoning his wife, and rewarding her physician with his mother’s + jewels. (See the seventh of seventeen new orations, published at + Venice, 1754, from a MS. in St. Mark’s Library, p. 117-127.) + Elpidius, the Prætorian præfect of the East, to whose evidence + the accuser of Julian appeals, is arraigned by Libanius, as + _effeminate_ and ungrateful; yet the religion of Elpidius is + praised by Jerom, (tom. i. p. 243,) and his Ammianus (xxi. 6.)] + + 22 (return) [ Feriarum die quem celebrantes mense Januario, + Christiani _Epiphania_ dictitant, progressus in eorum ecclesiam, + solemniter numine orato discessit. Ammian. xxi. 2. Zonaras + observes, that it was on Christmas day, and his assertion is not + inconsistent; since the churches of Egypt, Asia, and perhaps + Gaul, celebrated on the same day (the sixth of January) the + nativity and the baptism of their Savior. The Romans, as ignorant + as their brethren of the real date of his birth, fixed the solemn + festival to the 25th of December, the _Brumalia_, or winter + solstice, when the Pagans annually celebrated the birth of the + sun. See Bingham’s Antiquities of the Christian Church, l. xx. c. + 4, and Beausobre, Hist. Critique du Manicheismo tom. ii. p. + 690-700.] + + 23 (return) [ The public and secret negotiations between + Constantius and Julian must be extracted, with some caution, from + Julian himself. (Orat. ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 286.) Libanius, + (Orat. Parent. c. 51, p. 276,) Ammianus, (xx. 9,) Zosimus, (l. + iii. p. 154,) and even Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 20, 21, + 22,) who, on this occasion, appears to have possessed and used + some valuable materials.] + + The situation of Julian required a vigorous and immediate + resolution. He had discovered, from intercepted letters, that his + adversary, sacrificing the interest of the state to that of the + monarch, had again excited the Barbarians to invade the provinces + of the West. The position of two magazines, one of them collected + on the banks of the Lake of Constance, the other formed at the + foot of the Cottian Alps, seemed to indicate the march of two + armies; and the size of those magazines, each of which consisted + of six hundred thousand quarters of wheat, or rather flour, 24 + was a threatening evidence of the strength and numbers of the + enemy who prepared to surround him. But the Imperial legions were + still in their distant quarters of Asia; the Danube was feebly + guarded; and if Julian could occupy, by a sudden incursion, the + important provinces of Illyricum, he might expect that a people + of soldiers would resort to his standard, and that the rich mines + of gold and silver would contribute to the expenses of the civil + war. He proposed this bold enterprise to the assembly of the + soldiers; inspired them with a just confidence in their general, + and in themselves; and exhorted them to maintain their reputation + of being terrible to the enemy, moderate to their + fellow-citizens, and obedient to their officers. His spirited + discourse was received with the loudest acclamations, and the + same troops which had taken up arms against Constantius, when he + summoned them to leave Gaul, now declared with alacrity, that + they would follow Julian to the farthest extremities of Europe or + Asia. The oath of fidelity was administered; and the soldiers, + clashing their shields, and pointing their drawn swords to their + throats, devoted themselves, with horrid imprecations, to the + service of a leader whom they celebrated as the deliverer of Gaul + and the conqueror of the Germans. 25 This solemn engagement, + which seemed to be dictated by affection rather than by duty, was + singly opposed by Nebridius, who had been admitted to the office + of Prætorian præfect. That faithful minister, alone and + unassisted, asserted the rights of Constantius, in the midst of + an armed and angry multitude, to whose fury he had almost fallen + an honorable, but useless sacrifice. After losing one of his + hands by the stroke of a sword, he embraced the knees of the + prince whom he had offended. Julian covered the præfect with his + Imperial mantle, and, protecting him from the zeal of his + followers, dismissed him to his own house, with less respect than + was perhaps due to the virtue of an enemy. 26 The high office of + Nebridius was bestowed on Sallust; and the provinces of Gaul, + which were now delivered from the intolerable oppression of + taxes, enjoyed the mild and equitable administration of the + friend of Julian, who was permitted to practise those virtues + which he had instilled into the mind of his pupil. 27 + + 24 (return) [ Three hundred myriads, or three millions of + _medimni_, a corn measure familiar to the Athenians, and which + contained six Roman _modii_. Julian explains, like a soldier and + a statesman, the danger of his situation, and the necessity and + advantages of an offensive war, (ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 286, + 287.)] + + 25 (return) [ See his oration, and the behavior of the troops, in + Ammian. xxi. 5.] + + 26 (return) [ He sternly refused his hand to the suppliant + præfect, whom he sent into Tuscany. (Ammian. xxi. 5.) Libanius, + with savage fury, insults Nebridius, applauds the soldiers, and + almost censures the humanity of Julian. (Orat. Parent. c. 53, p. + 278.)] + + 27 (return) [ Ammian. xxi. 8. In this promotion, Julian obeyed + the law which he publicly imposed on himself. Neque civilis + quisquam judex nec militaris rector, alio quodam præter merita + suffragante, ad potiorem veniat gradum. (Ammian. xx. 5.) Absence + did not weaken his regard for Sallust, with whose name (A. D. + 363) he honored the consulship.] + + The hopes of Julian depended much less on the number of his + troops, than on the celerity of his motions. In the execution of + a daring enterprise, he availed himself of every precaution, as + far as prudence could suggest; and where prudence could no longer + accompany his steps, he trusted the event to valor and to + fortune. In the neighborhood of Basil he assembled and divided + his army. 28 One body, which consisted of ten thousand men, was + directed under the command of Nevitta, general of the cavalry, to + advance through the midland parts of Rhætia and Noricum. A + similar division of troops, under the orders of Jovius and + Jovinus, prepared to follow the oblique course of the highways, + through the Alps, and the northern confines of Italy. The + instructions to the generals were conceived with energy and + precision: to hasten their march in close and compact columns, + which, according to the disposition of the ground, might readily + be changed into any order of battle; to secure themselves against + the surprises of the night by strong posts and vigilant guards; + to prevent resistance by their unexpected arrival; to elude + examination by their sudden departure; to spread the opinion of + their strength, and the terror of his name; and to join their + sovereign under the walls of Sirmium. For himself Julian had + reserved a more difficult and extraordinary part. He selected + three thousand brave and active volunteers, resolved, like their + leader, to cast behind them every hope of a retreat; at the head + of this faithful band, he fearlessly plunged into the recesses of + the Marcian, or Black Forest, which conceals the sources of the + Danube; 29 and, for many days, the fate of Julian was unknown to + the world. The secrecy of his march, his diligence, and vigor, + surmounted every obstacle; he forced his way over mountains and + morasses, occupied the bridges or swam the rivers, pursued his + direct course, 30 without reflecting whether he traversed the + territory of the Romans or of the Barbarians, and at length + emerged, between Ratisbon and Vienna, at the place where he + designed to embark his troops on the Danube. By a well-concerted + stratagem, he seized a fleet of light brigantines, 31 as it lay + at anchor; secured a apply of coarse provisions sufficient to + satisfy the indelicate, and voracious, appetite of a Gallic army; + and boldly committed himself to the stream of the Danube. The + labors of the mariners, who plied their oars with incessant + diligence, and the steady continuance of a favorable wind, + carried his fleet above seven hundred miles in eleven days; 32 + and he had already disembarked his troops at Bononia, 3211 only + nineteen miles from Sirmium, before his enemies could receive any + certain intelligence that he had left the banks of the Rhine. In + the course of this long and rapid navigation, the mind of Julian + was fixed on the object of his enterprise; and though he accepted + the deputations of some cities, which hastened to claim the merit + of an early submission, he passed before the hostile stations, + which were placed along the river, without indulging the + temptation of signalizing a useless and ill-timed valor. The + banks of the Danube were crowded on either side with spectators, + who gazed on the military pomp, anticipated the importance of the + event, and diffused through the adjacent country the fame of a + young hero, who advanced with more than mortal speed at the head + of the innumerable forces of the West. Lucilian, who, with the + rank of general of the cavalry, commanded the military powers of + Illyricum, was alarmed and perplexed by the doubtful reports, + which he could neither reject nor believe. He had taken some slow + and irresolute measures for the purpose of collecting his troops, + when he was surprised by Dagalaiphus, an active officer, whom + Julian, as soon as he landed at Bononia, had pushed forwards with + some light infantry. The captive general, uncertain of his life + or death, was hastily thrown upon a horse, and conducted to the + presence of Julian; who kindly raised him from the ground, and + dispelled the terror and amazement which seemed to stupefy his + faculties. But Lucilian had no sooner recovered his spirits, than + he betrayed his want of discretion, by presuming to admonish his + conqueror that he had rashly ventured, with a handful of men, to + expose his person in the midst of his enemies. “Reserve for your + master Constantius these timid remonstrances,” replied Julian, + with a smile of contempt: “when I gave you my purple to kiss, I + received you not as a counsellor, but as a suppliant.” Conscious + that success alone could justify his attempt, and that boldness + only could command success, he instantly advanced, at the head of + three thousand soldiers, to attack the strongest and most + populous city of the Illyrian provinces. As he entered the long + suburb of Sirmium, he was received by the joyful acclamations of + the army and people; who, crowned with flowers, and holding + lighted tapers in their hands, conducted their acknowledged + sovereign to his Imperial residence. Two days were devoted to the + public joy, which was celebrated by the games of the circus; but, + early on the morning of the third day, Julian marched to occupy + the narrow pass of Succi, in the defiles of Mount Hæmus; which, + almost in the midway between Sirmium and Constantinople, + separates the provinces of Thrace and Dacia, by an abrupt descent + towards the former, and a gentle declivity on the side of the + latter. 33 The defence of this important post was intrusted to + the brave Nevitta; who, as well as the generals of the Italian + division, successfully executed the plan of the march and + junction which their master had so ably conceived. 34 + + 28 (return) [ Ammianus (xxi. 8) ascribes the same practice, and + the same motive, to Alexander the Great and other skilful + generals.] + + 29 (return) [ This wood was a part of the great Hercynian forest, + which, is the time of Cæsar, stretched away from the country of + the Rauraci (Basil) into the boundless regions of the north. See + Cluver, Germania Antiqua. l. iii. c. 47.] + + 30 (return) [ Compare Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 53, p. 278, 279, + with Gregory Nazianzen, Orat. iii. p. 68. Even the saint admires + the speed and secrecy of this march. A modern divine might apply + to the progress of Julian the lines which were originally + designed for another apostate:— + + —So eagerly the fiend, O’er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, + dense, or rare, With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, + And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.] + + 31 (return) [ In that interval the _Notitia_ places two or three + fleets, the Lauriacensis, (at Lauriacum, or Lorch,) the + Arlapensis, the Maginensis; and mentions five legions, or + cohorts, of Libernarii, who should be a sort of marines. Sect. + lviii. edit. Labb.] + + 32 (return) [ Zosimus alone (l. iii. p. 156) has specified this + interesting circumstance. Mamertinus, (in Panegyr. Vet. xi. 6, 7, + 8,) who accompanied Julian, as count of the sacred largesses, + describes this voyage in a florid and picturesque manner, + challenges Triptolemus and the Argonauts of Greece, &c.] + + 3211 (return) [ Banostar. _Mannert_.—M.] + + 33 (return) [ The description of Ammianus, which might be + supported by collateral evidence, ascertains the precise + situation of the _Angustiæ Succorum_, or passes of _Succi_. M. + d’Anville, from the trifling resemblance of names, has placed + them between Sardica and Naissus. For my own justification I am + obliged to mention the _only_ error which I have discovered in + the maps or writings of that admirable geographer.] + + 34 (return) [ Whatever circumstances we may borrow elsewhere, + Ammianus (xx. 8, 9, 10) still supplies the series of the + narrative.] + + The homage which Julian obtained, from the fears or the + inclination of the people, extended far beyond the immediate + effect of his arms. 35 The præfectures of Italy and Illyricum + were administered by Taurus and Florentius, who united that + important office with the vain honors of the consulship; and as + those magistrates had retired with precipitation to the court of + Asia, Julian, who could not always restrain the levity of his + temper, stigmatized their flight by adding, in all the Acts of + the Year, the epithet of _fugitive_ to the names of the two + consuls. The provinces which had been deserted by their first + magistrates acknowledged the authority of an emperor, who, + conciliating the qualities of a soldier with those of a + philosopher, was equally admired in the camps of the Danube and + in the cities of Greece. From his palace, or, more properly, from + his head-quarters of Sirmium and Naissus, he distributed to the + principal cities of the empire, a labored apology for his own + conduct; published the secret despatches of Constantius; and + solicited the judgment of mankind between two competitors, the + one of whom had expelled, and the other had invited, the + Barbarians. 36 Julian, whose mind was deeply wounded by the + reproach of ingratitude, aspired to maintain, by argument as well + as by arms, the superior merits of his cause; and to excel, not + only in the arts of war, but in those of composition. His epistle + to the senate and people of Athens 37 seems to have been dictated + by an elegant enthusiasm; which prompted him to submit his + actions and his motives to the degenerate Athenians of his own + times, with the same humble deference as if he had been pleading, + in the days of Aristides, before the tribunal of the Areopagus. + His application to the senate of Rome, which was still permitted + to bestow the titles of Imperial power, was agreeable to the + forms of the expiring republic. An assembly was summoned by + Tertullus, præfect of the city; the epistle of Julian was read; + and, as he appeared to be master of Italy his claims were + admitted without a dissenting voice. His oblique censure of the + innovations of Constantine, and his passionate invective against + the vices of Constantius, were heard with less satisfaction; and + the senate, as if Julian had been present, unanimously exclaimed, + “Respect, we beseech you, the author of your own fortune.” 38 An + artful expression, which, according to the chance of war, might + be differently explained; as a manly reproof of the ingratitude + of the usurper, or as a flattering confession, that a single act + of such benefit to the state ought to atone for all the failings + of Constantius. + + 35 (return) [ Ammian. xxi. 9, 10. Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 54, + p. 279, 280. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 156, 157.] + + 36 (return) [ Julian (ad S. P. Q. Athen. p. 286) positively + asserts, that he intercepted the letters of Constantius to the + Barbarians; and Libanius as positively affirms, that he read them + on his march to the troops and the cities. Yet Ammianus (xxi. 4) + expresses himself with cool and candid hesitation, si _famæ + solius_ admittenda est fides. He specifies, however, an + intercepted letter from Vadomair to Constantius, which supposes + an intimate correspondence between them. “disciplinam non + habet.”] + + 37 (return) [ Zosimus mentions his epistles to the Athenians, the + Corinthians, and the Lacedæmonians. The substance was probably + the same, though the address was properly varied. The epistle to + the Athenians is still extant, (p. 268-287,) and has afforded + much valuable information. It deserves the praises of the Abbé de + la Bleterie, (Pref. a l’Histoire de Jovien, p. 24, 25,) and is + one of the best manifestoes to be found in any language.] + + 38 (return) [ _Auctori tuo reverentiam rogamus_. Ammian. xxi. 10. + It is amusing enough to observe the secret conflicts of the + senate between flattery and fear. See Tacit. Hist. i. 85.] + + The intelligence of the march and rapid progress of Julian was + speedily transmitted to his rival, who, by the retreat of Sapor, + had obtained some respite from the Persian war. Disguising the + anguish of his soul under the semblance of contempt, Constantius + professed his intention of returning into Europe, and of giving + chase to Julian; for he never spoke of his military expedition in + any other light than that of a hunting party. 39 In the camp of + Hierapolis, in Syria, he communicated this design to his army; + slightly mentioned the guilt and rashness of the Cæsar; and + ventured to assure them, that if the mutineers of Gaul presumed + to meet them in the field, they would be unable to sustain the + fire of their eyes, and the irresistible weight of their shout of + onset. The speech of the emperor was received with military + applause, and Theodotus, the president of the council of + Hierapolis, requested, with tears of adulation, that _his_ city + might be adorned with the head of the vanquished rebel. 40 A + chosen detachment was despatched away in post-wagons, to secure, + if it were yet possible, the pass of Succi; the recruits, the + horses, the arms, and the magazines, which had been prepared + against Sapor, were appropriated to the service of the civil war; + and the domestic victories of Constantius inspired his partisans + with the most sanguine assurances of success. The notary + Gaudentius had occupied in his name the provinces of Africa; the + subsistence of Rome was intercepted; and the distress of Julian + was increased by an unexpected event, which might have been + productive of fatal consequences. Julian had received the + submission of two legions and a cohort of archers, who were + stationed at Sirmium; but he suspected, with reason, the fidelity + of those troops which had been distinguished by the emperor; and + it was thought expedient, under the pretence of the exposed state + of the Gallic frontier, to dismiss them from the most important + scene of action. They advanced, with reluctance, as far as the + confines of Italy; but as they dreaded the length of the way, and + the savage fierceness of the Germans, they resolved, by the + instigation of one of their tribunes, to halt at Aquileia, and to + erect the banners of Constantius on the walls of that impregnable + city. The vigilance of Julian perceived at once the extent of the + mischief, and the necessity of applying an immediate remedy. By + his order, Jovinus led back a part of the army into Italy; and + the siege of Aquileia was formed with diligence, and prosecuted + with vigor. But the legionaries, who seemed to have rejected the + yoke of discipline, conducted the defence of the place with skill + and perseverance; vited the rest of Italy to imitate the example + of their courage and loyalty; and threatened the retreat of + Julian, if he should be forced to yield to the superior numbers + of the armies of the East. 41 + + 39 (return) [ Tanquam venaticiam prædam caperet: hoc enim ad + Jeniendum suorum metum subinde prædicabat. Ammian. xxii. 7.] + + 40 (return) [ See the speech and preparations in Ammianus, xxi. + 13. The vile Theodotus afterwards implored and obtained his + pardon from the merciful conqueror, who signified his wish of + diminishing his enemies and increasing the numbers of his + friends, (xxii. 14.)] + + 41 (return) [ Ammian. xxi. 7, 11, 12. He seems to describe, with + superfluous labor, the operations of the siege of Aquileia, + which, on this occasion, maintained its impregnable fame. Gregory + Nazianzen (Orat. iii. p. 68) ascribes this accidental revolt to + the wisdom of Constantius, whose assured victory he announces + with some appearance of truth. Constantio quem credebat procul + dubio fore victorem; nemo enim omnium tunc ab hac constanti + sententia discrepebat. Ammian. xxi. 7.] + + But the humanity of Julian was preserved from the cruel + alternative which he pathetically laments, of destroying or of + being himself destroyed: and the seasonable death of Constantius + delivered the Roman empire from the calamities of civil war. The + approach of winter could not detain the monarch at Antioch; and + his favorites durst not oppose his impatient desire of revenge. A + slight fever, which was perhaps occasioned by the agitation of + his spirits, was increased by the fatigues of the journey; and + Constantius was obliged to halt at the little town of Mopsucrene, + twelve miles beyond Tarsus, where he expired, after a short + illness, in the forty-fifth year of his age, and the + twenty-fourth of his reign. 42 His genuine character, which was + composed of pride and weakness, of superstition and cruelty, has + been fully displayed in the preceding narrative of civil and + ecclesiastical events. The long abuse of power rendered him a + considerable object in the eyes of his contemporaries; but as + personal merit can alone deserve the notice of posterity, the + last of the sons of Constantine may be dismissed from the world, + with the remark, that he inherited the defects, without the + abilities, of his father. Before Constantius expired, he is said + to have named Julian for his successor; nor does it seem + improbable, that his anxious concern for the fate of a young and + tender wife, whom he left with child, may have prevailed, in his + last moments, over the harsher passions of hatred and revenge. + Eusebius, and his guilty associates, made a faint attempt to + prolong the reign of the eunuchs, by the election of another + emperor; but their intrigues were rejected with disdain, by an + army which now abhorred the thought of civil discord; and two + officers of rank were instantly despatched, to assure Julian, + that every sword in the empire would be drawn for his service. + The military designs of that prince, who had formed three + different attacks against Thrace, were prevented by this + fortunate event. Without shedding the blood of his + fellow-citizens, he escaped the dangers of a doubtful conflict, + and acquired the advantages of a complete victory. Impatient to + visit the place of his birth, and the new capital of the empire, + he advanced from Naissus through the mountains of Hæmus, and the + cities of Thrace. When he reached Heraclea, at the distance of + sixty miles, all Constantinople was poured forth to receive him; + and he made his triumphal entry amidst the dutiful acclamations + of the soldiers, the people, and the senate. An innumerable + multitude pressed around him with eager respect and were perhaps + disappointed when they beheld the small stature and simple garb + of a hero, whose unexperienced youth had vanquished the + Barbarians of Germany, and who had now traversed, in a successful + career, the whole continent of Europe, from the shores of the + Atlantic to those of the Bosphorus. 43 A few days afterwards, + when the remains of the deceased emperor were landed in the + harbor, the subjects of Julian applauded the real or affected + humanity of their sovereign. On foot, without his diadem, and + clothed in a mourning habit, he accompanied the funeral as far as + the church of the Holy Apostles, where the body was deposited: + and if these marks of respect may be interpreted as a selfish + tribute to the birth and dignity of his Imperial kinsman, the + tears of Julian professed to the world that he had forgot the + injuries, and remembered only the obligations, which he had + received from Constantius. 44 As soon as the legions of Aquileia + were assured of the death of the emperor, they opened the gates + of the city, and, by the sacrifice of their guilty leaders, + obtained an easy pardon from the prudence or lenity of Julian; + who, in the thirty-second year of his age, acquired the + undisputed possession of the Roman empire. 45 + + 42 (return) [ His death and character are faithfully delineated + by Ammianus, (xxi. 14, 15, 16;) and we are authorized to despise + and detest the foolish calumny of Gregory, (Orat. iii. p. 68,) + who accuses Julian of contriving the death of his benefactor. The + private repentance of the emperor, that he had spared and + promoted Julian, (p. 69, and Orat. xxi. p. 389,) is not + improbable in itself, nor incompatible with the public verbal + testament which prudential considerations might dictate in the + last moments of his life. Note: Wagner thinks this sudden change + of sentiment altogether a fiction of the attendant courtiers and + chiefs of the army. who up to this time had been hostile to + Julian. Note in loco Ammian.—M.] + + 43 (return) [ In describing the triumph of Julian, Ammianus + (xxii. l, 2) assumes the lofty tone of an orator or poet; while + Libanius (Orat. Parent, c. 56, p. 281) sinks to the grave + simplicity of an historian.] + + 44 (return) [ The funeral of Constantius is described by + Ammianus, (xxi. 16.) Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. p. 119,) + Mamertinus, in (Panegyr. Vet. xi. 27,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. + c. lvi. p. 283,) and Philostorgius, (l. vi. c. 6, with Godefroy’s + Dissertations, p. 265.) These writers, and their followers, + Pagans, Catholics, Arians, beheld with very different eyes both + the dead and the living emperor.] + + 45 (return) [ The day and year of the birth of Julian are not + perfectly ascertained. The day is probably the sixth of November, + and the year must be either 331 or 332. Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 693. Ducange, Fam. Byzantin. p. 50. I have + preferred the earlier date.] + + + + + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part III. + + + Philosophy had instructed Julian to compare the advantages of + action and retirement; but the elevation of his birth, and the + accidents of his life, never allowed him the freedom of choice. + He might perhaps sincerely have preferred the groves of the + academy, and the society of Athens; but he was constrained, at + first by the will, and afterwards by the injustice, of + Constantius, to expose his person and fame to the dangers of + Imperial greatness; and to make himself accountable to the world, + and to posterity, for the happiness of millions. 46 Julian + recollected with terror the observation of his master Plato, 47 + that the government of our flocks and herds is always committed + to beings of a superior species; and that the conduct of nations + requires and deserves the celestial powers of the gods or of the + genii. From this principle he justly concluded, that the man who + presumes to reign, should aspire to the perfection of the divine + nature; that he should purify his soul from her mortal and + terrestrial part; that he should extinguish his appetites, + enlighten his understanding, regulate his passions, and subdue + the wild beast, which, according to the lively metaphor of + Aristotle, 48 seldom fails to ascend the throne of a despot. The + throne of Julian, which the death of Constantius fixed on an + independent basis, was the seat of reason, of virtue, and perhaps + of vanity. He despised the honors, renounced the pleasures, and + discharged with incessant diligence the duties, of his exalted + station; and there were few among his subjects who would have + consented to relieve him from the weight of the diadem, had they + been obliged to submit their time and their actions to the + rigorous laws which that philosophic emperor imposed on himself. + One of his most intimate friends, 49 who had often shared the + frugal simplicity of his table, has remarked, that his light and + sparing diet (which was usually of the vegetable kind) left his + mind and body always free and active, for the various and + important business of an author, a pontiff, a magistrate, a + general, and a prince. In one and the same day, he gave audience + to several ambassadors, and wrote, or dictated, a great number of + letters to his generals, his civil magistrates, his private + friends, and the different cities of his dominions. He listened + to the memorials which had been received, considered the subject + of the petitions, and signified his intentions more rapidly than + they could be taken in short-hand by the diligence of his + secretaries. He possessed such flexibility of thought, and such + firmness of attention, that he could employ his hand to write, + his ear to listen, and his voice to dictate; and pursue at once + three several trains of ideas without hesitation, and without + error. While his ministers reposed, the prince flew with agility + from one labor to another, and, after a hasty dinner, retired + into his library, till the public business, which he had + appointed for the evening, summoned him to interrupt the + prosecution of his studies. The supper of the emperor was still + less substantial than the former meal; his sleep was never + clouded by the fumes of indigestion; and except in the short + interval of a marriage, which was the effect of policy rather + than love, the chaste Julian never shared his bed with a female + companion. 50 He was soon awakened by the entrance of fresh + secretaries, who had slept the preceding day; and his servants + were obliged to wait alternately while their indefatigable master + allowed himself scarcely any other refreshment than the change of + occupation. The predecessors of Julian, his uncle, his brother, + and his cousin, indulged their puerile taste for the games of the + Circus, under the specious pretence of complying with the + inclinations of the people; and they frequently remained the + greatest part of the day as idle spectators, and as a part of the + splendid spectacle, till the ordinary round of twenty-four races + 51 was completely finished. On solemn festivals, Julian, who felt + and professed an unfashionable dislike to these frivolous + amusements, condescended to appear in the Circus; and after + bestowing a careless glance at five or six of the races, he + hastily withdrew with the impatience of a philosopher, who + considered every moment as lost that was not devoted to the + advantage of the public or the improvement of his own mind. 52 By + this avarice of time, he seemed to protract the short duration of + his reign; and if the dates were less securely ascertained, we + should refuse to believe, that only sixteen months elapsed + between the death of Constantius and the departure of his + successor for the Persian war. The actions of Julian can only be + preserved by the care of the historian; but the portion of his + voluminous writings, which is still extant, remains as a monument + of the application, as well as of the genius, of the emperor. The + Misopogon, the Cæsars, several of his orations, and his elaborate + work against the Christian religion, were composed in the long + nights of the two winters, the former of which he passed at + Constantinople, and the latter at Antioch. + + 46 (return) [ Julian himself (p. 253-267) has expressed these + philosophical ideas with much eloquence and some affectation, in + a very elaborate epistle to Themistius. The Abbé de la Bleterie, + (tom. ii. p. 146-193,) who has given an elegant translation, is + inclined to believe that it was the celebrated Themistius, whose + orations are still extant.] + + 47 (return) [ Julian. ad Themist. p. 258. Petavius (not. p. 95) + observes that this passage is taken from the fourth book De + Legibus; but either Julian quoted from memory, or his MSS. were + different from ours Xenophon opens the Cyropædia with a similar + reflection.] + + 48 (return) [ Aristot. ap. Julian. p. 261. The MS. of Vossius, + unsatisfied with the single beast, affords the stronger reading + of which the experience of despotism may warrant.] + + 49 (return) [ Libanius (Orat. Parentalis, c. lxxxiv. lxxxv. p. + 310, 311, 312) has given this interesting detail of the private + life of Julian. He himself (in Misopogon, p. 350) mentions his + vegetable diet, and upbraids the gross and sensual appetite of + the people of Antioch.] + + 50 (return) [ Lectulus... Vestalium toris purior, is the praise + which Mamertinus (Panegyr. Vet. xi. 13) addresses to Julian + himself. Libanius affirms, in sober peremptory language, that + Julian never knew a woman before his marriage, or after the death + of his wife, (Orat. Parent. c. lxxxviii. p. 313.) The chastity of + Julian is confirmed by the impartial testimony of Ammianus, (xxv. + 4,) and the partial silence of the Christians. Yet Julian + ironically urges the reproach of the people of Antioch, that he + _almost always_ (in Misopogon, p. 345) lay alone. This suspicious + expression is explained by the Abbé de la Bleterie (Hist. de + Jovien, tom. ii. p. 103-109) with candor and ingenuity.] + + 51 (return) [ See Salmasius ad Sueton in Claud. c. xxi. A + twenty-fifth race, or _missus_, was added, to complete the number + of one hundred chariots, four of which, the four colors, started + each heat. + + Centum quadrijugos agitabo ad flumina currus. + + It appears, that they ran five or seven times round the _Meta_ + (Sueton. in Domitian. c. 4;) and (from the measure of the Circus + Maximus at Rome, the Hippodrome at Constantinople, &c.) it might + be about a four mile course.] + + 52 (return) [ Julian. in Misopogon, p. 340. Julius Cæsar had + offended the Roman people by reading his despatches during the + actual race. Augustus indulged their taste, or his own, by his + constant attention to the important business of the Circus, for + which he professed the warmest inclination. Sueton. in August. c. + xlv.] + + The reformation of the Imperial court was one of the first and + most necessary acts of the government of Julian. 53 Soon after + his entrance into the palace of Constantinople, he had occasion + for the service of a barber. An officer, magnificently dressed, + immediately presented himself. “It is a barber,” exclaimed the + prince, with affected surprise, “that I want, and not a + receiver-general of the finances.” 54 He questioned the man + concerning the profits of his employment and was informed, that + besides a large salary, and some valuable perquisites, he enjoyed + a daily allowance for twenty servants, and as many horses. A + thousand barbers, a thousand cup-bearers, a thousand cooks, were + distributed in the several offices of luxury; and the number of + eunuchs could be compared only with the insects of a summer’s + day. The monarch who resigned to his subjects the superiority of + merit and virtue, was distinguished by the oppressive + magnificence of his dress, his table, his buildings, and his + train. The stately palaces erected by Constantine and his sons, + were decorated with many colored marbles, and ornaments of massy + gold. The most exquisite dainties were procured, to gratify their + pride, rather than their taste; birds of the most distant + climates, fish from the most remote seas, fruits out of their + natural season, winter roses, and summer snows. 56 The domestic + crowd of the palace surpassed the expense of the legions; yet the + smallest part of this costly multitude was subservient to the + use, or even to the splendor, of the throne. The monarch was + disgraced, and the people was injured, by the creation and sale + of an infinite number of obscure, and even titular employments; + and the most worthless of mankind might purchase the privilege of + being maintained, without the necessity of labor, from the public + revenue. The waste of an enormous household, the increase of fees + and perquisites, which were soon claimed as a lawful debt, and + the bribes which they extorted from those who feared their + enmity, or solicited their favor, suddenly enriched these haughty + menials. They abused their fortune, without considering their + past, or their future, condition; and their rapine and venality + could be equalled only by the extravagance of their dissipations. + Their silken robes were embroidered with gold, their tables were + served with delicacy and profusion; the houses which they built + for their own use, would have covered the farm of an ancient + consul; and the most honorable citizens were obliged to dismount + from their horses, and respectfully to salute a eunuch whom they + met on the public highway. The luxury of the palace excited the + contempt and indignation of Julian, who usually slept on the + ground, who yielded with reluctance to the indispensable calls of + nature; and who placed his vanity, not in emulating, but in + despising, the pomp of royalty. + + 53 (return) [ The reformation of the palace is described by + Ammianus, (xxii. 4,) Libanius, Orat. (Parent. c. lxii. p. 288, + &c.,) Mamertinus, in Panegyr. (Vet. xi. 11,) Socrates, (l. iii. + c. l.,) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 24.)] + + 54 (return) [ Ego non _rationalem_ jussi sed tonsorem acciri. + Zonaras uses the less natural image of a senator. Yet an officer + of the finances, who was satisfied with wealth, might desire and + obtain the honors of the senate.] + + 56 (return) [ The expressions of Mamertinus are lively and + forcible. Quis etiam prandiorum et cænarum laboratas magnitudines + Romanus populus sensit; cum quæsitissimæ dapes non gustu sed + difficultatibus æstimarentur; miracula avium, longinqui maris + pisces, aheni temporis poma, æstivæ nives, hybernæ rosæ] + + By the total extirpation of a mischief which was magnified even + beyond its real extent, he was impatient to relieve the distress, + and to appease the murmurs of the people; who support with less + uneasiness the weight of taxes, if they are convinced that the + fruits of their industry are appropriated to the service of the + state. But in the execution of this salutary work, Julian is + accused of proceeding with too much haste and inconsiderate + severity. By a single edict, he reduced the palace of + Constantinople to an immense desert, and dismissed with ignominy + the whole train of slaves and dependants, 57 without providing + any just, or at least benevolent, exceptions, for the age, the + services, or the poverty, of the faithful domestics of the + Imperial family. Such indeed was the temper of Julian, who seldom + recollected the fundamental maxim of Aristotle, that true virtue + is placed at an equal distance between the opposite vices. + + The splendid and effeminate dress of the Asiatics, the curls and + paint, the collars and bracelets, which had appeared so + ridiculous in the person of Constantine, were consistently + rejected by his philosophic successor. But with the fopperies, + Julian affected to renounce the decencies of dress; and seemed to + value himself for his neglect of the laws of cleanliness. In a + satirical performance, which was designed for the public eye, the + emperor descants with pleasure, and even with pride, on the + length of his nails, and the inky blackness of his hands; + protests, that although the greatest part of his body was covered + with hair, the use of the razor was confined to his head alone; + and celebrates, with visible complacency, the shaggy and + _populous_ 58 beard, which he fondly cherished, after the example + of the philosophers of Greece. Had Julian consulted the simple + dictates of reason, the first magistrate of the Romans would have + scorned the affectation of Diogenes, as well as that of Darius. + + 57 (return) [ Yet Julian himself was accused of bestowing whole + towns on the eunuchs, (Orat. vii. against Polyclet. p. 117-127.) + Libanius contents himself with a cold but positive denial of the + fact, which seems indeed to belong more properly to Constantius. + This charge, however, may allude to some unknown circumstance.] + + 58 (return) [ In the Misopogon (p. 338, 339) he draws a very + singular picture of himself, and the following words are + strangely characteristic. The friends of the Abbé de la Bleterie + adjured him, in the name of the French nation, not to translate + this passage, so offensive to their delicacy, (Hist. de Jovien, + tom. ii. p. 94.) Like him, I have contented myself with a + transient allusion; but the little animal which Julian _names_, + is a beast familiar to man, and signifies love.] + + But the work of public reformation would have remained imperfect, + if Julian had only corrected the abuses, without punishing the + crimes, of his predecessor’s reign. “We are now delivered,” says + he, in a familiar letter to one of his intimate friends, “we are + now surprisingly delivered from the voracious jaws of the Hydra. + 59 I do not mean to apply the epithet to my brother Constantius. + He is no more; may the earth lie light on his head! But his + artful and cruel favorites studied to deceive and exasperate a + prince, whose natural mildness cannot be praised without some + efforts of adulation. It is not, however, my intention, that even + those men should be oppressed: they are accused, and they shall + enjoy the benefit of a fair and impartial trial.” To conduct this + inquiry, Julian named six judges of the highest rank in the state + and army; and as he wished to escape the reproach of condemning + his personal enemies, he fixed this extraordinary tribunal at + Chalcedon, on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus; and transferred + to the commissioners an absolute power to pronounce and execute + their final sentence, without delay, and without appeal. The + office of president was exercised by the venerable præfect of the + East, a _second_ Sallust, 60 whose virtues conciliated the esteem + of Greek sophists, and of Christian bishops. He was assisted by + the eloquent Mamertinus, 61 one of the consuls elect, whose merit + is loudly celebrated by the doubtful evidence of his own + applause. But the civil wisdom of two magistrates was + overbalanced by the ferocious violence of four generals, Nevitta, + Agilo, Jovinus, and Arbetio. Arbetio, whom the public would have + seen with less surprise at the bar than on the bench, was + supposed to possess the secret of the commission; the armed and + angry leaders of the Jovian and Herculian bands encompassed the + tribunal; and the judges were alternately swayed by the laws of + justice, and by the clamors of faction. 62 + + 59 (return) [ Julian, epist. xxiii. p. 389. He uses the words in + writing to his friend Hermogenes, who, like himself, was + conversant with the Greek poets.] + + 60 (return) [ The two Sallusts, the præfect of Gaul, and the + præfect of the East, must be carefully distinguished, (Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 696.) I have used the surname of + _Secundus_, as a convenient epithet. The second Sallust extorted + the esteem of the Christians themselves; and Gregory Nazianzen, + who condemned his religion, has celebrated his virtues, (Orat. + iii. p. 90.) See a curious note of the Abbé de la Bleterie, Vie + de Julien, p. 363. Note: Gibbonus secundum habet pro numero, quod + tamen est viri agnomen Wagner, nota in loc. Amm. It is not a + mistake; it is rather an error in taste. Wagner inclines to + transfer the chief guilt to Arbetio.—M.] + + 61 (return) [ Mamertinus praises the emperor (xi. l.) for + bestowing the offices of Treasurer and Præfect on a man of + wisdom, firmness, integrity, &c., like himself. Yet Ammianus + ranks him (xxi. l.) among the ministers of Julian, quorum merita + norat et fidem.] + + 62 (return) [ The proceedings of this chamber of justice are + related by Ammianus, (xxii. 3,) and praised by Libanius, (Orat. + Parent. c. 74, p. 299, 300.)] + + The chamberlain Eusebius, who had so long abused the favor of + Constantius, expiated, by an ignominious death, the insolence, + the corruption, and cruelty of his servile reign. The executions + of Paul and Apodemius (the former of whom was burnt alive) were + accepted as an inadequate atonement by the widows and orphans of + so many hundred Romans, whom those legal tyrants had betrayed and + murdered. But justice herself (if we may use the pathetic + expression of Ammianus) 63 appeared to weep over the fate of + Ursulus, the treasurer of the empire; and his blood accused the + ingratitude of Julian, whose distress had been seasonably + relieved by the intrepid liberality of that honest minister. The + rage of the soldiers, whom he had provoked by his indiscretion, + was the cause and the excuse of his death; and the emperor, + deeply wounded by his own reproaches and those of the public, + offered some consolation to the family of Ursulus, by the + restitution of his confiscated fortunes. Before the end of the + year in which they had been adorned with the ensigns of the + prefecture and consulship, 64 Taurus and Florentius were reduced + to implore the clemency of the inexorable tribunal of Chalcedon. + The former was banished to Vercellæ in Italy, and a sentence of + death was pronounced against the latter. A wise prince should + have rewarded the crime of Taurus: the faithful minister, when he + was no longer able to oppose the progress of a rebel, had taken + refuge in the court of his benefactor and his lawful sovereign. + But the guilt of Florentius justified the severity of the judges; + and his escape served to display the magnanimity of Julian, who + nobly checked the interested diligence of an informer, and + refused to learn what place concealed the wretched fugitive from + his just resentment. 65 Some months after the tribunal of + Chalcedon had been dissolved, the prætorian vicegerent of Africa, + the notary Gaudentius, and Artemius 66 duke of Egypt, were + executed at Antioch. Artemius had reigned the cruel and corrupt + tyrant of a great province; Gaudentius had long practised the + arts of calumny against the innocent, the virtuous, and even the + person of Julian himself. Yet the circumstances of their trial + and condemnation were so unskillfully managed, that these wicked + men obtained, in the public opinion, the glory of suffering for + the obstinate loyalty with which they had supported the cause of + Constantius. The rest of his servants were protected by a general + act of oblivion; and they were left to enjoy with impunity the + bribes which they had accepted, either to defend the oppressed, + or to oppress the friendless. This measure, which, on the + soundest principles of policy, may deserve our approbation, was + executed in a manner which seemed to degrade the majesty of the + throne. Julian was tormented by the importunities of a multitude, + particularly of Egyptians, who loudly redemanded the gifts which + they had imprudently or illegally bestowed; he foresaw the + endless prosecution of vexatious suits; and he engaged a promise, + which ought always to have been sacred, that if they would repair + to Chalcedon, he would meet them in person, to hear and determine + their complaints. But as soon as they were landed, he issued an + absolute order, which prohibited the watermen from transporting + any Egyptian to Constantinople; and thus detained his + disappointed clients on the Asiatic shore till, their patience + and money being utterly exhausted, they were obliged to return + with indignant murmurs to their native country. 67 + + 63 (return) [ Ursuli vero necem ipsa mihi videtur flesse + justitia. Libanius, who imputes his death to the soldiers, + attempts to criminate the court of the largesses.] + + 64 (return) [ Such respect was still entertained for the + venerable names of the commonwealth, that the public was + surprised and scandalized to hear Taurus summoned as a criminal + under the consulship of Taurus. The summons of his colleague + Florentius was probably delayed till the commencement of the + ensuing year.] + + 65 (return) [ Ammian. xx. 7.] + + 66 (return) [ For the guilt and punishment of Artemius, see + Julian (Epist. x. p. 379) and Ammianus, (xxii. 6, and Vales, ad + hoc.) The merit of Artemius, who demolished temples, and was put + to death by an apostate, has tempted the Greek and Latin churches + to honor him as a martyr. But as ecclesiastical history attests + that he was not only a tyrant, but an Arian, it is not altogether + easy to justify this indiscreet promotion. Tillemont, Mém. + Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1319.] + + 67 (return) [ See Ammian. xxii. 6, and Vales, ad locum; and the + Codex Theodosianus, l. ii. tit. xxxix. leg. i.; and Godefroy’s + Commentary, tom. i. p. 218, ad locum.] + + + + + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part IV. + + + The numerous army of spies, of agents, and informers enlisted by + Constantius to secure the repose of one man, and to interrupt + that of millions, was immediately disbanded by his generous + successor. Julian was slow in his suspicions, and gentle in his + punishments; and his contempt of treason was the result of + judgment, of vanity, and of courage. Conscious of superior merit, + he was persuaded that few among his subjects would dare to meet + him in the field, to attempt his life, or even to seat themselves + on his vacant throne. The philosopher could excuse the hasty + sallies of discontent; and the hero could despise the ambitious + projects which surpassed the fortune or the abilities of the rash + conspirators. A citizen of Ancyra had prepared for his own use a + purple garment; and this indiscreet action, which, under the + reign of Constantius, would have been considered as a capital + offence, 68 was reported to Julian by the officious importunity + of a private enemy. The monarch, after making some inquiry into + the rank and character of his rival, despatched the informer with + a present of a pair of purple slippers, to complete the + magnificence of his Imperial habit. A more dangerous conspiracy + was formed by ten of the domestic guards, who had resolved to + assassinate Julian in the field of exercise near Antioch. Their + intemperance revealed their guilt; and they were conducted in + chains to the presence of their injured sovereign, who, after a + lively representation of the wickedness and folly of their + enterprise, instead of a death of torture, which they deserved + and expected, pronounced a sentence of exile against the two + principal offenders. The only instance in which Julian seemed to + depart from his accustomed clemency, was the execution of a rash + youth, who, with a feeble hand, had aspired to seize the reins of + empire. But that youth was the son of Marcellus, the general of + cavalry, who, in the first campaign of the Gallic war, had + deserted the standard of the Cæsar and the republic. Without + appearing to indulge his personal resentment, Julian might easily + confound the crime of the son and of the father; but he was + reconciled by the distress of Marcellus, and the liberality of + the emperor endeavored to heal the wound which had been inflicted + by the hand of justice. 69 + + 68 (return) [ The president Montesquieu (Considerations sur la + Grandeur, &c., des Romains, c. xiv. in his works, tom. iii. p. + 448, 449,) excuses this minute and absurd tyranny, by supposing + that actions the most indifferent in our eyes might excite, in a + Roman mind, the idea of guilt and danger. This strange apology is + supported by a strange misapprehension of the English laws, “chez + une nation.... où il est défendu de boire à la santé d’une + certaine personne.”] + + 69 (return) [ The clemency of Julian, and the conspiracy which + was formed against his life at Antioch, are described by Ammianus + (xxii. 9, 10, and Vales, ad loc.) and Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. + 99, p. 323.)] + + Julian was not insensible of the advantages of freedom. 70 From + his studies he had imbibed the spirit of ancient sages and + heroes; his life and fortunes had depended on the caprice of a + tyrant; and when he ascended the throne, his pride was sometimes + mortified by the reflection, that the slaves who would not dare + to censure his defects were not worthy to applaud his virtues. 71 + He sincerely abhorred the system of Oriental despotism, which + Diocletian, Constantine, and the patient habits of fourscore + years, had established in the empire. A motive of superstition + prevented the execution of the design, which Julian had + frequently meditated, of relieving his head from the weight of a + costly diadem; 72 but he absolutely refused the title of + _Dominus_, or _Lord_, 73 a word which was grown so familiar to + the ears of the Romans, that they no longer remembered its + servile and humiliating origin. The office, or rather the name, + of consul, was cherished by a prince who contemplated with + reverence the ruins of the republic; and the same behavior which + had been assumed by the prudence of Augustus was adopted by + Julian from choice and inclination. On the calends of January, at + break of day, the new consuls, Mamertinus and Nevitta, hastened + to the palace to salute the emperor. As soon as he was informed + of their approach, he leaped from his throne, eagerly advanced to + meet them, and compelled the blushing magistrates to receive the + demonstrations of his affected humility. From the palace they + proceeded to the senate. The emperor, on foot, marched before + their litters; and the gazing multitude admired the image of + ancient times, or secretly blamed a conduct, which, in their + eyes, degraded the majesty of the purple. 74 But the behavior of + Julian was uniformly supported. During the games of the Circus, + he had, imprudently or designedly, performed the manumission of a + slave in the presence of the consul. The moment he was reminded + that he had trespassed on the jurisdiction of _another_ + magistrate, he condemned himself to pay a fine of ten pounds of + gold; and embraced this public occasion of declaring to the + world, that he was subject, like the rest of his fellow-citizens, + to the laws, 75 and even to the forms, of the republic. The + spirit of his administration, and his regard for the place of his + nativity, induced Julian to confer on the senate of + Constantinople the same honors, privileges, and authority, which + were still enjoyed by the senate of ancient Rome. 76 A legal + fiction was introduced, and gradually established, that one half + of the national council had migrated into the East; and the + despotic successors of Julian, accepting the title of Senators, + acknowledged themselves the members of a respectable body, which + was permitted to represent the majesty of the Roman name. From + Constantinople, the attention of the monarch was extended to the + municipal senates of the provinces. He abolished, by repeated + edicts, the unjust and pernicious exemptions which had withdrawn + so many idle citizens from the services of their country; and by + imposing an equal distribution of public duties, he restored the + strength, the splendor, or, according to the glowing expression + of Libanius, 77 the soul of the expiring cities of his empire. + The venerable age of Greece excited the most tender compassion in + the mind of Julian, which kindled into rapture when he + recollected the gods, the heroes, and the men superior to heroes + and to gods, who have bequeathed to the latest posterity the + monuments of their genius, or the example of their virtues. He + relieved the distress, and restored the beauty, of the cities of + Epirus and Peloponnesus. 78 Athens acknowledged him for her + benefactor; Argos, for her deliverer. The pride of Corinth, again + rising from her ruins with the honors of a Roman colony, exacted + a tribute from the adjacent republics, for the purpose of + defraying the games of the Isthmus, which were celebrated in the + amphitheatre with the hunting of bears and panthers. From this + tribute the cities of Elis, of Delphi, and of Argos, which had + inherited from their remote ancestors the sacred office of + perpetuating the Olympic, the Pythian, and the Nemean games, + claimed a just exemption. The immunity of Elis and Delphi was + respected by the Corinthians; but the poverty of Argos tempted + the insolence of oppression; and the feeble complaints of its + deputies were silenced by the decree of a provincial magistrate, + who seems to have consulted only the interest of the capital in + which he resided. Seven years after this sentence, Julian 79 + allowed the cause to be referred to a superior tribunal; and his + eloquence was interposed, most probably with success, in the + defence of a city, which had been the royal seat of Agamemnon, 80 + and had given to Macedonia a race of kings and conquerors. 81 + + 70 (return) [ According to some, says Aristotle, (as he is quoted + by Julian ad Themist. p. 261,) the form of absolute government is + contrary to nature. Both the prince and the philosopher choose, + how ever to involve this eternal truth in artful and labored + obscurity.] + + 71 (return) [ That sentiment is expressed almost in the words of + Julian himself. Ammian. xxii. 10.] + + 72 (return) [ Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 95, p. 320,) who + mentions the wish and design of Julian, insinuates, in mysterious + language that the emperor was restrained by some particular + revelation.] + + 73 (return) [ Julian in Misopogon, p. 343. As he never abolished, + by any public law, the proud appellations of _Despot_, or + _Dominus_, they are still extant on his medals, (Ducange, Fam. + Byzantin. p. 38, 39;) and the private displeasure which he + affected to express, only gave a different tone to the servility + of the court. The Abbé de la Bleterie (Hist. de Jovien, tom. ii. + p. 99-102) has curiously traced the origin and progress of the + word _Dominus_ under the Imperial government.] + + 74 (return) [ Ammian. xxii. 7. The consul Mamertinus (in Panegyr. + Vet. xi. 28, 29, 30) celebrates the auspicious day, like an + elegant slave, astonished and intoxicated by the condescension of + his master.] + + 75 (return) [ Personal satire was condemned by the laws of the + twelve tables: Si male condiderit in quem quis carmina, jus est + Judiciumque—Horat. Sat. ii. 1. 82. ——Julian (in Misopogon, p. + 337) owns himself subject to the law; and the Abbé de la Bleterie + (Hist. de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 92) has eagerly embraced a + declaration so agreeable to his own system, and, indeed, to the + true spirit of the Imperial constitution.] + + 76 (return) [ Zosimus, l. iii. p. 158.] + + 77 (return) [ See Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 71, p. 296,) + Ammianus, (xxii. 9,) and the Theodosian Code (l. xii. tit. i. + leg. 50-55.) with Godefroy’s Commentary, (tom. iv. p. 390-402.) + Yet the whole subject of the _Curia_, notwithstanding very ample + materials, still remains the most obscure in the legal history of + the empire.] + + 78 (return) [ Quæ paulo ante arida et siti anhelantia visebantur, + ea nunc perlui, mundari, madere; Fora, Deambulacra, Gymnasia, + lætis et gaudentibus populis frequentari; dies festos, et + celebrari veteres, et novos in honorem principis consecrari, + (Mamertin. xi. 9.) He particularly restored the city of Nicopolis + and the Actiac games, which had been instituted by Augustus.] + + 79 (return) [ Julian. Epist. xxxv. p. 407-411. This epistle, + which illustrates the declining age of Greece, is omitted by the + Abbé de la Bleterie, and strangely disfigured by the Latin + translator, who, by rendering _tributum_, and _populus_, directly + contradicts the sense of the original.] + + 80 (return) [ He reigned in Mycenæ at the distance of fifty + stadia, or six miles from Argos: but these cities, which + alternately flourished, are confounded by the Greek poets. + Strabo, l. viii. p. 579, edit. Amstel. 1707.] + + 81 (return) [ Marsham, Canon. Chron. p. 421. This pedigree from + Temenus and Hercules may be suspicious; yet it was allowed, after + a strict inquiry, by the judges of the Olympic games, (Herodot. + l. v. c. 22,) at a time when the Macedonian kings were obscure + and unpopular in Greece. When the Achæan league declared against + Philip, it was thought decent that the deputies of Argos should + retire, (T. Liv. xxxii. 22.)] + + The laborious administration of military and civil affairs, which + were multiplied in proportion to the extent of the empire, + exercised the abilities of Julian; but he frequently assumed the + two characters of Orator 82 and of Judge, 83 which are almost + unknown to the modern sovereigns of Europe. The arts of + persuasion, so diligently cultivated by the first Cæsars, were + neglected by the military ignorance and Asiatic pride of their + successors; and if they condescended to harangue the soldiers, + whom they feared, they treated with silent disdain the senators, + whom they despised. The assemblies of the senate, which + Constantius had avoided, were considered by Julian as the place + where he could exhibit, with the most propriety, the maxims of a + republican, and the talents of a rhetorician. He alternately + practised, as in a school of declamation, the several modes of + praise, of censure, of exhortation; and his friend Libanius has + remarked, that the study of Homer taught him to imitate the + simple, concise style of Menelaus, the copiousness of Nestor, + whose words descended like the flakes of a winter’s snow, or the + pathetic and forcible eloquence of Ulysses. The functions of a + judge, which are sometimes incompatible with those of a prince, + were exercised by Julian, not only as a duty, but as an + amusement; and although he might have trusted the integrity and + discernment of his Prætorian præfects, he often placed himself by + their side on the seat of judgment. The acute penetration of his + mind was agreeably occupied in detecting and defeating the + chicanery of the advocates, who labored to disguise the truths of + facts, and to pervert the sense of the laws. He sometimes forgot + the gravity of his station, asked indiscreet or unseasonable + questions, and betrayed, by the loudness of his voice, and the + agitation of his body, the earnest vehemence with which he + maintained his opinion against the judges, the advocates, and + their clients. But his knowledge of his own temper prompted him + to encourage, and even to solicit, the reproof of his friends and + ministers; and whenever they ventured to oppose the irregular + sallies of his passions, the spectators could observe the shame, + as well as the gratitude, of their monarch. The decrees of Julian + were almost always founded on the principles of justice; and he + had the firmness to resist the two most dangerous temptations, + which assault the tribunal of a sovereign, under the specious + forms of compassion and equity. He decided the merits of the + cause without weighing the circumstances of the parties; and the + poor, whom he wished to relieve, were condemned to satisfy the + just demands of a wealthy and noble adversary. He carefully + distinguished the judge from the legislator; 84 and though he + meditated a necessary reformation of the Roman jurisprudence, he + pronounced sentence according to the strict and literal + interpretation of those laws, which the magistrates were bound to + execute, and the subjects to obey. + + 82 (return) [ His eloquence is celebrated by Libanius, (Orat. + Parent. c. 75, 76, p. 300, 301,) who distinctly mentions the + orators of Homer. Socrates (l. iii. c. 1) has rashly asserted + that Julian was the only prince, since Julius Cæsar, who + harangued the senate. All the predecessors of Nero, (Tacit. + Annal. xiii. 3,) and many of his successors, possessed the + faculty of speaking in public; and it might be proved by various + examples, that they frequently exercised it in the senate.] + + 83 (return) [ Ammianus (xxi. 10) has impartially stated the + merits and defects of his judicial proceedings. Libanius (Orat. + Parent. c. 90, 91, p. 315, &c.) has seen only the fair side, and + his picture, if it flatters the person, expresses at least the + duties, of the judge. Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. p. 120,) who + suppresses the virtues, and exaggerates even the venial faults of + the Apostate, triumphantly asks, whether such a judge was fit to + be seated between Minos and Rhadamanthus, in the Elysian Fields.] + + 84 (return) [ Of the laws which Julian enacted in a reign of + sixteen months, fifty-four have been admitted into the codes of + Theodosius and Justinian. (Gothofred. Chron. Legum, p. 64-67.) + The Abbé de la Bleterie (tom. ii. p. 329-336) has chosen one of + these laws to give an idea of Julian’s Latin style, which is + forcible and elaborate, but less pure than his Greek.] + + The generality of princes, if they were stripped of their purple, + and cast naked into the world, would immediately sink to the + lowest rank of society, without a hope of emerging from their + obscurity. But the personal merit of Julian was, in some measure, + independent of his fortune. Whatever had been his choice of life, + by the force of intrepid courage, lively wit, and intense + application, he would have obtained, or at least he would have + deserved, the highest honors of his profession; and Julian might + have raised himself to the rank of minister, or general, of the + state in which he was born a private citizen. If the jealous + caprice of power had disappointed his expectations, if he had + prudently declined the paths of greatness, the employment of the + same talents in studious solitude would have placed beyond the + reach of kings his present happiness and his immortal fame. When + we inspect, with minute, or perhaps malevolent attention, the + portrait of Julian, something seems wanting to the grace and + perfection of the whole figure. His genius was less powerful and + sublime than that of Cæsar; nor did he possess the consummate + prudence of Augustus. The virtues of Trajan appear more steady + and natural, and the philosophy of Marcus is more simple and + consistent. Yet Julian sustained adversity with firmness, and + prosperity with moderation. After an interval of one hundred and + twenty years from the death of Alexander Severus, the Romans + beheld an emperor who made no distinction between his duties and + his pleasures; who labored to relieve the distress, and to revive + the spirit, of his subjects; and who endeavored always to connect + authority with merit, and happiness with virtue. Even faction, + and religious faction, was constrained to acknowledge the + superiority of his genius, in peace as well as in war, and to + confess, with a sigh, that the apostate Julian was a lover of his + country, and that he deserved the empire of the world. 85 + + 85 (return) [ + + ... Ductor fortissimus armis; Conditor et legum celeberrimus; ore + manûque Consultor patriæ; sed non consultor habendæ Religionis; + amans tercentum millia Divûm. Pertidus ille Deo, sed non et + perfidus orbi. Prudent. Apotheosis, 450, &c. + + The consciousness of a generous sentiment seems to have raised + the Christian post above his usual mediocrity.] + + + + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part I. + + The Religion Of Julian.—Universal Toleration.—He Attempts To + Restore And Reform The Pagan Worship—To Rebuild The Temple Of + Jerusalem—His Artful Persecution Of The Christians.—Mutual Zeal + And Injustice. + + + The character of Apostate has injured the reputation of Julian; + and the enthusiasm which clouded his virtues has exaggerated the + real and apparent magnitude of his faults. Our partial ignorance + may represent him as a philosophic monarch, who studied to + protect, with an equal hand, the religious factions of the + empire; and to allay the theological fever which had inflamed the + minds of the people, from the edicts of Diocletian to the exile + of Athanasius. A more accurate view of the character and conduct + of Julian will remove this favorable prepossession for a prince + who did not escape the general contagion of the times. We enjoy + the singular advantage of comparing the pictures which have been + delineated by his fondest admirers and his implacable enemies. + The actions of Julian are faithfully related by a judicious and + candid historian, the impartial spectator of his life and death. + The unanimous evidence of his contemporaries is confirmed by the + public and private declarations of the emperor himself; and his + various writings express the uniform tenor of his religious + sentiments, which policy would have prompted him to dissemble + rather than to affect. A devout and sincere attachment for the + gods of Athens and Rome constituted the ruling passion of Julian; + 1 the powers of an enlightened understanding were betrayed and + corrupted by the influence of superstitious prejudice; and the + phantoms which existed only in the mind of the emperor had a real + and pernicious effect on the government of the empire. The + vehement zeal of the Christians, who despised the worship, and + overturned the altars of those fabulous deities, engaged their + votary in a state of irreconcilable hostility with a very + numerous party of his subjects; and he was sometimes tempted by + the desire of victory, or the shame of a repulse, to violate the + laws of prudence, and even of justice. The triumph of the party, + which he deserted and opposed, has fixed a stain of infamy on the + name of Julian; and the unsuccessful apostate has been + overwhelmed with a torrent of pious invectives, of which the + signal was given by the sonorous trumpet 2 of Gregory Nazianzen. + 3 The interesting nature of the events which were crowded into + the short reign of this active emperor, deserve a just and + circumstantial narrative. His motives, his counsels, and his + actions, as far as they are connected with the history of + religion, will be the subject of the present chapter. + + 1 (return) [ I shall transcribe some of his own expressions from + a short religious discourse which the Imperial pontiff composed + to censure the bold impiety of a Cynic. Orat. vii. p. 212. The + variety and copiousness of the Greek tongue seem inadequate to + the fervor of his devotion.] + + 2 (return) [ The orator, with some eloquence, much enthusiasm, + and more vanity, addresses his discourse to heaven and earth, to + men and angels, to the living and the dead; and above all, to the + great Constantius, an odd Pagan expression. He concludes with a + bold assurance, that he has erected a monument not less durable, + and much more portable, than the columns of Hercules. See Greg. + Nazianzen, Orat. iii. p. 50, iv. p. 134.] + + 3 (return) [ See this long invective, which has been + injudiciously divided into two orations in Gregory’s works, tom. + i. p. 49-134, Paris, 1630. It was published by Gregory and his + friend Basil, (iv. p. 133,) about six months after the death of + Julian, when his remains had been carried to Tarsus, (iv. p. + 120;) but while Jovian was still on the throne, (iii. p. 54, iv. + p. 117) I have derived much assistance from a French version and + remarks, printed at Lyons, 1735.] + + The cause of his strange and fatal apostasy may be derived from + the early period of his life, when he was left an orphan in the + hands of the murderers of his family. The names of Christ and of + Constantius, the ideas of slavery and of religion, were soon + associated in a youthful imagination, which was susceptible of + the most lively impressions. The care of his infancy was + intrusted to Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, 4 who was related to + him on the side of his mother; and till Julian reached the + twentieth year of his age, he received from his Christian + preceptors the education, not of a hero, but of a saint. The + emperor, less jealous of a heavenly than of an earthly crown, + contented himself with the imperfect character of a catechumen, + while he bestowed the advantages of baptism 5 on the nephews of + Constantine. 6 They were even admitted to the inferior offices of + the ecclesiastical order; and Julian publicly read the Holy + Scriptures in the church of Nicomedia. The study of religion, + which they assiduously cultivated, appeared to produce the + fairest fruits of faith and devotion. 7 They prayed, they fasted, + they distributed alms to the poor, gifts to the clergy, and + oblations to the tombs of the martyrs; and the splendid monument + of St. Mamas, at Cæsarea, was erected, or at least was + undertaken, by the joint labor of Gallus and Julian. 8 They + respectfully conversed with the bishops, who were eminent for + superior sanctity, and solicited the benediction of the monks and + hermits, who had introduced into Cappadocia the voluntary + hardships of the ascetic life. 9 As the two princes advanced + towards the years of manhood, they discovered, in their religious + sentiments, the difference of their characters. The dull and + obstinate understanding of Gallus embraced, with implicit zeal, + the doctrines of Christianity; which never influenced his + conduct, or moderated his passions. The mild disposition of the + younger brother was less repugnant to the precepts of the gospel; + and his active curiosity might have been gratified by a + theological system, which explains the mysterious essence of the + Deity, and opens the boundless prospect of invisible and future + worlds. But the independent spirit of Julian refused to yield the + passive and unresisting obedience which was required, in the name + of religion, by the haughty ministers of the church. Their + speculative opinions were imposed as positive laws, and guarded + by the terrors of eternal punishments; but while they prescribed + the rigid formulary of the thoughts, the words, and the actions + of the young prince; whilst they silenced his objections, and + severely checked the freedom of his inquiries, they secretly + provoked his impatient genius to disclaim the authority of his + ecclesiastical guides. He was educated in the Lesser Asia, amidst + the scandals of the Arian controversy. 10 The fierce contests of + the Eastern bishops, the incessant alterations of their creeds, + and the profane motives which appeared to actuate their conduct, + insensibly strengthened the prejudice of Julian, that they + neither understood nor believed the religion for which they so + fiercely contended. Instead of listening to the proofs of + Christianity with that favorable attention which adds weight to + the most respectable evidence, he heard with suspicion, and + disputed with obstinacy and acuteness, the doctrines for which he + already entertained an invincible aversion. Whenever the young + princes were directed to compose declamations on the subject of + the prevailing controversies, Julian always declared himself the + advocate of Paganism; under the specious excuse that, in the + defence of the weaker cause, his learning and ingenuity might be + more advantageously exercised and displayed. + + 4 (return) [ Nicomediæ ab Eusebio educatus Episcopo, quem genere + longius contingebat, (Ammian. xxii. 9.) Julian never expresses + any gratitude towards that Arian prelate; but he celebrates his + preceptor, the eunuch Mardonius, and describes his mode of + education, which inspired his pupil with a passionate admiration + for the genius, and perhaps the religion of Homer. Misopogon, p. + 351, 352.] + + 5 (return) [ Greg. Naz. iii. p. 70. He labored to effect that + holy mark in the blood, perhaps of a Taurobolium. Baron. Annal. + Eccles. A. D. 361, No. 3, 4.] + + 6 (return) [ Julian himself (Epist. li. p. 454) assures the + Alexandrians that he had been a Christian (he must mean a sincere + one) till the twentieth year of his age.] + + 7 (return) [ See his Christian, and even ecclesiastical + education, in Gregory, (iii. p. 58,) Socrates, (l. iii. c. 1,) + and Sozomen, (l. v. c. 2.) He escaped very narrowly from being a + bishop, and perhaps a saint.] + + 8 (return) [ The share of the work which had been allotted to + Gallus, was prosecuted with vigor and success; but the earth + obstinately rejected and subverted the structures which were + imposed by the sacrilegious hand of Julian. Greg. iii. p. 59, 60, + 61. Such a partial earthquake, attested by many living + spectators, would form one of the clearest miracles in + ecclesiastical story.] + + 9 (return) [ The _philosopher_ (Fragment, p. 288,) ridicules the + iron chains, &c, of these solitary fanatics, (see Tillemont, Mém. + Eccles. tom. ix. p. 661, 632,) who had forgot that man is by + nature a gentle and social animal. The _Pagan_ supposes, that + because they had renounced the gods, they were possessed and + tormented by evil dæmons.] + + 10 (return) [ See Julian apud Cyril, l. vi. p. 206, l. viii. p. + 253, 262. “You persecute,” says he, “those heretics who do not + mourn the dead man precisely in the way which you approve.” He + shows himself a tolerable theologian; but he maintains that the + Christian Trinity is not derived from the doctrine of Paul, of + Jesus, or of Moses.] + + As soon as Gallus was invested with the honors of the purple, + Julian was permitted to breathe the air of freedom, of + literature, and of Paganism. 11 The crowd of sophists, who were + attracted by the taste and liberality of their royal pupil, had + formed a strict alliance between the learning and the religion of + Greece; and the poems of Homer, instead of being admired as the + original productions of human genius, were seriously ascribed to + the heavenly inspiration of Apollo and the muses. The deities of + Olympus, as they are painted by the immortal bard, imprint + themselves on the minds which are the least addicted to + superstitious credulity. Our familiar knowledge of their names + and characters, their forms and attributes, _seems_ to bestow on + those airy beings a real and substantial existence; and the + pleasing enchantment produces an imperfect and momentary assent + of the imagination to those fables, which are the most repugnant + to our reason and experience. In the age of Julian, every + circumstance contributed to prolong and fortify the illusion; the + magnificent temples of Greece and Asia; the works of those + artists who had expressed, in painting or in sculpture, the + divine conceptions of the poet; the pomp of festivals and + sacrifices; the successful arts of divination; the popular + traditions of oracles and prodigies; and the ancient practice of + two thousand years. The weakness of polytheism was, in some + measure, excused by the moderation of its claims; and the + devotion of the Pagans was not incompatible with the most + licentious scepticism. 12 Instead of an indivisible and regular + system, which occupies the whole extent of the believing mind, + the mythology of the Greeks was composed of a thousand loose and + flexible parts, and the servant of the gods was at liberty to + define the degree and measure of his religious faith. The creed + which Julian adopted for his own use was of the largest + dimensions; and, by strange contradiction, he disdained the + salutary yoke of the gospel, whilst he made a voluntary offering + of his reason on the altars of Jupiter and Apollo. One of the + orations of Julian is consecrated to the honor of Cybele, the + mother of the gods, who required from her effeminate priests the + bloody sacrifice, so rashly performed by the madness of the + Phrygian boy. The pious emperor condescends to relate, without a + blush, and without a smile, the voyage of the goddess from the + shores of Pergamus to the mouth of the Tyber, and the stupendous + miracle, which convinced the senate and people of Rome that the + lump of clay, which their ambassadors had transported over the + seas, was endowed with life, and sentiment, and divine power. 13 + For the truth of this prodigy he appeals to the public monuments + of the city; and censures, with some acrimony, the sickly and + affected taste of those men, who impertinently derided the sacred + traditions of their ancestors. 14 + + 11 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parentalis, c. 9, 10, p. 232, &c. + Greg. Nazianzen. Orat. iii. p 61. Eunap. Vit. Sophist. in Maximo, + p. 68, 69, 70, edit Commelin.] + + 12 (return) [ A modern philosopher has ingeniously compared the + different operation of theism and polytheism, with regard to the + doubt or conviction which they produce in the human mind. See + Hume’s Essays vol. ii. p. 444- 457, in 8vo. edit. 1777.] + + 13 (return) [ The Idæan mother landed in Italy about the end of + the second Punic war. The miracle of Claudia, either virgin or + matron, who cleared her fame by disgracing the graver modesty of + the Roman Indies, is attested by a cloud of witnesses. Their + evidence is collected by Drakenborch, (ad Silium Italicum, xvii. + 33;) but we may observe that Livy (xxix. 14) slides over the + transaction with discreet ambiguity.] + + 14 (return) [ I cannot refrain from transcribing the emphatical + words of Julian: Orat. v. p. 161. Julian likewise declares his + firm belief in the ancilia, the holy shields, which dropped from + heaven on the Quirinal hill; and pities the strange blindness of + the Christians, who preferred the cross to these celestial + trophies. Apud Cyril. l. vi. p. 194.] + + But the devout philosopher, who sincerely embraced, and warmly + encouraged, the superstition of the people, reserved for himself + the privilege of a liberal interpretation; and silently withdrew + from the foot of the altars into the sanctuary of the temple. The + extravagance of the Grecian mythology proclaimed, with a clear + and audible voice, that the pious inquirer, instead of being + scandalized or satisfied with the literal sense, should + diligently explore the occult wisdom, which had been disguised, + by the prudence of antiquity, under the mask of folly and of + fable. 15 The philosophers of the Platonic school, 16 Plotinus, + Porphyry, and the divine Iamblichus, were admired as the most + skilful masters of this allegorical science, which labored to + soften and harmonize the deformed features of Paganism. Julian + himself, who was directed in the mysterious pursuit by Ædesius, + the venerable successor of Iamblichus, aspired to the possession + of a treasure, which he esteemed, if we may credit his solemn + asseverations, far above the empire of the world. 17 It was + indeed a treasure, which derived its value only from opinion; and + every artist who flattered himself that he had extracted the + precious ore from the surrounding dross, claimed an equal right + of stamping the name and figure the most agreeable to his + peculiar fancy. The fable of Atys and Cybele had been already + explained by Porphyry; but his labors served only to animate the + pious industry of Julian, who invented and published his own + allegory of that ancient and mystic tale. This freedom of + interpretation, which might gratify the pride of the Platonists, + exposed the vanity of their art. Without a tedious detail, the + modern reader could not form a just idea of the strange + allusions, the forced etymologies, the solemn trifling, and the + impenetrable obscurity of these sages, who professed to reveal + the system of the universe. As the traditions of Pagan mythology + were variously related, the sacred interpreters were at liberty + to select the most convenient circumstances; and as they + translated an arbitrary cipher, they could extract from _any_ + fable _any_ sense which was adapted to their favorite system of + religion and philosophy. The lascivious form of a naked Venus was + tortured into the discovery of some moral precept, or some + physical truth; and the castration of Atys explained the + revolution of the sun between the tropics, or the separation of + the human soul from vice and error. 18 + + 15 (return) [ See the principles of allegory, in Julian, (Orat. + vii. p. 216, 222.) His reasoning is less absurd than that of some + modern theologians, who assert that an extravagant or + contradictory doctrine must be divine; since no man alive could + have thought of inventing it.] + + 16 (return) [ Eunapius has made these sophists the subject of a + partial and fanatical history; and the learned Brucker (Hist. + Philosoph. tom. ii. p. 217-303) has employed much labor to + illustrate their obscure lives and incomprehensible doctrines.] + + 17 (return) [ Julian, Orat. vii p 222. He swears with the most + fervent and enthusiastic devotion; and trembles, lest he should + betray too much of these holy mysteries, which the profane might + deride with an impious Sardonic laugh.] + + 18 (return) [ See the fifth oration of Julian. But all the + allegories which ever issued from the Platonic school are not + worth the short poem of Catullus on the same extraordinary + subject. The transition of Atys, from the wildest enthusiasm to + sober, pathetic complaint, for his irretrievable loss, must + inspire a man with pity, a eunuch with despair.] + + The theological system of Julian appears to have contained the + sublime and important principles of natural religion. But as the + faith, which is not founded on revelation, must remain destitute + of any firm assurance, the disciple of Plato imprudently relapsed + into the habits of vulgar superstition; and the popular and + philosophic notion of the Deity seems to have been confounded in + the practice, the writings, and even in the mind of Julian. 19 + The pious emperor acknowledged and adored the Eternal Cause of + the universe, to whom he ascribed all the perfections of an + infinite nature, invisible to the eyes and inaccessible to the + understanding, of feeble mortals. The Supreme God had created, or + rather, in the Platonic language, had generated, the gradual + succession of dependent spirits, of gods, of dæmons, of heroes, + and of men; and every being which derived its existence + immediately from the First Cause, received the inherent gift of + immortality. That so precious an advantage might not be lavished + upon unworthy objects, the Creator had intrusted to the skill and + power of the inferior gods the office of forming the human body, + and of arranging the beautiful harmony of the animal, the + vegetable, and the mineral kingdoms. To the conduct of these + divine ministers he delegated the temporal government of this + lower world; but their imperfect administration is not exempt + from discord or error. The earth and its inhabitants are divided + among them, and the characters of Mars or Minerva, of Mercury or + Venus, may be distinctly traced in the laws and manners of their + peculiar votaries. As long as our immortal souls are confined in + a mortal prison, it is our interest, as well as our duty, to + solicit the favor, and to deprecate the wrath, of the powers of + heaven; whose pride is gratified by the devotion of mankind; and + whose grosser parts may be supposed to derive some nourishment + from the fumes of sacrifice. 20 The inferior gods might sometimes + condescend to animate the statues, and to inhabit the temples, + which were dedicated to their honor. They might occasionally + visit the earth, but the heavens were the proper throne and + symbol of their glory. The invariable order of the sun, moon, and + stars, was hastily admitted by Julian, as a proof of their + _eternal_ duration; and their eternity was a sufficient evidence + that they were the workmanship, not of an inferior deity, but of + the Omnipotent King. In the system of Platonists, the visible was + a type of the invisible world. The celestial bodies, as they were + informed by a divine spirit, might be considered as the objects + the most worthy of religious worship. The Sun, whose genial + influence pervades and sustains the universe, justly claimed the + adoration of mankind, as the bright representative of the Logos, + the lively, the rational, the beneficent image of the + intellectual Father. 21 + + 19 (return) [ The true religion of Julian may be deduced from the + Cæsars, p. 308, with Spanheim’s notes and illustrations, from the + fragments in Cyril, l. ii. p. 57, 58, and especially from the + theological oration in Solem Regem, p. 130-158, addressed in the + confidence of friendship, to the præfect Sallust.] + + 20 (return) [ Julian adopts this gross conception by ascribing to + his favorite Marcus Antoninus, (Cæsares, p. 333.) The Stoics and + Platonists hesitated between the analogy of bodies and the purity + of spirits; yet the gravest philosophers inclined to the + whimsical fancy of Aristophanes and Lucian, that an unbelieving + age might starve the immortal gods. See Observations de Spanheim, + p. 284, 444, &c.] + + 21 (return) [ Julian. Epist. li. In another place, (apud Cyril. + l. ii. p. 69,) he calls the Sun God, and the throne of God. + Julian believed the Platonician Trinity; and only blames the + Christians for preferring a mortal to an immortal _Logos_.] + + In every age, the absence of genuine inspiration is supplied by + the strong illusions of enthusiasm, and the mimic arts of + imposture. If, in the time of Julian, these arts had been + practised only by the pagan priests, for the support of an + expiring cause, some indulgence might perhaps be allowed to the + interest and habits of the sacerdotal character. But it may + appear a subject of surprise and scandal, that the philosophers + themselves should have contributed to abuse the superstitious + credulity of mankind, 22 and that the Grecian mysteries should + have been supported by the magic or theurgy of the modern + Platonists. They arrogantly pretended to control the order of + nature, to explore the secrets of futurity, to command the + service of the inferior dæmons, to enjoy the view and + conversation of the superior gods, and by disengaging the soul + from her material bands, to reunite that immortal particle with + the Infinite and Divine Spirit. + + 22 (return) [ The sophists of Eunapias perform as many miracles + as the saints of the desert; and the only circumstance in their + favor is, that they are of a less gloomy complexion. Instead of + devils with horns and tails, Iamblichus evoked the genii of love, + Eros and Anteros, from two adjacent fountains. Two beautiful boys + issued from the water, fondly embraced him as their father, and + retired at his command, p. 26, 27.] + + The devout and fearless curiosity of Julian tempted the + philosophers with the hopes of an easy conquest; which, from the + situation of their young proselyte, might be productive of the + most important consequences. 23 Julian imbibed the first + rudiments of the Platonic doctrines from the mouth of Ædesius, + who had fixed at Pergamus his wandering and persecuted school. + But as the declining strength of that venerable sage was unequal + to the ardor, the diligence, the rapid conception of his pupil, + two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthes and Eusebius, + supplied, at his own desire, the place of their aged master. + These philosophers seem to have prepared and distributed their + respective parts; and they artfully contrived, by dark hints and + affected disputes, to excite the impatient hopes of the + _aspirant_, till they delivered him into the hands of their + associate, Maximus, the boldest and most skilful master of the + Theurgic science. By his hands, Julian was secretly initiated at + Ephesus, in the twentieth year of his age. His residence at + Athens confirmed this unnatural alliance of philosophy and + superstition. + + He obtained the privilege of a solemn initiation into the + mysteries of Eleusis, which, amidst the general decay of the + Grecian worship, still retained some vestiges of their primæval + sanctity; and such was the zeal of Julian, that he afterwards + invited the Eleusinian pontiff to the court of Gaul, for the sole + purpose of consummating, by mystic rites and sacrifices, the + great work of his sanctification. As these ceremonies were + performed in the depth of caverns, and in the silence of the + night, and as the inviolable secret of the mysteries was + preserved by the discretion of the initiated, I shall not presume + to describe the horrid sounds, and fiery apparitions, which were + presented to the senses, or the imagination, of the credulous + aspirant, 24 till the visions of comfort and knowledge broke upon + him in a blaze of celestial light. 25 In the caverns of Ephesus + and Eleusis, the mind of Julian was penetrated with sincere, + deep, and unalterable enthusiasm; though he might sometimes + exhibit the vicissitudes of pious fraud and hypocrisy, which may + be observed, or at least suspected, in the characters of the most + conscientious fanatics. From that moment he consecrated his life + to the service of the gods; and while the occupations of war, of + government, and of study, seemed to claim the whole measure of + his time, a stated portion of the hours of the night was + invariably reserved for the exercise of private devotion. The + temperance which adorned the severe manners of the soldier and + the philosopher was connected with some strict and frivolous + rules of religious abstinence; and it was in honor of Pan or + Mercury, of Hecate or Isis, that Julian, on particular days, + denied himself the use of some particular food, which might have + been offensive to his tutelar deities. By these voluntary fasts, + he prepared his senses and his understanding for the frequent and + familiar visits with which he was honored by the celestial + powers. Notwithstanding the modest silence of Julian himself, we + may learn from his faithful friend, the orator Libanius, that he + lived in a perpetual intercourse with the gods and goddesses; + that they descended upon earth to enjoy the conversation of their + favorite hero; that they gently interrupted his slumbers by + touching his hand or his hair; that they warned him of every + impending danger, and conducted him, by their infallible wisdom, + in every action of his life; and that he had acquired such an + intimate knowledge of his heavenly guests, as readily to + distinguish the voice of Jupiter from that of Minerva, and the + form of Apollo from the figure of Hercules. 26 These sleeping or + waking visions, the ordinary effects of abstinence and + fanaticism, would almost degrade the emperor to the level of an + Egyptian monk. But the useless lives of Antony or Pachomius were + consumed in these vain occupations. Julian could break from the + dream of superstition to arm himself for battle; and after + vanquishing in the field the enemies of Rome, he calmly retired + into his tent, to dictate the wise and salutary laws of an + empire, or to indulge his genius in the elegant pursuits of + literature and philosophy. + + 23 (return) [ The dexterous management of these sophists, who + played their credulous pupil into each other’s hands, is fairly + told by Eunapius (p. 69- 79) with unsuspecting simplicity. The + Abbé de la Bleterie understands, and neatly describes, the whole + comedy, (Vie de Julian, p. 61-67.)] + + 24 (return) [ When Julian, in a momentary panic, made the sign of + the cross the dæmons instantly disappeared, (Greg. Naz. Orat. + iii. p. 71.) Gregory supposes that they were frightened, but the + priests declared that they were indignant. The reader, according + to the measure of his faith, will determine this profound + question.] + + 25 (return) [ A dark and distant view of the terrors and joys of + initiation is shown by Dion Chrysostom, Themistius, Proclus, and + Stobæus. The learned author of the Divine Legation has exhibited + their words, (vol. i. p. 239, 247, 248, 280, edit. 1765,) which + he dexterously or forcibly applies to his own hypothesis.] + + 26 (return) [ Julian’s modesty confined him to obscure and + occasional hints: but Libanius expiates with pleasure on the + facts and visions of the religious hero. (Legat. ad Julian. p. + 157, and Orat. Parental. c. lxxxiii. p. 309, 310.)] + + The important secret of the apostasy of Julian was intrusted to + the fidelity of the _initiated_, with whom he was united by the + sacred ties of friendship and religion. 27 The pleasing rumor was + cautiously circulated among the adherents of the ancient worship; + and his future greatness became the object of the hopes, the + prayers, and the predictions of the Pagans, in every province of + the empire. From the zeal and virtues of their royal proselyte, + they fondly expected the cure of every evil, and the restoration + of every blessing; and instead of disapproving of the ardor of + their pious wishes, Julian ingenuously confessed, that he was + ambitious to attain a situation in which he might be useful to + his country and to his religion. But this religion was viewed + with a hostile eye by the successor of Constantine, whose + capricious passions altercately saved and threatened the life of + Julian. The arts of magic and divination were strictly prohibited + under a despotic government, which condescended to fear them; and + if the Pagans were reluctantly indulged in the exercise of their + superstition, the rank of Julian would have excepted him from the + general toleration. The apostate soon became the presumptive heir + of the monarchy, and his death could alone have appeased the just + apprehensions of the Christians. 28 But the young prince, who + aspired to the glory of a hero rather than of a martyr, consulted + his safety by dissembling his religion; and the easy temper of + polytheism permitted him to join in the public worship of a sect + which he inwardly despised. Libanius has considered the hypocrisy + of his friend as a subject, not of censure, but of praise. “As + the statues of the gods,” says that orator, “which have been + defiled with filth, are again placed in a magnificent temple, so + the beauty of truth was seated in the mind of Julian, after it + had been purified from the errors and follies of his education. + His sentiments were changed; but as it would have been dangerous + to have avowed his sentiments, his conduct still continued the + same. Very different from the ass in Æsop, who disguised himself + with a lion’s hide, our lion was obliged to conceal himself under + the skin of an ass; and, while he embraced the dictates of + reason, to obey the laws of prudence and necessity.” 29 The + dissimulation of Julian lasted about ten years, from his secret + initiation at Ephesus to the beginning of the civil war; when he + declared himself at once the implacable enemy of Christ and of + Constantius. This state of constraint might contribute to + strengthen his devotion; and as soon as he had satisfied the + obligation of assisting, on solemn festivals, at the assemblies + of the Christians, Julian returned, with the impatience of a + lover, to burn his free and voluntary incense on the domestic + chapels of Jupiter and Mercury. But as every act of dissimulation + must be painful to an ingenuous spirit, the profession of + Christianity increased the aversion of Julian for a religion + which oppressed the freedom of his mind, and compelled him to + hold a conduct repugnant to the noblest attributes of human + nature, sincerity and courage. + + 27 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. x. p. 233, 234. Gallus + had some reason to suspect the secret apostasy of his brother; + and in a letter, which may be received as genuine, he exhorts + Julian to adhere to the religion of their _ancestors;_ an + argument which, as it should seem, was not yet perfectly ripe. + See Julian, Op. p. 454, and Hist. de Jovien tom ii. p. 141.] + + 28 (return) [ Gregory, (iii. p. 50,) with inhuman zeal, censures + Constantius for paring the infant apostate. His French translator + (p. 265) cautiously observes, that such expressions must not be + prises à la lettre.] + + 29 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parental. c ix. p. 233.] + + + + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part II. + + + The inclination of Julian might prefer the gods of Homer, and of + the Scipios, to the new faith, which his uncle had established in + the Roman empire; and in which he himself had been sanctified by + the sacrament of baptism. But, as a philosopher, it was incumbent + on him to justify his dissent from Christianity, which was + supported by the number of its converts, by the chain of + prophecy, the splendor of miracles, and the weight of evidence. + The elaborate work, 30 which he composed amidst the preparations + of the Persian war, contained the substance of those arguments + which he had long revolved in his mind. Some fragments have been + transcribed and preserved, by his adversary, the vehement Cyril + of Alexandria; 31 and they exhibit a very singular mixture of wit + and learning, of sophistry and fanaticism. The elegance of the + style and the rank of the author, recommended his writings to the + public attention; 32 and in the impious list of the enemies of + Christianity, the celebrated name of Porphyry was effaced by the + superior merit or reputation of Julian. The minds of the faithful + were either seduced, or scandalized, or alarmed; and the pagans, + who sometimes presumed to engage in the unequal dispute, derived, + from the popular work of their Imperial missionary, an + inexhaustible supply of fallacious objections. But in the + assiduous prosecution of these theological studies, the emperor + of the Romans imbibed the illiberal prejudices and passions of a + polemic divine. He contracted an irrevocable obligation to + maintain and propagate his religious opinions; and whilst he + secretly applauded the strength and dexterity with which he + wielded the weapons of controversy, he was tempted to distrust + the sincerity, or to despise the understandings, of his + antagonists, who could obstinately resist the force of reason and + eloquence. + + 30 (return) [ Fabricius (Biblioth. Græc. l. v. c. viii, p. 88-90) + and Lardner (Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. p. 44-47) have + accurately compiled all that can now be discovered of Julian’s + work against the Christians.] + + 31 (return) [ About seventy years after the death of Julian, he + executed a task which had been feebly attempted by Philip of + Side, a prolix and contemptible writer. Even the work of Cyril + has not entirely satisfied the most favorable judges; and the + Abbé de la Bleterie (Preface a l’Hist. de Jovien, p. 30, 32) + wishes that some _theologien philosophe_ (a strange centaur) + would undertake the refutation of Julian.] + + 32 (return) [ Libanius, (Orat. Parental. c. lxxxvii. p. 313,) who + has been suspected of assisting his friend, prefers this divine + vindication (Orat. ix in necem Julian. p. 255, edit. Morel.) to + the writings of Porphyry. His judgment may be arraigned, + (Socrates, l. iii. c. 23,) but Libanius cannot be accused of + flattery to a dead prince.] + + The Christians, who beheld with horror and indignation the + apostasy of Julian, had much more to fear from his power than + from his arguments. The pagans, who were conscious of his fervent + zeal, expected, perhaps with impatience, that the flames of + persecution should be immediately kindled against the enemies of + the gods; and that the ingenious malice of Julian would invent + some cruel refinements of death and torture which had been + unknown to the rude and inexperienced fury of his predecessors. + But the hopes, as well as the fears, of the religious factions + were apparently disappointed, by the prudent humanity of a + prince, 33 who was careful of his own fame, of the public peace, + and of the rights of mankind. Instructed by history and + reflection, Julian was persuaded, that if the diseases of the + body may sometimes be cured by salutary violence, neither steel + nor fire can eradicate the erroneous opinions of the mind. The + reluctant victim may be dragged to the foot of the altar; but the + heart still abhors and disclaims the sacrilegious act of the + hand. Religious obstinacy is hardened and exasperated by + oppression; and, as soon as the persecution subsides, those who + have yielded are restored as penitents, and those who have + resisted are honored as saints and martyrs. If Julian adopted the + unsuccessful cruelty of Diocletian and his colleagues, he was + sensible that he should stain his memory with the name of a + tyrant, and add new glories to the Catholic church, which had + derived strength and increase from the severity of the pagan + magistrates. Actuated by these motives, and apprehensive of + disturbing the repose of an unsettled reign, Julian surprised the + world by an edict, which was not unworthy of a statesman, or a + philosopher. He extended to all the inhabitants of the Roman + world the benefits of a free and equal toleration; and the only + hardship which he inflicted on the Christians, was to deprive + them of the power of tormenting their fellow-subjects, whom they + stigmatized with the odious titles of idolaters and heretics. The + pagans received a gracious permission, or rather an express + order, to open All their temples; 34 and they were at once + delivered from the oppressive laws, and arbitrary vexations, + which they had sustained under the reign of Constantine, and of + his sons. At the same time the bishops and clergy, who had been + banished by the Arian monarch, were recalled from exile, and + restored to their respective churches; the Donatists, the + Novatians, the Macedonians, the Eunomians, and those who, with a + more prosperous fortune, adhered to the doctrine of the Council + of Nice. Julian, who understood and derided their theological + disputes, invited to the palace the leaders of the hostile sects, + that he might enjoy the agreeable spectacle of their furious + encounters. The clamor of controversy sometimes provoked the + emperor to exclaim, “Hear me! the Franks have heard me, and the + Alemanni;” but he soon discovered that he was now engaged with + more obstinate and implacable enemies; and though he exerted the + powers of oratory to persuade them to live in concord, or at + least in peace, he was perfectly satisfied, before he dismissed + them from his presence, that he had nothing to dread from the + union of the Christians. The impartial Ammianus has ascribed this + affected clemency to the desire of fomenting the intestine + divisions of the church, and the insidious design of undermining + the foundations of Christianity, was inseparably connected with + the zeal which Julian professed, to restore the ancient religion + of the empire. 35 + + 33 (return) [ Libanius (Orat. Parent. c. lviii. p. 283, 284) has + eloquently explained the tolerating principles and conduct of his + Imperial friend. In a very remarkable epistle to the people of + Bostra, Julian himself (Epist. lii.) professes his moderation, + and betrays his zeal, which is acknowledged by Ammianus, and + exposed by Gregory (Orat. iii. p.72)] + + 34 (return) [ In Greece the temples of Minerva were opened by his + express command, before the death of Constantius, (Liban. Orat. + Parent. c. 55, p. 280;) and Julian declares himself a Pagan in + his public manifesto to the Athenians. This unquestionable + evidence may correct the hasty assertion of Ammianus, who seems + to suppose Constantinople to be the place where he discovered his + attachment to the gods] + + 35 (return) [ Ammianus, xxii. 5. Sozomen, l. v. c. 5. Bestia + moritur, tranquillitas redit.... omnes episcopi qui de propriis + sedibus fuerant exterminati per indulgentiam novi principis ad + acclesias redeunt. Jerom. adversus Luciferianos, tom. ii. p. 143. + Optatus accuses the Donatists for owing their safety to an + apostate, (l. ii. c. 16, p. 36, 37, edit. Dupin.)] + + As soon as he ascended the throne, he assumed, according to the + custom of his predecessors, the character of supreme pontiff; not + only as the most honorable title of Imperial greatness, but as a + sacred and important office; the duties of which he was resolved + to execute with pious diligence. As the business of the state + prevented the emperor from joining every day in the public + devotion of his subjects, he dedicated a domestic chapel to his + tutelar deity the Sun; his gardens were filled with statues and + altars of the gods; and each apartment of the palace displaced + the appearance of a magnificent temple. Every morning he saluted + the parent of light with a sacrifice; the blood of another victim + was shed at the moment when the Sun sunk below the horizon; and + the Moon, the Stars, and the Genii of the night received their + respective and seasonable honors from the indefatigable devotion + of Julian. On solemn festivals, he regularly visited the temple + of the god or goddess to whom the day was peculiarly consecrated, + and endeavored to excite the religion of the magistrates and + people by the example of his own zeal. Instead of maintaining the + lofty state of a monarch, distinguished by the splendor of his + purple, and encompassed by the golden shields of his guards, + Julian solicited, with respectful eagerness, the meanest offices + which contributed to the worship of the gods. Amidst the sacred + but licentious crowd of priests, of inferior ministers, and of + female dancers, who were dedicated to the service of the temple, + it was the business of the emperor to bring the wood, to blow the + fire, to handle the knife, to slaughter the victim, and, + thrusting his bloody hands into the bowels of the expiring + animal, to draw forth the heart or liver, and to read, with the + consummate skill of an haruspex, imaginary signs of future + events. The wisest of the Pagans censured this extravagant + superstition, which affected to despise the restraints of + prudence and decency. Under the reign of a prince, who practised + the rigid maxims of economy, the expense of religious worship + consumed a very large portion of the revenue; a constant supply + of the scarcest and most beautiful birds was transported from + distant climates, to bleed on the altars of the gods; a hundred + oxen were frequently sacrificed by Julian on one and the same + day; and it soon became a popular jest, that if he should return + with conquest from the Persian war, the breed of horned cattle + must infallibly be extinguished. Yet this expense may appear + inconsiderable, when it is compared with the splendid presents + which were offered either by the hand, or by order, of the + emperor, to all the celebrated places of devotion in the Roman + world; and with the sums allotted to repair and decorate the + ancient temples, which had suffered the silent decay of time, or + the recent injuries of Christian rapine. Encouraged by the + example, the exhortations, the liberality, of their pious + sovereign, the cities and families resumed the practice of their + neglected ceremonies. “Every part of the world,” exclaims + Libanius, with devout transport, “displayed the triumph of + religion; and the grateful prospect of flaming altars, bleeding + victims, the smoke of incense, and a solemn train of priests and + prophets, without fear and without danger. The sound of prayer + and of music was heard on the tops of the highest mountains; and + the same ox afforded a sacrifice for the gods, and a supper for + their joyous votaries.” 36 + + 36 (return) [ The restoration of the Pagan worship is described + by Julian, (Misopogon, p. 346,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 60, + p. 286, 287, and Orat. Consular. ad Julian. p. 245, 246, edit. + Morel.,) Ammianus, (xxii. 12,) and Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. + p. 121.) These writers agree in the essential, and even minute, + facts; but the different lights in which they view the extreme + devotion of Julian, are expressive of the gradations of + self-applause, passionate admiration, mild reproof, and partial + invective.] + + But the genius and power of Julian were unequal to the enterprise + of restoring a religion which was destitute of theological + principles, of moral precepts, and of ecclesiastical discipline; + which rapidly hastened to decay and dissolution, and was not + susceptible of any solid or consistent reformation. The + jurisdiction of the supreme pontiff, more especially after that + office had been united with the Imperial dignity, comprehended + the whole extent of the Roman empire. Julian named for his + vicars, in the several provinces, the priests and philosophers + whom he esteemed the best qualified to cooperate in the execution + of his great design; and his pastoral letters, 37 if we may use + that name, still represent a very curious sketch of his wishes + and intentions. He directs, that in every city the sacerdotal + order should be composed, without any distinction of birth and + fortune, of those persons who were the most conspicuous for the + love of the gods, and of men. “If they are guilty,” continues he, + “of any scandalous offence, they should be censured or degraded + by the superior pontiff; but as long as they retain their rank, + they are entitled to the respect of the magistrates and people. + Their humility may be shown in the plainness of their domestic + garb; their dignity, in the pomp of holy vestments. When they are + summoned in their turn to officiate before the altar, they ought + not, during the appointed number of days, to depart from the + precincts of the temple; nor should a single day be suffered to + elapse, without the prayers and the sacrifice, which they are + obliged to offer for the prosperity of the state, and of + individuals. The exercise of their sacred functions requires an + immaculate purity, both of mind and body; and even when they are + dismissed from the temple to the occupations of common life, it + is incumbent on them to excel in decency and virtue the rest of + their fellow-citizens. The priest of the gods should never be + seen in theatres or taverns. His conversation should be chaste, + his diet temperate, his friends of honorable reputation; and if + he sometimes visits the Forum or the Palace, he should appear + only as the advocate of those who have vainly solicited either + justice or mercy. His studies should be suited to the sanctity of + his profession. Licentious tales, or comedies, or satires, must + be banished from his library, which ought solely to consist of + historical or philosophical writings; of history, which is + founded in truth, and of philosophy, which is connected with + religion. The impious opinions of the Epicureans and sceptics + deserve his abhorrence and contempt; 38 but he should diligently + study the systems of Pythagoras, of Plato, and of the Stoics, + which unanimously teach that there _are_ gods; that the world is + governed by their providence; that their goodness is the source + of every temporal blessing; and that they have prepared for the + human soul a future state of reward or punishment.” The Imperial + pontiff inculcates, in the most persuasive language, the duties + of benevolence and hospitality; exhorts his inferior clergy to + recommend the universal practice of those virtues; promises to + assist their indigence from the public treasury; and declares his + resolution of establishing hospitals in every city, where the + poor should be received without any invidious distinction of + country or of religion. Julian beheld with envy the wise and + humane regulations of the church; and he very frankly confesses + his intention to deprive the Christians of the applause, as well + as advantage, which they had acquired by the exclusive practice + of charity and beneficence. 39 The same spirit of imitation might + dispose the emperor to adopt several ecclesiastical institutions, + the use and importance of which were approved by the success of + his enemies. But if these imaginary plans of reformation had been + realized, the forced and imperfect copy would have been less + beneficial to Paganism, than honorable to Christianity. 40 The + Gentiles, who peaceably followed the customs of their ancestors, + were rather surprised than pleased with the introduction of + foreign manners; and in the short period of his reign, Julian had + frequent occasions to complain of the want of fervor of his own + party. 41 + + 37 (return) [ See Julian. Epistol. xlix. lxii. lxiii., and a long + and curious fragment, without beginning or end, (p. 288-305.) The + supreme pontiff derides the Mosaic history and the Christian + discipline, prefers the Greek poets to the Hebrew prophets, and + palliates, with the skill of a Jesuit the _relative_ worship of + images.] + + 38 (return) [ The exultation of Julian (p. 301) that these + impious sects and even their writings, are extinguished, may be + consistent enough with the sacerdotal character; but it is + unworthy of a philosopher to wish that any opinions and arguments + the most repugnant to his own should be concealed from the + knowledge of mankind.] + + 39 (return) [ Yet he insinuates, that the Christians, under the + pretence of charity, inveigled children from their religion and + parents, conveyed them on shipboard, and devoted those victims to + a life of poverty or pervitude in a remote country, (p. 305.) Had + the charge been proved it was his duty, not to complain, but to + punish.] + + 40 (return) [ Gregory Nazianzen is facetious, ingenious, and + argumentative, (Orat. iii. p. 101, 102, &c.) He ridicules the + folly of such vain imitation; and amuses himself with inquiring, + what lessons, moral or theological, could be extracted from the + Grecian fables.] + + 41 (return) [ He accuses one of his pontiffs of a secret + confederacy with the Christian bishops and presbyters, (Epist. + lxii.) &c. Epist. lxiii.] + + The enthusiasm of Julian prompted him to embrace the friends of + Jupiter as his personal friends and brethren; and though he + partially overlooked the merit of Christian constancy, he admired + and rewarded the noble perseverance of those Gentiles who had + preferred the favor of the gods to that of the emperor. 42 If + they cultivated the literature, as well as the religion, of the + Greeks, they acquired an additional claim to the friendship of + Julian, who ranked the Muses in the number of his tutelar + deities. In the religion which he had adopted, piety and learning + were almost synonymous; 43 and a crowd of poets, of rhetoricians, + and of philosophers, hastened to the Imperial court, to occupy + the vacant places of the bishops, who had seduced the credulity + of Constantius. His successor esteemed the ties of common + initiation as far more sacred than those of consanguinity; he + chose his favorites among the sages, who were deeply skilled in + the occult sciences of magic and divination; and every impostor, + who pretended to reveal the secrets of futurity, was assured of + enjoying the present hour in honor and affluence. 44 Among the + philosophers, Maximus obtained the most eminent rank in the + friendship of his royal disciple, who communicated, with + unreserved confidence, his actions, his sentiments, and his + religious designs, during the anxious suspense of the civil war. + 45 As soon as Julian had taken possession of the palace of + Constantinople, he despatched an honorable and pressing + invitation to Maximus, who then resided at Sardes in Lydia, with + Chrysanthius, the associate of his art and studies. The prudent + and superstitious Chrysanthius refused to undertake a journey + which showed itself, according to the rules of divination, with + the most threatening and malignant aspect: but his companion, + whose fanaticism was of a bolder cast, persisted in his + interrogations, till he had extorted from the gods a seeming + consent to his own wishes, and those of the emperor. The journey + of Maximus through the cities of Asia displayed the triumph of + philosophic vanity; and the magistrates vied with each other in + the honorable reception which they prepared for the friend of + their sovereign. Julian was pronouncing an oration before the + senate, when he was informed of the arrival of Maximus. The + emperor immediately interrupted his discourse, advanced to meet + him, and after a tender embrace, conducted him by the hand into + the midst of the assembly; where he publicly acknowledged the + benefits which he had derived from the instructions of the + philosopher. Maximus, 46 who soon acquired the confidence, and + influenced the councils of Julian, was insensibly corrupted by + the temptations of a court. His dress became more splendid, his + demeanor more lofty, and he was exposed, under a succeeding + reign, to a disgraceful inquiry into the means by which the + disciple of Plato had accumulated, in the short duration of his + favor, a very scandalous proportion of wealth. Of the other + philosophers and sophists, who were invited to the Imperial + residence by the choice of Julian, or by the success of Maximus, + few were able to preserve their innocence or their reputation. + The liberal gifts of money, lands, and houses, were insufficient + to satiate their rapacious avarice; and the indignation of the + people was justly excited by the remembrance of their abject + poverty and disinterested professions. The penetration of Julian + could not always be deceived: but he was unwilling to despise the + characters of those men whose talents deserved his esteem: he + desired to escape the double reproach of imprudence and + inconstancy; and he was apprehensive of degrading, in the eyes of + the profane, the honor of letters and of religion. 47 48 + + 42 (return) [ He praises the fidelity of Callixene, priestess of + Ceres, who had been twice as constant as Penelope, and rewards + her with the priesthood of the Phrygian goddess at Pessinus, + (Julian. Epist. xxi.) He applauds the firmness of Sopater of + Hierapolis, who had been repeatedly pressed by Constantius and + Gallus to _apostatize_, (Epist. xxvii p. 401.)] + + 43 (return) [ Orat. Parent. c. 77, p. 202. The same sentiment is + frequently inculcated by Julian, Libanius, and the rest of their + party.] + + 44 (return) [ The curiosity and credulity of the emperor, who + tried every mode of divination, are fairly exposed by Ammianus, + xxii. 12.] + + 45 (return) [ Julian. Epist. xxxviii. Three other epistles, (xv. + xvi. xxxix.,) in the same style of friendship and confidence, are + addressed to the philosopher Maximus.] + + 46 (return) [ Eunapius (in Maximo, p. 77, 78, 79, and in + Chrysanthio, p. 147, 148) has minutely related these anecdotes, + which he conceives to be the most important events of the age. + Yet he fairly confesses the frailty of Maximus. His reception at + Constantinople is described by Libanius (Orat. Parent. c. 86, p. + 301) and Ammianus, (xxii. 7.) * Note: Eunapius wrote a + continuation of the History of Dexippus. Some valuable fragments + of this work have been recovered by M. Mai, and reprinted in + Niebuhr’s edition of the Byzantine Historians.—M.] + + 47 (return) [ Chrysanthius, who had refused to quit Lydia, was + created high priest of the province. His cautious and temperate + use of power secured him after the revolution; and he lived in + peace, while Maximus, Priscus, &c., were persecuted by the + Christian ministers. See the adventures of those fanatic + sophists, collected by Brucker, tom ii. p. 281-293.] + + 48 (return) [ Sec Libanius (Orat. Parent. c. 101, 102, p. 324, + 325, 326) and Eunapius, (Vit. Sophist. in Proæresio, p. 126.) + Some students, whose expectations perhaps were groundless, or + extravagant, retired in disgust, (Greg. Naz. Orat. iv. p. 120.) + It is strange that we should not be able to contradict the title + of one of Tillemont’s chapters, (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. + 960,) “La Cour de Julien est pleine de philosphes et de gens + perdus.”] + + The favor of Julian was almost equally divided between the + Pagans, who had firmly adhered to the worship of their ancestors, + and the Christians, who prudently embraced the religion of their + sovereign. The acquisition of new proselytes 49 gratified the + ruling passions of his soul, superstition and vanity; and he was + heard to declare, with the enthusiasm of a missionary, that if he + could render each individual richer than Midas, and every city + greater than Babylon, he should not esteem himself the benefactor + of mankind, unless, at the same time, he could reclaim his + subjects from their impious revolt against the immortal gods. 50 + A prince who had studied human nature, and who possessed the + treasures of the Roman empire, could adapt his arguments, his + promises, and his rewards, to every order of Christians; 51 and + the merit of a seasonable conversion was allowed to supply the + defects of a candidate, or even to expiate the guilt of a + criminal. As the army is the most forcible engine of absolute + power, Julian applied himself, with peculiar diligence, to + corrupt the religion of his troops, without whose hearty + concurrence every measure must be dangerous and unsuccessful; and + the natural temper of soldiers made this conquest as easy as it + was important. The legions of Gaul devoted themselves to the + faith, as well as to the fortunes, of their victorious leader; + and even before the death of Constantius, he had the satisfaction + of announcing to his friends, that they assisted with fervent + devotion, and voracious appetite, at the sacrifices, which were + repeatedly offered in his camp, of whole hecatombs of fat oxen. + 52 The armies of the East, which had been trained under the + standard of the cross, and of Constantius, required a more artful + and expensive mode of persuasion. On the days of solemn and + public festivals, the emperor received the homage, and rewarded + the merit, of the troops. His throne of state was encircled with + the military ensigns of Rome and the republic; the holy name of + Christ was erased from the _Labarum;_ and the symbols of war, of + majesty, and of pagan superstition, were so dexterously blended, + that the faithful subject incurred the guilt of idolatry, when he + respectfully saluted the person or image of his sovereign. The + soldiers passed successively in review; and each of them, before + he received from the hand of Julian a liberal donative, + proportioned to his rank and services, was required to cast a few + grains of incense into the flame which burnt upon the altar. Some + Christian confessors might resist, and others might repent; but + the far greater number, allured by the prospect of gold, and awed + by the presence of the emperor, contracted the criminal + engagement; and their future perseverance in the worship of the + gods was enforced by every consideration of duty and of interest. + + By the frequent repetition of these arts, and at the expense of + sums which would have purchased the service of half the nations + of Scythia, Julian gradually acquired for his troops the + imaginary protection of the gods, and for himself the firm and + effectual support of the Roman legions. 53 It is indeed more than + probable, that the restoration and encouragement of Paganism + revealed a multitude of pretended Christians, who, from motives + of temporal advantage, had acquiesced in the religion of the + former reign; and who afterwards returned, with the same + flexibility of conscience, to the faith which was professed by + the successors of Julian. + + 49 (return) [ Under the reign of Lewis XIV. his subjects of every + rank aspired to the glorious title of _Convertisseur_, expressive + of their zea and success in making proselytes. The word and the + idea are growing obsolete in France may they never be introduced + into England.] + + 50 (return) [ See the strong expressions of Libanius, which were + probably those of Julian himself, (Orat. Parent. c. 59, p. 285.)] + + 51 (return) [ When Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. x. p. 167) is + desirous to magnify the Christian firmness of his brother + Cæsarius, physician to the Imperial court, he owns that Cæsarius + disputed with a formidable adversary. In his invectives he + scarcely allows any share of wit or courage to the apostate.] + + 52 (return) [ Julian, Epist. xxxviii. Ammianus, xxii. 12. Adeo ut + in dies pæne singulos milites carnis distentiore sagina + victitantes incultius, potusque aviditate correpti, humeris + impositi transeuntium per plateas, ex publicis ædibus..... ad sua + diversoria portarentur. The devout prince and the indignant + historian describe the same scene; and in Illyricum or Antioch, + similar causes must have produced similar effects.] + + 53 (return) [ Gregory (Orat. iii. p. 74, 75, 83-86) and Libanius, + (Orat. Parent. c. lxxxi. lxxxii. p. 307, 308,). The sophist owns + and justifies the expense of these military conversions.] + + While the devout monarch incessantly labored to restore and + propagate the religion of his ancestors, he embraced the + extraordinary design of rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem. In a + public epistle 54 to the nation or community of the Jews, + dispersed through the provinces, he pities their misfortunes, + condemns their oppressors, praises their constancy, declares + himself their gracious protector, and expresses a pious hope, + that after his return from the Persian war, he may be permitted + to pay his grateful vows to the Almighty in his holy city of + Jerusalem. The blind superstition, and abject slavery, of those + unfortunate exiles, must excite the contempt of a philosophic + emperor; but they deserved the friendship of Julian, by their + implacable hatred of the Christian name. The barren synagogue + abhorred and envied the fecundity of the rebellious church; the + power of the Jews was not equal to their malice; but their + gravest rabbis approved the private murder of an apostate; 55 and + their seditious clamors had often awakened the indolence of the + Pagan magistrates. Under the reign of Constantine, the Jews + became the subjects of their revolted children nor was it long + before they experienced the bitterness of domestic tyranny. The + civil immunities which had been granted, or confirmed, by + Severus, were gradually repealed by the Christian princes; and a + rash tumult, excited by the Jews of Palestine, 56 seemed to + justify the lucrative modes of oppression which were invented by + the bishops and eunuchs of the court of Constantius. The Jewish + patriarch, who was still permitted to exercise a precarious + jurisdiction, held his residence at Tiberias; 57 and the + neighboring cities of Palestine were filled with the remains of a + people who fondly adhered to the promised land. But the edict of + Hadrian was renewed and enforced; and they viewed from afar the + walls of the holy city, which were profaned in their eyes by the + triumph of the cross and the devotion of the Christians. 58 + + 54 (return) [ Julian’s epistle (xxv.) is addressed to the + community of the Jews. Aldus (Venet. 1499) has branded it with + an; but this stigma is justly removed by the subsequent editors, + Petavius and Spanheim. This epistle is mentioned by Sozomen, (l. + v. c. 22,) and the purport of it is confirmed by Gregory, (Orat. + iv. p. 111.) and by Julian himself (Fragment. p. 295.)] + + 55 (return) [ The Misnah denounced death against those who + abandoned the foundation. The judgment of zeal is explained by + Marsham (Canon. Chron. p. 161, 162, edit. fol. London, 1672) and + Basnage, (Hist. des Juifs, tom. viii. p. 120.) Constantine made a + law to protect Christian converts from Judaism. Cod. Theod. l. + xvi. tit. viii. leg. 1. Godefroy, tom. vi. p. 215.] + + 56 (return) [ Et interea (during the civil war of Magnentius) + Judæorum seditio, qui Patricium, nefarie in regni speciem + sustulerunt, oppressa. Aurelius Victor, in Constantio, c. xlii. + See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 379, in 4to.] + + 57 (return) [ The city and synagogue of Tiberias are curiously + described by Reland. Palestin. tom. ii. p. 1036-1042.] + + 58 (return) [ Basnage has fully illustrated the state of the Jews + under Constantine and his successors, (tom. viii. c. iv. p. + 111-153.)] + + + + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part III. + + + In the midst of a rocky and barren country, the walls of + Jerusalem 59 enclosed the two mountains of Sion and Acra, within + an oval figure of about three English miles. 60 Towards the + south, the upper town, and the fortress of David, were erected on + the lofty ascent of Mount Sion: on the north side, the buildings + of the lower town covered the spacious summit of Mount Acra; and + a part of the hill, distinguished by the name of Moriah, and + levelled by human industry, was crowned with the stately temple + of the Jewish nation. After the final destruction of the temple + by the arms of Titus and Hadrian, a ploughshare was drawn over + the consecrated ground, as a sign of perpetual interdiction. Sion + was deserted; and the vacant space of the lower city was filled + with the public and private edifices of the Ælian colony, which + spread themselves over the adjacent hill of Calvary. The holy + places were polluted with mountains of idolatry; and, either from + design or accident, a chapel was dedicated to Venus, on the spot + which had been sanctified by the death and resurrection of + Christ. 61 6111 Almost three hundred years after those stupendous + events, the profane chapel of Venus was demolished by the order + of Constantine; and the removal of the earth and stones revealed + the holy sepulchre to the eyes of mankind. A magnificent church + was erected on that mystic ground, by the first Christian + emperor; and the effects of his pious munificence were extended + to every spot which had been consecrated by the footstep of + patriarchs, of prophets, and of the Son of God. 62 + + 59 (return) [ Reland (Palestin. l. i. p. 309, 390, l. iii. p. + 838) describes, with learning and perspicuity, Jerusalem, and the + face of the adjacent country.] + + 60 (return) [ I have consulted a rare and curious treatise of M. + D’Anville, (sur l’Ancienne Jerusalem, Paris, 1747, p. 75.) The + circumference of the ancient city (Euseb. Preparat. Evangel. l. + ix. c. 36) was 27 stadia, or 2550 _toises_. A plan, taken on the + spot, assigns no more than 1980 for the modern town. The circuit + is defined by natural landmarks, which cannot be mistaken or + removed.] + + 61 (return) [ See two curious passages in Jerom, (tom. i. p. 102, + tom. vi. p. 315,) and the ample details of Tillemont, (Hist, des + Empereurs, tom. i. p. 569. tom. ii. p. 289, 294, 4to edition.)] + + 6111 (return) [ On the site of the Holy Sepulchre, compare the + chapter in Professor Robinson’s Travels in Palestine, which has + renewed the old controversy with great vigor. To me, this temple + of Venus, said to have been erected by Hadrian to insult the + Christians, is not the least suspicious part of the whole + legend.-M. 1845.] + + 62 (return) [ Eusebius in Vit. Constantin. l. iii. c. 25-47, + 51-53. The emperor likewise built churches at Bethlem, the Mount + of Olives, and the oa of Mambre. The holy sepulchre is described + by Sandys, (Travels, p. 125-133,) and curiously delineated by Le + Bruyn, (Voyage au Levant, p. 28-296.)] + + The passionate desire of contemplating the original monuments of + their redemption attracted to Jerusalem a successive crowd of + pilgrims, from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and the most + distant countries of the East; 63 and their piety was authorized + by the example of the empress Helena, who appears to have united + the credulity of age with the warm feelings of a recent + conversion. Sages and heroes, who have visited the memorable + scenes of ancient wisdom or glory, have confessed the inspiration + of the genius of the place; 64 and the Christian who knelt before + the holy sepulchre, ascribed his lively faith, and his fervent + devotion, to the more immediate influence of the Divine Spirit. + The zeal, perhaps the avarice, of the clergy of Jerusalem, + cherished and multiplied these beneficial visits. They fixed, by + unquestionable tradition, the scene of each memorable event. They + exhibited the instruments which had been used in the passion of + Christ; the nails and the lance that had pierced his hands, his + feet, and his side; the crown of thorns that was planted on his + head; the pillar at which he was scourged; and, above all, they + showed the cross on which he suffered, and which was dug out of + the earth in the reign of those princes, who inserted the symbol + of Christianity in the banners of the Roman legions. 65 Such + miracles as seemed necessary to account for its extraordinary + preservation, and seasonable discovery, were gradually propagated + without opposition. The custody of the _true cross_, which on + Easter Sunday was solemnly exposed to the people, was intrusted + to the bishop of Jerusalem; and he alone might gratify the + curious devotion of the pilgrims, by the gift of small pieces, + which they encased in gold or gems, and carried away in triumph + to their respective countries. But as this gainful branch of + commerce must soon have been annihilated, it was found convenient + to suppose, that the marvelous wood possessed a secret power of + vegetation; and that its substance, though continually + diminished, still remained entire and unimpaired. 66 It might + perhaps have been expected, that the influence of the place and + the belief of a perpetual miracle, should have produced some + salutary effects on the morals, as well as on the faith, of the + people. Yet the most respectable of the ecclesiastical writers + have been obliged to confess, not only that the streets of + Jerusalem were filled with the incessant tumult of business and + pleasure, 67 but that every species of vice—adultery, theft, + idolatry, poisoning, murder—was familiar to the inhabitants of + the holy city. 68 The wealth and preëminence of the church of + Jerusalem excited the ambition of Arian, as well as orthodox, + candidates; and the virtues of Cyril, who, since his death, has + been honored with the title of Saint, were displayed in the + exercise, rather than in the acquisition, of his episcopal + dignity. 69 + + 63 (return) [ The Itinerary from Bourdeaux to Jerusalem was + composed in the year 333, for the use of pilgrims; among whom + Jerom (tom. i. p. 126) mentions the Britons and the Indians. The + causes of this superstitious fashion are discussed in the learned + and judicious preface of Wesseling. (Itinarar. p. 537-545.) + ——Much curious information on this subject is collected in the + first chapter of Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzzüge.—M.] + + 64 (return) [ Cicero (de Finibus, v. 1) has beautifully expressed + the common sense of mankind.] + + 65 (return) [ Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A. D. 326, No. 42-50) and + Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. xii. p. 8-16) are the historians and + champions of the miraculous _invention_ of the cross, under the + reign of Constantine. Their oldest witnesses are Paulinus, + Sulpicius Severus, Rufinus, Ambrose, and perhaps Cyril of + Jerusalem. The silence of Eusebius, and the Bourdeaux pilgrim, + which satisfies those who think perplexes those who believe. See + Jortin’s sensible remarks, vol. ii. p 238-248.] + + 66 (return) [ This multiplication is asserted by Paulinus, + (Epist. xxxvi. See Dupin. Bibliot. Eccles. tom. iii. p. 149,) who + seems to have improved a rhetorical flourish of Cyril into a real + fact. The same supernatural privilege must have been communicated + to the Virgin’s milk, (Erasmi Opera, tom. i. p. 778, Lugd. Batav. + 1703, in Colloq. de Peregrinat. Religionis ergo,) saints’ heads, + &c. and other relics, which are repeated in so many different + churches. * Note: Lord Mahon, in a memoir read before the Society + of Antiquaries, (Feb. 1831,) has traced in a brief but + interesting manner, the singular adventures of the “true” cross. + It is curious to inquire, what authority we have, except of + _late_ tradition, for the _Hill_ of Calvary. There is none in the + sacred writings; the uniform use of the common word, instead of + any word expressing assent or acclivity, is against the + notion.—M.] + + 67 (return) [ Jerom, (tom. i. p. 103,) who resided in the + neighboring village of Bethlem, describes the vices of Jerusalem + from his personal experience.] + + 68 (return) [ Gregor. Nyssen, apud Wesseling, p. 539. The whole + epistle, which condemns either the use or the abuse of religious + pilgrimage, is painful to the Catholic divines, while it is dear + and familiar to our Protestant polemics.] + + 69 (return) [ He renounced his orthodox ordination, officiated as + a deacon, and was re-ordained by the hands of the Arians. But + Cyril afterwards changed with the times, and prudently conformed + to the Nicene faith. Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. tom. viii.,) who + treats his memory with tenderness and respect, has thrown his + virtues into the text, and his faults into the notes, in decent + obscurity, at the end of the volume.] + + The vain and ambitious mind of Julian might aspire to restore the + ancient glory of the temple of Jerusalem. 70 As the Christians + were firmly persuaded that a sentence of everlasting destruction + had been pronounced against the whole fabric of the Mosaic law, + the Imperial sophist would have converted the success of his + undertaking into a specious argument against the faith of + prophecy, and the truth of revelation. 71 He was displeased with + the spiritual worship of the synagogue; but he approved the + institutions of Moses, who had not disdained to adopt many of the + rites and ceremonies of Egypt. 72 The local and national deity of + the Jews was sincerely adored by a polytheist, who desired only + to multiply the number of the gods; 73 and such was the appetite + of Julian for bloody sacrifice, that his emulation might be + excited by the piety of Solomon, who had offered, at the feast of + the dedication, twenty-two thousand oxen, and one hundred and + twenty thousand sheep. 74 These considerations might influence + his designs; but the prospect of an immediate and important + advantage would not suffer the impatient monarch to expect the + remote and uncertain event of the Persian war. He resolved to + erect, without delay, on the commanding eminence of Moriah, a + stately temple, which might eclipse the splendor of the church of + the resurrection on the adjacent hill of Calvary; to establish an + order of priests, whose interested zeal would detect the arts, + and resist the ambition, of their Christian rivals; and to invite + a numerous colony of Jews, whose stern fanaticism would be always + prepared to second, and even to anticipate, the hostile measures + of the Pagan government. Among the friends of the emperor (if the + names of emperor, and of friend, are not incompatible) the first + place was assigned, by Julian himself, to the virtuous and + learned Alypius. 75 The humanity of Alypius was tempered by + severe justice and manly fortitude; and while he exercised his + abilities in the civil administration of Britain, he imitated, in + his poetical compositions, the harmony and softness of the odes + of Sappho. This minister, to whom Julian communicated, without + reserve, his most careless levities, and his most serious + counsels, received an extraordinary commission to restore, in its + pristine beauty, the temple of Jerusalem; and the diligence of + Alypius required and obtained the strenuous support of the + governor of Palestine. At the call of their great deliverer, the + Jews, from all the provinces of the empire, assembled on the holy + mountain of their fathers; and their insolent triumph alarmed and + exasperated the Christian inhabitants of Jerusalem. The desire of + rebuilding the temple has in every age been the ruling passion of + the children of Israel. In this propitious moment the men forgot + their avarice, and the women their delicacy; spades and pickaxes + of silver were provided by the vanity of the rich, and the + rubbish was transported in mantles of silk and purple. Every + purse was opened in liberal contributions, every hand claimed a + share in the pious labor, and the commands of a great monarch + were executed by the enthusiasm of a whole people. 76 + + 70 (return) [ Imperii sui memoriam magnitudine operum gestiens + propagare Ammian. xxiii. 1. The temple of Jerusalem had been + famous even among the Gentiles. _They_ had many temples in each + city, (at Sichem five, at Gaza eight, at Rome four hundred and + twenty-four;) but the wealth and religion of the Jewish nation + was centred in one spot.] + + 71 (return) [ The secret intentions of Julian are revealed by the + late bishop of Gloucester, the learned and dogmatic Warburton; + who, with the authority of a theologian, prescribes the motives + and conduct of the Supreme Being. The discourse entitled _Julian_ + (2d edition, London, 1751) is strongly marked with all the + peculiarities which are imputed to the Warburtonian school.] + + 72 (return) [ I shelter myself behind Maimonides, Marsham, + Spencer, Le Clerc, Warburton, &c., who have fairly derided the + fears, the folly, and the falsehood of some superstitious + divines. See Divine Legation, vol. iv. p. 25, &c.] + + 73 (return) [ Julian (Fragment. p. 295) respectfully styles him, + and mentions him elsewhere (Epist. lxiii.) with still higher + reverence. He doubly condemns the Christians for believing, and + for renouncing, the religion of the Jews. Their Deity was a + _true_, but not the _only_, God Apul Cyril. l. ix. p. 305, 306.] + + 74 (return) [ 1 Kings, viii. 63. 2 Chronicles, vii. 5. Joseph. + Antiquitat. Judaic. l. viii. c. 4, p. 431, edit. Havercamp. As + the blood and smoke of so many hecatombs might be inconvenient, + Lightfoot, the Christian Rabbi, removes them by a miracle. Le + Clerc (ad loca) is bold enough to suspect to fidelity of the + numbers. * Note: According to the historian Kotobeddym, quoted by + Burckhardt, (Travels in Arabia, p. 276,) the Khalif Mokteder + sacrificed, during his pilgrimage to Mecca, in the year of the + Hejira 350, forty thousand camels and cows, and fifty thousand + sheep. Barthema describes thirty thousand oxen slain, and their + carcasses given to the poor. Quarterly Review, xiii.p.39—M.] + + 75 (return) [ Julian, epist. xxix. xxx. La Bleterie has neglected + to translate the second of these epistles.] + + 76 (return) [ See the zeal and impatience of the Jews in Gregory + Nazianzen (Orat. iv. p. 111) and Theodoret. (l. iii. c. 20.)] + + Yet, on this occasion, the joint efforts of power and enthusiasm + were unsuccessful; and the ground of the Jewish temple, which is + now covered by a Mahometan mosque, 77 still continued to exhibit + the same edifying spectacle of ruin and desolation. Perhaps the + absence and death of the emperor, and the new maxims of a + Christian reign, might explain the interruption of an arduous + work, which was attempted only in the last six months of the life + of Julian. 78 But the Christians entertained a natural and pious + expectation, that, in this memorable contest, the honor of + religion would be vindicated by some signal miracle. An + earthquake, a whirlwind, and a fiery eruption, which overturned + and scattered the new foundations of the temple, are attested, + with some variations, by contemporary and respectable evidence. + 79 This public event is described by Ambrose, 80 bishop of Milan, + in an epistle to the emperor Theodosius, which must provoke the + severe animadversion of the Jews; by the eloquent Chrysostom, 81 + who might appeal to the memory of the elder part of his + congregation at Antioch; and by Gregory Nazianzen, 82 who + published his account of the miracle before the expiration of the + same year. The last of these writers has boldly declared, that + this preternatural event was not disputed by the infidels; and + his assertion, strange as it may seem is confirmed by the + unexceptionable testimony of Ammianus Marcellinus. 83 The + philosophic soldier, who loved the virtues, without adopting the + prejudices, of his master, has recorded, in his judicious and + candid history of his own times, the extraordinary obstacles + which interrupted the restoration of the temple of Jerusalem. + “Whilst Alypius, assisted by the governor of the province, urged, + with vigor and diligence, the execution of the work, horrible + balls of fire breaking out near the foundations, with frequent + and reiterated attacks, rendered the place, from time to time, + inaccessible to the scorched and blasted workmen; and the + victorious element continuing in this manner obstinately and + resolutely bent, as it were, to drive them to a distance, the + undertaking was abandoned.” 8311 Such authority should satisfy a + believing, and must astonish an incredulous, mind. Yet a + philosopher may still require the original evidence of impartial + and intelligent spectators. At this important crisis, any + singular accident of nature would assume the appearance, and + produce the effects of a real prodigy. This glorious deliverance + would be speedily improved and magnified by the pious art of the + clergy of Jerusalem, and the active credulity of the Christian + world and, at the distance of twenty years, a Roman historian, + careless of theological disputes, might adorn his work with the + specious and splendid miracle. 84 + + 77 (return) [ Built by Omar, the second Khalif, who died A. D. + 644. This great mosque covers the whole consecrated ground of the + Jewish temple, and constitutes almost a square of 760 _toises_, + or one Roman mile in circumference. See D’Anville, Jerusalem, p. + 45.] + + 78 (return) [ Ammianus records the consults of the year 363, + before he proceeds to mention the _thoughts_ of Julian. Templum. + ... instaurare sumptibus _cogitabat_ immodicis. Warburton has a + secret wish to anticipate the design; but he must have + understood, from former examples, that the execution of such a + work would have demanded many years.] + + 79 (return) [ The subsequent witnesses, Socrates, Sozomen, + Theodoret, Philostorgius, &c., add contradictions rather than + authority. Compare the objections of Basnage (Hist. des Juifs, + tom. viii. p. 156-168) with Warburton’s answers, (Julian, p. + 174-258.) The bishop has ingeniously explained the miraculous + crosses which appeared on the garments of the spectators by a + similar instance, and the natural effects of lightning.] + + 80 (return) [ Ambros. tom. ii. epist. xl. p. 946, edit. + Benedictin. He composed this fanatic epistle (A. D. 388) to + justify a bishop who had been condemned by the civil magistrate + for burning a synagogue.] + + 81 (return) [ Chrysostom, tom. i. p. 580, advers. Judæos et + Gentes, tom. ii. p. 574, de Sto Babyla, edit. Montfaucon. I have + followed the common and natural supposition; but the learned + Benedictine, who dates the composition of these sermons in the + year 383, is confident they were never pronounced from the + pulpit.] + + 82 (return) [ Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. iv. p. 110-113.] + + 83 (return) [ Ammian. xxiii. 1. Cum itaque rei fortiter instaret + Alypius, juvaretque provinciæ rector, metuendi globi flammarum + prope fundamenta crebris assultibus erumpentes fecere locum + exustis aliquoties operantibus inaccessum; hocque modo elemento + destinatius repellente, cessavit inceptum. Warburton labors (p. + 60-90) to extort a confession of the miracle from the mouths of + Julian and Libanius, and to employ the evidence of a rabbi who + lived in the fifteenth century. Such witnesses can only be + received by a very favorable judge.] + + 8311 (return) [ Michaelis has given an ingenious and sufficiently + probable explanation of this remarkable incident, which the + positive testimony of Ammianus, a contemporary and a pagan, will + not permit us to call in question. It was suggested by a passage + in Tacitus. That historian, speaking of Jerusalem, says, [I omit + the first part of the quotation adduced by M. Guizot, which only + by a most extraordinary mistranslation of muri introrsus sinuati + by “_enfoncemens_” could be made to bear on the question.—M.] + “The Temple itself was a kind of citadel, which had its own + walls, superior in their workmanship and construction to those of + the city. The porticos themselves, which surrounded the temple, + were an excellent fortification. There was a fountain of + constantly running water; _subterranean excavations under the + mountain; reservoirs and cisterns to collect the rain-water_.” + Tac. Hist. v. ii. 12. These excavations and reservoirs must have + been very considerable. The latter furnished water during the + whole siege of Jerusalem to 1,100,000 inhabitants, for whom the + fountain of Siloe could not have sufficed, and who had no fresh + rain-water, the siege having taken place from the month of April + to the month of August, a period of the year during which it + rarely rains in Jerusalem. As to the excavations, they served + after, and even before, the return of the Jews from Babylon, to + contain not only magazines of oil, wine, and corn, but also the + treasures which were laid up in the Temple. Josephus has related + several incidents which show their extent. When Jerusalem was on + the point of being taken by Titus, the rebel chiefs, placing + their last hopes in these vast subterranean cavities, formed a + design of concealing themselves there, and remaining during the + conflagration of the city, and until the Romans had retired to a + distance. The greater part had not time to execute their design; + but one of them, Simon, the Son of Gioras, having provided + himself with food, and tools to excavate the earth descended into + this retreat with some companions: he remained there till Titus + had set out for Rome: under the pressure of famine he issued + forth on a sudden in the very place where the Temple had stood, + and appeared in the midst of the Roman guard. He was seized and + carried to Rome for the triumph. His appearance made it be + suspected that other Jews might have chosen the same asylum; + search was made, and a great number discovered. Joseph. de Bell. + Jud. l. vii. c. 2. It is probable that the greater part of these + excavations were the remains of the time of Solomon, when it was + the custom to work to a great extent under ground: no other date + can be assigned to them. The Jews, on their return from the + captivity, were too poor to undertake such works; and, although + Herod, on rebuilding the Temple, made some excavations, (Joseph. + Ant. Jud. xv. 11, vii.,) the haste with which that building was + completed will not allow us to suppose that they belonged to that + period. Some were used for sewers and drains, others served to + conceal the immense treasures of which Crassus, a hundred and + twenty years before, plundered the Jews, and which doubtless had + been since replaced. The Temple was destroyed A. C. 70; the + attempt of Julian to rebuild it, and the fact related by + Ammianus, coincide with the year 363. There had then elapsed + between these two epochs an interval of near 300 years, during + which the excavations, choked up with ruins, must have become + full of inflammable air. The workmen employed by Julian as they + were digging, arrived at the excavations of the Temple; they + would take torches to explore them; sudden flames repelled those + who approached; explosions were heard, and these phenomena were + renewed every time that they penetrated into new subterranean + passages. This explanation is confirmed by the relation of an + event nearly similar, by Josephus. King Herod having heard that + immense treasures had been concealed in the sepulchre of David, + he descended into it with a few confidential persons; he found in + the first subterranean chamber only jewels and precious stuffs: + but having wished to penetrate into a second chamber, which had + been long closed, he was repelled, when he opened it, by flames + which killed those who accompanied him. (Ant. Jud. xvi. 7, i.) As + here there is no room for miracle, this fact may be considered as + a new proof of the veracity of that related by Ammianus and the + contemporary writers.—G. ——To the illustrations of the extent of + the subterranean chambers adduced by Michaelis, may be added, + that when John of Gischala, during the siege, surprised the + Temple, the party of Eleazar took refuge within them. Bell. Jud. + vi. 3, i. The sudden sinking of the hill of Sion when Jerusalem + was occupied by Barchocab, may have been connected with similar + excavations. Hist. of Jews, vol. iii. 122 and 186.—M. ——It is a + fact now popularly known, that when mines which have been long + closed are opened, one of two things takes place; either the + torches are extinguished and the men fall first into a swoor and + soon die; or, if the air is inflammable, a little flame is seen + to flicker round the lamp, which spreads and multiplies till the + conflagration becomes general, is followed by an explosion, and + kill all who are in the way.—G.] + + 84 (return) [ Dr. Lardner, perhaps alone of the Christian + critics, presumes to doubt the truth of this famous miracle. + (Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. p. 47-71.)] + + The silence of Jerom would lead to a suspicion that the same + story which was celebrated at a distance, might be despised on + the spot. * Note: Gibbon has forgotten Basnage, to whom Warburton + replied.—M. + + + + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part IV. + + + The restoration of the Jewish temple was secretly connected with + the ruin of the Christian church. Julian still continued to + maintain the freedom of religious worship, without distinguishing + whether this universal toleration proceeded from his justice or + his clemency. He affected to pity the unhappy Christians, who + were mistaken in the most important object of their lives; but + his pity was degraded by contempt, his contempt was embittered by + hatred; and the sentiments of Julian were expressed in a style of + sarcastic wit, which inflicts a deep and deadly wound, whenever + it issues from the mouth of a sovereign. As he was sensible that + the Christians gloried in the name of their Redeemer, he + countenanced, and perhaps enjoined, the use of the less honorable + appellation of Galilæans. 85 He declared, that by the folly of + the Galilæans, whom he describes as a sect of fanatics, + contemptible to men, and odious to the gods, the empire had been + reduced to the brink of destruction; and he insinuates in a + public edict, that a frantic patient might sometimes be cured by + salutary violence. 86 An ungenerous distinction was admitted into + the mind and counsels of Julian, that, according to the + difference of their religious sentiments, one part of his + subjects deserved his favor and friendship, while the other was + entitled only to the common benefits that his justice could not + refuse to an obedient people. According to a principle, pregnant + with mischief and oppression, the emperor transferred to the + pontiffs of his own religion the management of the liberal + allowances from the public revenue, which had been granted to the + church by the piety of Constantine and his sons. The proud system + of clerical honors and immunities, which had been constructed + with so much art and labor, was levelled to the ground; the hopes + of testamentary donations were intercepted by the rigor of the + laws; and the priests of the Christian sect were confounded with + the last and most ignominious class of the people. Such of these + regulations as appeared necessary to check the ambition and + avarice of the ecclesiastics, were soon afterwards imitated by + the wisdom of an orthodox prince. The peculiar distinctions which + policy has bestowed, or superstition has lavished, on the + sacerdotal order, _must_ be confined to those priests who profess + the religion of the state. But the will of the legislator was not + exempt from prejudice and passion; and it was the object of the + insidious policy of Julian, to deprive the Christians of all the + temporal honors and advantages which rendered them respectable in + the eyes of the world. 88 + + 85 (return) [ Greg. Naz. Orat. iii. p. 81. And this law was + confirmed by the invariable practice of Julian himself. Warburton + has justly observed (p. 35,) that the Platonists believed in the + mysterious virtue of words and Julian’s dislike for the name of + Christ might proceed from superstition, as well as from + contempt.] + + 86 (return) [ Fragment. Julian. p. 288. He derides the (Epist. + vii.,) and so far loses sight of the principles of toleration, as + to wish (Epist. xlii.).] + + 88 (return) [ These laws, which affected the clergy, may be found + in the slight hints of Julian himself, (Epist. lii.) in the vague + declamations of Gregory, (Orat. iii. p. 86, 87,) and in the + positive assertions of Sozomen, (l. v. c. 5.)] + + A just and severe censure has been inflicted on the law which + prohibited the Christians from teaching the arts of grammar and + rhetoric. 89 The motives alleged by the emperor to justify this + partial and oppressive measure, might command, during his + lifetime, the silence of slaves and the applause of Gatterers. + Julian abuses the ambiguous meaning of a word which might be + indifferently applied to the language and the religion of the + Greeks: he contemptuously observes, that the men who exalt the + merit of implicit faith are unfit to claim or to enjoy the + advantages of science; and he vainly contends, that if they + refuse to adore the gods of Homer and Demosthenes, they ought to + content themselves with expounding Luke and Matthew in the church + of the Galilæans. 90 In all the cities of the Roman world, the + education of the youth was intrusted to masters of grammar and + rhetoric; who were elected by the magistrates, maintained at the + public expense, and distinguished by many lucrative and honorable + privileges. The edict of Julian appears to have included the + physicians, and professors of all the liberal arts; and the + emperor, who reserved to himself the approbation of the + candidates, was authorized by the laws to corrupt, or to punish, + the religious constancy of the most learned of the Christians. 91 + As soon as the resignation of the more obstinate 92 teachers had + established the unrivalled dominion of the Pagan sophists, Julian + invited the rising generation to resort with freedom to the + public schools, in a just confidence, that their tender minds + would receive the impressions of literature and idolatry. If the + greatest part of the Christian youth should be deterred by their + own scruples, or by those of their parents, from accepting this + dangerous mode of instruction, they must, at the same time, + relinquish the benefits of a liberal education. Julian had reason + to expect that, in the space of a few years, the church would + relapse into its primæval simplicity, and that the theologians, + who possessed an adequate share of the learning and eloquence of + the age, would be succeeded by a generation of blind and ignorant + fanatics, incapable of defending the truth of their own + principles, or of exposing the various follies of Polytheism. 93 + + 89 (return) [ Inclemens.... perenni obruendum silentio. Ammian. + xxii. 10, ixv. 5.] + + 90 (return) [ The edict itself, which is still extant among the + epistles of Julian, (xlii.,) may be compared with the loose + invectives of Gregory (Orat. iii. p. 96.) Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. + tom. vii. p. 1291-1294) has collected the seeming differences of + ancients and moderns. They may be easily reconciled. The + Christians were _directly_ forbid to teach, they were + _indirectly_ forbid to learn; since they would not frequent the + schools of the Pagans.] + + 91 (return) [ Codex Theodos. l. xiii. tit. iii. de medicis et + professoribus, leg. 5, (published the 17th of June, received, at + Spoleto in Italy, the 29th of July, A. D. 363,) with Godefroy’s + Illustrations, tom. v. p. 31.] + + 92 (return) [ Orosius celebrates their disinterested resolution, + Sicut a majori bus nostris compertum habemus, omnes ubique + propemodum... officium quam fidem deserere maluerunt, vii. 30. + Proæresius, a Christian sophist, refused to accept the partial + favor of the emperor Hieronym. in Chron. p. 185, edit. Scaliger. + Eunapius in Proæresio p. 126.] + + 93 (return) [ They had recourse to the expedient of composing + books for their own schools. Within a few months Apollinaris + produced his Christian imitations of Homer, (a sacred history in + twenty-four books,) Pindar, Euripides, and Menander; and Sozomen + is satisfied, that they equalled, or excelled, the originals. * + Note: Socrates, however, implies that, on the death of Julian, + they were contemptuously thrown aside by the Christians. Socr. + Hist. iii.16.—M.] + + It was undoubtedly the wish and design of Julian to deprive the + Christians of the advantages of wealth, of knowledge, and of + power; but the injustice of excluding them from all offices of + trust and profit seems to have been the result of his general + policy, rather than the immediate consequence of any positive + law. 94 Superior merit might deserve and obtain, some + extraordinary exceptions; but the greater part of the Christian + officers were gradually removed from their employments in the + state, the army, and the provinces. The hopes of future + candidates were extinguished by the declared partiality of a + prince, who maliciously reminded them, that it was unlawful for a + Christian to use the sword, either of justice, or of war; and who + studiously guarded the camp and the tribunals with the ensigns of + idolatry. The powers of government were intrusted to the pagans, + who professed an ardent zeal for the religion of their ancestors; + and as the choice of the emperor was often directed by the rules + of divination, the favorites whom he preferred as the most + agreeable to the gods, did not always obtain the approbation of + mankind. 95 Under the administration of their enemies, the + Christians had much to suffer, and more to apprehend. The temper + of Julian was averse to cruelty; and the care of his reputation, + which was exposed to the eyes of the universe, restrained the + philosophic monarch from violating the laws of justice and + toleration, which he himself had so recently established. But the + provincial ministers of his authority were placed in a less + conspicuous station. In the exercise of arbitrary power, they + consulted the wishes, rather than the commands, of their + sovereign; and ventured to exercise a secret and vexatious + tyranny against the sectaries, on whom they were not permitted to + confer the honors of martyrdom. The emperor, who dissembled as + long as possible his knowledge of the injustice that was + exercised in his name, expressed his real sense of the conduct of + his officers, by gentle reproofs and substantial rewards. 96 + + 94 (return) [ It was the instruction of Julian to his + magistrates, (Epist. vii.,). Sozomen (l. v. c. 18) and Socrates + (l. iii. c. 13) must be reduced to the standard of Gregory, + (Orat. iii. p. 95,) not less prone to exaggeration, but more + restrained by the actual knowledge of his contemporary readers.] + + 95 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. 88, p. 814.] + + 96 (return) [ Greg. Naz. Orat. iii. p. 74, 91, 92. Socrates, l. + iii. c. 14. The doret, l. iii. c. 6. Some drawback may, however, + be allowed for the violence of _their_ zeal, not less partial + than the zeal of Julian] + + The most effectual instrument of oppression, with which they were + armed, was the law that obliged the Christians to make full and + ample satisfaction for the temples which they had destroyed under + the preceding reign. The zeal of the triumphant church had not + always expected the sanction of the public authority; and the + bishops, who were secure of impunity, had often marched at the + head of their congregation, to attack and demolish the fortresses + of the prince of darkness. The consecrated lands, which had + increased the patrimony of the sovereign or of the clergy, were + clearly defined, and easily restored. But on these lands, and on + the ruins of Pagan superstition, the Christians had frequently + erected their own religious edifices: and as it was necessary to + remove the church before the temple could be rebuilt, the justice + and piety of the emperor were applauded by one party, while the + other deplored and execrated his sacrilegious violence. 97 After + the ground was cleared, the restitution of those stately + structures which had been levelled with the dust, and of the + precious ornaments which had been converted to Christian uses, + swelled into a very large account of damages and debt. The + authors of the injury had neither the ability nor the inclination + to discharge this accumulated demand: and the impartial wisdom of + a legislator would have been displayed in balancing the adverse + claims and complaints, by an equitable and temperate arbitration. + + But the whole empire, and particularly the East, was thrown into + confusion by the rash edicts of Julian; and the Pagan + magistrates, inflamed by zeal and revenge, abused the rigorous + privilege of the Roman law, which substitutes, in the place of + his inadequate property, the person of the insolvent debtor. + Under the preceding reign, Mark, bishop of Arethusa, 98 had + labored in the conversion of his people with arms more effectual + than those of persuasion. 99 The magistrates required the full + value of a temple which had been destroyed by his intolerant + zeal: but as they were satisfied of his poverty, they desired + only to bend his inflexible spirit to the promise of the + slightest compensation. They apprehended the aged prelate, they + inhumanly scourged him, they tore his beard; and his naked body, + annointed with honey, was suspended, in a net, between heaven and + earth, and exposed to the stings of insects and the rays of a + Syrian sun. 100 From this lofty station, Mark still persisted to + glory in his crime, and to insult the impotent rage of his + persecutors. He was at length rescued from their hands, and + dismissed to enjoy the honor of his divine triumph. The Arians + celebrated the virtue of their pious confessor; the Catholics + ambitiously claimed his alliance; 101 and the Pagans, who might + be susceptible of shame or remorse, were deterred from the + repetition of such unavailing cruelty. 102 Julian spared his + life: but if the bishop of Arethusa had saved the infancy of + Julian, 103 posterity will condemn the ingratitude, instead of + praising the clemency, of the emperor. + + 97 (return) [ If we compare the gentle language of Libanius + (Orat. Parent c. 60. p. 286) with the passionate exclamations of + Gregory, (Orat. iii. p. 86, 87,) we may find it difficult to + persuade ourselves that the two orators are really describing the + same events.] + + 98 (return) [ Restan, or Arethusa, at the equal distance of + sixteen miles between Emesa (_Hems_) and Epiphania, (_Hamath_,) + was founded, or at least named, by Seleucus Nicator. Its peculiar + æra dates from the year of Rome 685, according to the medals of + the city. In the decline of the Seleucides, Emesa and Arethusa + were usurped by the Arab Sampsiceramus, whose posterity, the + vassals of Rome, were not extinguished in the reign of + Vespasian.——See D’Anville’s Maps and Geographie Ancienne, tom. + ii. p. 134. Wesseling, Itineraria, p. 188, and Noris. Epoch + Syro-Macedon, p. 80, 481, 482.] + + 99 (return) [ Sozomen, l. v. c. 10. It is surprising, that + Gregory and Theodoret should suppress a circumstance, which, in + their eyes, must have enhanced the religious merit of the + confessor.] + + 100 (return) [ The sufferings and constancy of Mark, which + Gregory has so tragically painted, (Orat. iii. p. 88-91,) are + confirmed by the unexceptionable and reluctant evidence of + Libanius. Epist. 730, p. 350, 351. Edit. Wolf. Amstel. 1738.] + + 101 (return) [ Certatim eum sibi (Christiani) vindicant. It is + thus that La Croze and Wolfius (ad loc.) have explained a Greek + word, whose true signification had been mistaken by former + interpreters, and even by Le Clerc, (Bibliothèque Ancienne et + Moderne, tom. iii. p. 371.) Yet Tillemont is strangely puzzled to + understand (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1309) _how_ Gregory and + Theodoret could mistake a Semi-Arian bishop for a saint.] + + 102 (return) [ See the probable advice of Sallust, (Greg. + Nazianzen, Orat. iii. p. 90, 91.) Libanius intercedes for a + similar offender, lest they should find many _Marks;_ yet he + allows, that if Orion had secreted the consecrated wealth, he + deserved to suffer the punishment of Marsyas; to be flayed alive, + (Epist. 730, p. 349-351.)] + + 103 (return) [ Gregory (Orat. iii. p. 90) is satisfied that, by + saving the apostate, Mark had deserved still more than he had + suffered.] + + At the distance of five miles from Antioch, the Macedonian kings + of Syria had consecrated to Apollo one of the most elegant places + of devotion in the Pagan world. 104 A magnificent temple rose in + honor of the god of light; and his colossal figure 105 almost + filled the capacious sanctuary, which was enriched with gold and + gems, and adorned by the skill of the Grecian artists. The deity + was represented in a bending attitude, with a golden cup in his + hand, pouring out a libation on the earth; as if he supplicated + the venerable mother to give to his arms the cold and beauteous + Daphne: for the spot was ennobled by fiction; and the fancy of + the Syrian poets had transported the amorous tale from the banks + of the Peneus to those of the Orontes. The ancient rites of + Greece were imitated by the royal colony of Antioch. A stream of + prophecy, which rivalled the truth and reputation of the Delphic + oracle, flowed from the _Castalian_ fountain of Daphne. 106 In + the adjacent fields a stadium was built by a special privilege, + 107 which had been purchased from Elis; the Olympic games were + celebrated at the expense of the city; and a revenue of thirty + thousand pounds sterling was annually applied to the public + pleasures. 108 The perpetual resort of pilgrims and spectators + insensibly formed, in the neighborhood of the temple, the stately + and populous village of Daphne, which emulated the splendor, + without acquiring the title, of a provincial city. The temple and + the village were deeply bosomed in a thick grove of laurels and + cypresses, which reached as far as a circumference of ten miles, + and formed in the most sultry summers a cool and impenetrable + shade. A thousand streams of the purest water, issuing from every + hill, preserved the verdure of the earth, and the temperature of + the air; the senses were gratified with harmonious sounds and + aromatic odors; and the peaceful grove was consecrated to health + and joy, to luxury and love. The vigorous youth pursued, like + Apollo, the object of his desires; and the blushing maid was + warned, by the fate of Daphne, to shun the folly of unseasonable + coyness. The soldier and the philosopher wisely avoided the + temptation of this sensual paradise: 109 where pleasure, assuming + the character of religion, imperceptibly dissolved the firmness + of manly virtue. But the groves of Daphne continued for many ages + to enjoy the veneration of natives and strangers; the privileges + of the holy ground were enlarged by the munificence of succeeding + emperors; and every generation added new ornaments to the + splendor of the temple. 110 + + 104 (return) [ The grove and temple of Daphne are described by + Strabo, (l. xvi. p. 1089, 1090, edit. Amstel. 1707,) Libanius, + (Nænia, p. 185-188. Antiochic. Orat. xi. p. 380, 381,) and + Sozomen, (l. v. c. 19.) Wesseling (Itinerar. p. 581) and Casaubon + (ad Hist. August. p. 64) illustrate this curious subject.] + + 105 (return) [ Simulacrum in eo Olympiaci Jovis imitamenti + æquiparans magnitudinem. Ammian. xxii. 13. The Olympic Jupiter + was sixty feet high, and his bulk was consequently equal to that + of a thousand men. See a curious _Mémoire_ of the Abbé Gedoyn, + (Académie des Inscriptions, tom. ix. p. 198.)] + + 106 (return) [ Hadrian read the history of his future fortunes on + a leaf dipped in the Castalian stream; a trick which, according + to the physician Vandale, (de Oraculis, p. 281, 282,) might be + easily performed by chemical preparations. The emperor stopped + the source of such dangerous knowledge; which was again opened by + the devout curiosity of Julian.] + + 107 (return) [ It was purchased, A. D. 44, in the year 92 of the + æra of Antioch, (Noris. Epoch. Syro-Maced. p. 139-174,) for the + term of ninety Olympiads. But the Olympic games of Antioch were + not regularly celebrated till the reign of Commodus. See the + curious details in the Chronicle of John Malala, (tom. i. p. 290, + 320, 372-381,) a writer whose merit and authority are confined + within the limits of his native city.] + + 108 (return) [ Fifteen talents of gold, bequeathed by Sosibius, + who died in the reign of Augustus. The theatrical merits of the + Syrian cities in the reign of Constantine, are computed in the + Expositio totius Murd, p. 8, (Hudson, Geograph. Minor tom. iii.)] + + 109 (return) [ Avidio Cassio Syriacas legiones dedi luxuria + diffluentes et _Daphnicis_ moribus. These are the words of the + emperor Marcus Antoninus in an original letter preserved by his + biographer in Hist. August. p. 41. Cassius dismissed or punished + every soldier who was seen at Daphne.] + + 110 (return) [ Aliquantum agrorum Daphnensibus dedit, (_Pompey_,) + quo lucus ibi spatiosior fieret; delectatus amœnitate loci et + aquarum abundantiz, Eutropius, vi. 14. Sextus Rufus, de + Provinciis, c. 16.] + + When Julian, on the day of the annual festival, hastened to adore + the Apollo of Daphne, his devotion was raised to the highest + pitch of eagerness and impatience. His lively imagination + anticipated the grateful pomp of victims, of libations and of + incense; a long procession of youths and virgins, clothed in + white robes, the symbol of their innocence; and the tumultuous + concourse of an innumerable people. But the zeal of Antioch was + diverted, since the reign of Christianity, into a different + channel. Instead of hecatombs of fat oxen sacrificed by the + tribes of a wealthy city to their tutelar deity the emperor + complains that he found only a single goose, provided at the + expense of a priest, the pale and solitary inhabitant of this + decayed temple. 111 The altar was deserted, the oracle had been + reduced to silence, and the holy ground was profaned by the + introduction of Christian and funereal rites. After Babylas 112 + (a bishop of Antioch, who died in prison in the persecution of + Decius) had rested near a century in his grave, his body, by the + order of Cæsar Gallus, was transported into the midst of the + grove of Daphne. A magnificent church was erected over his + remains; a portion of the sacred lands was usurped for the + maintenance of the clergy, and for the burial of the Christians + at Antioch, who were ambitious of lying at the feet of their + bishop; and the priests of Apollo retired, with their affrighted + and indignant votaries. As soon as another revolution seemed to + restore the fortune of Paganism, the church of St. Babylas was + demolished, and new buildings were added to the mouldering + edifice which had been raised by the piety of Syrian kings. But + the first and most serious care of Julian was to deliver his + oppressed deity from the odious presence of the dead and living + Christians, who had so effectually suppressed the voice of fraud + or enthusiasm. 113 The scene of infection was purified, according + to the forms of ancient rituals; the bodies were decently + removed; and the ministers of the church were permitted to convey + the remains of St. Babylas to their former habitation within the + walls of Antioch. The modest behavior which might have assuaged + the jealousy of a hostile government was neglected, on this + occasion, by the zeal of the Christians. The lofty car, that + transported the relics of Babylas, was followed, and accompanied, + and received, by an innumerable multitude; who chanted, with + thundering acclamations, the Psalms of David the most expressive + of their contempt for idols and idolaters. The return of the + saint was a triumph; and the triumph was an insult on the + religion of the emperor, who exerted his pride to dissemble his + resentment. During the night which terminated this indiscreet + procession, the temple of Daphne was in flames; the statue of + Apollo was consumed; and the walls of the edifice were left a + naked and awful monument of ruin. The Christians of Antioch + asserted, with religious confidence, that the powerful + intercession of St. Babylas had pointed the lightnings of heaven + against the devoted roof: but as Julian was reduced to the + alternative of believing either a crime or a miracle, he chose, + without hesitation, without evidence, but with some color of + probability, to impute the fire of Daphne to the revenge of the + Galilæans. 114 Their offence, had it been sufficiently proved, + might have justified the retaliation, which was immediately + executed by the order of Julian, of shutting the doors, and + confiscating the wealth, of the cathedral of Antioch. To discover + the criminals who were guilty of the tumult, of the fire, or of + secreting the riches of the church, several of the ecclesiastics + were tortured; 115 and a Presbyter, of the name of Theodoret, was + beheaded by the sentence of the Count of the East. But this hasty + act was blamed by the emperor; who lamented, with real or + affected concern, that the imprudent zeal of his ministers would + tarnish his reign with the disgrace of persecution. 116 + + 111 (return) [ Julian (Misopogon, p. 367, 362) discovers his own + character with _naïveté_, that unconscious simplicity which + always constitutes genuine humor.] + + 112 (return) [ Babylas is named by Eusebius in the succession of + the bishops of Antioch, (Hist. Eccles. l. vi. c. 29, 39.) His + triumph over two emperors (the first fabulous, the second + historical) is diffusely celebrated by Chrysostom, (tom. ii. p. + 536-579, edit. Montfaucon.) Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. iii. + part ii. p. 287-302, 459-465) becomes almost a sceptic.] + + 113 (return) [ Ecclesiastical critics, particularly those who + love relics, exult in the confession of Julian (Misopogon, p. + 361) and Libanius, (Lænia, p. 185,) that Apollo was disturbed by + the vicinity of _one_ dead man. Yet Ammianus (xxii. 12) clears + and purifies the whole ground, according to the rites which the + Athenians formerly practised in the Isle of Delos.] + + 114 (return) [ Julian (in Misopogon, p. 361) rather insinuates, + than affirms, their guilt. Ammianus (xxii. 13) treats the + imputation as _levissimus rumor_, and relates the story with + extraordinary candor.] + + 115 (return) [ Quo tam atroci casu repente consumpto, ad id usque + e imperatoris ira provexit, ut quæstiones agitare juberet solito + acriores, (yet Julian blames the lenity of the magistrates of + Antioch,) et majorem ecclesiam Antiochiæ claudi. This + interdiction was performed with some circumstances of indignity + and profanation; and the seasonable death of the principal actor, + Julian’s uncle, is related with much superstitious complacency by + the Abbé de la Bleterie. Vie de Julien, p. 362-369.] + + 116 (return) [ Besides the ecclesiastical historians, who are + more or less to be suspected, we may allege the passion of St. + Theodore, in the Acta Sincera of Ruinart, p. 591. The complaint + of Julian gives it an original and authentic air.] + + + + + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part V. + + + The zeal of the ministers of Julian was instantly checked by the + frown of their sovereign; but when the father of his country + declares himself the leader of a faction, the license of popular + fury cannot easily be restrained, nor consistently punished. + Julian, in a public composition, applauds the devotion and + loyalty of the holy cities of Syria, whose pious inhabitants had + destroyed, at the first signal, the sepulchres of the Galilæans; + and faintly complains, that they had revenged the injuries of the + gods with less moderation than he should have recommended. 117 + This imperfect and reluctant confession may appear to confirm the + ecclesiastical narratives; that in the cities of Gaza, Ascalon, + Cæsarea, Heliopolis, &c., the Pagans abused, without prudence or + remorse, the moment of their prosperity. That the unhappy objects + of their cruelty were released from torture only by death; and as + their mangled bodies were dragged through the streets, they were + pierced (such was the universal rage) by the spits of cooks, and + the distaffs of enraged women; and that the entrails of Christian + priests and virgins, after they had been tasted by those bloody + fanatics, were mixed with barley, and contemptuously thrown to + the unclean animals of the city. 118 Such scenes of religious + madness exhibit the most contemptible and odious picture of human + nature; but the massacre of Alexandria attracts still more + attention, from the certainty of the fact, the rank of the + victims, and the splendor of the capital of Egypt. + + 117 (return) [ Julian. Misopogon, p. 361.] + + 118 (return) [ See Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. iii. p. 87.) Sozomen + (l. v. c. 9) may be considered as an original, though not + impartial, witness. He was a native of Gaza, and had conversed + with the confessor Zeno, who, as bishop of Maiuma, lived to the + age of a hundred, (l. vii. c. 28.) Philostorgius (l. vii. c. 4, + with Godefroy’s Dissertations, p. 284) adds some tragic + circumstances, of Christians who were _literally_ sacrificed at + the altars of the gods, &c.] + + George, 119 from his parents or his education, surnamed the + Cappadocian, was born at Epiphania in Cilicia, in a fuller’s + shop. From this obscure and servile origin he raised himself by + the talents of a parasite; and the patrons, whom he assiduously + flattered, procured for their worthless dependent a lucrative + commission, or contract, to supply the army with bacon. His + employment was mean; he rendered it infamous. He accumulated + wealth by the basest arts of fraud and corruption; but his + malversations were so notorious, that George was compelled to + escape from the pursuits of justice. After this disgrace, in + which he appears to have saved his fortune at the expense of his + honor, he embraced, with real or affected zeal, the profession of + Arianism. From the love, or the ostentation, of learning, he + collected a valuable library of history rhetoric, philosophy, and + theology, 120 and the choice of the prevailing faction promoted + George of Cappadocia to the throne of Athanasius. The entrance of + the new archbishop was that of a Barbarian conqueror; and each + moment of his reign was polluted by cruelty and avarice. The + Catholics of Alexandria and Egypt were abandoned to a tyrant, + qualified, by nature and education, to exercise the office of + persecution; but he oppressed with an impartial hand the various + inhabitants of his extensive diocese. The primate of Egypt + assumed the pomp and insolence of his lofty station; but he still + betrayed the vices of his base and servile extraction. The + merchants of Alexandria were impoverished by the unjust, and + almost universal, monopoly, which he acquired, of nitre, salt, + paper, funerals, &c.: and the spiritual father of a great people + condescended to practise the vile and pernicious arts of an + informer. The Alexandrians could never forget, nor forgive, the + tax, which he suggested, on all the houses of the city; under an + obsolete claim, that the royal founder had conveyed to his + successors, the Ptolemies and the Cæsars, the perpetual property + of the soil. The Pagans, who had been flattered with the hopes of + freedom and toleration, excited his devout avarice; and the rich + temples of Alexandria were either pillaged or insulted by the + haughty prince, who exclaimed, in a loud and threatening tone, + “How long will these sepulchres be permitted to stand?” Under the + reign of Constantius, he was expelled by the fury, or rather by + the justice, of the people; and it was not without a violent + struggle, that the civil and military powers of the state could + restore his authority, and gratify his revenge. The messenger who + proclaimed at Alexandria the accession of Julian, announced the + downfall of the archbishop. George, with two of his obsequious + ministers, Count Diodorus, and Dracontius, master of the mint + were ignominiously dragged in chains to the public prison. At the + end of twenty-four days, the prison was forced open by the rage + of a superstitious multitude, impatient of the tedious forms of + judicial proceedings. The enemies of gods and men expired under + their cruel insults; the lifeless bodies of the archbishop and + his associates were carried in triumph through the streets on the + back of a camel; 12011 and the inactivity of the Athanasian party + 121 was esteemed a shining example of evangelical patience. The + remains of these guilty wretches were thrown into the sea; and + the popular leaders of the tumult declared their resolution to + disappoint the devotion of the Christians, and to intercept the + future honors of these _martyrs_, who had been punished, like + their predecessors, by the enemies of their religion. 122 The + fears of the Pagans were just, and their precautions ineffectual. + The meritorious death of the archbishop obliterated the memory of + his life. The rival of Athanasius was dear and sacred to the + Arians, and the seeming conversion of those sectaries introduced + his worship into the bosom of the Catholic church. 123 The odious + stranger, disguising every circumstance of time and place, + assumed the mask of a martyr, a saint, and a Christian hero; 124 + and the infamous George of Cappadocia has been transformed 125 + into the renowned St. George of England, the patron of arms, of + chivalry, and of the garter. 126 + + 119 (return) [ The life and death of George of Cappadocia are + described by Ammianus, (xxii. 11,) Gregory of Nazianzen, (Orat. + xxi. p. 382, 385, 389, 390,) and Epiphanius, (Hæres. lxxvi.) The + invectives of the two saints might not deserve much credit, + unless they were confirmed by the testimony of the cool and + impartial infidel.] + + 120 (return) [ After the massacre of George, the emperor Julian + repeatedly sent orders to preserve the library for his own use, + and to torture the slaves who might be suspected of secreting any + books. He praises the merit of the collection, from whence he had + borrowed and transcribed several manuscripts while he pursued his + studies in Cappadocia. He could wish, indeed, that the works of + the Galiæans might perish but he requires an exact account even + of those theological volumes lest other treatises more valuable + should be confounded in their less Julian. Epist. ix. xxxvi.] + + 12011 (return) [ Julian himself says, that they tore him to + pieces like dogs, Epist. x.—M.] + + 121 (return) [ Philostorgius, with cautious malice, insinuates + their guilt, l. vii. c. ii. Godefroy p. 267.] + + 122 (return) [ Cineres projecit in mare, id metuens ut clamabat, + ne, collectis supremis, ædes illis exstruerentur ut reliquis, qui + deviare a religione compulsi, pertulere, cruciabiles pœnas, + adusque gloriosam mortem intemeratâ fide progressi, et nunc + Martyres appellantur. Ammian. xxii. 11. Epiphanius proves to the + Arians, that George was not a martyr.] + + 123 (return) [ Some Donatists (Optatus Milev. p. 60, 303, edit. + Dupin; and Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 713, in 4to.) and + Priscillianists (Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 517, in + 4to.) have in like manner usurped the honors of the Catholic + saints and martyrs.] + + 124 (return) [ The saints of Cappadocia, Basil, and the + Gregories, were ignorant of their holy companion. Pope Gelasius, + (A. D. 494,) the first Catholic who acknowledges St. George, + places him among the martyrs “qui Deo magis quam hominibus noti + sunt.” He rejects his Acts as the composition of heretics. Some, + perhaps, not the oldest, of the spurious Acts, are still extant; + and, through a cloud of fiction, we may yet distinguish the + combat which St. George of Cappadocia sustained, in the presence + of Queen _Alexandria_, against the _magician Athanasius_.] + + 125 (return) [ This transformation is not given as absolutely + certain, but as _extremely_ probable. See the Longueruana, tom. + i. p. 194. ——Note: The late Dr. Milner (the Roman Catholic + bishop) wrote a tract to vindicate the existence and the + orthodoxy of the tutelar saint of England. He succeeds, I think, + in tracing the worship of St. George up to a period which makes + it improbable that so notorious an Arian could be palmed upon the + Catholic church as a saint and a martyr. The Acts rejected by + Gelasius may have been of Arian origin, and designed to ingraft + the story of their hero on the obscure adventures of some earlier + saint. See an Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Existence + and Character of Saint George, in a letter to the Earl of + Leicester, by the Rev. J. Milner. F. S. A. London 1792.—M.] + + 126 (return) [ A curious history of the worship of St. George, + from the sixth century, (when he was already revered in + Palestine, in Armenia at Rome, and at Treves in Gaul,) might be + extracted from Dr. Heylin (History of St. George, 2d edition, + London, 1633, in 4to. p. 429) and the Bollandists, (Act. Ss. + Mens. April. tom. iii. p. 100-163.) His fame and popularity in + Europe, and especially in England, proceeded from the Crusades.] + + About the same time that Julian was informed of the tumult of + Alexandria, he received intelligence from Edessa, that the proud + and wealthy faction of the Arians had insulted the weakness of + the Valentinians, and committed such disorders as ought not to be + suffered with impunity in a well-regulated state. Without + expecting the slow forms of justice, the exasperated prince + directed his mandate to the magistrates of Edessa, 127 by which + he confiscated the whole property of the church: the money was + distributed among the soldiers; the lands were added to the + domain; and this act of oppression was aggravated by the most + ungenerous irony. “I show myself,” says Julian, “the true friend + of the Galilæans. Their _admirable_ law has promised the kingdom + of heaven to the poor; and they will advance with more diligence + in the paths of virtue and salvation, when they are relieved by + my assistance from the load of temporal possessions. Take care,” + pursued the monarch, in a more serious tone, “take care how you + provoke my patience and humanity. If these disorders continue, I + will revenge on the magistrates the crimes of the people; and you + will have reason to dread, not only confiscation and exile, but + fire and the sword.” The tumults of Alexandria were doubtless of + a more bloody and dangerous nature: but a Christian bishop had + fallen by the hands of the Pagans; and the public epistle of + Julian affords a very lively proof of the partial spirit of his + administration. His reproaches to the citizens of Alexandria are + mingled with expressions of esteem and tenderness; and he + laments, that, on this occasion, they should have departed from + the gentle and generous manners which attested their Grecian + extraction. He gravely censures the offence which they had + committed against the laws of justice and humanity; but he + recapitulates, with visible complacency, the intolerable + provocations which they had so long endured from the impious + tyranny of George of Cappadocia. Julian admits the principle, + that a wise and vigorous government should chastise the insolence + of the people; yet, in consideration of their founder Alexander, + and of Serapis their tutelar deity, he grants a free and gracious + pardon to the guilty city, for which he again feels the affection + of a brother. 128 + + 127 (return) [ Julian. Epist. xliii.] + + 128 (return) [ Julian. Epist. x. He allowed his friends to + assuage his anger Ammian. xxii. 11.] + + After the tumult of Alexandria had subsided, Athanasius, amidst + the public acclamations, seated himself on the throne from whence + his unworthy competitor had been precipitated: and as the zeal of + the archbishop was tempered with discretion, the exercise of his + authority tended not to inflame, but to reconcile, the minds of + the people. His pastoral labors were not confined to the narrow + limits of Egypt. The state of the Christian world was present to + his active and capacious mind; and the age, the merit, the + reputation of Athanasius, enabled him to assume, in a moment of + danger, the office of Ecclesiastical Dictator. 129 Three years + were not yet elapsed since the majority of the bishops of the + West had ignorantly, or reluctantly, subscribed the Confession of + Rimini. They repented, they believed, but they dreaded the + unseasonable rigor of their orthodox brethren; and if their pride + was stronger than their faith, they might throw themselves into + the arms of the Arians, to escape the indignity of a public + penance, which must degrade them to the condition of obscure + laymen. At the same time the domestic differences concerning the + union and distinction of the divine persons, were agitated with + some heat among the Catholic doctors; and the progress of this + metaphysical controversy seemed to threaten a public and lasting + division of the Greek and Latin churches. By the wisdom of a + select synod, to which the name and presence of Athanasius gave + the authority of a general council, the bishops, who had unwarily + deviated into error, were admitted to the communion of the + church, on the easy condition of subscribing the Nicene Creed; + without any formal acknowledgment of their past fault, or any + minute definition of their scholastic opinions. The advice of the + primate of Egypt had already prepared the clergy of Gaul and + Spain, of Italy and Greece, for the reception of this salutary + measure; and, notwithstanding the opposition of some ardent + spirits, 130 the fear of the common enemy promoted the peace and + harmony of the Christians. 131 + + 129 (return) [ See Athanas. ad Rufin. tom. ii. p. 40, 41, and + Greg. Nazianzen Orat. iii. p. 395, 396; who justly states the + temperate zeal of the primate, as much more meritorious than his + prayers, his fasts, his persecutions, &c.] + + 130 (return) [ I have not leisure to follow the blind obstinacy + of Lucifer of Cagliari. See his adventures in Tillemont, (Mém. + Eccles. tom. vii. p. 900-926;) and observe how the color of the + narrative insensibly changes, as the confessor becomes a + schismatic.] + + 131 (return) [ Assensus est huic sententiæ Occidens, et, per tam + necessarium conilium, Satanæ faucibus mundus ereptus. The lively + and artful dialogue of Jerom against the Luciferians (tom. ii. p. + 135-155) exhibits an original picture of the ecclesiastical + policy of the times.] + + The skill and diligence of the primate of Egypt had improved the + season of tranquillity, before it was interrupted by the hostile + edicts of the emperor. 132 Julian, who despised the Christians, + honored Athanasius with his sincere and peculiar hatred. For his + sake alone, he introduced an arbitrary distinction, repugnant at + least to the spirit of his former declarations. He maintained, + that the Galilæans, whom he had recalled from exile, were not + restored, by that general indulgence, to the possession of their + respective churches; and he expressed his astonishment, that a + criminal, who had been repeatedly condemned by the judgment of + the emperors, should dare to insult the majesty of the laws, and + insolently usurp the archiepiscopal throne of Alexandria, without + expecting the orders of his sovereign. As a punishment for the + imaginary offence, he again banished Athanasius from the city; + and he was pleased to suppose, that this act of justice would be + highly agreeable to his pious subjects. The pressing + solicitations of the people soon convinced him, that the majority + of the Alexandrians were Christians; and that the greatest part + of the Christians were firmly attached to the cause of their + oppressed primate. But the knowledge of their sentiments, instead + of persuading him to recall his decree, provoked him to extend to + all Egypt the term of the exile of Athanasius. The zeal of the + multitude rendered Julian still more inexorable: he was alarmed + by the danger of leaving at the head of a tumultuous city, a + daring and popular leader; and the language of his resentment + discovers the opinion which he entertained of the courage and + abilities of Athanasius. The execution of the sentence was still + delayed, by the caution or negligence of Ecdicius, præfect of + Egypt, who was at length awakened from his lethargy by a severe + reprimand. “Though you neglect,” says Julian, “to write to me on + any other subject, at least it is your duty to inform me of your + conduct towards Athanasius, the enemy of the gods. My intentions + have been long since communicated to you. I swear by the great + Serapis, that unless, on the calends of December, Athanasius has + departed from Alexandria, nay, from Egypt, the officers of your + government shall pay a fine of one hundred pounds of gold. You + know my temper: I am slow to condemn, but I am still slower to + forgive.” This epistle was enforced by a short postscript, + written with the emperor’s own hand. “The contempt that is shown + for all the gods fills me with grief and indignation. There is + nothing that I should see, nothing that I should hear, with more + pleasure, than the expulsion of Athanasius from all Egypt. The + abominable wretch! Under my reign, the baptism of several Grecian + ladies of the highest rank has been the effect of his + persecutions.” 133 The death of Athanasius was not _expressly_ + commanded; but the præfect of Egypt understood that it was safer + for him to exceed, than to neglect, the orders of an irritated + master. The archbishop prudently retired to the monasteries of + the Desert; eluded, with his usual dexterity, the snares of the + enemy; and lived to triumph over the ashes of a prince, who, in + words of formidable import, had declared his wish that the whole + venom of the Galilæan school were contained in the single person + of Athanasius. 134 13411 + + 132 (return) [ Tillemont, who supposes that George was massacred + in August crowds the actions of Athanasius into a narrow space, + (Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 360.) An original fragment, published + by the Marquis Maffei, from the old Chapter library of Verona, + (Osservazioni Letterarie, tom. iii. p. 60-92,) affords many + important dates, which are authenticated by the computation of + Egyptian months.] + + 133 (return) [ I have preserved the ambiguous sense of the last + word, the ambiguity of a tyrant who wished to find, or to create, + guilt.] + + 134 (return) [ The three epistles of Julian, which explain his + intentions and conduct with regard to Athanasius, should be + disposed in the following chronological order, xxvi. x. vi. * See + likewise, Greg. Nazianzen xxi. p. 393. Sozomen, l. v. c. 15. + Socrates, l. iii. c. 14. Theodoret, l iii. c. 9, and Tillemont, + Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 361-368, who has used some materials + prepared by the Bollandists.] + + 13411 (return) [ The sentence in the text is from Epist. li. + addressed to the people of Alexandria.—M.] + + I have endeavored faithfully to represent the artful system by + which Julian proposed to obtain the effects, without incurring + the guilt, or reproach, of persecution. But if the deadly spirit + of fanaticism perverted the heart and understanding of a virtuous + prince, it must, at the same time, be confessed that the _real_ + sufferings of the Christians were inflamed and magnified by human + passions and religious enthusiasm. The meekness and resignation + which had distinguished the primitive disciples of the gospel, + was the object of the applause, rather than of the imitation of + their successors. The Christians, who had now possessed above + forty years the civil and ecclesiastical government of the + empire, had contracted the insolent vices of prosperity, 135 and + the habit of believing that the saints alone were entitled to + reign over the earth. As soon as the enmity of Julian deprived + the clergy of the privileges which had been conferred by the + favor of Constantine, they complained of the most cruel + oppression; and the free toleration of idolaters and heretics was + a subject of grief and scandal to the orthodox party. 136 The + acts of violence, which were no longer countenanced by the + magistrates, were still committed by the zeal of the people. At + Pessinus, the altar of Cybele was overturned almost in the + presence of the emperor; and in the city of Cæsarea in + Cappadocia, the temple of Fortune, the sole place of worship + which had been left to the Pagans, was destroyed by the rage of a + popular tumult. On these occasions, a prince, who felt for the + honor of the gods, was not disposed to interrupt the course of + justice; and his mind was still more deeply exasperated, when he + found that the fanatics, who had deserved and suffered the + punishment of incendiaries, were rewarded with the honors of + martyrdom. 137 The Christian subjects of Julian were assured of + the hostile designs of their sovereign; and, to their jealous + apprehension, every circumstance of his government might afford + some grounds of discontent and suspicion. In the ordinary + administration of the laws, the Christians, who formed so large a + part of the people, must frequently be condemned: but their + indulgent brethren, without examining the merits of the cause, + presumed their innocence, allowed their claims, and imputed the + severity of their judge to the partial malice of religious + persecution. 138 These present hardships, intolerable as they + might appear, were represented as a slight prelude of the + impending calamities. The Christians considered Julian as a cruel + and crafty tyrant; who suspended the execution of his revenge + till he should return victorious from the Persian war. They + expected, that as soon as he had triumphed over the foreign + enemies of Rome, he would lay aside the irksome mask of + dissimulation; that the amphitheatre would stream with the blood + of hermits and bishops; and that the Christians who still + persevered in the profession of the faith, would be deprived of + the common benefits of nature and society. 139 Every calumny 140 + that could wound the reputation of the Apostate, was credulously + embraced by the fears and hatred of his adversaries; and their + indiscreet clamors provoked the temper of a sovereign, whom it + was their duty to respect, and their interest to flatter. + + They still protested, that prayers and tears were their only + weapons against the impious tyrant, whose head they devoted to + the justice of offended Heaven. But they insinuated, with sullen + resolution, that their submission was no longer the effect of + weakness; and that, in the imperfect state of human virtue, the + patience, which is founded on principle, may be exhausted by + persecution. It is impossible to determine how far the zeal of + Julian would have prevailed over his good sense and humanity; but + if we seriously reflect on the strength and spirit of the church, + we shall be convinced, that before the emperor could have + extinguished the religion of Christ, he must have involved his + country in the horrors of a civil war. 141 + + 135 (return) [ See the fair confession of Gregory, (Orat. iii. p. + 61, 62.)] + + 136 (return) [ Hear the furious and absurd complaint of Optatus, + (de Schismat Denatist. l. ii. c. 16, 17.)] + + 137 (return) [ Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. iii. p. 91, iv. p. 133. He + praises the rioters of Cæsarea. See Sozomen, l. v. 4, 11. + Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 649, 650) owns, that their + behavior was not dans l’ordre commun: but he is perfectly + satisfied, as the great St. Basil always celebrated the festival + of these blessed martyrs.] + + 138 (return) [ Julian determined a lawsuit against the new + Christian city at Maiuma, the port of Gaza; and his sentence, + though it might be imputed to bigotry, was never reversed by his + successors. Sozomen, l. v. c. 3. Reland, Palestin. tom. ii. p. + 791.] + + 139 (return) [ Gregory (Orat. iii. p. 93, 94, 95. Orat. iv. p. + 114) pretends to speak from the information of Julian’s + confidants, whom Orosius (vii. 30) could not have seen.] + + 140 (return) [ Gregory (Orat. iii. p. 91) charges the Apostate + with secret sacrifices of boys and girls; and positively affirms, + that the dead bodies were thrown into the Orontes. See Theodoret, + l. iii. c. 26, 27; and the equivocal candor of the Abbé de la + Bleterie, Vie de Julien, p. 351, 352. Yet _contemporary_ malice + could not impute to Julian the troops of martyrs, more especially + in the West, which Baronius so greedily swallows, and Tillemont + so faintly rejects, (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 1295-1315.)] + + 141 (return) [ The resignation of Gregory is truly edifying, + (Orat. iv. p. 123, 124.) Yet, when an officer of Julian attempted + to seize the church of Nazianzus, he would have lost his life, if + he had not yielded to the zeal of the bishop and people, (Orat. + xix. p. 308.) See the reflections of Chrysostom, as they are + alleged by Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. 575.)] + + + + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part I. + + Residence Of Julian At Antioch.—His Successful Expedition Against + The Persians.—Passage Of The Tigris—The Retreat And Death Of + Julian.—Election Of Jovian.—He Saves The Roman Army By A + Disgraceful Treaty. + + + The philosophical fable which Julian composed under the name of + the Cæsars, 1 is one of the most agreeable and instructive + productions of ancient wit. 2 During the freedom and equality of + the days of the Saturnalia, Romulus prepared a feast for the + deities of Olympus, who had adopted him as a worthy associate, + and for the Roman princes, who had reigned over his martial + people, and the vanquished nations of the earth. The immortals + were placed in just order on their thrones of state, and the + table of the Cæsars was spread below the Moon in the upper region + of the air. The tyrants, who would have disgraced the society of + gods and men, were thrown headlong, by the inexorable Nemesis, + into the Tartarean abyss. The rest of the Cæsars successively + advanced to their seats; and as they passed, the vices, the + defects, the blemishes of their respective characters, were + maliciously noticed by old Silenus, a laughing moralist, who + disguised the wisdom of a philosopher under the mask of a + Bacchanal. 3 As soon as the feast was ended, the voice of Mercury + proclaimed the will of Jupiter, that a celestial crown should be + the reward of superior merit. Julius Cæsar, Augustus, Trajan, and + Marcus Antoninus, were selected as the most illustrious + candidates; the effeminate Constantine 4 was not excluded from + this honorable competition, and the great Alexander was invited + to dispute the prize of glory with the Roman heroes. Each of the + candidates was allowed to display the merit of his own exploits; + but, in the judgment of the gods, the modest silence of Marcus + pleaded more powerfully than the elaborate orations of his + haughty rivals. When the judges of this awful contest proceeded + to examine the heart, and to scrutinize the springs of action, + the superiority of the Imperial Stoic appeared still more + decisive and conspicuous. 5 Alexander and Cæsar, Augustus, + Trajan, and Constantine, acknowledged, with a blush, that fame, + or power, or pleasure had been the important object of _their_ + labors: but the gods themselves beheld, with reverence and love, + a virtuous mortal, who had practised on the throne the lessons of + philosophy; and who, in a state of human imperfection, had + aspired to imitate the moral attributes of the Deity. The value + of this agreeable composition (the Cæsars of Julian) is enhanced + by the rank of the author. A prince, who delineates, with + freedom, the vices and virtues of his predecessors, subscribes, + in every line, the censure or approbation of his own conduct. + + 1 (return) [ See this fable or satire, p. 306-336 of the Leipsig + edition of Julian’s works. The French version of the learned + Ezekiel Spanheim (Paris, 1683) is coarse, languid, and correct; + and his notes, proofs, illustrations, &c., are piled on each + other till they form a mass of 557 close-printed quarto pages. + The Abbé’ de la Bleterie (Vie de Jovien, tom. i. p. 241-393) has + more happily expressed the spirit, as well as the sense, of the + original, which he illustrates with some concise and curious + notes.] + + 2 (return) [ Spanheim (in his preface) has most learnedly + discussed the etymology, origin, resemblance, and disagreement of + the Greek _satyrs_, a dramatic piece, which was acted after the + tragedy; and the Latin _satires_, (from _Satura_,) a + _miscellaneous_ composition, either in prose or verse. But the + Cæsars of Julian are of such an original cast, that the critic is + perplexed to which class he should ascribe them. * Note: See also + Casaubon de Satira, with Rambach’s observations.—M.] + + 3 (return) [ This mixed character of Silenus is finely painted in + the sixth eclogue of Virgil.] + + 4 (return) [ Every impartial reader must perceive and condemn the + partiality of Julian against his uncle Constantine, and the + Christian religion. On this occasion, the interpreters are + compelled, by a most sacred interest, to renounce their + allegiance, and to desert the cause of their author.] + + 5 (return) [ Julian was secretly inclined to prefer a Greek to a + Roman. But when he seriously compared a hero with a philosopher, + he was sensible that mankind had much greater obligations to + Socrates than to Alexander, (Orat. ad Themistium, p. 264.)] + + In the cool moments of reflection, Julian preferred the useful + and benevolent virtues of Antoninus; but his ambitious spirit was + inflamed by the glory of Alexander; and he solicited, with equal + ardor, the esteem of the wise, and the applause of the multitude. + In the season of life when the powers of the mind and body enjoy + the most active vigor, the emperor who was instructed by the + experience, and animated by the success, of the German war, + resolved to signalize his reign by some more splendid and + memorable achievement. The ambassadors of the East, from the + continent of India, and the Isle of Ceylon, 6 had respectfully + saluted the Roman purple. 7 The nations of the West esteemed and + dreaded the personal virtues of Julian, both in peace and war. He + despised the trophies of a Gothic victory, and was satisfied that + the rapacious Barbarians of the Danube would be restrained from + any future violation of the faith of treaties by the terror of + his name, and the additional fortifications with which he + strengthened the Thracian and Illyrian frontiers. The successor + of Cyrus and Artaxerxes was the only rival whom he deemed worthy + of his arms; and he resolved, by the final conquest of Persia, to + chastise the naughty nation which had so long resisted and + insulted the majesty of Rome. 9 As soon as the Persian monarch + was informed that the throne of Constantius was filled by a + prince of a very different character, he condescended to make + some artful, or perhaps sincere, overtures towards a negotiation + of peace. But the pride of Sapor was astonished by the firmness + of Julian; who sternly declared, that he would never consent to + hold a peaceful conference among the flames and ruins of the + cities of Mesopotamia; and who added, with a smile of contempt, + that it was needless to treat by ambassadors, as he himself had + determined to visit speedily the court of Persia. The impatience + of the emperor urged the diligence of the military preparations. + The generals were named; and Julian, marching from Constantinople + through the provinces of Asia Minor, arrived at Antioch about + eight months after the death of his predecessor. His ardent + desire to march into the heart of Persia, was checked by the + indispensable duty of regulating the state of the empire; by his + zeal to revive the worship of the gods; and by the advice of his + wisest friends; who represented the necessity of allowing the + salutary interval of winter quarters, to restore the exhausted + strength of the legions of Gaul, and the discipline and spirit of + the Eastern troops. Julian was persuaded to fix, till the ensuing + spring, his residence at Antioch, among a people maliciously + disposed to deride the haste, and to censure the delays, of their + sovereign. 10 + + 6 (return) [ Inde nationibus Indicis certatim cum aonis optimates + mittentibus.... ab usque Divis et _Serendivis_. Ammian. xx. 7. + This island, to which the names of Taprobana, Serendib, and + Ceylon, have been successively applied, manifests how imperfectly + the seas and lands to the east of Cape Comorin were known to the + Romans. 1. Under the reign of Claudius, a freedman, who farmed + the customs of the Red Sea, was accidentally driven by the winds + upon this strange and undiscovered coast: he conversed six months + with the natives; and the king of Ceylon, who heard, for the + first time, of the power and justice of Rome, was persuaded to + send an embassy to the emperor. (Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 24.) 2. The + geographers (and even Ptolemy) have magnified, above fifteen + times, the real size of this new world, which they extended as + far as the equator, and the neighborhood of China. * Note: The + name of Diva gens or Divorum regio, according to the probable + conjecture of M. Letronne, (Trois Mém. Acad. p. 127,) was applied + by the ancients to the whole eastern coast of the Indian + Peninsula, from Ceylon to the Canges. The name may be traced in + Devipatnam, Devidan, Devicotta, Divinelly, the point of Divy.——M. + Letronne, p.121, considers the freedman with his embassy from + Ceylon to have been an impostor.—M.] + + 7 (return) [ These embassies had been sent to Constantius. + Ammianus, who unwarily deviates into gross flattery, must have + forgotten the length of the way, and the short duration of the + reign of Julian. ——Gothos sæpe fallaces et perfidos; hostes + quærere se meliores aiebat: illis enim sufficere mercators + Galatas per quos ubique sine conditionis discrimine venumdantur. + (Ammian. xxii. 7.) Within less than fifteen years, these Gothic + slaves threatened and subdued their masters.] + + 9 (return) [ Alexander reminds his rival Cæsar, who depreciated + the fame and merit of an Asiatic victory, that Crassus and Antony + had felt the Persian arrows; and that the Romans, in a war of + three hundred years, had not yet subdued the single province of + Mesopotamia or Assyria, (Cæsares, p. 324.)] + + 10 (return) [ The design of the Persian war is declared by + Ammianus, (xxii. 7, 12,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 79, 80, p. + 305, 306,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 158,) and Socrates, (l. iii. c. + 19.)] + + If Julian had flattered himself, that his personal connection + with the capital of the East would be productive of mutual + satisfaction to the prince and people, he made a very false + estimate of his own character, and of the manners of Antioch. 11 + The warmth of the climate disposed the natives to the most + intemperate enjoyment of tranquillity and opulence; and the + lively licentiousness of the Greeks was blended with the + hereditary softness of the Syrians. Fashion was the only law, + pleasure the only pursuit, and the splendor of dress and + furniture was the only distinction of the citizens of Antioch. + The arts of luxury were honored; the serious and manly virtues + were the subject of ridicule; and the contempt for female modesty + and reverent age announced the universal corruption of the + capital of the East. The love of spectacles was the taste, or + rather passion, of the Syrians; the most skilful artists were + procured from the adjacent cities; 12 a considerable share of the + revenue was devoted to the public amusements; and the + magnificence of the games of the theatre and circus was + considered as the happiness and as the glory of Antioch. The + rustic manners of a prince who disdained such glory, and was + insensible of such happiness, soon disgusted the delicacy of his + subjects; and the effeminate Orientals could neither imitate, nor + admire, the severe simplicity which Julian always maintained, and + sometimes affected. The days of festivity, consecrated, by + ancient custom, to the honor of the gods, were the only occasions + in which Julian relaxed his philosophic severity; and those + festivals were the only days in which the Syrians of Antioch + could reject the allurements of pleasure. The majority of the + people supported the glory of the Christian name, which had been + first invented by their ancestors: 13 they contended themselves + with disobeying the moral precepts, but they were scrupulously + attached to the speculative doctrines of their religion. The + church of Antioch was distracted by heresy and schism; but the + Arians and the Athanasians, the followers of Meletius and those + of Paulinus, 14 were actuated by the same pious hatred of their + common adversary. + + 11 (return) [ The Satire of Julian, and the Homilies of St. + Chrysostom, exhibit the same picture of Antioch. The miniature + which the Abbé de la Bleterie has copied from thence, (Vie de + Julian, p. 332,) is elegant and correct.] + + 12 (return) [ Laodicea furnished charioteers; Tyre and Berytus, + comedians; Cæsarea, pantomimes; Heliopolis, singers; Gaza, + gladiators, Ascalon, wrestlers; and Castabala, rope-dancers. See + the Expositio totius Mundi, p. 6, in the third tome of Hudson’s + Minor Geographers.] + + 13 (return) [ The people of Antioch ingenuously professed their + attachment to the _Chi_, (Christ,) and the _Kappa_, + (Constantius.) Julian in Misopogon, p. 357.] + + 14 (return) [ The schism of Antioch, which lasted eighty-five + years, (A. D. 330-415,) was inflamed, while Julian resided in + that city, by the indiscreet ordination of Paulinus. See + Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. iii. p. 803 of the quarto edition, + (Paris, 1701, &c,) which henceforward I shall quote.] + + The strongest prejudice was entertained against the character of + an apostate, the enemy and successor of a prince who had engaged + the affections of a very numerous sect; and the removal of St. + Babylas excited an implacable opposition to the person of Julian. + His subjects complained, with superstitious indignation, that + famine had pursued the emperor’s steps from Constantinople to + Antioch; and the discontent of a hungry people was exasperated by + the injudicious attempt to relieve their distress. The inclemency + of the season had affected the harvests of Syria; and the price + of bread, 15 in the markets of Antioch, had naturally risen in + proportion to the scarcity of corn. But the fair and reasonable + proportion was soon violated by the rapacious arts of monopoly. + In this unequal contest, in which the produce of the land is + claimed by one party as his exclusive property, is used by + another as a lucrative object of trade, and is required by a + third for the daily and necessary support of life, all the + profits of the intermediate agents are accumulated on the head of + the defenceless customers. The hardships of their situation were + exaggerated and increased by their own impatience and anxiety; + and the apprehension of a scarcity gradually produced the + appearances of a famine. When the luxurious citizens of Antioch + complained of the high price of poultry and fish, Julian publicly + declared, that a frugal city ought to be satisfied with a regular + supply of wine, oil, and bread; but he acknowledged, that it was + the duty of a sovereign to provide for the subsistence of his + people. With this salutary view, the emperor ventured on a very + dangerous and doubtful step, of fixing, by legal authority, the + value of corn. He enacted, that, in a time of scarcity, it should + be sold at a price which had seldom been known in the most + plentiful years; and that his own example might strengthen his + laws, he sent into the market four hundred and twenty-two + thousand _modii_, or measures, which were drawn by his order from + the granaries of Hierapolis, of Chalcis, and even of Egypt. The + consequences might have been foreseen, and were soon felt. The + Imperial wheat was purchased by the rich merchants; the + proprietors of land, or of corn, withheld from the city the + accustomed supply; and the small quantities that appeared in the + market were secretly sold at an advanced and illegal price. + Julian still continued to applaud his own policy, treated the + complaints of the people as a vain and ungrateful murmur, and + convinced Antioch that he had inherited the obstinacy, though not + the cruelty, of his brother Gallus. 16 The remonstrances of the + municipal senate served only to exasperate his inflexible mind. + He was persuaded, perhaps with truth, that the senators of + Antioch who possessed lands, or were concerned in trade, had + themselves contributed to the calamities of their country; and he + imputed the disrespectful boldness which they assumed, to the + sense, not of public duty, but of private interest. The whole + body, consisting of two hundred of the most noble and wealthy + citizens, were sent, under a guard, from the palace to the + prison; and though they were permitted, before the close of + evening, to return to their respective houses, 17 the emperor + himself could not obtain the forgiveness which he had so easily + granted. The same grievances were still the subject of the same + complaints, which were industriously circulated by the wit and + levity of the Syrian Greeks. During the licentious days of the + Saturnalia, the streets of the city resounded with insolent + songs, which derided the laws, the religion, the personal + conduct, and even the _beard_, of the emperor; the spirit of + Antioch was manifested by the connivance of the magistrates, and + the applause of the multitude. 18 The disciple of Socrates was + too deeply affected by these popular insults; but the monarch, + endowed with a quick sensibility, and possessed of absolute + power, refused his passions the gratification of revenge. A + tyrant might have proscribed, without distinction, the lives and + fortunes of the citizens of Antioch; and the unwarlike Syrians + must have patiently submitted to the lust, the rapaciousness and + the cruelty, of the faithful legions of Gaul. A milder sentence + might have deprived the capital of the East of its honors and + privileges; and the courtiers, perhaps the subjects, of Julian, + would have applauded an act of justice, which asserted the + dignity of the supreme magistrate of the republic. 19 But instead + of abusing, or exerting, the authority of the state, to revenge + his personal injuries, Julian contented himself with an + inoffensive mode of retaliation, which it would be in the power + of few princes to employ. He had been insulted by satires and + libels; in his turn, he composed, under the title of the _Enemy + of the Beard_, an ironical confession of his own faults, and a + severe satire on the licentious and effeminate manners of + Antioch. This Imperial reply was publicly exposed before the + gates of the palace; and the Misopogon 20 still remains a + singular monument of the resentment, the wit, the humanity, and + the indiscretion of Julian. Though he affected to laugh, he could + not forgive. 21 His contempt was expressed, and his revenge might + be gratified, by the nomination of a governor 22 worthy only of + such subjects; and the emperor, forever renouncing the ungrateful + city, proclaimed his resolution to pass the ensuing winter at + Tarsus in Cilicia. 23 + + 15 (return) [ Julian states three different proportions, of five, + ten, or fifteen _modii_ of wheat for one piece of gold, according + to the degrees of plenty and scarcity, (in Misopogon, p. 369.) + From this fact, and from some collateral examples, I conclude, + that under the successors of Constantine, the moderate price of + wheat was about thirty-two shillings the English quarter, which + is equal to the average price of the sixty-four first years of + the present century. See Arbuthnot’s Tables of Coins, Weights, + and Measures, p. 88, 89. Plin. Hist. Natur. xviii. 12. Mém. de + l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxviii. p. 718-721. Smith’s + Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, vol. + i. p 246. This last I am proud to quote as the work of a sage and + a friend.] + + 16 (return) [ Nunquam a proposito declinabat, Galli similis + fratris, licet incruentus. Ammian. xxii. 14. The ignorance of the + most enlightened princes may claim some excuse; but we cannot be + satisfied with Julian’s own defence, (in Misopogon, p. 363, 369,) + or the elaborate apology of Libanius, (Orat. Parental c. xcvii. + p. 321.)] + + 17 (return) [ Their short and easy confinement is gently touched + by Libanius, (Orat. Parental. c. xcviii. p. 322, 323.)] + + 18 (return) [ Libanius, (ad Antiochenos de Imperatoris ira, c. + 17, 18, 19, in Fabricius, Bibliot. Græc. tom. vii. p. 221-223,) + like a skilful advocate, severely censures the folly of the + people, who suffered for the crime of a few obscure and drunken + wretches.] + + 19 (return) [ Libanius (ad Antiochen. c. vii. p. 213) reminds + Antioch of the recent chastisement of Cæsarea; and even Julian + (in Misopogon, p. 355) insinuates how severely Tarentum had + expiated the insult to the Roman ambassadors.] + + 20 (return) [ On the subject of the Misopogon, see Ammianus, + (xxii. 14,) Libanius, (Orat. Parentalis, c. xcix. p. 323,) + Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. p. 133) and the Chronicle of + Antioch, by John Malala, (tom. ii. p. 15, 16.) I have essential + obligations to the translation and notes of the Abbé de la + Bleterie, (Vie de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 1-138.)] + + 21 (return) [ Ammianus very justly remarks, Coactus dissimulare + pro tempore ira sufflabatur interna. The elaborate irony of + Julian at length bursts forth into serious and direct invective.] + + 22 (return) [ Ipse autem Antiochiam egressurus, Heliopoliten + quendam Alexandrum Syriacæ jurisdictioni præfecit, turbulentum et + sævum; dicebatque non illum meruisse, sed Antiochensibus avaris + et contumeliosis hujusmodi judicem convenire. Ammian. xxiii. 2. + Libanius, (Epist. 722, p. 346, 347,) who confesses to Julian + himself, that he had shared the general discontent, pretends that + Alexander was a useful, though harsh, reformer of the manners and + religion of Antioch.] + + 23 (return) [ Julian, in Misopogon, p. 364. Ammian. xxiii. 2, and + Valesius, ad loc. Libanius, in a professed oration, invites him + to return to his loyal and penitent city of Antioch.] + + Yet Antioch possessed one citizen, whose genius and virtues might + atone, in the opinion of Julian, for the vice and folly of his + country. The sophist Libanius was born in the capital of the + East; he publicly professed the arts of rhetoric and declamation + at Nice, Nicomedia, Constantinople, Athens, and, during the + remainder of his life, at Antioch. His school was assiduously + frequented by the Grecian youth; his disciples, who sometimes + exceeded the number of eighty, celebrated their incomparable + master; and the jealousy of his rivals, who persecuted him from + one city to another, confirmed the favorable opinion which + Libanius ostentatiously displayed of his superior merit. The + preceptors of Julian had extorted a rash but solemn assurance, + that he would never attend the lectures of their adversary: the + curiosity of the royal youth was checked and inflamed: he + secretly procured the writings of this dangerous sophist, and + gradually surpassed, in the perfect imitation of his style, the + most laborious of his domestic pupils. 24 When Julian ascended + the throne, he declared his impatience to embrace and reward the + Syrian sophist, who had preserved, in a degenerate age, the + Grecian purity of taste, of manners, and of religion. The + emperor’s prepossession was increased and justified by the + discreet pride of his favorite. Instead of pressing, with the + foremost of the crowd, into the palace of Constantinople, + Libanius calmly expected his arrival at Antioch; withdrew from + court on the first symptoms of coldness and indifference; + required a formal invitation for each visit; and taught his + sovereign an important lesson, that he might command the + obedience of a subject, but that he must deserve the attachment + of a friend. The sophists of every age, despising, or affecting + to despise, the accidental distinctions of birth and fortune, 25 + reserve their esteem for the superior qualities of the mind, with + which they themselves are so plentifully endowed. Julian might + disdain the acclamations of a venal court, who adored the + Imperial purple; but he was deeply flattered by the praise, the + admonition, the freedom, and the envy of an independent + philosopher, who refused his favors, loved his person, celebrated + his fame, and protected his memory. The voluminous writings of + Libanius still exist; for the most part, they are the vain and + idle compositions of an orator, who cultivated the science of + words; the productions of a recluse student, whose mind, + regardless of his contemporaries, was incessantly fixed on the + Trojan war and the Athenian commonwealth. Yet the sophist of + Antioch sometimes descended from this imaginary elevation; he + entertained a various and elaborate correspondence; 26 he praised + the virtues of his own times; he boldly arraigned the abuse of + public and private life; and he eloquently pleaded the cause of + Antioch against the just resentment of Julian and Theodosius. It + is the common calamity of old age, 27 to lose whatever might have + rendered it desirable; but Libanius experienced the peculiar + misfortune of surviving the religion and the sciences, to which + he had consecrated his genius. The friend of Julian was an + indignant spectator of the triumph of Christianity; and his + bigotry, which darkened the prospect of the visible world, did + not inspire Libanius with any lively hopes of celestial glory and + happiness. 28 + + 24 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. vii. p. 230, 231.] + + 25 (return) [ Eunapius reports, that Libanius refused the + honorary rank of Prætorian præfect, as less illustrious than the + title of Sophist, (in Vit. Sophist. p. 135.) The critics have + observed a similar sentiment in one of the epistles (xviii. edit. + Wolf) of Libanius himself.] + + 26 (return) [ Near two thousand of his letters—a mode of + composition in which Libanius was thought to excel—are still + extant, and already published. The critics may praise their + subtle and elegant brevity; yet Dr. Bentley (Dissertation upon + Phalaris, p. 48) might justly, though quaintly observe, that “you + feel, by the emptiness and deadness of them, that you converse + with some dreaming pedant, with his elbow on his desk.”] + + 27 (return) [ His birth is assigned to the year 314. He mentions + the seventy-sixth year of his age, (A. D. 390,) and seems to + allude to some events of a still later date.] + + 28 (return) [ Libanius has composed the vain, prolix, but curious + narrative of his own life, (tom. ii. p. 1-84, edit. Morell,) of + which Eunapius (p. 130-135) has left a concise and unfavorable + account. Among the moderns, Tillemont, (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. + iv. p. 571-576,) Fabricius, (Bibliot. Græc. tom. vii. p. + 376-414,) and Lardner, (Heathen Testimonies, tom. iv. p. + 127-163,) have illustrated the character and writings of this + famous sophist.] + + + + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part II. + + + The martial impatience of Julian urged him to take the field in + the beginning of the spring; and he dismissed, with contempt and + reproach, the senate of Antioch, who accompanied the emperor + beyond the limits of their own territory, to which he was + resolved never to return. After a laborious march of two days, 29 + he halted on the third at Beræa, or Aleppo, where he had the + mortification of finding a senate almost entirely Christian; who + received with cold and formal demonstrations of respect the + eloquent sermon of the apostle of paganism. The son of one of the + most illustrious citizens of Beræa, who had embraced, either from + interest or conscience, the religion of the emperor, was + disinherited by his angry parent. The father and the son were + invited to the Imperial table. Julian, placing himself between + them, attempted, without success, to inculcate the lesson and + example of toleration; supported, with affected calmness, the + indiscreet zeal of the aged Christian, who seemed to forget the + sentiments of nature, and the duty of a subject; and at length, + turning towards the afflicted youth, “Since you have lost a + father,” said he, “for my sake, it is incumbent on me to supply + his place.” 30 The emperor was received in a manner much more + agreeable to his wishes at Batnæ, 3011 a small town pleasantly + seated in a grove of cypresses, about twenty miles from the city + of Hierapolis. The solemn rites of sacrifice were decently + prepared by the inhabitants of Batnæ, who seemed attached to the + worship of their tutelar deities, Apollo and Jupiter; but the + serious piety of Julian was offended by the tumult of their + applause; and he too clearly discerned, that the smoke which + arose from their altars was the incense of flattery, rather than + of devotion. The ancient and magnificent temple which had + sanctified, for so many ages, the city of Hierapolis, 31 no + longer subsisted; and the consecrated wealth, which afforded a + liberal maintenance to more than three hundred priests, might + hasten its downfall. Yet Julian enjoyed the satisfaction of + embracing a philosopher and a friend, whose religious firmness + had withstood the pressing and repeated solicitations of + Constantius and Gallus, as often as those princes lodged at his + house, in their passage through Hierapolis. In the hurry of + military preparation, and the careless confidence of a familiar + correspondence, the zeal of Julian appears to have been lively + and uniform. He had now undertaken an important and difficult + war; and the anxiety of the event rendered him still more + attentive to observe and register the most trifling presages, + from which, according to the rules of divination, any knowledge + of futurity could be derived. 32 He informed Libanius of his + progress as far as Hierapolis, by an elegant epistle, 33 which + displays the facility of his genius, and his tender friendship + for the sophist of Antioch. + + 29 (return) [ From Antioch to Litarbe, on the territory of + Chalcis, the road, over hills and through morasses, was extremely + bad; and the loose stones were cemented only with sand, (Julian. + epist. xxvii.) It is singular enough that the Romans should have + neglected the great communication between Antioch and the + Euphrates. See Wesseling Itinerar. p. 190 Bergier, Hist des + Grands Chemins, tom. ii. p. 100] + + 30 (return) [ Julian alludes to this incident, (epist. xxvii.,) + which is more distinctly related by Theodoret, (l. iii. c. 22.) + The intolerant spirit of the father is applauded by Tillemont, + (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 534.) and even by La Bleterie, + (Vie de Julien, p. 413.)] + + 3011 (return) [ This name, of Syriac origin, is found in the + Arabic, and means a place in a valley where waters meet. Julian + says, the name of the city is Barbaric, the situation Greek. The + geographer Abulfeda (tab. Syriac. p. 129, edit. Koehler) speaks + of it in a manner to justify the praises of Julian.—St. Martin. + Notes to Le Beau, iii. 56.—M.] + + 31 (return) [ See the curious treatise de Deâ Syriâ, inserted + among the works of Lucian, (tom. iii. p. 451-490, edit. Reitz.) + The singular appellation of _Ninus vetus_ (Ammian. xiv. 8) might + induce a suspicion, that Heirapolis had been the royal seat of + the Assyrians.] + + 32 (return) [ Julian (epist. xxviii.) kept a regular account of + all the fortunate omens; but he suppresses the inauspicious + signs, which Ammianus (xxiii. 2) has carefully recorded.] + + 33 (return) [ Julian. epist. xxvii. p. 399-402.] + + Hierapolis, 3311 situate almost on the banks of the Euphrates, 34 + had been appointed for the general rendezvous of the Roman + troops, who immediately passed the great river on a bridge of + boats, which was previously constructed. 35 If the inclinations + of Julian had been similar to those of his predecessor, he might + have wasted the active and important season of the year in the + circus of Samosata or in the churches of Edessa. But as the + warlike emperor, instead of Constantius, had chosen Alexander for + his model, he advanced without delay to Carrhæ, 36 a very ancient + city of Mesopotamia, at the distance of fourscore miles from + Hierapolis. The temple of the Moon attracted the devotion of + Julian; but the halt of a few days was principally employed in + completing the immense preparations of the Persian war. The + secret of the expedition had hitherto remained in his own breast; + but as Carrhæ is the point of separation of the two great roads, + he could no longer conceal whether it was his design to attack + the dominions of Sapor on the side of the Tigris, or on that of + the Euphrates. The emperor detached an army of thirty thousand + men, under the command of his kinsman Procopius, and of + Sebastian, who had been duke of Egypt. They were ordered to + direct their march towards Nisibis, and to secure the frontier + from the desultory incursions of the enemy, before they attempted + the passage of the Tigris. Their subsequent operations were left + to the discretion of the generals; but Julian expected, that + after wasting with fire and sword the fertile districts of Media + and Adiabene, they might arrive under the walls of Ctesiphon at + the same time that he himself, advancing with equal steps along + the banks of the Euphrates, should besiege the capital of the + Persian monarchy. The success of this well-concerted plan + depended, in a great measure, on the powerful and ready + assistance of the king of Armenia, who, without exposing the + safety of his own dominions, might detach an army of four + thousand horse, and twenty thousand foot, to the assistance of + the Romans. 37 But the feeble Arsaces Tiranus, 38 king of + Armenia, had degenerated still more shamefully than his father + Chosroes, from the manly virtues of the great Tiridates; and as + the pusillanimous monarch was averse to any enterprise of danger + and glory, he could disguise his timid indolence by the more + decent excuses of religion and gratitude. He expressed a pious + attachment to the memory of Constantius, from whose hands he had + received in marriage Olympias, the daughter of the præfect + Ablavius; and the alliance of a female, who had been educated as + the destined wife of the emperor Constans, exalted the dignity of + a Barbarian king. 39 Tiranus professed the Christian religion; he + reigned over a nation of Christians; and he was restrained, by + every principle of conscience and interest, from contributing to + the victory, which would consummate the ruin of the church. The + alienated mind of Tiranus was exasperated by the indiscretion of + Julian, who treated the king of Armenia as _his_ slave, and as + the enemy of the gods. The haughty and threatening style of the + Imperial mandates 40 awakened the secret indignation of a prince, + who, in the humiliating state of dependence, was still conscious + of his royal descent from the Arsacides, the lords of the East, + and the rivals of the Roman power. 4011 + + 3311 (return) [ Or Bambyce, now Bambouch; Manbedj Arab., or + Maboug, Syr. It was twenty-four Roman miles from the + Euphrates.—M.] + + 34 (return) [ I take the earliest opportunity of acknowledging my + obligations to M. d’Anville, for his recent geography of the + Euphrates and Tigris, (Paris, 1780, in 4to.,) which particularly + illustrates the expedition of Julian.] + + 35 (return) [ There are three passages within a few miles of each + other; 1. Zeugma, celebrated by the ancients; 2. Bir, frequented + by the moderns; and, 3. The bridge of Menbigz, or Hierapolis, at + the distance of four parasangs from the city. —— Djisr Manbedj is + the same with the ancient Zeugma. St. Martin, iii. 58—M.] + + 36 (return) [ Haran, or Carrhæ, was the ancient residence of the + Sabæans, and of Abraham. See the Index Geographicus of Schultens, + (ad calcem Vit. Saladin.,) a work from which I have obtained much + _Oriental_ knowledge concerning the ancient and modern geography + of Syria and the adjacent countries. ——On an inedited medal in + the collection of the late M. Tochon. of the Academy of + Inscriptions, it is read Xappan. St. Martin. iii 60—M.] + + 37 (return) [ See Xenophon. Cyropæd. l. iii. p. 189, edit. + Hutchinson. Artavasdes might have supplied Marc Antony with + 16,000 horse, armed and disciplined after the Parthian manner, + (Plutarch, in M. Antonio. tom. v. p. 117.)] + + 38 (return) [ Moses of Chorene (Hist. Armeniac. l. iii. c. 11, p. + 242) fixes his accession (A. D. 354) to the 17th year of + Constantius. ——Arsaces Tiranus, or Diran, had ceased to reign + twenty-five years before, in 337. The intermediate changes in + Armenia, and the character of this Arsaces, the son of Diran, are + traced by M. St. Martin, at considerable length, in his + supplement to Le Beau, ii. 208-242. As long as his Grecian queen + Olympias maintained her influence, Arsaces was faithful to the + Roman and _Christian_ alliance. On the accession of Julian, the + same influence made his fidelity to waver; but Olympias having + been poisoned in the sacramental bread by the agency of + Pharandcem, the former wife of Arsaces, another change took place + in Armenian politics unfavorable to the Christian interest. The + patriarch Narses retired from the impious court to a safe + seclusion. Yet Pharandsem was equally hostile to the Persian + influence, and Arsaces began to support with vigor the cause of + Julian. He made an inroad into the Persian dominions with a body + of Rans and Alans as auxiliaries; wasted Aderbidgan and Sapor, + who had been defeated near Tauriz, was engaged in making head + against his troops in Persarmenia, at the time of the death of + Julian. Such is M. St. Martin’s view, (ii. 276, et sqq.,) which + rests on the Armenian historians, Faustos of Byzantium, and + Mezrob the biographer of the Partriarch Narses. In the history of + Armenia by Father Chamitch, and translated by Avdall, Tiran is + still king of Armenia, at the time of Julian’s death. F. Chamitch + follows Moses of Chorene, The authority of Gibbon.—M.] + + 39 (return) [ Ammian. xx. 11. Athanasius (tom. i. p. 856) says, + in general terms, that Constantius gave to his brother’s widow, + an expression more suitable to a Roman than a Christian.] + + 40 (return) [ Ammianus (xxiii. 2) uses a word much too soft for + the occasion, _monuerat_. Muratori (Fabricius, Bibliothec. Græc. + tom. vii. p. 86) has published an epistle from Julian to the + satrap Arsaces; fierce, vulgar, and (though it might deceive + Sozomen, l. vi. c. 5) most probably spurious. La Bleterie (Hist. + de Jovien, tom. ii. p. 339) translates and rejects it. Note: St. + Martin considers it genuine: the Armenian writers mention such a + letter, iii. 37.—M.] + + 4011 (return) [ Arsaces did not abandon the Roman alliance, but + gave it only feeble support. St. Martin, iii. 41—M.] + + The military dispositions of Julian were skilfully contrived to + deceive the spies and to divert the attention of Sapor. The + legions appeared to direct their march towards Nisibis and the + Tigris. On a sudden they wheeled to the right; traversed the + level and naked plain of Carrhæ; and reached, on the third day, + the banks of the Euphrates, where the strong town of Nicephorium, + or Callinicum, had been founded by the Macedonian kings. From + thence the emperor pursued his march, above ninety miles, along + the winding stream of the Euphrates, till, at length, about one + month after his departure from Antioch, he discovered the towers + of Circesium, 4012 the extreme limit of the Roman dominions. The + army of Julian, the most numerous that any of the Cæsars had ever + led against Persia, consisted of sixty-five thousand effective + and well-disciplined soldiers. The veteran bands of cavalry and + infantry, of Romans and Barbarians, had been selected from the + different provinces; and a just preëminence of loyalty and valor + was claimed by the hardy Gauls, who guarded the throne and person + of their beloved prince. A formidable body of Scythian + auxiliaries had been transported from another climate, and almost + from another world, to invade a distant country, of whose name + and situation they were ignorant. The love of rapine and war + allured to the Imperial standard several tribes of Saracens, or + roving Arabs, whose service Julian had commanded, while he + sternly refused the payment of the accustomed subsidies. The + broad channel of the Euphrates 41 was crowded by a fleet of + eleven hundred ships, destined to attend the motions, and to + satisfy the wants, of the Roman army. The military strength of + the fleet was composed of fifty armed galleys; and these were + accompanied by an equal number of flat-bottomed boats, which + might occasionally be connected into the form of temporary + bridges. The rest of the ships, partly constructed of timber, and + partly covered with raw hides, were laden with an almost + inexhaustible supply of arms and engines, of utensils and + provisions. The vigilant humanity of Julian had embarked a very + large magazine of vinegar and biscuit for the use of the + soldiers, but he prohibited the indulgence of wine; and + rigorously stopped a long string of superfluous camels that + attempted to follow the rear of the army. The River Chaboras + falls into the Euphrates at Circesium; 42 and as soon as the + trumpet gave the signal of march, the Romans passed the little + stream which separated two mighty and hostile empires. The custom + of ancient discipline required a military oration; and Julian + embraced every opportunity of displaying his eloquence. He + animated the impatient and attentive legions by the example of + the inflexible courage and glorious triumphs of their ancestors. + He excited their resentment by a lively picture of the insolence + of the Persians; and he exhorted them to imitate his firm + resolution, either to extirpate that perfidious nation, or to + devote his life in the cause of the republic. The eloquence of + Julian was enforced by a donative of one hundred and thirty + pieces of silver to every soldier; and the bridge of the Chaboras + was instantly cut away, to convince the troops that they must + place their hopes of safety in the success of their arms. Yet the + prudence of the emperor induced him to secure a remote frontier, + perpetually exposed to the inroads of the hostile Arabs. A + detachment of four thousand men was left at Circesium, which + completed, to the number of ten thousand, the regular garrison of + that important fortress. 43 + + 4012 (return) [ Kirkesia the Carchemish of the Scriptures.—M.] + + 41 (return) [ Latissimum flumen Euphraten artabat. Ammian. xxiii. + 3 Somewhat higher, at the fords of Thapsacus, the river is four + stadia or 800 yards, almost half an English mile, broad. + (Xenophon, Anabasis, l. i. p. 41, edit. Hutchinson, with Foster’s + Observations, p. 29, &c., in the 2d volume of Spelman’s + translation.) If the breadth of the Euphrates at Bir and Zeugma + is no more than 130 yards, (Voyages de Niebuhr, tom. ii. p. 335,) + the enormous difference must chiefly arise from the depth of the + channel.] + + 42 (return) [ Munimentum tutissimum et fabre politum, Abora (the + Orientals aspirate Chaboras or Chabour) et Euphrates ambiunt + flumina, velut spatium insulare fingentes. Ammian. xxiii. 5.] + + 43 (return) [ The enterprise and armament of Julian are described + by himself, (Epist. xxvii.,) Ammianus Marcellinus, (xxiii. 3, 4, + 5,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 108, 109, p. 332, 333,) Zosimus, + (l. iii. p. 160, 161, 162) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. l,) and John + Malala, (tom. ii. p. 17.)] + + From the moment that the Romans entered the enemy’s country, 44 + the country of an active and artful enemy, the order of march was + disposed in three columns. 45 The strength of the infantry, and + consequently of the whole army was placed in the centre, under + the peculiar command of their master-general Victor. On the + right, the brave Nevitta led a column of several legions along + the banks of the Euphrates, and almost always in sight of the + fleet. The left flank of the army was protected by the column of + cavalry. Hormisdas and Arinthæus were appointed generals of the + horse; and the singular adventures of Hormisdas 46 are not + undeserving of our notice. He was a Persian prince, of the royal + race of the Sassanides, who, in the troubles of the minority of + Sapor, had escaped from prison to the hospitable court of the + great Constantine. Hormisdas at first excited the compassion, and + at length acquired the esteem, of his new masters; his valor and + fidelity raised him to the military honors of the Roman service; + and though a Christian, he might indulge the secret satisfaction + of convincing his ungrateful country, that an oppressed subject + may prove the most dangerous enemy. Such was the disposition of + the three principal columns. The front and flanks of the army + were covered by Lucilianus with a flying detachment of fifteen + hundred light-armed soldiers, whose active vigilance observed the + most distant signs, and conveyed the earliest notice, of any + hostile approach. Dagalaiphus, and Secundinus duke of Osrhoene, + conducted the troops of the rear-guard; the baggage securely + proceeded in the intervals of the columns; and the ranks, from a + motive either of use or ostentation, were formed in such open + order, that the whole line of march extended almost ten miles. + The ordinary post of Julian was at the head of the centre column; + but as he preferred the duties of a general to the state of a + monarch, he rapidly moved, with a small escort of light cavalry, + to the front, the rear, the flanks, wherever his presence could + animate or protect the march of the Roman army. The country which + they traversed from the Chaboras, to the cultivated lands of + Assyria, may be considered as a part of the desert of Arabia, a + dry and barren waste, which could never be improved by the most + powerful arts of human industry. Julian marched over the same + ground which had been trod above seven hundred years before by + the footsteps of the younger Cyrus, and which is described by one + of the companions of his expedition, the sage and heroic + Xenophon. 47 “The country was a plain throughout, as even as the + sea, and full of wormwood; and if any other kind of shrubs or + reeds grew there, they had all an aromatic smell, but no trees + could be seen. Bustards and ostriches, antelopes and wild asses, + 48 appeared to be the only inhabitants of the desert; and the + fatigues of the march were alleviated by the amusements of the + chase.” The loose sand of the desert was frequently raised by the + wind into clouds of dust; and a great number of the soldiers of + Julian, with their tents, were suddenly thrown to the ground by + the violence of an unexpected hurricane. + + 44 (return) [ Before he enters Persia, Ammianus copiously + describes (xxiii. p. 396-419, edit. Gronov. in 4to.) the eighteen + great provinces, (as far as the Seric, or Chinese frontiers,) + which were subject to the Sassanides.] + + 45 (return) [ Ammianus (xxiv. 1) and Zosimus (l. iii. p. 162, + 163) rately expressed the order of march.] + + 46 (return) [ The adventures of Hormisdas are related with some + mixture of fable, (Zosimus, l. ii. p. 100-102; Tillemont, Hist. + des Empereurs tom. iv. p. 198.) It is almost impossible that he + should be the brother (frater germanus) of an _eldest_ and + _posthumous_ child: nor do I recollect that Ammianus ever gives + him that title. * Note: St. Martin conceives that he was an elder + brother by another mother who had several children, ii. 24—M.] + + 47 (return) [ See the first book of the Anabasis, p. 45, 46. This + pleasing work is original and authentic. Yet Xenophon’s memory, + perhaps many years after the expedition, has sometimes betrayed + him; and the distances which he marks are often larger than + either a soldier or a geographer will allow.] + + 48 (return) [ Mr. Spelman, the English translator of the + Anabasis, (vol. i. p. 51,) confounds the antelope with the + roebuck, and the wild ass with the zebra.] + + The sandy plains of Mesopotamia were abandoned to the antelopes + and wild asses of the desert; but a variety of populous towns and + villages were pleasantly situated on the banks of the Euphrates, + and in the islands which are occasionally formed by that river. + The city of Annah, or Anatho, 49 the actual residence of an + Arabian emir, is composed of two long streets, which enclose, + within a natural fortification, a small island in the midst, and + two fruitful spots on either side, of the Euphrates. The warlike + inhabitants of Anatho showed a disposition to stop the march of a + Roman emperor; till they were diverted from such fatal + presumption by the mild exhortations of Prince Hormisdas, and the + approaching terrors of the fleet and army. They implored, and + experienced, the clemency of Julian, who transplanted the people + to an advantageous settlement, near Chalcis in Syria, and + admitted Pusæus, the governor, to an honorable rank in his + service and friendship. But the impregnable fortress of Thilutha + could scorn the menace of a siege; and the emperor was obliged to + content himself with an insulting promise, that, when he had + subdued the interior provinces of Persia, Thilutha would no + longer refuse to grace the triumph of the emperor. The + inhabitants of the open towns, unable to resist, and unwilling to + yield, fled with precipitation; and their houses, filled with + spoil and provisions, were occupied by the soldiers of Julian, + who massacred, without remorse and without punishment, some + defenceless women. During the march, the Surenas, 4911 or Persian + general, and Malek Rodosaces, the renowned emir of the tribe of + Gassan, 50 incessantly hovered round the army; every straggler + was intercepted; every detachment was attacked; and the valiant + Hormisdas escaped with some difficulty from their hands. But the + Barbarians were finally repulsed; the country became every day + less favorable to the operations of cavalry; and when the Romans + arrived at Macepracta, they perceived the ruins of the wall, + which had been constructed by the ancient kings of Assyria, to + secure their dominions from the incursions of the Medes. These + preliminaries of the expedition of Julian appear to have employed + about fifteen days; and we may compute near three hundred miles + from the fortress of Circesium to the wall of Macepracta. 51 + + 49 (return) [ See Voyages de Tavernier, part i. l. iii. p. 316, + and more especially Viaggi di Pietro della Valle, tom. i. lett. + xvii. p. 671, &c. He was ignorant of the old name and condition + of Annah. Our blind travellers _seldom_ possess any previous + knowledge of the countries which they visit. Shaw and Tournefort + deserve an honorable exception.] + + 4911 (return) [ This is not a title, but the name of a great + Persian family. St. Martin, iii. 79.—M.] + + 50 (return) [ Famosi nominis latro, says Ammianus; a high + encomium for an Arab. The tribe of Gassan had settled on the edge + of Syria, and reigned some time in Damascus, under a dynasty of + thirty-one kings, or emirs, from the time of Pompey to that of + the Khalif Omar. D’Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 360. + Pococke, Specimen Hist. Arabicæ, p. 75-78. The name of Rodosaces + does not appear in the list. * Note: Rodosaces-malek is king. St. + Martin considers that Gibbon has fallen into an error in bringing + the tribe of Gassan to the Euphrates. In Ammianus it is Assan. M. + St. Martin would read Massanitarum, the same with the Mauzanitæ + of Malala.—M.] + + 51 (return) [ See Ammianus, (xxiv. 1, 2,) Libanius, (Orat. + Parental. c. 110, 111, p. 334,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 164-168.) * + Note: This Syriac or Chaldaic has relation to its position; it + easily bears the signification of the division of the waters. M. + St. M. considers it the Missice of Pliny, v. 26. St. Martin, iii. + 83.—M.] + + The fertile province of Assyria, 52 which stretched beyond the + Tigris, as far as the mountains of Media, 53 extended about four + hundred miles from the ancient wall of Macepracta, to the + territory of Basra, where the united streams of the Euphrates and + Tigris discharge themselves into the Persian Gulf. 54 The whole + country might have claimed the peculiar name of Mesopotamia; as + the two rivers, which are never more distant than fifty, + approach, between Bagdad and Babylon, within twenty-five miles, + of each other. A multitude of artificial canals, dug without much + labor in a soft and yielding soil connected the rivers, and + intersected the plain of Assyria. The uses of these artificial + canals were various and important. They served to discharge the + superfluous waters from one river into the other, at the season + of their respective inundations. Subdividing themselves into + smaller and smaller branches, they refreshed the dry lands, and + supplied the deficiency of rain. They facilitated the intercourse + of peace and commerce; and, as the dams could be speedily broke + down, they armed the despair of the Assyrians with the means of + opposing a sudden deluge to the progress of an invading army. To + the soil and climate of Assyria, nature had denied some of her + choicest gifts, the vine, the olive, and the fig-tree; 5411 but + the food which supports the life of man, and particularly wheat + and barley, were produced with inexhaustible fertility; and the + husbandman, who committed his seed to the earth, was frequently + rewarded with an increase of two, or even of three, hundred. The + face of the country was interspersed with groves of innumerable + palm-trees; 55 and the diligent natives celebrated, either in + verse or prose, the three hundred and sixty uses to which the + trunk, the branches, the leaves, the juice, and the fruit, were + skilfully applied. Several manufactures, especially those of + leather and linen, employed the industry of a numerous people, + and afforded valuable materials for foreign trade; which appears, + however, to have been conducted by the hands of strangers. + Babylon had been converted into a royal park; but near the ruins + of the ancient capital, new cities had successively arisen, and + the populousness of the country was displayed in the multitude of + towns and villages, which were built of bricks dried in the sun, + and strongly cemented with bitumen; the natural and peculiar + production of the Babylonian soil. While the successors of Cyrus + reigned over Asia, the province of Syria alone maintained, during + a third part of the year, the luxurious plenty of the table and + household of the Great King. Four considerable villages were + assigned for the subsistence of his Indian dogs; eight hundred + stallions, and sixteen thousand mares, were constantly kept, at + the expense of the country, for the royal stables; and as the + daily tribute, which was paid to the satrap, amounted to one + English bushe of silver, we may compute the annual revenue of + Assyria at more than twelve hundred thousand pounds sterling. 56 + + 52 (return) [ The description of Assyria, is furnished by + Herodotus, (l. i. c. 192, &c.,) who sometimes writes for + children, and sometimes for philosophers; by Strabo, (l. xvi. p. + 1070-1082,) and by Ammianus, (l.xxiii. c. 6.) The most useful of + the modern travellers are Tavernier, (part i. l. ii. p. 226-258,) + Otter, (tom. ii. p. 35-69, and 189-224,) and Niebuhr, (tom. ii. + p. 172-288.) Yet I much regret that the _Irak Arabi_ of Abulfeda + has not been translated.] + + 53 (return) [ Ammianus remarks, that the primitive Assyria, which + comprehended Ninus, (Nineveh,) and Arbela, had assumed the more + recent and peculiar appellation of Adiabene; and he seems to fix + Teredon, Vologesia, and Apollonia, as the _extreme_ cities of the + actual province of Assyria.] + + 54 (return) [ The two rivers unite at Apamea, or Corna, (one + hundred miles from the Persian Gulf,) into the broad stream of + the Pasitigris, or Shutul-Arab. The Euphrates formerly reached + the sea by a separate channel, which was obstructed and diverted + by the citizens of Orchoe, about twenty miles to the south-east + of modern Basra. (D’Anville, in the Mémoires de l’Acad. des + Inscriptions, tom.xxx. p. 171-191.)] + + 5411 (return) [ We are informed by Mr. Gibbon, that nature has + denied to the soil an climate of Assyria some of her choicest + gifts, the vine, the olive, and the fig-tree. This might have + been the case ir the age of Ammianus Marcellinus, but it is not + so at the present day; and it is a curious fact that the grape, + the olive, and the fig, are the most common fruits in the + province, and may be seen in every garden. Macdonald Kinneir, + Geogr. Mem. on Persia 239—M.] + + 55 (return) [ The learned Kæmpfer, as a botanist, an antiquary, + and a traveller, has exhausted (Amœnitat. Exoticæ, Fasicul. iv. + p. 660-764) the whole subject of palm-trees.] + + 56 (return) [ Assyria yielded to the Persian satrap an _Artaba_ + of silver each day. The well-known proportion of weights and + measures (see Bishop Hooper’s elaborate Inquiry,) the specific + gravity of water and silver, and the value of that metal, will + afford, after a short process, the annual revenue which I have + stated. Yet the Great King received no more than 1000 Euboic, or + Tyrian, talents (252,000l.) from Assyria. The comparison of two + passages in Herodotus, (l. i. c. 192, l. iii. c. 89-96) reveals + an important difference between the _gross_, and the _net_, + revenue of Persia; the sums paid by the province, and the gold or + silver deposited in the royal treasure. The monarch might + annually save three millions six hundred thousand pounds, of the + seventeen or eighteen millions raised upon the people.] + + + + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part III. + + + The fields of Assyria were devoted by Julian to the calamities of + war; and the philosopher retaliated on a guiltless people the + acts of rapine and cruelty which had been committed by their + haughty master in the Roman provinces. The trembling Assyrians + summoned the rivers to their assistance; and completed, with + their own hands, the ruin of their country. The roads were + rendered impracticable; a flood of waters was poured into the + camp; and, during several days, the troops of Julian were obliged + to contend with the most discouraging hardships. But every + obstacle was surmounted by the perseverance of the legionaries, + who were inured to toil as well as to danger, and who felt + themselves animated by the spirit of their leader. The damage was + gradually repaired; the waters were restored to their proper + channels; whole groves of palm-trees were cut down, and placed + along the broken parts of the road; and the army passed over the + broad and deeper canals, on bridges of floating rafts, which were + supported by the help of bladders. Two cities of Assyria presumed + to resist the arms of a Roman emperor: and they both paid the + severe penalty of their rashness. At the distance of fifty miles + from the royal residence of Ctesiphon, Perisabor, 5711 or Anbar, + held the second rank in the province; a city, large, populous, + and well fortified, surrounded with a double wall, almost + encompassed by a branch of the Euphrates, and defended by the + valor of a numerous garrison. The exhortations of Hormisdas were + repulsed with contempt; and the ears of the Persian prince were + wounded by a just reproach, that, unmindful of his royal birth, + he conducted an army of strangers against his king and country. + The Assyrians maintained their loyalty by a skilful, as well as + vigorous, defence; till the lucky stroke of a battering-ram, + having opened a large breach, by shattering one of the angles of + the wall, they hastily retired into the fortifications of the + interior citadel. The soldiers of Julian rushed impetuously into + the town, and after the full gratification of every military + appetite, Perisabor was reduced to ashes; and the engines which + assaulted the citadel were planted on the ruins of the smoking + houses. The contest was continued by an incessant and mutual + discharge of missile weapons; and the superiority which the + Romans might derive from the mechanical powers of their balistæ + and catapultæ was counterbalanced by the advantage of the ground + on the side of the besieged. But as soon as an _Helepolis_ had + been constructed, which could engage on equal terms with the + loftiest ramparts, the tremendous aspect of a moving turret, that + would leave no hope of resistance or mercy, terrified the + defenders of the citadel into an humble submission; and the place + was surrendered only two days after Julian first appeared under + the walls of Perisabor. Two thousand five hundred persons, of + both sexes, the feeble remnant of a flourishing people, were + permitted to retire; the plentiful magazines of corn, of arms, + and of splendid furniture, were partly distributed among the + troops, and partly reserved for the public service; the useless + stores were destroyed by fire or thrown into the stream of the + Euphrates; and the fate of Amida was revenged by the total ruin + of Perisabor. + + 5711 (return) [ Libanius says that it was a great city of + Assyria, called after the name of the reigning king. The orator + of Antioch is not mistaken. The Persians and Syrians called it + Fyrouz Schapour or Fyrouz Schahbour; in Persian, the victory of + Schahpour. It owed that name to Sapor the First. It was before + called Anbar St. Martin, iii. 85.—M.] + + The city or rather fortress, of Maogamalcha, which was defended + by sixteen large towers, a deep ditch, and two strong and solid + walls of brick and bitumen, appears to have been constructed at + the distance of eleven miles, as the safeguard of the capital of + Persia. The emperor, apprehensive of leaving such an important + fortress in his rear, immediately formed the siege of + Maogamalcha; and the Roman army was distributed, for that + purpose, into three divisions. Victor, at the head of the + cavalry, and of a detachment of heavy-armed foot, was ordered to + clear the country, as far as the banks of the Tigris, and the + suburbs of Ctesiphon. The conduct of the attack was assumed by + Julian himself, who seemed to place his whole dependence in the + military engines which he erected against the walls; while he + secretly contrived a more efficacious method of introducing his + troops into the heart of the city. Under the direction of Nevitta + and Dagalaiphus, the trenches were opened at a considerable + distance, and gradually prolonged as far as the edge of the + ditch. The ditch was speedily filled with earth; and, by the + incessant labor of the troops, a mine was carried under the + foundations of the walls, and sustained, at sufficient intervals, + by props of timber. Three chosen cohorts, advancing in a single + file, silently explored the dark and dangerous passage; till + their intrepid leader whispered back the intelligence, that he + was ready to issue from his confinement into the streets of the + hostile city. Julian checked their ardor, that he might insure + their success; and immediately diverted the attention of the + garrison, by the tumult and clamor of a general assault. The + Persians, who, from their walls, contemptuously beheld the + progress of an impotent attack, celebrated with songs of triumph + the glory of Sapor; and ventured to assure the emperor, that he + might ascend the starry mansion of Ormusd, before he could hope + to take the impregnable city of Maogamalcha. The city was already + taken. History has recorded the name of a private soldier the + first who ascended from the mine into a deserted tower. The + passage was widened by his companions, who pressed forwards with + impatient valor. Fifteen hundred enemies were already in the + midst of the city. The astonished garrison abandoned the walls, + and their only hope of safety; the gates were instantly burst + open; and the revenge of the soldier, unless it were suspended by + lust or avarice, was satiated by an undistinguishing massacre. + The governor, who had yielded on a promise of mercy, was burnt + alive, a few days afterwards, on a charge of having uttered some + disrespectful words against the honor of Prince Hormisdas. The + fortifications were razed to the ground; and not a vestige was + left, that the city of Maogamalcha had ever existed. The + neighborhood of the capital of Persia was adorned with three + stately palaces, laboriously enriched with every production that + could gratify the luxury and pride of an Eastern monarch. The + pleasant situation of the gardens along the banks of the Tigris, + was improved, according to the Persian taste, by the symmetry of + flowers, fountains, and shady walks: and spacious parks were + enclosed for the reception of the bears, lions, and wild boars, + which were maintained at a considerable expense for the pleasure + of the royal chase. The park walls were broken down, the savage + game was abandoned to the darts of the soldiers, and the palaces + of Sapor were reduced to ashes, by the command of the Roman + emperor. Julian, on this occasion, showed himself ignorant, or + careless, of the laws of civility, which the prudence and + refinement of polished ages have established between hostile + princes. Yet these wanton ravages need not excite in our breasts + any vehement emotions of pity or resentment. A simple, naked + statue, finished by the hand of a Grecian artist, is of more + genuine value than all these rude and costly monuments of + Barbaric labor; and, if we are more deeply affected by the ruin + of a palace than by the conflagration of a cottage, our humanity + must have formed a very erroneous estimate of the miseries of + human life. 57 + + 57 (return) [ The operations of the Assyrian war are + circumstantially related by Ammianus, (xxiv. 2, 3, 4, 5,) + Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 112-123, p. 335-347,) Zosimus, (l. + iii. p. 168-180,) and Gregory Nazianzen, (Orat iv. p. 113, 144.) + The _military_ criticisms of the saint are devoutly copied by + Tillemont, his faithful slave.] + + Julian was an object of hatred and terror to the Persian and the + painters of that nation represented the invader of their country + under the emblem of a furious lion, who vomited from his mouth a + consuming fire. 58 To his friends and soldiers the philosophic + hero appeared in a more amiable light; and his virtues were never + more conspicuously displayed, than in the last and most active + period of his life. He practised, without effort, and almost + without merit, the habitual qualities of temperance and sobriety. + According to the dictates of that artificial wisdom, which + assumes an absolute dominion over the mind and body, he sternly + refused himself the indulgence of the most natural appetites. 59 + In the warm climate of Assyria, which solicited a luxurious + people to the gratification of every sensual desire, 60 a + youthful conqueror preserved his chastity pure and inviolate; nor + was Julian ever tempted, even by a motive of curiosity, to visit + his female captives of exquisite beauty, 61 who, instead of + resisting his power, would have disputed with each other the + honor of his embraces. With the same firmness that he resisted + the allurements of love, he sustained the hardships of war. When + the Romans marched through the flat and flooded country, their + sovereign, on foot, at the head of his legions, shared their + fatigues and animated their diligence. In every useful labor, the + hand of Julian was prompt and strenuous; and the Imperial purple + was wet and dirty as the coarse garment of the meanest soldier. + The two sieges allowed him some remarkable opportunities of + signalizing his personal valor, which, in the improved state of + the military art, can seldom be exerted by a prudent general. The + emperor stood before the citadel of Perisabor, insensible of his + extreme danger, and encouraged his troops to burst open the gates + of iron, till he was almost overwhelmed under a cloud of missile + weapons and huge stones, that were directed against his person. + As he examined the exterior fortifications of Maogamalcha, two + Persians, devoting themselves for their country, suddenly rushed + upon him with drawn cimeters: the emperor dexterously received + their blows on his uplifted shield; and, with a steady and + well-aimed thrust, laid one of his adversaries dead at his feet. + The esteem of a prince who possesses the virtues which he + approves, is the noblest recompense of a deserving subject; and + the authority which Julian derived from his personal merit, + enabled him to revive and enforce the rigor of ancient + discipline. He punished with death or ignominy the misbehavior of + three troops of horse, who, in a skirmish with the Surenas, had + lost their honor and one of their standards: and he distinguished + with _obsidional_ 62 crowns the valor of the foremost soldiers, + who had ascended into the city of Maogamalcha. + + After the siege of Perisabor, the firmness of the emperor was + exercised by the insolent avarice of the army, who loudly + complained, that their services were rewarded by a trifling + donative of one hundred pieces of silver. His just indignation + was expressed in the grave and manly language of a Roman. “Riches + are the object of your desires; those riches are in the hands of + the Persians; and the spoils of this fruitful country are + proposed as the prize of your valor and discipline. Believe me,” + added Julian, “the Roman republic, which formerly possessed such + immense treasures, is now reduced to want and wretchedness once + our princes have been persuaded, by weak and interested + ministers, to purchase with gold the tranquillity of the + Barbarians. The revenue is exhausted; the cities are ruined; the + provinces are dispeopled. For myself, the only inheritance that I + have received from my royal ancestors is a soul incapable of + fear; and as long as I am convinced that every real advantage is + seated in the mind, I shall not blush to acknowledge an honorable + poverty, which, in the days of ancient virtue, was considered as + the glory of Fabricius. That glory, and that virtue, may be your + own, if you will listen to the voice of Heaven and of your + leader. But if you will rashly persist, if you are determined to + renew the shameful and mischievous examples of old seditions, + proceed. As it becomes an emperor who has filled the first rank + among men, I am prepared to die, standing; and to despise a + precarious life, which, every hour, may depend on an accidental + fever. If I have been found unworthy of the command, there are + now among you, (I speak it with pride and pleasure,) there are + many chiefs whose merit and experience are equal to the conduct + of the most important war. Such has been the temper of my reign, + that I can retire, without regret, and without apprehension, to + the obscurity of a private station” 63 The modest resolution of + Julian was answered by the unanimous applause and cheerful + obedience of the Romans, who declared their confidence of + victory, while they fought under the banners of their heroic + prince. Their courage was kindled by his frequent and familiar + asseverations, (for such wishes were the oaths of Julian,) “So + may I reduce the Persians under the yoke!” “Thus may I restore + the strength and splendor of the republic!” The love of fame was + the ardent passion of his soul: but it was not before he trampled + on the ruins of Maogamalcha, that he allowed himself to say, “We + have now provided some materials for the sophist of Antioch.” 64 + + 58 (return) [ Libanius de ulciscenda Juliani nece, c. 13, p. + 162.] + + 59 (return) [ The famous examples of Cyrus, Alexander, and + Scipio, were acts of justice. Julian’s chastity was voluntary, + and, in his opinion, meritorious.] + + 60 (return) [ Sallust (ap. Vet. Scholiast. Juvenal. Satir. i. + 104) observes, that nihil corruptius moribus. The matrons and + virgins of Babylon freely mingled with the men in licentious + banquets; and as they felt the intoxication of wine and love, + they gradually, and almost completely, threw aside the + encumbrance of dress; ad ultimum ima corporum velamenta + projiciunt. Q. Curtius, v. 1.] + + 61 (return) [ Ex virginibus autem quæ speciosæ sunt captæ, et in + Perside, ubi fæminarum pulchritudo excellit, nec contrectare + aliquam votuit nec videre. Ammian. xxiv. 4. The native race of + Persians is small and ugly; but it has been improved by the + perpetual mixture of Circassian blood, (Herodot. l. iii. c. 97. + Buffon, Hist. Naturelle, tom. iii. p. 420.)] + + 62 (return) [ Obsidionalibus coronis donati. Ammian. xxiv. 4. + Either Julian or his historian were unskillful antiquaries. He + should have given mural crowns. The _obsidional_ were the reward + of a general who had delivered a besieged city, (Aulus Gellius, + Noct. Attic. v. 6.)] + + 63 (return) [ I give this speech as original and genuine. + Ammianus might hear, could transcribe, and was incapable of + inventing, it. I have used some slight freedoms, and conclude + with the most forcibic sentence.] + + 64 (return) [ Ammian. xxiv. 3. Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 122, p. + 346.] + + The successful valor of Julian had triumphed over all the + obstacles that opposed his march to the gates of Ctesiphon. But + the reduction, or even the siege, of the capital of Persia, was + still at a distance: nor can the military conduct of the emperor + be clearly apprehended, without a knowledge of the country which + was the theatre of his bold and skilful operations. 65 Twenty + miles to the south of Bagdad, and on the eastern bank of the + Tigris, the curiosity of travellers has observed some ruins of + the palaces of Ctesiphon, which, in the time of Julian, was a + great and populous city. The name and glory of the adjacent + Seleucia were forever extinguished; and the only remaining + quarter of that Greek colony had resumed, with the Assyrian + language and manners, the primitive appellation of Coche. Coche + was situate on the western side of the Tigris; but it was + naturally considered as a suburb of Ctesiphon, with which we may + suppose it to have been connected by a permanent bridge of boats. + + The united parts contribute to form the common epithet of Al + Modain, the cities, which the Orientals have bestowed on the + winter residence of the Sassinadees; and the whole circumference + of the Persian capital was strongly fortified by the waters of + the river, by lofty walls, and by impracticable morasses. Near + the ruins of Seleucia, the camp of Julian was fixed, and secured, + by a ditch and rampart, against the sallies of the numerous and + enterprising garrison of Coche. In this fruitful and pleasant + country, the Romans were plentifully supplied with water and + forage: and several forts, which might have embarrassed the + motions of the army, submitted, after some resistance, to the + efforts of their valor. The fleet passed from the Euphrates into + an artificial derivation of that river, which pours a copious and + navigable stream into the Tigris, at a small distance _below_ the + great city. If they had followed this royal canal, which bore the + name of Nahar-Malcha, 66 the intermediate situation of Coche + would have separated the fleet and army of Julian; and the rash + attempt of steering against the current of the Tigris, and + forcing their way through the midst of a hostile capital, must + have been attended with the total destruction of the Roman navy. + The prudence of the emperor foresaw the danger, and provided the + remedy. As he had minutely studied the operations of Trajan in + the same country, he soon recollected that his warlike + predecessor had dug a new and navigable canal, which, leaving + Coche on the right hand, conveyed the waters of the Nahar-Malcha + into the river Tigris, at some distance _above_ the cities. From + the information of the peasants, Julian ascertained the vestiges + of this ancient work, which were almost obliterated by design or + accident. By the indefatigable labor of the soldiers, a broad and + deep channel was speedily prepared for the reception of the + Euphrates. A strong dike was constructed to interrupt the + ordinary current of the Nahar-Malcha: a flood of waters rushed + impetuously into their new bed; and the Roman fleet, steering + their triumphant course into the Tigris, derided the vain and + ineffectual barriers which the Persians of Ctesiphon had erected + to oppose their passage. + + 65 (return) [ M. d’Anville, (Mém. de l’Académie des Inscriptions, + tom. xxxviii p. 246-259) has ascertained the true position and + distance of Babylon, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Bagdad, &c. The Roman + traveller, Pietro della Valle, (tom. i. lett. xvii. p. 650-780,) + seems to be the most intelligent spectator of that famous + province. He is a gentleman and a scholar, but intolerably vain + and prolix.] + + 66 (return) [ The Royal Canal (_Nahar-Malcha_) might be + successively restored, altered, divided, &c., (Cellarius, + Geograph. Antiq. tom. ii. p. 453;) and these changes may serve to + explain the seeming contradictions of antiquity. In the time of + Julian, it must have fallen into the Euphrates _below_ + Ctesiphon.] + + As it became necessary to transport the Roman army over the + Tigris, another labor presented itself, of less toil, but of more + danger, than the preceding expedition. The stream was broad and + rapid; the ascent steep and difficult; and the intrenchments + which had been formed on the ridge of the opposite bank, were + lined with a numerous army of heavy cuirrasiers, dexterous + archers, and huge elephants; who (according to the extravagant + hyperbole of Libanius) could trample with the same ease a field + of corn, or a legion of Romans. 67 In the presence of such an + enemy, the construction of a bridge was impracticable; and the + intrepid prince, who instantly seized the only possible + expedient, concealed his design, till the moment of execution, + from the knowledge of the Barbarians, of his own troops, and even + of his generals themselves. Under the specious pretence of + examining the state of the magazines, fourscore vessels 6711 were + gradually unladen; and a select detachment, apparently destined + for some secret expedition, was ordered to stand to their arms on + the first signal. Julian disguised the silent anxiety of his own + mind with smiles of confidence and joy; and amused the hostile + nations with the spectacle of military games, which he + insultingly celebrated under the walls of Coche. The day was + consecrated to pleasure; but, as soon as the hour of supper was + passed, the emperor summoned the generals to his tent, and + acquainted them that he had fixed that night for the passage of + the Tigris. They stood in silent and respectful astonishment; + but, when the venerable Sallust assumed the privilege of his age + and experience, the rest of the chiefs supported with freedom the + weight of his prudent remonstrances. 68 Julian contented himself + with observing, that conquest and safety depended on the attempt; + that instead of diminishing, the number of their enemies would be + increased, by successive reenforcements; and that a longer delay + would neither contract the breadth of the stream, nor level the + height of the bank. The signal was instantly given, and obeyed; + the most impatient of the legionaries leaped into five vessels + that lay nearest to the bank; and as they plied their oars with + intrepid diligence, they were lost, after a few moments, in the + darkness of the night. A flame arose on the opposite side; and + Julian, who too clearly understood that his foremost vessels, in + attempting to land, had been fired by the enemy, dexterously + converted their extreme danger into a presage of victory. “Our + fellow-soldiers,” he eagerly exclaimed, “are already masters of + the bank; see—they make the appointed signal; let us hasten to + emulate and assist their courage.” The united and rapid motion of + a great fleet broke the violence of the current, and they reached + the eastern shore of the Tigris with sufficient speed to + extinguish the flames, and rescue their adventurous companions. + The difficulties of a steep and lofty ascent were increased by + the weight of armor, and the darkness of the night. A shower of + stones, darts, and fire, was incessantly discharged on the heads + of the assailants; who, after an arduous struggle, climbed the + bank and stood victorious upon the rampart. As soon as they + possessed a more equal field, Julian, who, with his light + infantry, had led the attack, 69 darted through the ranks a + skilful and experienced eye: his bravest soldiers, according to + the precepts of Homer, 70 were distributed in the front and rear: + and all the trumpets of the Imperial army sounded to battle. The + Romans, after sending up a military shout, advanced in measured + steps to the animating notes of martial music; launched their + formidable javelins; and rushed forwards with drawn swords, to + deprive the Barbarians, by a closer onset, of the advantage of + their missile weapons. The whole engagement lasted above twelve + hours; till the gradual retreat of the Persians was changed into + a disorderly flight, of which the shameful example was given by + the principal leader, and the Surenas himself. They were pursued + to the gates of Ctesiphon; and the conquerors might have entered + the dismayed city, 71 if their general, Victor, who was + dangerously wounded with an arrow, had not conjured them to + desist from a rash attempt, which must be fatal, if it were not + successful. On _their_ side, the Romans acknowledged the loss of + only seventy-five men; while they affirmed, that the Barbarians + had left on the field of battle two thousand five hundred, or + even six thousand, of their bravest soldiers. The spoil was such + as might be expected from the riches and luxury of an Oriental + camp; large quantities of silver and gold, splendid arms and + trappings, and beds and tables of massy silver. 7111 The + victorious emperor distributed, as the rewards of valor, some + honorable gifts, civic, and mural, and naval crowns; which he, + and perhaps he alone, esteemed more precious than the wealth of + Asia. A solemn sacrifice was offered to the god of war, but the + appearances of the victims threatened the most inauspicious + events; and Julian soon discovered, by less ambiguous signs, that + he had now reached the term of his prosperity. 72 + + 67 (return) [ Rien n’est beau que le vrai; a maxim which should + be inscribed on the desk of every rhetorician.] + + 6711 (return) [ This is a mistake; each vessel (according to + Zosimus two, according to Ammianus five) had eighty men. Amm. + xxiv. 6, with Wagner’s note. Gibbon must have read _octogenas_ + for _octogenis_. The five vessels selected for this service were + remarkably large and strong provision transports. The strength of + the fleet remained with Julian to carry over the army—M.] + + 68 (return) [ Libanius alludes to the most powerful of the + generals. I have ventured to name _Sallust_. Ammianus says, of + all the leaders, quod acri metû territ acrimetu territi duces + concordi precatû precaut fieri prohibere tentarent. * Note: It is + evident that Gibbon has mistaken the sense of Libanius; his words + can only apply to a commander of a detachment, not to so eminent + a person as the Præfect of the East. St. Martin, iii. 313.—M.] + + 69 (return) [ Hinc Imperator.... (says Ammianus) ipse cum levis + armaturæ auxiliis per prima postremaque discurrens, &c. Yet + Zosimus, his friend, does not allow him to pass the river till + two days after the battle.] + + 70 (return) [ Secundum Homericam dispositionem. A similar + disposition is ascribed to the wise Nestor, in the fourth book of + the Iliad; and Homer was never absent from the mind of Julian.] + + 71 (return) [ Persas terrore subito miscuerunt, versisque + agminibus totius gentis, apertas Ctesiphontis portas victor miles + intrâsset, ni major prædarum occasio fuisset, quam cura victoriæ, + (Sextus Rufus de Provinciis c. 28.) Their avarice might dispose + them to hear the advice of Victor.] + + 7111 (return) [ The suburbs of Ctesiphon, according to a new + fragment of Eunapius, were so full of provisions, that the + soldiers were in danger of suffering from excess. Mai, p. 260. + Eunapius in Niebuhr. Nov. Byz. Coll. 68. Julian exhibited warlike + dances and games in his camp to recreate the soldiers Ibid.—M.] + + 72 (return) [ The labor of the canal, the passage of the Tigris, + and the victory, are described by Ammianus, (xxiv. 5, 6,) + Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 124-128, p. 347-353,) Greg. + Nazianzen, (Orat. iv. p. 115,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 181-183,) and + Sextus Rufus, (de Provinciis, c. 28.)] + + On the second day after the battle, the domestic guards, the + Jovians and Herculians, and the remaining troops, which composed + near two thirds of the whole army, were securely wafted over the + Tigris. 73 While the Persians beheld from the walls of Ctesiphon + the desolation of the adjacent country, Julian cast many an + anxious look towards the North, in full expectation, that as he + himself had victoriously penetrated to the capital of Sapor, the + march and junction of his lieutenants, Sebastian and Procopius, + would be executed with the same courage and diligence. His + expectations were disappointed by the treachery of the Armenian + king, who permitted, and most probably directed, the desertion of + his auxiliary troops from the camp of the Romans; 74 and by the + dissensions of the two generals, who were incapable of forming or + executing any plan for the public service. When the emperor had + relinquished the hope of this important reenforcement, he + condescended to hold a council of war, and approved, after a full + debate, the sentiment of those generals, who dissuaded the siege + of Ctesiphon, as a fruitless and pernicious undertaking. It is + not easy for us to conceive, by what arts of fortification a city + thrice besieged and taken by the predecessors of Julian could be + rendered impregnable against an army of sixty thousand Romans, + commanded by a brave and experienced general, and abundantly + supplied with ships, provisions, battering engines, and military + stores. But we may rest assured, from the love of glory, and + contempt of danger, which formed the character of Julian, that he + was not discouraged by any trivial or imaginary obstacles. 75 At + the very time when he declined the siege of Ctesiphon, he + rejected, with obstinacy and disdain, the most flattering offers + of a negotiation of peace. Sapor, who had been so long accustomed + to the tardy ostentation of Constantius, was surprised by the + intrepid diligence of his successor. As far as the confines of + India and Scythia, the satraps of the distant provinces were + ordered to assemble their troops, and to march, without delay, to + the assistance of their monarch. But their preparations were + dilatory, their motions slow; and before Sapor could lead an army + into the field, he received the melancholy intelligence of the + devastation of Assyria, the ruin of his palaces, and the + slaughter of his bravest troops, who defended the passage of the + Tigris. The pride of royalty was humbled in the dust; he took his + repasts on the ground; and the disorder of his hair expressed the + grief and anxiety of his mind. Perhaps he would not have refused + to purchase, with one half of his kingdom, the safety of the + remainder; and he would have gladly subscribed himself, in a + treaty of peace, the faithful and dependent ally of the Roman + conqueror. Under the pretence of private business, a minister of + rank and confidence was secretly despatched to embrace the knees + of Hormisdas, and to request, in the language of a suppliant, + that he might be introduced into the presence of the emperor. The + Sassanian prince, whether he listened to the voice of pride or + humanity, whether he consulted the sentiments of his birth, or + the duties of his situation, was equally inclined to promote a + salutary measure, which would terminate the calamities of Persia, + and secure the triumph of Rome. He was astonished by the + inflexible firmness of a hero, who remembered, most unfortunately + for himself and for his country, that Alexander had uniformly + rejected the propositions of Darius. But as Julian was sensible, + that the hope of a safe and honorable peace might cool the ardor + of his troops, he earnestly requested that Hormisdas would + privately dismiss the minister of Sapor, and conceal this + dangerous temptation from the knowledge of the camp. 76 + + 73 (return) [ The fleet and army were formed in three divisions, + of which the first only had passed during the night.] + + 74 (return) [ Moses of Chorene (Hist. Armen. l. iii. c. 15, p. + 246) supplies us with a national tradition, and a spurious + letter. I have borrowed only the leading circumstance, which is + consistent with truth, probability, and Libanius, (Orat. Parent. + c. 131, p. 355.)] + + 75 (return) [ Civitas inexpugnabilis, facinus audax et + importunum. Ammianus, xxiv. 7. His fellow-soldier, Eutropius, + turns aside from the difficulty, Assyriamque populatus, castra + apud Ctesiphontem stativa aliquandiu habuit: remeansbue victor, + &c. x. 16. Zosimus is artful or ignorant, and Socrates + inaccurate.] + + 76 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 130, p. 354, c. 139, p. + 361. Socrates, l. iii. c. 21. The ecclesiastical historian + imputes the refusal of peace to the advice of Maximus. Such + advice was unworthy of a philosopher; but the philosopher was + likewise a magician, who flattered the hopes and passions of his + master.] + + + + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part IV. + + + The honor, as well as interest, of Julian, forbade him to consume + his time under the impregnable walls of Ctesiphon and as often as + he defied the Barbarians, who defended the city, to meet him on + the open plain, they prudently replied, that if he desired to + exercise his valor, he might seek the army of the Great King. He + felt the insult, and he accepted the advice. Instead of confining + his servile march to the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, he + resolved to imitate the adventurous spirit of Alexander, and + boldly to advance into the inland provinces, till he forced his + rival to contend with him, perhaps in the plains of Arbela, for + the empire of Asia. The magnanimity of Julian was applauded and + betrayed, by the arts of a noble Persian, who, in the cause of + his country, had generously submitted to act a part full of + danger, of falsehood, and of shame. 77 With a train of faithful + followers, he deserted to the Imperial camp; exposed, in a + specious tale, the injuries which he had sustained; exaggerated + the cruelty of Sapor, the discontent of the people, and the + weakness of the monarchy; and confidently offered himself as the + hostage and guide of the Roman march. The most rational grounds + of suspicion were urged, without effect, by the wisdom and + experience of Hormisdas; and the credulous Julian, receiving the + traitor into his bosom, was persuaded to issue a hasty order, + which, in the opinion of mankind, appeared to arraign his + prudence, and to endanger his safety. He destroyed, in a single + hour, the whole navy, which had been transported above five + hundred miles, at so great an expense of toil, of treasure, and + of blood. Twelve, or, at the most, twenty-two small vessels were + saved, to accompany, on carriages, the march of the army, and to + form occasional bridges for the passage of the rivers. A supply + of twenty days’ provisions was reserved for the use of the + soldiers; and the rest of the magazines, with a fleet of eleven + hundred vessels, which rode at anchor in the Tigris, were + abandoned to the flames, by the absolute command of the emperor. + The Christian bishops, Gregory and Augustin, insult the madness + of the Apostate, who executed, with his own hands, the sentence + of divine justice. Their authority, of less weight, perhaps, in a + military question, is confirmed by the cool judgment of an + experienced soldier, who was himself spectator of the + conflagration, and who could not disapprove the reluctant murmurs + of the troops. 78 Yet there are not wanting some specious, and + perhaps solid, reasons, which might justify the resolution of + Julian. The navigation of the Euphrates never ascended above + Babylon, nor that of the Tigris above Opis. 79 The distance of + the last-mentioned city from the Roman camp was not very + considerable: and Julian must soon have renounced the vain and + impracticable attempt of forcing upwards a great fleet against + the stream of a rapid river, 80 which in several places was + embarrassed by natural or artificial cataracts. 81 The power of + sails and oars was insufficient; it became necessary to tow the + ships against the current of the river; the strength of twenty + thousand soldiers was exhausted in this tedious and servile + labor, and if the Romans continued to march along the banks of + the Tigris, they could only expect to return home without + achieving any enterprise worthy of the genius or fortune of their + leader. If, on the contrary, it was advisable to advance into the + inland country, the destruction of the fleet and magazines was + the only measure which could save that valuable prize from the + hands of the numerous and active troops which might suddenly be + poured from the gates of Ctesiphon. Had the arms of Julian been + victorious, we should now admire the conduct, as well as the + courage, of a hero, who, by depriving his soldiers of the hopes + of a retreat, left them only the alternative of death or + conquest. 82 + + 77 (return) [ The arts of this new Zopyrus (Greg. Nazianzen, + Orat. iv. p. 115, 116) may derive some credit from the testimony + of two abbreviators, (Sextus Rufus and Victor,) and the casual + hints of Libanius (Orat. Parent. c. 134, p. 357) and Ammianus, + (xxiv. 7.) The course of genuine history is interrupted by a most + unseasonable chasm in the text of Ammianus.] + + 78 (return) [ See Ammianus, (xxiv. 7,) Libanius, (Orat. + Parentalis, c. 132, 133, p. 356, 357,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 183,) + Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 26) Gregory, (Orat. iv. p. 116,) + and Augustin, (de Civitate Dei, l. iv. c. 29, l. v. c. 21.) Of + these Libanius alone attempts a faint apology for his hero; who, + according to Ammianus, pronounced his own condemnation by a tardy + and ineffectual attempt to extinguish the flames.] + + 79 (return) [ Consult Herodotus, (l. i. c. 194,) Strabo, (l. xvi. + p. 1074,) and Tavernier, (part i. l. ii. p. 152.)] + + 80 (return) [ A celeritate Tigris incipit vocari, ita appellant + Medi sagittam. Plin. Hist. Natur. vi. 31.] + + 81 (return) [ One of these dikes, which produces an artificial + cascade or cataract, is described by Tavernier (part i. l. ii. p. + 226) and Thevenot, (part ii. l. i. p. 193.) The Persians, or + Assyrians, labored to interrupt the navigation of the river, + (Strabo, l. xv. p. 1075. D’Anville, l’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. + 98, 99.)] + + 82 (return) [ Recollect the successful and applauded rashness of + Agathocles and Cortez, who burnt their ships on the coast of + Africa and Mexico.] + + The cumbersome train of artillery and wagons, which retards the + operations of a modern army, were in a great measure unknown in + the camps of the Romans. 83 Yet, in every age, the subsistence of + sixty thousand men must have been one of the most important cares + of a prudent general; and that subsistence could only be drawn + from his own or from the enemy’s country. Had it been possible + for Julian to maintain a bridge of communication on the Tigris, + and to preserve the conquered places of Assyria, a desolated + province could not afford any large or regular supplies, in a + season of the year when the lands were covered by the inundation + of the Euphrates, 84 and the unwholesome air was darkened with + swarms of innumerable insects. 85 The appearance of the hostile + country was far more inviting. The extensive region that lies + between the River Tigris and the mountains of Media, was filled + with villages and towns; and the fertile soil, for the most part, + was in a very improved state of cultivation. Julian might expect, + that a conqueror, who possessed the two forcible instruments of + persuasion, steel and gold, would easily procure a plentiful + subsistence from the fears or avarice of the natives. But, on the + approach of the Romans, the rich and smiling prospect was + instantly blasted. Wherever they moved, the inhabitants deserted + the open villages, and took shelter in the fortified towns; the + cattle was driven away; the grass and ripe corn were consumed + with fire; and, as soon as the flames had subsided which + interrupted the march of Julian, he beheld the melancholy face of + a smoking and naked desert. This desperate but effectual method + of defence can only be executed by the enthusiasm of a people who + prefer their independence to their property; or by the rigor of + an arbitrary government, which consults the public safety without + submitting to their inclinations the liberty of choice. On the + present occasion the zeal and obedience of the Persians seconded + the commands of Sapor; and the emperor was soon reduced to the + scanty stock of provisions, which continually wasted in his + hands. Before they were entirely consumed, he might still have + reached the wealthy and unwarlike cities of Ecbatana or Susa, by + the effort of a rapid and well-directed march; 86 but he was + deprived of this last resource by his ignorance of the roads, and + by the perfidy of his guides. The Romans wandered several days in + the country to the eastward of Bagdad; the Persian deserter, who + had artfully led them into the snare, escaped from their + resentment; and his followers, as soon as they were put to the + torture, confessed the secret of the conspiracy. The visionary + conquests of Hyrcania and India, which had so long amused, now + tormented, the mind of Julian. Conscious that his own imprudence + was the cause of the public distress, he anxiously balanced the + hopes of safety or success, without obtaining a satisfactory + answer, either from gods or men. At length, as the only + practicable measure, he embraced the resolution of directing his + steps towards the banks of the Tigris, with the design of saving + the army by a hasty march to the confines of Corduene; a fertile + and friendly province, which acknowledged the sovereignty of + Rome. The desponding troops obeyed the signal of the retreat, + only seventy days after they had passed the Chaboras, with the + sanguine expectation of subverting the throne of Persia. 87 + + 83 (return) [ See the judicious reflections of the author of the + Essai sur la Tactique, tom. ii. p. 287-353, and the learned + remarks of M. Guichardt Nouveaux Mémoires Militaires, tom. i. p. + 351-382, on the baggage and subsistence of the Roman armies.] + + 84 (return) [ The Tigris rises to the south, the Euphrates to the + north, of the Armenian mountains. The former overflows in March, + the latter in July. These circumstances are well explained in the + Geographical Dissertation of Foster, inserted in Spelman’s + Expedition of Cyras, vol. ii. p. 26.] + + 85 (return) [ Ammianus (xxiv. 8) describes, as he had felt, the + inconveniency of the flood, the heat, and the insects. The lands + of Assyria, oppressed by the Turks, and ravaged by the Curds or + Arabs, yield an increase of ten, fifteen, and twenty fold, for + the seed which is cast into the ground by the wretched and + unskillful husbandmen. Voyage de Niebuhr, tom. ii. p. 279, 285.] + + 86 (return) [ Isidore of Charax (Mansion. Parthic. p. 5, 6, in + Hudson, Geograph. Minor. tom. ii.) reckons 129 schæni from + Seleucia, and Thevenot, (part i. l. i. ii. p. 209-245,) 128 hours + of march from Bagdad to Ecbatana, or Hamadan. These measures + cannot exceed an ordinary parasang, or three Roman miles.] + + 87 (return) [ The march of Julian from Ctesiphon is + circumstantially, but not clearly, described by Ammianus, (xxiv. + 7, 8,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 134, p. 357,) and Zosimus, (l. + iii. p. 183.) The two last seem ignorant that their conqueror was + retreating; and Libanius absurdly confines him to the banks of + the Tigris.] + + As long as the Romans seemed to advance into the country, their + march was observed and insulted from a distance, by several + bodies of Persian cavalry; who, showing themselves sometimes in + loose, and sometimes in close order, faintly skirmished with the + advanced guards. These detachments were, however, supported by a + much greater force; and the heads of the columns were no sooner + pointed towards the Tigris than a cloud of dust arose on the + plain. The Romans, who now aspired only to the permission of a + safe and speedy retreat, endeavored to persuade themselves, that + this formidable appearance was occasioned by a troop of wild + asses, or perhaps by the approach of some friendly Arabs. They + halted, pitched their tents, fortified their camp, passed the + whole night in continual alarms; and discovered at the dawn of + day, that they were surrounded by an army of Persians. This army, + which might be considered only as the van of the Barbarians, was + soon followed by the main body of cuirassiers, archers, and + elephants, commanded by Meranes, a general of rank and + reputation. He was accompanied by two of the king’s sons, and + many of the principal satraps; and fame and expectation + exaggerated the strength of the remaining powers, which slowly + advanced under the conduct of Sapor himself. As the Romans + continued their march, their long array, which was forced to bend + or divide, according to the varieties of the ground, afforded + frequent and favorable opportunities to their vigilant enemies. + The Persians repeatedly charged with fury; they were repeatedly + repulsed with firmness; and the action at Maronga, which almost + deserved the name of a battle, was marked by a considerable loss + of satraps and elephants, perhaps of equal value in the eyes of + their monarch. These splendid advantages were not obtained + without an adequate slaughter on the side of the Romans: several + officers of distinction were either killed or wounded; and the + emperor himself, who, on all occasions of danger, inspired and + guided the valor of his troops, was obliged to expose his person, + and exert his abilities. The weight of offensive and defensive + arms, which still constituted the strength and safety of the + Romans, disabled them from making any long or effectual pursuit; + and as the horsemen of the East were trained to dart their + javelins, and shoot their arrows, at full speed, and in every + possible direction, 88 the cavalry of Persia was never more + formidable than in the moment of a rapid and disorderly flight. + But the most certain and irreparable loss of the Romans was that + of time. The hardy veterans, accustomed to the cold climate of + Gaul and Germany, fainted under the sultry heat of an Assyrian + summer; their vigor was exhausted by the incessant repetition of + march and combat; and the progress of the army was suspended by + the precautions of a slow and dangerous retreat, in the presence + of an active enemy. Every day, every hour, as the supply + diminished, the value and price of subsistence increased in the + Roman camp. 89 Julian, who always contented himself with such + food as a hungry soldier would have disdained, distributed, for + the use of the troops, the provisions of the Imperial household, + and whatever could be spared, from the sumpter-horses, of the + tribunes and generals. But this feeble relief served only to + aggravate the sense of the public distress; and the Romans began + to entertain the most gloomy apprehensions that, before they + could reach the frontiers of the empire, they should all perish, + either by famine, or by the sword of the Barbarians. 90 + + 88 (return) [ Chardin, the most judicious of modern travellers, + describes (tom. ii. p. 57, 58, &c., edit. in 4to.) the education + and dexterity of the Persian horsemen. Brissonius (de Regno + Persico, p. 650 651, &c.,) has collected the testimonies of + antiquity.] + + 89 (return) [ In Mark Antony’s retreat, an attic chœnix sold for + fifty drachmæ, or, in other words, a pound of flour for twelve or + fourteen shillings barley bread was sold for its weight in + silver. It is impossible to peruse the interesting narrative of + Plutarch, (tom. v. p. 102-116,) without perceiving that Mark + Antony and Julian were pursued by the same enemies, and involved + in the same distress.] + + 90 (return) [ Ammian. xxiv. 8, xxv. 1. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 184, + 185, 186. Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 134, 135, p. 357, 358, 359. + The sophist of Antioch appears ignorant that the troops were + hungry.] + + While Julian struggled with the almost insuperable difficulties + of his situation, the silent hours of the night were still + devoted to study and contemplation. Whenever he closed his eyes + in short and interrupted slumbers, his mind was agitated with + painful anxiety; nor can it be thought surprising, that the + Genius of the empire should once more appear before him, covering + with a funeral veil his head, and his horn of abundance, and + slowly retiring from the Imperial tent. The monarch started from + his couch, and stepping forth to refresh his wearied spirits with + the coolness of the midnight air, he beheld a fiery meteor, which + shot athwart the sky, and suddenly vanished. Julian was convinced + that he had seen the menacing countenance of the god of war; 91 + the council which he summoned, of Tuscan Haruspices, 92 + unanimously pronounced that he should abstain from action; but on + this occasion, necessity and reason were more prevalent than + superstition; and the trumpets sounded at the break of day. The + army marched through a hilly country; and the hills had been + secretly occupied by the Persians. Julian led the van with the + skill and attention of a consummate general; he was alarmed by + the intelligence that his rear was suddenly attacked. The heat of + the weather had tempted him to lay aside his cuirass; but he + snatched a shield from one of his attendants, and hastened, with + a sufficient reenforcement, to the relief of the rear-guard. A + similar danger recalled the intrepid prince to the defence of the + front; and, as he galloped through the columns, the centre of the + left was attacked, and almost overpowered by the furious charge + of the Persian cavalry and elephants. This huge body was soon + defeated, by the well-timed evolution of the light infantry, who + aimed their weapons, with dexterity and effect, against the backs + of the horsemen, and the legs of the elephants. The Barbarians + fled; and Julian, who was foremost in every danger, animated the + pursuit with his voice and gestures. His trembling guards, + scattered and oppressed by the disorderly throng of friends and + enemies, reminded their fearless sovereign that he was without + armor; and conjured him to decline the fall of the impending + ruin. As they exclaimed, 93 a cloud of darts and arrows was + discharged from the flying squadrons; and a javelin, after razing + the skin of his arm, transpierced the ribs, and fixed in the + inferior part of the liver. Julian attempted to draw the deadly + weapon from his side; but his fingers were cut by the sharpness + of the steel, and he fell senseless from his horse. His guards + flew to his relief; and the wounded emperor was gently raised + from the ground, and conveyed out of the tumult of the battle + into an adjacent tent. The report of the melancholy event passed + from rank to rank; but the grief of the Romans inspired them with + invincible valor, and the desire of revenge. The bloody and + obstinate conflict was maintained by the two armies, till they + were separated by the total darkness of the night. The Persians + derived some honor from the advantage which they obtained against + the left wing, where Anatolius, master of the offices, was slain, + and the præfect Sallust very narrowly escaped. But the event of + the day was adverse to the Barbarians. They abandoned the field; + their two generals, Meranes and Nohordates, 94 fifty nobles or + satraps, and a multitude of their bravest soldiers; and the + success of the Romans, if Julian had survived, might have been + improved into a decisive and useful victory. + + 91 (return) [ Ammian. xxv. 2. Julian had sworn in a passion, + nunquam se Marti sacra facturum, (xxiv. 6.) Such whimsical + quarrels were not uncommon between the gods and their insolent + votaries; and even the prudent Augustus, after his fleet had been + twice shipwrecked, excluded Neptune from the honors of public + processions. See Hume’s Philosophical Reflections. Essays, vol. + ii. p. 418.] + + 92 (return) [ They still retained the monopoly of the vain but + lucrative science, which had been invented in Hetruria; and + professed to derive their knowledge of signs and omens from the + ancient books of Tarquitius, a Tuscan sage.] + + 93 (return) [ Clambant hinc inde _candidati_ (see the note of + Valesius) quos terror, ut fugientium molem tanquam ruinam male + compositi culminis declinaret. Ammian. xxv 3.] + + 94 (return) [ Sapor himself declared to the Romans, that it was + his practice to comfort the families of his deceased satraps, by + sending them, as a present, the heads of the guards and officers + who had not fallen by their master’s side. Libanius, de nece + Julian. ulcis. c. xiii. p. 163.] + + The first words that Julian uttered, after his recovery from the + fainting fit into which he had been thrown by loss of blood, were + expressive of his martial spirit. He called for his horse and + arms, and was impatient to rush into the battle. His remaining + strength was exhausted by the painful effort; and the surgeons, + who examined his wound, discovered the symptoms of approaching + death. He employed the awful moments with the firm temper of a + hero and a sage; the philosophers who had accompanied him in this + fatal expedition, compared the tent of Julian with the prison of + Socrates; and the spectators, whom duty, or friendship, or + curiosity, had assembled round his couch, listened with + respectful grief to the funeral oration of their dying emperor. + 95 “Friends and fellow-soldiers, the seasonable period of my + departure is now arrived, and I discharge, with the cheerfulness + of a ready debtor, the demands of nature. I have learned from + philosophy, how much the soul is more excellent than the body; + and that the separation of the nobler substance should be the + subject of joy, rather than of affliction. I have learned from + religion, that an early death has often been the reward of piety; + 96 and I accept, as a favor of the gods, the mortal stroke that + secures me from the danger of disgracing a character, which has + hitherto been supported by virtue and fortitude. I die without + remorse, as I have lived without guilt. I am pleased to reflect + on the innocence of my private life; and I can affirm with + confidence, that the supreme authority, that emanation of the + Divine Power, has been preserved in my hands pure and immaculate. + Detesting the corrupt and destructive maxims of despotism, I have + considered the happiness of the people as the end of government. + Submitting my actions to the laws of prudence, of justice, and of + moderation, I have trusted the event to the care of Providence. + Peace was the object of my counsels, as long as peace was + consistent with the public welfare; but when the imperious voice + of my country summoned me to arms, I exposed my person to the + dangers of war, with the clear foreknowledge (which I had + acquired from the art of divination) that I was destined to fall + by the sword. I now offer my tribute of gratitude to the Eternal + Being, who has not suffered me to perish by the cruelty of a + tyrant, by the secret dagger of conspiracy, or by the slow + tortures of lingering disease. He has given me, in the midst of + an honorable career, a splendid and glorious departure from this + world; and I hold it equally absurd, equally base, to solicit, or + to decline, the stroke of fate. This much I have attempted to + say; but my strength fails me, and I feel the approach of death. + I shall cautiously refrain from any word that may tend to + influence your suffrages in the election of an emperor. My choice + might be imprudent or injudicious; and if it should not be + ratified by the consent of the army, it might be fatal to the + person whom I should recommend. I shall only, as a good citizen, + express my hopes, that the Romans may be blessed with the + government of a virtuous sovereign.” After this discourse, which + Julian pronounced in a firm and gentle tone of voice, he + distributed, by a military testament, 97 the remains of his + private fortune; and making some inquiry why Anatolius was not + present, he understood, from the answer of Sallust, that + Anatolius was killed; and bewailed, with amiable inconsistency, + the loss of his friend. At the same time he reproved the + immoderate grief of the spectators; and conjured them not to + disgrace, by unmanly tears, the fate of a prince, who in a few + moments would be united with heaven, and with the stars. 98 The + spectators were silent; and Julian entered into a metaphysical + argument with the philosophers Priscus and Maximus, on the nature + of the soul. The efforts which he made, of mind as well as body, + most probably hastened his death. His wound began to bleed with + fresh violence; his respiration was embarrassed by the swelling + of the veins; he called for a draught of cold water, and, as soon + as he had drank it, expired without pain, about the hour of + midnight. Such was the end of that extraordinary man, in the + thirty-second year of his age, after a reign of one year and + about eight months, from the death of Constantius. In his last + moments he displayed, perhaps with some ostentation, the love of + virtue and of fame, which had been the ruling passions of his + life. 99 + + 95 (return) [ The character and situation of Julian might + countenance the suspicion that he had previously composed the + elaborate oration, which Ammianus heard, and has transcribed. The + version of the Abbé de la Bleterie is faithful and elegant. I + have followed him in expressing the Platonic idea of emanations, + which is darkly insinuated in the original.] + + 96 (return) [ Herodotus (l. i. c. 31,) has displayed that + doctrine in an agreeable tale. Yet the Jupiter, (in the 16th book + of the Iliad,) who laments with tears of blood the death of + Sarpedon his son, had a very imperfect notion of happiness or + glory beyond the grave.] + + 97 (return) [ The soldiers who made their verbal or nuncupatory + testaments, upon actual service, (in procinctu,) were exempted + from the formalities of the Roman law. See Heineccius, (Antiquit. + Jur. Roman. tom. i. p. 504,) and Montesquieu, (Esprit des Loix, + l. xxvii.)] + + 98 (return) [ This union of the human soul with the divine + æthereal substance of the universe, is the ancient doctrine of + Pythagoras and Plato: but it seems to exclude any personal or + conscious immortality. See Warburton’s learned and rational + observations. Divine Legation, vol ii. p. 199-216.] + + 99 (return) [ The whole relation of the death of Julian is given + by Ammianus, (xxv. 3,) an intelligent spectator. Libanius, who + turns with horror from the scene, has supplied some + circumstances, (Orat. Parental. c 136-140, p. 359-362.) The + calumnies of Gregory, and the legends of more recent saints, may + now be _silently_ despised. * Note: A very remarkable fragment of + Eunapius describes, not without spirit, the struggle between the + terror of the army on account of their perilous situation, and + their grief for the death of Julian. “Even the vulgar felt that + they would soon provide a general, but such a general as Julian + they would never find, even though a god in the form of + man—Julian, who, with a mind equal to the divinity, triumphed + over the evil propensities of human nature,—* * who held commerce + with immaterial beings while yet in the material body—who + condescended to rule because a ruler was necessary to the welfare + of mankind.” Mai, Nov. Coll. ii. 261. Eunapius in Niebuhr, 69.] + + The triumph of Christianity, and the calamities of the empire, + may, in some measure, be ascribed to Julian himself, who had + neglected to secure the future execution of his designs, by the + timely and judicious nomination of an associate and successor. + But the royal race of Constantius Chlorus was reduced to his own + person; and if he entertained any serious thoughts of investing + with the purple the most worthy among the Romans, he was diverted + from his resolution by the difficulty of the choice, the jealousy + of power, the fear of ingratitude, and the natural presumption of + health, of youth, and of prosperity. His unexpected death left + the empire without a master, and without an heir, in a state of + perplexity and danger, which, in the space of fourscore years, + had never been experienced, since the election of Diocletian. In + a government which had almost forgotten the distinction of pure + and noble blood, the superiority of birth was of little moment; + the claims of official rank were accidental and precarious; and + the candidates, who might aspire to ascend the vacant throne + could be supported only by the consciousness of personal merit, + or by the hopes of popular favor. But the situation of a famished + army, encompassed on all sides by a host of Barbarians, shortened + the moments of grief and deliberation. In this scene of terror + and distress, the body of the deceased prince, according to his + own directions, was decently embalmed; and, at the dawn of day, + the generals convened a military senate, at which the commanders + of the legions, and the officers both of cavalry and infantry, + were invited to assist. Three or four hours of the night had not + passed away without some secret cabals; and when the election of + an emperor was proposed, the spirit of faction began to agitate + the assembly. Victor and Arinthæus collected the remains of the + court of Constantius; the friends of Julian attached themselves + to the Gallic chiefs, Dagalaiphus and Nevitta; and the most fatal + consequences might be apprehended from the discord of two + factions, so opposite in their character and interest, in their + maxims of government, and perhaps in their religious principles. + The superior virtues of Sallust could alone reconcile their + divisions, and unite their suffrages; and the venerable præfect + would immediately have been declared the successor of Julian, if + he himself, with sincere and modest firmness, had not alleged his + age and infirmities, so unequal to the weight of the diadem. The + generals, who were surprised and perplexed by his refusal, showed + some disposition to adopt the salutary advice of an inferior + officer, 100 that they should act as they would have acted in the + absence of the emperor; that they should exert their abilities to + extricate the army from the present distress; and, if they were + fortunate enough to reach the confines of Mesopotamia, they + should proceed with united and deliberate counsels in the + election of a lawful sovereign. While they debated, a few voices + saluted Jovian, who was no more than _first_ 101 of the + domestics, with the names of Emperor and Augustus. The tumultuary + acclamation 10111 was instantly repeated by the guards who + surrounded the tent, and passed, in a few minutes, to the + extremities of the line. The new prince, astonished with his own + fortune was hastily invested with the Imperial ornaments, and + received an oath of fidelity from the generals, whose favor and + protection he so lately solicited. The strongest recommendation + of Jovian was the merit of his father, Count Varronian, who + enjoyed, in honorable retirement, the fruit of his long services. + In the obscure freedom of a private station, the son indulged his + taste for wine and women; yet he supported, with credit, the + character of a Christian 102 and a soldier. Without being + conspicuous for any of the ambitious qualifications which excite + the admiration and envy of mankind, the comely person of Jovian, + his cheerful temper, and familiar wit, had gained the affection + of his fellow-soldiers; and the generals of both parties + acquiesced in a popular election, which had not been conducted by + the arts of their enemies. The pride of this unexpected elevation + was moderated by the just apprehension, that the same day might + terminate the life and reign of the new emperor. The pressing + voice of necessity was obeyed without delay; and the first orders + issued by Jovian, a few hours after his predecessor had expired, + were to prosecute a march, which could alone extricate the Romans + from their actual distress. 103 + + 100 (return) [ Honoratior aliquis miles; perhaps Ammianus + himself. The modest and judicious historian describes the scene + of the election, at which he was undoubtedly present, (xxv. 5.)] + + 101 (return) [ The _primus_ or _primicerius_ enjoyed the dignity + of a senator, and though only a tribune, he ranked with the + military dukes. Cod. Theodosian. l. vi. tit. xxiv. These + privileges are perhaps more recent than the time of Jovian.] + + 10111 (return) [ The soldiers supposed that the acclamations + proclaimed the name of Julian, restored, as they fondly thought, + to health, not that of Jovian. loc.—M.] + + 102 (return) [ The ecclesiastical historians, Socrates, (l. iii. + c. 22,) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. 3,) and Theodoret, (l. iv. c. 1,) + ascribe to Jovian the merit of a confessor under the preceding + reign; and piously suppose that he refused the purple, till the + whole army unanimously exclaimed that they were Christians. + Ammianus, calmly pursuing his narrative, overthrows the legend by + a single sentence. Hostiis pro Joviano extisque inspectis, + pronuntiatum est, &c., xxv. 6.] + + 103 (return) [ Ammianus (xxv. 10) has drawn from the life an + impartial portrait of Jovian; to which the younger Victor has + added some remarkable strokes. The Abbé de la Bleterie (Histoire + de Jovien, tom. i. p. 1-238) has composed an elaborate history of + his short reign; a work remarkably distinguished by elegance of + style, critical disquisition, and religious prejudice.] + + + + + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part V. + + + The esteem of an enemy is most sincerely expressed by his fears; + and the degree of fear may be accurately measured by the joy with + which he celebrates his deliverance. The welcome news of the + death of Julian, which a deserter revealed to the camp of Sapor, + inspired the desponding monarch with a sudden confidence of + victory. He immediately detached the royal cavalry, perhaps the + ten thousand _Immortals_, 104 to second and support the pursuit; + and discharged the whole weight of his united forces on the + rear-guard of the Romans. The rear-guard was thrown into + disorder; the renowned legions, which derived their titles from + Diocletian, and his warlike colleague, were broke and trampled + down by the elephants; and three tribunes lost their lives in + attempting to stop the flight of their soldiers. The battle was + at length restored by the persevering valor of the Romans; the + Persians were repulsed with a great slaughter of men and + elephants; and the army, after marching and fighting a long + summer’s day, arrived, in the evening, at Samara, on the banks of + the Tigris, about one hundred miles above Ctesiphon. 105 On the + ensuing day, the Barbarians, instead of harassing the march, + attacked the camp, of Jovian; which had been seated in a deep and + sequestered valley. From the hills, the archers of Persia + insulted and annoyed the wearied legionaries; and a body of + cavalry, which had penetrated with desperate courage through the + Prætorian gate, was cut in pieces, after a doubtful conflict, + near the Imperial tent. In the succeeding night, the camp of + Carche was protected by the lofty dikes of the river; and the + Roman army, though incessantly exposed to the vexatious pursuit + of the Saracens, pitched their tents near the city of Dura, 106 + four days after the death of Julian. The Tigris was still on + their left; their hopes and provisions were almost consumed; and + the impatient soldiers, who had fondly persuaded themselves that + the frontiers of the empire were not far distant, requested their + new sovereign, that they might be permitted to hazard the passage + of the river. With the assistance of his wisest officers, Jovian + endeavored to check their rashness; by representing, that if they + possessed sufficient skill and vigor to stem the torrent of a + deep and rapid stream, they would only deliver themselves naked + and defenceless to the Barbarians, who had occupied the opposite + banks, Yielding at length to their clamorous importunities, he + consented, with reluctance, that five hundred Gauls and Germans, + accustomed from their infancy to the waters of the Rhine and + Danube, should attempt the bold adventure, which might serve + either as an encouragement, or as a warning, for the rest of the + army. In the silence of the night, they swam the Tigris, + surprised an unguarded post of the enemy, and displayed at the + dawn of day the signal of their resolution and fortune. The + success of this trial disposed the emperor to listen to the + promises of his architects, who propose to construct a floating + bridge of the inflated skins of sheep, oxen, and goats, covered + with a floor of earth and fascines. 107 Two important days were + spent in the ineffectual labor; and the Romans, who already + endured the miseries of famine, cast a look of despair on the + Tigris, and upon the Barbarians; whose numbers and obstinacy + increased with the distress of the Imperial army. 108 + + 104 (return) [ Regius equitatus. It appears, from Irocopius, that + the Immortals, so famous under Cyrus and his successors, were + revived, if we may use that improper word, by the Sassanides. + Brisson de Regno Persico, p. 268, &c.] + + 105 (return) [ The obscure villages of the inland country are + irrecoverably lost; nor can we name the field of battle where + Julian fell: but M. D’Anville has demonstrated the precise + situation of Sumere, Carche, and Dura, along the banks of the + Tigris, (Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 248 L’Euphrate et le + Tigre, p. 95, 97.) In the ninth century, Sumere, or Samara, + became, with a slight change of name, the royal residence of the + khalifs of the house of Abbas. * Note: Sormanray, called by the + Arabs Samira, where D’Anville placed Samara, is too much to the + south; and is a modern town built by Caliph Morasen. + Serra-man-rai means, in Arabic, it rejoices every one who sees + it. St. Martin, iii. 133.—M.] + + 106 (return) [ Dura was a fortified place in the wars of + Antiochus against the rebels of Media and Persia, (Polybius, l. + v. c. 48, 52, p. 548, 552 edit. Casaubon, in 8vo.)] + + 107 (return) [ A similar expedient was proposed to the leaders of + the ten thousand, and wisely rejected. Xenophon, Anabasis, l. + iii. p. 255, 256, 257. It appears, from our modern travellers, + that rafts floating on bladders perform the trade and navigation + of the Tigris.] + + 108 (return) [ The first military acts of the reign of Jovian are + related by Ammianus, (xxv. 6,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 146, + p. 364,) and Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 189, 190, 191.) Though we may + distrust the fairness of Libanius, the ocular testimony of + Eutropius (uno a Persis atque altero prœlio victus, x. 17) must + incline us to suspect that Ammianus had been too jealous of the + honor of the Roman arms.] + + In this hopeless condition, the fainting spirits of the Romans + were revived by the sound of peace. The transient presumption of + Sapor had vanished: he observed, with serious concern, that, in + the repetition of doubtful combats, he had lost his most faithful + and intrepid nobles, his bravest troops, and the greatest part of + his train of elephants: and the experienced monarch feared to + provoke the resistance of despair, the vicissitudes of fortune, + and the unexhausted powers of the Roman empire; which might soon + advance to elieve, or to revenge, the successor of Julian. The + Surenas himself, accompanied by another satrap, appeared in the + camp of Jovian; 109 and declared, that the clemency of his + sovereign was not averse to signify the conditions on which he + would consent to spare and to dismiss the Cæsar with the relics + of his captive army. 10911 The hopes of safety subdued the + firmness of the Romans; the emperor was compelled, by the advice + of his council, and the cries of his soldiers, to embrace the + offer of peace; 10912 and the præfect Sallust was immediately + sent, with the general Arinthæus, to understand the pleasure of + the Great King. The crafty Persian delayed, under various + pretenses, the conclusion of the agreement; started difficulties, + required explanations, suggested expedients, receded from his + concessions, increased his demands, and wasted four days in the + arts of negotiation, till he had consumed the stock of provisions + which yet remained in the camp of the Romans. Had Jovian been + capable of executing a bold and prudent measure, he would have + continued his march, with unremitting diligence; the progress of + the treaty would have suspended the attacks of the Barbarians; + and, before the expiration of the fourth day, he might have + safely reached the fruitful province of Corduene, at the distance + only of one hundred miles. 110 The irresolute emperor, instead of + breaking through the toils of the enemy, expected his fate with + patient resignation; and accepted the humiliating conditions of + peace, which it was no longer in his power to refuse. The five + provinces beyond the Tigris, which had been ceded by the + grandfather of Sapor, were restored to the Persian monarchy. He + acquired, by a single article, the impregnable city of Nisibis; + which had sustained, in three successive sieges, the effort of + his arms. Singara, and the castle of the Moors, one of the + strongest places of Mesopotamia, were likewise dismembered from + the empire. It was considered as an indulgence, that the + inhabitants of those fortresses were permitted to retire with + their effects; but the conqueror rigorously insisted, that the + Romans should forever abandon the king and kingdom of Armenia. + 11011 A peace, or rather a long truce, of thirty years, was + stipulated between the hostile nations; the faith of the treaty + was ratified by solemn oaths and religious ceremonies; and + hostages of distinguished rank were reciprocally delivered to + secure the performance of the conditions. 111 + + 109 (return) [ Sextus Rufus (de Provinciis, c. 29) embraces a + poor subterfuge of national vanity. Tanta reverentia nominis + Romani fuit, ut a Persis _primus_ de pace sermo haberetur. ——He + is called Junius by John Malala; the same, M. St. Martin + conjectures, with a satrap of Gordyene named Jovianus, or + Jovinianus; mentioned in Ammianus Marcellinus, xviii. 6.—M.] + + 10911 (return) [ The Persian historians couch the message of + Shah-pour in these Oriental terms: “I have reassembled my + numerous army. I am resolved to revenge my subjects, who have + been plundered, made captives, and slain. It is for this that I + have bared my arm, and girded my loins. If you consent to pay the + price of the blood which has been shed, to deliver up the booty + which has been plundered, and to restore the city of Nisibis, + which is in Irak, and belongs to our empire, though now in your + possession, I will sheathe the sword of war; but should you + refuse these terms, the hoofs of my horse, which are hard as + steel, shall efface the name of the Romans from the earth; and my + glorious cimeter, that destroys like fire, shall exterminate the + people of your empire.” These authorities do not mention the + death of Julian. Malcolm’s Persia, i. 87.—M.] + + 10912 (return) [ The Paschal chronicle, not, as M. St. Martin + says, supported by John Malala, places the mission of this + ambassador before the death of Julian. The king of Persia was + then in Persarmenia, ignorant of the death of Julian; he only + arrived at the army subsequent to that event. St. Martin adopts + this view, and finds or extorts support for it, from Libanius and + Ammianus, iii. 158.—M.] + + 110 (return) [ It is presumptuous to controvert the opinion of + Ammianus, a soldier and a spectator. Yet it is difficult to + understand _how_ the mountains of Corduene could extend over the + plains of Assyria, as low as the conflux of the Tigris and the + great Zab; or _how_ an army of sixty thousand men could march one + hundred miles in four days. Note: * Yet this appears to be the + case (in modern maps: ) the march is the difficulty.—M.] + + 11011 (return) [ Sapor availed himself, a few years after, of the + dissolution of the alliance between the Romans and the Armenians. + See St. M. iii. 163.—M.] + + 111 (return) [ The treaty of Dura is recorded with grief or + indignation by Ammianus, (xxv. 7,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. + 142, p. 364,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 190, 191,) Gregory Nazianzen, + (Orat. iv. p. 117, 118, who imputes the distress to Julian, the + deliverance to Jovian,) and Eutropius, (x. 17.) The + last-mentioned writer, who was present in military station, + styles this peace necessarium quidem sed ignoblem.] + + The sophist of Antioch, who saw with indignation the sceptre of + his hero in the feeble hand of a Christian successor, professes + to admire the moderation of Sapor, in contenting himself with so + small a portion of the Roman empire. If he had stretched as far + as the Euphrates the claims of his ambition, he might have been + secure, says Libanius, of not meeting with a refusal. If he had + fixed, as the boundary of Persia, the Orontes, the Cydnus, the + Sangarius, or even the Thracian Bosphorus, flatterers would not + have been wanting in the court of Jovian to convince the timid + monarch, that his remaining provinces would still afford the most + ample gratifications of power and luxury. 112 Without adopting in + its full force this malicious insinuation, we must acknowledge, + that the conclusion of so ignominious a treaty was facilitated by + the private ambition of Jovian. The obscure domestic, exalted to + the throne by fortune, rather than by merit, was impatient to + escape from the hands of the Persians, that he might prevent the + designs of Procopius, who commanded the army of Mesopotamia, and + establish his doubtful reign over the legions and provinces which + were still ignorant of the hasty and tumultuous choice of the + camp beyond the Tigris. 113 In the neighborhood of the same + river, at no very considerable distance from the fatal station of + Dura, 114 the ten thousand Greeks, without generals, or guides, + or provisions, were abandoned, above twelve hundred miles from + their native country, to the resentment of a victorious monarch. + The difference of _their_ conduct and success depended much more + on their character than on their situation. Instead of tamely + resigning themselves to the secret deliberations and private + views of a single person, the united councils of the Greeks were + inspired by the generous enthusiasm of a popular assembly; where + the mind of each citizen is filled with the love of glory, the + pride of freedom, and the contempt of death. Conscious of their + superiority over the Barbarians in arms and discipline, they + disdained to yield, they refused to capitulate: every obstacle + was surmounted by their patience, courage, and military skill; + and the memorable retreat of the ten thousand exposed and + insulted the weakness of the Persian monarchy. 115 + + 112 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 143, p. 364, 365.] + + 113 (return) [ Conditionibus..... dispendiosis Romanæ reipublicæ + impositis.... quibus cupidior regni quam gloriæ Jovianus, imperio + rudis, adquievit. Sextus Rufus de Provinciis, c. 29. La Bleterie + has expressed, in a long, direct oration, these specious + considerations of public and private interest, (Hist. de Jovien, + tom. i. p. 39, &c.)] + + 114 (return) [ The generals were murdered on the bauks of the + Zabatus, (Ana basis, l. ii. p. 156, l. iii. p. 226,) or great + Zab, a river of Assyria, 400 feet broad, which falls into the + Tigris fourteen hours below Mosul. The error of the Greeks + bestowed on the greater and lesser Zab the names of the _Wolf_, + (Lycus,) and the _Goat_, (Capros.) They created these animals to + attend the _Tiger_ of the East.] + + 115 (return) [ The _Cyropædia_ is vague and languid; the + _Anabasis_ circumstance and animated. Such is the eternal + difference between fiction and truth.] + + As the price of his disgraceful concessions, the emperor might + perhaps have stipulated, that the camp of the hungry Romans + should be plentifully supplied; 116 and that they should be + permitted to pass the Tigris on the bridge which was constructed + by the hands of the Persians. But, if Jovian presumed to solicit + those equitable terms, they were sternly refused by the haughty + tyrant of the East, whose clemency had pardoned the invaders of + his country. The Saracens sometimes intercepted the stragglers of + the march; but the generals and troops of Sapor respected the + cessation of arms; and Jovian was suffered to explore the most + convenient place for the passage of the river. The small vessels, + which had been saved from the conflagration of the fleet, + performed the most essential service. They first conveyed the + emperor and his favorites; and afterwards transported, in many + successive voyages, a great part of the army. But, as every man + was anxious for his personal safety, and apprehensive of being + left on the hostile shore, the soldiers, who were too impatient + to wait the slow returns of the boats, boldly ventured themselves + on light hurdles, or inflated skins; and, drawing after them + their horses, attempted, with various success, to swim across the + river. Many of these daring adventurers were swallowed by the + waves; many others, who were carried along by the violence of the + stream, fell an easy prey to the avarice or cruelty of the wild + Arabs: and the loss which the army sustained in the passage of + the Tigris, was not inferior to the carnage of a day of battle. + As soon as the Romans were landed on the western bank, they were + delivered from the hostile pursuit of the Barbarians; but, in a + laborious march of two hundred miles over the plains of + Mesopotamia, they endured the last extremities of thirst and + hunger. They were obliged to traverse the sandy desert, which, in + the extent of seventy miles, did not afford a single blade of + sweet grass, nor a single spring of fresh water; and the rest of + the inhospitable waste was untrod by the footsteps either of + friends or enemies. Whenever a small measure of flour could be + discovered in the camp, twenty pounds weight were greedily + purchased with ten pieces of gold: 117 the beasts of burden were + slaughtered and devoured; and the desert was strewed with the + arms and baggage of the Roman soldiers, whose tattered garments + and meagre countenances displayed their past sufferings and + actual misery. A small convoy of provisions advanced to meet the + army as far as the castle of Ur; and the supply was the more + grateful, since it declared the fidelity of Sebastian and + Procopius. At Thilsaphata, 118 the emperor most graciously + received the generals of Mesopotamia; and the remains of a once + flourishing army at length reposed themselves under the walls of + Nisibis. The messengers of Jovian had already proclaimed, in the + language of flattery, his election, his treaty, and his return; + and the new prince had taken the most effectual measures to + secure the allegiance of the armies and provinces of Europe, by + placing the military command in the hands of those officers, who, + from motives of interest, or inclination, would firmly support + the cause of their benefactor. 119 + + 116 (return) [ According to Rufinus, an immediate supply of + provisions was stipulated by the treaty, and Theodoret affirms, + that the obligation was faithfully discharged by the Persians. + Such a fact is probable but undoubtedly false. See Tillemont, + Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 702.] + + 117 (return) [ We may recollect some lines of Lucan, (Pharsal. + iv. 95,) who describes a similar distress of Cæsar’s army in + Spain:— ——Sæva fames aderat—Miles eget: toto censu non prodigus + emit Exiguam Cererem. Proh lucri pallida tabes! Non deest prolato + jejunus venditor auro. See Guichardt (Nouveaux Mémoires + Militaires, tom. i. p. 370-382.) His analysis of the two + campaigns in Spain and Africa is the noblest monument that has + ever been raised to the fame of Cæsar.] + + 118 (return) [ M. d’Anville (see his Maps, and l’Euphrate et le + Tigre, p. 92, 93) traces their march, and assigns the true + position of Hatra, Ur, and Thilsaphata, which Ammianus has + mentioned. ——He does not complain of the Samiel, the deadly hot + wind, which Thevenot (Voyages, part ii. l. i. p. 192) so much + dreaded. ——Hatra, now Kadhr. Ur, Kasr or Skervidgi. Thilsaphata + is unknown—M.] + + 119 (return) [ The retreat of Jovian is described by Ammianus, + (xxv. 9,) Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 143, p. 365,) and Zosimus, + (l. iii. p. 194.)] + + The friends of Julian had confidently announced the success of + his expedition. They entertained a fond persuasion that the + temples of the gods would be enriched with the spoils of the + East; that Persia would be reduced to the humble state of a + tributary province, governed by the laws and magistrates of Rome; + that the Barbarians would adopt the dress, and manners, and + language of their conquerors; and that the youth of Ecbatana and + Susa would study the art of rhetoric under Grecian masters. 120 + The progress of the arms of Julian interrupted his communication + with the empire; and, from the moment that he passed the Tigris, + his affectionate subjects were ignorant of the fate and fortunes + of their prince. Their contemplation of fancied triumphs was + disturbed by the melancholy rumor of his death; and they + persisted to doubt, after they could no longer deny, the truth of + that fatal event. 121 The messengers of Jovian promulgated the + specious tale of a prudent and necessary peace; the voice of + fame, louder and more sincere, revealed the disgrace of the + emperor, and the conditions of the ignominious treaty. The minds + of the people were filled with astonishment and grief, with + indignation and terror, when they were informed, that the + unworthy successor of Julian relinquished the five provinces + which had been acquired by the victory of Galerius; and that he + shamefully surrendered to the Barbarians the important city of + Nisibis, the firmest bulwark of the provinces of the East. 122 + The deep and dangerous question, how far the public faith should + be observed, when it becomes incompatible with the public safety, + was freely agitated in popular conversation; and some hopes were + entertained that the emperor would redeem his pusillanimous + behavior by a splendid act of patriotic perfidy. The inflexible + spirit of the Roman senate had always disclaimed the unequal + conditions which were extorted from the distress of their captive + armies; and, if it were necessary to satisfy the national honor, + by delivering the guilty general into the hands of the + Barbarians, the greatest part of the subjects of Jovian would + have cheerfully acquiesced in the precedent of ancient times. 123 + + 120 (return) [ Libanius, (Orat. Parent. c. 145, p. 366.) Such + were the natural hopes and wishes of a rhetorician.] + + 121 (return) [ The people of Carrhæ, a city devoted to Paganism, + buried the inauspicious messenger under a pile of stones, + (Zosimus, l. iii. p. 196.) Libanius, when he received the fatal + intelligence, cast his eye on his sword; but he recollected that + Plato had condemned suicide, and that he must live to compose the + Panegyric of Julian, (Libanius de Vita sua, tom. ii. p. 45, 46.)] + + 122 (return) [ Ammianus and Eutropius may be admitted as fair and + credible witnesses of the public language and opinions. The + people of Antioch reviled an ignominious peace, which exposed + them to the Persians, on a naked and defenceless frontier, + (Excerpt. Valesiana, p. 845, ex Johanne Antiocheno.)] + + 123 (return) [ The Abbé de la Bleterie, (Hist. de Jovien, tom. i. + p. 212-227.) though a severe casuist, has pronounced that Jovian + was not bound to execute his promise; since he _could not_ + dismember the empire, nor alienate, without their consent, the + allegiance of his people. I have never found much delight or + instruction in such political metaphysics.] + + But the emperor, whatever might be the limits of his + constitutional authority, was the absolute master of the laws and + arms of the state; and the same motives which had forced him to + subscribe, now pressed him to execute, the treaty of peace. He + was impatient to secure an empire at the expense of a few + provinces; and the respectable names of religion and honor + concealed the personal fears and ambition of Jovian. + Notwithstanding the dutiful solicitations of the inhabitants, + decency, as well as prudence, forbade the emperor to lodge in the + palace of Nisibis; but the next morning after his arrival, + Bineses, the ambassador of Persia, entered the place, displayed + from the citadel the standard of the Great King, and proclaimed, + in his name, the cruel alternative of exile or servitude. The + principal citizens of Nisibis, who, till that fatal moment, had + confided in the protection of their sovereign, threw themselves + at his feet. They conjured him not to abandon, or, at least, not + to deliver, a faithful colony to the rage of a Barbarian tyrant, + exasperated by the three successive defeats which he had + experienced under the walls of Nisibis. They still possessed arms + and courage to repel the invaders of their country: they + requested only the permission of using them in their own defence; + and, as soon as they had asserted their independence, they should + implore the favor of being again admitted into the ranks of his + subjects. Their arguments, their eloquence, their tears, were + ineffectual. Jovian alleged, with some confusion, the sanctity of + oaths; and, as the reluctance with which he accepted the present + of a crown of gold, convinced the citizens of their hopeless + condition, the advocate Sylvanus was provoked to exclaim, “O + emperor! may you thus be crowned by all the cities of your + dominions!” Jovian, who in a few weeks had assumed the habits of + a prince, 124 was displeased with freedom, and offended with + truth: and as he reasonably supposed, that the discontent of the + people might incline them to submit to the Persian government, he + published an edict, under pain of death, that they should leave + the city within the term of three days. Ammianus has delineated + in lively colors the scene of universal despair, which he seems + to have viewed with an eye of compassion. 125 The martial youth + deserted, with indignant grief, the walls which they had so + gloriously defended: the disconsolate mourner dropped a last tear + over the tomb of a son or husband, which must soon be profaned by + the rude hand of a Barbarian master; and the aged citizen kissed + the threshold, and clung to the doors, of the house where he had + passed the cheerful and careless hours of infancy. The highways + were crowded with a trembling multitude: the distinctions of + rank, and sex, and age, were lost in the general calamity. Every + one strove to bear away some fragment from the wreck of his + fortunes; and as they could not command the immediate service of + an adequate number of horses or wagons, they were obliged to + leave behind them the greatest part of their valuable effects. + The savage insensibility of Jovian appears to have aggravated the + hardships of these unhappy fugitives. They were seated, however, + in a new-built quarter of Amida; and that rising city, with the + reenforcement of a very considerable colony, soon recovered its + former splendor, and became the capital of Mesopotamia. 126 + Similar orders were despatched by the emperor for the evacuation + of Singara and the castle of the Moors; and for the restitution + of the five provinces beyond the Tigris. Sapor enjoyed the glory + and the fruits of his victory; and this ignominious peace has + justly been considered as a memorable æra in the decline and fall + of the Roman empire. The predecessors of Jovian had sometimes + relinquished the dominion of distant and unprofitable provinces; + but, since the foundation of the city, the genius of Rome, the + god Terminus, who guarded the boundaries of the republic, had + never retired before the sword of a victorious enemy. 127 + + 124 (return) [ At Nisibis he performed a _royal_ act. A brave + officer, his namesake, who had been thought worthy of the purple, + was dragged from supper, thrown into a well, and stoned to death + without any form of trial or evidence of guilt. Anomian. xxv. 8.] + + 125 (return) [ See xxv. 9, and Zosimus, l. iii. p. 194, 195.] + + 126 (return) [ Chron. Paschal. p. 300. The ecclesiastical Notitiæ + may be consulted.] + + 127 (return) [ Zosimus, l. iii. p. 192, 193. Sextus Rufus de + Provinciis, c. 29. Augustin de Civitat. Dei, l. iv. c. 29. This + general position must be applied and interpreted with some + caution.] + + After Jovian had performed those engagements which the voice of + his people might have tempted him to violate, he hastened away + from the scene of his disgrace, and proceeded with his whole + court to enjoy the luxury of Antioch. 128 Without consulting the + dictates of religious zeal, he was prompted, by humanity and + gratitude, to bestow the last honors on the remains of his + deceased sovereign: 129 and Procopius, who sincerely bewailed the + loss of his kinsman, was removed from the command of the army, + under the decent pretence of conducting the funeral. The corpse + of Julian was transported from Nisibis to Tarsus, in a slow march + of fifteen days; and, as it passed through the cities of the + East, was saluted by the hostile factions, with mournful + lamentations and clamorous insults. The Pagans already placed + their beloved hero in the rank of those gods whose worship he had + restored; while the invectives of the Christians pursued the soul + of the Apostate to hell, and his body to the grave. 130 One party + lamented the approaching ruin of their altars; the other + celebrated the marvellous deliverance of their church. The + Christians applauded, in lofty and ambiguous strains, the stroke + of divine vengeance, which had been so long suspended over the + guilty head of Julian. They acknowledge, that the death of the + tyrant, at the instant he expired beyond the Tigris, was + _revealed_ to the saints of Egypt, Syria, and Cappadocia; 131 and + instead of suffering him to fall by the Persian darts, their + indiscretion ascribed the heroic deed to the obscure hand of some + mortal or immortal champion of the faith. 132 Such imprudent + declarations were eagerly adopted by the malice, or credulity, of + their adversaries; 133 who darkly insinuated, or confidently + asserted, that the governors of the church had instigated and + directed the fanaticism of a domestic assassin. 134 Above sixteen + years after the death of Julian, the charge was solemnly and + vehemently urged, in a public oration, addressed by Libanius to + the emperor Theodosius. His suspicions are unsupported by fact or + argument; and we can only esteem the generous zeal of the sophist + of Antioch for the cold and neglected ashes of his friend. 135 + + 128 (return) [ Ammianus, xxv. 9. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 196. He + might be edax, vino Venerique indulgens. But I agree with La + Bleterie (tom. i. p. 148-154) in rejecting the foolish report of + a Bacchanalian riot (ap. Suidam) celebrated at Antioch, by the + emperor, his _wife_, and a troop of concubines.] + + 129 (return) [ The Abbé de la Bleterie (tom. i. p. 156-209) + handsomely exposes the brutal bigotry of Baronius, who would have + thrown Julian to the dogs, ne cespititia quidem sepultura + dignus.] + + 130 (return) [ Compare the sophist and the saint, (Libanius, + Monod. tom. ii. p. 251, and Orat. Parent. c. 145, p. 367, c. 156, + p. 377, with Gregory Nazianzen, Orat. iv. p. 125-132.) The + Christian orator faintly mutters some exhortations to modesty and + forgiveness; but he is well satisfied, that the real sufferings + of Julian will far exceed the fabulous torments of Ixion or + Tantalus.] + + 131 (return) [ Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 549) + has collected these visions. Some saint or angel was observed to + be absent in the night, on a secret expedition, &c.] + + 132 (return) [ Sozomen (l. vi. 2) applauds the Greek doctrine of + _tyrannicide;_ but the whole passage, which a Jesuit might have + translated, is prudently suppressed by the president Cousin.] + + 133 (return) [ Immediately after the death of Julian, an + uncertain rumor was scattered, telo cecidisse Romano. It was + carried, by some deserters to the Persian camp; and the Romans + were reproached as the assassins of the emperor by Sapor and his + subjects, (Ammian. xxv. 6. Libanius de ulciscenda Juliani nece, + c. xiii. p. 162, 163.) It was urged, as a decisive proof, that no + Persian had appeared to claim the promised reward, (Liban. Orat. + Parent. c. 141, p. 363.) But the flying horseman, who darted the + fatal javelin, might be ignorant of its effect; or he might be + slain in the same action. Ammianus neither feels nor inspires a + suspicion.] + + 134 (return) [ This dark and ambiguous expression may point to + Athanasius, the first, without a rival, of the Christian clergy, + (Libanius de ulcis. Jul. nece, c. 5, p. 149. La Bleterie, Hist. + de Jovien, tom. i. p. 179.)] + + 135 (return) [ The orator (Fabricius, Bibliot. Græc. tom. vii. p. + 145-179) scatters suspicions, demands an inquiry, and insinuates, + that proofs might still be obtained. He ascribes the success of + the Huns to the criminal neglect of revenging Julian’s death.] + + It was an ancient custom in the funerals, as well as in the + triumphs, of the Romans, that the voice of praise should be + corrected by that of satire and ridicule; and that, in the midst + of the splendid pageants, which displayed the glory of the living + or of the dead, their imperfections should not be concealed from + the eyes of the world. 136 This custom was practised in the + funeral of Julian. The comedians, who resented his contempt and + aversion for the theatre, exhibited, with the applause of a + Christian audience, the lively and exaggerated representation of + the faults and follies of the deceased emperor. His various + character and singular manners afforded an ample scope for + pleasantry and ridicule. 137 In the exercise of his uncommon + talents, he often descended below the majesty of his rank. + Alexander was transformed into Diogenes; the philosopher was + degraded into a priest. The purity of his virtue was sullied by + excessive vanity; his superstition disturbed the peace, and + endangered the safety, of a mighty empire; and his irregular + sallies were the less entitled to indulgence, as they appeared to + be the laborious efforts of art, or even of affectation. The + remains of Julian were interred at Tarsus in Cilicia; but his + stately tomb, which arose in that city, on the banks of the cold + and limpid Cydnus, 138 was displeasing to the faithful friends, + who loved and revered the memory of that extraordinary man. The + philosopher expressed a very reasonable wish, that the disciple + of Plato might have reposed amidst the groves of the academy; 139 + while the soldier exclaimed, in bolder accents, that the ashes of + Julian should have been mingled with those of Cæsar, in the field + of Mars, and among the ancient monuments of Roman virtue. 140 The + history of princes does not very frequently renew the examples of + a similar competition. + + 136 (return) [ At the funeral of Vespasian, the comedian who + personated that frugal emperor, anxiously inquired how much it + cost. Fourscore thousand pounds, (centies.) Give me the tenth + part of the sum, and throw my body into the Tiber. Sueton, in + Vespasian, c. 19, with the notes of Casaubon and Gronovius.] + + 137 (return) [ Gregory (Orat. iv. p. 119, 120) compares this + supposed ignominy and ridicule to the funeral honors of + Constantius, whose body was chanted over Mount Taurus by a choir + of angels.] + + 138 (return) [ Quintus Curtius, l. iii. c. 4. The luxuriancy of + his descriptions has been often censured. Yet it was almost the + duty of the historian to describe a river, whose waters had + nearly proved fatal to Alexander.] + + 139 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. 156, p. 377. Yet he + acknowledges with gratitude the liberality of the two royal + brothers in decorating the tomb of Julian, (de ulcis. Jul. nece, + c. 7, p. 152.)] + + 140 (return) [ Cujus suprema et cineres, si qui tunc juste + consuleret, non Cydnus videre deberet, quamvis gratissimus amnis + et liquidus: sed ad perpetuandam gloriam recte factorum + præterlambere Tiberis, intersecans urbem æternam, divorumque + veterum monumenta præstringens Ammian. xxv. 10.] + + + + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part I. + + The Government And Death Of Jovian.—Election Of Valentinian, Who + Associates His Brother Valens, And Makes The Final Division Of The + Eastern And Western Empires.— Revolt Of Procopius.—Civil And + Ecclesiastical Administration.—Germany. —Britain.—Africa.—The + East.— The Danube.—Death Of Valentinian.—His Two Sons, Gratian And + Valentinian II., Succeed To The Western Empire. + + + The death of Julian had left the public affairs of the empire in + a very doubtful and dangerous situation. The Roman army was saved + by an inglorious, perhaps a necessary treaty; 1 and the first + moments of peace were consecrated by the pious Jovian to restore + the domestic tranquility of the church and state. The + indiscretion of his predecessor, instead of reconciling, had + artfully fomented the religious war: and the balance which he + affected to preserve between the hostile factions, served only to + perpetuate the contest, by the vicissitudes of hope and fear, by + the rival claims of ancient possession and actual favor. The + Christians had forgotten the spirit of the gospel; and the Pagans + had imbibed the spirit of the church. In private families, the + sentiments of nature were extinguished by the blind fury of zeal + and revenge: the majesty of the laws was violated or abused; the + cities of the East were stained with blood; and the most + implacable enemies of the Romans were in the bosom of their + country. Jovian was educated in the profession of Christianity; + and as he marched from Nisibis to Antioch, the banner of the + Cross, the Labarum of Constantine, which was again displayed at + the head of the legions, announced to the people the faith of + their new emperor. As soon as he ascended the throne, he + transmitted a circular epistle to all the governors of provinces; + in which he confessed the divine truth, and secured the legal + establishment, of the Christian religion. The insidious edicts of + Julian were abolished; the ecclesiastical immunities were + restored and enlarged; and Jovian condescended to lament, that + the distress of the times obliged him to diminish the measure of + charitable distributions. 2 The Christians were unanimous in the + loud and sincere applause which they bestowed on the pious + successor of Julian. But they were still ignorant what creed, or + what synod, he would choose for the standard of orthodoxy; and + the peace of the church immediately revived those eager disputes + which had been suspended during the season of persecution. The + episcopal leaders of the contending sects, convinced, from + experience, how much their fate would depend on the earliest + impressions that were made on the mind of an untutored soldier, + hastened to the court of Edessa, or Antioch. The highways of the + East were crowded with Homoousian, and Arian, and Semi-Arian, and + Eunomian bishops, who struggled to outstrip each other in the + holy race: the apartments of the palace resounded with their + clamors; and the ears of the prince were assaulted, and perhaps + astonished, by the singular mixture of metaphysical argument and + passionate invective. 3 The moderation of Jovian, who recommended + concord and charity, and referred the disputants to the sentence + of a future council, was interpreted as a symptom of + indifference: but his attachment to the Nicene creed was at + length discovered and declared, by the reverence which he + expressed for the _celestial_ 4 virtues of the great Athanasius. + The intrepid veteran of the faith, at the age of seventy, had + issued from his retreat on the first intelligence of the tyrant’s + death. The acclamations of the people seated him once more on the + archiepiscopal throne; and he wisely accepted, or anticipated, + the invitation of Jovian. The venerable figure of Athanasius, his + calm courage, and insinuating eloquence, sustained the reputation + which he had already acquired in the courts of four successive + princes. 5 As soon as he had gained the confidence, and secured + the faith, of the Christian emperor, he returned in triumph to + his diocese, and continued, with mature counsels and undiminished + vigor, to direct, ten years longer, 6 the ecclesiastical + government of Alexandria, Egypt, and the Catholic church. Before + his departure from Antioch, he assured Jovian that his orthodox + devotion would be rewarded with a long and peaceful reign. + Athanasius, had reason to hope, that he should be allowed either + the merit of a successful prediction, or the excuse of a grateful + though ineffectual prayer. 7 + + 1 (return) [ The medals of Jovian adorn him with victories, + laurel crowns, and prostrate captives. Ducange, Famil. Byzantin. + p. 52. Flattery is a foolish suicide; she destroys herself with + her own hands.] + + 2 (return) [ Jovian restored to the church a forcible and + comprehensive expression, (Philostorgius, l. viii. c. 5, with + Godefroy’s Dissertations, p. 329. Sozomen, l. vi. c. 3.) The new + law which condemned the rape or marriage of nuns (Cod. Theod. l. + ix. tit. xxv. leg. 2) is exaggerated by Sozomen; who supposes, + that an amorous glance, the adultery of the heart, was punished + with death by the evangelic legislator.] + + 3 (return) [ Compare Socrates, l. iii. c. 25, and Philostorgius, + l. viii. c. 6, with Godefroy’s Dissertations, p. 330.] + + 4 (return) [ The word _celestial_ faintly expresses the impious + and extravagant flattery of the emperor to the archbishop. (See + the original epistle in Athanasius, tom. ii. p. 33.) Gregory + Nazianzen (Orat. xxi. p. 392) celebrates the friendship of Jovian + and Athanasius. The primate’s journey was advised by the Egyptian + monks, (Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 221.)] + + 5 (return) [ Athanasius, at the court of Antioch, is agreeably + represented by La Bleterie, (Hist. de Jovien, tom. i. p. + 121-148;) he translates the singular and original conferences of + the emperor, the primate of Egypt, and the Arian deputies. The + Abbé is not satisfied with the coarse pleasantry of Jovian; but + his partiality for Athanasius assumes, in _his_ eyes, the + character of justice.] + + 6 (return) [ The true area of his death is perplexed with some + difficulties, (Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 719-723.) + But the date (A. D. 373, May 2) which seems the most consistent + with history and reason, is ratified by his authentic life, + (Maffei Osservazioni Letterarie, tom. iii. p. 81.)] + + 7 (return) [ See the observations of Valesius and Jortin (Remarks + on Ecclesiastical History, vol. iv. p. 38) on the original letter + of Athanasius; which is preserved by Theodoret, (l. iv. c. 3.) In + some Mss. this indiscreet promise is omitted; perhaps by the + Catholics, jealous of the prophetic fame of their leader.] + + The slightest force, when it is applied to assist and guide the + natural descent of its object, operates with irresistible weight; + and Jovian had the good fortune to embrace the religious opinions + which were supported by the spirit of the times, and the zeal and + numbers of the most powerful sect. 8 Under his reign, + Christianity obtained an easy and lasting victory; and as soon as + the smile of royal patronage was withdrawn, the genius of + Paganism, which had been fondly raised and cherished by the arts + of Julian, sunk irrecoverably in the. In many cities, the temples + were shut or deserted: the philosophers who had abused their + transient favor, thought it prudent to shave their beards, and + disguise their profession; and the Christians rejoiced, that they + were now in a condition to forgive, or to revenge, the injuries + which they had suffered under the preceding reign. 9 The + consternation of the Pagan world was dispelled by a wise and + gracious edict of toleration; in which Jovian explicitly + declared, that although he should severely punish the + sacrilegious rites of magic, his subjects might exercise, with + freedom and safety, the ceremonies of the ancient worship. The + memory of this law has been preserved by the orator Themistius, + who was deputed by the senate of Constantinople to express their + royal devotion for the new emperor. Themistius expatiates on the + clemency of the Divine Nature, the facility of human error, the + rights of conscience, and the independence of the mind; and, with + some eloquence, inculcates the principles of philosophical + toleration; whose aid Superstition herself, in the hour of her + distress, is not ashamed to implore. He justly observes, that in + the recent changes, both religions had been alternately disgraced + by the seeming acquisition of worthless proselytes, of those + votaries of the reigning purple, who could pass, without a + reason, and without a blush, from the church to the temple, and + from the altars of Jupiter to the sacred table of the Christians. + 10 + + 8 (return) [ Athanasius (apud Theodoret, l. iv. c. 3) magnifies + the number of the orthodox, who composed the whole world. This + assertion was verified in the space of thirty and forty years.] + + 9 (return) [ Socrates, l. iii. c. 24. Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. + iv. p. 131) and Libanius (Orat. Parentalis, c. 148, p. 369) + expresses the _living_ sentiments of their respective factions.] + + 10 (return) [ Themistius, Orat. v. p. 63-71, edit. Harduin, + Paris, 1684. The Abbé de la Bleterie judiciously remarks, (Hist. + de Jovien, tom. i. p. 199,) that Sozomen has forgot the general + toleration; and Themistius the establishment of the Catholic + religion. Each of them turned away from the object which he + disliked, and wished to suppress the part of the edict the least + honorable, in his opinion, to the emperor.] + + In the space of seven months, the Roman troops, who were now + returned to Antioch, had performed a march of fifteen hundred + miles; in which they had endured all the hardships of war, of + famine, and of climate. Notwithstanding their services, their + fatigues, and the approach of winter, the timid and impatient + Jovian allowed only, to the men and horses, a respite of six + weeks. The emperor could not sustain the indiscreet and malicious + raillery of the people of Antioch. 11 He was impatient to possess + the palace of Constantinople; and to prevent the ambition of some + competitor, who might occupy the vacant allegiance of Europe. But + he soon received the grateful intelligence, that his authority + was acknowledged from the Thracian Bosphorus to the Atlantic + Ocean. By the first letters which he despatched from the camp of + Mesopotamia, he had delegated the military command of Gaul and + Illyricum to Malarich, a brave and faithful officer of the nation + of the Franks; and to his father-in-law, Count Lucillian, who had + formerly distinguished his courage and conduct in the defence of + Nisibis. Malarich had declined an office to which he thought + himself unequal; and Lucillian was massacred at Rheims, in an + accidental mutiny of the Batavian cohorts. 12 But the moderation + of Jovinus, master-general of the cavalry, who forgave the + intention of his disgrace, soon appeased the tumult, and + confirmed the uncertain minds of the soldiers. The oath of + fidelity was administered and taken, with loyal acclamations; and + the deputies of the Western armies 13 saluted their new sovereign + as he descended from Mount Taurus to the city of Tyana in + Cappadocia. From Tyana he continued his hasty march to Ancyra, + capital of the province of Galatia; where Jovian assumed, with + his infant son, the name and ensigns of the consulship. 14 + Dadastana, 15 an obscure town, almost at an equal distance + between Ancyra and Nice, was marked for the fatal term of his + journey and life. After indulging himself with a plentiful, + perhaps an intemperate, supper, he retired to rest; and the next + morning the emperor Jovian was found dead in his bed. The cause + of this sudden death was variously understood. By some it was + ascribed to the consequences of an indigestion, occasioned either + by the quantity of the wine, or the quality of the mushrooms, + which he had swallowed in the evening. According to others, he + was suffocated in his sleep by the vapor of charcoal, which + extracted from the walls of the apartment the unwholesome + moisture of the fresh plaster. 16 But the want of a regular + inquiry into the death of a prince, whose reign and person were + soon forgotten, appears to have been the only circumstance which + countenanced the malicious whispers of poison and domestic guilt. + 17 The body of Jovian was sent to Constantinople, to be interred + with his predecessors, and the sad procession was met on the road + by his wife Charito, the daughter of Count Lucillian; who still + wept the recent death of her father, and was hastening to dry her + tears in the embraces of an Imperial husband. Her disappointment + and grief were imbittered by the anxiety of maternal tenderness. + Six weeks before the death of Jovian, his infant son had been + placed in the curule chair, adorned with the title of + _Nobilissimus_, and the vain ensigns of the consulship. + Unconscious of his fortune, the royal youth, who, from his + grandfather, assumed the name of Varronian, was reminded only by + the jealousy of the government, that he was the son of an + emperor. Sixteen years afterwards he was still alive, but he had + already been deprived of an eye; and his afflicted mother + expected every hour, that the innocent victim would be torn from + her arms, to appease, with his blood, the suspicions of the + reigning prince. 18 + + 11 (return) [ Johan. Antiochen. in Excerpt. Valesian. p. 845. The + libels of Antioch may be admitted on very slight evidence.] + + 12 (return) [ Compare Ammianus, (xxv. 10,) who omits the name of + the Batarians, with Zosimus, (l. iii. p. 197,) who removes the + scene of action from Rheims to Sirmium.] + + 13 (return) [ Quos capita scholarum ordo castrensis appellat. + Ammian. xxv. 10, and Vales. ad locum.] + + 14 (return) [ Cugus vagitus, pertinaciter reluctantis, ne in + curuli sella veheretur ex more, id quod mox accidit protendebat. + Augustus and his successors respectfully solicited a dispensation + of age for the sons or nephews whom they raised to the + consulship. But the curule chair of the first Brutus had never + been dishonored by an infant.] + + 15 (return) [ The Itinerary of Antoninus fixes Dadastana 125 + Roman miles from Nice; 117 from Ancyra, (Wesseling, Itinerar. p. + 142.) The pilgrim of Bourdeaux, by omitting some stages, reduces + the whole space from 242 to 181 miles. Wesseling, p. 574. * Note: + Dadastana is supposed to be Castabat.—M.] + + 16 (return) [ See Ammianus, (xxv. 10,) Eutropius, (x. 18.) who + might likewise be present, Jerom, (tom. i. p. 26, ad Heliodorum.) + Orosius, (vii. 31,) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. 6,) Zosimus, (l. iii. p. + 197, 198,) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xiii. p. 28, 29.) We cannot + expect a perfect agreement, and we shall not discuss minute + differences.] + + 17 (return) [ Ammianus, unmindful of his usual candor and good + sense, compares the death of the harmless Jovian to that of the + second Africanus, who had excited the fears and resentment of the + popular faction.] + + 18 (return) [ Chrysostom, tom. i. p. 336, 344, edit. Montfaucon. + The Christian orator attempts to comfort a widow by the examples + of illustrious misfortunes; and observes, that of nine emperors + (including the Cæsar Gallus) who had reigned in his time, only + two (Constantine and Constantius) died a natural death. Such + vague consolations have never wiped away a single tear.] + + After the death of Jovian, the throne of the Roman world remained + ten days, 19 without a master. The ministers and generals still + continued to meet in council; to exercise their respective + functions; to maintain the public order; and peaceably to conduct + the army to the city of Nice in Bithynia, which was chosen for + the place of the election. 20 In a solemn assembly of the civil + and military powers of the empire, the diadem was again + unanimously offered to the præfect Sallust. He enjoyed the glory + of a second refusal: and when the virtues of the father were + alleged in favor of his son, the præfect, with the firmness of a + disinterested patriot, declared to the electors, that the feeble + age of the one, and the unexperienced youth of the other, were + equally incapable of the laborious duties of government. Several + candidates were proposed; and, after weighing the objections of + character or situation, they were successively rejected; but, as + soon as the name of Valentinian was pronounced, the merit of that + officer united the suffrages of the whole assembly, and obtained + the sincere approbation of Sallust himself. Valentinian 21 was + the son of Count Gratian, a native of Cibalis, in Pannonia, who + from an obscure condition had raised himself, by matchless + strength and dexterity, to the military commands of Africa and + Britain; from which he retired with an ample fortune and + suspicious integrity. The rank and services of Gratian + contributed, however, to smooth the first steps of the promotion + of his son; and afforded him an early opportunity of displaying + those solid and useful qualifications, which raised his character + above the ordinary level of his fellow-soldiers. The person of + Valentinian was tall, graceful, and majestic. His manly + countenance, deeply marked with the impression of sense and + spirit, inspired his friends with awe, and his enemies with fear; + and to second the efforts of his undaunted courage, the son of + Gratian had inherited the advantages of a strong and healthy + constitution. By the habits of chastity and temperance, which + restrain the appetites and invigorate the faculties, Valentinian + preserved his own and the public esteem. The avocations of a + military life had diverted his youth from the elegant pursuits of + literature; 2111 he was ignorant of the Greek language, and the + arts of rhetoric; but as the mind of the orator was never + disconcerted by timid perplexity, he was able, as often as the + occasion prompted him, to deliver his decided sentiments with + bold and ready elocution. The laws of martial discipline were the + only laws that he had studied; and he was soon distinguished by + the laborious diligence, and inflexible severity, with which he + discharged and enforced the duties of the camp. In the time of + Julian he provoked the danger of disgrace, by the contempt which + he publicly expressed for the reigning religion; 22 and it should + seem, from his subsequent conduct, that the indiscreet and + unseasonable freedom of Valentinian was the effect of military + spirit, rather than of Christian zeal. He was pardoned, however, + and still employed by a prince who esteemed his merit; 23 and in + the various events of the Persian war, he improved the reputation + which he had already acquired on the banks of the Rhine. The + celerity and success with which he executed an important + commission, recommended him to the favor of Jovian; and to the + honorable command of the second _school_, or company, of + Targetiers, of the domestic guards. In the march from Antioch, he + had reached his quarters at Ancyra, when he was unexpectedly + summoned, without guilt and without intrigue, to assume, in the + forty-third year of his age, the absolute government of the Roman + empire. + + 19 (return) [ Ten days appear scarcely sufficient for the march + and election. But it may be observed, 1. That the generals might + command the expeditious use of the public posts for themselves, + their attendants, and messengers. 2. That the troops, for the + ease of the cities, marched in many divisions; and that the head + of the column might arrive at Nice, when the rear halted at + Ancyra.] + + 20 (return) [ Ammianus, xxvi. 1. Zosimus, l. iii. p. 198. + Philostorgius, l. viii. c. 8, and Godefroy, Dissertat. p. 334. + Philostorgius, who appears to have obtained some curious and + authentic intelligence, ascribes the choice of Valentinian to the + præfect Sallust, the master-general Arintheus, Dagalaiphus count + of the domestics, and the patrician Datianus, whose pressing + recommendations from Ancyra had a weighty influence in the + election.] + + 21 (return) [ Ammianus (xxx. 7, 9) and the younger Victor have + furnished the portrait of Valentinian, which naturally precedes + and illustrates the history of his reign. * Note: Symmachus, in a + fragment of an oration published by M. Mai, describes Valentinian + as born among the snows of Illyria, and habituated to military + labor amid the heat and dust of Libya: genitus in frigoribus, + educatus is solibus Sym. Orat. Frag. edit. Niebuhr, p. 5.—M.] + + 2111 (return) [ According to Ammianus, he wrote elegantly, and + was skilled in painting and modelling. Scribens decore, + venusteque pingens et fingens. xxx. 7.—M.] + + 22 (return) [ At Antioch, where he was obliged to attend the + emperor to the table, he struck a priest, who had presumed to + purify him with lustral water, (Sozomen, l. vi. c. 6. Theodoret, + l. iii. c. 15.) Such public defiance might become Valentinian; + but it could leave no room for the unworthy delation of the + philosopher Maximus, which supposes some more private offence, + (Zosimus, l. iv. p. 200, 201.)] + + 23 (return) [ Socrates, l. iv. A previous exile to Melitene, or + Thebais (the first might be possible,) is interposed by Sozomen + (l. vi. c. 6) and Philostorgius, (l. vii. c. 7, with Godefroy’s + Dissertations, p. 293.)] + + The invitation of the ministers and generals at Nice was of + little moment, unless it were confirmed by the voice of the army. + + The aged Sallust, who had long observed the irregular + fluctuations of popular assemblies, proposed, under pain of + death, that none of those persons, whose rank in the service + might excite a party in their favor, should appear in public on + the day of the inauguration. Yet such was the prevalence of + ancient superstition, that a whole day was voluntarily added to + this dangerous interval, because it happened to be the + intercalation of the Bissextile. 24 At length, when the hour was + supposed to be propitious, Valentinian showed himself from a + lofty tribunal; the judicious choice was applauded; and the new + prince was solemnly invested with the diadem and the purple, + amidst the acclamation of the troops, who were disposed in + martial order round the tribunal. But when he stretched forth his + hand to address the armed multitude, a busy whisper was + accidentally started in the ranks, and insensibly swelled into a + loud and imperious clamor, that he should name, without delay, a + colleague in the empire. The intrepid calmness of Valentinian + obtained silence, and commanded respect; and he thus addressed + the assembly: “A few minutes since it was in _your_ power, + fellow-soldiers, to have left me in the obscurity of a private + station. Judging, from the testimony of my past life, that I + deserved to reign, you have placed me on the throne. It is now + _my_ duty to consult the safety and interest of the republic. The + weight of the universe is undoubtedly too great for the hands of + a feeble mortal. I am conscious of the limits of my abilities, + and the uncertainty of my life; and far from declining, I am + anxious to solicit, the assistance of a worthy colleague. But, + where discord may be fatal, the choice of a faithful friend + requires mature and serious deliberation. That deliberation shall + be _my_ care. Let _your_ conduct be dutiful and consistent. + Retire to your quarters; refresh your minds and bodies; and + expect the accustomed donative on the accession of a new + emperor.” 25 The astonished troops, with a mixture of pride, of + satisfaction, and of terror, confessed the voice of their master. + + Their angry clamors subsided into silent reverence; and + Valentinian, encompassed with the eagles of the legions, and the + various banners of the cavalry and infantry, was conducted, in + warlike pomp, to the palace of Nice. As he was sensible, however, + of the importance of preventing some rash declaration of the + soldiers, he consulted the assembly of the chiefs; and their real + sentiments were concisely expressed by the generous freedom of + Dagalaiphus. “Most excellent prince,” said that officer, “if you + consider only your family, you have a brother; if you love the + republic, look round for the most deserving of the Romans.” 26 + The emperor, who suppressed his displeasure, without altering his + intention, slowly proceeded from Nice to Nicomedia and + Constantinople. In one of the suburbs of that capital, 27 thirty + days after his own elevation, he bestowed the title of Augustus + on his brother Valens; 2711 and as the boldest patriots were + convinced, that their opposition, without being serviceable to + their country, would be fatal to themselves, the declaration of + his absolute will was received with silent submission. Valens was + now in the thirty-sixth year of his age; but his abilities had + never been exercised in any employment, military or civil; and + his character had not inspired the world with any sanguine + expectations. He possessed, however, one quality, which + recommended him to Valentinian, and preserved the domestic peace + of the empire; devout and grateful attachment to his benefactor, + whose superiority of genius, as well as of authority, Valens + humbly and cheerfully acknowledged in every action of his life. + 28 + + 24 (return) [ Ammianus, in a long, because unseasonable, + digression, (xxvi. l, and Valesius, ad locum,) rashly supposes + that he understands an astronomical question, of which his + readers are ignorant. It is treated with more judgment and + propriety by Censorinus (de Die Natali, c. 20) and Macrobius, + (Saturnal. i. c. 12-16.) The appellation of _Bissextile_, which + marks the inauspicious year, (Augustin. ad Januarium, Epist. + 119,) is derived from the _repetition_ of the _sixth_ day of the + calends of March.] + + 25 (return) [ Valentinian’s first speech is in Ammianus, (xxvi. + 2;) concise and sententious in Philostorgius, (l. viii. c. 8.)] + + 26 (return) [ Si tuos amas, Imperator optime, habes fratrem; si + Rempublicam quære quem vestias. Ammian. xxvi. 4. In the division + of the empire, Valentinian retained that sincere counsellor for + himself, (c.6.)] + + 27 (return) [ In suburbano, Ammian. xxvi. 4. The famous + _Hebdomon_, or field of Mars, was distant from Constantinople + either seven stadia, or seven miles. See Valesius, and his + brother, ad loc., and Ducange, Const. l. ii. p. 140, 141, 172, + 173.] + + 2711 (return) [ Symmachus praises the liberality of Valentinian + in raising his brother at once to the rank of Augustus, not + training him through the slow and probationary degree of Cæsar. + Exigui animi vices munerum partiuntur, liberalitas desideriis + nihil reliquit. Symm. Orat. p. 7. edit. Niebuhr, 1816, reprinted + from Mai.—M.] + + 28 (return) [ Participem quidem legitimum potestatis; sed in + modum apparitoris morigerum, ut progrediens aperiet textus. + Ammian. xxvi. 4.] + + + + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part II. + + + Before Valentinian divided the provinces, he reformed the + administration of the empire. All ranks of subjects, who had been + injured or oppressed under the reign of Julian, were invited to + support their public accusations. The silence of mankind attested + the spotless integrity of the præfect Sallust; 29 and his own + pressing solicitations, that he might be permitted to retire from + the business of the state, were rejected by Valentinian with the + most honorable expressions of friendship and esteem. But among + the favorites of the late emperor, there were many who had abused + his credulity or superstition; and who could no longer hope to be + protected either by favor or justice. 30 The greater part of the + ministers of the palace, and the governors of the provinces, were + removed from their respective stations; yet the eminent merit of + some officers was distinguished from the obnoxious crowd; and, + notwithstanding the opposite clamors of zeal and resentment, the + whole proceedings of this delicate inquiry appear to have been + conducted with a reasonable share of wisdom and moderation. 31 + The festivity of a new reign received a short and suspicious + interruption from the sudden illness of the two princes; but as + soon as their health was restored, they left Constantinople in + the beginning of the spring. In the castle, or palace, of + Mediana, only three miles from Naissus, they executed the solemn + and final division of the Roman empire. 32 Valentinian bestowed + on his brother the rich præfecture of the _East_, from the Lower + Danube to the confines of Persia; whilst he reserved for his + immediate government the warlike 3211 præfectures of _Illyricum, + Italy_, and _Gaul_, from the extremity of Greece to the + Caledonian rampart, and from the rampart of Caledonia to the foot + of Mount Atlas. The provincial administration remained on its + former basis; but a double supply of generals and magistrates was + required for two councils, and two courts: the division was made + with a just regard to their peculiar merit and situation, and + seven master-generals were soon created, either of the cavalry or + infantry. When this important business had been amicably + transacted, Valentinian and Valens embraced for the last time. + The emperor of the West established his temporary residence at + Milan; and the emperor of the East returned to Constantinople, to + assume the dominion of fifty provinces, of whose language he was + totally ignorant. 33 + + 29 (return) [ Notwithstanding the evidence of Zonaras, Suidas, + and the Paschal Chronicle, M. de Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, + tom. v. p. 671) _wishes_ to disbelieve those stories, si + avantageuses à un payen.] + + 30 (return) [ Eunapius celebrates and exaggerates the sufferings + of Maximus. (p. 82, 83;) yet he allows that the sophist or + magician, the guilty favorite of Julian, and the personal enemy + of Valentinian, was dismissed on the payment of a small fine.] + + 31 (return) [ The loose assertions of a general disgrace + (Zosimus, l. iv. p. 201), are detected and refuted by Tillemont, + (tom. v. p. 21.)] + + 32 (return) [ Ammianus, xxvi. 5.] + + 3211 (return) [ Ipse supra impacati Rhen semibarbaras ripas + raptim vexilla constituens * * Princeps creatus ad difficilem + militiam revertisti. Symm. Orat. 81.—M.] + + 33 (return) [ Ammianus says, in general terms, subagrestis + ingenii, nec bellicis nec liberalibus studiis eruditus. Ammian. + xxxi. 14. The orator Themistius, with the genuine impertinence of + a Greek, wishes for the first time to speak the Latin language, + the dialect of his sovereign. Orat. vi. p. 71.] + + The tranquility of the East was soon disturbed by rebellion; and + the throne of Valens was threatened by the daring attempts of a + rival whose affinity to the emperor Julian 34 was his sole merit, + and had been his only crime. Procopius had been hastily promoted + from the obscure station of a tribune, and a notary, to the joint + command of the army of Mesopotamia; the public opinion already + named him as the successor of a prince who was destitute of + natural heirs; and a vain rumor was propagated by his friends, or + his enemies, that Julian, before the altar of the Moon at Carrhæ, + had privately invested Procopius with the Imperial purple. 35 He + endeavored, by his dutiful and submissive behavior, to disarm the + jealousy of Jovian; resigned, without a contest, his military + command; and retired, with his wife and family, to cultivate the + ample patrimony which he possessed in the province of Cappadocia. + These useful and innocent occupations were interrupted by the + appearance of an officer with a band of soldiers, who, in the + name of his new sovereigns, Valentinian and Valens, was + despatched to conduct the unfortunate Procopius either to a + perpetual prison or an ignominious death. His presence of mind + procured him a longer respite, and a more splendid fate. Without + presuming to dispute the royal mandate, he requested the + indulgence of a few moments to embrace his weeping family; and + while the vigilance of his guards was relaxed by a plentiful + entertainment, he dexterously escaped to the sea-coast of the + Euxine, from whence he passed over to the country of Bosphorus. + In that sequestered region he remained many months, exposed to + the hardships of exile, of solitude, and of want; his melancholy + temper brooding over his misfortunes, and his mind agitated by + the just apprehension, that, if any accident should discover his + name, the faithless Barbarians would violate, without much + scruple, the laws of hospitality. In a moment of impatience and + despair, Procopius embarked in a merchant vessel, which made sail + for Constantinople; and boldly aspired to the rank of a + sovereign, because he was not allowed to enjoy the security of a + subject. At first he lurked in the villages of Bithynia, + continually changing his habitation and his disguise. 36 By + degrees he ventured into the capital, trusted his life and + fortune to the fidelity of two friends, a senator and a eunuch, + and conceived some hopes of success, from the intelligence which + he obtained of the actual state of public affairs. The body of + the people was infected with a spirit of discontent: they + regretted the justice and the abilities of Sallust, who had been + imprudently dismissed from the præfecture of the East. They + despised the character of Valens, which was rude without vigor, + and feeble without mildness. They dreaded the influence of his + father-in-law, the patrician Petronius, a cruel and rapacious + minister, who rigorously exacted all the arrears of tribute that + might remain unpaid since the reign of the emperor Aurelian. The + circumstances were propitious to the designs of a usurper. The + hostile measures of the Persians required the presence of Valens + in Syria: from the Danube to the Euphrates the troops were in + motion; and the capital was occasionally filled with the soldiers + who passed or repassed the Thracian Bosphorus. Two cohorts of + Gaul were persuaded to listen to the secret proposals of the + conspirators; which were recommended by the promise of a liberal + donative; and, as they still revered the memory of Julian, they + easily consented to support the hereditary claim of his + proscribed kinsman. At the dawn of day they were drawn up near + the baths of Anastasia; and Procopius, clothed in a purple + garment, more suitable to a player than to a monarch, appeared, + as if he rose from the dead, in the midst of Constantinople. The + soldiers, who were prepared for his reception, saluted their + trembling prince with shouts of joy and vows of fidelity. Their + numbers were soon increased by a band of sturdy peasants, + collected from the adjacent country; and Procopius, shielded by + the arms of his adherents, was successively conducted to the + tribunal, the senate, and the palace. During the first moments of + his tumultuous reign, he was astonished and terrified by the + gloomy silence of the people; who were either ignorant of the + cause, or apprehensive of the event. But his military strength + was superior to any actual resistance: the malcontents flocked to + the standard of rebellion; the poor were excited by the hopes, + and the rich were intimidated by the fear, of a general pillage; + and the obstinate credulity of the multitude was once more + deceived by the promised advantages of a revolution. The + magistrates were seized; the prisons and arsenals broke open; the + gates, and the entrance of the harbor, were diligently occupied; + and, in a few hours, Procopius became the absolute, though + precarious, master of the Imperial city. 3611 The usurper + improved this unexpected success with some degree of courage and + dexterity. He artfully propagated the rumors and opinions the + most favorable to his interest; while he deluded the populace by + giving audience to the frequent, but imaginary, ambassadors of + distant nations. The large bodies of troops stationed in the + cities of Thrace and the fortresses of the Lower Danube, were + gradually involved in the guilt of rebellion: and the Gothic + princes consented to supply the sovereign of Constantinople with + the formidable strength of several thousand auxiliaries. His + generals passed the Bosphorus, and subdued, without an effort, + the unarmed, but wealthy provinces of Bithynia and Asia. After an + honorable defence, the city and island of Cyzicus yielded to his + power; the renowned legions of the Jovians and Herculeans + embraced the cause of the usurper, whom they were ordered to + crush; and, as the veterans were continually augmented with new + levies, he soon appeared at the head of an army, whose valor, as + well as numbers, were not unequal to the greatness of the + contest. The son of Hormisdas, 37 a youth of spirit and ability, + condescended to draw his sword against the lawful emperor of the + East; and the Persian prince was immediately invested with the + ancient and extraordinary powers of a Roman Proconsul. The + alliance of Faustina, the widow of the emperor Constantius, who + intrusted herself and her daughter to the hands of the usurper, + added dignity and reputation to his cause. The princess + Constantia, who was then about five years of age, accompanied, in + a litter, the march of the army. She was shown to the multitude + in the arms of her adopted father; and, as often as she passed + through the ranks, the tenderness of the soldiers was inflamed + into martial fury: 38 they recollected the glories of the house + of Constantine, and they declared, with loyal acclamation, that + they would shed the last drop of their blood in the defence of + the royal infant. 39 + + 34 (return) [ The uncertain degree of alliance, or consanguinity, + is expressed by the words, cognatus, consobrinus, (see Valesius + ad Ammian. xxiii. 3.) The mother of Procopius might be a sister + of Basilina and Count Julian, the mother and uncle of the + Apostate. Ducange, Fam. Byzantin. p. 49.] + + 35 (return) [ Ammian. xxiii. 3, xxvi. 6. He mentions the report + with much hesitation: susurravit obscurior fama; nemo enim dicti + auctor exstitit verus. It serves, however, to remark, that + Procopius was a Pagan. Yet his religion does not appear to have + promoted, or obstructed, his pretensions.] + + 36 (return) [ One of his retreats was a country-house of + Eunomius, the heretic. The master was absent, innocent, ignorant; + yet he narrowly escaped a sentence of death, and was banished + into the remote parts of Mauritania, (Philostorg. l. ix. c. 5, 8, + and Godefroy’s Dissert. p. 369-378.)] + + 3611 (return) [ It may be suspected, from a fragment of Eunapius, + that the heathen and philosophic party espoused the cause of + Procopius. Heraclius, the Cynic, a man who had been honored by a + philosophic controversy with Julian, striking the ground with his + staff, incited him to courage with the line of Homer Eunapius. + Mai, p. 207 or in Niebuhr’s edition, p. 73.—M.] + + 37 (return) [ Hormisdæ maturo juveni Hormisdæ regalis illius + filio, potestatem Proconsulis detulit; et civilia, more veterum, + et bella, recturo. Ammian. xxvi. 8. The Persian prince escaped + with honor and safety, and was afterwards (A. D. 380) restored to + the same extraordinary office of proconsul of Bithynia, + (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 204) I am ignorant + whether the race of Sassan was propagated. I find (A. D. 514) a + pope Hormisdas; but he was a native of Frusino, in Italy, (Pagi + Brev. Pontific. tom. i. p. 247)] + + 38 (return) [ The infant rebel was afterwards the wife of the + emperor Gratian but she died young, and childless. See Ducange, + Fam. Byzantin. p. 48, 59.] + + 39 (return) [ Sequimini culminis summi prosapiam, was the + language of Procopius, who affected to despise the obscure birth, + and fortuitous election of the upstart Pannonian. Ammian. xxvi. + 7.] + + In the mean while Valentinian was alarmed and perplexed by the + doubtful intelligence of the revolt of the East. 3911 The + difficulties of a German war forced him to confine his immediate + care to the safety of his own dominions; and, as every channel of + communication was stopped or corrupted, he listened, with + doubtful anxiety, to the rumors which were industriously spread, + that the defeat and death of Valens had left Procopius sole + master of the Eastern provinces. Valens was not dead: but on the + news of the rebellion, which he received at Cæsarea, he basely + despaired of his life and fortune; proposed to negotiate with the + usurper, and discovered his secret inclination to abdicate the + Imperial purple. The timid monarch was saved from disgrace and + ruin by the firmness of his ministers, and their abilities soon + decided in his favor the event of the civil war. In a season of + tranquillity, Sallust had resigned without a murmur; but as soon + as the public safety was attacked, he ambitiously solicited the + preëminence of toil and danger; and the restoration of that + virtuous minister to the præfecture of the East, was the first + step which indicated the repentance of Valens, and satisfied the + minds of the people. The reign of Procopius was apparently + supported by powerful armies and obedient provinces. But many of + the principal officers, military as well as civil, had been + urged, either by motives of duty or interest, to withdraw + themselves from the guilty scene; or to watch the moment of + betraying, and deserting, the cause of the usurper. Lupicinus + advanced by hasty marches, to bring the legions of Syria to the + aid of Valens. Arintheus, who, in strength, beauty, and valor, + excelled all the heroes of the age, attacked with a small troop a + superior body of the rebels. When he beheld the faces of the + soldiers who had served under his banner, he commanded them, with + a loud voice, to seize and deliver up their pretended leader; and + such was the ascendant of his genius, that this extraordinary + order was instantly obeyed. 40 Arbetio, a respectable veteran of + the great Constantine, who had been distinguished by the honors + of the consulship, was persuaded to leave his retirement, and + once more to conduct an army into the field. In the heat of + action, calmly taking off his helmet, he showed his gray hairs + and venerable countenance: saluted the soldiers of Procopius by + the endearing names of children and companions, and exhorted them + no longer to support the desperate cause of a contemptible + tyrant; but to follow their old commander, who had so often led + them to honor and victory. In the two engagements of Thyatira 41 + and Nacolia, the unfortunate Procopius was deserted by his + troops, who were seduced by the instructions and example of their + perfidious officers. After wandering some time among the woods + and mountains of Phyrgia, he was betrayed by his desponding + followers, conducted to the Imperial camp, and immediately + beheaded. He suffered the ordinary fate of an unsuccessful + usurper; but the acts of cruelty which were exercised by the + conqueror, under the forms of legal justice, excited the pity and + indignation of mankind. 42 + + 3911 (return) [ Symmachus describes his embarrassment. “The + Germans are the common enemies of the state, Procopius the + private foe of the Emperor; his first care must be victory, his + second revenge.” Symm. Orat. p. 11.—M.] + + 40 (return) [ Et dedignatus hominem superare certamine + despicabilem, auctoritatis et celsi fiducia corporis ipsis + hostibus jussit, suum vincire rectorem: atque ita turmarum, + antesignanus umbratilis comprensus suorum manibus. The strength + and beauty of Arintheus, the new Hercules, are celebrated by St. + Basil, who supposed that God had created him as an inimitable + model of the human species. The painters and sculptors could not + express his figure: the historians appeared fabulous when they + related his exploits, (Ammian. xxvi. and Vales. ad loc.)] + + 41 (return) [ The same field of battle is placed by Ammianus in + Lycia, and by Zosimus at Thyatira, which are at the distance of + 150 miles from each other. But Thyatira alluitur _Lyco_, (Plin. + Hist. Natur. v. 31, Cellarius, Geograph. Antiq. tom. ii. p. 79;) + and the transcribers might easily convert an obscure river into a + well-known province. * Note: Ammianus and Zosimus place the last + battle at Nacolia in _Phrygia;_ Ammianus altogether omits the + former battle near Thyatira. Procopius was on his march (iter + tendebat) towards Lycia. See Wagner’s note, in c.—M.] + + 42 (return) [ The adventures, usurpation, and fall of Procopius, + are related, in a regular series, by Ammianus, (xxvi. 6, 7, 8, 9, + 10,) and Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 203-210.) They often illustrate, and + seldom contradict, each other. Themistius (Orat. vii. p. 91, 92) + adds some base panegyric; and Euna pius (p. 83, 84) some + malicious satire. ——Symmachus joins with Themistius in praising + the clemency of Valens dic victoriæ moderatus est, quasi contra + se nemo pugnavit. Symm. Orat. p. 12.—M.] + + Such indeed are the common and natural fruits of despotism and + rebellion. But the inquisition into the crime of magic, 4211 + which, under the reign of the two brothers, was so rigorously + prosecuted both at Rome and Antioch, was interpreted as the fatal + symptom, either of the displeasure of Heaven, or of the depravity + of mankind. 43 Let us not hesitate to indulge a liberal pride, + that, in the present age, the enlightened part of Europe has + abolished 44 a cruel and odious prejudice, which reigned in every + climate of the globe, and adhered to every system of religious + opinions. 45 The nations, and the sects, of the Roman world, + admitted with equal credulity, and similar abhorrence, the + reality of that infernal art, 46 which was able to control the + eternal order of the planets, and the voluntary operations of the + human mind. They dreaded the mysterious power of spells and + incantations, of potent herbs, and execrable rites; which could + extinguish or recall life, inflame the passions of the soul, + blast the works of creation, and extort from the reluctant dæmons + the secrets of futurity. They believed, with the wildest + inconsistency, that this preternatural dominion of the air, of + earth, and of hell, was exercised, from the vilest motives of + malice or gain, by some wrinkled hags and itinerant sorcerers, + who passed their obscure lives in penury and contempt. 47 The + arts of magic were equally condemned by the public opinion, and + by the laws of Rome; but as they tended to gratify the most + imperious passions of the heart of man, they were continually + proscribed, and continually practised. 48 An imaginary cause was + capable of producing the most serious and mischievous effects. + The dark predictions of the death of an emperor, or the success + of a conspiracy, were calculated only to stimulate the hopes of + ambition, and to dissolve the ties of fidelity; and the + intentional guilt of magic was aggravated by the actual crimes of + treason and sacrilege. 49 Such vain terrors disturbed the peace + of society, and the happiness of individuals; and the harmless + flame which insensibly melted a waxen image, might derive a + powerful and pernicious energy from the affrighted fancy of the + person whom it was maliciously designed to represent. 50 From the + infusion of those herbs, which were supposed to possess a + supernatural influence, it was an easy step to the use of more + substantial poison; and the folly of mankind sometimes became the + instrument, and the mask, of the most atrocious crimes. As soon + as the zeal of informers was encouraged by the ministers of + Valens and Valentinian, they could not refuse to listen to + another charge, too frequently mingled in the scenes of domestic + guilt; a charge of a softer and less malignant nature, for which + the pious, though excessive, rigor of Constantine had recently + decreed the punishment of death. 51 This deadly and incoherent + mixture of treason and magic, of poison and adultery, afforded + infinite gradations of guilt and innocence, of excuse and + aggravation, which in these proceedings appear to have been + confounded by the angry or corrupt passions of the judges. They + easily discovered that the degree of their industry and + discernment was estimated, by the Imperial court, according to + the number of executions that were furnished from the respective + tribunals. It was not without extreme reluctance that they + pronounced a sentence of acquittal; but they eagerly admitted + such evidence as was stained with perjury, or procured by + torture, to prove the most improbable charges against the most + respectable characters. The progress of the inquiry continually + opened new subjects of criminal prosecution; the audacious + informer, whose falsehood was detected, retired with impunity; + but the wretched victim, who discovered his real or pretended + accomplices, were seldom permitted to receive the price of his + infamy. From the extremity of Italy and Asia, the young, and the + aged, were dragged in chains to the tribunals of Rome and + Antioch. Senators, matrons, and philosophers, expired in + ignominious and cruel tortures. The soldiers, who were appointed + to guard the prisons, declared, with a murmur of pity and + indignation, that their numbers were insufficient to oppose the + flight, or resistance, of the multitude of captives. The + wealthiest families were ruined by fines and confiscations; the + most innocent citizens trembled for their safety; and we may form + some notion of the magnitude of the evil, from the extravagant + assertion of an ancient writer, that, in the obnoxious provinces, + the prisoners, the exiles, and the fugitives, formed the greatest + part of the inhabitants. 52 + + 4211 (return) [ This infamous inquisition into sorcery and + witchcraft has been of greater influence on human affairs than is + commonly supposed. The persecutions against philosophers and + their libraries was carried on with so much fury, that from this + time (A. D. 374) the names of the Gentile philosophers became + almost extinct; and the Christian philosophy and religion, + particularly in the East, established their ascendency. I am + surprised that Gibbon has not made this observation. Heyne, Note + on Zosimus, l. iv. 14, p. 637. Besides vast heaps of manuscripts + publicly destroyed throughout the East, men of letters burned + their whole libraries, lest some fatal volume should expose them + to the malice of the informers and the extreme penalty of the + law. Amm. Marc. xxix. 11.—M.] + + 43 (return) [ Libanius de ulciscend. Julian. nece, c. ix. p. 158, + 159. The sophist deplores the public frenzy, but he does not + (after their deaths) impeach the justice of the emperors.] + + 44 (return) [ The French and English lawyers, of the present age, + allow the _theory_, and deny the _practice_, of witchcraft, + (Denisart, Recueil de Decisions de Jurisprudence, au mot + _Sorciers_, tom. iv. p. 553. Blackstone’s Commentaries, vol. iv. + p. 60.) As private reason always prevents, or outstrips, public + wisdom, the president Montesquieu (Esprit des Loix, l. xii. c. 5, + 6) rejects the _existence_ of magic.] + + 45 (return) [ See Œuvres de Bayle, tom. iii. p. 567-589. The + sceptic of Rotterdam exhibits, according to his custom, a strange + medley of loose knowledge and lively wit.] + + 46 (return) [ The Pagans distinguished between good and bad + magic, the Theurgic and the Goetic, (Hist. de l’Académie, &c., + tom. vii. p. 25.) But they could not have defended this obscure + distinction against the acute logic of Bayle. In the Jewish and + Christian system, _all_ dæmons are infernal spirits; and _all_ + commerce with them is idolatry, apostasy &c., which deserves + death and damnation.] + + 47 (return) [ The Canidia of Horace (Carm. l. v. Od. 5, with + Dacier’s and Sanadon’s illustrations) is a vulgar witch. The + Erictho of Lucan (Pharsal. vi. 430-830) is tedious, disgusting, + but sometimes sublime. She chides the delay of the Furies, and + threatens, with tremendous obscurity, to pronounce their real + names; to reveal the true infernal countenance of Hecate; to + invoke the secret powers that lie below hell, &c.] + + 48 (return) [ Genus hominum potentibus infidum, sperantibus + fallax, quod in civitate nostrâ et vetabitur semper et + retinebitur. Tacit. Hist. i. 22. See Augustin. de Civitate Dei, + l. viii. c. 19, and the Theodosian Code l. ix. tit. xvi., with + Godefroy’s Commentary.] + + 49 (return) [ The persecution of Antioch was occasioned by a + criminal consultation. The twenty-four letters of the alphabet + were arranged round a magic tripod: and a dancing ring, which had + been placed in the centre, pointed to the four first letters in + the name of the future emperor, O. E. O Triangle. Theodorus + (perhaps with many others, who owned the fatal syllables) was + executed. Theodosius succeeded. Lardner (Heathen Testimonies, + vol. iv. p. 353-372) has copiously and fairly examined this dark + transaction of the reign of Valens.] + + 50 (return) [ + + Limus ut hic durescit, et hæc ut cera liquescit Uno eodemque + igni—Virgil. Bucolic. viii. 80. + Devovet absentes, simulacraque cerea figit. —Ovid. in Epist. Hypsil. + ad Jason 91. + + Such vain incantations could affect the mind, and increase the + disease of Germanicus. Tacit. Annal. ii. 69.] + + 51 (return) [ See Heineccius, Antiquitat. Juris Roman. tom. ii. + p. 353, &c. Cod. Theodosian. l. ix. tit. 7, with Godefroy’s + Commentary.] + + 52 (return) [ The cruel persecution of Rome and Antioch is + described, and most probably exaggerated, by Ammianus (xxvii. 1. + xxix. 1, 2) and Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 216-218.) The philosopher + Maximus, with some justice, was involved in the charge of magic, + (Eunapius in Vit. Sophist. p. 88, 89;) and young Chrysostom, who + had accidentally found one of the proscribed books, gave himself + up for lost, (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 340.)] + + When Tacitus describes the deaths of the innocent and illustrious + Romans, who were sacrificed to the cruelty of the first Cæsars, + the art of the historian, or the merit of the sufferers, excites + in our breast the most lively sensations of terror, of + admiration, and of pity. The coarse and undistinguishing pencil + of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with tedious and + disgusting accuracy. But as our attention is no longer engaged by + the contrast of freedom and servitude, of recent greatness and of + actual misery, we should turn with horror from the frequent + executions, which disgraced, both at Rome and Antioch, the reign + of the two brothers. 53 Valens was of a timid, 54 and Valentinian + of a choleric, disposition. 55 An anxious regard to his personal + safety was the ruling principle of the administration of Valens. + In the condition of a subject, he had kissed, with trembling awe, + the hand of the oppressor; and when he ascended the throne, he + reasonably expected, that the same fears, which had subdued his + own mind, would secure the patient submission of his people. The + favorites of Valens obtained, by the privilege of rapine and + confiscation, the wealth which his economy would have refused. 56 + They urged, with persuasive eloquence, _that_, in all cases of + treason, suspicion is equivalent to proof; _that_ the power + supposes the intention, of mischief; _that_ the intention is not + less criminal than the act; and _that_ a subject no longer + deserves to live, if his life may threaten the safety, or disturb + the repose, of his sovereign. The judgment of Valentinian was + sometimes deceived, and his confidence abused; but he would have + silenced the informers with a contemptuous smile, had they + presumed to alarm his fortitude by the sound of danger. They + praised his inflexible love of justice; and, in the pursuit of + justice, the emperor was easily tempted to consider clemency as a + weakness, and passion as a virtue. As long as he wrestled with + his equals, in the bold competition of an active and ambitious + life, Valentinian was seldom injured, and never insulted, with + impunity: if his prudence was arraigned, his spirit was + applauded; and the proudest and most powerful generals were + apprehensive of provoking the resentment of a fearless soldier. + After he became master of the world, he unfortunately forgot, + that where no resistance can be made, no courage can be exerted; + and instead of consulting the dictates of reason and magnanimity, + he indulged the furious emotions of his temper, at a time when + they were disgraceful to himself, and fatal to the defenceless + objects of his displeasure. In the government of his household, + or of his empire, slight, or even imaginary, offences—a hasty + word, a casual omission, an involuntary delay—were chastised by a + sentence of immediate death. The expressions which issued the + most readily from the mouth of the emperor of the West were, + “Strike off his head;” “Burn him alive;” “Let him be beaten with + clubs till he expires;” 57 and his most favored ministers soon + understood, that, by a rash attempt to dispute, or suspend, the + execution of his sanguinary commands, they might involve + themselves in the guilt and punishment of disobedience. The + repeated gratification of this savage justice hardened the mind + of Valentinian against pity and remorse; and the sallies of + passion were confirmed by the habits of cruelty. 58 He could + behold with calm satisfaction the convulsive agonies of torture + and death; he reserved his friendship for those faithful servants + whose temper was the most congenial to his own. The merit of + Maximin, who had slaughtered the noblest families of Rome, was + rewarded with the royal approbation, and the præfecture of Gaul. + + Two fierce and enormous bears, distinguished by the appellations + of _Innocence_, and _Mica Aurea_, could alone deserve to share + the favor of Maximin. The cages of those trusty guards were + always placed near the bed-chamber of Valentinian, who frequently + amused his eyes with the grateful spectacle of seeing them tear + and devour the bleeding limbs of the malefactors who were + abandoned to their rage. Their diet and exercises were carefully + inspected by the Roman emperor; and when _Innocence_ had earned + her discharge, by a long course of meritorious service, the + faithful animal was again restored to the freedom of her native + woods. 59 + + 53 (return) [ Consult the six last books of Ammianus, and more + particularly the portraits of the two royal brothers, (xxx. 8, 9, + xxxi. 14.) Tillemont has collected (tom. v. p. 12-18, p. 127-133) + from all antiquity their virtues and vices.] + + 54 (return) [ The younger Victor asserts, that he was valde + timidus: yet he behaved, as almost every man would do, with + decent resolution at the _head_ of an army. The same historian + attempts to prove that his anger was harmless. Ammianus observes, + with more candor and judgment, incidentia crimina ad contemptam + vel læsam principis amplitudinem trahens, in sanguinem sæviebat.] + + 55 (return) [ Cum esset ad acerbitatem naturæ calore propensior. + .. pœnas perignes augebat et gladios. Ammian. xxx. 8. See xxvii. + 7] + + 56 (return) [ I have transferred the reproach of avarice from + Valens to his servant. Avarice more properly belongs to ministers + than to kings; in whom that passion is commonly extinguished by + absolute possession.] + + 57 (return) [ He sometimes expressed a sentence of death with a + tone of pleasantry: “Abi, Comes, et muta ei caput, qui sibi + mutari provinciam cupit.” A boy, who had slipped too hastily a + Spartan bound; an armorer, who had made a polished cuirass that + wanted some grains of the legitimate weight, &c., were the + victims of his fury.] + + 58 (return) [ The innocents of Milan were an agent and three + apparitors, whom Valentinian condemned for signifying a legal + summons. Ammianus (xxvii. 7) strangely supposes, that all who had + been unjustly executed were worshipped as martyrs by the + Christians. His impartial silence does not allow us to believe, + that the great chamberlain Rhodanus was burnt alive for an act of + oppression, (Chron. Paschal. p. 392.) * Note: Ammianus does not + say that they were worshipped as _martyrs_. Quorum memoriam apud + Mediolanum colentes nunc usque Christiani loculos ubi sepulti + sunt, _ad innocentes_ appellant. Wagner’s note in loco. Yet if + the next paragraph refers to that transaction, which is not quite + clear. Gibbon is right.—M.] + + 59 (return) [ Ut bene meritam in sylvas jussit abire _Innoxiam_. + Ammian. xxix. and Valesius ad locum.] + + + + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part III. + + + But in the calmer moments of reflection, when the mind of Valens + was not agitated by fear, or that of Valentinian by rage, the + tyrant resumed the sentiments, or at least the conduct, of the + father of his country. The dispassionate judgment of the Western + emperor could clearly perceive, and accurately pursue, his own + and the public interest; and the sovereign of the East, who + imitated with equal docility the various examples which he + received from his elder brother, was sometimes guided by the + wisdom and virtue of the præfect Sallust. Both princes invariably + retained, in the purple, the chaste and temperate simplicity + which had adorned their private life; and, under their reign, the + pleasures of the court never cost the people a blush or a sigh. + They gradually reformed many of the abuses of the times of + Constantius; judiciously adopted and improved the designs of + Julian and his successor; and displayed a style and spirit of + legislation which might inspire posterity with the most favorable + opinion of their character and government. It is not from the + master of _Innocence_, that we should expect the tender regard + for the welfare of his subjects, which prompted Valentinian to + condemn the exposition of new-born infants; 60 and to establish + fourteen skilful physicians, with stipends and privileges, in the + fourteen quarters of Rome. The good sense of an illiterate + soldier founded a useful and liberal institution for the + education of youth, and the support of declining science. 61 It + was his intention, that the arts of rhetoric and grammar should + be taught in the Greek and Latin languages, in the metropolis of + every province; and as the size and dignity of the school was + usually proportioned to the importance of the city, the academies + of Rome and Constantinople claimed a just and singular + preëminence. The fragments of the literary edicts of Valentinian + imperfectly represent the school of Constantinople, which was + gradually improved by subsequent regulations. That school + consisted of thirty-one professors in different branches of + learning. One philosopher, and two lawyers; five sophists, and + ten grammarians for the Greek, and three orators, and ten + grammarians for the Latin tongue; besides seven scribes, or, as + they were then styled, antiquarians, whose laborious pens + supplied the public library with fair and correct copies of the + classic writers. The rule of conduct, which was prescribed to the + students, is the more curious, as it affords the first outlines + of the form and discipline of a modern university. It was + required, that they should bring proper certificates from the + magistrates of their native province. Their names, professions, + and places of abode, were regularly entered in a public register. + + 60 (return) [ See the Code of Justinian, l. viii. tit. lii. leg. + 2. Unusquisque sabolem suam nutriat. Quod si exponendam putaverit + animadversioni quæ constituta est subjacebit. For the present I + shall not interfere in the dispute between Noodt and Binkershoek; + how far, or how long this unnatural practice had been condemned + or abolished by law philosophy, and the more civilized state of + society.] + + 61 (return) [ These salutary institutions are explained in the + Theodosian Code, l. xiii. tit. iii. _De Professoribus et + Medicis_, and l. xiv. tit. ix. _De Studiis liberalibus Urbis + Romæ_. Besides our usual guide, (Godefroy,) we may consult + Giannone, (Istoria di Napoli, tom. i. p. 105-111,) who has + treated the interesting subject with the zeal and curiosity of a + man of latters who studies his domestic history.] + + The studious youth were severely prohibited from wasting their + time in feasts, or in the theatre; and the term of their + education was limited to the age of twenty. The præfect of the + city was empowered to chastise the idle and refractory by stripes + or expulsion; and he was directed to make an annual report to the + master of the offices, that the knowledge and abilities of the + scholars might be usefully applied to the public service. The + institutions of Valentinian contributed to secure the benefits of + peace and plenty; and the cities were guarded by the + establishment of the _Defensors;_ 62 freely elected as the + tribunes and advocates of the people, to support their rights, + and to expose their grievances, before the tribunals of the civil + magistrates, or even at the foot of the Imperial throne. The + finances were diligently administered by two princes, who had + been so long accustomed to the rigid economy of a private + fortune; but in the receipt and application of the revenue, a + discerning eye might observe some difference between the + government of the East and of the West. Valens was persuaded, + that royal liberality can be supplied only by public oppression, + and his ambition never aspired to secure, by their actual + distress, the future strength and prosperity of his people. + Instead of increasing the weight of taxes, which, in the space of + forty years, had been gradually doubled, he reduced, in the first + years of his reign, one fourth of the tribute of the East. 63 + Valentinian appears to have been less attentive and less anxious + to relieve the burdens of his people. He might reform the abuses + of the fiscal administration; but he exacted, without scruple, a + very large share of the private property; as he was convinced, + that the revenues, which supported the luxury of individuals, + would be much more advantageously employed for the defence and + improvement of the state. The subjects of the East, who enjoyed + the present benefit, applauded the indulgence of their prince. + The solid but less splendid, merit of Valentinian was felt and + acknowledged by the subsequent generation. 64 + + 62 (return) [ Cod. Theodos. l. i. tit. xi. with Godefroy’s + _Paratitlon_, which diligently gleans from the rest of the code.] + + 63 (return) [ Three lines of Ammianus (xxxi. 14) countenance a + whole oration of Themistius, (viii. p. 101-120,) full of + adulation, pedantry, and common-place morality. The eloquent M. + Thomas (tom. i. p. 366-396) has amused himself with celebrating + the virtues and genius of Themistius, who was not unworthy of the + age in which he lived.] + + 64 (return) [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. 202. Ammian. xxx. 9. His + reformation of costly abuses might entitle him to the praise of, + in provinciales admodum parcus, tributorum ubique molliens + sarcinas. By some his frugality was styled avarice, (Jerom. + Chron. p. 186)] + + But the most honorable circumstance of the character of + Valentinian, is the firm and temperate impartiality which he + uniformly preserved in an age of religious contention. His strong + sense, unenlightened, but uncorrupted, by study, declined, with + respectful indifference, the subtle questions of theological + debate. The government of the _Earth_ claimed his vigilance, and + satisfied his ambition; and while he remembered that he was the + disciple of the church, he never forgot that he was the sovereign + of the clergy. Under the reign of an apostate, he had signalized + his zeal for the honor of Christianity: he allowed to his + subjects the privilege which he had assumed for himself; and they + might accept, with gratitude and confidence, the general + toleration which was granted by a prince addicted to passion, but + incapable of fear or of disguise. 65 The Pagans, the Jews, and + all the various sects which acknowledged the divine authority of + Christ, were protected by the laws from arbitrary power or + popular insult; nor was any mode of worship prohibited by + Valentinian, except those secret and criminal practices, which + abused the name of religion for the dark purposes of vice and + disorder. The art of magic, as it was more cruelly punished, was + more strictly proscribed: but the emperor admitted a formal + distinction to protect the ancient methods of divination, which + were approved by the senate, and exercised by the Tuscan + haruspices. He had condemned, with the consent of the most + rational Pagans, the license of nocturnal sacrifices; but he + immediately admitted the petition of Prætextatus, proconsul of + Achaia, who represented, that the life of the Greeks would become + dreary and comfortless, if they were deprived of the invaluable + blessing of the Eleusinian mysteries. Philosophy alone can boast, + (and perhaps it is no more than the boast of philosophy,) that + her gentle hand is able to eradicate from the human mind the + latent and deadly principle of fanaticism. But this truce of + twelve years, which was enforced by the wise and vigorous + government of Valentinian, by suspending the repetition of mutual + injuries, contributed to soften the manners, and abate the + prejudices, of the religious factions. + + 65 (return) [ Testes sunt leges a me in exordio Imperii mei datæ; + quibus unicuique quod animo imbibisset colendi libera facultas + tributa est. Cod. Theodos. l. ix. tit. xvi. leg. 9. To this + declaration of Valentinian, we may add the various testimonies of + Ammianus, (xxx. 9,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 204,) and Sozomen, (l. + vi. c. 7, 21.) Baronius would naturally blame such rational + toleration, (Annal. Eccles A. D. 370, No. 129-132, A. D. 376, No. + 3, 4.) ——Comme il s’était prescrit pour règle de ne point se + mêler de disputes de religion, son histoire est presque + entièrement dégagée des affaires ecclésiastiques. Le Beau. iii. + 214.—M.] + + The friend of toleration was unfortunately placed at a distance + from the scene of the fiercest controversies. As soon as the + Christians of the West had extricated themselves from the snares + of the creed of Rimini, they happily relapsed into the slumber of + orthodoxy; and the small remains of the Arian party, that still + subsisted at Sirmium or Milan, might be considered rather as + objects of contempt than of resentment. But in the provinces of + the East, from the Euxine to the extremity of Thebais, the + strength and numbers of the hostile factions were more equally + balanced; and this equality, instead of recommending the counsels + of peace, served only to perpetuate the horrors of religious war. + The monks and bishops supported their arguments by invectives; + and their invectives were sometimes followed by blows. Athanasius + still reigned at Alexandria; the thrones of Constantinople and + Antioch were occupied by Arian prelates, and every episcopal + vacancy was the occasion of a popular tumult. The Homoousians + were fortified by the reconciliation of fifty-nine Macelonian, or + Semi-Arian, bishops; but their secret reluctance to embrace the + divinity of the Holy Ghost, clouded the splendor of the triumph; + and the declaration of Valens, who, in the first years of his + reign, had imitated the impartial conduct of his brother, was an + important victory on the side of Arianism. The two brothers had + passed their private life in the condition of catechumens; but + the piety of Valens prompted him to solicit the sacrament of + baptism, before he exposed his person to the dangers of a Gothic + war. He naturally addressed himself to Eudoxus, 66 6611 bishop of + the Imperial city; and if the ignorant monarch was instructed by + that Arian pastor in the principles of heterodox theology, his + misfortune, rather than his guilt, was the inevitable consequence + of his erroneous choice. Whatever had been the determination of + the emperor, he must have offended a numerous party of his + Christian subjects; as the leaders both of the Homoousians and of + the Arians believed, that, if they were not suffered to reign, + they were most cruelly injured and oppressed. After he had taken + this decisive step, it was extremely difficult for him to + preserve either the virtue, or the reputation of impartiality. He + never aspired, like Constantius, to the fame of a profound + theologian; but as he had received with simplicity and respect + the tenets of Euxodus, Valens resigned his conscience to the + direction of his ecclesiastical guides, and promoted, by the + influence of his authority, the reunion of the _Athanasian + heretics_ to the body of the Catholic church. At first, he pitied + their blindness; by degrees he was provoked at their obstinacy; + and he insensibly hated those sectaries to whom he was an object + of hatred. 67 The feeble mind of Valens was always swayed by the + persons with whom he familiarly conversed; and the exile or + imprisonment of a private citizen are the favors the most readily + granted in a despotic court. Such punishments were frequently + inflicted on the leaders of the Homoousian party; and the + misfortune of fourscore ecclesiastics of Constantinople, who, + perhaps accidentally, were burned on shipboard, was imputed to + the cruel and premeditated malice of the emperor, and his Arian + ministers. In every contest, the Catholics (if we may anticipate + that name) were obliged to pay the penalty of their own faults, + and of those of their adversaries. In every election, the claims + of the Arian candidate obtained the preference; and if they were + opposed by the majority of the people, he was usually supported + by the authority of the civil magistrate, or even by the terrors + of a military force. The enemies of Athanasius attempted to + disturb the last years of his venerable age; and his temporary + retreat to his father’s sepulchre has been celebrated as a fifth + exile. But the zeal of a great people, who instantly flew to + arms, intimidated the præfect: and the archbishop was permitted + to end his life in peace and in glory, after a reign of + forty-seven years. The death of Athanasius was the signal of the + persecution of Egypt; and the Pagan minister of Valens, who + forcibly seated the worthless Lucius on the archiepiscopal + throne, purchased the favor of the reigning party, by the blood + and sufferings of their Christian brethren. The free toleration + of the heathen and Jewish worship was bitterly lamented, as a + circumstance which aggravated the misery of the Catholics, and + the guilt of the impious tyrant of the East. 68 + + 66 (return) [ Eudoxus was of a mild and timid disposition. When + he baptized Valens, (A. D. 367,) he must have been extremely old; + since he had studied theology fifty-five years before, under + Lucian, a learned and pious martyr. Philostorg. l. ii. c. 14-16, + l. iv. c. 4, with Godefroy, p 82, 206, and Tillemont, Mém. + Eccles. tom. v. p. 471-480, &c.] + + 6611 (return) [ Through the influence of his wife say the + ecclesiastical writers.—M.] + + 67 (return) [ Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. xxv. p. 432) insults the + persecuting spirit of the Arians, as an infallible symptom of + error and heresy.] + + 68 (return) [ This sketch of the ecclesiastical government of + Valens is drawn from Socrates, (l. iv.,) Sozomen, (l. vi.,) + Theodoret, (l. iv.,) and the immense compilations of Tillemont, + (particularly tom. vi. viii. and ix.)] + + The triumph of the orthodox party has left a deep stain of + persecution on the memory of Valens; and the character of a + prince who derived his virtues, as well as his vices, from a + feeble understanding and a pusillanimous temper, scarcely + deserves the labor of an apology. Yet candor may discover some + reasons to suspect that the ecclesiastical ministers of Valens + often exceeded the orders, or even the intentions, of their + master; and that the real measure of facts has been very + liberally magnified by the vehement declamation and easy + credulity of his antagonists. 69 1. The silence of Valentinian + may suggest a probable argument that the partial severities, + which were exercised in the name and provinces of his colleague, + amounted only to some obscure and inconsiderable deviations from + the established system of religious toleration: and the judicious + historian, who has praised the equal temper of the elder brother, + has not thought himself obliged to contrast the tranquillity of + the West with the cruel persecution of the East. 70 2. Whatever + credit may be allowed to vague and distant reports, the + character, or at least the behavior, of Valens, may be most + distinctly seen in his personal transactions with the eloquent + Basil, archbishop of Cæsarea, who had succeeded Athanasius in the + management of the Trinitarian cause. 71 The circumstantial + narrative has been composed by the friends and admirers of Basil; + and as soon as we have stripped away a thick coat of rhetoric and + miracle, we shall be astonished by the unexpected mildness of the + Arian tyrant, who admired the firmness of his character, or was + apprehensive, if he employed violence, of a general revolt in the + province of Cappadocia. The archbishop, who asserted, with + inflexible pride, 72 the truth of his opinions, and the dignity + of his rank, was left in the free possession of his conscience + and his throne. The emperor devoutly assisted at the solemn + service of the cathedral; and, instead of a sentence of + banishment, subscribed the donation of a valuable estate for the + use of a hospital, which Basil had lately founded in the + neighborhood of Cæsarea. 73 3. I am not able to discover, that + any law (such as Theodosius afterwards enacted against the + Arians) was published by Valens against the Athanasian sectaries; + and the edict which excited the most violent clamors, may not + appear so extremely reprehensible. The emperor had observed, that + several of his subjects, gratifying their lazy disposition under + the pretence of religion, had associated themselves with the + monks of Egypt; and he directed the count of the East to drag + them from their solitude; and to compel these deserters of + society to accept the fair alternative of renouncing their + temporal possessions, or of discharging the public duties of men + and citizens. 74 The ministers of Valens seem to have extended + the sense of this penal statute, since they claimed a right of + enlisting the young and ablebodied monks in the Imperial armies. + A detachment of cavalry and infantry, consisting of three + thousand men, marched from Alexandria into the adjacent desert of + Nitria, 75 which was peopled by five thousand monks. The soldiers + were conducted by Arian priests; and it is reported, that a + considerable slaughter was made in the monasteries which + disobeyed the commands of their sovereign. 76 + + 69 (return) [ Dr. Jortin (Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. + iv. p. 78) has already conceived and intimated the same + suspicion.] + + 70 (return) [ This reflection is so obvious and forcible, that + Orosius (l. vii. c. 32, 33,) delays the persecution till after + the death of Valentinian. Socrates, on the other hand, supposes, + (l. iii. c. 32,) that it was appeased by a philosophical oration, + which Themistius pronounced in the year 374, (Orat. xii. p. 154, + in Latin only.) Such contradictions diminish the evidence, and + reduce the term, of the persecution of Valens.] + + 71 (return) [ Tillemont, whom I follow and abridge, has extracted + (Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 153-167) the most authentic + circumstances from the Panegyrics of the two Gregories; the + brother, and the friend, of Basil. The letters of Basil himself + (Dupin, Bibliothèque, Ecclesiastique, tom. ii. p. 155-180) do not + present the image of a very lively persecution.] + + 72 (return) [ Basilius Cæsariensis episcopus Cappadociæ clarus + habetur... qui multa continentiæ et ingenii bona uno superbiæ + malo perdidit. This irreverent passage is perfectly in the style + and character of St. Jerom. It does not appear in Scaliger’s + edition of his Chronicle; but Isaac Vossius found it in some old + Mss. which had not been reformed by the monks.] + + 73 (return) [ This noble and charitable foundation (almost a new + city) surpassed in merit, if not in greatness, the pyramids, or + the walls of Babylon. It was principally intended for the + reception of lepers, (Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. xx. p. 439.)] + + 74 (return) [ Cod. Theodos. l. xii. tit. i. leg. 63. Godefroy + (tom. iv. p. 409-413) performs the duty of a commentator and + advocate. Tillemont (Mém. Eccles. tom. viii. p. 808) _supposes_ a + second law to excuse his orthodox friends, who had misrepresented + the edict of Valens, and suppressed the liberty of choice.] + + 75 (return) [ See D’Anville, Description de l’Egypte, p. 74. + Hereafter I shall consider the monastic institutions.] + + 76 (return) [ Socrates, l. iv. c. 24, 25. Orosius, l. vii. c. 33. + Jerom. in Chron. p. 189, and tom. ii. p. 212. The monks of Egypt + performed many miracles, which prove the truth of their faith. + Right, says Jortin, (Remarks, vol iv. p. 79,) but what proves the + truth of those miracles.] + + The strict regulations which have been framed by the wisdom of + modern legislators to restrain the wealth and avarice of the + clergy, may be originally deduced from the example of the emperor + Valentinian. His edict, 77 addressed to Damasus, bishop of Rome, + was publicly read in the churches of the city. He admonished the + ecclesiastics and monks not to frequent the houses of widows and + virgins; and menaced their disobedience with the animadversion of + the civil judge. The director was no longer permitted to receive + any gift, or legacy, or inheritance, from the liberality of his + spiritual-daughter: every testament contrary to this edict was + declared null and void; and the illegal donation was confiscated + for the use of the treasury. By a subsequent regulation, it + should seem, that the same provisions were extended to nuns and + bishops; and that all persons of the ecclesiastical order were + rendered incapable of receiving any testamentary gifts, and + strictly confined to the natural and legal rights of inheritance. + As the guardian of domestic happiness and virtue, Valentinian + applied this severe remedy to the growing evil. In the capital of + the empire, the females of noble and opulent houses possessed a + very ample share of independent property: and many of those + devout females had embraced the doctrines of Christianity, not + only with the cold assent of the understanding, but with the + warmth of affection, and perhaps with the eagerness of fashion. + They sacrificed the pleasures of dress and luxury; and renounced, + for the praise of chastity, the soft endearments of conjugal + society. Some ecclesiastic, of real or apparent sanctity, was + chosen to direct their timorous conscience, and to amuse the + vacant tenderness of their heart: and the unbounded confidence, + which they hastily bestowed, was often abused by knaves and + enthusiasts; who hastened from the extremities of the East, to + enjoy, on a splendid theatre, the privileges of the monastic + profession. By their contempt of the world, they insensibly + acquired its most desirable advantages; the lively attachment, + perhaps of a young and beautiful woman, the delicate plenty of an + opulent household, and the respectful homage of the slaves, the + freedmen, and the clients of a senatorial family. The immense + fortunes of the Roman ladies were gradually consumed in lavish + alms and expensive pilgrimages; and the artful monk, who had + assigned himself the first, or possibly the sole place, in the + testament of his spiritual daughter, still presumed to declare, + with the smooth face of hypocrisy, that _he_ was only the + instrument of charity, and the steward of the poor. The + lucrative, but disgraceful, trade, 78 which was exercised by the + clergy to defraud the expectations of the natural heirs, had + provoked the indignation of a superstitious age: and two of the + most respectable of the Latin fathers very honestly confess, that + the ignominious edict of Valentinian was just and necessary; and + that the Christian priests had deserved to lose a privilege, + which was still enjoyed by comedians, charioteers, and the + ministers of idols. But the wisdom and authority of the + legislator are seldom victorious in a contest with the vigilant + dexterity of private interest; and Jerom, or Ambrose, might + patiently acquiesce in the justice of an ineffectual or salutary + law. If the ecclesiastics were checked in the pursuit of personal + emolument, they would exert a more laudable industry to increase + the wealth of the church; and dignify their covetousness with the + specious names of piety and patriotism. 79 + + 77 (return) [ Cod. Theodos. l. xvi. tit. ii. leg. 20. Godefroy, + (tom. vi. p. 49,) after the example of Baronius, impartially + collects all that the fathers have said on the subject of this + important law; whose spirit was long afterwards revived by the + emperor Frederic II., Edward I. of England, and other Christian + princes who reigned after the twelfth century.] + + 78 (return) [ The expressions which I have used are temperate and + feeble, if compared with the vehement invectives of Jerom, (tom. + i. p. 13, 45, 144, &c.) In _his_ turn he was reproached with the + guilt which he imputed to his brother monks; and the + _Sceleratus_, the _Versipellis_, was publicly accused as the + lover of the widow Paula, (tom. ii. p. 363.) He undoubtedly + possessed the affection, both of the mother and the daughter; but + he declares that he never abused his influence to any selfish or + sensual purpose.] + + 79 (return) [ Pudet dicere, sacerdotes idolorum, mimi et aurigæ, + et scorta, hæreditates capiunt: solis _clericis_ ac _monachis_ + hac lege prohibetur. Et non prohibetur a persecutoribus, sed a + principibus Christianis. Nec de lege queror; sed doleo cur + _meruerimus_ hanc legem. Jerom (tom. i. p. 13) discreetly + insinuates the secret policy of his patron Damasus.] + + Damasus, bishop of Rome, who was constrained to stigmatize the + avarice of his clergy by the publication of the law of + Valentinian, had the good sense, or the good fortune, to engage + in his service the zeal and abilities of the learned Jerom; and + the grateful saint has celebrated the merit and purity of a very + ambiguous character. 80 But the splendid vices of the church of + Rome, under the reign of Valentinian and Damasus, have been + curiously observed by the historian Ammianus, who delivers his + impartial sense in these expressive words: “The præfecture of + Juventius was accompanied with peace and plenty, but the + tranquillity of his government was soon disturbed by a bloody + sedition of the distracted people. The ardor of Damasus and + Ursinus, to seize the episcopal seat, surpassed the ordinary + measure of human ambition. They contended with the rage of party; + the quarrel was maintained by the wounds and death of their + followers; and the præfect, unable to resist or appease the + tumult, was constrained, by superior violence, to retire into the + suburbs. Damasus prevailed: the well-disputed victory remained on + the side of his faction; one hundred and thirty-seven dead bodies + 81 were found in the _Basilica_ of Sicininus, 82 where the + Christians hold their religious assemblies; and it was long + before the angry minds of the people resumed their accustomed + tranquillity. When I consider the splendor of the capital, I am + not astonished that so valuable a prize should inflame the + desires of ambitious men, and produce the fiercest and most + obstinate contests. The successful candidate is secure, that he + will be enriched by the offerings of matrons; 83 that, as soon as + his dress is composed with becoming care and elegance, he may + proceed, in his chariot, through the streets of Rome; 84 and that + the sumptuousness of the Imperial table will not equal the + profuse and delicate entertainments provided by the taste, and at + the expense, of the Roman pontiffs. How much more rationally + (continues the honest Pagan) would those pontiffs consult their + true happiness, if, instead of alleging the greatness of the city + as an excuse for their manners, they would imitate the exemplary + life of some provincial bishops, whose temperance and sobriety, + whose mean apparel and downcast looks, recommend their pure and + modest virtue to the Deity and his true worshippers!” 85 The + schism of Damasus and Ursinus was extinguished by the exile of + the latter; and the wisdom of the præfect Prætextatus 86 restored + the tranquillity of the city. Prætextatus was a philosophic + Pagan, a man of learning, of taste, and politeness; who disguised + a reproach in the form of a jest, when he assured Damasus, that + if he could obtain the bishopric of Rome, he himself would + immediately embrace the Christian religion. 87 This lively + picture of the wealth and luxury of the popes in the fourth + century becomes the more curious, as it represents the + intermediate degree between the humble poverty of the apostolic + fishermen, and the royal state of a temporal prince, whose + dominions extend from the confines of Naples to the banks of the + Po. + + 80 (return) [ Three words of Jerom, _sanctæ memoriæ Damasus_ + (tom. ii. p. 109,) wash away all his stains, and blind the devout + eyes of Tillemont. (Mem Eccles. tom. viii. p. 386-424.)] + + 81 (return) [ Jerom himself is forced to allow, crudelissimæ + interfectiones diversi sexûs perpetratæ, (in Chron. p. 186.) But + an original _libel_, or petition of two presbyters of the adverse + party, has unaccountably escaped. They affirm that the doors of + the Basilica were burnt, and that the roof was untiled; that + Damasus marched at the head of his own clergy, grave-diggers, + charioteers, and hired gladiators; that none of _his_ party were + killed, but that one hundred and sixty dead bodies were found. + This petition is published by the P. Sirmond, in the first volume + of his work.] + + 82 (return) [ The _Basilica_ of Sicininus, or Liberius, is + probably the church of Sancta Maria Maggiore, on the Esquiline + hill. Baronius, A. D. 367 No. 3; and Donatus, Roma Antiqua et + Nova, l. iv. c. 3, p. 462.] + + 83 (return) [ The enemies of Damasus styled him _Auriscalpius + Matronarum_ the ladies’ ear-scratcher.] + + 84 (return) [ Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. xxxii. p. 526) describes + the pride and luxury of the prelates who reigned in the Imperial + cities; their gilt car, fiery steeds, numerous train, &c. The + crowd gave way as to a wild beast.] + + 85 (return) [ Ammian. xxvii. 3. Perpetuo Numini, _verisque_ ejus + cultoribus. The incomparable pliancy of a polytheist!] + + 86 (return) [ Ammianus, who makes a fair report of his præfecture + (xxvii. 9) styles him præclaræ indolis, gravitatisque senator, + (xxii. 7, and Vales. ad loc.) A curious inscription (Grutor MCII. + No. 2) records, in two columns, his religious and civil honors. + In one line he was Pontiff of the Sun, and of Vesta, Augur, + Quindecemvir, Hierophant, &c., &c. In the other, 1. Quæstor + candidatus, more probably titular. 2. Prætor. 3. Corrector of + Tuscany and Umbria. 4. Consular of Lusitania. 5. Proconsul of + Achaia. 6. Præfect of Rome. 7. Prætorian præfect of Italy. 8. Of + Illyricum. 9. Consul elect; but he died before the beginning of + the year 385. See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom v. p. 241, + 736.] + + 87 (return) [ Facite me Romanæ urbis episcopum; et ero protinus + Christianus (Jerom, tom. ii. p. 165.) It is more than probable + that Damasus would not have purchased his conversion at such a + price.] + + + + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part IV. + + + When the suffrage of the generals and of the army committed the + sceptre of the Roman empire to the hands of Valentinian, his + reputation in arms, his military skill and experience, and his + rigid attachment to the forms, as well as spirit, of ancient + discipline, were the principal motives of their judicious choice. + + The eagerness of the troops, who pressed him to nominate his + colleague, was justified by the dangerous situation of public + affairs; and Valentinian himself was conscious, that the + abilities of the most active mind were unequal to the defence of + the distant frontiers of an invaded monarchy. As soon as the + death of Julian had relieved the Barbarians from the terror of + his name, the most sanguine hopes of rapine and conquest excited + the nations of the East, of the North, and of the South. Their + inroads were often vexatious, and sometimes formidable; but, + during the twelve years of the reign of Valentinian, his firmness + and vigilance protected his own dominions; and his powerful + genius seemed to inspire and direct the feeble counsels of his + brother. Perhaps the method of annals would more forcibly express + the urgent and divided cares of the two emperors; but the + attention of the reader, likewise, would be distracted by a + tedious and desultory narrative. A separate view of the five + great theatres of war; I. Germany; II. Britain; III. Africa; IV. + The East; and, V. The Danube; will impress a more distinct image + of the military state of the empire under the reigns of + Valentinian and Valens. + + I. The ambassadors of the Alemanni had been offended by the harsh + and haughty behavior of Ursacius, master of the offices; 88 who + by an act of unseasonable parsimony, had diminished the value, as + well as the quantity, of the presents to which they were + entitled, either from custom or treaty, on the accession of a new + emperor. They expressed, and they communicated to their + countrymen, their strong sense of the national affront. The + irascible minds of the chiefs were exasperated by the suspicion + of contempt; and the martial youth crowded to their standard. + Before Valentinian could pass the Alps, the villages of Gaul were + in flames; before his general Degalaiphus could encounter the + Alemanni, they had secured the captives and the spoil in the + forests of Germany. In the beginning of the ensuing year, the + military force of the whole nation, in deep and solid columns, + broke through the barrier of the Rhine, during the severity of a + northern winter. Two Roman counts were defeated and mortally + wounded; and the standard of the Heruli and Batavians fell into + the hands of the conquerors, who displayed, with insulting shouts + and menaces, the trophy of their victory. The standard was + recovered; but the Batavians had not redeemed the shame of their + disgrace and flight in the eyes of their severe judge. It was the + opinion of Valentinian, that his soldiers must learn to fear + their commander, before they could cease to fear the enemy. The + troops were solemnly assembled; and the trembling Batavians were + enclosed within the circle of the Imperial army. Valentinian then + ascended his tribunal; and, as if he disdained to punish + cowardice with death, he inflicted a stain of indelible ignominy + on the officers, whose misconduct and pusillanimity were found to + be the first occasion of the defeat. The Batavians were degraded + from their rank, stripped of their arms, and condemned to be sold + for slaves to the highest bidder. At this tremendous sentence, + the troops fell prostrate on the ground, deprecated the + indignation of their sovereign, and protested, that, if he would + indulge them in another trial, they would approve themselves not + unworthy of the name of Romans, and of his soldiers. Valentinian, + with affected reluctance, yielded to their entreaties; the + Batavians resumed their arms, and with their arms, the invincible + resolution of wiping away their disgrace in the blood of the + Alemanni. 89 The principal command was declined by Dagalaiphus; + and that experienced general, who had represented, perhaps with + too much prudence, the extreme difficulties of the undertaking, + had the mortification, before the end of the campaign, of seeing + his rival Jovinus convert those difficulties into a decisive + advantage over the scattered forces of the Barbarians. At the + head of a well-disciplined army of cavalry, infantry, and light + troops, Jovinus advanced, with cautious and rapid steps, to + Scarponna, 90 9011 in the territory of Metz, where he surprised a + large division of the Alemanni, before they had time to run to + their arms; and flushed his soldiers with the confidence of an + easy and bloodless victory. Another division, or rather army, of + the enemy, after the cruel and wanton devastation of the adjacent + country, reposed themselves on the shady banks of the Moselle. + Jovinus, who had viewed the ground with the eye of a general, + made a silent approach through a deep and woody vale, till he + could distinctly perceive the indolent security of the Germans. + Some were bathing their huge limbs in the river; others were + combing their long and flaxen hair; others again were swallowing + large draughts of rich and delicious wine. On a sudden they heard + the sound of the Roman trumpet; they saw the enemy in their camp. + Astonishment produced disorder; disorder was followed by flight + and dismay; and the confused multitude of the bravest warriors + was pierced by the swords and javelins of the legionaries and + auxiliaries. The fugitives escaped to the third, and most + considerable, camp, in the Catalonian plains, near Châlons in + Champagne: the straggling detachments were hastily recalled to + their standard; and the Barbarian chiefs, alarmed and admonished + by the fate of their companions, prepared to encounter, in a + decisive battle, the victorious forces of the lieutenant of + Valentinian. The bloody and obstinate conflict lasted a whole + summer’s day, with equal valor, and with alternate success. The + Romans at length prevailed, with the loss of about twelve hundred + men. Six thousand of the Alemanni were slain, four thousand were + wounded; and the brave Jovinus, after chasing the flying remnant + of their host as far as the banks of the Rhine, returned to + Paris, to receive the applause of his sovereign, and the ensigns + of the consulship for the ensuing year. 91 The triumph of the + Romans was indeed sullied by their treatment of the captive king, + whom they hung on a gibbet, without the knowledge of their + indignant general. This disgraceful act of cruelty, which might + be imputed to the fury of the troops, was followed by the + deliberate murder of Withicab, the son of Vadomair; a German + prince, of a weak and sickly constitution, but of a daring and + formidable spirit. The domestic assassin was instigated and + protected by the Romans; 92 and the violation of the laws of + humanity and justice betrayed their secret apprehension of the + weakness of the declining empire. The use of the dagger is seldom + adopted in public councils, as long as they retain any confidence + in the power of the sword. + + 88 (return) [ Ammian, xxvi. 5. Valesius adds a long and good note + on the master of the offices.] + + 89 (return) [ Ammian. xxvii. 1. Zosimus, l. iv. p. 208. The + disgrace of the Batavians is suppressed by the contemporary + soldier, from a regard for military honor, which could not affect + a Greek rhetorician of the succeeding age.] + + 90 (return) [ See D’Anville, Notice de l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 587. + The name of the Moselle, which is not specified by Ammianus, is + clearly understood by Mascou, (Hist. of the Ancient Germans, vii. + 2)] + + 9011 (return) [ Charpeigne on the Moselle. Mannert—M.] + + 91 (return) [ The battles are described by Ammianus, (xxvii. 2,) + and by Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 209,) who supposes Valentinian to have + been present.] + + 92 (return) [ Studio solicitante nostrorum, occubuit. Ammian + xxvii. 10.] + + While the Alemanni appeared to be humbled by their recent + calamities, the pride of Valentinian was mortified by the + unexpected surprisal of Moguntiacum, or Mentz, the principal city + of the Upper Germany. In the unsuspicious moment of a Christian + festival, 9211 Rando, a bold and artful chieftain, who had long + meditated his attempt, suddenly passed the Rhine; entered the + defenceless town, and retired with a multitude of captives of + either sex. Valentinian resolved to execute severe vengeance on + the whole body of the nation. Count Sebastian, with the bands of + Italy and Illyricum, was ordered to invade their country, most + probably on the side of Rhætia. The emperor in person, + accompanied by his son Gratian, passed the Rhine at the head of a + formidable army, which was supported on both flanks by Jovinus + and Severus, the two masters-general of the cavalry and infantry + of the West. The Alemanni, unable to prevent the devastation of + their villages, fixed their camp on a lofty, and almost + inaccessible, mountain, in the modern duchy of Wirtemberg, and + resolutely expected the approach of the Romans. The life of + Valentinian was exposed to imminent danger by the intrepid + curiosity with which he persisted to explore some secret and + unguarded path. A troop of Barbarians suddenly rose from their + ambuscade: and the emperor, who vigorously spurred his horse down + a steep and slippery descent, was obliged to leave behind him his + armor-bearer, and his helmet, magnificently enriched with gold + and precious stones. At the signal of the general assault, the + Roman troops encompassed and ascended the mountain of Solicinium + on three different sides. 9212 Every step which they gained, + increased their ardor, and abated the resistance of the enemy: + and after their united forces had occupied the summit of the + hill, they impetuously urged the Barbarians down the northern + descent, where Count Sebastian was posted to intercept their + retreat. After this signal victory, Valentinian returned to his + winter quarters at Treves; where he indulged the public joy by + the exhibition of splendid and triumphal games. 93 But the wise + monarch, instead of aspiring to the conquest of Germany, confined + his attention to the important and laborious defence of the + Gallic frontier, against an enemy whose strength was renewed by a + stream of daring volunteers, which incessantly flowed from the + most distant tribes of the North. 94 The banks of the Rhine 9411 + from its source to the straits of the ocean, were closely planted + with strong castles and convenient towers; new works, and new + arms, were invented by the ingenuity of a prince who was skilled + in the mechanical arts; and his numerous levies of Roman and + Barbarian youth were severely trained in all the exercises of + war. The progress of the work, which was sometimes opposed by + modest representations, and sometimes by hostile attempts, + secured the tranquillity of Gaul during the nine subsequent years + of the administration of Valentinian. 95 + + 9211 (return) [ Probably Easter. Wagner.—M.] + + 9212 (return) [ Mannert is unable to fix the position of + Solicinium. Haefelin (in Comm Acad Elect. Palat. v. 14) + conjectures Schwetzingen, near Heidelberg. See Wagner’s note. St. + Martin, Sultz in Wirtemberg, near the sources of the Neckar St. + Martin, iii. 339.—M.] + + 93 (return) [ The expedition of Valentinian is related by + Ammianus, (xxvii. 10;) and celebrated by Ausonius, (Mosell. 421, + &c.,) who foolishly supposes, that the Romans were ignorant of + the sources of the Danube.] + + 94 (return) [ Immanis enim natio, jam inde ab incunabulis primis + varietate casuum imminuta; ita sæpius adolescit, ut fuisse longis + sæculis æstimetur intacta. Ammianus, xxviii. 5. The Count de Buat + (Hist. des Peuples de l’Europe, tom. vi. p. 370) ascribes the + fecundity of the Alemanni to their easy adoption of strangers. + ——Note: “This explanation,” says Mr. Malthus, “only removes the + difficulty a little farther off. It makes the earth rest upon the + tortoise, but does not tell us on what the tortoise rests. We may + still ask what northern reservoir supplied this incessant stream + of daring adventurers. Montesquieu’s solution of the problem + will, I think, hardly be admitted, (Grandeur et Décadence des + Romains, c. 16, p. 187.) * * * The whole difficulty, however, is + at once removed, if we apply to the German nations, at that time, + a fact which is so generally known to have occurred in America, + and suppose that, when not checked by wars and famine, they + increased at a rate that would double their numbers in + twenty-five or thirty years. The propriety, and even the + necessity, of applying this rate of increase to the inhabitants + of ancient Germany, will strikingly appear from that most + valuable picture of their manners which has been left us by + Tacitus, (Tac. de Mor. Germ. 16 to 20.) * * * With these manners, + and a habit of enterprise and emigration, which would naturally + remove all fears about providing for a family, it is difficult to + conceive a society with a stronger principle of increase in it, + and we see at once that prolific source of armies and colonies + against which the force of the Roman empire so long struggled + with difficulty, and under which it ultimately sunk. It is not + probable that, for two periods together, or even for one, the + population within the confines of Germany ever doubled itself in + twenty-five years. Their perpetual wars, the rude state of + agriculture, and particularly the very strange custom adopted by + most of the tribes of marking their barriers by extensive + deserts, would prevent any very great actual increase of numbers. + At no one period could the country be called well peopled, though + it was often redundant in population. * * * Instead of clearing + their forests, draining their swamps, and rendering their soil + fit to support an extended population, they found it more + congenial to their martial habits and impatient dispositions to + go in quest of food, of plunder, or of glory, into other + countries.” Malthus on Population, i. p. 128.—G.] + + 9411 (return) [ The course of the Neckar was likewise strongly + guarded. The hyperbolical eulogy of Symmachus asserts that the + Neckar first became known to the Romans by the conquests and + fortifications of Valentinian. Nunc primum victoriis tuis + externus fluvius publicatur. Gaudeat servitute, captivus + innotuit. Symm. Orat. p. 22.—M.] + + 95 (return) [ Ammian. xxviii. 2. Zosimus, l. iv. p. 214. The + younger Victor mentions the mechanical genius of Valentinian, + nova arma meditari fingere terra seu limo simulacra.] + + That prudent emperor, who diligently practised the wise maxims of + Diocletian, was studious to foment and excite the intestine + divisions of the tribes of Germany. About the middle of the + fourth century, the countries, perhaps of Lusace and Thuringia, + on either side of the Elbe, were occupied by the vague dominion + of the Burgundians; a warlike and numerous people, 9511 of the + Vandal race, 96 whose obscure name insensibly swelled into a + powerful kingdom, and has finally settled on a flourishing + province. The most remarkable circumstance in the ancient manners + of the Burgundians appears to have been the difference of their + civil and ecclesiastical constitution. The appellation of + _Hendinos_ was given to the king or general, and the title of + _Sinistus_ to the high priest, of the nation. The person of the + priest was sacred, and his dignity perpetual; but the temporal + government was held by a very precarious tenure. If the events of + war accuses the courage or conduct of the king, he was + immediately deposed; and the injustice of his subjects made him + responsible for the fertility of the earth, and the regularity of + the seasons, which seemed to fall more properly within the + sacerdotal department. 97 The disputed possession of some + salt-pits 98 engaged the Alemanni and the Burgundians in frequent + contests: the latter were easily tempted, by the secret + solicitations and liberal offers of the emperor; and their + fabulous descent from the Roman soldiers, who had formerly been + left to garrison the fortresses of Drusus, was admitted with + mutual credulity, as it was conducive to mutual interest. 99 An + army of fourscore thousand Burgundians soon appeared on the banks + of the Rhine; and impatiently required the support and subsidies + which Valentinian had promised: but they were amused with excuses + and delays, till at length, after a fruitless expectation, they + were compelled to retire. The arms and fortifications of the + Gallic frontier checked the fury of their just resentment; and + their massacre of the captives served to imbitter the hereditary + feud of the Burgundians and the Alemanni. The inconstancy of a + wise prince may, perhaps, be explained by some alteration of + circumstances; and perhaps it was the original design of + Valentinian to intimidate, rather than to destroy; as the balance + of power would have been equally overturned by the extirpation of + either of the German nations. Among the princes of the Alemanni, + Macrianus, who, with a Roman name, had assumed the arts of a + soldier and a statesman, deserved his hatred and esteem. The + emperor himself, with a light and unencumbered band, condescended + to pass the Rhine, marched fifty miles into the country, and + would infallibly have seized the object of his pursuit, if his + judicious measures had not been defeated by the impatience of the + troops. Macrianus was afterwards admitted to the honor of a + personal conference with the emperor; and the favors which he + received, fixed him, till the hour of his death, a steady and + sincere friend of the republic. 100 + + 9511 (return) [ According to the general opinion, the Burgundians + formed a Gothic o Vandalic tribe, who, from the banks of the + Lower Vistula, made incursions, on one side towards Transylvania, + on the other towards the centre of Germany. All that remains of + the Burgundian language is Gothic. * * * Nothing in their customs + indicates a different origin. Malte Brun, Geog. tom. i. p. 396. + (edit. 1831.)—M.] + + 96 (return) [ Bellicosos et pubis immensæ viribus affluentes; et + ideo metuendos finitimis universis. Ammian. xxviii. 5.] + + 97 (return) [ I am always apt to suspect historians and + travellers of improving extraordinary facts into general laws. + Ammianus ascribes a similar custom to Egypt; and the Chinese have + imputed it to the Ta-tsin, or Roman empire, (De Guignes, Hist. + des Huns, tom. ii. part. 79.)] + + 98 (return) [ Salinarum finiumque causa Alemannis sæpe jurgabant. + Ammian xxviii. 5. Possibly they disputed the possession of the + _Sala_, a river which produced salt, and which had been the + object of ancient contention. Tacit. Annal. xiii. 57, and Lipsius + ad loc.] + + 99 (return) [ Jam inde temporibus priscis sobolem se esse Romanam + Burgundii sciunt: and the vague tradition gradually assumed a + more regular form, (Oros. l. vii. c. 32.) It is annihilated by + the decisive authority of Pliny, who composed the History of + Drusus, and served in Germany, (Plin. Secund. Epist. iii. 5,) + within sixty years after the death of that hero. _Germanorum + genera_ quinque; Vindili, quorum pars _Burgundiones_, &c., (Hist. + Natur. iv. 28.)] + + 100 (return) [ The wars and negotiations relative to the + Burgundians and Alemanni, are distinctly related by Ammianus + Marcellinus, (xxviii. 5, xxix 4, xxx. 3.) Orosius, (l. vii. c. + 32,) and the Chronicles of Jerom and Cassiodorus, fix some dates, + and add some circumstances.] + + The land was covered by the fortifications of Valentinian; but + the sea-coast of Gaul and Britain was exposed to the depredations + of the Saxons. That celebrated name, in which we have a dear and + domestic interest, escaped the notice of Tacitus; and in the maps + of Ptolemy, it faintly marks the narrow neck of the Cimbric + peninsula, and three small islands towards the mouth of the Elbe. + 101 This contracted territory, the present duchy of Sleswig, or + perhaps of Holstein, was incapable of pouring forth the + inexhaustible swarms of Saxons who reigned over the ocean, who + filled the British island with their language, their laws, and + their colonies; and who so long defended the liberty of the North + against the arms of Charlemagne. 102 The solution of this + difficulty is easily derived from the similar manners, and loose + constitution, of the tribes of Germany; which were blended with + each other by the slightest accidents of war or friendship. The + situation of the native Saxons disposed them to embrace the + hazardous professions of fishermen and pirates; and the success + of their first adventures would naturally excite the emulation of + their bravest countrymen, who were impatient of the gloomy + solitude of their woods and mountains. Every tide might float + down the Elbe whole fleets of canoes, filled with hardy and + intrepid associates, who aspired to behold the unbounded prospect + of the ocean, and to taste the wealth and luxury of unknown + worlds. It should seem probable, however, that the most numerous + auxiliaries of the Saxons were furnished by the nations who dwelt + along the shores of the Baltic. They possessed arms and ships, + the art of navigation, and the habits of naval war; but the + difficulty of issuing through the northern columns of Hercules + 103 (which, during several months of the year, are obstructed + with ice) confined their skill and courage within the limits of a + spacious lake. The rumor of the successful armaments which sailed + from the mouth of the Elbe, would soon provoke them to cross the + narrow isthmus of Sleswig, and to launch their vessels on the + great sea. The various troops of pirates and adventurers, who + fought under the same standard, were insensibly united in a + permanent society, at first of rapine, and afterwards of + government. A military confederation was gradually moulded into a + national body, by the gentle operation of marriage and + consanguinity; and the adjacent tribes, who solicited the + alliance, accepted the name and laws, of the Saxons. If the fact + were not established by the most unquestionable evidence, we + should appear to abuse the credulity of our readers, by the + description of the vessels in which the Saxon pirates ventured to + sport in the waves of the German Ocean, the British Channel, and + the Bay of Biscay. The keel of their large flat-bottomed boats + were framed of light timber, but the sides and upper works + consisted only of wicker, with a covering of strong hides. 104 In + the course of their slow and distant navigations, they must + always have been exposed to the danger, and very frequently to + the misfortune, of shipwreck; and the naval annals of the Saxons + were undoubtedly filled with the accounts of the losses which + they sustained on the coasts of Britain and Gaul. But the daring + spirit of the pirates braved the perils both of the sea and of + the shore: their skill was confirmed by the habits of enterprise; + the meanest of their mariners was alike capable of handling an + oar, of rearing a sail, or of conducting a vessel, and the Saxons + rejoiced in the appearance of a tempest, which concealed their + design, and dispersed the fleets of the enemy. 105 After they had + acquired an accurate knowledge of the maritime provinces of the + West, they extended the scene of their depredations, and the most + sequestered places had no reason to presume on their security. + The Saxon boats drew so little water that they could easily + proceed fourscore or a hundred miles up the great rivers; their + weight was so inconsiderable, that they were transported on + wagons from one river to another; and the pirates who had entered + the mouth of the Seine, or of the Rhine, might descend, with the + rapid stream of the Rhone, into the Mediterranean. Under the + reign of Valentinian, the maritime provinces of Gaul were + afflicted by the Saxons: a military count was stationed for the + defence of the sea-coast, or Armorican limit; and that officer, + who found his strength, or his abilities, unequal to the task, + implored the assistance of Severus, master-general of the + infantry. The Saxons, surrounded and outnumbered, were forced to + relinquish their spoil, and to yield a select band of their tall + and robust youth to serve in the Imperial armies. They stipulated + only a safe and honorable retreat; and the condition was readily + granted by the Roman general, who meditated an act of perfidy, + 106 imprudent as it was inhuman, while a Saxon remained alive, + and in arms, to revenge the fate of their countrymen. The + premature eagerness of the infantry, who were secretly posted in + a deep valley, betrayed the ambuscade; and they would perhaps + have fallen the victims of their own treachery, if a large body + of cuirassiers, alarmed by the noise of the combat, had not + hastily advanced to extricate their companions, and to overwhelm + the undaunted valor of the Saxons. Some of the prisoners were + saved from the edge of the sword, to shed their blood in the + amphitheatre; and the orator Symmachus complains, that + twenty-nine of those desperate savages, by strangling themselves + with their own hands, had disappointed the amusement of the + public. Yet the polite and philosophic citizens of Rome were + impressed with the deepest horror, when they were informed, that + the Saxons consecrated to the gods the tithe of their _human_ + spoil; and that they ascertained by lot the objects of the + barbarous sacrifice. 107 + + 101 (return) [ At the northern extremity of the peninsula, (the + Cimbric promontory of Pliny, iv. 27,) Ptolemy fixes the remnant + of the _Cimbri_. He fills the interval between the _Saxons_ and + the Cimbri with six obscure tribes, who were united, as early as + the sixth century, under the national appellation of _Danes_. See + Cluver. German. Antiq. l. iii. c. 21, 22, 23.] + + 102 (return) [ M. D’Anville (Establissement des Etats de + l’Europe, &c., p. 19-26) has marked the extensive limits of the + Saxony of Charlemagne.] + + 103 (return) [ The fleet of Drusus had failed in their attempt to + pass, or even to approach, the _Sound_, (styled, from an obvious + resemblance, the columns of Hercules,) and the naval enterprise + was never resumed, (Tacit. de Moribus German. c. 34.) The + knowledge which the Romans acquired of the naval powers of the + Baltic, (c. 44, 45) was obtained by their land journeys in search + of amber.] + + 104 (return) [ Quin et Aremoricus piratam _Saxona_ tractus + Sperabat; cui pelle salum sulcare Britannum + Ludus; et assuto glaucum mare findere lembo. + Sidon. in Panegyr. Avit. 369. + + The genius of Cæsar imitated, for a particular service, these + rude, but light vessels, which were likewise used by the natives + of Britain. (Comment. de Bell. Civil. i. 51, and Guichardt, + Nouveaux Mémoires Militaires, tom. ii. p. 41, 42.) The British + vessels would now astonish the genius of Cæsar.] + + 105 (return) [ The best original account of the Saxon pirates may + be found in Sidonius Apollinaris, (l. viii. epist. 6, p. 223, + edit. Sirmond,) and the best commentary in the Abbé du Bos, + (Hist. Critique de la Monarchie Françoise, &c. tom. i. l. i. c. + 16, p. 148-155. See likewise p. 77, 78.)] + + 106 (return) [ Ammian. (xxviii. 5) justifies this breach of faith + to pirates and robbers; and Orosius (l. vii. c. 32) more clearly + expresses their real guilt; virtute atque agilitate terribeles.] + + 107 (return) [ Symmachus (l. ii. epist. 46) still presumes to + mention the sacred name of Socrates and philosophy. Sidonius, + bishop of Clermont, might condemn, (l. viii. epist. 6,) with + _less_ inconsistency, the human sacrifices of the Saxons.] + + II. The fabulous colonies of Egyptians and Trojans, of + Scandinavians and Spaniards, which flattered the pride, and + amused the credulity, of our rude ancestors, have insensibly + vanished in the light of science and philosophy. 108 The present + age is satisfied with the simple and rational opinion, that the + islands of Great Britain and Ireland were gradually peopled from + the adjacent continent of Gaul. From the coast of Kent, to the + extremity of Caithness and Ulster, the memory of a Celtic origin + was distinctly preserved, in the perpetual resemblance of + language, of religion, and of manners; and the peculiar + characters of the British tribes might be naturally ascribed to + the influence of accidental and local circumstances. 109 The + Roman Province was reduced to the state of civilized and peaceful + servitude; the rights of savage freedom were contracted to the + narrow limits of Caledonia. The inhabitants of that northern + region were divided, as early as the reign of Constantine, + between the two great tribes of the Scots and of the Picts, 110 + who have since experienced a very different fortune. The power, + and almost the memory, of the Picts have been extinguished by + their successful rivals; and the Scots, after maintaining for + ages the dignity of an independent kingdom, have multiplied, by + an equal and voluntary union, the honors of the English name. The + hand of nature had contributed to mark the ancient distinctions + of the Scots and Picts. The former were the men of the hills, and + the latter those of the plain. The eastern coast of Caledonia may + be considered as a level and fertile country, which, even in a + rude state of tillage, was capable of producing a considerable + quantity of corn; and the epithet of _cruitnich_, or + wheat-eaters, expressed the contempt or envy of the carnivorous + highlander. The cultivation of the earth might introduce a more + accurate separation of property, and the habits of a sedentary + life; but the love of arms and rapine was still the ruling + passion of the Picts; and their warriors, who stripped themselves + for a day of battle, were distinguished, in the eyes of the + Romans, by the strange fashion of painting their naked bodies + with gaudy colors and fantastic figures. The western part of + Caledonia irregularly rises into wild and barren hills, which + scarcely repay the toil of the husbandman, and are most + profitably used for the pasture of cattle. The highlanders were + condemned to the occupations of shepherds and hunters; and, as + they seldom were fixed to any permanent habitation, they acquired + the expressive name of Scots, which, in the Celtic tongue, is + said to be equivalent to that of _wanderers_, or _vagrants_. The + inhabitants of a barren land were urged to seek a fresh supply of + food in the waters. The deep lakes and bays which intersect their + country, are plentifully supplied with fish; and they gradually + ventured to cast their nets in the waves of the ocean. The + vicinity of the Hebrides, so profusely scattered along the + western coast of Scotland, tempted their curiosity, and improved + their skill; and they acquired, by slow degrees, the art, or + rather the habit, of managing their boats in a tempestuous sea, + and of steering their nocturnal course by the light of the + well-known stars. The two bold headlands of Caledonia almost + touch the shores of a spacious island, which obtained, from its + luxuriant vegetation, the epithet of _Green;_ and has preserved, + with a slight alteration, the name of Erin, or Ierne, or Ireland. + It is _probable_, that in some remote period of antiquity, the + fertile plains of Ulster received a colony of hungry Scots; and + that the strangers of the North, who had dared to encounter the + arms of the legions, spread their conquests over the savage and + unwarlike natives of a solitary island. It is _certain_, that, in + the declining age of the Roman empire, Caledonia, Ireland, and + the Isle of Man, were inhabited by the Scots, and that the + kindred tribes, who were often associated in military enterprise, + were deeply affected by the various accidents of their mutual + fortunes. They long cherished the lively tradition of their + common name and origin; and the missionaries of the Isle of + Saints, who diffused the light of Christianity over North + Britain, established the vain opinion, that their Irish + countrymen were the natural, as well as spiritual, fathers of the + Scottish race. The loose and obscure tradition has been preserved + by the venerable Bede, who scattered some rays of light over the + darkness of the eighth century. On this slight foundation, a huge + superstructure of fable was gradually reared, by the bards and + the monks; two orders of men, who equally abused the privilege of + fiction. The Scottish nation, with mistaken pride, adopted their + Irish genealogy; and the annals of a long line of imaginary kings + have been adorned by the fancy of Boethius, and the classic + elegance of Buchanan. 111 + + 108 (return) [ In the beginning of the last century, the learned + Camden was obliged to undermine, with respectful scepticism, the + romance of _Brutus_, the Trojan; who is now buried in silent + oblivion with _Scota_, the daughter of Pharaoh, and her numerous + progeny. Yet I am informed, that some champions of the _Milesian + colony_ may still be found among the original natives of Ireland. + A people dissatisfied with their present condition, grasp at any + visions of their past or future glory.] + + 109 (return) [ Tacitus, or rather his father-in-law, Agricola, + might remark the German or Spanish complexion of some British + tribes. But it was their sober, deliberate opinion: “In universum + tamen æstimanti Gallos cicinum solum occupâsse credibile est. + Eorum sacra deprehendas.... ermo haud multum diversus,” (in Vit. + Agricol. c. xi.) Cæsar had observed their common religion, + (Comment. de Bello Gallico, vi. 13;) and in his time the + emigration from the Belgic Gaul was a recent, or at least an + historical event, (v. 10.) Camden, the British Strabo, has + modestly ascertained our genuine antiquities, (Britannia, vol. i. + Introduction, p. ii.—xxxi.)] + + 110 (return) [ In the dark and doubtful paths of Caledonian + antiquity, I have chosen for my guides two learned and ingenious + Highlanders, whom their birth and education had peculiarly + qualified for that office. See Critical Dissertations on the + Origin and Antiquities, &c., of the Caledonians, by Dr. John + Macpherson, London 1768, in 4to.; and Introduction to the History + of Great Britain and Ireland, by James Macpherson, Esq., London + 1773, in 4to., third edit. Dr. Macpherson was a minister in the + Isle of Sky: and it is a circumstance honorable for the present + age, that a work, replete with erudition and criticism, should + have been composed in the most remote of the Hebrides.] + + 111 (return) [ The Irish descent of the Scots has been revived in + the last moments of its decay, and strenuously supported, by the + Rev. Mr. Whitaker, (Hist. of Manchester, vol. i. p. 430, 431; and + Genuine History of the Britons asserted, &c., p. 154-293) Yet he + acknowledges, 1. _That_ the Scots of Ammianus Marcellinus (A.D. + 340) were already settled in Caledonia; and that the Roman + authors do not afford any hints of their emigration from another + country. 2. _That_ all the accounts of such emigrations, which + have been asserted or received, by Irish bards, Scotch + historians, or English antiquaries, (Buchanan, Camden, Usher, + Stillingfleet, &c.,) are totally fabulous. 3. _That_ three of the + Irish tribes, which are mentioned by Ptolemy, (A.D. 150,) were of + Caledonian extraction. 4. _That_ a younger branch of Caledonian + princes, of the house of Fingal, acquired and possessed the + monarchy of Ireland. After these concessions, the remaining + difference between Mr. Whitaker and his adversaries is minute and + obscure. The _genuine history_, which he produces, of a Fergus, + the cousin of Ossian, who was transplanted (A.D. 320) from + Ireland to Caledonia, is built on a conjectural supplement to the + Erse poetry, and the feeble evidence of Richard of Cirencester, a + monk of the fourteenth century. The lively spirit of the learned + and ingenious antiquarian has tempted him to forget the nature of + a question, which he so _vehemently_ debates, and so _absolutely_ + decides. * Note: This controversy has not slumbered since the + days of Gibbon. We have strenuous advocates of the Phœnician + origin of the Irish, and each of the old theories, with several + new ones, maintains its partisans. It would require several pages + fairly to bring down the dispute to our own days, and perhaps we + should be no nearer to any satisfactory theory than Gibbon + was.—M.] + + + + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part V. + + + Six years after the death of Constantine, the destructive inroads + of the Scots and Picts required the presence of his youngest son, + who reigned in the Western empire. Constans visited his British + dominions: but we may form some estimate of the importance of his + achievements, by the language of panegyric, which celebrates only + his triumph over the elements or, in other words, the good + fortune of a safe and easy passage from the port of Boulogne to + the harbor of Sandwich. 112 The calamities which the afflicted + provincials continued to experience, from foreign war and + domestic tyranny, were aggravated by the feeble and corrupt + administration of the eunuchs of Constantius; and the transient + relief which they might obtain from the virtues of Julian, was + soon lost by the absence and death of their benefactor. The sums + of gold and silver, which had been painfully collected, or + liberally transmitted, for the payment of the troops, were + intercepted by the avarice of the commanders; discharges, or, at + least, exemptions, from the military service, were publicly sold; + the distress of the soldiers, who were injuriously deprived of + their legal and scanty subsistence, provoked them to frequent + desertion; the nerves of discipline were relaxed, and the + highways were infested with robbers. 113 The oppression of the + good, and the impunity of the wicked, equally contributed to + diffuse through the island a spirit of discontent and revolt; and + every ambitious subject, every desperate exile, might entertain a + reasonable hope of subverting the weak and distracted government + of Britain. The hostile tribes of the North, who detested the + pride and power of the King of the World, suspended their + domestic feuds; and the Barbarians of the land and sea, the + Scots, the Picts, and the Saxons, spread themselves with rapid + and irresistible fury, from the wall of Antoninus to the shores + of Kent. Every production of art and nature, every object of + convenience and luxury, which they were incapable of creating by + labor or procuring by trade, was accumulated in the rich and + fruitful province of Britain. 114 A philosopher may deplore the + eternal discords of the human race, but he will confess, that the + desire of spoil is a more rational provocation than the vanity of + conquest. From the age of Constantine to the Plantagenets, this + rapacious spirit continued to instigate the poor and hardy + Caledonians; but the same people, whose generous humanity seems + to inspire the songs of Ossian, was disgraced by a savage + ignorance of the virtues of peace, and of the laws of war. Their + southern neighbors have felt, and perhaps exaggerated, the cruel + depredations of the Scots and Picts; 115 and a valiant tribe of + Caledonia, the Attacotti, 116 the enemies, and afterwards the + soldiers, of Valentinian, are accused, by an eye-witness, of + delighting in the taste of human flesh. When they hunted the + woods for prey, it is said, that they attacked the shepherd + rather than his flock; and that they curiously selected the most + delicate and brawny parts, both of males and females, which they + prepared for their horrid repasts. 117 If, in the neighborhood of + the commercial and literary town of Glasgow, a race of cannibals + has really existed, we may contemplate, in the period of the + Scottish history, the opposite extremes of savage and civilized + life. Such reflections tend to enlarge the circle of our ideas; + and to encourage the pleasing hope, that New Zealand may produce, + in some future age, the Hume of the Southern Hemisphere. + + 112 (return) [ Hyeme tumentes ac sævientes undas calcâstis Oceani + sub remis vestris;... insperatam imperatoris faciem Britannus + expavit. Julius Fermicus Maternus de Errore Profan. Relig. p. + 464. edit. Gronov. ad calcem Minuc. Fæl. See Tillemont, (Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. 336.)] + + 113 (return) [ Libanius, Orat. Parent. c. xxxix. p. 264. This + curious passage has escaped the diligence of our British + antiquaries.] + + 114 (return) [ The Caledonians praised and coveted the gold, the + steeds, the lights, &c., of the _stranger_. See Dr. Blair’s + Dissertation on Ossian, vol ii. p. 343; and Mr. Macpherson’s + Introduction, p. 242-286.] + + 115 (return) [ Lord Lyttelton has circumstantially related, + (History of Henry II. vol. i. p. 182,) and Sir David Dalrymple + has slightly mentioned, (Annals of Scotland, vol. i. p. 69,) a + barbarous inroad of the Scots, at a time (A.D. 1137) when law, + religion, and society must have softened their primitive + manners.] + + 116 (return) [ Attacotti bellicosa hominum natio. Ammian. xxvii. + 8. Camden (Introduct. p. clii.) has restored their true name in + the text of Jerom. The bands of Attacotti, which Jerom had seen + in Gaul, were afterwards stationed in Italy and Illyricum, + (Notitia, S. viii. xxxix. xl.)] + + 117 (return) [ Cum ipse adolescentulus in Gallia viderim + Attacottos (or Scotos) gentem Britannicam humanis vesci carnibus; + et cum per silvas porcorum greges, et armentorum percudumque + reperiant, pastorum _nates_ et feminarum _papillas_ solere + abscindere; et has solas ciborum delicias arbitrari. Such is the + evidence of Jerom, (tom. ii. p. 75,) whose veracity I find no + reason to question. * Note: See Dr. Parr’s works, iii. 93, where + he questions the propriety of Gibbon’s translation of this + passage. The learned doctor approves of the version proposed by a + Mr. Gaches, who would make out that it was the delicate parts of + the swine and the cattle, which were eaten by these ancestors of + the Scotch nation. I confess that even to acquit them of this + charge. I cannot agree to the new version, which, in my opinion, + is directly contrary both to the meaning of the words, and the + general sense of the passage. But I would suggest, did Jerom, as + a boy, accompany these savages in any of their hunting + expeditions? If he did not, how could he be an eye-witness of + this practice? The Attacotti in Gaul must have been in the + service of Rome. Were they permitted to indulge these cannibal + propensities at the expense, not of the flocks, but of the + shepherds of the provinces? These sanguinary trophies of plunder + would scarce’y have been publicly exhibited in a Roman city or a + Roman camp. I must leave the hereditary pride of our northern + neighbors at issue with the veracity of St. Jerom.—M.] + + Every messenger who escaped across the British Channel, conveyed + the most melancholy and alarming tidings to the ears of + Valentinian; and the emperor was soon informed that the two + military commanders of the province had been surprised and cut + off by the Barbarians. Severus, count of the domestics, was + hastily despatched, and as suddenly recalled, by the court of + Treves. The representations of Jovinus served only to indicate + the greatness of the evil; and, after a long and serious + consultation, the defence, or rather the recovery, of Britain was + intrusted to the abilities of the brave Theodosius. The exploits + of that general, the father of a line of emperors, have been + celebrated, with peculiar complacency, by the writers of the age: + but his real merit deserved their applause; and his nomination + was received, by the army and province, as a sure presage of + approaching victory. He seized the favorable moment of + navigation, and securely landed the numerous and veteran bands of + the Heruli and Batavians, the Jovians and the Victors. In his + march from Sandwich to London, Theodosius defeated several + parties of the Barbarians, released a multitude of captives, and, + after distributing to his soldiers a small portion of the spoil, + established the fame of disinterested justice, by the restitution + of the remainder to the rightful proprietors. The citizens of + London, who had almost despaired of their safety, threw open + their gates; and as soon as Theodosius had obtained from the + court of Treves the important aid of a military lieutenant, and a + civil governor, he executed, with wisdom and vigor, the laborious + task of the deliverance of Britain. The vagrant soldiers were + recalled to their standard; an edict of amnesty dispelled the + public apprehensions; and his cheerful example alleviated the + rigor of martial discipline. The scattered and desultory warfare + of the Barbarians, who infested the land and sea, deprived him of + the glory of a signal victory; but the prudent spirit, and + consummate art, of the Roman general, were displayed in the + operations of two campaigns, which successively rescued every + part of the province from the hands of a cruel and rapacious + enemy. The splendor of the cities, and the security of the + fortifications, were diligently restored, by the paternal care of + Theodosius; who with a strong hand confined the trembling + Caledonians to the northern angle of the island; and perpetuated, + by the name and settlement of the new province of _Valentia_, the + glories of the reign of Valentinian. 118 The voice of poetry and + panegyric may add, perhaps with some degree of truth, that the + unknown regions of Thule were stained with the blood of the + Picts; that the oars of Theodosius dashed the waves of the + Hyperborean ocean; and that the distant Orkneys were the scene of + his naval victory over the Saxon pirates. 119 He left the + province with a fair, as well as splendid, reputation; and was + immediately promoted to the rank of master-general of the + cavalry, by a prince who could applaud, without envy, the merit + of his servants. In the important station of the Upper Danube, + the conqueror of Britain checked and defeated the armies of the + Alemanni, before he was chosen to suppress the revolt of Africa. + + 118 (return) [ Ammianus has concisely represented (xx. l. xxvi. + 4, xxvii. 8 xxviii. 3) the whole series of the British war.] + + 119 (return) [ Horrescit.... ratibus.... impervia Thule. Ille.... + nec falso nomine Pictos Edomuit. Scotumque vago mucrone secutus, + Fregit Hyperboreas remis audacibus undas. Claudian, in iii. Cons. + Honorii, ver. 53, &c—Madurunt Saxone fuso Orcades: incaluit + Pictorum sanguine Thule, Scotorum cumulos flevit glacialis Ierne. + In iv. Cons. Hon. ver. 31, &c. ——See likewise Pacatus, (in + Panegyr. Vet. xii. 5.) But it is not easy to appreciate the + intrinsic value of flattery and metaphor. Compare the _British_ + victories of Bolanus (Statius, Silv. v. 2) with his real + character, (Tacit. in Vit. Agricol. c. 16.)] + + III. The prince who refuses to be the judge, instructs the people + to consider him as the accomplice, of his ministers. The military + command of Africa had been long exercised by Count Romanus, and + his abilities were not inadequate to his station; but, as sordid + interest was the sole motive of his conduct, he acted, on most + occasions, as if he had been the enemy of the province, and the + friend of the Barbarians of the desert. The three flourishing + cities of Oea, Leptis, and Sobrata, which, under the name of + Tripoli, had long constituted a federal union, 120 were obliged, + for the first time, to shut their gates against a hostile + invasion; several of their most honorable citizens were surprised + and massacred; the villages, and even the suburbs, were pillaged; + and the vines and fruit trees of that rich territory were + extirpated by the malicious savages of Getulia. The unhappy + provincials implored the protection of Romanus; but they soon + found that their military governor was not less cruel and + rapacious than the Barbarians. As they were incapable of + furnishing the four thousand camels, and the exorbitant present, + which he required, before he would march to the assistance of + Tripoli; his demand was equivalent to a refusal, and he might + justly be accused as the author of the public calamity. In the + annual assembly of the three cities, they nominated two deputies, + to lay at the feet of Valentinian the customary offering of a + gold victory; and to accompany this tribute of duty, rather than + of gratitude, with their humble complaint, that they were ruined + by the enemy, and betrayed by their governor. If the severity of + Valentinian had been rightly directed, it would have fallen on + the guilty head of Romanus. But the count, long exercised in the + arts of corruption, had despatched a swift and trusty messenger + to secure the venal friendship of Remigius, master of the + offices. The wisdom of the Imperial council was deceived by + artifice; and their honest indignation was cooled by delay. At + length, when the repetition of complaint had been justified by + the repetition of public misfortunes, the notary Palladius was + sent from the court of Treves, to examine the state of Africa, + and the conduct of Romanus. The rigid impartiality of Palladius + was easily disarmed: he was tempted to reserve for himself a part + of the public treasure, which he brought with him for the payment + of the troops; and from the moment that he was conscious of his + own guilt, he could no longer refuse to attest the innocence and + merit of the count. The charge of the Tripolitans was declared to + be false and frivolous; and Palladius himself was sent back from + Treves to Africa, with a special commission to discover and + prosecute the authors of this impious conspiracy against the + representatives of the sovereign. His inquiries were managed with + so much dexterity and success, that he compelled the citizens of + Leptis, who had sustained a recent siege of eight days, to + contradict the truth of their own decrees, and to censure the + behavior of their own deputies. A bloody sentence was pronounced, + without hesitation, by the rash and headstrong cruelty of + Valentinian. The president of Tripoli, who had presumed to pity + the distress of the province, was publicly executed at Utica; + four distinguished citizens were put to death, as the accomplices + of the imaginary fraud; and the tongues of two others were cut + out, by the express order of the emperor. Romanus, elated by + impunity, and irritated by resistance, was still continued in the + military command; till the Africans were provoked, by his + avarice, to join the rebellious standard of Firmus, the Moor. 121 + + 120 (return) [ Ammianus frequently mentions their concilium + annuum, legitimum, &c. Leptis and Sabrata are long since ruined; + but the city of Oea, the native country of Apuleius, still + flourishes under the provincial denomination of _Tripoli_. See + Cellarius (Geograph. Antiqua, tom. ii. part ii. p. 81,) + D’Anville, (Geographie Ancienne, tom. iii. p. 71, 72,) and + Marmol, (Arrique, tom. ii. p. 562.)] + + 121 (return) [ Ammian. xviii. 6. Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, + tom. v. p 25, 676) has discussed the chronological difficulties + of the history of Count Romanus.] + + His father Nabal was one of the richest and most powerful of the + Moorish princes, who acknowledged the supremacy of Rome. But as + he left, either by his wives or concubines, a very numerous + posterity, the wealthy inheritance was eagerly disputed; and + Zamma, one of his sons, was slain in a domestic quarrel by his + brother Firmus. The implacable zeal, with which Romanus + prosecuted the legal revenge of this murder, could be ascribed + only to a motive of avarice, or personal hatred; but, on this + occasion, his claims were just; his influence was weighty; and + Firmus clearly understood, that he must either present his neck + to the executioner, or appeal from the sentence of the Imperial + consistory, to his sword, and to the people. 122 He was received + as the deliverer of his country; and, as soon as it appeared that + Romanus was formidable only to a submissive province, the tyrant + of Africa became the object of universal contempt. The ruin of + Cæsarea, which was plundered and burnt by the licentious + Barbarians, convinced the refractory cities of the danger of + resistance; the power of Firmus was established, at least in the + provinces of Mauritania and Numidia; and it seemed to be his only + doubt whether he should assume the diadem of a Moorish king, or + the purple of a Roman emperor. But the imprudent and unhappy + Africans soon discovered, that, in this rash insurrection, they + had not sufficiently consulted their own strength, or the + abilities of their leader. Before he could procure any certain + intelligence, that the emperor of the West had fixed the choice + of a general, or that a fleet of transports was collected at the + mouth of the Rhone, he was suddenly informed that the great + Theodosius, with a small band of veterans, had landed near + Igilgilis, or Gigeri, on the African coast; and the timid usurper + sunk under the ascendant of virtue and military genius. Though + Firmus possessed arms and treasures, his despair of victory + immediately reduced him to the use of those arts, which, in the + same country, and in a similar situation, had formerly been + practised by the crafty Jugurtha. He attempted to deceive, by an + apparent submission, the vigilance of the Roman general; to + seduce the fidelity of his troops; and to protract the duration + of the war, by successively engaging the independent tribes of + Africa to espouse his quarrel, or to protect his flight. + Theodosius imitated the example, and obtained the success, of his + predecessor Metellus. When Firmus, in the character of a + suppliant, accused his own rashness, and humbly solicited the + clemency of the emperor, the lieutenant of Valentinian received + and dismissed him with a friendly embrace: but he diligently + required the useful and substantial pledges of a sincere + repentance; nor could he be persuaded, by the assurances of + peace, to suspend, for an instant, the operations of an active + war. A dark conspiracy was detected by the penetration of + Theodosius; and he satisfied, without much reluctance, the public + indignation, which he had secretly excited. Several of the guilty + accomplices of Firmus were abandoned, according to ancient + custom, to the tumult of a military execution; many more, by the + amputation of both their hands, continued to exhibit an + instructive spectacle of horror; the hatred of the rebels was + accompanied with fear; and the fear of the Roman soldiers was + mingled with respectful admiration. Amidst the boundless plains + of Getulia, and the innumerable valleys of Mount Atlas, it was + impossible to prevent the escape of Firmus; and if the usurper + could have tired the patience of his antagonist, he would have + secured his person in the depth of some remote solitude, and + expected the hopes of a future revolution. He was subdued by the + perseverance of Theodosius; who had formed an inflexible + determination, that the war should end only by the death of the + tyrant; and that every nation of Africa, which presumed to + support his cause, should be involved in his ruin. At the head of + a small body of troops, which seldom exceeded three thousand five + hundred men, the Roman general advanced, with a steady prudence, + devoid of rashness or of fear, into the heart of a country, where + he was sometimes attacked by armies of twenty thousand Moors. The + boldness of his charge dismayed the irregular Barbarians; they + were disconcerted by his seasonable and orderly retreats; they + were continually baffled by the unknown resources of the military + art; and they felt and confessed the just superiority which was + assumed by the leader of a civilized nation. When Theodosius + entered the extensive dominions of Igmazen, king of the + Isaflenses, the haughty savage required, in words of defiance, + his name, and the object of his expedition. “I am,” replied the + stern and disdainful count, “I am the general of Valentinian, the + lord of the world; who has sent me hither to pursue and punish a + desperate robber. Deliver him instantly into my hands; and be + assured, that if thou dost not obey the commands of my invincible + sovereign, thou, and the people over whom thou reignest, shall be + utterly extirpated.” 12211 As soon as Igmazen was satisfied, that + his enemy had strength and resolution to execute the fatal + menace, he consented to purchase a necessary peace by the + sacrifice of a guilty fugitive. The guards that were placed to + secure the person of Firmus deprived him of the hopes of escape; + and the Moorish tyrant, after wine had extinguished the sense of + danger, disappointed the insulting triumph of the Romans, by + strangling himself in the night. His dead body, the only present + which Igmazen could offer to the conqueror, was carelessly thrown + upon a camel; and Theodosius, leading back his victorious troops + to Sitifi, was saluted by the warmest acclamations of joy and + loyalty. 123 + + 122 (return) [ The Chronology of Ammianus is loose and obscure; + and Orosius (i. vii. c. 33, p. 551, edit. Havercamp) seems to + place the revolt of Firmus after the deaths of Valentinian and + Valens. Tillemont (Hist. des. Emp. tom. v. p. 691) endeavors to + pick his way. The patient and sure-foot mule of the Alps may be + trusted in the most slippery paths.] + + 12211 (return) [ The war was longer protracted than this sentence + would lead us to suppose: it was not till defeated more than once + that Igmazen yielded Amm. xxix. 5.—M] + + 123 (return) [ Ammian xxix. 5. The text of this long chapter + (fifteen quarto pages) is broken and corrupted; and the narrative + is perplexed by the want of chronological and geographical + landmarks.] + + Africa had been lost by the vices of Romanus; it was restored by + the virtues of Theodosius; and our curiosity may be usefully + directed to the inquiry of the respective treatment which the two + generals received from the Imperial court. The authority of Count + Romanus had been suspended by the master-general of the cavalry; + and he was committed to safe and honorable custody till the end + of the war. His crimes were proved by the most authentic + evidence; and the public expected, with some impatience, the + decree of severe justice. But the partial and powerful favor of + Mellobaudes encouraged him to challenge his legal judges, to + obtain repeated delays for the purpose of procuring a crowd of + friendly witnesses, and, finally, to cover his guilty conduct, by + the additional guilt of fraud and forgery. About the same time, + the restorer of Britain and Africa, on a vague suspicion that his + name and services were superior to the rank of a subject, was + ignominiously beheaded at Carthage. Valentinian no longer + reigned; and the death of Theodosius, as well as the impunity of + Romanus, may justly be imputed to the arts of the ministers, who + abused the confidence, and deceived the inexperienced youth, of + his sons. 124 + + 124 (return) [ Ammian xxviii. 4. Orosius, l. vii. c. 33, p. 551, + 552. Jerom. in Chron. p. 187.] + + If the geographical accuracy of Ammianus had been fortunately + bestowed on the British exploits of Theodosius, we should have + traced, with eager curiosity, the distinct and domestic footsteps + of his march. But the tedious enumeration of the unknown and + uninteresting tribes of Africa may be reduced to the general + remark, that they were all of the swarthy race of the Moors; that + they inhabited the back settlements of the Mauritanian and + Numidian province, the country, as they have since been termed by + the Arabs, of dates and of locusts; 125 and that, as the Roman + power declined in Africa, the boundary of civilized manners and + cultivated land was insensibly contracted. Beyond the utmost + limits of the Moors, the vast and inhospitable desert of the + South extends above a thousand miles to the banks of the Niger. + The ancients, who had a very faint and imperfect knowledge of the + great peninsula of Africa, were sometimes tempted to believe, + that the torrid zone must ever remain destitute of inhabitants; + 126 and they sometimes amused their fancy by filling the vacant + space with headless men, or rather monsters; 127 with horned and + cloven-footed satyrs; 128 with fabulous centaurs; 129 and with + human pygmies, who waged a bold and doubtful warfare against the + cranes. 130 Carthage would have trembled at the strange + intelligence that the countries on either side of the equator + were filled with innumerable nations, who differed only in their + color from the ordinary appearance of the human species: and the + subjects of the Roman empire might have anxiously expected, that + the swarms of Barbarians, which issued from the North, would soon + be encountered from the South by new swarms of Barbarians, + equally fierce and equally formidable. These gloomy terrors would + indeed have been dispelled by a more intimate acquaintance with + the character of their African enemies. The inaction of the + negroes does not seem to be the effect either of their virtue or + of their pusillanimity. They indulge, like the rest of mankind, + their passions and appetites; and the adjacent tribes are engaged + in frequent acts of hostility. 131 But their rude ignorance has + never invented any effectual weapons of defence, or of + destruction; they appear incapable of forming any extensive plans + of government, or conquest; and the obvious inferiority of their + mental faculties has been discovered and abused by the nations of + the temperate zone. Sixty thousand blacks are annually embarked + from the coast of Guinea, never to return to their native + country; but they are embarked in chains; 132 and this constant + emigration, which, in the space of two centuries, might have + furnished armies to overrun the globe, accuses the guilt of + Europe, and the weakness of Africa. + + 125 (return) [ Leo Africanus (in the Viaggi di Ramusio, tom. i. + fol. 78-83) has traced a curious picture of the people and the + country; which are more minutely described in the Afrique de + Marmol, tom. iii. p. 1-54.] + + 126 (return) [ This uninhabitable zone was gradually reduced by + the improvements of ancient geography, from forty-five to + twenty-four, or even sixteen degrees of latitude. See a learned + and judicious note of Dr. Robertson, Hist. of America, vol. i. p. + 426.] + + 127 (return) [ Intra, si credere libet, vix jam homines et magis + semiferi... Blemmyes, Satyri, &c. Pomponius Mela, i. 4, p. 26, + edit. Voss. in 8vo. Pliny _philosophically_ explains (vi. 35) the + irregularities of nature, which he had _credulously_ admitted, + (v. 8.)] + + 128 (return) [ If the satyr was the Orang-outang, the great human + ape, (Buffon, Hist. Nat. tom. xiv. p. 43, &c.,) one of that + species might actually be shown alive at Alexandria, in the reign + of Constantine. Yet some difficulty will still remain about the + conversation which St. Anthony held with one of these pious + savages, in the desert of Thebais. (Jerom. in Vit. Paul. Eremit. + tom. i. p. 238.)] + + 129 (return) [ St. Anthony likewise met one of _these_ monsters; + whose existence was seriously asserted by the emperor Claudius. + The public laughed; but his præfect of Egypt had the address to + send an artful preparation, the embalmed corpse of a + _Hippocentaur_, which was preserved almost a century afterwards + in the Imperial palace. See Pliny, (Hist. Natur. vii. 3,) and the + judicious observations of Freret. (Mémoires de l’Acad. tom. vii. + p. 321, &c.)] + + 130 (return) [ The fable of the pygmies is as old as Homer, + (Iliad. iii. 6) The pygmies of India and Æthiopia were + (trispithami) twenty-seven inches high. Every spring their + cavalry (mounted on rams and goats) marched, in battle array, to + destroy the cranes’ eggs, aliter (says Pliny) futuris gregibus + non resisti. Their houses were built of mud, feathers, and + egg-shells. See Pliny, (vi. 35, vii. 2,) and Strabo, (l. ii. p. + 121.)] + + 131 (return) [ The third and fourth volumes of the valuable + Histoire des Voyages describe the present state of the Negroes. + The nations of the sea-coast have been polished by European + commerce; and those of the inland country have been improved by + Moorish colonies. * Note: The martial tribes in chain armor, + discovered by Denham, are Mahometan; the great question of the + inferiority of the African tribes in their mental faculties will + probably be experimentally resolved before the close of the + century; but the Slave Trade still continues, and will, it is to + be feared, till the spirit of gain is subdued by the spirit of + Christian humanity.—M.] + + 132 (return) [ Histoire Philosophique et Politique, &c., tom. iv. + p. 192.] + + + + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part VI. + + + IV. The ignominious treaty, which saved the army of Jovian, had + been faithfully executed on the side of the Romans; and as they + had solemnly renounced the sovereignty and alliance of Armenia + and Iberia, those tributary kingdoms were exposed, without + protection, to the arms of the Persian monarch. 133 Sapor entered + the Armenian territories at the head of a formidable host of + cuirassiers, of archers, and of mercenary foot; but it was the + invariable practice of Sapor to mix war and negotiation, and to + consider falsehood and perjury as the most powerful instruments + of regal policy. He affected to praise the prudent and moderate + conduct of the king of Armenia; and the unsuspicious Tiranus was + persuaded, by the repeated assurances of insidious friendship, to + deliver his person into the hands of a faithless and cruel enemy. + In the midst of a splendid entertainment, he was bound in chains + of silver, as an honor due to the blood of the Arsacides; and, + after a short confinement in the Tower of Oblivion at Ecbatana, + he was released from the miseries of life, either by his own + dagger, or by that of an assassin. 13311 The kingdom of Armenia + was reduced to the state of a Persian province; the + administration was shared between a distinguished satrap and a + favorite eunuch; and Sapor marched, without delay, to subdue the + martial spirit of the Iberians. Sauromaces, who reigned in that + country by the permission of the emperors, was expelled by a + superior force; and, as an insult on the majesty of Rome, the + king of kings placed a diadem on the head of his abject vassal + Aspacuras. The city of Artogerassa 134 was the only place of + Armenia 13411 which presumed to resist the efforts of his arms. + The treasure deposited in that strong fortress tempted the + avarice of Sapor; but the danger of Olympias, the wife or widow + of the Armenian king, excited the public compassion, and animated + the desperate valor of her subjects and soldiers. 13412 The + Persians were surprised and repulsed under the walls of + Artogerassa, by a bold and well-concerted sally of the besieged. + But the forces of Sapor were continually renewed and increased; + the hopeless courage of the garrison was exhausted; the strength + of the walls yielded to the assault; and the proud conqueror, + after wasting the rebellious city with fire and sword, led away + captive an unfortunate queen; who, in a more auspicious hour, had + been the destined bride of the son of Constantine. 135 Yet if + Sapor already triumphed in the easy conquest of two dependent + kingdoms, he soon felt, that a country is unsubdued as long as + the minds of the people are actuated by a hostile and + contumacious spirit. The satraps, whom he was obliged to trust, + embraced the first opportunity of regaining the affection of + their countrymen, and of signalizing their immortal hatred to the + Persian name. Since the conversion of the Armenians and Iberians, + these nations considered the Christians as the favorites, and the + Magians as the adversaries, of the Supreme Being: the influence + of the clergy, over a superstitious people was uniformly exerted + in the cause of Rome; and as long as the successors of + Constantine disputed with those of Artaxerxes the sovereignty of + the intermediate provinces, the religious connection always threw + a decisive advantage into the scale of the empire. A numerous and + active party acknowledged Para, the son of Tiranus, as the lawful + sovereign of Armenia, and his title to the throne was deeply + rooted in the hereditary succession of five hundred years. By the + unanimous consent of the Iberians, the country was equally + divided between the rival princes; and Aspacuras, who owed his + diadem to the choice of Sapor, was obliged to declare, that his + regard for his children, who were detained as hostages by the + tyrant, was the only consideration which prevented him from + openly renouncing the alliance of Persia. The emperor Valens, who + respected the obligations of the treaty, and who was apprehensive + of involving the East in a dangerous war, ventured, with slow and + cautious measures, to support the Roman party in the kingdoms of + Iberia and Armenia. 13511 Twelve legions established the + authority of Sauromaces on the banks of the Cyrus. The Euphrates + was protected by the valor of Arintheus. A powerful army, under + the command of Count Trajan, and of Vadomair, king of the + Alemanni, fixed their camp on the confines of Armenia. But they + were strictly enjoined not to commit the first hostilities, which + might be understood as a breach of the treaty: and such was the + implicit obedience of the Roman general, that they retreated, + with exemplary patience, under a shower of Persian arrows till + they had clearly acquired a just title to an honorable and + legitimate victory. Yet these appearances of war insensibly + subsided in a vain and tedious negotiation. The contending + parties supported their claims by mutual reproaches of perfidy + and ambition; and it should seem, that the original treaty was + expressed in very obscure terms, since they were reduced to the + necessity of making their inconclusive appeal to the partial + testimony of the generals of the two nations, who had assisted at + the negotiations. 136 The invasion of the Goths and Huns which + soon afterwards shook the foundations of the Roman empire, + exposed the provinces of Asia to the arms of Sapor. But the + declining age, and perhaps the infirmities, of the monarch + suggested new maxims of tranquillity and moderation. His death, + which happened in the full maturity of a reign of seventy years, + changed in a moment the court and councils of Persia; and their + attention was most probably engaged by domestic troubles, and the + distant efforts of a Carmanian war. 137 The remembrance of + ancient injuries was lost in the enjoyment of peace. The kingdoms + of Armenia and Iberia were permitted, by the mutual,though tacit + consent of both empires, to resume their doubtful neutrality. In + the first years of the reign of Theodosius, a Persian embassy + arrived at Constantinople, to excuse the unjustifiable measures + of the former reign; and to offer, as the tribute of friendship, + or even of respect, a splendid present of gems, of silk, and of + Indian elephants. 138 + + 133 (return) [ The evidence of Ammianus is original and decisive, + (xxvii. 12.) Moses of Chorene, (l. iii. c. 17, p. 249, and c. 34, + p. 269,) and Procopius, (de Bell. Persico, l. i. c. 5, p. 17, + edit. Louvre,) have been consulted: but those historians who + confound distinct facts, repeat the same events, and introduce + strange stories, must be used with diffidence and caution. Note: + The statement of Ammianus is more brief and succinct, but + harmonizes with the more complicated history developed by M. St. + Martin from the Armenian writers, and from Procopius, who wrote, + as he states from Armenian authorities.—M.] + + 13311 (return) [ According to M. St. Martin, Sapor, though + supported by the two apostate Armenian princes, Meroujan the + Ardzronnian and Vahan the Mamigonian, was gallantly resisted by + Arsaces, and his brave though impious wife Pharandsem. His troops + were defeated by Vasag, the high constable of the kingdom. (See + M. St. Martin.) But after four years’ courageous defence of his + kingdom, Arsaces was abandoned by his nobles, and obliged to + accept the perfidious hospitality of Sapor. He was blinded and + imprisoned in the “Castle of Oblivion;” his brave general Vasag + was flayed alive; his skin stuffed and placed near the king in + his lonely prison. It was not till many years after (A.D. 371) + that he stabbed himself, according to the romantic story, (St. M. + iii. 387, 389,) in a paroxysm of excitement at his restoration to + royal honors. St. Martin, Additions to Le Beau, iii. 283, + 296.—M.] + + 134 (return) [ Perhaps Artagera, or Ardis; under whose walls + Caius, the grandson of Augustus, was wounded. This fortress was + situate above Amida, near one of the sources of the Tigris. See + D’Anville, Geographie Ancienue, tom. ii. p. 106. * Note: St. + Martin agrees with Gibbon, that it was the same fortress with + Ardis Note, p. 373.—M.] + + 13411 (return) [ Artaxata, Vagharschabad, or Edchmiadzin, + Erovantaschad, and many other cities, in all of which there was a + considerable Jewish population were taken and destroyed.—M.] + + 13412 (return) [ Pharandsem, not Olympias, refusing the orders of + her captive husband to surrender herself to Sapor, threw herself + into Artogerassa St. Martin, iii. 293, 302. She defended herself + for fourteen months, till famine and disease had left few + survivors out of 11,000 soldiers and 6000 women who had taken + refuge in the fortress. She then threw open the gates with her + own hand. M. St. Martin adds, what even the horrors of Oriental + warfare will scarcely permit us to credit, that she was exposed + by Sapor on a public scaffold to the brutal lusts of his + soldiery, and afterwards empaled, iii. 373, &c.—M.] + + 135 (return) [ Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 701) + proves, from chronology, that Olympias must have been the mother + of Para. Note *: An error according to St. M. 273.—M.] + + 13511 (return) [ According to Themistius, quoted by St. Martin, + he once advanced to the Tigris, iii. 436.—M.] + + 136 (return) [ Ammianus (xxvii. 12, xix. 1. xxx. 1, 2) has + described the events, without the dates, of the Persian war. + Moses of Chorene (Hist. Armen. l. iii. c. 28, p. 261, c. 31, p. + 266, c. 35, p. 271) affords some additional facts; but it is + extremely difficult to separate truth from fable.] + + 137 (return) [ Artaxerxes was the successor and brother (_the + cousin-german_) of the great Sapor; and the guardian of his son, + Sapor III. (Agathias, l. iv. p. 136, edit. Louvre.) See the + Universal History, vol. xi. p. 86, 161. The authors of that + unequal work have compiled the Sassanian dynasty with erudition + and diligence; but it is a preposterous arrangement to divide the + Roman and Oriental accounts into two distinct histories. * Note: + On the war of Sapor with the Bactrians, which diverted from + Armenia, see St. M. iii. 387.—M.] + + 138 (return) [ Pacatus in Panegyr. Vet. xii. 22, and Orosius, l. + vii. c. 34. Ictumque tum fœdus est, quo universus Oriens usque ad + num (A. D. 416) tranquillissime fruitur.] + + In the general picture of the affairs of the East under the reign + of Valens, the adventures of Para form one of the most striking + and singular objects. The noble youth, by the persuasion of his + mother Olympias, had escaped through the Persian host that + besieged Artogerassa, and implored the protection of the emperor + of the East. By his timid councils, Para was alternately + supported, and recalled, and restored, and betrayed. The hopes of + the Armenians were sometimes raised by the presence of their + natural sovereign, 13811 and the ministers of Valens were + satisfied, that they preserved the integrity of the public faith, + if their vassal was not suffered to assume the diadem and title + of King. But they soon repented of their own rashness. They were + confounded by the reproaches and threats of the Persian monarch. + They found reason to distrust the cruel and inconstant temper of + Para himself; who sacrificed, to the slightest suspicions, the + lives of his most faithful servants, and held a secret and + disgraceful correspondence with the assassin of his father and + the enemy of his country. Under the specious pretence of + consulting with the emperor on the subject of their common + interest, Para was persuaded to descend from the mountains of + Armenia, where his party was in arms, and to trust his + independence and safety to the discretion of a perfidious court. + The king of Armenia, for such he appeared in his own eyes and in + those of his nation, was received with due honors by the + governors of the provinces through which he passed; but when he + arrived at Tarsus in Cilicia, his progress was stopped under + various pretences; his motions were watched with respectful + vigilance, and he gradually discovered, that he was a prisoner in + the hands of the Romans. Para suppressed his indignation, + dissembled his fears, and after secretly preparing his escape, + mounted on horseback with three hundred of his faithful + followers. The officer stationed at the door of his apartment + immediately communicated his flight to the consular of Cilicia, + who overtook him in the suburbs, and endeavored without success, + to dissuade him from prosecuting his rash and dangerous design. A + legion was ordered to pursue the royal fugitive; but the pursuit + of infantry could not be very alarming to a body of light + cavalry; and upon the first cloud of arrows that was discharged + into the air, they retreated with precipitation to the gates of + Tarsus. After an incessant march of two days and two nights, Para + and his Armenians reached the banks of the Euphrates; but the + passage of the river which they were obliged to swim, 13812 was + attended with some delay and some loss. The country was alarmed; + and the two roads, which were only separated by an interval of + three miles had been occupied by a thousand archers on horseback, + under the command of a count and a tribune. Para must have + yielded to superior force, if the accidental arrival of a + friendly traveller had not revealed the danger and the means of + escape. A dark and almost impervious path securely conveyed the + Armenian troop through the thicket; and Para had left behind him + the count and the tribune, while they patiently expected his + approach along the public highways. They returned to the Imperial + court to excuse their want of diligence or success; and seriously + alleged, that the king of Armenia, who was a skilful magician, + had transformed himself and his followers, and passed before + their eyes under a borrowed shape. 13813 After his return to his + native kingdom, Para still continued to profess himself the + friend and ally of the Romans: but the Romans had injured him too + deeply ever to forgive, and the secret sentence of his death was + signed in the council of Valens. The execution of the bloody deed + was committed to the subtle prudence of Count Trajan; and he had + the merit of insinuating himself into the confidence of the + credulous prince, that he might find an opportunity of stabbing + him to the heart Para was invited to a Roman banquet, which had + been prepared with all the pomp and sensuality of the East; the + hall resounded with cheerful music, and the company was already + heated with wine; when the count retired for an instant, drew his + sword, and gave the signal of the murder. A robust and desperate + Barbarian instantly rushed on the king of Armenia; and though he + bravely defended his life with the first weapon that chance + offered to his hand, the table of the Imperial general was + stained with the royal blood of a guest, and an ally. Such were + the weak and wicked maxims of the Roman administration, that, to + attain a doubtful object of political interest the laws of + nations, and the sacred rights of hospitality were inhumanly + violated in the face of the world. 139 + + 13811 (return) [ On the reconquest of Armenia by Para, or rather + by Mouschegh, the Mamigonian see St. M. iii. 375, 383.—M.] + + 13812 (return) [ On planks floated by bladders.—M.] + + 13813 (return) [ It is curious enough that the Armenian + historian, Faustus of Byzandum, represents Para as a magician. + His impious mother Pharandac had devoted him to the demons on his + birth. St. M. iv. 23.—M.] + + 139 (return) [ See in Ammianus (xxx. 1) the adventures of Para. + Moses of Chorene calls him Tiridates; and tells a long, and not + improbable story of his son Gnelus, who afterwards made himself + popular in Armenia, and provoked the jealousy of the reigning + king, (l. iii. c 21, &c., p. 253, &c.) * Note: This note is a + tissue of mistakes. Tiridates and Para are two totally different + persons. Tiridates was the father of Gnel first husband of + Pharandsem, the mother of Para. St. Martin, iv. 27—M.] + + V. During a peaceful interval of thirty years, the Romans secured + their frontiers, and the Goths extended their dominions. The + victories of the great Hermanric, 140 king of the Ostrogoths, and + the most noble of the race of the Amali, have been compared, by + the enthusiasm of his countrymen, to the exploits of Alexander; + with this singular, and almost incredible, difference, that the + martial spirit of the Gothic hero, instead of being supported by + the vigor of youth, was displayed with glory and success in the + extreme period of human life, between the age of fourscore and + one hundred and ten years. The independent tribes were persuaded, + or compelled, to acknowledge the king of the Ostrogoths as the + sovereign of the Gothic nation: the chiefs of the Visigoths, or + Thervingi, renounced the royal title, and assumed the more humble + appellation of _Judges;_ and, among those judges, Athanaric, + Fritigern, and Alavivus, were the most illustrious, by their + personal merit, as well as by their vicinity to the Roman + provinces. These domestic conquests, which increased the military + power of Hermanric, enlarged his ambitious designs. He invaded + the adjacent countries of the North; and twelve considerable + nations, whose names and limits cannot be accurately defined, + successively yielded to the superiority of the Gothic arms. 141 + The Heruli, who inhabited the marshy lands near the lake Mæotis, + were renowned for their strength and agility; and the assistance + of their light infantry was eagerly solicited, and highly + esteemed, in all the wars of the Barbarians. But the active + spirit of the Heruli was subdued by the slow and steady + perseverance of the Goths; and, after a bloody action, in which + the king was slain, the remains of that warlike tribe became a + useful accession to the camp of Hermanric. + + He then marched against the Venedi; unskilled in the use of arms, + and formidable only by their numbers, which filled the wide + extent of the plains of modern Poland. The victorious Goths, who + were not inferior in numbers, prevailed in the contest, by the + decisive advantages of exercise and discipline. After the + submission of the Venedi, the conqueror advanced, without + resistance, as far as the confines of the Æstii; 142 an ancient + people, whose name is still preserved in the province of + Esthonia. Those distant inhabitants of the Baltic coast were + supported by the labors of agriculture, enriched by the trade of + amber, and consecrated by the peculiar worship of the Mother of + the Gods. But the scarcity of iron obliged the Æstian warriors to + content themselves with wooden clubs; and the reduction of that + wealthy country is ascribed to the prudence, rather than to the + arms, of Hermanric. His dominions, which extended from the Danube + to the Baltic, included the native seats, and the recent + acquisitions, of the Goths; and he reigned over the greatest part + of Germany and Scythia with the authority of a conqueror, and + sometimes with the cruelty of a tyrant. But he reigned over a + part of the globe incapable of perpetuating and adorning the + glory of its heroes. The name of Hermanric is almost buried in + oblivion; his exploits are imperfectly known; and the Romans + themselves appeared unconscious of the progress of an aspiring + power which threatened the liberty of the North, and the peace of + the empire. 143 + + 140 (return) [ The concise account of the reign and conquests of + Hermanric seems to be one of the valuable fragments which + Jornandes (c 28) borrowed from the Gothic histories of Ablavius, + or Cassiodorus.] + + 141 (return) [ M. d. Buat. (Hist. des Peuples de l’Europe, tom. + vi. p. 311-329) investigates, with more industry than success, + the nations subdued by the arms of Hermanric. He denies the + existence of the _Vasinobroncæ_, on account of the immoderate + length of their name. Yet the French envoy to Ratisbon, or + Dresden, must have traversed the country of the _Mediomatrici_.] + + 142 (return) [ The edition of Grotius (Jornandes, p. 642) + exhibits the name of _Æstri_. But reason and the Ambrosian MS. + have restored the _Æstii_, whose manners and situation are + expressed by the pencil of Tacitus, (Germania, c. 45.)] + + 143 (return) [ Ammianus (xxxi. 3) observes, in general terms, + Ermenrichi.... nobilissimi Regis, et per multa variaque fortiter + facta, vicinigentibus formidati, &c.] + + The Goths had contracted an hereditary attachment for the + Imperial house of Constantine, of whose power and liberality they + had received so many signal proofs. They respected the public + peace; and if a hostile band sometimes presumed to pass the Roman + limit, their irregular conduct was candidly ascribed to the + ungovernable spirit of the Barbarian youth. Their contempt for + two new and obscure princes, who had been raised to the throne by + a popular election, inspired the Goths with bolder hopes; and, + while they agitated some design of marching their confederate + force under the national standard, 144 they were easily tempted + to embrace the party of Procopius; and to foment, by their + dangerous aid, the civil discord of the Romans. The public treaty + might stipulate no more than ten thousand auxiliaries; but the + design was so zealously adopted by the chiefs of the Visigoths, + that the army which passed the Danube amounted to the number of + thirty thousand men. 145 They marched with the proud confidence, + that their invincible valor would decide the fate of the Roman + empire; and the provinces of Thrace groaned under the weight of + the Barbarians, who displayed the insolence of masters and the + licentiousness of enemies. But the intemperance which gratified + their appetites, retarded their progress; and before the Goths + could receive any certain intelligence of the defeat and death of + Procopius, they perceived, by the hostile state of the country, + that the civil and military powers were resumed by his successful + rival. A chain of posts and fortifications, skilfully disposed by + Valens, or the generals of Valens, resisted their march, + prevented their retreat, and intercepted their subsistence. The + fierceness of the Barbarians was tamed and suspended by hunger; + they indignantly threw down their arms at the feet of the + conqueror, who offered them food and chains: the numerous + captives were distributed in all the cities of the East; and the + provincials, who were soon familiarized with their savage + appearance, ventured, by degrees, to measure their own strength + with these formidable adversaries, whose name had so long been + the object of their terror. The king of Scythia (and Hermanric + alone could deserve so lofty a title) was grieved and exasperated + by this national calamity. His ambassadors loudly complained, at + the court of Valens, of the infraction of the ancient and solemn + alliance, which had so long subsisted between the Romans and the + Goths. They alleged, that they had fulfilled the duty of allies, + by assisting the kinsman and successor of the emperor Julian; + they required the immediate restitution of the noble captives; + and they urged a very singular claim, that the Gothic generals + marching in arms, and in hostile array, were entitled to the + sacred character and privileges of ambassadors. The decent, but + peremptory, refusal of these extravagant demands, was signified + to the Barbarians by Victor, master-general of the cavalry; who + expressed, with force and dignity, the just complaints of the + emperor of the East. 146 The negotiation was interrupted; and the + manly exhortations of Valentinian encouraged his timid brother to + vindicate the insulted majesty of the empire. 147 + + 144 (return) [ Valens. ... docetur relationibus Ducum, gentem + Gothorum, ea tempestate intactam ideoque sævissimam, conspirantem + in unum, ad pervadenda parari collimitia Thraciarum. Ammian. xxi. + 6.] + + 145 (return) [ M. de Buat (Hist. des Peuples de l’Europe, tom. + vi. p. 332) has curiously ascertained the real number of these + auxiliaries. The 3000 of Ammianus, and the 10,000 of Zosimus, + were only the first divisions of the Gothic army. * Note: M. St. + Martin (iii. 246) denies that there is any authority for these + numbers.—M.] + + 146 (return) [ The march, and subsequent negotiation, are + described in the Fragments of Eunapius, (Excerpt. Legat. p. 18, + edit. Louvre.) The provincials who afterwards became familiar + with the Barbarians, found that their strength was more apparent + than real. They were tall of stature; but their legs were clumsy, + and their shoulders were narrow.] + + 147 (return) [ Valens enim, ut consulto placuerat fratri, cujus + regebatur arbitrio, arma concussit in Gothos ratione justâ + permotus. Ammianus (xxvii. 4) then proceeds to describe, not the + country of the Goths, but the peaceful and obedient province of + Thrace, which was not affected by the war.] + + The splendor and magnitude of this Gothic war are celebrated by a + contemporary historian: 148 but the events scarcely deserve the + attention of posterity, except as the preliminary steps of the + approaching decline and fall of the empire. Instead of leading + the nations of Germany and Scythia to the banks of the Danube, or + even to the gates of Constantinople, the aged monarch of the + Goths resigned to the brave Athanaric the danger and glory of a + defensive war, against an enemy, who wielded with a feeble hand + the powers of a mighty state. A bridge of boats was established + upon the Danube; the presence of Valens animated his troops; and + his ignorance of the art of war was compensated by personal + bravery, and a wise deference to the advice of Victor and + Arintheus, his masters-general of the cavalry and infantry. The + operations of the campaign were conducted by their skill and + experience; but they found it impossible to drive the Visigoths + from their strong posts in the mountains; and the devastation of + the plains obliged the Romans themselves to repass the Danube on + the approach of winter. The incessant rains, which swelled the + waters of the river, produced a tacit suspension of arms, and + confined the emperor Valens, during the whole course of the + ensuing summer, to his camp of Marcianopolis. The third year of + the war was more favorable to the Romans, and more pernicious to + the Goths. The interruption of trade deprived the Barbarians of + the objects of luxury, which they already confounded with the + necessaries of life; and the desolation of a very extensive tract + of country threatened them with the horrors of famine. Athanaric + was provoked, or compelled, to risk a battle, which he lost, in + the plains; and the pursuit was rendered more bloody by the cruel + precaution of the victorious generals, who had promised a large + reward for the head of every Goth that was brought into the + Imperial camp. The submission of the Barbarians appeased the + resentment of Valens and his council: the emperor listened with + satisfaction to the flattering and eloquent remonstrance of the + senate of Constantinople, which assumed, for the first time, a + share in the public deliberations; and the same generals, Victor + and Arintheus, who had successfully directed the conduct of the + war, were empowered to regulate the conditions of peace. The + freedom of trade, which the Goths had hitherto enjoyed, was + restricted to two cities on the Danube; the rashness of their + leaders was severely punished by the suppression of their + pensions and subsidies; and the exception, which was stipulated + in favor of Athanaric alone, was more advantageous than honorable + to the Judge of the Visigoths. Athanaric, who, on this occasion, + appears to have consulted his private interest, without expecting + the orders of his sovereign, supported his own dignity, and that + of his tribe, in the personal interview which was proposed by the + ministers of Valens. He persisted in his declaration, that it was + impossible for him, without incurring the guilt of perjury, ever + to set his foot on the territory of the empire; and it is more + than probable, that his regard for the sanctity of an oath was + confirmed by the recent and fatal examples of Roman treachery. + The Danube, which separated the dominions of the two independent + nations, was chosen for the scene of the conference. The emperor + of the East, and the Judge of the Visigoths, accompanied by an + equal number of armed followers, advanced in their respective + barges to the middle of the stream. After the ratification of the + treaty, and the delivery of hostages, Valens returned in triumph + to Constantinople; and the Goths remained in a state of + tranquillity about six years; till they were violently impelled + against the Roman empire by an innumerable host of Scythians, who + appeared to issue from the frozen regions of the North. 149 + + 148 (return) [ Eunapius, in Excerpt. Legat. p. 18, 19. The Greek + sophist must have considered as _one_ and the _same_ war, the + whole series of Gothic history till the victories and peace of + Theodosius.] + + 149 (return) [ The Gothic war is described by Ammianus, (xxvii. + 6,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 211-214,) and Themistius, (Orat. x. p. + 129-141.) The orator Themistius was sent from the senate of + Constantinople to congratulate the victorious emperor; and his + servile eloquence compares Valens on the Danube to Achilles in + the Scamander. Jornandes forgets a war peculiar to the + _Visi_-Goths, and inglorious to the Gothic name, (Mascon’s Hist. + of the Germans, vii. 3.)] + + The emperor of the West, who had resigned to his brother the + command of the Lower Danube, reserved for his immediate care the + defence of the Rhætian and Illyrian provinces, which spread so + many hundred miles along the greatest of the European rivers. The + active policy of Valentinian was continually employed in adding + new fortifications to the security of the frontier: but the abuse + of this policy provoked the just resentment of the Barbarians. + The Quadi complained, that the ground for an intended fortress + had been marked out on their territories; and their complaints + were urged with so much reason and moderation, that Equitius, + master-general of Illyricum, consented to suspend the prosecution + of the work, till he should be more clearly informed of the will + of his sovereign. This fair occasion of injuring a rival, and of + advancing the fortune of his son, was eagerly embraced by the + inhuman Maximin, the præfect, or rather tyrant, of Gaul. The + passions of Valentinian were impatient of control; and he + credulously listened to the assurances of his favorite, that if + the government of Valeria, and the direction of the work, were + intrusted to the zeal of his son Marcellinus, the emperor should + no longer be importuned with the audacious remonstrances of the + Barbarians. The subjects of Rome, and the natives of Germany, + were insulted by the arrogance of a young and worthless minister, + who considered his rapid elevation as the proof and reward of his + superior merit. He affected, however, to receive the modest + application of Gabinius, king of the Quadi, with some attention + and regard: but this artful civility concealed a dark and bloody + design, and the credulous prince was persuaded to accept the + pressing invitation of Marcellinus. I am at a loss how to vary + the narrative of similar crimes; or how to relate, that, in the + course of the same year, but in remote parts of the empire, the + inhospitable table of two Imperial generals was stained with the + royal blood of two guests and allies, inhumanly murdered by their + order, and in their presence. The fate of Gabinius, and of Para, + was the same: but the cruel death of their sovereign was resented + in a very different manner by the servile temper of the + Armenians, and the free and daring spirit of the Germans. The + Quadi were much declined from that formidable power, which, in + the time of Marcus Antoninus, had spread terror to the gates of + Rome. But they still possessed arms and courage; their courage + was animated by despair, and they obtained the usual + reenforcement of the cavalry of their Sarmatian allies. So + improvident was the assassin Marcellinus, that he chose the + moment when the bravest veterans had been drawn away, to suppress + the revolt of Firmus; and the whole province was exposed, with a + very feeble defence, to the rage of the exasperated Barbarians. + They invaded Pannonia in the season of harvest; unmercifully + destroyed every object of plunder which they could not easily + transport; and either disregarded, or demolished, the empty + fortifications. The princess Constantia, the daughter of the + emperor Constantius, and the granddaughter of the great + Constantine, very narrowly escaped. That royal maid, who had + innocently supported the revolt of Procopius, was now the + destined wife of the heir of the Western empire. She traversed + the peaceful province with a splendid and unarmed train. Her + person was saved from danger, and the republic from disgrace, by + the active zeal of Messala, governor of the provinces. As soon as + he was informed that the village, where she stopped only to dine, + was almost encompassed by the Barbarians, he hastily placed her + in his own chariot, and drove full speed till he reached the + gates of Sirmium, which were at the distance of six-and-twenty + miles. Even Sirmium might not have been secure, if the Quadi and + Sarmatians had diligently advanced during the general + consternation of the magistrates and people. Their delay allowed + Probus, the Prætorian præfect, sufficient time to recover his own + spirits, and to revive the courage of the citizens. He skilfully + directed their strenuous efforts to repair and strengthen the + decayed fortifications; and procured the seasonable and effectual + assistance of a company of archers, to protect the capital of the + Illyrian provinces. Disappointed in their attempts against the + walls of Sirmium, the indignant Barbarians turned their arms + against the master general of the frontier, to whom they unjustly + attributed the murder of their king. Equitius could bring into + the field no more than two legions; but they contained the + veteran strength of the Mæsian and Pannonian bands. The obstinacy + with which they disputed the vain honors of rank and precedency, + was the cause of their destruction; and while they acted with + separate forces and divided councils, they were surprised and + slaughtered by the active vigor of the Sarmatian horse. The + success of this invasion provoked the emulation of the bordering + tribes; and the province of Mæsia would infallibly have been + lost, if young Theodosius, the duke, or military commander, of + the frontier, had not signalized, in the defeat of the public + enemy, an intrepid genius, worthy of his illustrious father, and + of his future greatness. 150 + + 150 (return) [ Ammianus (xxix. 6) and Zosimus (I. iv. p. 219, + 220) carefully mark the origin and progress of the Quadic and + Sarmatian war.] + + + + + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The + Empire.—Part VII. + + + The mind of Valentinian, who then resided at Treves, was deeply + affected by the calamities of Illyricum; but the lateness of the + season suspended the execution of his designs till the ensuing + spring. He marched in person, with a considerable part of the + forces of Gaul, from the banks of the Moselle: and to the + suppliant ambassadors of the Sarmatians, who met him on the way, + he returned a doubtful answer, that, as soon as he reached the + scene of action, he should examine, and pronounce. When he + arrived at Sirmium, he gave audience to the deputies of the + Illyrian provinces; who loudly congratulated their own felicity + under the auspicious government of Probus, his Prætorian præfect. + 151 Valentinian, who was flattered by these demonstrations of + their loyalty and gratitude, imprudently asked the deputy of + Epirus, a Cynic philosopher of intrepid sincerity, 152 whether he + was freely sent by the wishes of the province. “With tears and + groans am I sent,” replied Iphicles, “by a reluctant people.” The + emperor paused: but the impunity of his ministers established the + pernicious maxim, that they might oppress his subjects, without + injuring his service. A strict inquiry into their conduct would + have relieved the public discontent. The severe condemnation of + the murder of Gabinius, was the only measure which could restore + the confidence of the Germans, and vindicate the honor of the + Roman name. But the haughty monarch was incapable of the + magnanimity which dares to acknowledge a fault. He forgot the + provocation, remembered only the injury, and advanced into the + country of the Quadi with an insatiate thirst of blood and + revenge. The extreme devastation, and promiscuous massacre, of a + savage war, were justified, in the eyes of the emperor, and + perhaps in those of the world, by the cruel equity of + retaliation: 153 and such was the discipline of the Romans, and + the consternation of the enemy, that Valentinian repassed the + Danube without the loss of a single man. As he had resolved to + complete the destruction of the Quadi by a second campaign, he + fixed his winter quarters at Bregetio, on the Danube, near the + Hungarian city of Presburg. While the operations of war were + suspended by the severity of the weather, the Quadi made an + humble attempt to deprecate the wrath of their conqueror; and, at + the earnest persuasion of Equitius, their ambassadors were + introduced into the Imperial council. They approached the throne + with bended bodies and dejected countenances; and without daring + to complain of the murder of their king, they affirmed, with + solemn oaths, that the late invasion was the crime of some + irregular robbers, which the public council of the nation + condemned and abhorred. The answer of the emperor left them but + little to hope from his clemency or compassion. He reviled, in + the most intemperate language, their baseness, their ingratitude, + their insolence. His eyes, his voice, his color, his gestures, + expressed the violence of his ungoverned fury; and while his + whole frame was agitated with convulsive passion, a large blood + vessel suddenly burst in his body; and Valentinian fell + speechless into the arms of his attendants. Their pious care + immediately concealed his situation from the crowd; but, in a few + minutes, the emperor of the West expired in an agony of pain, + retaining his senses till the last; and struggling, without + success, to declare his intentions to the generals and ministers, + who surrounded the royal couch. Valentinian was about fifty-four + years of age; and he wanted only one hundred days to accomplish + the twelve years of his reign. 154 + + 151 (return) [ Ammianus, (xxx. 5,) who acknowledges the merit, + has censured, with becoming asperity, the oppressive + administration of Petronius Probus. When Jerom translated and + continued the Chronicle of Eusebius, (A. D. 380; see Tillemont, + Mém. Eccles. tom. xii. p. 53, 626,) he expressed the truth, or at + least the public opinion of his country, in the following words: + “Probus P. P. Illyrici inquissimus tributorum exactionibus, ante + provincias quas regebat, quam a Barbaris vastarentur, _erasit_.” + (Chron. edit. Scaliger, p. 187. Animadvers p. 259.) The Saint + afterwards formed an intimate and tender friendship with the + widow of Probus; and the name of Count Equitius with less + propriety, but without much injustice, has been substituted in + the text.] + + 152 (return) [ Julian (Orat. vi. p. 198) represents his friend + Iphicles, as a man of virtue and merit, who had made himself + ridiculous and unhappy by adopting the extravagant dress and + manners of the Cynics.] + + 153 (return) [ Ammian. xxx. v. Jerom, who exaggerates the + misfortune of Valentinian, refuses him even this last consolation + of revenge. Genitali vastato solo et _inultam_ patriam + derelinquens, (tom. i. p. 26.)] + + 154 (return) [ See, on the death of Valentinian, Ammianus, (xxx. + 6,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 221,) Victor, (in Epitom.,) Socrates, (l. + iv. c. 31,) and Jerom, (in Chron. p. 187, and tom. i. p. 26, ad + Heliodor.) There is much variety of circumstances among them; and + Ammianus is so eloquent, that he writes nonsense.] + + The polygamy of Valentinian is seriously attested by an + ecclesiastical historian. 155 “The empress Severa (I relate the + fable) admitted into her familiar society the lovely Justina, the + daughter of an Italian governor: her admiration of those naked + charms, which she had often seen in the bath, was expressed with + such lavish and imprudent praise, that the emperor was tempted to + introduce a second wife into his bed; and his public edict + extended to all the subjects of the empire the same domestic + privilege which he had assumed for himself.” But we may be + assured, from the evidence of reason as well as history, that the + two marriages of Valentinian, with Severa, and with Justina, were + _successively_ contracted; and that he used the ancient + permission of divorce, which was still allowed by the laws, + though it was condemned by the church. Severa was the mother of + Gratian, who seemed to unite every claim which could entitle him + to the undoubted succession of the Western empire. He was the + eldest son of a monarch whose glorious reign had confirmed the + free and honorable choice of his fellow-soldiers. Before he had + attained the ninth year of his age, the royal youth received from + the hands of his indulgent father the purple robe and diadem, + with the title of Augustus; the election was solemnly ratified by + the consent and applause of the armies of Gaul; 156 and the name + of Gratian was added to the names of Valentinian and Valens, in + all the legal transactions of the Roman government. By his + marriage with the granddaughter of Constantine, the son of + Valentinian acquired all the hereditary rights of the Flavian + family; which, in a series of three Imperial generations, were + sanctified by time, religion, and the reverence of the people. At + the death of his father, the royal youth was in the seventeenth + year of his age; and his virtues already justified the favorable + opinion of the army and the people. But Gratian resided, without + apprehension, in the palace of Treves; whilst, at the distance of + many hundred miles, Valentinian suddenly expired in the camp of + Bregetio. The passions, which had been so long suppressed by the + presence of a master, immediately revived in the Imperial + council; and the ambitious design of reigning in the name of an + infant, was artfully executed by Mellobaudes and Equitius, who + commanded the attachment of the Illyrian and Italian bands. They + contrived the most honorable pretences to remove the popular + leaders, and the troops of Gaul, who might have asserted the + claims of the lawful successor; they suggested the necessity of + extinguishing the hopes of foreign and domestic enemies, by a + bold and decisive measure. The empress Justina, who had been left + in a palace about one hundred miles from Bregetio, was + respectively invited to appear in the camp, with the son of the + deceased emperor. On the sixth day after the death of + Valentinian, the infant prince of the same name, who was only + four years old, was shown, in the arms of his mother, to the + legions; and solemnly invested, by military acclamation, with the + titles and ensigns of supreme power. The impending dangers of a + civil war were seasonably prevented by the wise and moderate + conduct of the emperor Gratian. He cheerfully accepted the choice + of the army; declared that he should always consider the son of + Justina as a brother, not as a rival; and advised the empress, + with her son Valentinian to fix their residence at Milan, in the + fair and peaceful province of Italy; while he assumed the more + arduous command of the countries beyond the Alps. Gratian + dissembled his resentment till he could safely punish, or + disgrace, the authors of the conspiracy; and though he uniformly + behaved with tenderness and regard to his infant colleague, he + gradually confounded, in the administration of the Western + empire, the office of a guardian with the authority of a + sovereign. The government of the Roman world was exercised in the + united names of Valens and his two nephews; but the feeble + emperor of the East, who succeeded to the rank of his elder + brother, never obtained any weight or influence in the councils + of the West. 157 + + 155 (return) [ Socrates (l. iv. c. 31) is the only original + witness of this foolish story, so repugnant to the laws and + manners of the Romans, that it scarcely deserved the formal and + elaborate dissertation of M. Bonamy, (Mém. de l’Académie, tom. + xxx. p. 394-405.) Yet I would preserve the natural circumstance + of the bath; instead of following Zosimus who represents Justina + as an old woman, the widow of Magnentius.] + + 156 (return) [ Ammianus (xxvii. 6) describes the form of this + military election, and _august_ investiture. Valentinian does not + appear to have consulted, or even informed, the senate of Rome.] + + 157 (return) [ Ammianus, xxx. 10. Zosimus, l. iv. p. 222, 223. + Tillemont has proved (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 707-709) + that Gratian _reigned_ in Italy, Africa, and Illyricum. I have + endeavored to express his authority over his brother’s dominions, + as he used it, in an ambiguous style.] + + + + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part I. + + Manners Of The Pastoral Nations.—Progress Of The Huns, From China + To Europe.—Flight Of The Goths.—They Pass The Danube.—Gothic + War.—Defeat And Death Of Valens.—Gratian Invests Theodosius With + The Eastern Empire.—His Character And Success.—Peace And + Settlement Of The Goths. + + + In the second year of the reign of Valentinian and Valens, on the + morning of the twenty-first day of July, the greatest part of the + Roman world was shaken by a violent and destructive earthquake. + The impression was communicated to the waters; the shores of the + Mediterranean were left dry, by the sudden retreat of the sea; + great quantities of fish were caught with the hand; large vessels + were stranded on the mud; and a curious spectator 1 amused his + eye, or rather his fancy, by contemplating the various appearance + of valleys and mountains, which had never, since the formation of + the globe, been exposed to the sun. But the tide soon returned, + with the weight of an immense and irresistible deluge, which was + severely felt on the coasts of Sicily, of Dalmatia, of Greece, + and of Egypt: large boats were transported, and lodged on the + roofs of houses, or at the distance of two miles from the shore; + the people, with their habitations, were swept away by the + waters; and the city of Alexandria annually commemorated the + fatal day, on which fifty thousand persons had lost their lives + in the inundation. This calamity, the report of which was + magnified from one province to another, astonished and terrified + the subjects of Rome; and their affrighted imagination enlarged + the real extent of a momentary evil. They recollected the + preceding earthquakes, which had subverted the cities of + Palestine and Bithynia: they considered these alarming strokes as + the prelude only of still more dreadful calamities, and their + fearful vanity was disposed to confound the symptoms of a + declining empire and a sinking world. 2 It was the fashion of the + times to attribute every remarkable event to the particular will + of the Deity; the alterations of nature were connected, by an + invisible chain, with the moral and metaphysical opinions of the + human mind; and the most sagacious divines could distinguish, + according to the color of their respective prejudices, that the + establishment of heresy tended to produce an earthquake; or that + a deluge was the inevitable consequence of the progress of sin + and error. Without presuming to discuss the truth or propriety of + these lofty speculations, the historian may content himself with + an observation, which seems to be justified by experience, that + man has much more to fear from the passions of his + fellow-creatures, than from the convulsions of the elements. 3 + The mischievous effects of an earthquake, or deluge, a hurricane, + or the eruption of a volcano, bear a very inconsiderable portion + to the ordinary calamities of war, as they are now moderated by + the prudence or humanity of the princes of Europe, who amuse + their own leisure, and exercise the courage of their subjects, in + the practice of the military art. But the laws and manners of + modern nations protect the safety and freedom of the vanquished + soldier; and the peaceful citizen has seldom reason to complain, + that his life, or even his fortune, is exposed to the rage of + war. In the disastrous period of the fall of the Roman empire, + which may justly be dated from the reign of Valens, the happiness + and security of each individual were personally attacked; and the + arts and labors of ages were rudely defaced by the Barbarians of + Scythia and Germany. The invasion of the Huns precipitated on the + provinces of the West the Gothic nation, which advanced, in less + than forty years, from the Danube to the Atlantic, and opened a + way, by the success of their arms, to the inroads of so many + hostile tribes, more savage than themselves. The original + principle of motion was concealed in the remote countries of the + North; and the curious observation of the pastoral life of the + Scythians, 4 or Tartars, 5 will illustrate the latent cause of + these destructive emigrations. + + 1 (return) [ Such is the bad taste of Ammianus, (xxvi. 10,) that + it is not easy to distinguish his facts from his metaphors. Yet + he positively affirms, that he saw the rotten carcass of a ship, + _ad decundum lapidem_, at Mothone, or Modon, in Peloponnesus.] + + 2 (return) [ The earthquakes and inundations are variously + described by Libanius, (Orat. de ulciscenda Juliani nece, c. x., + in Fabricius, Bibl. Græc. tom. vii. p. 158, with a learned note + of Olearius,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 221,) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. 2,) + Cedrenus, (p. 310, 314,) and Jerom, (in Chron. p. 186, and tom. + i. p. 250, in Vit. Hilarion.) Epidaurus must have been + overwhelmed, had not the prudent citizens placed St. Hilarion, an + Egyptian monk, on the beach. He made the sign of the Cross; the + mountain-wave stopped, bowed, and returned.] + + 3 (return) [ Dicæarchus, the Peripatetic, composed a formal + treatise, to prove this obvious truth; which is not the most + honorable to the human species. (Cicero, de Officiis, ii. 5.)] + + 4 (return) [ The original Scythians of Herodotus (l. iv. c. + 47—57, 99—101) were confined, by the Danube and the Palus Mæotis, + within a square of 4000 stadia, (400 Roman miles.) See D’Anville + (Mém. de l’Académie, tom. xxxv. p. 573—591.) Diodorus Siculus + (tom. i. l. ii. p. 155, edit. Wesseling) has marked the gradual + progress of the _name_ and nation.] + + 5 (return) [ The _Tatars_, or Tartars, were a primitive tribe, + the rivals, and at length the subjects, of the Moguls. In the + victorious armies of Zingis Khan, and his successors, the Tartars + formed the vanguard; and the name, which first reached the ears + of foreigners, was applied to the whole nation, (Freret, in the + Hist. de l’Académie, tom. xviii. p. 60.) In speaking of all, or + any of the northern shepherds of Europe, or Asia, I indifferently + use the appellations of _Scythians_ or _Tartars_. * Note: The + Moguls, (Mongols,) according to M. Klaproth, are a tribe of the + Tartar nation. Tableaux Hist. de l’Asie, p. 154.—M.] + + The different characters that mark the civilized nations of the + globe, may be ascribed to the use, and the abuse, of reason; + which so variously shapes, and so artificially composes, the + manners and opinions of a European, or a Chinese. But the + operation of instinct is more sure and simple than that of + reason: it is much easier to ascertain the appetites of a + quadruped than the speculations of a philosopher; and the savage + tribes of mankind, as they approach nearer to the condition of + animals, preserve a stronger resemblance to themselves and to + each other. The uniform stability of their manners is the natural + consequence of the imperfection of their faculties. Reduced to a + similar situation, their wants, their desires, their enjoyments, + still continue the same: and the influence of food or climate, + which, in a more improved state of society, is suspended, or + subdued, by so many moral causes, most powerfully contributes to + form, and to maintain, the national character of Barbarians. In + every age, the immense plains of Scythia, or Tartary, have been + inhabited by vagrant tribes of hunters and shepherds, whose + indolence refuses to cultivate the earth, and whose restless + spirit disdains the confinement of a sedentary life. In every + age, the Scythians, and Tartars, have been renowned for their + invincible courage and rapid conquests. The thrones of Asia have + been repeatedly overturned by the shepherds of the North; and + their arms have spread terror and devastation over the most + fertile and warlike countries of Europe. 6 On this occasion, as + well as on many others, the sober historian is forcibly awakened + from a pleasing vision; and is compelled, with some reluctance, + to confess, that the pastoral manners, which have been adorned + with the fairest attributes of peace and innocence, are much + better adapted to the fierce and cruel habits of a military life. + To illustrate this observation, I shall now proceed to consider a + nation of shepherds and of warriors, in the three important + articles of, I. Their diet; II. Their habitations; and, III. + Their exercises. The narratives of antiquity are justified by the + experience of modern times; 7 and the banks of the Borysthenes, + of the Volga, or of the Selinga, will indifferently present the + same uniform spectacle of similar and native manners. 8 + + 6 (return) [ Imperium Asiæ _ter_ quæsivere: ipsi perpetuo ab + alieno imperio, aut intacti aut invicti, mansere. Since the time + of Justin, (ii. 2,) they have multiplied this account. Voltaire, + in a few words, (tom. x. p. 64, Hist. Generale, c. 156,) has + abridged the Tartar conquests. + + Oft o’er the trembling nations from afar, + Has Scythia breathed the living cloud of war. + Note *: Gray.—M.] + + 7 (return) [ The fourth book of Herodotus affords a curious + though imperfect, portrait of the Scythians. Among the moderns, + who describe the uniform scene, the Khan of Khowaresm, Abulghazi + Bahadur, expresses his native feelings; and his genealogical + history of the Tartars has been copiously illustrated by the + French and English editors. Carpin, Ascelin, and Rubruquis (in + the Hist. des Voyages, tom. vii.) represent the Moguls of the + fourteenth century. To these guides I have added Gerbillon, and + the other Jesuits, (Description de la China par du Halde, tom. + iv.,) who accurately surveyed the Chinese Tartary; and that + honest and intelligent traveller, Bell, of Antermony, (two + volumes in 4to. Glasgow, 1763.) * Note: Of the various works + published since the time of Gibbon, which throw fight on the + nomadic population of Central Asia, may be particularly remarked + the Travels and Dissertations of Pallas; and above all, the very + curious work of Bergman, Nomadische Streifereyen. Riga, 1805.—M.] + + 8 (return) [ The Uzbecks are the most altered from their + primitive manners; 1. By the profession of the Mahometan + religion; and 2. By the possession of the cities and harvests of + the great Bucharia.] + + I. The corn, or even the rice, which constitutes the ordinary and + wholesome food of a civilized people, can be obtained only by the + patient toil of the husbandman. Some of the happy savages, who + dwell between the tropics, are plentifully nourished by the + liberality of nature; but in the climates of the North, a nation + of shepherds is reduced to their flocks and herds. The skilful + practitioners of the medical art will determine (if they are able + to determine) how far the temper of the human mind may be + affected by the use of animal, or of vegetable, food; and whether + the common association of carniverous and cruel deserves to be + considered in any other light than that of an innocent, perhaps a + salutary, prejudice of humanity. 9 Yet, if it be true, that the + sentiment of compassion is imperceptibly weakened by the sight + and practice of domestic cruelty, we may observe, that the horrid + objects which are disguised by the arts of European refinement, + are exhibited in their naked and most disgusting simplicity in + the tent of a Tartarian shepherd. The ox, or the sheep, are + slaughtered by the same hand from which they were accustomed to + receive their daily food; and the bleeding limbs are served, with + very little preparation, on the table of their unfeeling + murderer. In the military profession, and especially in the + conduct of a numerous army, the exclusive use of animal food + appears to be productive of the most solid advantages. Corn is a + bulky and perishable commodity; and the large magazines, which + are indispensably necessary for the subsistence of our troops, + must be slowly transported by the labor of men or horses. But the + flocks and herds, which accompany the march of the Tartars, + afford a sure and increasing supply of flesh and milk: in the far + greater part of the uncultivated waste, the vegetation of the + grass is quick and luxuriant; and there are few places so + extremely barren, that the hardy cattle of the North cannot find + some tolerable pasture. + + The supply is multiplied and prolonged by the undistinguishing + appetite, and patient abstinence, of the Tartars. They + indifferently feed on the flesh of those animals that have been + killed for the table, or have died of disease. Horseflesh, which + in every age and country has been proscribed by the civilized + nations of Europe and Asia, they devour with peculiar greediness; + and this singular taste facilitates the success of their military + operations. The active cavalry of Scythia is always followed, in + their most distant and rapid incursions, by an adequate number of + spare horses, who may be occasionally used, either to redouble + the speed, or to satisfy the hunger, of the Barbarians. Many are + the resources of courage and poverty. When the forage round a + camp of Tartars is almost consumed, they slaughter the greatest + part of their cattle, and preserve the flesh, either smoked, or + dried in the sun. On the sudden emergency of a hasty march, they + provide themselves with a sufficient quantity of little balls of + cheese, or rather of hard curd, which they occasionally dissolve + in water; and this unsubstantial diet will support, for many + days, the life, and even the spirits, of the patient warrior. But + this extraordinary abstinence, which the Stoic would approve, and + the hermit might envy, is commonly succeeded by the most + voracious indulgence of appetite. The wines of a happier climate + are the most grateful present, or the most valuable commodity, + that can be offered to the Tartars; and the only example of their + industry seems to consist in the art of extracting from mare’s + milk a fermented liquor, which possesses a very strong power of + intoxication. Like the animals of prey, the savages, both of the + old and new world, experience the alternate vicissitudes of + famine and plenty; and their stomach is inured to sustain, + without much inconvenience, the opposite extremes of hunger and + of intemperance. + + 9 (return) [ Il est certain que les grands mangeurs de viande + sont en général cruels et féroces plus que les autres hommes. + Cette observation est de tous les lieux, et de tous les temps: la + barbarie Angloise est connue, &c. Emile de Rousseau, tom. i. p. + 274. Whatever we may think of the general observation, _we_ shall + not easily allow the truth of his example. The good-natured + complaints of Plutarch, and the pathetic lamentations of Ovid, + seduce our reason, by exciting our sensibility.] + + II. In the ages of rustic and martial simplicity, a people of + soldiers and husbandmen are dispersed over the face of an + extensive and cultivated country; and some time must elapse + before the warlike youth of Greece or Italy could be assembled + under the same standard, either to defend their own confines, or + to invade the territories of the adjacent tribes. The progress of + manufactures and commerce insensibly collects a large multitude + within the walls of a city: but these citizens are no longer + soldiers; and the arts which adorn and improve the state of civil + society, corrupt the habits of the military life. The pastoral + manners of the Scythians seem to unite the different advantages + of simplicity and refinement. The individuals of the same tribe + are constantly assembled, but they are assembled in a camp; and + the native spirit of these dauntless shepherds is animated by + mutual support and emulation. The houses of the Tartars are no + more than small tents, of an oval form, which afford a cold and + dirty habitation, for the promiscuous youth of both sexes. The + palaces of the rich consist of wooden huts, of such a size that + they may be conveniently fixed on large wagons, and drawn by a + team perhaps of twenty or thirty oxen. The flocks and herds, + after grazing all day in the adjacent pastures, retire, on the + approach of night, within the protection of the camp. The + necessity of preventing the most mischievous confusion, in such a + perpetual concourse of men and animals, must gradually introduce, + in the distribution, the order, and the guard, of the encampment, + the rudiments of the military art. As soon as the forage of a + certain district is consumed, the tribe, or rather army, of + shepherds, makes a regular march to some fresh pastures; and thus + acquires, in the ordinary occupations of the pastoral life, the + practical knowledge of one of the most important and difficult + operations of war. The choice of stations is regulated by the + difference of the seasons: in the summer, the Tartars advance + towards the North, and pitch their tents on the banks of a river, + or, at least, in the neighborhood of a running stream. But in the + winter, they return to the South, and shelter their camp, behind + some convenient eminence, against the winds, which are chilled in + their passage over the bleak and icy regions of Siberia. These + manners are admirably adapted to diffuse, among the wandering + tribes, the spirit of emigration and conquest. The connection + between the people and their territory is of so frail a texture, + that it may be broken by the slightest accident. The camp, and + not the soil, is the native country of the genuine Tartar. Within + the precincts of that camp, his family, his companions, his + property, are always included; and, in the most distant marches, + he is still surrounded by the objects which are dear, or + valuable, or familiar in his eyes. The thirst of rapine, the + fear, or the resentment of injury, the impatience of servitude, + have, in every age, been sufficient causes to urge the tribes of + Scythia boldly to advance into some unknown countries, where they + might hope to find a more plentiful subsistence or a less + formidable enemy. The revolutions of the North have frequently + determined the fate of the South; and in the conflict of hostile + nations, the victor and the vanquished have alternately drove, + and been driven, from the confines of China to those of Germany. + 10 These great emigrations, which have been sometimes executed + with almost incredible diligence, were rendered more easy by the + peculiar nature of the climate. It is well known that the cold of + Tartary is much more severe than in the midst of the temperate + zone might reasonably be expected; this uncommon rigor is + attributed to the height of the plains, which rise, especially + towards the East, more than half a mile above the level of the + sea; and to the quantity of saltpetre with which the soil is + deeply impregnated. 11 In the winter season, the broad and rapid + rivers, that discharge their waters into the Euxine, the Caspian, + or the Icy Sea, are strongly frozen; the fields are covered with + a bed of snow; and the fugitive, or victorious, tribes may + securely traverse, with their families, their wagons, and their + cattle, the smooth and hard surface of an immense plain. + + 10 (return) [ These Tartar emigrations have been discovered by M. + de Guignes (Histoire des Huns, tom. i. ii.) a skilful and + laborious interpreter of the Chinese language; who has thus laid + open new and important scenes in the history of mankind.] + + 11 (return) [ A plain in the Chinese Tartary, only eighty leagues + from the great wall, was found by the missionaries to be three + thousand geometrical paces above the level of the sea. + Montesquieu, who has used, and abused, the relations of + travellers, deduces the revolutions of Asia from this important + circumstance, that heat and cold, weakness and strength, touch + each other without any temperate zone, (Esprit des Loix, l. xvii. + c. 3.)] + + III. The pastoral life, compared with the labors of agriculture + and manufactures, is undoubtedly a life of idleness; and as the + most honorable shepherds of the Tartar race devolve on their + captives the domestic management of the cattle, their own leisure + is seldom disturbed by any servile and assiduous cares. But this + leisure, instead of being devoted to the soft enjoyments of love + and harmony, is usefully spent in the violent and sanguinary + exercise of the chase. The plains of Tartary are filled with a + strong and serviceable breed of horses, which are easily trained + for the purposes of war and hunting. The Scythians of every age + have been celebrated as bold and skilful riders; and constant + practice had seated them so firmly on horseback, that they were + supposed by strangers to perform the ordinary duties of civil + life, to eat, to drink, and even to sleep, without dismounting + from their steeds. They excel in the dexterous management of the + lance; the long Tartar bow is drawn with a nervous arm; and the + weighty arrow is directed to its object with unerring aim and + irresistible force. These arrows are often pointed against the + harmless animals of the desert, which increase and multiply in + the absence of their most formidable enemy; the hare, the goat, + the roebuck, the fallow-deer, the stag, the elk, and the + antelope. The vigor and patience, both of the men and horses, are + continually exercised by the fatigues of the chase; and the + plentiful supply of game contributes to the subsistence, and even + luxury, of a Tartar camp. But the exploits of the hunters of + Scythia are not confined to the destruction of timid or innoxious + beasts; they boldly encounter the angry wild boar, when he turns + against his pursuers, excite the sluggish courage of the bear, + and provoke the fury of the tiger, as he slumbers in the thicket. + Where there is danger, there may be glory; and the mode of + hunting, which opens the fairest field to the exertions of valor, + may justly be considered as the image, and as the school, of war. + The general hunting matches, the pride and delight of the Tartar + princes, compose an instructive exercise for their numerous + cavalry. A circle is drawn, of many miles in circumference, to + encompass the game of an extensive district; and the troops that + form the circle regularly advance towards a common centre; where + the captive animals, surrounded on every side, are abandoned to + the darts of the hunters. In this march, which frequently + continues many days, the cavalry are obliged to climb the hills, + to swim the rivers, and to wind through the valleys, without + interrupting the prescribed order of their gradual progress. They + acquire the habit of directing their eye, and their steps, to a + remote object; of preserving their intervals of suspending or + accelerating their pace, according to the motions of the troops + on their right and left; and of watching and repeating the + signals of their leaders. Their leaders study, in this practical + school, the most important lesson of the military art; the prompt + and accurate judgment of ground, of distance, and of time. To + employ against a human enemy the same patience and valor, the + same skill and discipline, is the only alteration which is + required in real war; and the amusements of the chase serve as a + prelude to the conquest of an empire. 12 + + 12 (return) [ Petit de la Croix (Vie de Gengiscan, l. iii. c. 6) + represents the full glory and extent of the Mogul chase. The + Jesuits Gerbillon and Verbiest followed the emperor Khamhi when + he hunted in Tartary, (Duhalde, Déscription de la Chine, tom. iv. + p. 81, 290, &c., folio edit.) His grandson, Kienlong, who unites + the Tartar discipline with the laws and learning of China, + describes (Eloge de Moukden, p. 273—285) as a poet the pleasures + which he had often enjoyed as a sportsman.] + + The political society of the ancient Germans has the appearance + of a voluntary alliance of independent warriors. The tribes of + Scythia, distinguished by the modern appellation of _Hords_, + assume the form of a numerous and increasing family; which, in + the course of successive generations, has been propagated from + the same original stock. The meanest, and most ignorant, of the + Tartars, preserve, with conscious pride, the inestimable treasure + of their genealogy; and whatever distinctions of rank may have + been introduced, by the unequal distribution of pastoral wealth, + they mutually respect themselves, and each other, as the + descendants of the first founder of the tribe. The custom, which + still prevails, of adopting the bravest and most faithful of the + captives, may countenance the very probable suspicion, that this + extensive consanguinity is, in a great measure, legal and + fictitious. But the useful prejudice, which has obtained the + sanction of time and opinion, produces the effects of truth; the + haughty Barbarians yield a cheerful and voluntary obedience to + the head of their blood; and their chief, or _mursa_, as the + representative of their great father, exercises the authority of + a judge in peace, and of a leader in war. In the original state + of the pastoral world, each of the _mursas_ (if we may continue + to use a modern appellation) acted as the independent chief of a + large and separate family; and the limits of their peculiar + territories were gradually fixed by superior force, or mutual + consent. But the constant operation of various and permanent + causes contributed to unite the vagrant Hords into national + communities, under the command of a supreme head. The weak were + desirous of support, and the strong were ambitious of dominion; + the power, which is the result of union, oppressed and collected + the divided force of the adjacent tribes; and, as the vanquished + were freely admitted to share the advantages of victory, the most + valiant chiefs hastened to range themselves and their followers + under the formidable standard of a confederate nation. The most + successful of the Tartar princes assumed the military command, to + which he was entitled by the superiority, either of merit or of + power. He was raised to the throne by the acclamations of his + equals; and the title of _Khan_ expresses, in the language of the + North of Asia, the full extent of the regal dignity. The right of + hereditary succession was long confined to the blood of the + founder of the monarchy; and at this moment all the Khans, who + reign from Crimea to the wall of China, are the lineal + descendants of the renowned Zingis. 13 But, as it is the + indispensable duty of a Tartar sovereign to lead his warlike + subjects into the field, the claims of an infant are often + disregarded; and some royal kinsman, distinguished by his age and + valor, is intrusted with the sword and sceptre of his + predecessor. Two distinct and regular taxes are levied on the + tribes, to support the dignity of the national monarch, and of + their peculiar chief; and each of those contributions amounts to + the tithe, both of their property, and of their spoil. A Tartar + sovereign enjoys the tenth part of the wealth of his people; and + as his own domestic riches of flocks and herds increase in a much + larger proportion, he is able plentifully to maintain the rustic + splendor of his court, to reward the most deserving, or the most + favored of his followers, and to obtain, from the gentle + influence of corruption, the obedience which might be sometimes + refused to the stern mandates of authority. The manners of his + subjects, accustomed, like himself, to blood and rapine, might + excuse, in their eyes, such partial acts of tyranny, as would + excite the horror of a civilized people; but the power of a + despot has never been acknowledged in the deserts of Scythia. The + immediate jurisdiction of the khan is confined within the limits + of his own tribe; and the exercise of his royal prerogative has + been moderated by the ancient institution of a national council. + The Coroulai, 14 or Diet, of the Tartars, was regularly held in + the spring and autumn, in the midst of a plain; where the princes + of the reigning family, and the mursas of the respective tribes, + may conveniently assemble on horseback, with their martial and + numerous trains; and the ambitious monarch, who reviewed the + strength, must consult the inclination of an armed people. The + rudiments of a feudal government may be discovered in the + constitution of the Scythian or Tartar nations; but the perpetual + conflict of those hostile nations has sometimes terminated in the + establishment of a powerful and despotic empire. The victor, + enriched by the tribute, and fortified by the arms of dependent + kings, has spread his conquests over Europe or Asia: the + successful shepherds of the North have submitted to the + confinement of arts, of laws, and of cities; and the introduction + of luxury, after destroying the freedom of the people, has + undermined the foundations of the throne. 15 + + 13 (return) [ See the second volume of the Genealogical History + of the Tartars; and the list of the Khans, at the end of the life + of Geng’s, or Zingis. Under the reign of Timur, or Tamerlane, one + of his subjects, a descendant of Zingis, still bore the regal + appellation of Khan and the conqueror of Asia contented himself + with the title of Emir or Sultan. Abulghazi, part v. c. 4. + D’Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orien tale, p. 878.] + + 14 (return) [ See the Diets of the ancient Huns, (De Guignes, + tom. ii. p. 26,) and a curious description of those of Zingis, + (Vie de Gengiscan, l. i. c. 6, l. iv. c. 11.) Such assemblies are + frequently mentioned in the Persian history of Timur; though they + served only to countenance the resolutions of their master.] + + 15 (return) [ Montesquieu labors to explain a difference, which + has not existed, between the liberty of the Arabs, and the + _perpetual_ slavery of the Tartars. (Esprit des Loix, l. xvii. c. + 5, l. xviii. c. 19, &c.)] + + The memory of past events cannot long be preserved in the + frequent and remote emigrations of illiterate Barbarians. The + modern Tartars are ignorant of the conquests of their ancestors; + 16 and our knowledge of the history of the Scythians is derived + from their intercourse with the learned and civilized nations of + the South, the Greeks, the Persians, and the Chinese. The Greeks, + who navigated the Euxine, and planted their colonies along the + sea-coast, made the gradual and imperfect discovery of Scythia; + from the Danube, and the confines of Thrace, as far as the frozen + Mæotis, the seat of eternal winter, and Mount Caucasus, which, in + the language of poetry, was described as the utmost boundary of + the earth. They celebrated, with simple credulity, the virtues of + the pastoral life: 17 they entertained a more rational + apprehension of the strength and numbers of the warlike + Barbarians, 18 who contemptuously baffled the immense armament of + Darius, the son of Hystaspes. 19 The Persian monarchs had + extended their western conquests to the banks of the Danube, and + the limits of European Scythia. The eastern provinces of their + empire were exposed to the Scythians of Asia; the wild + inhabitants of the plains beyond the Oxus and the Jaxartes, two + mighty rivers, which direct their course towards the Caspian Sea. + The long and memorable quarrel of Iran and Touran is still the + theme of history or romance: the famous, perhaps the fabulous, + valor of the Persian heroes, Rustan and Asfendiar, was + signalized, in the defence of their country, against the + Afrasiabs of the North; 20 and the invincible spirit of the same + Barbarians resisted, on the same ground, the victorious arms of + Cyrus and Alexander. 21 In the eyes of the Greeks and Persians, + the real geography of Scythia was bounded, on the East, by the + mountains of Imaus, or Caf; and their distant prospect of the + extreme and inaccessible parts of Asia was clouded by ignorance, + or perplexed by fiction. But those inaccessible regions are the + ancient residence of a powerful and civilized nation, 22 which + ascends, by a probable tradition, above forty centuries; 23 and + which is able to verify a series of near two thousand years, by + the perpetual testimony of accurate and contemporary historians. + 24 The annals of China 25 illustrate the state and revolutions of + the pastoral tribes, which may still be distinguished by the + vague appellation of Scythians, or Tartars; the vassals, the + enemies, and sometimes the conquerors, of a great empire; whose + policy has uniformly opposed the blind and impetuous valor of the + Barbarians of the North. From the mouth of the Danube to the Sea + of Japan, the whole longitude of Scythia is about one hundred and + ten degrees, which, in that parallel, are equal to more than five + thousand miles. The latitude of these extensive deserts cannot be + so easily, or so accurately, measured; but, from the fortieth + degree, which touches the wall of China, we may securely advance + above a thousand miles to the northward, till our progress is + stopped by the excessive cold of Siberia. In that dreary climate, + instead of the animated picture of a Tartar camp, the smoke that + issues from the earth, or rather from the snow, betrays the + subterraneous dwellings of the Tongouses, and the Samoides: the + want of horses and oxen is imperfectly supplied by the use of + reindeer, and of large dogs; and the conquerors of the earth + insensibly degenerate into a race of deformed and diminutive + savages, who tremble at the sound of arms. 26 + + 16 (return) [ Abulghasi Khan, in the two first parts of his + Genealogical History, relates the miserable tales and traditions + of the Uzbek Tartars concerning the times which preceded the + reign of Zingis. * Note: The differences between the various + pastoral tribes and nations comprehended by the ancients under + the vague name of Scythians, and by Gibbon under inst of Tartars, + have received some, and still, perhaps, may receive more, light + from the comparisons of their dialects and languages by modern + scholars.—M] + + 17 (return) [ In the thirteenth book of the Iliad, Jupiter turns + away his eyes from the bloody fields of Troy, to the plains of + Thrace and Scythia. He would not, by changing the prospect, + behold a more peaceful or innocent scene.] + + 18 (return) [ Thucydides, l. ii. c. 97.] + + 19 (return) [ See the fourth book of Herodotus. When Darius + advanced into the Moldavian desert, between the Danube and the + Niester, the king of the Scythians sent him a mouse, a frog, a + bird, and five arrows; a tremendous allegory!] + + 20 (return) [ These wars and heroes may be found under their + respective _titles_, in the Bibliothèque Orientale of D’Herbelot. + They have been celebrated in an epic poem of sixty thousand + rhymed couplets, by Ferdusi, the Homer of Persia. See the history + of Nadir Shah, p. 145, 165. The public must lament that Mr. Jones + has suspended the pursuit of Oriental learning. Note: Ferdusi is + yet imperfectly known to European readers. An abstract of the + whole poem has been published by Goerres in German, under the + title “das Heldenbuch des Iran.” In English, an abstract with + poetical translations, by Mr. Atkinson, has appeared, under the + auspices of the Oriental Fund. But to translate a poet a man must + be a poet. The best account of the poem is in an article by Von + Hammer in the Vienna Jahrbucher, 1820: or perhaps in a masterly + article in Cochrane’s Foreign Quarterly Review, No. 1, 1835. A + splendid and critical edition of the whole work has been + published by a very learned English Orientalist, Captain Macan, + at the expense of the king of Oude. As to the number of 60,000 + couplets, Captain Macan (Preface, p. 39) states that he never saw + a MS. containing more than 56,685, including doubtful and + spurious passages and episodes.—M. * Note: The later studies of + Sir W. Jones were more in unison with the wishes of the public, + thus expressed by Gibbon.—M.] + + 21 (return) [ The Caspian Sea, with its rivers and adjacent + tribes, are laboriously illustrated in the Examen Critique des + Historiens d’Alexandre, which compares the true geography, and + the errors produced by the vanity or ignorance of the Greeks.] + + 22 (return) [ The original seat of the nation appears to have + been in the Northwest of China, in the provinces of Chensi and + Chansi. Under the two first dynasties, the principal town was + still a movable camp; the villages were thinly scattered; more + land was employed in pasture than in tillage; the exercise of + hunting was ordained to clear the country from wild beasts; + Petcheli (where Pekin stands) was a desert, and the Southern + provinces were peopled with Indian savages. The dynasty of the + _Han_ (before Christ 206) gave the empire its actual form and + extent.] + + 23 (return) [ The æra of the Chinese monarchy has been variously + fixed from 2952 to 2132 years before Christ; and the year 2637 + has been chosen for the lawful epoch, by the authority of the + present emperor. The difference arises from the uncertain + duration of the two first dynasties; and the vacant space that + lies beyond them, as far as the real, or fabulous, times of Fohi, + or Hoangti. Sematsien dates his authentic chronology from the + year 841; the thirty-six eclipses of Confucius (thirty-one of + which have been verified) were observed between the years 722 and + 480 before Christ. The _historical_ period of China does not + ascend above the Greek Olympiads.] + + 24 (return) [ After several ages of anarchy and despotism, the + dynasty of the Han (before Christ 206) was the æra of the revival + of learning. The fragments of ancient literature were restored; + the characters were improved and fixed; and the future + preservation of books was secured by the useful inventions of + ink, paper, and the art of printing. Ninety-seven years before + Christ, Sematsien published the first history of China. His + labors were illustrated, and continued, by a series of one + hundred and eighty historians. The substance of their works is + still extant; and the most considerable of them are now deposited + in the king of France’s library.] + + 25 (return) [ China has been illustrated by the labors of the + French; of the missionaries at Pekin, and Messrs. Freret and De + Guignes at Paris. The substance of the three preceding notes is + extracted from the Chou-king, with the preface and notes of M. de + Guignes, Paris, 1770. The _Tong-Kien-Kang-Mou_, translated by P. + de Mailla, under the name of Hist. Génerale de la Chine, tom. i. + p. xlix.—cc.; the Mémoires sur la Chine, Paris, 1776, &c., tom. + i. p. 1—323; tom. ii. p. 5—364; the Histoire des Huns, tom. i. p. + 4—131, tom. v. p. 345—362; and the Mémoires de l’Académie des + Inscriptions, tom. x. p. 377—402; tom. xv. p. 495—564; tom. + xviii. p. 178—295; xxxvi. p. 164—238.] + + 26 (return) [ See the Histoire Generale des Voyages, tom. xviii., + and the Genealogical History, vol. ii. p. 620—664.] + + + + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part II. + + + The Huns, who under the reign of Valens threatened the empire of + Rome, had been formidable, in a much earlier period, to the + empire of China. 27 Their ancient, perhaps their original, seat + was an extensive, though dry and barren, tract of country, + immediately on the north side of the great wall. Their place is + at present occupied by the forty-nine Hords or Banners of the + Mongous, a pastoral nation, which consists of about two hundred + thousand families. 28 But the valor of the Huns had extended the + narrow limits of their dominions; and their rustic chiefs, who + assumed the appellation of _Tanjou_, gradually became the + conquerors, and the sovereigns of a formidable empire. Towards + the East, their victorious arms were stopped only by the ocean; + and the tribes, which are thinly scattered between the Amoor and + the extreme peninsula of Corea, adhered, with reluctance, to the + standard of the Huns. On the West, near the head of the Irtish, + in the valleys of Imaus, they found a more ample space, and more + numerous enemies. One of the lieutenants of the Tanjou subdued, + in a single expedition, twenty-six nations; the Igours, 29 + distinguished above the Tartar race by the use of letters, were + in the number of his vassals; and, by the strange connection of + human events, the flight of one of those vagrant tribes recalled + the victorious Parthians from the invasion of Syria. 30 On the + side of the North, the ocean was assigned as the limit of the + power of the Huns. Without enemies to resist their progress, or + witnesses to contradict their vanity, they might securely achieve + a real, or imaginary, conquest of the frozen regions of Siberia. + The _Northern Sea_ was fixed as the remote boundary of their + empire. But the name of that sea, on whose shores the patriot + Sovou embraced the life of a shepherd and an exile, 31 may be + transferred, with much more probability, to the Baikal, a + capacious basin, above three hundred miles in length, which + disdains the modest appellation of a lake 32 and which actually + communicates with the seas of the North, by the long course of + the Angara, the Tongusha, and the Jenissea. The submission of so + many distant nations might flatter the pride of the Tanjou; but + the valor of the Huns could be rewarded only by the enjoyment of + the wealth and luxury of the empire of the South. In the third + century 3211 before the Christian æra, a wall of fifteen hundred + miles in length was constructed, to defend the frontiers of China + against the inroads of the Huns; 33 but this stupendous work, + which holds a conspicuous place in the map of the world, has + never contributed to the safety of an unwarlike people. The + cavalry of the Tanjou frequently consisted of two or three + hundred thousand men, formidable by the matchless dexterity with + which they managed their bows and their horses: by their hardy + patience in supporting the inclemency of the weather; and by the + incredible speed of their march, which was seldom checked by + torrents, or precipices, by the deepest rivers, or by the most + lofty mountains. They spread themselves at once over the face of + the country; and their rapid impetuosity surprised, astonished, + and disconcerted the grave and elaborate tactics of a Chinese + army. The emperor Kaoti, 34 a soldier of fortune, whose personal + merit had raised him to the throne, marched against the Huns with + those veteran troops which had been trained in the civil wars of + China. But he was soon surrounded by the Barbarians; and, after a + siege of seven days, the monarch, hopeless of relief, was reduced + to purchase his deliverance by an ignominious capitulation. The + successors of Kaoti, whose lives were dedicated to the arts of + peace, or the luxury of the palace, submitted to a more permanent + disgrace. They too hastily confessed the insufficiency of arms + and fortifications. They were too easily convinced, that while + the blazing signals announced on every side the approach of the + Huns, the Chinese troops, who slept with the helmet on their + head, and the cuirass on their back, were destroyed by the + incessant labor of ineffectual marches. 35 A regular payment of + money, and silk, was stipulated as the condition of a temporary + and precarious peace; and the wretched expedient of disguising a + real tribute, under the names of a gift or subsidy, was practised + by the emperors of China as well as by those of Rome. But there + still remained a more disgraceful article of tribute, which + violated the sacred feelings of humanity and nature. The + hardships of the savage life, which destroy in their infancy the + children who are born with a less healthy and robust + constitution, introduced a remarkable disproportion between the + numbers of the two sexes. The Tartars are an ugly and even + deformed race; and while they consider their own women as the + instruments of domestic labor, their desires, or rather their + appetites, are directed to the enjoyment of more elegant beauty. + A select band of the fairest maidens of China was annually + devoted to the rude embraces of the Huns; 36 and the alliance of + the haughty Tanjous was secured by their marriage with the + genuine, or adopted, daughters of the Imperial family, which + vainly attempted to escape the sacrilegious pollution. The + situation of these unhappy victims is described in the verses of + a Chinese princess, who laments that she had been condemned by + her parents to a distant exile, under a Barbarian husband; who + complains that sour milk was her only drink, raw flesh her only + food, a tent her only palace; and who expresses, in a strain of + pathetic simplicity, the natural wish, that she were transformed + into a bird, to fly back to her dear country; the object of her + tender and perpetual regret. 37 + + 27 (return) [ M. de Guignes (tom. ii. p. 1—124) has given the + original history of the ancient Hiong-nou, or Huns. The Chinese + geography of their country (tom. i. part. p. lv.—lxiii.) seems to + comprise a part of their conquests. * Note: The theory of De + Guignes on the early history of the Huns is, in general, rejected + by modern writers. De Guignes advanced no valid proof of the + identity of the Hioung-nou of the Chinese writers with the Huns, + except the similarity of name. Schlozer, (Allgemeine Nordische + Geschichte, p. 252,) Klaproth, (Tableaux Historiques de l’Asie, + p. 246,) St. Martin, iv. 61, and A. Remusat, (Recherches sur les + Langues Tartares, D. P. xlvi, and p. 328; though in the latter + passage he considers the theory of De Guignes not absolutely + disproved,) concur in considering the Huns as belonging to the + Finnish stock, distinct from the Moguls the Mandscheus, and the + Turks. The Hiong-nou, according to Klaproth, were Turks. The + names of the Hunnish chiefs could not be pronounced by a Turk; + and, according to the same author, the Hioung-nou, which is + explained in Chinese as _detestable slaves_, as early as the year + 91 J. C., were dispersed by the Chinese, and assumed the name of + Yue-po or Yue-pan. M. St. Martin does not consider it impossible + that the appellation of Hioung-nou may have belonged to the Huns. + But all agree in considering the Madjar or Magyar of modern + Hungary the descendants of the Huns. Their language (compare + Gibbon, c. lv. n. 22) is nearly related to the Lapponian and + Vogoul. The noble forms of the modern Hungarians, so strongly + contrasted with the hideous pictures which the fears and the + hatred of the Romans give of the Huns, M. Klaproth accounts for + by the intermingling with other races, Turkish and Slavonian. The + present state of the question is thus stated in the last edition + of Malte Brun, and a new and ingenious hypothesis suggested to + resolve all the difficulties of the question. + Were the Huns Finns? This obscure question has not been + debated till very recently, and is yet very far from being + decided. We are of opinion that it will be so hereafter in + the same manner as that with regard to the Scythians. We + shall trace in the portrait of Attila a dominant tribe or + Mongols, or Kalmucks, with all the hereditary ugliness of + that race; but in the mass of the Hunnish army and nation + will be recognized the Chuni and the Ounni of the Greek + Geography. the Kuns of the Hungarians, the European Huns, and + a race in close relationship with the Flemish stock. Malte + Brun, vi. p. 94. This theory is more fully and ably + developed, p. 743. Whoever has seen the emperor of Austria’s + Hungarian guard, will not readily admit their descent from + the Huns described by Sidonius Appolinaris.—M] + + 28 (return) [ See in Duhalde (tom. iv. p. 18—65) a circumstantial + description, with a correct map, of the country of the Mongous.] + + 29 (return) [ The Igours, or Vigours, were divided into three + branches; hunters, shepherds, and husbandmen; and the last class + was despised by the two former. See Abulghazi, part ii. c. 7. * + Note: On the Ouigour or Igour characters, see the work of M. A. + Remusat, Sur les Langues Tartares. He conceives the Ouigour + alphabet of sixteen letters to have been formed from the Syriac, + and introduced by the Nestorian Christians.—Ch. ii. M.] + + 30 (return) [ Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxv. + p. 17—33. The comprehensive view of M. de Guignes has compared + these distant events.] + + 31 (return) [ The fame of Sovou, or So-ou, his merit, and his + singular adventurers, are still celebrated in China. See the + Eloge de Moukden, p. 20, and notes, p. 241—247; and Mémoires sur + la Chine, tom. iii. p. 317—360.] + + 32 (return) [ See Isbrand Ives in Harris’s Collection, vol. ii. + p. 931; Bell’s Travels, vol. i. p. 247—254; and Gmelin, in the + Hist. Generale des Voyages, tom. xviii. 283—329. They all remark + the vulgar opinion that the _holy sea_ grows angry and + tempestuous if any one presumes to call it a _lake_. This + grammatical nicety often excites a dispute between the absurd + superstition of the mariners and the absurd obstinacy of + travellers.] + + 3211 (return) [ 224 years before Christ. It was built by + Chi-hoang-ti of the Dynasty Thsin. It is from twenty to + twenty-five feet high. Ce monument, aussi gigantesque + qu’impuissant, arreterait bien les incursions de quelques + Nomades; mais il n’a jamais empéché les invasions des Turcs, des + Mongols, et des Mandchous. Abe Remusat Rech. Asiat. 2d ser. vol. + i. p. 58—M.] + + 33 (return) [ The construction of the wall of China is mentioned + by Duhalde (tom. ii. p. 45) and De Guignes, (tom. ii. p. 59.)] + + 34 (return) [ See the life of Lieoupang, or Kaoti, in the Hist, + de la Chine, published at Paris, 1777, &c., tom. i. p. 442—522. + This voluminous work is the translation (by the P. de Mailla) of + the _Tong- Kien-Kang-Mou_, the celebrated abridgment of the great + History of Semakouang (A.D. 1084) and his continuators.] + + 35 (return) [ See a free and ample memorial, presented by a + Mandarin to the emperor Venti, (before Christ 180—157,) in + Duhalde, (tom. ii. p. 412—426,) from a collection of State papers + marked with the red pencil by Kamhi himself, (p. 354—612.) + Another memorial from the minister of war (Kang-Mou, tom. ii. p + 555) supplies some curious circumstances of the manners of the + Huns.] + + 36 (return) [ A supply of women is mentioned as a customary + article of treaty and tribute, (Hist. de la Conquete de la Chine, + par les Tartares Mantcheoux, tom. i. p. 186, 187, with the note + of the editor.)] + + 37 (return) [ De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. ii. p. 62.] + + The conquest of China has been twice achieved by the pastoral + tribes of the North: the forces of the Huns were not inferior to + those of the Moguls, or of the Mantcheoux; and their ambition + might entertain the most sanguine hopes of success. But their + pride was humbled, and their progress was checked, by the arms + and policy of Vouti, 38 the fifth emperor of the powerful dynasty + of the Han. In his long reign of fifty- four years, the + Barbarians of the southern provinces submitted to the laws and + manners of China; and the ancient limits of the monarchy were + enlarged, from the great river of Kiang, to the port of Canton. + Instead of confining himself to the timid operations of a + defensive war, his lieutenants penetrated many hundred miles into + the country of the Huns. In those boundless deserts, where it is + impossible to form magazines, and difficult to transport a + sufficient supply of provisions, the armies of Vouti were + repeatedly exposed to intolerable hardships: and, of one hundred + and forty thousand soldiers, who marched against the Barbarians, + thirty thousand only returned in safety to the feet of their + master. These losses, however, were compensated by splendid and + decisive success. The Chinese generals improved the superiority + which they derived from the temper of their arms, their chariots + of war, and the service of their Tartar auxiliaries. The camp of + the Tanjou was surprised in the midst of sleep and intemperance; + and, though the monarch of the Huns bravely cut his way through + the ranks of the enemy, he left above fifteen thousand of his + subjects on the field of battle. Yet this signal victory, which + was preceded and followed by many bloody engagements, contributed + much less to the destruction of the power of the Huns than the + effectual policy which was employed to detach the tributary + nations from their obedience. Intimidated by the arms, or allured + by the promises, of Vouti and his successors, the most + considerable tribes, both of the East and of the West, disclaimed + the authority of the Tanjou. While some acknowledged themselves + the allies or vassals of the empire, they all became the + implacable enemies of the Huns; and the numbers of that haughty + people, as soon as they were reduced to their native strength, + might, perhaps, have been contained within the walls of one of + the great and populous cities of China. 39 The desertion of his + subjects, and the perplexity of a civil war, at length compelled + the Tanjou himself to renounce the dignity of an independent + sovereign, and the freedom of a warlike and high-spirited nation. + He was received at Sigan, the capital of the monarchy, by the + troops, the mandarins, and the emperor himself, with all the + honors that could adorn and disguise the triumph of Chinese + vanity. 40 A magnificent palace was prepared for his reception; + his place was assigned above all the princes of the royal family; + and the patience of the Barbarian king was exhausted by the + ceremonies of a banquet, which consisted of eight courses of + meat, and of nine solemn pieces of music. But he performed, on + his knees, the duty of a respectful homage to the emperor of + China; pronounced, in his own name, and in the name of his + successors, a perpetual oath of fidelity; and gratefully accepted + a seal, which was bestowed as the emblem of his regal dependence. + After this humiliating submission, the Tanjous sometimes departed + from their allegiance and seized the favorable moments of war and + rapine; but the monarchy of the Huns gradually declined, till it + was broken, by civil dissension, into two hostile and separate + kingdoms. One of the princes of the nation was urged, by fear and + ambition, to retire towards the South with eight hords, which + composed between forty and fifty thousand families. He obtained, + with the title of Tanjou, a convenient territory on the verge of + the Chinese provinces; and his constant attachment to the service + of the empire was secured by weakness, and the desire of revenge. + From the time of this fatal schism, the Huns of the North + continued to languish about fifty years; till they were oppressed + on every side by their foreign and domestic enemies. The proud + inscription 41 of a column, erected on a lofty mountain, + announced to posterity, that a Chinese army had marched seven + hundred miles into the heart of their country. The Sienpi, 42 a + tribe of Oriental Tartars, retaliated the injuries which they had + formerly sustained; and the power of the Tanjous, after a reign + of thirteen hundred years, was utterly destroyed before the end + of the first century of the Christian æra. 43 + + 38 (return) [ See the reign of the emperor Vouti, in the + Kang-Mou, tom. iii. p. 1—98. His various and inconsistent + character seems to be impartially drawn.] + + 39 (return) [ This expression is used in the memorial to the + emperor Venti, (Duhalde, tom. ii. p. 411.) Without adopting the + exaggerations of Marco Polo and Isaac Vossius, we may rationally + allow for Pekin two millions of inhabitants. The cities of the + South, which contain the manufactures of China, are still more + populous.] + + 40 (return) [ See the Kang-Mou, tom. iii. p. 150, and the + subsequent events under the proper years. This memorable festival + is celebrated in the Eloge de Moukden, and explained in a note by + the P. Gaubil, p. 89, 90.] + + 41 (return) [ This inscription was composed on the spot by + Parkou, President of the Tribunal of History (Kang-Mou, tom. iii. + p. 392.) Similar monuments have been discovered in many parts of + Tartary, (Histoire des Huns, tom. ii. p. 122.)] + + 42 (return) [ M. de Guignes (tom. i. p. 189) has inserted a short + account of the Sienpi.] + + 43 (return) [ The æra of the Huns is placed, by the Chinese, 1210 + years before Christ. But the series of their kings does not + commence till the year 230, (Hist. des Huns, tom. ii. p. 21, + 123.)] + + The fate of the vanquished Huns was diversified by the various + influence of character and situation. 44 Above one hundred + thousand persons, the poorest, indeed, and the most pusillanimous + of the people, were contented to remain in their native country, + to renounce their peculiar name and origin, and to mingle with + the victorious nation of the Sienpi. Fifty-eight hords, about two + hundred thousand men, ambitious of a more honorable servitude, + retired towards the South; implored the protection of the + emperors of China; and were permitted to inhabit, and to guard, + the extreme frontiers of the province of Chansi and the territory + of Ortous. But the most warlike and powerful tribes of the Huns + maintained, in their adverse fortune, the undaunted spirit of + their ancestors. The Western world was open to their valor; and + they resolved, under the conduct of their hereditary chieftains, + to conquer and subdue some remote country, which was still + inaccessible to the arms of the Sienpi, and to the laws of China. + 45 The course of their emigration soon carried them beyond the + mountains of Imaus, and the limits of the Chinese geography; but + _we_ are able to distinguish the two great divisions of these + formidable exiles, which directed their march towards the Oxus, + and towards the Volga. The first of these colonies established + their dominion in the fruitful and extensive plains of Sogdiana, + on the eastern side of the Caspian; where they preserved the name + of Huns, with the epithet of Euthalites, or Nepthalites. 4511 + Their manners were softened, and even their features were + insensibly improved, by the mildness of the climate, and their + long residence in a flourishing province, 46 which might still + retain a faint impression of the arts of Greece. 47 The _white_ + Huns, a name which they derived from the change of their + complexions, soon abandoned the pastoral life of Scythia. Gorgo, + which, under the appellation of Carizme, has since enjoyed a + temporary splendor, was the residence of the king, who exercised + a legal authority over an obedient people. Their luxury was + maintained by the labor of the Sogdians; and the only vestige of + their ancient barbarism, was the custom which obliged all the + companions, perhaps to the number of twenty, who had shared the + liberality of a wealthy lord, to be buried alive in the same + grave. 48 The vicinity of the Huns to the provinces of Persia, + involved them in frequent and bloody contests with the power of + that monarchy. But they respected, in peace, the faith of + treaties; in war, the dictates of humanity; and their memorable + victory over Peroses, or Firuz, displayed the moderation, as well + as the valor, of the Barbarians. The _second_ division of their + countrymen, the Huns, who gradually advanced towards the + North-west, were exercised by the hardships of a colder climate, + and a more laborious march. Necessity compelled them to exchange + the silks of China for the furs of Siberia; the imperfect + rudiments of civilized life were obliterated; and the native + fierceness of the Huns was exasperated by their intercourse with + the savage tribes, who were compared, with some propriety, to the + wild beasts of the desert. Their independent spirit soon rejected + the hereditary succession of the Tanjous; and while each horde + was governed by its peculiar mursa, their tumultuary council + directed the public measures of the whole nation. As late as the + thirteenth century, their transient residence on the eastern + banks of the Volga was attested by the name of Great Hungary. 49 + In the winter, they descended with their flocks and herds towards + the mouth of that mighty river; and their summer excursions + reached as high as the latitude of Saratoff, or perhaps the + conflux of the Kama. Such at least were the recent limits of the + black Calmucks, 50 who remained about a century under the + protection of Russia; and who have since returned to their native + seats on the frontiers of the Chinese empire. The march, and the + return, of those wandering Tartars, whose united camp consists of + fifty thousand tents or families, illustrate the distant + emigrations of the ancient Huns. 51 + + 44 (return) [ The various accidents, the downfall, and the flight + of the Huns, are related in the Kang-Mou, tom. iii. p. 88, 91, + 95, 139, &c. The small numbers of each horde may be due to their + losses and divisions.] + + 45 (return) [ M. de Guignes has skilfully traced the footsteps of + the Huns through the vast deserts of Tartary, (tom. ii. p. 123, + 277, &c., 325, &c.)] + + 4511 (return) [ The Armenian authors often mention this people + under the name of Hepthal. St. Martin considers that the name of + Nepthalites is an error of a copyist. St. Martin, iv. 254.—M.] + + 46 (return) [ Mohammed, sultan of Carizme, reigned in Sogdiana + when it was invaded (A.D. 1218) by Zingis and his moguls. The + Oriental historians (see D’Herbelot, Petit de la Croix, &c.,) + celebrate the populous cities which he ruined, and the fruitful + country which he desolated. In the next century, the same + provinces of Chorasmia and Nawaralnahr were described by + Abulfeda, (Hudson, Geograph. Minor. tom. iii.) Their actual + misery may be seen in the Genealogical History of the Tartars, p. + 423—469.] + + 47 (return) [ Justin (xli. 6) has left a short abridgment of the + Greek kings of Bactriana. To their industry I should ascribe the + new and extraordinary trade, which transported the merchandises + of India into Europe, by the Oxus, the Caspian, the Cyrus, the + Phasis, and the Euxine. The other ways, both of the land and sea, + were possessed by the Seleucides and the Ptolemies. (See l’Esprit + des Loix, l. xxi.)] + + 48 (return) [ Procopius de Bell. Persico, l. i. c. 3, p. 9.] + + 49 (return) [ In the thirteenth century, the monk Rubruquis (who + traversed the immense plain of Kipzak, in his journey to the + court of the Great Khan) observed the remarkable name of + _Hungary_, with the traces of a common language and origin, + (Hist. des Voyages, tom. vii. p. 269.)] + + 50 (return) [ Bell, (vol. i. p. 29—34,) and the editors of the + Genealogical History, (p. 539,) have described the Calmucks of + the Volga in the beginning of the present century.] + + 51 (return) [ This great transmigration of 300,000 Calmucks, or + Torgouts, happened in the year 1771. The original narrative of + Kien-long, the reigning emperor of China, which was intended for + the inscription of a column, has been translated by the + missionaries of Pekin, (Mémoires sur la Chine, tom. i. p. + 401—418.) The emperor affects the smooth and specious language of + the Son of Heaven, and the Father of his People.] + + It is impossible to fill the dark interval of time, which + elapsed, after the Huns of the Volga were lost in the eyes of the + Chinese, and before they showed themselves to those of the + Romans. There is some reason, however, to apprehend, that the + same force which had driven them from their native seats, still + continued to impel their march towards the frontiers of Europe. + The power of the Sienpi, their implacable enemies, which extended + above three thousand miles from East to West, 52 must have + gradually oppressed them by the weight and terror of a formidable + neighborhood; and the flight of the tribes of Scythia would + inevitably tend to increase the strength or to contract the + territories, of the Huns. The harsh and obscure appellations of + those tribes would offend the ear, without informing the + understanding, of the reader; but I cannot suppress the very + natural suspicion, _that_ the Huns of the North derived a + considerable reenforcement from the ruin of the dynasty of the + South, which, in the course of the third century, submitted to + the dominion of China; _that_ the bravest warriors marched away + in search of their free and adventurous countrymen; _and_ that, + as they had been divided by prosperity, they were easily reunited + by the common hardships of their adverse fortune. 53 The Huns, + with their flocks and herds, their wives and children, their + dependents and allies, were transported to the west of the Volga, + and they boldly advanced to invade the country of the Alani, a + pastoral people, who occupied, or wasted, an extensive tract of + the deserts of Scythia. The plains between the Volga and the + Tanais were covered with the tents of the Alani, but their name + and manners were diffused over the wide extent of their + conquests; and the painted tribes of the Agathyrsi and Geloni + were confounded among their vassals. Towards the North, they + penetrated into the frozen regions of Siberia, among the savages + who were accustomed, in their rage or hunger, to the taste of + human flesh; and their Southern inroads were pushed as far as the + confines of Persia and India. The mixture of Samartic and German + blood had contributed to improve the features of the Alani, 5311 + to whiten their swarthy complexions, and to tinge their hair with + a yellowish cast, which is seldom found in the Tartar race. They + were less deformed in their persons, less brutish in their + manners, than the Huns; but they did not yield to those + formidable Barbarians in their martial and independent spirit; in + the love of freedom, which rejected even the use of domestic + slaves; and in the love of arms, which considered war and rapine + as the pleasure and the glory of mankind. A naked cimeter, fixed + in the ground, was the only object of their religious worship; + the scalps of their enemies formed the costly trappings of their + horses; and they viewed, with pity and contempt, the + pusillanimous warriors, who patiently expected the infirmities of + age, and the tortures of lingering disease. 54 On the banks of + the Tanais, the military power of the Huns and the Alani + encountered each other with equal valor, but with unequal + success. The Huns prevailed in the bloody contest; the king of + the Alani was slain; and the remains of the vanquished nation + were dispersed by the ordinary alternative of flight or + submission. 55 A colony of exiles found a secure refuge in the + mountains of Caucasus, between the Euxine and the Caspian, where + they still preserve their name and their independence. Another + colony advanced, with more intrepid courage, towards the shores + of the Baltic; associated themselves with the Northern tribes of + Germany; and shared the spoil of the Roman provinces of Gaul and + Spain. But the greatest part of the nation of the Alani embraced + the offers of an honorable and advantageous union; and the Huns, + who esteemed the valor of their less fortunate enemies, + proceeded, with an increase of numbers and confidence, to invade + the limits of the Gothic empire. + + 52 (return) [ The Khan-Mou (tom. iii. p. 447) ascribes to their + conquests a space of 14,000 _lis_. According to the present + standard, 200 _lis_ (or more accurately 193) are equal to one + degree of latitude; and one English mile consequently exceeds + three miles of China. But there are strong reasons to believe + that the ancient _li_ scarcely equalled one half of the modern. + See the elaborate researches of M. D’Anville, a geographer who is + not a stranger in any age or climate of the globe. (Mémoires de + l’Acad. tom. ii. p. 125-502. Itineraires, p. 154-167.)] + + 53 (return) [ See Histoire des Huns, tom. ii. p. 125—144. The + subsequent history (p. 145—277) of three or four Hunnic dynasties + evidently proves that their martial spirit was not impaired by a + long residence in China.] + + 5311 (return) [ Compare M. Klaproth’s curious speculations on the + Alani. He supposes them to have been the people, known by the + Chinese, at the time of their first expeditions to the West, + under the name of Yath-sai or A-lanna, the Alanân of Persian + tradition, as preserved in Ferdusi; the same, according to + Ammianus, with the Massagetæ, and with the Albani. The remains of + the nation still exist in the Ossetæ of Mount Caucasus. Klaproth, + Tableaux Historiques de l’Asie, p. 174.—M. Compare Shafarik + Slawische alterthümer, i. p. 350.—M. 1845.] + + 54 (return) [ Utque hominibus quietis et placidis otium est + voluptabile, ita illos pericula juvent et bella. Judicatur ibi + beatus qui in prœlio profuderit animam: senescentes etiam et + fortuitis mortibus mundo digressos, ut degeneres et ignavos, + conviciis atrocibus insectantur. [Ammian. xxxi. 11.] We must + think highly of the conquerors of _such_ men.] + + 55 (return) [ On the subject of the Alani, see Ammianus, (xxxi. + 2,) Jornandes, (de Rebus Geticis, c. 24,) M. de Guignes, (Hist. + des Huns, tom. ii. p. 279,) and the Genealogical History of the + Tartars, (tom. ii. p. 617.)] + + The great Hermanric, whose dominions extended from the Baltic to + the Euxine, enjoyed, in the full maturity of age and reputation, + the fruit of his victories, when he was alarmed by the formidable + approach of a host of unknown enemies, 56 on whom his barbarous + subjects might, without injustice, bestow the epithet of + Barbarians. The numbers, the strength, the rapid motions, and the + implacable cruelty of the Huns, were felt, and dreaded, and + magnified, by the astonished Goths; who beheld their fields and + villages consumed with flames, and deluged with indiscriminate + slaughter. To these real terrors they added the surprise and + abhorrence which were excited by the shrill voice, the uncouth + gestures, and the strange deformity of the Huns. 5611 These + savages of Scythia were compared (and the picture had some + resemblance) to the animals who walk very awkwardly on two legs + and to the misshapen figures, the _Termini_, which were often + placed on the bridges of antiquity. They were distinguished from + the rest of the human species by their broad shoulders, flat + noses, and small black eyes, deeply buried in the head; and as + they were almost destitute of beards, they never enjoyed either + the manly grace of youth, or the venerable aspect of age. 57 A + fabulous origin was assigned, worthy of their form and manners; + that the witches of Scythia, who, for their foul and deadly + practices, had been driven from society, had copulated in the + desert with infernal spirits; and that the Huns were the + offspring of this execrable conjunction. 58 The tale, so full of + horror and absurdity, was greedily embraced by the credulous + hatred of the Goths; but, while it gratified their hatred, it + increased their fear, since the posterity of dæmons and witches + might be supposed to inherit some share of the præternatural + powers, as well as of the malignant temper, of their parents. + Against these enemies, Hermanric prepared to exert the united + forces of the Gothic state; but he soon discovered that his + vassal tribes, provoked by oppression, were much more inclined to + second, than to repel, the invasion of the Huns. One of the + chiefs of the Roxolani 59 had formerly deserted the standard of + Hermanric, and the cruel tyrant had condemned the innocent wife + of the traitor to be torn asunder by wild horses. The brothers of + that unfortunate woman seized the favorable moment of revenge. + + The aged king of the Goths languished some time after the + dangerous wound which he received from their daggers; but the + conduct of the war was retarded by his infirmities; and the + public councils of the nation were distracted by a spirit of + jealousy and discord. His death, which has been imputed to his + own despair, left the reins of government in the hands of + Withimer, who, with the doubtful aid of some Scythian + mercenaries, maintained the unequal contest against the arms of + the Huns and the Alani, till he was defeated and slain in a + decisive battle. The Ostrogoths submitted to their fate; and the + royal race of the Amali will hereafter be found among the + subjects of the haughty Attila. But the person of Witheric, the + infant king, was saved by the diligence of Alatheus and Saphrax; + two warriors of approved valor and fiedlity, who, by cautious + marches, conducted the independent remains of the nation of the + Ostrogoths towards the Danastus, or Niester; a considerable + river, which now separates the Turkish dominions from the empire + of Russia. On the banks of the Niester, the prudent Athanaric, + more attentive to his own than to the general safety, had fixed + the camp of the Visigoths; with the firm resolution of opposing + the victorious Barbarians, whom he thought it less advisable to + provoke. The ordinary speed of the Huns was checked by the weight + of baggage, and the encumbrance of captives; but their military + skill deceived, and almost destroyed, the army of Athanaric. + While the Judge of the Visigoths defended the banks of the + Niester, he was encompassed and attacked by a numerous detachment + of cavalry, who, by the light of the moon, had passed the river + in a fordable place; and it was not without the utmost efforts of + courage and conduct, that he was able to effect his retreat + towards the hilly country. The undaunted general had already + formed a new and judicious plan of defensive war; and the strong + lines, which he was preparing to construct between the mountains, + the Pruth, and the Danube, would have secured the extensive and + fertile territory that bears the modern name of Walachia, from + the destructive inroads of the Huns. 60 But the hopes and + measures of the Judge of the Visigoths was soon disappointed, by + the trembling impatience of his dismayed countrymen; who were + persuaded by their fears, that the interposition of the Danube + was the only barrier that could save them from the rapid pursuit, + and invincible valor, of the Barbarians of Scythia. Under the + command of Fritigern and Alavivus, 61 the body of the nation + hastily advanced to the banks of the great river, and implored + the protection of the Roman emperor of the East. Athanaric + himself, still anxious to avoid the guilt of perjury, retired, + with a band of faithful followers, into the mountainous country + of Caucaland; which appears to have been guarded, and almost + concealed, by the impenetrable forests of Transylvania. 62 6211 + + 56 (return) [ As we are possessed of the authentic history of the + Huns, it would be impertinent to repeat, or to refute, the fables + which misrepresent their origin and progress, their passage of + the mud or water of the Mæotis, in pursuit of an ox or stag, les + Indes qu’ils avoient découvertes, &c., (Zosimus, l. iv. p. 224. + Sozomen, l. vi. c. 37. Procopius, Hist. Miscell. c. 5. Jornandes, + c. 24. Grandeur et Décadence, &c., des Romains, c. 17.)] + + 5611 (return) [ Art added to their native ugliness; in fact, it + is difficult to ascribe the proper share in the features of this + hideous picture to nature, to the barbarous skill with which they + were self-disfigured, or to the terror and hatred of the Romans. + Their noses were flattened by their nurses, their cheeks were + gashed by an iron instrument, that the scars might look more + fearful, and prevent the growth of the beard. Jornandes and + Sidonius Apollinaris:— + + Obtundit teneras circumdata fascia nares, Ut galeis cedant. + + Yet he adds that their forms were robust and manly, their height + of a middle size, but, from the habit of riding, disproportioned. + + Stant pectora vasta, Insignes humer, succincta sub ilibus alvus. + Forma quidem pediti media est, procera sed extat Si cernas + equites, sic longi sæpe putantur Si sedeant.] + + 57 (return) [ Prodigiosæ formæ, et pandi; ut bipedes existimes + bestias; vel quales in commarginandis pontibus, effigiati + stipites dolantur incompte. Ammian. xxxi. i. Jornandes (c. 24) + draws a strong caricature of a Calmuck face. Species pavenda + nigredine... quædam deformis offa, non fecies; habensque magis + puncta quam lumina. See Buffon. Hist. Naturelle, tom. iii. 380.] + + 58 (return) [ This execrable origin, which Jornandes (c. 24) + describes with the rancor of a Goth, might be originally derived + from a more pleasing fable of the Greeks. (Herodot. l. iv. c. 9, + &c.)] + + 59 (return) [ The Roxolani may be the fathers of the the + _Russians_, (D’Anville, Empire de Russie, p. 1—10,) whose + residence (A.D. 862) about Novogrod Veliki cannot be very remote + from that which the Geographer of Ravenna (i. 12, iv. 4, 46, v. + 28, 30) assigns to the Roxolani, (A.D. 886.) * Note: See, on the + origin of the Russ, Schlozer, Nordische Geschichte, p. 78—M.] + + 60 (return) [ The text of Ammianus seems to be imperfect or + corrupt; but the nature of the ground explains, and almost + defines, the Gothic rampart. Mémoires de l’Académie, &c., tom. + xxviii. p. 444—462.] + + 61 (return) [ M. de Buat (Hist. des Peuples de l’Europe, tom. vi. + p. 407) has conceived a strange idea, that Alavivus was the same + person as Ulphilas, the Gothic bishop; and that Ulphilas, the + grandson of a Cappadocian captive, became a temporal prince of + the Goths.] + + 62 (return) [ Ammianus (xxxi. 3) and Jornandes (de Rebus Geticis, + c. 24) describe the subversion of the Gothic empire by the Huns.] + + 6211 (return) [ The most probable opinion as to the position of + this land is that of M. Malte-Brun. He thinks that Caucaland is + the territory of the Cacoenses, placed by Ptolemy (l. iii. c. 8) + towards the Carpathian Mountains, on the side of the present + Transylvania, and therefore the canton of Cacava, to the south of + Hermanstadt, the capital of the principality. Caucaland it is + evident, is the Gothic form of these different names. St. Martin, + iv 103.—M.] + + + + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part III. + + + After Valens had terminated the Gothic war with some appearance + of glory and success, he made a progress through his dominions of + Asia, and at length fixed his residence in the capital of Syria. + The five years 63 which he spent at Antioch was employed to + watch, from a secure distance, the hostile designs of the Persian + monarch; to check the depredations of the Saracens and Isaurians; + 64 to enforce, by arguments more prevalent than those of reason + and eloquence, the belief of the Arian theology; and to satisfy + his anxious suspicions by the promiscuous execution of the + innocent and the guilty. But the attention of the emperor was + most seriously engaged, by the important intelligence which he + received from the civil and military officers who were intrusted + with the defence of the Danube. He was informed, that the North + was agitated by a furious tempest; that the irruption of the + Huns, an unknown and monstrous race of savages, had subverted the + power of the Goths; and that the suppliant multitudes of that + warlike nation, whose pride was now humbled in the dust, covered + a space of many miles along the banks of the river. With + outstretched arms, and pathetic lamentations, they loudly + deplored their past misfortunes and their present danger; + acknowledged that their only hope of safety was in the clemency + of the Roman government; and most solemnly protested, that if the + gracious liberality of the emperor would permit them to cultivate + the waste lands of Thrace, they should ever hold themselves + bound, by the strongest obligations of duty and gratitude, to + obey the laws, and to guard the limits, of the republic. These + assurances were confirmed by the ambassadors of the Goths, 6411 + who impatiently expected from the mouth of Valens an answer that + must finally determine the fate of their unhappy countrymen. The + emperor of the East was no longer guided by the wisdom and + authority of his elder brother, whose death happened towards the + end of the preceding year; and as the distressful situation of + the Goths required an instant and peremptory decision, he was + deprived of the favorite resources of feeble and timid minds, who + consider the use of dilatory and ambiguous measures as the most + admirable efforts of consummate prudence. As long as the same + passions and interests subsist among mankind, the questions of + war and peace, of justice and policy, which were debated in the + councils of antiquity, will frequently present themselves as the + subject of modern deliberation. But the most experienced + statesman of Europe has never been summoned to consider the + propriety, or the danger, of admitting, or rejecting, an + innumerable multitude of Barbarians, who are driven by despair + and hunger to solicit a settlement on the territories of a + civilized nation. When that important proposition, so essentially + connected with the public safety, was referred to the ministers + of Valens, they were perplexed and divided; but they soon + acquiesced in the flattering sentiment which seemed the most + favorable to the pride, the indolence, and the avarice of their + sovereign. The slaves, who were decorated with the titles of + præfects and generals, dissembled or disregarded the terrors of + this national emigration; so extremely different from the partial + and accidental colonies, which had been received on the extreme + limits of the empire. But they applauded the liberality of + fortune, which had conducted, from the most distant countries of + the globe, a numerous and invincible army of strangers, to defend + the throne of Valens; who might now add to the royal treasures + the immense sums of gold supplied by the provincials to + compensate their annual proportion of recruits. The prayers of + the Goths were granted, and their service was accepted by the + Imperial court: and orders were immediately despatched to the + civil and military governors of the Thracian diocese, to make the + necessary preparations for the passage and subsistence of a great + people, till a proper and sufficient territory could be allotted + for their future residence. The liberality of the emperor was + accompanied, however, with two harsh and rigorous conditions, + which prudence might justify on the side of the Romans; but which + distress alone could extort from the indignant Goths. Before they + passed the Danube, they were required to deliver their arms: and + it was insisted, that their children should be taken from them, + and dispersed through the provinces of Asia; where they might be + civilized by the arts of education, and serve as hostages to + secure the fidelity of their parents. + + 63 (return) [ The Chronology of Ammianus is obscure and + imperfect. Tillemont has labored to clear and settle the annals + of Valens.] + + 64 (return) [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. 223. Sozomen, l. vi. c. 38. The + Isaurians, each winter, infested the roads of Asia Minor, as far + as the neighborhood of Constantinople. Basil, Epist. cel. apud + Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 106.] + + 6411 (return) [ Sozomen and Philostorgius say that the bishop + Ulphilas was one of these ambassadors.—M.] + + During the suspense of a doubtful and distant negotiation, the + impatient Goths made some rash attempts to pass the Danube, + without the permission of the government, whose protection they + had implored. Their motions were strictly observed by the + vigilance of the troops which were stationed along the river and + their foremost detachments were defeated with considerable + slaughter; yet such were the timid councils of the reign of + Valens, that the brave officers who had served their country in + the execution of their duty, were punished by the loss of their + employments, and narrowly escaped the loss of their heads. The + Imperial mandate was at length received for transporting over the + Danube the whole body of the Gothic nation; 65 but the execution + of this order was a task of labor and difficulty. The stream of + the Danube, which in those parts is above a mile broad, 66 had + been swelled by incessant rains; and in this tumultuous passage, + many were swept away, and drowned, by the rapid violence of the + current. A large fleet of vessels, of boats, and of canoes, was + provided; many days and nights they passed and repassed with + indefatigable toil; and the most strenuous diligence was exerted + by the officers of Valens, that not a single Barbarian, of those + who were reserved to subvert the foundations of Rome, should be + left on the opposite shore. It was thought expedient that an + accurate account should be taken of their numbers; but the + persons who were employed soon desisted, with amazement and + dismay, from the prosecution of the endless and impracticable + task: 67 and the principal historian of the age most seriously + affirms, that the prodigious armies of Darius and Xerxes, which + had so long been considered as the fables of vain and credulous + antiquity, were now justified, in the eyes of mankind, by the + evidence of fact and experience. A probable testimony has fixed + the number of the Gothic warriors at two hundred thousand men: + and if we can venture to add the just proportion of women, of + children, and of slaves, the whole mass of people which composed + this formidable emigration, must have amounted to near a million + of persons, of both sexes, and of all ages. The children of the + Goths, those at least of a distinguished rank, were separated + from the multitude. They were conducted, without delay, to the + distant seats assigned for their residence and education; and as + the numerous train of hostages or captives passed through the + cities, their gay and splendid apparel, their robust and martial + figure, excited the surprise and envy of the Provincials. 6711 + But the stipulation, the most offensive to the Goths, and the + most important to the Romans, was shamefully eluded. The + Barbarians, who considered their arms as the ensigns of honor and + the pledges of safety, were disposed to offer a price, which the + lust or avarice of the Imperial officers was easily tempted to + accept. To preserve their arms, the haughty warriors consented, + with some reluctance, to prostitute their wives or their + daughters; the charms of a beauteous maid, or a comely boy, + secured the connivance of the inspectors; who sometimes cast an + eye of covetousness on the fringed carpets and linen garments of + their new allies, 68 or who sacrificed their duty to the mean + consideration of filling their farms with cattle, and their + houses with slaves. The Goths, with arms in their hands, were + permitted to enter the boats; and when their strength was + collected on the other side of the river, the immense camp which + was spread over the plains and the hills of the Lower Mæsia, + assumed a threatening and even hostile aspect. The leaders of the + Ostrogoths, Alatheus and Saphrax, the guardians of their infant + king, appeared soon afterwards on the Northern banks of the + Danube; and immediately despatched their ambassadors to the court + of Antioch, to solicit, with the same professions of allegiance + and gratitude, the same favor which had been granted to the + suppliant Visigoths. The absolute refusal of Valens suspended + their progress, and discovered the repentance, the suspicions, + and the fears, of the Imperial council. + + 65 (return) [ The passage of the Danube is exposed by Ammianus, + (xxxi. 3, 4,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 223, 224,) Eunapius in Excerpt. + Legat. (p. 19, 20,) and Jornandes, (c. 25, 26.) Ammianus declares + (c. 5) that he means only, ispas rerum digerere _summitates_. But + he often takes a false measure of their importance; and his + superfluous prolixity is disagreeably balanced by his + unseasonable brevity.] + + 66 (return) [ Chishull, a curious traveller, has remarked the + breadth of the Danube, which he passed to the south of Bucharest + near the conflux of the Argish, (p. 77.) He admires the beauty + and spontaneous plenty of Mæsia, or Bulgaria.] + + 67 (return) [ + + Quem sci scire velit, Libyci velit æquoris idem Discere quam multæ + Zephyro turbentur harenæ. + + Ammianus has inserted, in his prose, these lines of Virgil, + (Georgia l. ii. 105,) originally designed by the poet to express + the impossibility of numbering the different sorts of vines. See + Plin. Hist. Natur l. xiv.] + + 6711 (return) [ A very curious, but obscure, passage of Eunapius, + appears to me to have been misunderstood by M. Mai, to whom we + owe its discovery. The substance is as follows: “The Goths + transported over the river their native deities, with their + priests of both sexes; but concerning their rites they maintained + a deep and ‘_adamantine_ silence.’ To the Romans they pretended + to be generally Christians, and placed certain persons to + represent bishops in a conspicuous manner on their wagons. There + was even among them a sort of what are called monks, persons whom + it was not difficult to mimic; it was enough to wear black + raiment, to be wicked, and held in respect.” (Eunapius hated the + “black-robed monks,” as appears in another passage, with the + cordial detestation of a heathen philosopher.) “Thus, while they + faithfully but secretly adhered to their own religion, the Romans + were weak enough to suppose them perfect Christians.” Mai, 277. + Eunapius in Niebuhr, 82.—M] + + 68 (return) [ Eunapius and Zosimus curiously specify these + articles of Gothic wealth and luxury. Yet it must be presumed, + that they were the manufactures of the provinces; which the + Barbarians had acquired as the spoils of war; or as the gifts, or + merchandise, of peace.] + + An undisciplined and unsettled nation of Barbarians required the + firmest temper, and the most dexterous management. The daily + subsistence of near a million of extraordinary subjects could be + supplied only by constant and skilful diligence, and might + continually be interrupted by mistake or accident. The insolence, + or the indignation, of the Goths, if they conceived themselves to + be the objects either of fear or of contempt, might urge them to + the most desperate extremities; and the fortune of the state + seemed to depend on the prudence, as well as the integrity, of + the generals of Valens. At this important crisis, the military + government of Thrace was exercised by Lupicinus and Maximus, in + whose venal minds the slightest hope of private emolument + outweighed every consideration of public advantage; and whose + guilt was only alleviated by their incapacity of discerning the + pernicious effects of their rash and criminal administration. + + Instead of obeying the orders of their sovereign, and satisfying, + with decent liberality, the demands of the Goths, they levied an + ungenerous and oppressive tax on the wants of the hungry + Barbarians. The vilest food was sold at an extravagant price; + and, in the room of wholesome and substantial provisions, the + markets were filled with the flesh of dogs, and of unclean + animals, who had died of disease. To obtain the valuable + acquisition of a pound of bread, the Goths resigned the + possession of an expensive, though serviceable, slave; and a + small quantity of meat was greedily purchased with ten pounds of + a precious, but useless metal, 69 when their property was + exhausted, they continued this necessary traffic by the sale of + their sons and daughters; and notwithstanding the love of + freedom, which animated every Gothic breast, they submitted to + the humiliating maxim, that it was better for their children to + be maintained in a servile condition, than to perish in a state + of wretched and helpless independence. The most lively resentment + is excited by the tyranny of pretended benefactors, who sternly + exact the debt of gratitude which they have cancelled by + subsequent injuries: a spirit of discontent insensibly arose in + the camp of the Barbarians, who pleaded, without success, the + merit of their patient and dutiful behavior; and loudly + complained of the inhospitable treatment which they had received + from their new allies. They beheld around them the wealth and + plenty of a fertile province, in the midst of which they suffered + the intolerable hardships of artificial famine. But the means of + relief, and even of revenge, were in their hands; since the + rapaciousness of their tyrants had left to an injured people the + possession and the use of arms. The clamors of a multitude, + untaught to disguise their sentiments, announced the first + symptoms of resistance, and alarmed the timid and guilty minds of + Lupicinus and Maximus. Those crafty ministers, who substituted + the cunning of temporary expedients to the wise and salutary + counsels of general policy, attempted to remove the Goths from + their dangerous station on the frontiers of the empire; and to + disperse them, in separate quarters of cantonment, through the + interior provinces. As they were conscious how ill they had + deserved the respect, or confidence, of the Barbarians, they + diligently collected, from every side, a military force, that + might urge the tardy and reluctant march of a people, who had not + yet renounced the title, or the duties, of Roman subjects. But + the generals of Valens, while their attention was solely directed + to the discontented Visigoths, imprudently disarmed the ships and + the fortifications which constituted the defence of the Danube. + The fatal oversight was observed, and improved, by Alatheus and + Saphrax, who anxiously watched the favorable moment of escaping + from the pursuit of the Huns. By the help of such rafts and + vessels as could be hastily procured, the leaders of the + Ostrogoths transported, without opposition, their king and their + army; and boldly fixed a hostile and independent camp on the + territories of the empire. 70 + + 69 (return) [ _Decem libras;_ the word _silver_ must be + understood. Jornandes betrays the passions and prejudices of a + Goth. The servile Geeks, Eunapius and Zosimus, disguise the Roman + oppression, and execrate the perfidy of the Barbarians. Ammianus, + a patriot historian, slightly, and reluctantly, touches on the + odious subject. Jerom, who wrote almost on the spot, is fair, + though concise. Per avaritaim aximi ducis, ad rebellionem fame + _coacti_ sunt, (in Chron.) * Note: A new passage from the history + of Eunapius is nearer to the truth. ‘It appeared to our + commanders a legitimate source of gain to be bribed by the + Barbarians: Edit. Niebuhr, p. 82.—M.] + + 70 (return) [ Ammianus, xxxi. 4, 5.] + + Under the name of Judges, Alavivus and Fritigern were the leaders + of the Visigoths in peace and war; and the authority which they + derived from their birth was ratified by the free consent of the + nation. In a season of tranquility, their power might have been + equal, as well as their rank; but, as soon as their countrymen + were exasperated by hunger and oppression, the superior abilities + of Fritigern assumed the military command, which he was qualified + to exercise for the public welfare. He restrained the impatient + spirit of the Visigoths till the injuries and the insults of + their tyrants should justify their resistance in the opinion of + mankind: but he was not disposed to sacrifice any solid + advantages for the empty praise of justice and moderation. + Sensible of the benefits which would result from the union of the + Gothic powers under the same standard, he secretly cultivated the + friendship of the Ostrogoths; and while he professed an implicit + obedience to the orders of the Roman generals, he proceeded by + slow marches towards Marcianopolis, the capital of the Lower + Mæsia, about seventy miles from the banks of the Danube. On that + fatal spot, the flames of discord and mutual hatred burst forth + into a dreadful conflagration. Lupicinus had invited the Gothic + chiefs to a splendid entertainment; and their martial train + remained under arms at the entrance of the palace. But the gates + of the city were strictly guarded, and the Barbarians were + sternly excluded from the use of a plentiful market, to which + they asserted their equal claim of subjects and allies. Their + humble prayers were rejected with insolence and derision; and as + their patience was now exhausted, the townsmen, the soldiers, and + the Goths, were soon involved in a conflict of passionate + altercation and angry reproaches. A blow was imprudently given; a + sword was hastily drawn; and the first blood that was spilt in + this accidental quarrel, became the signal of a long and + destructive war. In the midst of noise and brutal intemperance, + Lupicinus was informed, by a secret messenger, that many of his + soldiers were slain, and despoiled of their arms; and as he was + already inflamed by wine, and oppressed by sleep he issued a rash + command, that their death should be revenged by the massacre of + the guards of Fritigern and Alavivus. + + The clamorous shouts and dying groans apprised Fritigern of his + extreme danger; and, as he possessed the calm and intrepid spirit + of a hero, he saw that he was lost if he allowed a moment of + deliberation to the man who had so deeply injured him. “A + trifling dispute,” said the Gothic leader, with a firm but gentle + tone of voice, “appears to have arisen between the two nations; + but it may be productive of the most dangerous consequences, + unless the tumult is immediately pacified by the assurance of our + safety, and the authority of our presence.” At these words, + Fritigern and his companions drew their swords, opened their + passage through the unresisting crowd, which filled the palace, + the streets, and the gates, of Marcianopolis, and, mounting their + horses, hastily vanished from the eyes of the astonished Romans. + The generals of the Goths were saluted by the fierce and joyful + acclamations of the camp; war was instantly resolved, and the + resolution was executed without delay: the banners of the nation + were displayed according to the custom of their ancestors; and + the air resounded with the harsh and mournful music of the + Barbarian trumpet. 71 The weak and guilty Lupicinus, who had + dared to provoke, who had neglected to destroy, and who still + presumed to despise, his formidable enemy, marched against the + Goths, at the head of such a military force as could be collected + on this sudden emergency. The Barbarians expected his approach + about nine miles from Marcianopolis; and on this occasion the + talents of the general were found to be of more prevailing + efficacy than the weapons and discipline of the troops. The valor + of the Goths was so ably directed by the genius of Fritigern, + that they broke, by a close and vigorous attack, the ranks of the + Roman legions. Lupicinus left his arms and standards, his + tribunes and his bravest soldiers, on the field of battle; and + their useless courage served only to protect the ignominious + flight of their leader. “That successful day put an end to the + distress of the Barbarians, and the security of the Romans: from + that day, the Goths, renouncing the precarious condition of + strangers and exiles, assumed the character of citizens and + masters, claimed an absolute dominion over the possessors of + land, and held, in their own right, the northern provinces of the + empire, which are bounded by the Danube.” Such are the words of + the Gothic historian, 72 who celebrates, with rude eloquence, the + glory of his countrymen. But the dominion of the Barbarians was + exercised only for the purposes of rapine and destruction. As + they had been deprived, by the ministers of the emperor, of the + common benefits of nature, and the fair intercourse of social + life, they retaliated the injustice on the subjects of the + empire; and the crimes of Lupicinus were expiated by the ruin of + the peaceful husbandmen of Thrace, the conflagration of their + villages, and the massacre, or captivity, of their innocent + families. The report of the Gothic victory was soon diffused over + the adjacent country; and while it filled the minds of the Romans + with terror and dismay, their own hasty imprudence contributed to + increase the forces of Fritigern, and the calamities of the + province. Some time before the great emigration, a numerous body + of Goths, under the command of Suerid and Colias, had been + received into the protection and service of the empire. 73 They + were encamped under the walls of Hadrianople; but the ministers + of Valens were anxious to remove them beyond the Hellespont, at a + distance from the dangerous temptation which might so easily be + communicated by the neighborhood, and the success, of their + countrymen. The respectful submission with which they yielded to + the order of their march, might be considered as a proof of their + fidelity; and their moderate request of a sufficient allowance of + provisions, and of a delay of only two days was expressed in the + most dutiful terms. But the first magistrate of Hadrianople, + incensed by some disorders which had been committed at his + country-house, refused this indulgence; and arming against them + the inhabitants and manufacturers of a populous city, he urged, + with hostile threats, their instant departure. The Barbarians + stood silent and amazed, till they were exasperated by the + insulting clamors, and missile weapons, of the populace: but when + patience or contempt was fatigued, they crushed the undisciplined + multitude, inflicted many a shameful wound on the backs of their + flying enemies, and despoiled them of the splendid armor, 74 + which they were unworthy to bear. The resemblance of their + sufferings and their actions soon united this victorious + detachment to the nation of the Visigoths; the troops of Colias + and Suerid expected the approach of the great Fritigern, ranged + themselves under his standard, and signalized their ardor in the + siege of Hadrianople. But the resistance of the garrison informed + the Barbarians, that in the attack of regular fortifications, the + efforts of unskillful courage are seldom effectual. Their general + acknowledged his error, raised the siege, declared that “he was + at peace with stone walls,” 75 and revenged his disappointment on + the adjacent country. He accepted, with pleasure, the useful + reenforcement of hardy workmen, who labored in the gold mines of + Thrace, 76 for the emolument, and under the lash, of an unfeeling + master: 77 and these new associates conducted the Barbarians, + through the secret paths, to the most sequestered places, which + had been chosen to secure the inhabitants, the cattle, and the + magazines of corn. With the assistance of such guides, nothing + could remain impervious or inaccessible; resistance was fatal; + flight was impracticable; and the patient submission of helpless + innocence seldom found mercy from the Barbarian conqueror. In the + course of these depredations, a great number of the children of + the Goths, who had been sold into captivity, were restored to the + embraces of their afflicted parents; but these tender interviews, + which might have revived and cherished in their minds some + sentiments of humanity, tended only to stimulate their native + fierceness by the desire of revenge. They listened, with eager + attention, to the complaints of their captive children, who had + suffered the most cruel indignities from the lustful or angry + passions of their masters, and the same cruelties, the same + indignities, were severely retaliated on the sons and daughters + of the Romans. 78 + + 71 (return) [ Vexillis de _more_ sublatis, auditisque _triste + sonantibus classicis_. Ammian. xxxi. 5. These are the _rauca + cornua_ of Claudian, (in Rufin. ii. 57,) the large horns of the + _Uri_, or wild bull; such as have been more recently used by the + Swiss Cantons of Uri and Underwald. (Simler de Republicâ Helvet, + l. ii. p. 201, edit. Fuselin. Tigur 1734.) Their military horn is + finely, though perhaps casually, introduced in an original + narrative of the battle of Nancy, (A.D. 1477.) “Attendant le + combat le dit cor fut corné par trois fois, tant que le vent du + souffler pouvoit durer: ce qui esbahit fort Monsieur de + Bourgoigne; _car deja à Morat l’avoit ouy_.” (See the Pièces + Justificatives in the 4to. edition of Philippe de Comines, tom. + iii. p. 493.)] + + 72 (return) [ Jornandes de Rebus Geticis, c. 26, p. 648, edit. + Grot. These _splendidi panni_ (they are comparatively such) are + undoubtedly transcribed from the larger histories of Priscus, + Ablavius, or Cassiodorus.] + + 73 (return) [ Cum populis suis longe ante suscepti. We are + ignorant of the precise date and circumstances of their + transmigration.] + + 74 (return) [ An Imperial manufacture of shields, &c., was + established at Hadrianople; and the populace were headed by the + Fabricenses, or workmen. (Vales. ad Ammian. xxxi. 6.)] + + 75 (return) [ Pacem sibi esse cum parietibus memorans. Ammian. + xxxi. 7.] + + 76 (return) [ These mines were in the country of the Bessi, in + the ridge of mountains, the Rhodope, that runs between Philippi + and Philippopolis; two Macedonian cities, which derived their + name and origin from the father of Alexander. From the mines of + Thrace he annually received the value, not the weight, of a + thousand talents, (200,000l.,) a revenue which paid the phalanx, + and corrupted the orators of Greece. See Diodor. Siculus, tom. + ii. l. xvi. p. 88, edit. Wesseling. Godefroy’s Commentary on the + Theodosian Code, tom. iii. p. 496. Cellarius, Geograph. Antiq. + tom. i. p. 676, 857. D Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. + 336.] + + 77 (return) [ As those unhappy workmen often ran away, Valens had + enacted severe laws to drag them from their hiding-places. Cod. + Theodosian, l. x. tit xix leg. 5, 7.] + + 78 (return) [ See Ammianus, xxxi. 5, 6. The historian of the + Gothic war loses time and space, by an unseasonable + recapitulation of the ancient inroads of the Barbarians.] + + The imprudence of Valens and his ministers had introduced into + the heart of the empire a nation of enemies; but the Visigoths + might even yet have been reconciled, by the manly confession of + past errors, and the sincere performance of former engagements. + These healing and temperate measures seemed to concur with the + timorous disposition of the sovereign of the East: but, on this + occasion alone, Valens was brave; and his unseasonable bravery + was fatal to himself and to his subjects. He declared his + intention of marching from Antioch to Constantinople, to subdue + this dangerous rebellion; and, as he was not ignorant of the + difficulties of the enterprise, he solicited the assistance of + his nephew, the emperor Gratian, who commanded all the forces of + the West. The veteran troops were hastily recalled from the + defence of Armenia; that important frontier was abandoned to the + discretion of Sapor; and the immediate conduct of the Gothic war + was intrusted, during the absence of Valens, to his lieutenants + Trajan and Profuturus, two generals who indulged themselves in a + very false and favorable opinion of their own abilities. On their + arrival in Thrace, they were joined by Richomer, count of the + domestics; and the auxiliaries of the West, that marched under + his banner, were composed of the Gallic legions, reduced indeed, + by a spirit of desertion, to the vain appearances of strength and + numbers. In a council of war, which was influenced by pride, + rather than by reason, it was resolved to seek, and to encounter, + the Barbarians, who lay encamped in the spacious and fertile + meadows, near the most southern of the six mouths of the Danube. + 79 Their camp was surrounded by the usual fortification of + wagons; 80 and the Barbarians, secure within the vast circle of + the enclosure, enjoyed the fruits of their valor, and the spoils + of the province. In the midst of riotous intemperance, the + watchful Fritigern observed the motions, and penetrated the + designs, of the Romans. He perceived, that the numbers of the + enemy were continually increasing: and, as he understood their + intention of attacking his rear, as soon as the scarcity of + forage should oblige him to remove his camp, he recalled to their + standard his predatory detachments, which covered the adjacent + country. As soon as they descried the flaming beacons, 81 they + obeyed, with incredible speed, the signal of their leader: the + camp was filled with the martial crowd of Barbarians; their + impatient clamors demanded the battle, and their tumultuous zeal + was approved and animated by the spirit of their chiefs. The + evening was already far advanced; and the two armies prepared + themselves for the approaching combat, which was deferred only + till the dawn of day. + + While the trumpets sounded to arms, the undaunted courage of the + Goths was confirmed by the mutual obligation of a solemn oath; + and as they advanced to meet the enemy, the rude songs, which + celebrated the glory of their forefathers, were mingled with + their fierce and dissonant outcries, and opposed to the + artificial harmony of the Roman shout. Some military skill was + displayed by Fritigern to gain the advantage of a commanding + eminence; but the bloody conflict, which began and ended with the + light, was maintained on either side, by the personal and + obstinate efforts of strength, valor, and agility. The legions of + Armenia supported their fame in arms; but they were oppressed by + the irresistible weight of the hostile multitude the left wing of + the Romans was thrown into disorder and the field was strewed + with their mangled carcasses. This partial defeat was balanced, + however, by partial success; and when the two armies, at a late + hour of the evening, retreated to their respective camps, neither + of them could claim the honors, or the effects, of a decisive + victory. The real loss was more severely felt by the Romans, in + proportion to the smallness of their numbers; but the Goths were + so deeply confounded and dismayed by this vigorous, and perhaps + unexpected, resistance, that they remained seven days within the + circle of their fortifications. Such funeral rites, as the + circumstances of time and place would admit, were piously + discharged to some officers of distinguished rank; but the + indiscriminate vulgar was left unburied on the plain. Their flesh + was greedily devoured by the birds of prey, who in that age + enjoyed very frequent and delicious feasts; and several years + afterwards the white and naked bones, which covered the wide + extent of the fields, presented to the eyes of Ammianus a + dreadful monument of the battle of Salices. 82 + + 79 (return) [ The Itinerary of Antoninus (p. 226, 227, edit. + Wesseling) marks the situation of this place about sixty miles + north of Tomi, Ovid’s exile; and the name of _Salices_ (the + willows) expresses the nature of the soil.] + + 80 (return) [ This circle of wagons, the _Carrago_, was the usual + fortification of the Barbarians. (Vegetius de Re Militari, l. + iii. c. 10. Valesius ad Ammian. xxxi. 7.) The practice and the + name were preserved by their descendants as late as the fifteenth + century. The _Charroy_, which surrounded the _Ost_, is a word + familiar to the readers of Froissard, or Comines.] + + 81 (return) [ Statim ut accensi malleoli. I have used the literal + sense of real torches or beacons; but I almost suspect, that it + is only one of those turgid metaphors, those false ornaments, + that perpetually disfigure to style of Ammianus.] + + 82 (return) [ Indicant nunc usque albentes ossibus campi. Ammian. + xxxi. 7. The historian might have viewed these plains, either as + a soldier, or as a traveller. But his modesty has suppressed the + adventures of his own life subsequent to the Persian wars of + Constantius and Julian. We are ignorant of the time when he + quitted the service, and retired to Rome, where he appears to + have composed his History of his Own Times.] + + The progress of the Goths had been checked by the doubtful event + of that bloody day; and the Imperial generals, whose army would + have been consumed by the repetition of such a contest, embraced + the more rational plan of destroying the Barbarians by the wants + and pressure of their own multitudes. They prepared to confine + the Visigoths in the narrow angle of land between the Danube, the + desert of Scythia, and the mountains of Hæmus, till their + strength and spirit should be insensibly wasted by the inevitable + operation of famine. The design was prosecuted with some conduct + and success: the Barbarians had almost exhausted their own + magazines, and the harvests of the country; and the diligence of + Saturninus, the master-general of the cavalry, was employed to + improve the strength, and to contract the extent, of the Roman + fortifications. His labors were interrupted by the alarming + intelligence, that new swarms of Barbarians had passed the + unguarded Danube, either to support the cause, or to imitate the + example, of Fritigern. The just apprehension, that he himself + might be surrounded, and overwhelmed, by the arms of hostile and + unknown nations, compelled Saturninus to relinquish the siege of + the Gothic camp; and the indignant Visigoths, breaking from their + confinement, satiated their hunger and revenge by the repeated + devastation of the fruitful country, which extends above three + hundred miles from the banks of the Danube to the straits of the + Hellespont. 83 The sagacious Fritigern had successfully appealed + to the passions, as well as to the interest, of his Barbarian + allies; and the love of rapine, and the hatred of Rome, seconded, + or even prevented, the eloquence of his ambassadors. He cemented + a strict and useful alliance with the great body of his + countrymen, who obeyed Alatheus and Saphrax as the guardians of + their infant king: the long animosity of rival tribes was + suspended by the sense of their common interest; the independent + part of the nation was associated under one standard; and the + chiefs of the Ostrogoths appear to have yielded to the superior + genius of the general of the Visigoths. He obtained the + formidable aid of the Taifalæ, 8311 whose military renown was + disgraced and polluted by the public infamy of their domestic + manners. Every youth, on his entrance into the world, was united + by the ties of honorable friendship, and brutal love, to some + warrior of the tribe; nor could he hope to be released from this + unnatural connection, till he had approved his manhood by + slaying, in single combat, a huge bear, or a wild boar of the + forest. 84 But the most powerful auxiliaries of the Goths were + drawn from the camp of those enemies who had expelled them from + their native seats. The loose subordination, and extensive + possessions, of the Huns and the Alani, delayed the conquests, + and distracted the councils, of that victorious people. Several + of the hords were allured by the liberal promises of Fritigern; + and the rapid cavalry of Scythia added weight and energy to the + steady and strenuous efforts of the Gothic infantry. The + Sarmatians, who could never forgive the successor of Valentinian, + enjoyed and increased the general confusion; and a seasonable + irruption of the Alemanni, into the provinces of Gaul, engaged + the attention, and diverted the forces, of the emperor of the + West. 85 + + 83 (return) [ Ammian. xxxi. 8.] + + 8311 (return) [ The Taifalæ, who at this period inhabited the + country which now forms the principality of Wallachia, were, in + my opinion, the last remains of the great and powerful nation of + the Dacians, (Daci or Dahæ.) which has given its name to these + regions, over which they had ruled so long. The Taifalæ passed + with the Goths into the territory of the empire. A great number + of them entered the Roman service, and were quartered in + different provinces. They are mentioned in the Notitia Imperii. + There was a considerable body in the country of the Pictavi, now + Poithou. They long retained their manners and language, and + caused the name of the Theofalgicus pagus to be given to the + district they inhabited. Two places in the department of La + Vendee, Tiffanges and La Tiffardière, still preserve evident + traces of this denomination. St. Martin, iv. 118.—M.] + + 84 (return) [ Hanc Taifalorum gentem turpem, et obscenæ vitæ + flagitiis ita accipimus mersam; ut apud eos nefandi concubitûs + fœdere copulentur mares puberes, ætatis viriditatem in eorum + pollutis usibus consumpturi. Porro, siqui jam adultus aprum + exceperit solus, vel interemit ursum immanem, colluvione + liberatur incesti. Ammian. xxxi. 9. ——Among the Greeks, likewise, + more especially among the Cretans, the holy bands of friendship + were confirmed, and sullied, by unnatural love.] + + 85 (return) [ Ammian. xxxi. 8, 9. Jerom (tom. i. p. 26) + enumerates the nations and marks a calamitous period of twenty + years. This epistle to Heliodorus was composed in the year 397, + (Tillemont, Mém. Eccles tom xii. p. 645.)] + + + + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part IV. + + + One of the most dangerous inconveniences of the introduction of + the Barbarians into the army and the palace, was sensibly felt in + their correspondence with their hostile countrymen; to whom they + imprudently, or maliciously, revealed the weakness of the Roman + empire. A soldier, of the lifeguards of Gratian, was of the + nation of the Alemanni, and of the tribe of the Lentienses, who + dwelt beyond the Lake of Constance. Some domestic business + obliged him to request a leave of absence. In a short visit to + his family and friends, he was exposed to their curious + inquiries: and the vanity of the loquacious soldier tempted him + to display his intimate acquaintance with the secrets of the + state, and the designs of his master. The intelligence, that + Gratian was preparing to lead the military force of Gaul, and of + the West, to the assistance of his uncle Valens, pointed out to + the restless spirit of the Alemanni the moment, and the mode, of + a successful invasion. The enterprise of some light detachments, + who, in the month of February, passed the Rhine upon the ice, was + the prelude of a more important war. The boldest hopes of rapine, + perhaps of conquest, outweighed the considerations of timid + prudence, or national faith. Every forest, and every village, + poured forth a band of hardy adventurers; and the great army of + the Alemanni, which, on their approach, was estimated at forty + thousand men by the fears of the people, was afterwards magnified + to the number of seventy thousand by the vain and credulous + flattery of the Imperial court. The legions, which had been + ordered to march into Pannonia, were immediately recalled, or + detained, for the defence of Gaul; the military command was + divided between Nanienus and Mellobaudes; and the youthful + emperor, though he respected the long experience and sober wisdom + of the former, was much more inclined to admire, and to follow, + the martial ardor of his colleague; who was allowed to unite the + incompatible characters of count of the domestics, and of king of + the Franks. His rival Priarius, king of the Alemanni, was guided, + or rather impelled, by the same headstrong valor; and as their + troops were animated by the spirit of their leaders, they met, + they saw, they encountered each other, near the town of + Argentaria, or Colmar, 86 in the plains of Alsace. The glory of + the day was justly ascribed to the missile weapons, and + well-practised evolutions, of the Roman soldiers; the Alemanni, + who long maintained their ground, were slaughtered with + unrelenting fury; five thousand only of the Barbarians escaped to + the woods and mountains; and the glorious death of their king on + the field of battle saved him from the reproaches of the people, + who are always disposed to accuse the justice, or policy, of an + unsuccessful war. After this signal victory, which secured the + peace of Gaul, and asserted the honor of the Roman arms, the + emperor Gratian appeared to proceed without delay on his Eastern + expedition; but as he approached the confines of the Alemanni, he + suddenly inclined to the left, surprised them by his unexpected + passage of the Rhine, and boldly advanced into the heart of their + country. The Barbarians opposed to his progress the obstacles of + nature and of courage; and still continued to retreat, from one + hill to another, till they were satisfied, by repeated trials, of + the power and perseverance of their enemies. Their submission was + accepted as a proof, not indeed of their sincere repentance, but + of their actual distress; and a select number of their brave and + robust youth was exacted from the faithless nation, as the most + substantial pledge of their future moderation. The subjects of + the empire, who had so often experienced that the Alemanni could + neither be subdued by arms, nor restrained by treaties, might not + promise themselves any solid or lasting tranquillity: but they + discovered, in the virtues of their young sovereign, the prospect + of a long and auspicious reign. When the legions climbed the + mountains, and scaled the fortifications of the Barbarians, the + valor of Gratian was distinguished in the foremost ranks; and the + gilt and variegated armor of his guards was pierced and shattered + by the blows which they had received in their constant attachment + to the person of their sovereign. At the age of nineteen, the son + of Valentinian seemed to possess the talents of peace and war; + and his personal success against the Alemanni was interpreted as + a sure presage of his Gothic triumphs. 87 + + 86 (return) [ The field of battle, _Argentaria_ or + _Argentovaria_, is accurately fixed by M. D’Anville (Notice de + l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 96—99) at twenty-three Gallic leagues, or + thirty-four and a half Roman miles to the south of Strasburg. + From its ruins the adjacent town of _Colmar_ has arisen. Note: It + is rather Horburg, on the right bank of the River Ill, opposite + to Colmar. From Schoepflin, Alsatia Illustrata. St. Martin, iv. + 121.—M.] + + 87 (return) [ The full and impartial narrative of Ammianus (xxxi. + 10) may derive some additional light from the Epitome of Victor, + the Chronicle of Jerom, and the History of Orosius, (l. vii. c. + 33, p. 552, edit. Havercamp.)] + + While Gratian deserved and enjoyed the applause of his subjects, + the emperor Valens, who, at length, had removed his court and + army from Antioch, was received by the people of Constantinople + as the author of the public calamity. Before he had reposed + himself ten days in the capital, he was urged by the licentious + clamors of the Hippodrome to march against the Barbarians, whom + he had invited into his dominions; and the citizens, who are + always brave at a distance from any real danger, declared, with + confidence, that, if they were supplied with arms, _they_ alone + would undertake to deliver the province from the ravages of an + insulting foe. 88 The vain reproaches of an ignorant multitude + hastened the downfall of the Roman empire; they provoked the + desperate rashness of Valens; who did not find, either in his + reputation or in his mind, any motives to support with firmness + the public contempt. He was soon persuaded, by the successful + achievements of his lieutenants, to despise the power of the + Goths, who, by the diligence of Fritigern, were now collected in + the neighborhood of Hadrianople. The march of the Taifalæ had + been intercepted by the valiant Frigeric: the king of those + licentious Barbarians was slain in battle; and the suppliant + captives were sent into distant exile to cultivate the lands of + Italy, which were assigned for their settlement in the vacant + territories of Modena and Parma. 89 The exploits of Sebastian, 90 + who was recently engaged in the service of Valens, and promoted + to the rank of master-general of the infantry, were still more + honorable to himself, and useful to the republic. He obtained the + permission of selecting three hundred soldiers from each of the + legions; and this separate detachment soon acquired the spirit of + discipline, and the exercise of arms, which were almost forgotten + under the reign of Valens. By the vigor and conduct of Sebastian, + a large body of the Goths were surprised in their camp; and the + immense spoil, which was recovered from their hands, filled the + city of Hadrianople, and the adjacent plain. The splendid + narratives, which the general transmitted of his own exploits, + alarmed the Imperial court by the appearance of superior merit; + and though he cautiously insisted on the difficulties of the + Gothic war, his valor was praised, his advice was rejected; and + Valens, who listened with pride and pleasure to the flattering + suggestions of the eunuchs of the palace, was impatient to seize + the glory of an easy and assured conquest. His army was + strengthened by a numerous reenforcement of veterans; and his + march from Constantinople to Hadrianople was conducted with so + much military skill, that he prevented the activity of the + Barbarians, who designed to occupy the intermediate defiles, and + to intercept either the troops themselves, or their convoys of + provisions. The camp of Valens, which he pitched under the walls + of Hadrianople, was fortified, according to the practice of the + Romans, with a ditch and rampart; and a most important council + was summoned, to decide the fate of the emperor and of the + empire. The party of reason and of delay was strenuously + maintained by Victor, who had corrected, by the lessons of + experience, the native fierceness of the Sarmatian character; + while Sebastian, with the flexible and obsequious eloquence of a + courtier, represented every precaution, and every measure, that + implied a doubt of immediate victory, as unworthy of the courage + and majesty of their invincible monarch. The ruin of Valens was + precipitated by the deceitful arts of Fritigern, and the prudent + admonitions of the emperor of the West. The advantages of + negotiating in the midst of war were perfectly understood by the + general of the Barbarians; and a Christian ecclesiastic was + despatched, as the holy minister of peace, to penetrate, and to + perplex, the councils of the enemy. The misfortunes, as well as + the provocations, of the Gothic nation, were forcibly and truly + described by their ambassador; who protested, in the name of + Fritigern, that he was still disposed to lay down his arms, or to + employ them only in the defence of the empire; if he could secure + for his wandering countrymen a tranquil settlement on the waste + lands of Thrace, and a sufficient allowance of corn and cattle. + But he added, in a whisper of confidential friendship, that the + exasperated Barbarians were averse to these reasonable + conditions; and that Fritigern was doubtful whether he could + accomplish the conclusion of the treaty, unless he found himself + supported by the presence and terrors of an Imperial army. About + the same time, Count Richomer returned from the West to announce + the defeat and submission of the Alemanni, to inform Valens that + his nephew advanced by rapid marches at the head of the veteran + and victorious legions of Gaul, and to request, in the name of + Gratian and of the republic, that every dangerous and decisive + measure might be suspended, till the junction of the two emperors + should insure the success of the Gothic war. But the feeble + sovereign of the East was actuated only by the fatal illusions of + pride and jealousy. He disdained the importunate advice; he + rejected the humiliating aid; he secretly compared the + ignominious, at least the inglorious, period of his own reign, + with the fame of a beardless youth; and Valens rushed into the + field, to erect his imaginary trophy, before the diligence of his + colleague could usurp any share of the triumphs of the day. + + 88 (return) [ Moratus paucissimos dies, seditione popularium + levium pulsus Ammian. xxxi. 11. Socrates (l. iv. c. 38) supplies + the dates and some circumstances. * Note: Compare fragment of + Eunapius. Mai, 272, in Niebuhr, p. 77.—M] + + 89 (return) [ Vivosque omnes circa Mutinam, Regiumque, et Parmam, + Italica oppida, rura culturos exterminavit. Ammianus, xxxi. 9. + Those cities and districts, about ten years after the colony of + the Taifalæ, appear in a very desolate state. See Muratori, + Dissertazioni sopra le Antichità Italiane, tom. i. Dissertat. + xxi. p. 354.] + + 90 (return) [ Ammian. xxxi. 11. Zosimus, l. iv. p. 228—230. The + latter expatiates on the desultory exploits of Sebastian, and + despatches, in a few lines, the important battle of Hadrianople. + According to the ecclesiastical critics, who hate Sebastian, the + praise of Zosimus is disgrace, (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, + tom. v. p. 121.) His prejudice and ignorance undoubtedly render + him a very questionable judge of merit.] + + On the ninth of August, a day which has deserved to be marked + among the most inauspicious of the Roman Calendar, 91 the emperor + Valens, leaving, under a strong guard, his baggage and military + treasure, marched from Hadrianople to attack the Goths, who were + encamped about twelve miles from the city. 92 By some mistake of + the orders, or some ignorance of the ground, the right wing, or + column of cavalry arrived in sight of the enemy, whilst the left + was still at a considerable distance; the soldiers were + compelled, in the sultry heat of summer, to precipitate their + pace; and the line of battle was formed with tedious confusion + and irregular delay. The Gothic cavalry had been detached to + forage in the adjacent country; and Fritigern still continued to + practise his customary arts. He despatched messengers of peace, + made proposals, required hostages, and wasted the hours, till the + Romans, exposed without shelter to the burning rays of the sun, + were exhausted by thirst, hunger, and intolerable fatigue. The + emperor was persuaded to send an ambassador to the Gothic camp; + the zeal of Richomer, who alone had courage to accept the + dangerous commission, was applauded; and the count of the + domestics, adorned with the splendid ensigns of his dignity, had + proceeded some way in the space between the two armies, when he + was suddenly recalled by the alarm of battle. The hasty and + imprudent attack was made by Bacurius the Iberian, who commanded + a body of archers and targeteers; and as they advanced with + rashness, they retreated with loss and disgrace. In the same + moment, the flying squadrons of Alatheus and Saphrax, whose + return was anxiously expected by the general of the Goths, + descended like a whirlwind from the hills, swept across the + plain, and added new terrors to the tumultuous, but irresistible + charge of the Barbarian host. The event of the battle of + Hadrianople, so fatal to Valens and to the empire, may be + described in a few words: the Roman cavalry fled; the infantry + was abandoned, surrounded, and cut in pieces. The most skilful + evolutions, the firmest courage, are scarcely sufficient to + extricate a body of foot, encompassed, on an open plain, by + superior numbers of horse; but the troops of Valens, oppressed by + the weight of the enemy and their own fears, were crowded into a + narrow space, where it was impossible for them to extend their + ranks, or even to use, with effect, their swords and javelins. In + the midst of tumult, of slaughter, and of dismay, the emperor, + deserted by his guards and wounded, as it was supposed, with an + arrow, sought protection among the Lancearii and the Mattiarii, + who still maintained their ground with some appearance of order + and firmness. His faithful generals, Trajan and Victor, who + perceived his danger, loudly exclaimed that all was lost, unless + the person of the emperor could be saved. Some troops, animated + by their exhortation, advanced to his relief: they found only a + bloody spot, covered with a heap of broken arms and mangled + bodies, without being able to discover their unfortunate prince, + either among the living or the dead. Their search could not + indeed be successful, if there is any truth in the circumstances + with which some historians have related the death of the emperor. + + By the care of his attendants, Valens was removed from the field + of battle to a neighboring cottage, where they attempted to dress + his wound, and to provide for his future safety. But this humble + retreat was instantly surrounded by the enemy: they tried to + force the door, they were provoked by a discharge of arrows from + the roof, till at length, impatient of delay, they set fire to a + pile of dry magots, and consumed the cottage with the Roman + emperor and his train. Valens perished in the flames; and a + youth, who dropped from the window, alone escaped, to attest the + melancholy tale, and to inform the Goths of the inestimable prize + which they had lost by their own rashness. A great number of + brave and distinguished officers perished in the battle of + Hadrianople, which equalled in the actual loss, and far surpassed + in the fatal consequences, the misfortune which Rome had formerly + sustained in the fields of Cannæ. 93 Two master-generals of the + cavalry and infantry, two great officers of the palace, and + thirty-five tribunes, were found among the slain; and the death + of Sebastian might satisfy the world, that he was the victim, as + well as the author, of the public calamity. Above two thirds of + the Roman army were destroyed: and the darkness of the night was + esteemed a very favorable circumstance, as it served to conceal + the flight of the multitude, and to protect the more orderly + retreat of Victor and Richomer, who alone, amidst the general + consternation, maintained the advantage of calm courage and + regular discipline. 94 + + 91 (return) [ Ammianus (xxxi. 12, 13) almost alone describes the + councils and actions which were terminated by the fatal battle of + Hadrianople. We might censure the vices of his style, the + disorder and perplexity of his narrative: but we must now take + leave of this impartial historian; and reproach is silenced by + our regret for such an irreparable loss.] + + 92 (return) [ The difference of the eight miles of Ammianus, and + the twelve of Idatius, can only embarrass those critics (Valesius + ad loc.,) who suppose a great army to be a mathematical point, + without space or dimensions.] + + 93 (return) [ Nec ulla annalibus, præter Cannensem pugnam, ita ad + internecionem res legitur gesta. Ammian. xxxi. 13. According to + the grave Polybius, no more than 370 horse, and 3,000 foot, + escaped from the field of Cannæ: 10,000 were made prisoners; and + the number of the slain amounted to 5,630 horse, and 70,000 foot, + (Polyb. l. iii. p 371, edit. Casaubon, 8vo.) Livy (xxii. 49) is + somewhat less bloody: he slaughters only 2,700 horse, and 40,000 + foot. The Roman army was supposed to consist of 87,200 effective + men, (xxii. 36.)] + + 94 (return) [ We have gained some faint light from Jerom, (tom. + i. p. 26 and in Chron. p. 188,) Victor, (in Epitome,) Orosius, + (l. vii. c. 33, p. 554,) Jornandes, (c. 27,) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. + 230,) Socrates, (l. iv. c. 38,) Sozomen, (l. vi. c. 40,) Idatius, + (in Chron.) But their united evidence, if weighed against + Ammianus alone, is light and unsubstantial.] + + While the impressions of grief and terror were still recent in + the minds of men, the most celebrated rhetorician of the age + composed the funeral oration of a vanquished army, and of an + unpopular prince, whose throne was already occupied by a + stranger. “There are not wanting,” says the candid Libanius, + “those who arraign the prudence of the emperor, or who impute the + public misfortune to the want of courage and discipline in the + troops. For my own part, I reverence the memory of their former + exploits: I reverence the glorious death, which they bravely + received, standing, and fighting in their ranks: I reverence the + field of battle, stained with _their_ blood, and the blood of the + Barbarians. Those honorable marks have been already washed away + by the rains; but the lofty monuments of their bones, the bones + of generals, of centurions, and of valiant warriors, claim a + longer period of duration. The king himself fought and fell in + the foremost ranks of the battle. His attendants presented him + with the fleetest horses of the Imperial stable, that would soon + have carried him beyond the pursuit of the enemy. They vainly + pressed him to reserve his important life for the future service + of the republic. He still declared that he was unworthy to + survive so many of the bravest and most faithful of his subjects; + and the monarch was nobly buried under a mountain of the slain. + Let none, therefore, presume to ascribe the victory of the + Barbarians to the fear, the weakness, or the imprudence, of the + Roman troops. The chiefs and the soldiers were animated by the + virtue of their ancestors, whom they equalled in discipline and + the arts of war. Their generous emulation was supported by the + love of glory, which prompted them to contend at the same time + with heat and thirst, with fire and the sword; and cheerfully to + embrace an honorable death, as their refuge against flight and + infamy. The indignation of the gods has been the only cause of + the success of our enemies.” The truth of history may disclaim + some parts of this panegyric, which cannot strictly be reconciled + with the character of Valens, or the circumstances of the battle: + but the fairest commendation is due to the eloquence, and still + more to the generosity, of the sophist of Antioch. 95 + + 95 (return) [ Libanius de ulciscend. Julian. nece, c. 3, in + Fabricius, Bibliot Græc. tom. vii. p. 146—148.] + + The pride of the Goths was elated by this memorable victory; but + their avarice was disappointed by the mortifying discovery, that + the richest part of the Imperial spoil had been within the walls + of Hadrianople. They hastened to possess the reward of their + valor; but they were encountered by the remains of a vanquished + army, with an intrepid resolution, which was the effect of their + despair, and the only hope of their safety. The walls of the + city, and the ramparts of the adjacent camp, were lined with + military engines, that threw stones of an enormous weight; and + astonished the ignorant Barbarians by the noise, and velocity, + still more than by the real effects, of the discharge. The + soldiers, the citizens, the provincials, the domestics of the + palace, were united in the danger, and in the defence: the + furious assault of the Goths was repulsed; their secret arts of + treachery and treason were discovered; and, after an obstinate + conflict of many hours, they retired to their tents; convinced, + by experience, that it would be far more advisable to observe the + treaty, which their sagacious leader had tacitly stipulated with + the fortifications of great and populous cities. After the hasty + and impolitic massacre of three hundred deserters, an act of + justice extremely useful to the discipline of the Roman armies, + the Goths indignantly raised the siege of Hadrianople. The scene + of war and tumult was instantly converted into a silent solitude: + the multitude suddenly disappeared; the secret paths of the woods + and mountains were marked with the footsteps of the trembling + fugitives, who sought a refuge in the distant cities of Illyricum + and Macedonia; and the faithful officers of the household, and + the treasury, cautiously proceeded in search of the emperor, of + whose death they were still ignorant. The tide of the Gothic + inundation rolled from the walls of Hadrianople to the suburbs of + Constantinople. The Barbarians were surprised with the splendid + appearance of the capital of the East, the height and extent of + the walls, the myriads of wealthy and affrighted citizens who + crowded the ramparts, and the various prospect of the sea and + land. While they gazed with hopeless desire on the inaccessible + beauties of Constantinople, a sally was made from one of the + gates by a party of Saracens, 96 who had been fortunately engaged + in the service of Valens. The cavalry of Scythia was forced to + yield to the admirable swiftness and spirit of the Arabian + horses: their riders were skilled in the evolutions of irregular + war; and the Northern Barbarians were astonished and dismayed, by + the inhuman ferocity of the Barbarians of the South. + + A Gothic soldier was slain by the dagger of an Arab; and the + hairy, naked savage, applying his lips to the wound, expressed a + horrid delight, while he sucked the blood of his vanquished + enemy. 97 The army of the Goths, laden with the spoils of the + wealthy suburbs and the adjacent territory, slowly moved, from + the Bosphorus, to the mountains which form the western boundary + of Thrace. The important pass of Succi was betrayed by the fear, + or the misconduct, of Maurus; and the Barbarians, who no longer + had any resistance to apprehend from the scattered and vanquished + troops of the East, spread themselves over the face of a fertile + and cultivated country, as far as the confines of Italy and the + Hadriatic Sea. 98 + + 96 (return) [ Valens had gained, or rather purchased, the + friendship of the Saracens, whose vexatious inroads were felt on + the borders of Phœnicia, Palestine, and Egypt. The Christian + faith had been lately introduced among a people, reserved, in a + future age, to propagate another religion, (Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. v. p. 104, 106, 141. Mém. Eccles. tom. vii. p. + 593.)] + + 97 (return) [ Crinitus quidam, nudus omnia præter pubem, + subraunum et ugubre strepens. Ammian. xxxi. 16, and Vales. ad + loc. The Arabs often fought naked; a custom which may be ascribed + to their sultry climate, and ostentatious bravery. The + description of this unknown savage is the lively portrait of + Derar, a name so dreadful to the Christians of Syria. See + Ockley’s Hist. of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 72, 84, 87.] + + 98 (return) [ The series of events may still be traced in the + last pages of Ammianus, (xxxi. 15, 16.) Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 227, + 231,) whom we are now reduced to cherish, misplaces the sally of + the Arabs before the death of Valens. Eunapius (in Excerpt. + Legat. p. 20) praises the fertility of Thrace, Macedonia, &c.] + + The Romans, who so coolly, and so concisely, mention the acts of + _justice_ which were exercised by the legions, 99 reserve their + compassion, and their eloquence, for their own sufferings, when + the provinces were invaded, and desolated, by the arms of the + successful Barbarians. The simple circumstantial narrative (did + such a narrative exist) of the ruin of a single town, of the + misfortunes of a single family, 100 might exhibit an interesting + and instructive picture of human manners: but the tedious + repetition of vague and declamatory complaints would fatigue the + attention of the most patient reader. The same censure may be + applied, though not perhaps in an equal degree, to the profane, + and the ecclesiastical, writers of this unhappy period; that + their minds were inflamed by popular and religious animosity; and + that the true size and color of every object is falsified by the + exaggerations of their corrupt eloquence. The vehement Jerom 101 + might justly deplore the calamities inflicted by the Goths, and + their barbarous allies, on his native country of Pannonia, and + the wide extent of the provinces, from the walls of + Constantinople to the foot of the Julian Alps; the rapes, the + massacres, the conflagrations; and, above all, the profanation of + the churches, that were turned into stables, and the contemptuous + treatment of the relics of holy martyrs. But the Saint is surely + transported beyond the limits of nature and history, when he + affirms, “that, in those desert countries, nothing was left + except the sky and the earth; that, after the destruction of the + cities, and the extirpation of the human race, the land was + overgrown with thick forests and inextricable brambles; and that + the universal desolation, announced by the prophet Zephaniah, was + accomplished, in the scarcity of the beasts, the birds, and even + of the fish.” These complaints were pronounced about twenty years + after the death of Valens; and the Illyrian provinces, which were + constantly exposed to the invasion and passage of the Barbarians, + still continued, after a calamitous period of ten centuries, to + supply new materials for rapine and destruction. Could it even be + supposed, that a large tract of country had been left without + cultivation and without inhabitants, the consequences might not + have been so fatal to the inferior productions of animated + nature. The useful and feeble animals, which are nourished by the + hand of man, might suffer and perish, if they were deprived of + his protection; but the beasts of the forest, his enemies or his + victims, would multiply in the free and undisturbed possession of + their solitary domain. The various tribes that people the air, or + the waters, are still less connected with the fate of the human + species; and it is highly probable that the fish of the Danube + would have felt more terror and distress, from the approach of a + voracious pike, than from the hostile inroad of a Gothic army. + + 99 (return) [ Observe with how much indifference Cæsar relates, + in the Commentaries of the Gallic war, _that_ he put to death the + whole senate of the Veneti, who had yielded to his mercy, (iii. + 16;) _that_ he labored to extirpate the whole nation of the + Eburones, (vi. 31;) _that_ forty thousand persons were massacred + at Bourges by the just revenge of his soldiers, who spared + neither age nor sex, (vii. 27,) &c.] + + 100 (return) [ Such are the accounts of the sack of Magdeburgh, + by the ecclesiastic and the fisherman, which Mr. Harte has + transcribed, (Hist. of Gustavus Adolphus, vol. i. p. 313—320,) + with some apprehension of violating the _dignity_ of history.] + + 101 (return) [ Et vastatis urbibus, hominibusque interfectis, + solitudinem et _raritatem bestiarum_ quoque fieri, _et + volatilium, pisciumque:_ testis Illyricum est, testis Thracia, + testis in quo ortus sum solum, (Pannonia;) ubi præter cœlum et + terram, et crescentes vepres, et condensa sylvarum _cuncta + perierunt_. Tom. vii. p. 250, l, Cap. Sophonias and tom. i. p. + 26.] + + + + + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part V. + + + Whatever may have been the just measure of the calamities of + Europe, there was reason to fear that the same calamities would + soon extend to the peaceful countries of Asia. The sons of the + Goths had been judiciously distributed through the cities of the + East; and the arts of education were employed to polish, and + subdue, the native fierceness of their temper. In the space of + about twelve years, their numbers had continually increased; and + the children, who, in the first emigration, were sent over the + Hellespont, had attained, with rapid growth, the strength and + spirit of perfect manhood. 102 It was impossible to conceal from + their knowledge the events of the Gothic war; and, as those + daring youths had not studied the language of dissimulation, they + betrayed their wish, their desire, perhaps their intention, to + emulate the glorious example of their fathers. The danger of the + times seemed to justify the jealous suspicions of the + provincials; and these suspicions were admitted as unquestionable + evidence, that the Goths of Asia had formed a secret and + dangerous conspiracy against the public safety. The death of + Valens had left the East without a sovereign; and Julius, who + filled the important station of master-general of the troops, + with a high reputation of diligence and ability, thought it his + duty to consult the senate of Constantinople; which he + considered, during the vacancy of the throne, as the + representative council of the nation. As soon as he had obtained + the discretionary power of acting as he should judge most + expedient for the good of the republic, he assembled the + principal officers, and privately concerted effectual measures + for the execution of his bloody design. An order was immediately + promulgated, that, on a stated day, the Gothic youth should + assemble in the capital cities of their respective provinces; + and, as a report was industriously circulated, that they were + summoned to receive a liberal gift of lands and money, the + pleasing hope allayed the fury of their resentment, and, perhaps, + suspended the motions of the conspiracy. On the appointed day, + the unarmed crowd of the Gothic youth was carefully collected in + the square or Forum; the streets and avenues were occupied by the + Roman troops, and the roofs of the houses were covered with + archers and slingers. At the same hour, in all the cities of the + East, the signal was given of indiscriminate slaughter; and the + provinces of Asia were delivered by the cruel prudence of Julius, + from a domestic enemy, who, in a few months, might have carried + fire and sword from the Hellespont to the Euphrates. 103 The + urgent consideration of the public safety may undoubtedly + authorize the violation of every positive law. How far that, or + any other, consideration may operate to dissolve the natural + obligations of humanity and justice, is a doctrine of which I + still desire to remain ignorant. + + 102 (return) [ Eunapius (in Excerpt. Legat. p. 20) foolishly + supposes a præternatural growth of the young Goths, that he may + introduce Cadmus’s armed men, who sprang from the dragon’s teeth, + &c. Such was the Greek eloquence of the times.] + + 103 (return) [ Ammianus evidently approves this execution, + efficacia velox et salutaris, which concludes his work, (xxxi. + 16.) Zosimus, who is curious and copious, (l. iv. p. 233—236,) + mistakes the date, and labors to find the reason, why Julius did + not consult the emperor Theodosius who had not yet ascended the + throne of the East.] + + The emperor Gratian was far advanced on his march towards the + plains of Hadrianople, when he was informed, at first by the + confused voice of fame, and afterwards by the more accurate + reports of Victor and Richomer, that his impatient colleague had + been slain in battle, and that two thirds of the Roman army were + exterminated by the sword of the victorious Goths. Whatever + resentment the rash and jealous vanity of his uncle might + deserve, the resentment of a generous mind is easily subdued by + the softer emotions of grief and compassion; and even the sense + of pity was soon lost in the serious and alarming consideration + of the state of the republic. Gratian was too late to assist, he + was too weak to revenge, his unfortunate colleague; and the + valiant and modest youth felt himself unequal to the support of a + sinking world. A formidable tempest of the Barbarians of Germany + seemed ready to burst over the provinces of Gaul; and the mind of + Gratian was oppressed and distracted by the administration of the + Western empire. In this important crisis, the government of the + East, and the conduct of the Gothic war, required the undivided + attention of a hero and a statesman. A subject invested with such + ample command would not long have preserved his fidelity to a + distant benefactor; and the Imperial council embraced the wise + and manly resolution of conferring an obligation, rather than of + yielding to an insult. It was the wish of Gratian to bestow the + purple as the reward of virtue; but, at the age of nineteen, it + is not easy for a prince, educated in the supreme rank, to + understand the true characters of his ministers and generals. He + attempted to weigh, with an impartial hand, their various merits + and defects; and, whilst he checked the rash confidence of + ambition, he distrusted the cautious wisdom which despaired of + the republic. As each moment of delay diminished something of the + power and resources of the future sovereign of the East, the + situation of the times would not allow a tedious debate. The + choice of Gratian was soon declared in favor of an exile, whose + father, only three years before, had suffered, under the sanction + of _his_ authority, an unjust and ignominious death. The great + Theodosius, a name celebrated in history, and dear to the + Catholic church, 104 was summoned to the Imperial court, which + had gradually retreated from the confines of Thrace to the more + secure station of Sirmium. Five months after the death of Valens, + the emperor Gratian produced before the assembled troops _his_ + colleague and _their_ master; who, after a modest, perhaps a + sincere, resistance, was compelled to accept, amidst the general + acclamations, the diadem, the purple, and the equal title of + Augustus. 105 The provinces of Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, over + which Valens had reigned, were resigned to the administration of + the new emperor; but, as he was specially intrusted with the + conduct of the Gothic war, the Illyrian præfecture was + dismembered; and the two great dioceses of Dacia and Macedonia + were added to the dominions of the Eastern empire. 106 + + 104 (return) [ A life of Theodosius the Great was composed in the + last century, (Paris, 1679, in 4to-1680, 12mo.,) to inflame the + mind of the young Dauphin with Catholic zeal. The author, + Flechier, afterwards bishop of Nismes, was a celebrated preacher; + and his history is adorned, or tainted, with pulpit eloquence; + but he takes his learning from Baronius, and his principles from + St. Ambrose and St Augustin.] + + 105 (return) [ The birth, character, and elevation of Theodosius + are marked in Pacatus, (in Panegyr. Vet. xii. 10, 11, 12,) + Themistius, (Orat. xiv. p. 182,) (Zosimus, l. iv. p. 231,) + Augustin. (de Civitat. Dei. v. 25,) Orosius, (l. vii. c. 34,) + Sozomen, (l. vii. c. 2,) Socrates, (l. v. c. 2,) Theodoret, (l. + v. c. 5,) Philostorgius, (l. ix. c. 17, with Godefroy, p. 393,) + the Epitome of Victor, and the Chronicles of Prosper, Idatius, + and Marcellinus, in the Thesaurus Temporum of Scaliger. * Note: + Add a hostile fragment of Eunapius. Mai, p. 273, in Niebuhr, p + 178—M.] + + 106 (return) [ Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 716, + &c.] + + The same province, and perhaps the same city, 107 which had given + to the throne the virtues of Trajan, and the talents of Hadrian, + was the orignal seat of another family of Spaniards, who, in a + less fortunate age, possessed, near fourscore years, the + declining empire of Rome. 108 They emerged from the obscurity of + municipal honors by the active spirit of the elder Theodosius, a + general whose exploits in Britain and Africa have formed one of + the most splendid parts of the annals of Valentinian. The son of + that general, who likewise bore the name of Theodosius, was + educated, by skilful preceptors, in the liberal studies of youth; + but he was instructed in the art of war by the tender care and + severe discipline of his father. 109 Under the standard of such a + leader, young Theodosius sought glory and knowledge, in the most + distant scenes of military action; inured his constitution to the + difference of seasons and climates; distinguished his valor by + sea and land; and observed the various warfare of the Scots, the + Saxons, and the Moors. His own merit, and the recommendation of + the conqueror of Africa, soon raised him to a separate command; + and, in the station of Duke of Mæsia, he vanquished an army of + Sarmatians; saved the province; deserved the love of the + soldiers; and provoked the envy of the court. 110 His rising + fortunes were soon blasted by the disgrace and execution of his + illustrious father; and Theodosius obtained, as a favor, the + permission of retiring to a private life in his native province + of Spain. He displayed a firm and temperate character in the ease + with which he adapted himself to this new situation. His time was + almost equally divided between the town and country; the spirit, + which had animated his public conduct, was shown in the active + and affectionate performance of every social duty; and the + diligence of the soldier was profitably converted to the + improvement of his ample patrimony, 111 which lay between + Valladolid and Segovia, in the midst of a fruitful district, + still famous for a most exquisite breed of sheep. 112 From the + innocent, but humble labors of his farm, Theodosius was + transported, in less than four months, to the throne of the + Eastern empire; and the whole period of the history of the world + will not perhaps afford a similar example, of an elevation at the + same time so pure and so honorable. The princes who peaceably + inherit the sceptre of their fathers, claim and enjoy a legal + right, the more secure as it is absolutely distinct from the + merits of their personal characters. The subjects, who, in a + monarchy, or a popular state, acquire the possession of supreme + power, may have raised themselves, by the superiority either of + genius or virtue, above the heads of their equals; but their + virtue is seldom exempt from ambition; and the cause of the + successful candidate is frequently stained by the guilt of + conspiracy, or civil war. Even in those governments which allow + the reigning monarch to declare a colleague or a successor, his + partial choice, which may be influenced by the blindest passions, + is often directed to an unworthy object But the most suspicious + malignity cannot ascribe to Theodosius, in his obscure solitude + of Caucha, the arts, the desires, or even the hopes, of an + ambitious statesman; and the name of the Exile would long since + have been forgotten, if his genuine and distinguished virtues had + not left a deep impression in the Imperial court. During the + season of prosperity, he had been neglected; but, in the public + distress, his superior merit was universally felt and + acknowledged. What confidence must have been reposed in his + integrity, since Gratian could trust, that a pious son would + forgive, for the sake of the republic, the murder of his father! + What expectations must have been formed of his abilities to + encourage the hope, that a single man could save, and restore, + the empire of the East! Theodosius was invested with the purple + in the thirty-third year of his age. The vulgar gazed with + admiration on the manly beauty of his face, and the graceful + majesty of his person, which they were pleased to compare with + the pictures and medals of the emperor Trajan; whilst intelligent + observers discovered, in the qualities of his heart and + understanding, a more important resemblance to the best and + greatest of the Roman princes. + + 107 (return) [ _Italica_, founded by Scipio Africanus for his + wounded veterans of _Italy_. The ruins still appear, about a + league above Seville, but on the opposite bank of the river. See + the Hispania Illustrata of Nonius, a short though valuable + treatise, c. xvii. p. 64—67.] + + 108 (return) [ I agree with Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. + v. p. 726) in suspecting the royal pedigree, which remained a + secret till the promotion of Theodosius. Even after that event, + the silence of Pacatus outweighs the venal evidence of + Themistius, Victor, and Claudian, who connect the family of + Theodosius with the blood of Trajan and Hadrian.] + + 109 (return) [ Pacatas compares, and consequently prefers, the + youth of Theodosius to the military education of Alexander, + Hannibal, and the second Africanus; who, like him, had served + under their fathers, (xii. 8.)] + + 110 (return) [ Ammianus (xxix. 6) mentions this victory of + Theodosius Junior Dux Mæsiæ, prima etiam tum lanugine juvenis, + princeps postea perspectissimus. The same fact is attested by + Themistius and Zosimus but Theodoret, (l. v. c. 5,) who adds some + curious circumstances, strangely applies it to the time of the + interregnum.] + + 111 (return) [ Pacatus (in Panegyr. Vet. xii. 9) prefers the + rustic life of Theodosius to that of Cincinnatus; the one was the + effect of choice, the other of poverty.] + + 112 (return) [ M. D’Anville (Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 25) + has fixed the situation of Caucha, or Coca, in the old province + of Gallicia, where Zosimus and Idatius have placed the birth, or + patrimony, of Theodosius.] + + It is not without the most sincere regret, that I must now take + leave of an accurate and faithful guide, who has composed the + history of his own times, without indulging the prejudices and + passions, which usually affect the mind of a contemporary. + Ammianus Marcellinus, who terminates his useful work with the + defeat and death of Valens, recommends the more glorious subject + of the ensuing reign to the youthful vigor and eloquence of the + rising generation. 113 The rising generation was not disposed to + accept his advice or to imitate his example; 114 and, in the + study of the reign of Theodosius, we are reduced to illustrate + the partial narrative of Zosimus, by the obscure hints of + fragments and chronicles, by the figurative style of poetry or + panegyric, and by the precarious assistance of the ecclesiastical + writers, who, in the heat of religious faction, are apt to + despise the profane virtues of sincerity and moderation. + Conscious of these disadvantages, which will continue to involve + a considerable portion of the decline and fall of the Roman + empire, I shall proceed with doubtful and timorous steps. Yet I + may boldly pronounce, that the battle of Hadrianople was never + revenged by any signal or decisive victory of Theodosius over the + Barbarians: and the expressive silence of his venal orators may + be confirmed by the observation of the condition and + circumstances of the times. The fabric of a mighty state, which + has been reared by the labors of successive ages, could not be + overturned by the misfortune of a single day, if the fatal power + of the imagination did not exaggerate the real measure of the + calamity. The loss of forty thousand Romans, who fell in the + plains of Hadrianople, might have been soon recruited in the + populous provinces of the East, which contained so many millions + of inhabitants. The courage of a soldier is found to be the + cheapest, and most common, quality of human nature; and + sufficient skill to encounter an undisciplined foe might have + been speedily taught by the care of the surviving centurions. If + the Barbarians were mounted on the horses, and equipped with the + armor, of their vanquished enemies, the numerous studs of + Cappadocia and Spain would have supplied new squadrons of + cavalry; the thirty-four arsenals of the empire were plentifully + stored with magazines of offensive and defensive arms: and the + wealth of Asia might still have yielded an ample fund for the + expenses of the war. But the effects which were produced by the + battle of Hadrianople on the minds of the Barbarians and of the + Romans, extended the victory of the former, and the defeat of the + latter, far beyond the limits of a single day. A Gothic chief was + heard to declare, with insolent moderation, that, for his own + part, he was fatigued with slaughter: but that he was astonished + how a people, who fled before him like a flock of sheep, could + still presume to dispute the possession of their treasures and + provinces. 115 The same terrors which the name of the Huns had + spread among the Gothic tribes, were inspired, by the formidable + name of the Goths, among the subjects and soldiers of the Roman + empire. 116 If Theodosius, hastily collecting his scattered + forces, had led them into the field to encounter a victorious + enemy, his army would have been vanquished by their own fears; + and his rashness could not have been excused by the chance of + success. But the _great_ Theodosius, an epithet which he + honorably deserved on this momentous occasion, conducted himself + as the firm and faithful guardian of the republic. He fixed his + head-quarters at Thessalonica, the capital of the Macedonian + diocese; 117 from whence he could watch the irregular motions of + the Barbarians, and direct the operations of his lieutenants, + from the gates of Constantinople to the shores of the Hadriatic. + The fortifications and garrisons of the cities were strengthened; + and the troops, among whom a sense of order and discipline was + revived, were insensibly emboldened by the confidence of their + own safety. From these secure stations, they were encouraged to + make frequent sallies on the Barbarians, who infested the + adjacent country; and, as they were seldom allowed to engage, + without some decisive superiority, either of ground or of + numbers, their enterprises were, for the most part, successful; + and they were soon convinced, by their own experience, of the + possibility of vanquishing their _invincible_ enemies. The + detachments of these separate garrisons were generally united + into small armies; the same cautious measures were pursued, + according to an extensive and well-concerted plan of operations; + the events of each day added strength and spirit to the Roman + arms; and the artful diligence of the emperor, who circulated the + most favorable reports of the success of the war, contributed to + subdue the pride of the Barbarians, and to animate the hopes and + courage of his subjects. If, instead of this faint and imperfect + outline, we could accurately represent the counsels and actions + of Theodosius, in four successive campaigns, there is reason to + believe, that his consummate skill would deserve the applause of + every military reader. The republic had formerly been saved by + the delays of Fabius; and, while the splendid trophies of Scipio, + in the field of Zama, attract the eyes of posterity, the camps + and marches of the dictator among the hills of the Campania, may + claim a juster proportion of the solid and independent fame, + which the general is not compelled to share, either with fortune + or with his troops. Such was likewise the merit of Theodosius; + and the infirmities of his body, which most unseasonably + languished under a long and dangerous disease, could not oppress + the vigor of his mind, or divert his attention from the public + service. 118 + + 113 (return) [ Let us hear Ammianus himself. Hæc, ut miles + quondam et Græcus, a principatu Cæsaris Nervæ exorsus, adusque + Valentis inter, pro virium explicavi mensurâ: opus veritatem + professum nun quam, ut arbitror, sciens, silentio ausus + corrumpere vel mendacio. Scribant reliqua potiores ætate, + doctrinisque florentes. Quos id, si libuerit, aggressuros, + procudere linguas ad majores moneo stilos. Ammian. xxxi. 16. The + first thirteen books, a superficial epitome of two hundred and + fifty-seven years, are now lost: the last eighteen, which contain + no more than twenty-five years, still preserve the copious and + authentic history of his own times.] + + 114 (return) [ Ammianus was the last subject of Rome who composed + a profane history in the Latin language. The East, in the next + century, produced some rhetorical historians, Zosimus, + Olympiedorus, Malchus, Candidus &c. See Vossius de Historicis + Græcis, l. ii. c. 18, de Historicis Latinis l. ii. c. 10, &c.] + + 115 (return) [ Chrysostom, tom. i. p. 344, edit. Montfaucon. I + have verified and examined this passage: but I should never, + without the aid of Tillemont, (Hist. des Emp. tom. v. p. 152,) + have detected an historical anecdote, in a strange medley of + moral and mystic exhortations, addressed, by the preacher of + Antioch, to a young widow.] + + 116 (return) [ Eunapius, in Excerpt. Legation. p. 21.] + + 117 (return) [ See Godefroy’s Chronology of the Laws. Codex + Theodos tom. l. Prolegomen. p. xcix.—civ.] + + 118 (return) [ Most writers insist on the illness, and long + repose, of Theodosius, at Thessalonica: Zosimus, to diminish his + glory; Jornandes, to favor the Goths; and the ecclesiastical + writers, to introduce his baptism.] + + The deliverance and peace of the Roman provinces 119 was the work + of prudence, rather than of valor: the prudence of Theodosius was + seconded by fortune: and the emperor never failed to seize, and + to improve, every favorable circumstance. As long as the superior + genius of Fritigern preserved the union, and directed the motions + of the Barbarians, their power was not inadequate to the conquest + of a great empire. The death of that hero, the predecessor and + master of the renowned Alaric, relieved an impatient multitude + from the intolerable yoke of discipline and discretion. The + Barbarians, who had been restrained by his authority, abandoned + themselves to the dictates of their passions; and their passions + were seldom uniform or consistent. An army of conquerors was + broken into many disorderly bands of savage robbers; and their + blind and irregular fury was not less pernicious to themselves, + than to their enemies. Their mischievous disposition was shown in + the destruction of every object which they wanted strength to + remove, or taste to enjoy; and they often consumed, with + improvident rage, the harvests, or the granaries, which soon + afterwards became necessary for their own subsistence. A spirit + of discord arose among the independent tribes and nations, which + had been united only by the bands of a loose and voluntary + alliance. The troops of the Huns and the Alani would naturally + upbraid the flight of the Goths; who were not disposed to use + with moderation the advantages of their fortune; the ancient + jealousy of the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths could not long be + suspended; and the haughty chiefs still remembered the insults + and injuries, which they had reciprocally offered, or sustained, + while the nation was seated in the countries beyond the Danube. + The progress of domestic faction abated the more diffusive + sentiment of national animosity; and the officers of Theodosius + were instructed to purchase, with liberal gifts and promises, the + retreat or service of the discontented party. The acquisition of + Modar, a prince of the royal blood of the Amali, gave a bold and + faithful champion to the cause of Rome. The illustrious deserter + soon obtained the rank of master-general, with an important + command; surprised an army of his countrymen, who were immersed + in wine and sleep; and, after a cruel slaughter of the astonished + Goths, returned with an immense spoil, and four thousand wagons, + to the Imperial camp. 120 In the hands of a skilful politician, + the most different means may be successfully applied to the same + ends; and the peace of the empire, which had been forwarded by + the divisions, was accomplished by the reunion, of the Gothic + nation. Athanaric, who had been a patient spectator of these + extraordinary events, was at length driven, by the chance of + arms, from the dark recesses of the woods of Caucaland. He no + longer hesitated to pass the Danube; and a very considerable part + of the subjects of Fritigern, who already felt the inconveniences + of anarchy, were easily persuaded to acknowledge for their king a + Gothic Judge, whose birth they respected, and whose abilities + they had frequently experienced. But age had chilled the daring + spirit of Athanaric; and, instead of leading his people to the + field of battle and victory, he wisely listened to the fair + proposal of an honorable and advantageous treaty. Theodosius, who + was acquainted with the merit and power of his new ally, + condescended to meet him at the distance of several miles from + Constantinople; and entertained him in the Imperial city, with + the confidence of a friend, and the magnificence of a monarch. + “The Barbarian prince observed, with curious attention, the + variety of objects which attracted his notice, and at last broke + out into a sincere and passionate exclamation of wonder. I now + behold (said he) what I never could believe, the glories of this + stupendous capital! And as he cast his eyes around, he viewed, + and he admired, the commanding situation of the city, the + strength and beauty of the walls and public edifices, the + capacious harbor, crowded with innumerable vessels, the perpetual + concourse of distant nations, and the arms and discipline of the + troops. Indeed, (continued Athanaric,) the emperor of the Romans + is a god upon earth; and the presumptuous man, who dares to lift + his hand against him, is guilty of his own blood.” 121 The Gothic + king did not long enjoy this splendid and honorable reception; + and, as temperance was not the virtue of his nation, it may + justly be suspected, that his mortal disease was contracted + amidst the pleasures of the Imperial banquets. But the policy of + Theodosius derived more solid benefit from the death, than he + could have expected from the most faithful services, of his ally. + The funeral of Athanaric was performed with solemn rites in the + capital of the East; a stately monument was erected to his + memory; and his whole army, won by the liberal courtesy, and + decent grief, of Theodosius, enlisted under the standard of the + Roman empire. 122 The submission of so great a body of the + Visigoths was productive of the most salutary consequences; and + the mixed influence of force, of reason, and of corruption, + became every day more powerful, and more extensive. Each + independent chieftain hastened to obtain a separate treaty, from + the apprehension that an obstinate delay might expose _him_, + alone and unprotected, to the revenge, or justice, of the + conqueror. The general, or rather the final, capitulation of the + Goths, may be dated four years, one month, and twenty-five days, + after the defeat and death of the emperor Valens. 123 + + 119 (return) [ Compare Themistius (Orat, xiv. p. 181) with + Zosimus (l. iv. p. 232,) Jornandes, (c. xxvii. p. 649,) and the + prolix Commentary of M. de Buat, (Hist. de Peuples, &c., tom. vi. + p. 477—552.) The Chronicles of Idatius and Marcellinus allude, in + general terms, to magna certamina, _magna multaque_ prælia. The + two epithets are not easily reconciled.] + + 120 (return) [ Zosimus (l. iv. p. 232) styles him a Scythian, a + name which the more recent Greeks seem to have appropriated to + the Goths.] + + 121 (return) [ The reader will not be displeased to see the + original words of Jornandes, or the author whom he transcribed. + Regiam urbem ingressus est, miransque, En, inquit, cerno quod + sæpe incredulus audiebam, famam videlicet tantæ urbis. Et huc + illuc oculos volvens, nunc situm urbis, commeatumque navium, nunc + mœnia clara pro spectans, miratur; populosque diversarum gentium, + quasi fonte in uno e diversis partibus scaturiente unda, sic + quoque militem ordinatum aspiciens; Deus, inquit, sine dubio est + terrenus Imperator, et quisquis adversus eum manum moverit, ipse + sui sanguinis reus existit Jornandes (c. xxviii. p. 650) proceeds + to mention his death and funeral.] + + 122 (return) [ Jornandes, c. xxviii. p. 650. Even Zosimus (l. v. + p. 246) is compelled to approve the generosity of Theodosius, so + honorable to himself, and so beneficial to the public.] + + 123 (return) [ The short, but authentic, hints in the _Fasti_ of + Idatius (Chron. Scaliger. p. 52) are stained with contemporary + passion. The fourteenth oration of Themistius is a compliment to + Peace, and the consul Saturninus, (A.D. 383.)] + + The provinces of the Danube had been already relieved from the + oppressive weight of the Gruthungi, or Ostrogoths, by the + voluntary retreat of Alatheus and Saphrax, whose restless spirit + had prompted them to seek new scenes of rapine and glory. Their + destructive course was pointed towards the West; but we must be + satisfied with a very obscure and imperfect knowledge of their + various adventures. The Ostrogoths impelled several of the German + tribes on the provinces of Gaul; concluded, and soon violated, a + treaty with the emperor Gratian; advanced into the unknown + countries of the North; and, after an interval of more than four + years, returned, with accumulated force, to the banks of the + Lower Danube. Their troops were recruited with the fiercest + warriors of Germany and Scythia; and the soldiers, or at least + the historians, of the empire, no longer recognized the name and + countenances of their former enemies. 124 The general who + commanded the military and naval powers of the Thracian frontier, + soon perceived that his superiority would be disadvantageous to + the public service; and that the Barbarians, awed by the presence + of his fleet and legions, would probably defer the passage of the + river till the approaching winter. The dexterity of the spies, + whom he sent into the Gothic camp, allured the Barbarians into a + fatal snare. They were persuaded that, by a bold attempt, they + might surprise, in the silence and darkness of the night, the + sleeping army of the Romans; and the whole multitude was hastily + embarked in a fleet of three thousand canoes. 125 The bravest of + the Ostrogoths led the van; the main body consisted of the + remainder of their subjects and soldiers; and the women and + children securely followed in the rear. One of the nights without + a moon had been selected for the execution of their design; and + they had almost reached the southern bank of the Danube, in the + firm confidence that they should find an easy landing and an + unguarded camp. But the progress of the Barbarians was suddenly + stopped by an unexpected obstacle a triple line of vessels, + strongly connected with each other, and which formed an + impenetrable chain of two miles and a half along the river. While + they struggled to force their way in the unequal conflict, their + right flank was overwhelmed by the irresistible attack of a fleet + of galleys, which were urged down the stream by the united + impulse of oars and of the tide. The weight and velocity of those + ships of war broke, and sunk, and dispersed, the rude and feeble + canoes of the Barbarians; their valor was ineffectual; and + Alatheus, the king, or general, of the Ostrogoths, perished with + his bravest troops, either by the sword of the Romans, or in the + waves of the Danube. The last division of this unfortunate fleet + might regain the opposite shore; but the distress and disorder of + the multitude rendered them alike incapable, either of action or + counsel; and they soon implored the clemency of the victorious + enemy. On this occasion, as well as on many others, it is a + difficult task to reconcile the passions and prejudices of the + writers of the age of Theodosius. The partial and malignant + historian, who misrepresents every action of his reign, affirms, + that the emperor did not appear in the field of battle till the + Barbarians had been vanquished by the valor and conduct of his + lieutenant Promotus. 126 The flattering poet, who celebrated, in + the court of Honorius, the glory of the father and of the son, + ascribes the victory to the personal prowess of Theodosius; and + almost insinuates, that the king of the Ostrogoths was slain by + the hand of the emperor. 127 The truth of history might perhaps + be found in a just medium between these extreme and contradictory + assertions. + + 124 (return) [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. 252.] + + 125 (return) [ I am justified, by reason and example, in applying + this Indian name to the the Barbarians, the single trees hollowed + into the shape of a boat. Zosimus, l. iv. p. 253. Ausi Danubium + quondam tranare Gruthungi In lintres fregere nemus: ter mille + ruebant Per fluvium plenæ cuneis immanibus alni. Claudian, in iv. + Cols. Hon. 623.] + + 126 (return) [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. 252—255. He too frequently + betrays his poverty of judgment by disgracing the most serious + narratives with trifling and incredible circumstances.] + + 127 (return) [—Odothæi Regis _opima_ Retulit—Ver. 632. The + _opima_ were the spoils which a Roman general could only win from + the king, or general, of the enemy, whom he had slain with his + own hands: and no more than three such examples are celebrated in + the victorious ages of Rome.] + + The original treaty which fixed the settlement of the Goths, + ascertained their privileges, and stipulated their obligations, + would illustrate the history of Theodosius and his successors. + The series of their history has imperfectly preserved the spirit + and substance of this single agreement. 128 The ravages of war + and tyranny had provided many large tracts of fertile but + uncultivated land for the use of those Barbarians who might not + disdain the practice of agriculture. A numerous colony of the + Visigoths was seated in Thrace; the remains of the Ostrogoths + were planted in Phrygia and Lydia; their immediate wants were + supplied by a distribution of corn and cattle; and their future + industry was encouraged by an exemption from tribute, during a + certain term of years. The Barbarians would have deserved to feel + the cruel and perfidious policy of the Imperial court, if they + had suffered themselves to be dispersed through the provinces. + They required, and they obtained, the sole possession of the + villages and districts assigned for their residence; they still + cherished and propagated their native manners and language; + asserted, in the bosom of despotism, the freedom of their + domestic government; and acknowledged the sovereignty of the + emperor, without submitting to the inferior jurisdiction of the + laws and magistrates of Rome. The hereditary chiefs of the tribes + and families were still permitted to command their followers in + peace and war; but the royal dignity was abolished; and the + generals of the Goths were appointed and removed at the pleasure + of the emperor. An army of forty thousand Goths was maintained + for the perpetual service of the empire of the East; and those + haughty troops, who assumed the title of _Fæderati_, or allies, + were distinguished by their gold collars, liberal pay, and + licentious privileges. Their native courage was improved by the + use of arms and the knowledge of discipline; and, while the + republic was guarded, or threatened, by the doubtful sword of the + Barbarians, the last sparks of the military flame were finally + extinguished in the minds of the Romans. 129 Theodosius had the + address to persuade his allies, that the conditions of peace, + which had been extorted from him by prudence and necessity, were + the voluntary expressions of his sincere friendship for the + Gothic nation. 130 A different mode of vindication or apology was + opposed to the complaints of the people; who loudly censured + these shameful and dangerous concessions. 131 The calamities of + the war were painted in the most lively colors; and the first + symptoms of the return of order, of plenty, and security, were + diligently exaggerated. The advocates of Theodosius could affirm, + with some appearance of truth and reason, that it was impossible + to extirpate so many warlike tribes, who were rendered desperate + by the loss of their native country; and that the exhausted + provinces would be revived by a fresh supply of soldiers and + husbandmen. The Barbarians still wore an angry and hostile + aspect; but the experience of past times might encourage the + hope, that they would acquire the habits of industry and + obedience; that their manners would be polished by time, + education, and the influence of Christianity; and that their + posterity would insensibly blend with the great body of the Roman + people. 132 + + 128 (return) [ See Themistius, Orat. xvi. p. 211. Claudian (in + Eutrop. l. ii. 112) mentions the Phrygian colony:——Ostrogothis + colitur mistisque Gruthungis Phyrx ager——and then proceeds to + name the rivers of Lydia, the Pactolus, and Herreus.] + + 129 (return) [ Compare Jornandes, (c. xx. 27,) who marks the + condition and number of the Gothic _Fæderati_, with Zosimus, (l. + iv. p. 258,) who mentions their golden collars; and Pacatus, (in + Panegyr. Vet. xii. 37,) who applauds, with false or foolish joy, + their bravery and discipline.] + + 130 (return) [ Amator pacis generisque Gothorum, is the praise + bestowed by the Gothic historian, (c. xxix.,) who represents his + nation as innocent, peaceable men, slow to anger, and patient of + injuries. According to Livy, the Romans conquered the world in + their own defence.] + + 131 (return) [ Besides the partial invectives of Zosimus, (always + discontented with the Christian reigns,) see the grave + representations which Synesius addresses to the emperor Arcadius, + (de Regno, p. 25, 26, edit. Petav.) The philosophic bishop of + Cyrene was near enough to judge; and he was sufficiently removed + from the temptation of fear or flattery.] + + 132 (return) [ Themistius (Orat. xvi. p. 211, 212) composes an + elaborate and rational apology, which is not, however, exempt + from the puerilities of Greek rhetoric. Orpheus could _only_ + charm the wild beasts of Thrace; but Theodosius enchanted the men + and women, whose predecessors in the same country had torn + Orpheus in pieces, &c.] + + Notwithstanding these specious arguments, and these sanguine + expectations, it was apparent to every discerning eye, that the + Goths would long remain the enemies, and might soon become the + conquerors of the Roman empire. Their rude and insolent behavior + expressed their contempt of the citizens and provincials, whom + they insulted with impunity. 133 To the zeal and valor of the + Barbarians Theodosius was indebted for the success of his arms: + but their assistance was precarious; and they were sometimes + seduced, by a treacherous and inconstant disposition, to abandon + his standard, at the moment when their service was the most + essential. During the civil war against Maximus, a great number + of Gothic deserters retired into the morasses of Macedonia, + wasted the adjacent provinces, and obliged the intrepid monarch + to expose his person, and exert his power, to suppress the rising + flame of rebellion. 134 The public apprehensions were fortified + by the strong suspicion, that these tumults were not the effect + of accidental passion, but the result of deep and premeditated + design. It was generally believed, that the Goths had signed the + treaty of peace with a hostile and insidious spirit; and that + their chiefs had previously bound themselves, by a solemn and + secret oath, never to keep faith with the Romans; to maintain the + fairest show of loyalty and friendship, and to watch the + favorable moment of rapine, of conquest, and of revenge. But as + the minds of the Barbarians were not insensible to the power of + gratitude, several of the Gothic leaders sincerely devoted + themselves to the service of the empire, or, at least, of the + emperor; the whole nation was insensibly divided into two + opposite factions, and much sophistry was employed in + conversation and dispute, to compare the obligations of their + first, and second, engagements. The Goths, who considered + themselves as the friends of peace, of justice, and of Rome, were + directed by the authority of Fravitta, a valiant and honorable + youth, distinguished above the rest of his countrymen by the + politeness of his manners, the liberality of his sentiments, and + the mild virtues of social life. But the more numerous faction + adhered to the fierce and faithless Priulf, 13411 who inflamed + the passions, and asserted the independence, of his warlike + followers. On one of the solemn festivals, when the chiefs of + both parties were invited to the Imperial table, they were + insensibly heated by wine, till they forgot the usual restraints + of discretion and respect, and betrayed, in the presence of + Theodosius, the fatal secret of their domestic disputes. The + emperor, who had been the reluctant witness of this extraordinary + controversy, dissembled his fears and resentment, and soon + dismissed the tumultuous assembly. Fravitta, alarmed and + exasperated by the insolence of his rival, whose departure from + the palace might have been the signal of a civil war, boldly + followed him; and, drawing his sword, laid Priulf dead at his + feet. Their companions flew to arms; and the faithful champion of + Rome would have been oppressed by superior numbers, if he had not + been protected by the seasonable interposition of the Imperial + guards. 135 Such were the scenes of Barbaric rage, which + disgraced the palace and table of the Roman emperor; and, as the + impatient Goths could only be restrained by the firm and + temperate character of Theodosius, the public safety seemed to + depend on the life and abilities of a single man. 136 + + 133 (return) [ Constantinople was deprived half a day of the + public allowance of bread, to expiate the murder of a Gothic + soldier: was the guilt of the people. Libanius, Orat. xii. p. + 394, edit. Morel.] + + 134 (return) [ Zosimus, l. iv. p. 267-271. He tells a long and + ridiculous story of the adventurous prince, who roved the country + with only five horsemen, of a spy whom they detected, whipped, + and killed in an old woman’s cottage, &c.] + + 13411 (return) [ Eunapius.—M.] + + 135 (return) [ Compare Eunapius (in Excerpt. Legat. p. 21, 22) + with Zosimus, (l. iv. p. 279.) The difference of circumstances + and names must undoubtedly be applied to the same story. + Fravitta, or Travitta, was afterwards consul, (A.D. 401.) and + still continued his faithful services to the eldest son of + Theodosius. (Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. v. p. 467.)] + + 136 (return) [ Les Goths ravagerent tout depuis le Danube + jusqu’au Bosphore; exterminerent Valens et son armée; et ne + repasserent le Danube, que pour abandonner l’affreuse solitude + qu’ils avoient faite, (Œuvres de Montesquieu, tom. iii. p. 479. + Considerations sur les _Causes_ de la Grandeur et de la Décadence + des Romains, c. xvii.) The president Montesquieu seems ignorant + that the Goths, after the defeat of Valens, _never_ abandoned the + Roman territory. It is now thirty years, says Claudian, (de Bello + Getico, 166, &c., A.D. 404,) Ex quo jam patrios gens hæc oblita + Triones, Atque Istrum transvecta semel, vestigia fixit Threicio + funesta solo—the error is inexcusable; since it disguises the + principal and immediate cause of the fall of the Western empire + of Rome.] + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the +United States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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