diff options
Diffstat (limited to '7320-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/7320-h.htm | 4641 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan1.jpg | bin | 0 -> 11206 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan10.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9633 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan11.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9756 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan12.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10588 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan13.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6346 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan14.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6623 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan15.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7056 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan16.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10532 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan17.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9602 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan18.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8497 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan19.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8106 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan2.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4772 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan20.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9700 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan21.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6541 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan22.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9117 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan23.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8854 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan24.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8698 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan25.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6978 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan26.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7488 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan27.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8199 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan28.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8780 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan3.jpg | bin | 0 -> 18034 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan4.jpg | bin | 0 -> 21607 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan5.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10703 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan6.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10306 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan7.jpg | bin | 0 -> 11260 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan8.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9605 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 7320-h/images/afghan9.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5492 bytes |
29 files changed, 4641 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/7320-h/7320-h.htm b/7320-h/7320-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cd59ac4 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/7320-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4641 @@ + +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; +charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of +AFGHANISTAN AND THE ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE by THEO. F. RODENBOUGH +</title> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Afghanistan and the Anglo-Russian Dispute, by +Theo. F. Rodenbough + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Afghanistan and the Anglo-Russian Dispute + +Author: Theo. F. Rodenbough + +Posting Date: September 26, 2012 [EBook #7320] +Release Date: January, 2005 +First Posted: April 12, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AFGHANISTAN, ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE *** + + + + +Produced by Andrea Ball, Eric Eldred, Charles Franks, +Juliet Sutherland, and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<img src="images/afghan1.jpg" +alt="AFGHANISTAN: ENGLAND VERSUS RUSSIA"> +<p> </p> + +<img src="images/afghan2.jpg" +alt="The Ruler of Afghanistan, Abdurrahman Khan, Ameer of Kabul."> + +<p> </p> +<h2>AFGHANISTAN<br>AND THE<br>ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE</h2> + +<h4>AN ACCOUNT OF RUSSIA'S ADVANCE TOWARD INDIA, BASED UPON THE<br> +REPORTS AND EXPERIENCES OF RUSSIAN, GERMAN, AND BRITISH<br> +OFFICERS AND TRAVELLERS; WITH A DESCRIPTION OF<br> +AFGHANISTAN AND OF THE MILITARY RESOURCES<br> +OF THE POWERS CONCERNED</h4> + +<h5>BY<br><br> +THEO. F. RODENBOUGH<br><br> +BVT. BRIGADIER GENERAL, U.S.A.<br> +</h5> + +<h5> + * * * * * + <br> +WITH THREE MAPS AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS + <br> + * * * * * +</h5> +<p> </p> + + +<h5>CONTENTS + <br> + +I.<br> +THROUGH THE GATES OF ASIA<br> +<br> +II.<br> +ON THE THRESHOLD OF INDIA<br> +<br> +III.<br> +THE BRITISH FORCES AND ROUTES<br> +<br> +IV.<br> +THE RUSSIAN FORCES AND APPROACHES<br> +<br> +V.<br> +REVIEW OF THE MILITARY SITUATION<br> +LIST OF AUTHORITIES<br> +INDEX<br> +</h5> + +<p> </p> + + +<h5>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h5> + + +<h5><i>MAPS</i>.</h5> + +<p> +Afghanistan and the Surrounding Territories (Drawn for this Work and +Corrected by the Latest Military Surveys--end of vol.) +[Note: It was not possible to include this map as the original was +too fragile to scan.] +</p> +<p> +The Asiatic Territories Absorbed by Russia During the Past Two +Centuries, with the Dates of the Various Annexations +</p> +<p> +The Russian Lines of Advance from their Base of Supplies +</p> + + <br> + +<h5><i>CUTS</i>.</h5> + +<p> +Abdurrahman Khan, Ameer of Kabul (Frontispiece) +</p> +<p> +Mahaz Khan (A Tajik), Khan of Pest Bolak +Jehandad (Lohanir), from Ghazni +</p> +<p> +Wullie Mohammed, a Dahzungi Hazara +Pozai Khan, a Shinwarri (Musician) +</p> +<p> +Khan Baz, a Khumbhur Khel Afreedi +Tooro Baz, a Kookie Khel Afreedi +</p> +<p> +Zool Kuddar, an Adam Khel Afreedi +Mousa, a Kizilbash, Born in Peshawur +</p> +<p> +The City of Kandahar, Afghanistan +</p> +<p> +Castle of Zohâk, First March from Bamian, Irâk Road to Kabul +</p> +<p> +An Afghan Post-Chaise; Going to the Front +</p> +<p> +Gate of the Bazaar at Kabul +</p> +<p> +Major-General, Sir F. S. Roberts, V.C., K.C.B. +</p> +<p> +Khelat-i-Ghilzi, between Kandahar and Ghazni +</p> +<p> +Elephant with Artillery; on the Road to Ali Musjid +</p> +<p> +Detail of Elephant Saddle +</p> +<p> +Noah's Valley, Kunar River +</p> +<p> +Watch Tower in the Khaiber Pass +</p> +<p> +Fort of Ali Musjid, from the Heights above Lala Cheena, in the +Khaiber Pass +</p> +<p> +Fort of Dakka, on the Kabul River +</p> +<p> +The Ishbola Tepé, Khaiber Pass +</p> +<p> +Entrance to the Bolan Pass, from Dadur +</p> +<p> +Entrance to the Khojak Pass, from Pishin, on the Road to Kandahar +</p> +<p> +The Order of March in Central Asia +</p> +<p> +Gorge in the Tirband-i-Turkestan, through which the Murghab flows +</p> +<p> +Jelalabad, from Piper's Hill +</p> +<p> + +<img src="images/afghan3.jpg" +alt="MAP Showing the Advances of RUSSIA towards INDIA 1734-1884."> + +<p> </p> + +<h3>AFGHANISTAN AND THE ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE</h3> + + +<h5>I.</h5> +<h5>THROUGH THE GATES OF ASIA.</h5> + +<p> +In universal history there is no more interesting subject for the +consideration of the political student than the record of Russian +progress through Central Asia. +</p> +<p> +In one sense this advance is a practical reestablishment or +extension of the influence of the Aryan race in countries long +dominated by peoples of Turki or Mongolian origin; in another +sense it has resulted in a transition from the barbarism or rude +forms of Asiatic life to the enlightenment and higher moral +development of a European age. In a religious sense it embodies a +crusade against Oriental fanaticism; and it is a curious feature of +the Anglo-Russian dispute, that upon a question of temporal gain, +the greatest Christian nation finds itself allied with the followers +of Buddha and Mahomet against Russia under the Banner of the Cross. +</p> +<p> +The descendants of the great Peter have opened up in Central Asia a +new region which, if as yet it has not been "made to blossom as the +rose," has nevertheless profited by the introduction of law, order, +and a certain amount of industrial prosperity. +</p> +<p> +Russia commenced her relations with Central Asia as early as the +sixteenth century. Not only through embassies sent, but by military +expeditions; these, however, at that time were private ventures by +roving Cossacks and other inhabitants of Southern Russia. Authorized +government expeditions commenced with Peter the Great, who in +1716-17 sent two exploring parties into the Central Asian +deserts--Bekovitch to Khiva, and Likhareff to the Black Irtish. These +expeditions were undertaken in search of gold, supposed to exist in +those regions, but failed in their object; the detachment under +Bekovitch being entirely destroyed after reaching Khiva. Peter +next turned his attention to the country bordering upon the +southern shores of the Caspian Sea; taking advantage of Persian +embarrassments, with the consent of the Shah and of the Sultan he +acquired, in 1722-3, the provinces of Gilan, Mazanderan, and +Asterabad; but the great expense of maintaining a large garrison so +remote from Russia, and the unhealthiness of the locality, induced +the Russian Government, in 1732, to restore the districts to Persia. +In the same year Abul-Khair, the Khan of the Little Kirghiz Horde, +voluntarily submitted to Russia. Twenty years later a small strip of +the kingdom of Djungaria, on the Irtish, was absorbed, and toward +the commencement of the reign of Catharine II., Russian authority +was asserted and maintained over the broad tract from the Altai to +the Caspian. This occupation was limited to a line of outposts along +the Ural, the Irtish, and in the intervening district. During +Catharine's reign the frontier nomads became reduced in numbers, by +the departure from the steppe between the Ural and Volga of the +Calmucks, who fled into Djungaria, and were nearly destroyed on the +road, by the Kirghiz. +</p> +<p> +The connection between Russia and Central Asia at this time assumed +another character, that of complete tranquillity, in consequence of +the development of trade through Orenburg and to some extent through +Troitsk and Petropaulovsk. The lines along the Ural and Irtish +gradually acquired strength; the robber-raids into European Russia +and Western Siberia almost entirely ceasing. The allegiance of the +Kirghiz of the Little and Central Hordes was expressed in the fact +that their Khans were always selected under Russian influence and +from time to time appeared at St. Petersburg to render homage. With +the Central Asian khanates there was no connection except that of +trade, but as regarded the Turcomans, who, it is said, had +frequently asked for Russian protection, intercourse was +discouraged, as they could not be trusted "within the lines," being +simply bandits. +</p> +<p> +The Emperor Paul imagined that the steppes offered a good road to +Southern Asia, and desiring to expel the English from India, in the +year 1800 he despatched a large number of Don Cossacks, under +Orloff, through the districts of the Little Horde. At the time a +treaty was concluded with Napoleon, then First Consul, by virtue of +which a combined Russo-French army was to disembark at Asterabad and +march from thence into India by way of Khorassan and Afghanistan. +The death of the Emperor of Russia put an end to this plan. +</p> +<p> +During the reign of Alexander I., Central Asia was suffered to rest, +and even the Chinese made raids into Russian territory without +interruption. In the third decade of the present century, however, +several advanced military settlements of Cossacks were founded. +"Thus," says M. Veniukoff, "was inaugurated the policy which +afterward guided us in the steppe, the foundation of advanced +settlements and towns (at first forts, afterwards <i>stanitsas</i> +[Footnote: Cossack settlements.]) until the most advanced of them +touches some natural barrier." +</p> +<p> +About 1840, it was discovered that the system of military +colonization was more effectual in preserving order in the Orenburg +district than by flying detachments sent, as occasion required, from +Southern Russia; and in 1845-6 the Orenburg and Ural (or Targai and +Irgiz) forts were established. In 1846 the Great Kirghiz Horde +acknowledged its subjection to Russia on the farther side of the +Balkash, while at the same time a fort was constructed on the lower +Yaxartes. +</p> +<p> +In 1847 the encroachments of Russia in Central Asia had brought her +upon the borders of the important khanates of Khiva and Khokand, +and, like some huge boa-constrictor, she prepared to swallow them. +In 1852 the inevitable military expedition was followed by the +customary permanent post. Another row of forts was planted on the +Lower Yaxartes, and in 1854 far to the eastward, in the midst of the +Great Horde, was built Fort Vernoye--the foundation of a new line, +more or less contiguous to natural boundaries (mountains and +rivers), but not a close line. Between Perovsky and Vernoye there +were upwards of four hundred and fifty miles of desert open to the +incursions of brigands, and between the Aral and Caspian seas there +was a gap, two hundred miles in width, favorable for raids into the +Orenburg Steppe from the side of Khiva. Finally, under the pretext +of closing this gap, a general convergent movement of the Siberian +and Orenburg forces commenced, culminating under General Tchernayeff +in the capture of Aulieata and Chemkent in 1864, and of Tashkent in +1865. +</p> +<p> +Here, M. Veniukoff says: "The Government intended to halt in its +conquests, and, limiting itself to forming a closed line on the +south of the Kirghiz steppes, left it to the sedentary inhabitants +of Tashkent to form a separate khanate from the Khokand so hostile +to us." And this historian tells us that the Tashkendees declined +the honor of becoming the Czar's policemen in this way, evidently +foreseeing the end, and, to cut the matter short, chose the Russian +general, Tchernayeff, as their Khan. The few Central Asian rulers +whose necks had so far escaped the Muscovite heel, made an +ineffectual resistance, and in 1866 Hodjeni and Jizakh were duly +"annexed," thus separating Bokhara and Khokand. +</p> +<p> +Here we may glance at the method by which Russia took firmer root on +the shores of the Caspian, and established a commercial link with +the Khivan region. In 1869 a military post and seaport was planted +at Krasnovodsk, on that point of the east shore of the Caspian, +which presents the greatest facilities for shipping, and as a base +of operations against the Turcomans, who were at that time very +troublesome. Several military expeditions set out from this point, +and every year detachments of troops were despatched to keep the +roads open toward Khiva, the Kepet Dagh, or the banks of the Attrek. +Within five years (1870-'75) the nomads living within the routes +named had become "good Turcomans," carried the Czar's mails to +Khiva, and furnished the Krasnovodsk-Khivan caravans with camels and +drivers. But the colonization scheme on the lower Caspian had once +more brought the Russians to the Persian boundary. In 1869 the Shah +had been rather officiously assured that Russia would not think of +going below the line of the Attrek; yet, as Colonel Veniukoff shows, +she now regrets having committed herself, and urges "geographical +ignorance" of the locality when the assurance was given, and the +fact that part of her restless subjects, on the Attrek, pass eight +months of the year in Russian territory and four in "so-called" +Persia; it is therefore not difficult to imagine the probable change +on the map of that quarter. +</p> +<p> +The march continued toward Khiva, and after the usual +iron-hand-in-velvet-glove introduction, General Kaufmann in 1873 pounced upon +that important khanate, and thus added another to the jewels of the +Empire. Nominally, Khiva is independent, but nevertheless collects +and pays to Russia a considerable contribution annually. +</p> +<p> +In 1868 Russia seized Samarcand, and established over the khanate of +Bokhara a similar supervision to that in Khiva. As the distinguished +Russian already quoted remarks: "The programme of the political +existence of Bokhara as a separate sovereignty was accorded to her +by us in the shape of two treaties, in 1868 and 1873, which defined +her subordinate relation to Russia. But no one looks at these acts +as the treaties of an equal with an equal. They are instructions in +a polite form, or programmes given by the civilized conqueror to the +conquered barbarians, and the execution of which is guaranteed by +the immediate presence of a military force." +</p> +<p> +The district of Khokand, whose ruler, Khudoyar Khan, submitted +himself to Russia in 1867, was for a number of years nominally +independent, but becoming disturbed by domestic dissensions, was +ultimately annexed under the name of the Fergana Province. +</p> +<p> +To this point we have followed Colonel Veniukoff's account of the +Russian advance. It will doubtless interest the reader to continue +the narrative from an English view, exceptionally accurate and +dispassionate in its nature. +</p> +<p> +In a lecture before the Royal United Service Institution in London, +May 16, 1884, Lieut.-General Sir Edward Hamley, of the British Army, +discussed the Central Asian question before an audience comprising +such Indian experts as Sir Henry Rawlinson, Lord Napier of Magdala, +and Mr. Charles Marvin, and many distinguished officers, including +Lord Chelmsford, Sir F. Haines, and Colonel Malleson. Among other +things, General Hamley said: +</p> +<p> +"Probably England has never been quite free, during the present +century, from some degree of anxiety caused by the steady, gradual +approaches of Russia through Central Asia toward India. It was seen +that where her foot was planted it never went back. It was seen that +with forces comparatively small she never failed to effect any +conquest she was bent on, and that the conquest, once effected, was +final. This security in possession was owing in great measure to the +fact that the governments she displaced were bad governments, and +that she substituted one far better in itself and of a simplicity +which was well adapted to the people with whom she was dealing. She +aimed mainly at three things--the establishment of order and of +confidence and the obtaining of some return for her own heavy +expenses. From the establishment of order and of confidence sprang a +prosperity which enabled her to obtain a certain revenue, though +entirely inadequate to her expenditure. Thus we beheld her pressing +solidly on, and we knew not where she might stop. Pretexts, such as +it was difficult to find a flaw in, were never wanting on which to +ground a fresh absorption of territory. And seeing behind this +advance a vast country--almost a continent--which was not merely a +great Asiatic Power, but a great European State, under autocratic, +irresponsible rule, with interests touching ours at many points, it +is not to be wondered at that we watched with anxiety her progress +as she bore steadily down toward our Indian frontier." +</p> +<p> +General Hamley says that England became particularly suspicious of +Russia in 1867 when she absorbed Turkestan, and this feeling was +intensified in 1878, while the Treaty of Berlin was still pending. +General Kaufmann assembled a small army of about 12,000 men and +thirty-two guns on the frontier of Bokhara, and although upon the +signing of the treaty all threatening movements ceased, yet the +British commander then operating in Afghanistan knew that Kaufmann +had proposed to march in the direction of Kabul, and menace the +British frontier. +</p> +<p> +It has ever been the practice of Russia, in her schemes of +aggrandizement, to combine her diplomatic with her military +machinery; but, unlike other nations, the ambassador has generally +been subordinate to the general. +</p> +<p> +At the time that General Kaufmann sheathed his sword under the +influence of the Treaty of Berlin, in 1878, there remained another +representative of Russia--General Stolietoff--who had been quietly +negotiating with the Ameer of Afghanistan, Shere Ali, the terms of a +"Russian treaty," whose characteristics have already been described. +Hearing of this, the English Ambassador at St. Petersburg questioned +the Russian Minister, who answered him "that no mission had been, +nor was intended to be, sent to Kabul, either by the Imperial +Government or by General Kaufmann." This denial was given on July +3d, the day after Stolietoff and his mission had started from +Samarcand. After the envoy's arrival at Kabul, another remonstrance +met with the reply that the mission was "of a professional nature +and one of simple courtesy," and was not, therefore, inconsistent +with the pacific assurances already given. The real nature of this +mission became known from papers found by General Roberts at Kabul +in 1879. These showed that Shere Ali had been invited to form a +close alliance with the Russian Government. General Kaufmann had +advised Shere Ali to try and stir up disaffection among the Queen's +Indian subjects, promising to aid him, eventually, with troops. +Finding that this scheme was impracticable at the moment, Russia +dropped the Ameer, who fled from the scene of his misfortunes, and +died soon after. +</p> +<p> +For the moment England breathed more freely. There were still great +natural obstacles between the empires of Russia and of India. Not +only the friendly state of Afghanistan, but on its northwestern +border the neutral territory of Merv, hitherto an independent +province, and inhabited by warlike tribes of Turcomans difficult to +reach through their deserts and likely to harass a Russian advance +to Herat to an embarrassing extent. It was seen that the possession +of this territory would at once free Russia from much difficulty in +case of an advance and give her the means of threatening Herat as +well as Kabul from her base in Turkestan, and even to some extent to +carry forward that base beyond the Oxus. +</p> +<p> +On the part of Russia, the success of General Skobeleff in capturing +the fortified position of Geok Tepé, January 24, 1880, marked the +beginning of negotiations with the Turcomans for the acquisition of +Merv. For a long while these were unsuccessful, but early in 1884 it +was cabled to London, that "The Queen of the World" had accepted the +White Czar as her future liege lord. +</p> +<p> +The immediate cause of this event was the effect produced upon the +minds of the Turcoman deputation to Moscow by the spectacle of the +Czar's coronation. The impression created by the gorgeous ceremonial +was heightened by the presence of so many Asiatic chiefs and +kinglets at the ancient and historic capital of Russia. The tales +they brought back were well calculated to influence the minds of a +wild and primitive people; and when the Khan of Khiva proffered his +services for the settlement of their relations with Russia, that +section of the Tekke tribe in favor of peace accepted them. The +chiefs tendered their formal submission to the Czar, and promised to +allow Russian merchants to reside among them, and pledged themselves +to maintain the security of the routes from the Oxus to the Tejend; +also accepting the responsibilities of Russian subjects by rendering +tribute either in money or by military service. To all intents and +purposes it is equivalent to the establishment of a Russian garrison +in Merv. +</p> +<p> +The thorough way in which Russia seeks to bind her Asiatic subjects +is shown in the fact that in 1884, at the request of the Khan of +Khiva, a Russian tutor was selected to instruct his children. +</p> +<p> +Soon after it was reported that the Russians had established +themselves at Sarakhs on the direct road to Herat and just over the +Persian boundary of Afghanistan. These later movements again aroused +the distrust of England, and a joint commission of Russian and +English officials was appointed early in the year 1885. +</p> +<p> +While the English members of the commission under Sir Peter Lumsden +were awaiting the convenience of their foreign colleagues, the +presence of Russian troops was reported on the disputed territory in +the vicinity of Herat. +</p> +<p> +This action alarmed the Afghans, and a collision seemed imminent. +The English Government considered M. de Giers' explanation of this +encroachment unsatisfactory. Pending an adjustment of the new +complication both nations prepared for the worst. +</p> +<p> +Here we will leave the subject of the Russian advance through the +Gates of Asia and pass to the consideration of the present neutral +ground of Afghanistan. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan4.jpg" +alt="OUTLINE MAP Showing RUSSIAN-CAUCASIAN and TRANS-CASPIAN +Territory, and NEW ODESSA-HERAT ROUTE."> + +<p> </p> + +<h5>II.</h5> +<h5>ON THE THRESHOLD OF INDIA.</h5> + +<p> +From the Amu Daria and the Turcoman steppes to the deserts of +Beloochistan, from Persian Khorassan to the valley of the Indus, +stretches the country of the Afghans. Men of renown and events of +world-wide interest have been connected with its history. Its +records tell of the murder of Cavagnari in recent times; of the +tragedy of Elphinstone's command (1838-42); of Shah Nadir, the +butcher of Delhi (1738-39); of Baber Khan, the founder of Mongolian +rule in India (1520); of Timur, the assailer of the world (1398); of +Genghiz Khan, the annihilator of the civilization of ancient Asia +(1218-24); of the great ruler, Sultan Mahmoud (A. D. 1000); and yet +earlier, of Alexander, "the divinely favored Macedonian." Afghan +history dies away, in the hymns of the Indian Vedas, eighteen +hundred years before the birth of Christ. +</p> +<p> +The territory of Afghanistan--which is destined to be the arena of a +great international duel--covers an area of 12,000 square miles, or +a tract measuring from north to south 688 miles, and from east to +west 736 miles. It is a mountainous country; a high plateau, 6,000 +feet above the sea, overlooked by lofty mountain ranges which open +out and sink toward the west and south. On the north it is bordered +by the western ranges of the Himalayas, which reach to the Amu +Daria; by the wall-like range of the Hindu Kush, some of whose peaks +are 19,000 feet high; and by several smaller ridges. Between the +Kabul and Kuram rivers rises the snow-capped Sufeid Koh, the +principal peak of which, to the south of Jelalabad, attains an +altitude of 15,000 feet. To the south of this, in Southern +Afghanistan, the Suleiman range, of an average height of 9,000 feet, +falls rapidly toward the valley of the Indus. Between the Hindu Kush +and the Suleiman ranges there are several lesser ones stretching +toward the southwest, including the Auran Mountains (7,000 feet). +</p> +<p> +Of the principal rivers noted here (the Helmund, Har-i-Rúd, Kabul, +Kuram, and the Gomal) the Helmund alone is navigable. The Helmund +terminates in the swamps of Seistan, as also do the Kash, Farrah, +and Herat rivers, running parallel to the Helmund across the +Kandahar-Herat roads, at 80, 150, and 200 miles, respectively, to +the west of it. These rivers are without bridges, but (with the +exception of the Helmund--provided with ferry at Girishk) are +fordable, save in the months of April and May. The country is +otherwise open and easily traversable, but only on the main routes +can water be readily obtained, and forage is scarce in the winter. +</p> +<p> +The Turnuk valley, running northeast from Kandahar, is followed by +the great route to Ghazni and Kabul skirting the Guikok range--separated +from the Hazaristan to its west by the parallel valley of +the Argandab. The latter valley is also followed by a route which +enters it from Mooktur, the source of the Turnuk. This debouches +upon the Herat road about ten miles west of Kandahar, and there is +no communication west of it between Herat and Kabul, save by +impracticable mountain routes across the Hazaristan. +</p> +<p> +Three routes from Kandahar to Herat separate at Girishk on the +Helmund, cross the Kash at different points, and meet at Sabzawar +(280 miles from Kandahar) on the Herat; both of the southernmost +passing by the town of Farrah, which is 230 miles from Kandahar. +From Girishk also a road follows the Helmund to Seistan and Lash +Jowain, where it joins the Herat road at Farrah on the river of that +name, or at Sabzawar on the Herat. The southernmost of the routes to +Farrah also branches from Kash down the river named Kash, joining +the Seistan route at Lash. +</p> +<p> +The general aspect of Afghanistan is that of a series of elevated +flat-bottomed valleys, in the vicinity of the streams, somewhat +under cultivation. The scenery is often wild and beautiful, and some +of the defiles to the north of the Hindu Kush are said to be of +appalling grandeur, while the soft, still loveliness of the +sheltered glens on the southern slope of that range strongly +impresses the traveller who visits them. Some of the ranges in the +north and northeast are well timbered with pine and oak. +</p> +<p> +The eastern half of Afghanistan is generally cold and rugged, but +sustains innumerable flocks and herds, and abounds in mineral +wealth, especially lead and sulphur. In the more sheltered valleys +considerable fruit is grown, but only grain enough for the actual +consumption of the inhabitants. Water and fodder abound, but fuel is +deficient; a serious matter, as the cold in the winter is extreme. +The western part of Afghanistan is a more fertile region, +interspersed, it is true, with lofty ranges, but comprising many +pleasant valleys and pastures. +</p> +<p> +The population is approximately estimated at eight millions. +Afghanistan is a genuine society of different nations, although the +greater part are of Persian descent. The strongholds of the German +self-protecting federations are here produced on a large scale. +</p> +<p> +Thus the Duranis, Tajiks, Yusafzais, Ghilzais, Eimâks, Hazaris, +Kaffirs, Hindus, Jats, Arabs, Kizilbashis, Uzbeks, Biluchis, are +near neighbors; of these about 3,000,000 may be real Afghans who +profess the Suni faith and speak Indo-Persian Puchtu. There are over +four hundred inferior tribes known. The Duranis are numerically +strongest and live in the vicinity of Kandahar. Next in importance +are the Ghilzais, estimated at 30,000 fighting men living in the +triangle--Kabul, Jelalabad, Khelat-i-Ghilzai; until 1747 they +furnished the rulers of Afghanistan. To the south of the Ghilzais +live the Puchtu-speaking races who chiefly defend only their own +territory; the mountainous eastern border is inhabited by the +Momunds, Afridis, Arakzais, Zymukts, Waziris, who have never been +subdued. Their sense of independence, however, does not prevent them +from selling their friendship for ready money to the highest bidder. +On the watershed of the Helmund and Indus dwell the independent +Pathans and Biluchis. The Persian-speaking Kizilbashis in Kabul, +comprise 3,000,000 of Shiahs, who are not Afghans, many of whose +30,000 fighting men are in the Ameer's regular army. The Tajiks--about +10,000 men--are chiefly in the Kabul and Ghazni districts. +The Hazaris and Eimâks are in the central section of Afghanistan, +known as the Hazaristan, extending east and west from the Koushan +pass over the Hindu-Kush range to Marchat on the Turcoman frontier, +and north and south from Sirpool in Turkestan to Girishk, between +Kandahar and Herat; they are the descendants of the military +settlers left by the Tartar hordes that swept Central Asia under +Genghiz Khan, and still maintain a quasi-independence; they +cordially detest the Afghan Government, but pay an annual tribute in +money to its support. Finally there is a million of foreign +nationalities, including Turks, Persians, Indians, Armenians, and +Kaffirs; the last-named are Hindus, and violent antagonists of the +Mohammedans living around them. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan5.jpg" +alt="Mahaz Khan (a Tajik), Khan of Pest Bolak. +Jehandad (Lohanir),from Ghazni."> + +<p> +Thus it is seen that modern Afghanistan comprises three great +districts--Herat in the west, Kabul in the east, and Kandahar in the +centre, with the seat of government at the cities of the same names +respectively. Within each district are, as already described, a +large number of tribes occupying sub-districts, closely connected +like the cells of a honey-comb, but each with its destinctive +manners and customs and irregular military forces, in no instance +numbering less than 6,000 men, and often twice that number, divided +about equally into horse and foot. Many of these render military +service to the Ameer, many are bandits in the worst sense. The +nomadic tribes--like the Eimâks peopling the Heratic region--live +principally in tents, encamping in winter in the valleys, and in +summer on the table-lands of the mountain ranges. They are ignorant, +hospitable, and brave and ardent hunters. Their principal trade is +with Herat, and consists of woollen and camel-hair fabrics and +clarified butter. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan6.jpg" +alt="Wullie Mohammed, a Dahzungi Hazara. +Pozai Khan, a Shinwarri (Musician)."> + +<p> +The farming population all live in small hamlets. The better classes +of these live in villages surrounding or joined to the castle of a +Khan. These castles are encompassed by a rude wall, having +frequently turrets at the corners, and occasionally armed with +swivel-guns or wall-pieces. The principal gardens are always on the +outside of the castle, and the herds of horses and camels belonging +to the Khan are kept at distant pastures and attended by herders, +who live in tents. In the Bori and Ghazgar valleys the houses are of +wood. In the Ghazgar valley they are all fortified, as already +described; the doors are generally mere man-holes, and the top of +the towers are loopholes. The better class, and more modern of +these, have flat roofs, from which the water is carried by spouts; +the walls surrounding are at least twelve feet high, and cover +nearly an acre of ground. Three or four such houses usually +constitute a village. These semi-barbarians are noted for the length +and ferocity of their feuds. Sometimes two branches of a family who +are neighbors become enemies. The distance between their "fortlets" +may be two hundred yards, and on that space no one ventures. They go +out at opposite gates and walk straight from their own fort in a +line protected by its walls from the fire of the other, until out of +range, then they turn around to their fields. Broadfoot relates that +"once in Zurmat I saw a fort shut by rolling a stone against the +door, instead of with the usual heavy chain. On inquiring as to the +cause of such carelessness, the Malik, a fine old man with a plump, +good-humored face, stretched his arms out toward the line of distant +forts, and said: 'I have not an enemy!' It was a pleasing exception +to the rule." +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan7.jpg" +alt="Khan Baz, a Khumbhur Khel Afreedi. +Tooro Baz, a Kookie Khel Afreedi."> + +<p> +These feuds are a system of petty warfare, carried on by long shots, +stealing cattle, and burning crops. Samson, burning his neighbor's +corn, acted just like an Afghan. When the harvest is nearly ripe, +neither party dare sleep. The remedy is sometimes for both to fight +until an equal number are killed on each side, when the neighbors +step in and effect a reconciliation; another method is to pay +forfeit of a feast and some sheep or cloth; in exceptional cases, a +few Afghan virgins are substituted for the sheep, but they are given +in marriage, and are well treated. +</p> +<p> +Our space does not permit an extended reference to the manners and +customs of this primitive people but a few characteristics may be +briefly noted. The love of war is felt much more among Afghans than +by other Eastern peoples, although but little effort has been made +by them to augment the means of resistance and aggression. Pillage, +fighting, and disturbances are at times necessary to their very +existence, and are followed by long days of idleness, during which +they live on the fruits of their depredations. There is no shade of +difference between the character of the nomad and the citizen; a +town life does not soften their habits; they live there as they live +in a tent, armed to the teeth and ready for the onslaught. Though +full of duplicity, one is nevertheless liable to be taken in by +their apparent frankness. They are hospitable to strangers, but only +because this is an ancient custom which has the force of law and is +not a virtue which springs from the heart. The pride of the Afghans +is a marked feature of their national character. They boast of their +descent, their prowess in arms, their independence; and cap all by +"Am I not a Puktan?" +</p> +<p> +The Afghan people, occupied with the defence of their homes, have +failed to assist the Ameer in the formation and maintenance of that +indispensable instrument--an organized, well-equipped, easily +mobilized army. In regular battle the Afghans can have but little +hope of success; their strength lies in the petty warfare peculiar +to a wild, mountainous country. As auxiliaries, as partisan troops +in their own country, they would be of great value to their allies +and extremely troublesome to their enemies. For outpost, courier, +and scouting purposes, they would doubtless be most efficient. The +strength of the organized army in the service of the Ameer of +Afghanistan is about 50,000 men of all arms. The traveller Vámbéry, +who visited Herat in 1863, says: +</p> +<p> +"The Afghan's national costume consists of a long shirt, drawers, +and dirty linen clothes; or, if he is a soldier, he affects a +British red coat. He throws it over his shirt, while he gets on his +head the picturesque Indo-Afghan turban. Others again--and these are +the <i>beau-monde</i>--are wont to assume a half-Persian costume. +Weapons are borne by all. Rarely does any one, whether civil or +military, enter the bazar without his sword and shield. To be +quite <i>à la mode</i> one must carry about one quite an arsenal, +consisting of two pistols, a sword, poniard, hand-jar, gun, and +shield." M. Vámbéry also describes a drill of some Afghan regulars. +</p> +<p> +"The men had a very military bearing, far better than the Ottoman +army that was so drilled forty years ago. These might have been +mistaken for European troops if most of them had not had on their +bare feet the pointed Kabuli shoe, and had not had their short +trowsers so tightly stretched by their straps that they threatened +every moment to burst and fly up above the knee." +</p> +<p> +The adventurous O'Donovan thus describes an Afghan cavalryman whom +he met unexpectedly, near Herat, in 1880: "He wore a dark-colored +turban, one end of the cloth pulled up in front so as to resemble a +small cockade. His uniform was blue-black, and he wore long boots. A +broad black leather cross-belt, with two very large brass buckles, +crossed his breast. He had sabre, pistols, and carbine." +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan8.jpg" +alt="Zool Kuddar, an Adam Khel Afreedi. +Mousa, a Kizilbash, Born in Peshawur."> + +<p> +The actual fighting strength of the army of Afghanistan cannot be +definitely stated. Major Lumsden, who has represented the British +Government in that country in various diplomatic capacities, stated +(some years since) that the regular army of the Ameer consisted of +sixteen regiments of infantry, three of cavalry, and seventy-six +field guns. The infantry regiments numbered about 800 men each; the +men were obtained by compulsory levy. Their uniform consisted of +English cast-off clothes purchased at auction. The pay, about five +rupees per mensem, was paid irregularly and often in kind; two +months' pay was deducted for clothing. The cavalry and artillery +were badly horsed; and the horses were sent to graze in summer. A +Russian report of 1868 estimates the infantry at 10,000 men. The +armament, equipment, and instruction of the troops have doubtless +improved since that time, as ten years later the British Government +supplied the Afghan Government with 10,000 Enfield and 5,000 Snider +rifles and one field battery, and very recently (1885) it was +announced that a present of Martini-Henry rifles and improved field +guns had been sent to Abdurrahman by the Indian authorities. +</p> +<p> +Besides the regular army there is a paid irregular mounted force of +about 20,000 men, active and formidable in "hill operations," and +known as Jezailchis. +</p> +<p> +The late General Colin Mackenzie, in an account of his experiences +in the Elphinstone disaster of 1842, says: +</p> +<p> +"The Jezailchis are so called from their jezails or long rifles. The +Afghans are said to be among the best marksmen in the world. They +are accustomed to arms from early boyhood, live in a chronic state +of warfare with their neighbors, and are most skilful in taking +advantage of cover. An Afghan will throw himself flat, behind a +stone barely big enough to cover his head, and scoop a hollow in the +ground with his left elbow as he loads. Men like these only require +training to make first-rate irregular troops. +</p> +<p> +"As a trait of Afghan character, I must mention that whenever the +Jezailchis could snatch five minutes to refresh themselves with a +pipe, one of them would twang a sort of a rude guitar as an +accompaniment to some martial song, which, mingling with the notes +of war, sounded very strangely." +</p> +<p> +The Russian General Staff have also estimated the Ameer's force, +exclusive of the irregulars, at 66,400 men with 30 guns. +</p> +<p> +The efficiency of this body, by reason of their peculiar +surroundings, must vary with the character of the operations. For +defence--particularly of their own section--they form an important +consideration; for aggressive purposes their strength lies in +partisan operations, in small detachments, requiring great mobility. +</p> +<p> +Just as it is difficult to understand the rapidity with which +large numbers are assembled in Afghanistan for fighting purposes, +so the dispersing of an Afghan army together with its attendant +masses of tribal levies in flight is almost beyond comprehension; +men who have been actually engaged in hand-to-hand combat dispose of +their arms in the villages they pass through, and meet their +pursuers with melons or other fruit in their hands, While they adopt +the <i>rôle</i> of peaceful inhabitants. +</p> +<p> +A brief description of some of the more noted cities of Afghanistan +may be appropriate here. +</p> +<p> +Sir Henry Rawlinson gives the following details respecting the +so-called Key of India--the city of Herat: +</p> +<p> +"That which distinguishes Herat from all other Oriental cities, and +at the same time constitutes its main defence, is the stupendous +character of the earthwork upon which the city wall is built. This +earthwork averages 250 feet in width at the base and about 50 feet +in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 feet high and 14 feet +thick at the base, supported by about 150 semicircular towers, and +is further protected by a ditch 45 feet in width and 16 feet in +depth, it presents an appearance of imposing strength. Whether the +place is really as strong as it looks has been differently +estimated. General Ferrier, who resided for some time in Herat, in +1846, states that the city is nothing more than an immense redoubt, +and gives it as his opinion that, as the line of wall is entirely +without flanking defences, the place could not hold out for twenty +days against a European army; and M. Khanikoff, who, although not a +professional soldier, was a very acute observer, further remarks +that the whole interior of the city is dominated from the rising +ground 700 yards distant and covered with solid buildings at the +northeast angle, while the water supply both for the ditch and the +city would be at the mercy of an enemy holding the outside country; +the wells and reservoirs inside the wall, which could then alone be +available--being quite inadequate to the wants of the inhabitants: +but on the other hand, all experience testifies to the defensibility +of the position. +</p> +<p> +"Not to speak of the siege which Herat sustained at the hands of +Genghiz Khan, of Timur, and of Ahmed Shah, we have only to remember +that in 1837 the Afghans of Herat, under Major Eldred Pottinger, +beat off the continuous attacks, for nearly ten months, of a Persian +army of 35,000 regular troops supported by fifty pieces of +artillery, and in many cases directed and even commanded by Russian +officers. The truth seems to be that Herat, although in its present +state quite unfit to resist a European army, possesses great +capabilities of defence, and might by a skilful adaptation of the +resources of modern science be made almost impregnable. Major +Saunders, a British engineer officer, calculated in 1840 that, at an +outlay of £60,000, which would include the expenses of deepening the +ditch, clearing the glacis and esplanade, providing flanking +defences, and repairing the walls throughout, Herat might be +rendered secure against any possible renewal of the attack by +Persia." +</p> +<p> +The location of this city upon the principal thoroughfare between +India, Persia, and Turkestan gives it a special importance in a +military sense. It is also the principal mart of Western +Afghanistan, and comprises extensive manufactures in wool and +leather. The natural fertility of the country near Herat has been +enhanced by irrigation. +</p> +<p> +"The valley, or <i>júlgah</i> (as the Persians say), in which the +city lies is rich in the possession of a river. This valley is about +thirty miles long by sixteen in breadth, exclusive of the ground +taken up by the fortress and the walls. Four of these miles separate +the town from the northern and twelve from the southern hills, while +at one quarter of the greater distance runs the Her-i-Rúd or Herat +River, which, rising near the Kuh-i-Baba, pursues a westerly course +till, passing the city, it sweeps, first gradually, then decidedly, +to the north, eventually to lose its identity in the environs of +Sarakhs. It is of political as well as of geographical importance, +for it passes between the Persian and Afghan frontier posts of +Kahriz and Kúsún respectively, and may be considered to mark the +Perso-Afghan boundary at the Western Paropismus. The Plain, south of +the walls, is watered by a net-work of eight or nine large and many +minor ditches. The aqueducts are stated to be superior to those of +Bokhara, Samarcand, and Ispahan. The grain produced is abundant--beyond +the requirements of town and suburbs together. The bread, the +water, and the vines have the merit of special excellence. Yet, with +all this wealth of means and material, capable of subsisting an army +of 150,000 men for some time, much of the legacy of past ages is +disregarded and nullified by the supineness of a present generation. +The ruins visible on all sides are not all useless or obsolete +works. As one conclusive instance may be cited the neglected +'Púl-i-Malan.' This bridge, of twenty-three arches, can scarcely be +considered void of purpose or practical benefit. It is, however, +rapidly falling into decay, and as the river has changed its bed, +part of it remains, barren of object, on dry land. On the rising of +the waters this state of things is inconvenient; for the river, at +such time, is no longer fordable, and the Kandahar caravans, going +to and fro, have difficulty in crossing." [Footnote: Sir F. J. +Goldsmid, "Journeys Between Herat and Khiva."] +</p> +<p> +In 1830 Conolly was of opinion that the city was one of the dirtiest +in the world, being absolutely destitute of drainage; and Vámbéry, +thirty-three years afterward, when the city was captured by Dost +Mohammed, says the city was largely a heap of rubbish, having +suffered the horrors of a long siege. +</p> +<p> +The city of Kabul, from which the surrounding territory of Eastern +Afghanistan takes its name, stands in lat. 34° 30' N., and long. 69° +6' E., near the point where the Kabul River is crossed by three +bridges. Its altitude is 6,400 feet, and, within a short distance to +the north, is overtopped by pinnacles of the Hindu Kush about 14,000 +feet higher. +</p> +<p> +The winters are severe, but the summers are very temperate--seldom +going above 80°. Kabul is fortified without and within; being +separated into quarters by stone walls: the Bala Hissar, or citadel +proper, being on the east, while the Persian quarter of the city is +strongly protected on the southwest. In the days of Sultan Baber, +Kabul was the capital of the Mogul empire. In modern times, it has +been the scene of many Anglo-Indian struggles. It was taken by the +British in 1839, and lost by them, through treachery, in 1841; +in the following January, 4,000 British soldiers and 12,000 +camp-followers were massacred while retreating. +</p> +<p> +Kandahar, the capital of Central Afghanistan, is about two hundred +miles S. W. of Kabul, and three hundred and seventy-one miles E. of +Herat. It is said to have been founded by Alexander of Macedon. The +city is laid out at right angles, and is watered from the +neighboring rivers through canals, which send to every street an +ample supply. Sir Michael Biddulph describes the surroundings: +"Kandahar stands on the western side of a plain, which was +originally a barren skirt of the mountain. Exactly opposite to the +city, and two miles to the westward, there is a wide break in the +dividing ridge, through which the road to Herat leads, and by which +are conducted the many canals and watercourses, taken from the +Argandab, to supply the town and fertilize its environs. The energy +and skill displayed in these extensive water-works cannot be too +highly extolled. Brought from a point many miles distant in the +Argandab valley, the chief canal, with its offshoots, conducts a +vast body of water, which is dispersed along the contours of the +declining plain in innumerable channels, spreading a rich fertility +for many miles in a fan-like form to the southeast of the gap. +Villages cluster around the city on three sides; cornfields, +orchards, gardens, and vineyards are seen in luxurious succession, +presenting a veritable oasis within the girdle of rugged hills and +desert wastes all around. And if we turn to the aspect of the +country beyond the gap, we see in the Argandab valley, along the +canals and the river banks, a fair and beautiful landscape of +village and cultivated ground, stretching for many miles in each +direction. This productive character of the immediate neighborhood +of Kandahar, and its commanding position within reach of other +fertile districts, would give to this place, under a strong, stable, +and just government, as much prosperity and happiness as falls to +the lot of any place in the world." +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan9.jpg" +alt="City of Kandahar, Afghanistan."> + +<p> +Jelalabad stands on the Kabul River, about half-way between Kabul +and the Khaiber Pass. It was the scene of the stubborn defence by +Sir Robert Sale in 1842, referred to elsewhere. It has a floating +population of about three thousand souls. Our engraving is taken +from the south and west. The stream in the west is the Kabul River. +The Jati gate in the south wall is the exit from the Hindu quarter. +The Kabul exit is on the west, while the road to Peshawur commences +at the gate of that name on the east wall of the city. The northern +gate is known as the Pheel Khana, or elephant quarter. The walls of +the town and of its houses are of mud, and the roofs generally of +wood. The city is laid out in the form of a parallelogram +intersected by two main streets crossing in the centre. +</p> +<p> +The town of Ghazni (the ancient Ghizni) is another historical +landmark in a region famous for its evidences of former grandeur. It +stands about 230 miles northeast of Kandahar on the road to Kabul; +it is literally "founded upon a rock" at an elevation of 7,726 feet, +and its base is 280 feet above the adjacent plain. It has walls +thirty-five feet high, and a wet ditch, but is not considered in any +sense formidable by modern engineers, as it is commanded by +neighboring heights; it will always be a rendezvous for the natives, +and forms a station or an important line of communication between +the Indus and the Murghab. In the tenth century it was the seat of +an empire comprising the present territory of Afghanistan, and which +had in the space of seventy years absorbed thirty-eight degrees of +longitude and twenty degrees of latitude. Its decline dates from the +twelfth century, when the seat of government was transferred to +Lahore. From 1839 to 1880 it has been occupied alternately by the +British and the Afghans. The climate is not exceptionally severe, +although in winter the mercury drops to 25° below zero at times. The +population averages about ten thousand. +</p> +<p> +Peshawur is one of the most important towns, both in a military and +commercial sense, in the <i>Derajat</i>. It is the capital of a +province of the same name on the N. W. frontier of India, eighteen +miles from the Khaiber Pass and one hundred and fifty miles S.E. of +Kabul. It has the usual bastioned defences, besides some detached +works of more importance. It was once a rich and populous city, but +has, like many other like places in that region, fallen from its +high estate. It is garrisoned by the British, and can boast of fair +trade and a population of about fifty thousand. It is the centre of +a fruitful district containing more than one million inhabitants. +</p> +<p> +The fruitful valley and pass of Bamian lie on the road leading from +Kabul to Turkestan. The pass, at an elevation of 8,496 feet, is the +only known defile over the Hindu Kush practicable for artillery. +This valley was one of the chief centres of Buddhist worship, as +gigantic idols, mutilated indeed by fanatical Mussulmans, +conclusively prove. Bamian, with its colossal statues cut out in the +rock, was among the wonders described by the Buddhist monks who +traversed Central Asia in the fourth century. The statues are found +on a hill about three hundred feet high, in which are a number of +cells excavated in the rock, not unlike those found in the Zuni +country in the western part of the United States. The male figure is +about 160 feet, the female 120 feet, in height; they are clothed in +light drapery, and a winding stair may be ascended to the head. + +Eight miles eastward of Bamian lies the ancient fortress of Zohâk, +attributed to the fabulous Persian serpent-king of that name. It is +still used as one of the defences of the pass. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan10.jpg" +alt="Castle of Zohâk, First March from Bamian, +on the Irâk Road to Kabul."> + +<p> +The animals of Afghanistan adapted to military transport purposes +are the camel, the <i>yabu</i> (mountain pony), and the donkey. +</p> +<p> +From certain professional papers, on the camel, by Captain Yaldwyn +and other officers of the Indian Army, we learn that this beast of +burden has been often utilized by the British in Afghanistan, and +the supply of camels raised in that country has generally been +augmented by drafts from India, although the last mentioned do not +thrive under the transition. The camel is docile, capable of +abstinence in an emergency, well adapted for the imposition of loads +and for traversing over flat or sandy ground, adapts itself to rough +roads, has acute sight and smell, and, during progression, moves +both feet on one side, simultaneously. Its flesh and milk are +wholesome articles of food. It is deficient in muscular power +behind, and cannot readily climb hills. Those found in Afghanistan +are of the Arabian species. They are strong, thickset, with +abundance of hair; are short in the leg, better climbers, and more +accustomed to cold than others of the species. Their feeding +requires as much care as that of cavalry or artillery horses; they +are fond of green food, and certain trees and shrubs. In grazing, +camels brought from India sometimes are poisoned by eating the +oleander bush and other plants which the native camel avoids. +Elphinstone's ill-fated expedition in 1841 lost 800 out of 2,500 +camels from this cause alone. On the march, or where grazing does +not abound, they are fed with grain and <i>bhoosa</i> [Footnote: +Chopped straw.]; this is given them in one ration at the end of the +day. The theory that camels do not require much watering is declared +a fallacy; the Arabian species can take in five or six gallons, +sufficient for as many days; they will not drink cold running water; +but, where water can be had, they should be watered daily. The load +of the camel varies from 300 to 450 pounds, depending upon its +condition. It is admirably adapted for carrying long articles, as +ladders, tent-poles, and even light mountain guns. The marching +power of camels depends on a number of conditions. They are good +goers in loose sandy soil, and even over stony ground, if the stones +are not too large and sharp; in slippery places they are useless, as +they have no hold with their feet. They are very enduring, making +the longest marches at an average speed of two miles an hour, and +can ford deep rivers with ease if the current is not too rapid. When +the bottom of the ford is shifting sand, the passage of a number of +camels renders it firm. A string of 500 camels covers about one mile +of road; 1,250 mules, carrying the same weight of supplies, occupy +double the distance. Camels must be unladen at ferries. For military +purposes these animals are purchased between the ages of five and +nine years, and may be used up to the age of sixteen. They average +about one thousand pounds in weight, seven feet in height to the top +of the hump, and eight feet in length from nose to tail. In camp and +when not at work they are arranged in lines facing each other, or in +circles heads inward; the latter plan is the favorite formation at +night. The allowance of spare camels on service is ten per cent. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan11.jpg" +alt="An Afghan Post-Chaise; Going to the Front."> + +<p> +Lieut. Martin, R. E., states that his company, of Sappers and +Miners, was able to get an exceptional percentage of labor from +the camels under his charge by attention to certain details; and +says further, that "camels are very quarrelsome and bite each other +badly when grazing. They can ford four feet of moderately running +water, easily, if the bed is good; but a yard of greasy mud, a few +inches deep, will throw many camels and delay a convoy for hours. +Camel-bridges were carried on the leading camels, with a few +shovels and picks, in every convoy of the Kandahar Field Force, and +all small cuts or obstructions were thus bridged in a few minutes; +the camels remaining by their bridges (two gang-boards eight by +three feet) until the last baggage camel had passed. In perfectly +open country, such as Kandahar to Girishk, it was found possible to +march the camels on a broad front, the whole convoy being a rough +square; camels starting at 3 A.M. have been known to arrive at camp +ten miles off as late as 5 P.M." +</p> +<p> +Captain Yaldwyn says: "A camel's carrying-power is equal to that of +two and a half mules or ponies, whilst his ration is only about that +of one mule or pony. Thus 500 camels only eat as much as 500 mules +or ponies, and whilst the latter can only carry 1,000 <i>maunds</i> +[Footnote: A <i>maund</i> is 80 pounds.] the former can carry 2,500. +Again, 500 camels only require 125 attendants to be paid, clothed, +and fed, whilst 500 mules or ponies require 167 attendants." But, on +the other hand, the immense losses of camels from excessive heat or +cold, or over-exertion in mountainous or rough roads, and other +causes, greatly neutralize the force of this comparison. +</p> +<p> +The <i>yabu</i> is a hardy mountain pony used by the Afghans for +the saddle and packing purposes; they are very strong, active, and +sure-footed, and have been frequently used by the British forces in +their military operations. In 1839 Captain (afterward General) +Outram relates that his <i>yabu</i>, "although but thirteen hands +high, carried me and my saddlebags, weighing altogether upward of +sixteen stone, the whole distance from Kalát in seven days and a +half (an average of nearly forty-seven miles a day), during which +time I had passed 111 hours on its back; there was no saddle on the +pony, merely a cloth over his back." +</p> +<p> +They will carry from four to five <i>maunds</i> with perfect ease, +making journeys of thirty miles a day. Those which are ridden and +which amble, are called <i>yurgas</i>. The Afghans tie a knot in the +middle of the long tails of their horses, which, they say, +strengthens the animal's backbone! +</p> +<p> +The Afghan donkey was severely tested in 1880 during the operations +of Sir Donald Stewart between Kabul and Kandahar, and this class of +carriage was found very useful in the conveyance of provisions. +Afghan donkeys will march with troops and carry loads of grain or +flour, averaging ninety pounds, without difficulty. They keep pace +with mules or ponies in a baggage column, as they avoid the frequent +checks which retard the larger animals; they browse on the line of +march, and find their own forage easily in the neighborhood of camp; +they are easily controlled and cared for, and are on all accounts +the most inexpensive transport in Eastern countries. [Footnote: +Lieut.-Col. E. F. Chapman, C.B., R.A.] +</p> +<p> +The transport animals found in India and Turkestan will be described +in the parts of this book devoted to the military resources of those +regions. +</p> +<p> +In concluding this sketch of the "Threshold of India," a mere glance +at the military history of the country will suffice. In fact, only +so far as it may have a bearing upon the present, has reference to +the past any place in this volume. +</p> +<p> +The early periods of eventful interest to Afghanistan have been +already noted at the opening of this chapter. Its purely Oriental +experiences were beginning to fade with the death of Nadir +Shah--variously termed the "Butcher of Delhi," and the "Wallace of +Persia," in 1747. His progress toward India, from which he was to +tear its choicest treasure and loot its greatest city, reminds one +of the Arabian Nights. A camp-follower from Jelalabad reported as +follows: "He has 36,000 horsemen with himself * * * After morning +prayers he sits on a throne, the canopy of which is in the form of a +dome and of gold. One thousand young men, with royal standards of +red silk and the lance tops and tassels of silver, are disposed +regularly; and, at a proper distance, five hundred beautiful slaves, +from twelve to twenty years old, stand--one half on his right and +the other on his left. All the great men stand fronting him; and the +Arzbégi stands between, in readiness to represent whatever he is +desired, and everybody has his cause decided at once: bribery is not +so much as known here. He has particular information given him of +every thing that passes; all criminals, great and small, rich and +poor, meet with immediate death. He sits till noon, after which he +dines, then reposes a little; when afternoon prayers are over he +sits till the evening prayers, and when they are over he shoots five +arrows into the <i>Khak Túdah</i>, and then goes into the women's +apartments." [Footnote: Fraser's "Nadir Shah."] +</p> +<p> +The splendor of the Robber King has departed, but his deeds of blood +and treachery have often been repeated in the country of the +Afghans. +</p> +<p> +A succession of struggles between Afghan and Persian leaders for the +control of Afghanistan marked the next fifty years. +</p> +<p> +When the project of Russian invasion of India, suggested by +Napoleon, was under consideration in Persia, a British envoy was +sent, in 1809, to the then Shah Sujah, and received the most cordial +reception at Peshawur. But Shah Sujah was, in 1810, superseded by +his brother, Mahmud, and the latter was pressed hard by the son of +his Wazir to such an extent that Herat alone remained to him. In +1823 his former kingdom passed to Dost Mohammed, who in 1826 +governed Kabul, Kandahar, Ghazni, and Peshawur. The last-named place +fell into the hands of Runjeet Singh, the "Lion of the Punjab." Dost +Mohammed then applied to England for aid in recovering Peshawur, +failing in which he threatened to turn to Russia. +</p> +<p> +That Power was (1837) engaged in fomenting trouble in the western +part of Afghanistan, encouraging an attack by 30,000 Persians, led +by Russian officers, upon Herat. Instead of acceding to the request +of Dost Mohammed, the British Governor-General--Lord Auckland--declared +war against that potentate, alleging in a proclamation that +"the welfare of the English possessions in the East rendered it +necessary to have an ally on their western frontier who would be in +favor of peace, and opposed to all disorders and innovations." +</p> +<p> +This was the beginning of intrigues relating to Afghanistan on the +part, alternately, of England and Russia, in which John Bull has had +to pay, literally, "the lion's share" of the cost in blood and +treasure. In 1850, Sir John Cam Hobhouse, President of the Board of +Control in India confessed: "The Afghan war <i>was done by +myself</i>; the Court of Directors had nothing to do with it." The +reason already mentioned was alleged as an excuse for hostilities. +They were declared, notwithstanding that the British political agent +at the Court of Dost Mohammed reported that ruler as "entirely +English" in his sympathies. This report was suppressed. Twenty years +later the facts were given to Parliament, Russian letters were found +implicating the Czar's ministers, and the English agent, Burnes, was +vindicated. +</p> +<p> +The Anglo-Indian army--consisting of twenty thousand troops, fifty +thousand followers, and sixty thousand camels--advanced in two +columns, one from Bengal, and the other from Bombay by the Indus. +Scinde, which had hitherto been independent, like the Punjab and +Lahore, was subjugated <i>en route</i>, and nine thousand men were +left behind to occupy it. On the 23d of February, 1839, a +simultaneous advance from Shikarpur, on the Bolan Pass, commenced. +Kandahar was occupied April 25th, Ghazni July 23d, and Kabul August +6th, and Shah Sujah was proclaimed Ameer by British authority. By +the following September the greater part of the English forces +returned to India. Only five regiments of infantry and one of +cavalry remained in Afghanistan, where suspicious symptoms of +discontent with the new order of things began very soon to show +themselves. During the summer of 1840 insurrections had to be put +down by force in several places. In November of the same year Dost +Mohammed defeated the English in the Perwan Pass. From that time +until the autumn of 1841 a sultry calm reigned in the country. +</p> +<p> +The English commanders, although fully aware of the state of mind of +the people, neglected to take the most simple measures of +precaution. +</p> +<p> +The local control was vested in a mixed military and civil council, +consisting of General Elphinstone, unfitted by disease and natural +irresolution from exercising the functions of command, and Sir +William McNaghten, the British envoy, whose self-confidence and +trust in the treacherous natives made him an easy victim. In the +centre of an insurrection which was extending day by day under their +eyes and under their own roofs, these representatives of a powerful +nation, with a small but effective force, deliberately buried their +heads in the sand of their credulity, not realizing the nature of +the danger which for weeks was evident to many of their +subordinates. +</p> +<p> +Finally a force of the insurgents, under the direction of the son of +the deposed ruler, Akbar Khan, threw off the disguise they had +assumed before the English, and taking possession of the Khurd Kabul +Pass near the city, entirely cut off the retreat to India which +Elphinstone had commenced. +</p> +<p> +As there was no intelligent concert of action among the British +leaders, the garrison melted away in detail, the Afghan auxiliaries +refused to fight, or turned their arms against the Europeans. Sir +William McNaghten was murdered by Akbar, at a council in sight of +the garrison. A few attempts to force a passage, or to defend +themselves, made by certain brave officers of the beleagured force, +failed. +</p> +<p> +On January 6, 1842, an agreement was made by which the Afghan leader +promised to ensure to the British forces a safe withdrawal to India. +This was violated with Afghan readiness, and the entire Anglo-Indian +contingent of seventeen thousand souls was destroyed; sacrificed to +the murderous brutality of the Afghan insurgents, or dying from +exposure to one of the most severe winters known to that region. +Months after, heaps of dead bodies, preserved by the intense cold, +obstructed the mountain passes. The horrors of Moscow were repeated +in the Khurd Kabul, and the noblest attributes of humanity were +exemplified in the acts of the officers and soldiers of the doomed +party. Only twenty of this entire force survived. The news of this +horrible disaster was brought to Jelalabad by the only man who +penetrated the Afghan environment, Dr. Brydon. +</p> +<p> +On receipt of the news of this overwhelming catastrophe, the Indian +Government endeavored to rescue the garrisons of Kandahar and +Ghazni, as well as that of Jelalabad; but the Mohammedan troops +refused to march against their co-religionists, and the Sikhs also +showed great unwillingness. The garrison of Ghazni, thinking to +secure its safety by capitulation, was cut to pieces December 23, +1841. Jelalabad, held by 2,400 men under General Sale, still +withstood the storm like a rock of iron. General Nott, the energetic +officer commanding at Kandahar, on receiving the news of the +destruction of the British, blew up the citadel of the town, +destroyed every thing not necessary to his object, and started, +August 8, 1842, for Ghazni, which he also destroyed, September 6th. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan12.jpg" +alt="Gate of the Bazaar at Kabul."> + +<p> +Another British force of twelve thousand men, under General Pollock, +was organized at Peshawur, to punish the Afghans, and, so far as +might be, retrieve the errors of Elphinstone and McNaghten. +Pollock's operations were, in the sense of retaliation, successful. +An eminent German authority wrote: "Kabul and other towns were +levelled with the ground; Akbar's troops were blown from guns, and +the people were collected together and destroyed like worms." +General Pollock carried the famous Khaiber Pass, in advancing to the +relief of Jelalabad in April, 1842. This was the first time that the +great defile--twenty-eight miles in length--had ever been forced by +arms. Timur Lang and Nadir Shah, at the head of their enormous +hosts, bought a safe passage through it from the Afridis. Akbar the +Great, in 1587, is said to have lost forty thousand men in +attempting to force it, and Aurangzeb failed to get through. +</p> +<p> +The misfortune of Elphinstone's command, great as it was, would have +been much more humiliating to England, had it not been for the +firmness of the gallant General Pollock, who, ordered to withdraw +with his command to Peshawur, by Lord Ellenborough, without +effecting one of the objects of the expedition--the deliverance of +the English captives in Akbar's hands at Kabul,--protested against +such a suicidal act on the part of any Englishman or any +Administration, and, at great personal risk, gained his point. +</p> +<p> +In the forced march to Kabul, which Pollock made subsequently, the +force of about eight thousand men moved in as light order as +possible. After loading the commissariat camels to their utmost +carrying capacity, the General discovered that the mounted men had +in their kit a spare pair of pantaloons apiece, on which he ordered +the legs to be filled with grain and carried by the men in front of +them, on their saddles. By the middle of December the British had +started on their return march, pursued as far as the Indus by the +Afghans, and by this hurried conclusion to the war lessened their +prestige in Asia to an enormous degree. +</p> +<p> +As Sir Henry Rawlinson wrote: +</p> +<p> +"It was not so much the fact of our retreat; disaster would have +been diminished, if not altogether overcome; but retreating as we +did, pursued even through the last pass into the plains by an +implacable enemy, the impression became universal in India as well +as in Central Asia, that we had simply been driven back across the +mountains." +</p> +<p> +A very able Hindu gentleman, very loyal to the British, traced the +mutiny of 1857 in a great measure to the Afghan campaign of 1842. He +said: "It was a direct breach of faith to take the Sepoys out of +India. Practically they were compelled to go for fear of being +treated as mutineers, but the double pay they received by no means +compensated them for losing caste. The Sepoys mistrusted the +Government from that time forward, and were always fearing that +their caste would be destroyed; besides, the Kabul disaster taught +them that Europeans were not invincible." +</p> +<p> +The departure of the English forces was followed by the +reestablishment of Dost Mohammed's authority in Afghanistan. Once, +at the time of the Sikh insurrection, the Dost crossed the Indian +border with two thousand horsemen, and narrowly escaped falling into +the hands of the British in the affair of Gujrat, February 21, 1849, +where the speed of his horse alone saved him from capture. In 1855 a +better understanding was effected between the son of Dost Mohammed +and his powerful European neighbor. He reconquered Balkh in 1850, +and gained Kandahar by inheritance in 1855, while he lost Herat to +the Persians in 1856. With the aid of Great Britain, in 1857, Persia +relinquished all claims to Herat, but the Dost had eventually to +besiege that city, occupied by a rebellious faction, in 1863, and +after a siege of ten months reduced the place, only to find a tomb +within its walls. After the usual struggle for the throne, peculiar +to a change of dynasty in Afghanistan, Shere Ali, one of the Dost's +sons, prevailed, and was recognized in 1868. The next decade was +notable for a series of diplomatic manoeuvres between England and +Russia for Afghan friendship. Shere Ali now leaned toward the Lion, +now in the direction of the Bear, with the regularity of a pendulum. +The advances were received with presents and promises on the one +hand, and promises, powerful embassies, and imposing military +expeditions on the other. On September 21, 1878, a British +ambassador was turned back by the Afghan commandant of the frontier +fort of Ali Musjid, and on the 20th of November, of the same year, +war was declared against Shere Ali by the Anglo-Indian Government. +At that time the Russian General Kaufmann was operating on the +northern border of Afghanistan with a force of fifteen thousand men +and sixty guns, and the Ameer had reason to think that he could rely +on Russian coöperation against the English, who, with a force of +forty thousand men, promptly invaded his dominion. +</p> +<p> +This force moved into Afghanistan in four columns, under the +command, respectively, of Generals Browne, Roberts, Biddulph, and +Stewart, with reserves under Generals Maude and Primrose. +</p> +<p> +We shall have occasion later to consider some of the details of the +protracted operations which followed. They embraced several +admirably conducted marches, exposure to excessively severe winter +weather, the successful surmounting of great natural obstacles, the +development of the usual weakness in the department of transport, +with unnecessary losses in animals, a considerable sick-list, and an +inconsiderable proportion of killed and wounded in action. +</p> +<p> +The military benefits were those resulting from a long and arduous +field experience in a rough country. The interruption to these +actual "field manoeuvres," this "fire-drill," by the enemy, was +comparatively feeble,--as a rule, stimulating the Anglo-Indian force +to put its best foot foremost. Under this system, at the end of the +two years' campaign, all departments of the army had become moulded +into the efficient machines essential to success in any military +venture. +</p> +<p> +Politically, the campaign had been a failure. The fate of the +gallant Major Cavagnari and his mission, murdered at Kabul, +September 3, 1879, made a deeper impression on the Afghan mind than +the British occupation of Afghan cities or the Afghan losses in +battle. +</p> +<p> +In the same year the British Secretary for India, in London, wrote +to the Governor-General that: "It appears that as the result of two +successful campaigns, of the employment of an immense force, and of +the expenditure of large sums of money, all that has yet been +accomplished has been the disintegration of the State which it was +desired to see strong, friendly, and independent, the assumption of +fresh and unwelcome liabilities in regard to one of its provinces, +and a condition of anarchy throughout the remainder of the country." +</p> +<p> +Early in the year 1880, the British Government prepared to make a +dignified withdrawal from Afghanistan. That volcanic region was by +no means tranquil, although the chief rebel, Yakoub Khan, had been +driven out of Kabul by General Roberts, and had retired to the +distant country of the Her-i-rúd. At this time appeared the +exiled Abdurrahman Khan, who had long resided at Tashkend, and who +was welcomed warmly by the local sirdars on the northern frontier of +Afghanistan. As he approached Kabul his authority and influence +increased, and the British political officers, acting under +instructions, formally recognized him as Ameer of that district. In +the meanwhile Yakoub advanced westward from Herat with a strong +force, encountered a British brigade, under General Burrows, near +the Helmund, and utterly routed it. The remnant of the European +force took refuge in Kandahar, where General Primrose was in +command. Surrounding the city, Yakoub succeeded in effectually +"bottling up" the British garrison for some time. Sir Frederick +Roberts, however, made a rapid march from Kabul on Kandahar, and +after a successful and decisive battle with the Afghans, completely +dispersed the native force, and relieved the beleaguered garrison. +Soon after, Abdurrahman was formally installed as Ameer of +Afghanistan, and the British army withdrew from the country. +</p> + +<p> </p> + + +<h5>III.</h5> +<h5>THE BRITISH FORCES AND ROUTES.</h5> + +<p> +A sketch of the military resources of Great Britain, more especially +those available for field service in Afghanistan, with notes upon +the strength and composition of the forces, means of transport and +supply, nature of important lines of communication, and of certain +strategic points in the probable theatre of operations, will be +attempted in this chapter. +</p> +<p> +<i>Organization</i>.--The military system of Great Britain is based +upon voluntary enlistment instead of the usual European plan of +universal liability to service. Recruits may enlist either for the +"short-service" or "long-service" term; the first being for six +years in the ranks and six on furlough, and the last for twelve +years in the ranks; the furlough of short-service men is passed in +the army reserve, and then, in consideration of liability to be +recalled to the colors, the men are paid sixpence a day. +</p> +<p> +The troops of the Standing Army, (United Kingdom,) March, 1885, were +proportionately distributed as follows: forty-three per cent. in +England, two per cent. in Scotland, twenty-five per cent. in +Ireland, and thirty-five per cent. abroad, not including India. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan13.jpg" +alt="Major-General, Sir F. S. Roberts, V.C., K.C.B."> + +<p> </p> + +<img src="images/afghan14.jpg" +alt="AVAILABLE BRITISH LAND FORCES."> + +<pre> + + + AVAILABLE BRITISH LAND FORCES. + [Footnote: Approximately, from late returns (1885), but short of + authorized "establishment" by 90,000.] + + + ENGLAND. + ================================================================== + Army Army Militia Yeomanry Volunteers + Reserve + ================================================================== + Class: + Engineers + Officers 423 + Men 4,762 + + Cavalry + Officers 559 + Men 11,840 11,441 + + Royal Horse Artillery + Officers 108 + Men 2,426 + + Royal Artillery + Officers 690 + Men 18,351 + + Infantry + Officers 2,862 + Men 80,324 + + Aggregate ------- ------ ------- ------ ------- + All Ranks 122,345 44,503 108,462 11,441 209,365 + ================================================================== + Grand + Aggregate 469,116 + ================================================================== + + + INDIA. [Native Contingents, Independent States of India, [2] + about 349,831.] + ================================================================== + Army (E'r'p'n) (Native) + ================================================================== + Engineers + Officers 436 + Men [3] 232 3,109 + Cavalry + Officers 198 304 + Men 4,086 18,071 + Royal Horse Artillery + Officers + Men + Royal Artillery + Officers 453 19 + Men 10,809 1,842 + Infantry + Officers 1,400 1,068 + Men 44,106 102,648 + ------- ------- + Aggregate + All Ranks 61,488 127,263 + ================================================================= + Grand + Aggregate 188,751 + ================================================================= + + [Footnote 2: Cashmere 27,000, Nepaul 100,000, Hyderabad 44,000.] + [Footnote 3: Sappers and Miners.] +</pre> + +<p> +For purposes of administration, instruction, and mobilization, Great +Britain and Ireland are partitioned into thirteen military districts +commanded by general officers. These are sub-divided as follows: for +the infantry one hundred and two sub-districts under regimental +commanders; for the artillery there are twelve sub-districts, +and for the cavalry two districts. The brigade of an infantry +sub-district comprises usually two line battalions, two militia +battalions, the brigade depôt, rifle volunteer corps, and infantry +of the army reserve. Of the line battalions one is generally at home +and one abroad. In an artillery sub-district are comprised a +proportion of the royal artillery and artillery of the militia, +volunteers, and army reserve respectively. In like manner a cavalry +sub-district includes the yeomanry and army reserve cavalry. +</p> +<p> +The officers on duty in the Adjutant-General's and Quartermaster's +departments of the British army are, as a rule, detailed for a term +of five years from the Line, but must rejoin their regiments +immediately upon orders for foreign service. +</p> +<p> +The Royal Engineers then were and are organized into forty-three +companies. +</p> +<p> +The cavalry is divided into the Household Cavalry and Cavalry of the +Line. The first named comprises the 1st and 2d Life Guards and Royal +Horse Guards,--three regiments. The Line is composed of twenty-eight +regiments, as follows: seven of dragoon guards, three of dragoons, +thirteen of hussars, five of lancers. The strength of regiments +varies from 450 to 625 men with from 300 to 400 troop horses each. +</p> +<p> +The artillery--under the title of the Royal Regiment of Artillery--is +divided into three classes; the Royal Horse Artillery of two +brigades of twelve batteries each, making a brigade total of sixty +guns; the Field Artillery of four, brigades of seventy-six +batteries, and the Garrison Artillery of eleven brigades. For the +non-professional reader it may be well to say that, in the horse +artillery, all the <i>personnel</i> of a battery is mounted, the +better to act with cavalry or mounted infantry; under the general +term "field artillery" may be classed mountain batteries (only +maintained in India), field batteries proper, in which the guns are +somewhat heavier, and served by gunners who are not mounted, but on +occasion are carried on the limbers and on seats attached to the +axles, and in an emergency may be carried on the "off" horses of +teams. Under the class "field artillery," also, would come such +large guns as are required in war for siege or other heavy +operations, and which in India or Afghanistan would be drawn by +bullocks. +</p> +<p> +The infantry is composed of the Guards, the Line, and the Rifles. +The Guards consist of three regiments--Grenadier Guards, Coldstream +Guards, and Scots Fusilier Guards; in all seven battalions. The Line +comprises 102 regiments (204 battalions); the Rifles four +battalions. Besides these there are two regiments of Colonial (West +India) colored troops. +</p> +<p> +The Militia is intended for local defence, but can be ordered +anywhere within the United Kingdom, and is available for garrison +duty in the Mediterranean. Enlistment in the militia is for six +years. The officers are commissioned by the Queen, and, as before +noted, all the details of control and recruitment are entrusted to +district commanders. For instruction this force may be called out, +for a period not to exceed eight weeks annually, with regular +officers as instructors. There are 212 battalions of infantry, 25 +brigades of garrison artillery, and 3 regiments of engineers +comprised in this force. +</p> +<p> +The Militia Reserve, limited to one fourth of the active militia, is +liable to army service in case of an emergency, and for the term of +six years is entitled to £1 per annum. +</p> +<p> +The Volunteers represent "the bulwark" in case of invasion; they are +organized principally as garrison artillery and infantry. The +officers are commissioned by the county lieutenants, subject to the +approval of the Queen. The men are recruited, armed, and instructed +by the Government. Recruits are required to attend thirty drills, +and afterward not less than nine drills annually. The volunteer +force is composed of 278 battalions of infantry, 46 brigades of +garrison artillery and 15 battalions of engineers. +</p> +<p> +The Yeomanry Cavalry are equipped as light cavalry, drill eight days +per year, and are subject to call in case of riot and insurrection, +when each man with a horse receives seven pence a day. There are +thirty-eight regiments. +</p> +<p> +The Army of India differs from that of the United Kingdom, not only +in its composition, but in the character of its organization. This +organization dates from 1858, when the government passed from the +East India Company to the Crown. +</p> +<p> +The European regiments serving in India are in all respects +organized and maintained, as in England. In each presidency forming +the three political subdivisions, and among which the Anglo-Indian +army is distributed, exists a staff corps which supplies all +European officers, permitted to serve with native troops. These +officers must pass certain examinations before they can be assigned +to any of the following vacancies in any native regiment. +</p> + +<pre> + INDIAN REGIMENT. + + EUROPEANS + + 1 Commandant, + 1 Second-in-command and wing officer, + 1 Wing-officer, + 2 Wing-subalterns, + 1 Adjutant, + 1 Quartermaster, + 1 Medical officer. + + NATIVES + + 2 Subadars (captains), 1st class, + 2 " " 2d " + 4 " " 3d " + 4 Jemandars (lieuts.), 1st " + 4 " " 2d " + 1 Havildar (sergt.-major), + 40 Havildars (sergeants), + 40 Naicks (corporals), + 16 Drummers, + 600 Sepoys (privates). +</pre> + +<p> +The duties of the commandant of a native regiment correspond in +general to those of a similar officer in a European corps. Three +times a week he holds a "durbar," for the trial of offenders and +transaction of general regimental business. The men are paid by the +native officers in presence of the European "Wing-officer," who is +responsible for all public property issued to his half battalion, or +wing. +</p> +<p> +The native officers are commissioned by the Indian Government, and, +as a rule, are promoted from the ranks, and are of the same caste as +the privates. Certain native officers of the engineers and artillery +may be eligible to appointment in the corresponding European corps; +one is always assigned as an aide-de-camp to the Viceroy. When on +detailed service, a native officer is allowed to command his +company, but "no battalion parades should take place without the +presence of a British officer." [Footnote: Indian Army Regulations.] +In each regiment there is a drill-sergeant and drill-corporal, who +receive extra pay for their services. Corporals are promoted from +privates who know how to read and write in at least one character, +or who have displayed extraordinary courage. The pay per month of a +sepoy is equal to $3.50; havildar, $7; jemandar, $17.50; subadar, +$33.50 to $50. European officers with native regiments: commandant, +$620; wing-officers, $302 to $322; adjutant, $237.86; quartermaster, +$187.86; medical officers, $300, monthly. The annual pay-roll of a +native regiment of 720 combatants and 45 non-combatants amounts to +about $69,114. In consideration of the pay each sepoy is required to +provide his rations and clothing, except one coat and one pair of +trousers issued by the Government every two years; in consequence, +each regiment is accompanied by a native village called a bazaar, +containing tradesmen of all kinds; this bazaar is under strict +discipline and is managed by the quartermaster. The entire outfit +follows the regiment into the field. +</p> +<p> +Colonel Gordon of the Indian army testifies: "With regard to native +troops under a cannonade I may say that I saw our native infantry +twice under the fire of the Afghan mountain guns, and they behaved +very steadily and coolly. Ammunition was economically expended. I +attributed much the small loss sustained by the troops in +Afghanistan to our excellent straight shooting." +</p> +<p> +The cavalry of India has in certain instances borne an excellent +reputation for efficiency in action, is well set up, and in its +instruction and discipline is modelled after the British system. The +artillery comprises well-instructed native organizations, but its +principal experience has been with light field guns against +irregular troops. The Achilles heel of the Indian army consists in +this, that there are but eight European officers to each regiment, +and of these but six would be available to lead in battle: the +quartermaster and surgeon being at such a time otherwise engaged. +The native officers, seldom having an opportunity to command in +Peace, would be unreliable leaders in such an emergency. At the +action of Ali Musjid, November 21, 1878, the day before the +occupation of that fort, six British officers of a native battalion +were placed <i>hors de combat</i>, so that on the first day after +crossing the Afghan frontier there was but one European officer to +manage the regiment. +</p> +<p> +Besides the regular establishment there are about 10,000 European +volunteers (including 4,000 railway officials and employés) +available for local defence. +</p> +<p> +The feudatory chiefs of India enjoy an aggregate revenue of some +£15,000,000, equal to more than one third of the income of the +British Government of India. They maintain forces aggregating +350,000 men with 4,000 guns to perform the duties of court +ceremonial, garrison, military police, guards, and escorts, +throughout territories aggregating nearly 600,000 square miles with +50,000,000 of inhabitants. These forces are unreservedly held at the +disposal of the Crown by the native Princes. +</p> +<p> +<i>Transport and Supply</i>.--This essential feature of all wars +will be briefly considered in the light of the Anglo-Afghan War of +1879-80. Large quantities of supplies were transported from the main +base of operations on the Indus, and distributed to the troops in +the field over four or five distinct lines of communication, and +over roads, and mountain paths of varied degrees of ruggedness. The +country on both sides of the Indo-Afghan frontier was severely taxed +to furnish the necessary animals. Part of the transport was hired-- +and as in the case of the Brahuis camels--with the services of the +owners, who were easily offended and likely to decamp with their +property in a night. During the first year the system was under the +direct control of the commissariat department; but as this proved +unsatisfactory, in the subsequent campaign it was entirely +reorganized and superintended by an officer of engineers, with a +large number of officers from the Line to assist. This gave better +satisfaction. Immense numbers of camels died from heat, [Footnote: +Of a train of eighteen hundred unloaded camels on the road from +Dadur to Jacobabad, for six days in June, six hundred died of +exhaustion. In March, 1855 Col. Green, C.B., lost one hundred and +seventeen horses out of four hundred, from the heat, during a march +of thirty miles.] overwork, irregular food, and neglect. Owing to +the dryness of the climate and intense heat of the summer the +bullock-carts were perpetually falling to pieces. The mules, +donkeys, and ponies gave the best results, but do not abound in +sufficient quantities to enable an army in Afghanistan to dispense +with camels. A successful experiment in rafting, from Jelalabad to +Dakka, was tried. The rafts consisted of inflated skins lashed +together with a light framework; between June 4-13, seven thousand +skins were used, and, in all, 885 soldiers and one thousand tons of +stores were transported forty miles down the Kabul River, the +journey taking five hours. A great deal of road-making and repairing +was done under the supervision of the transport corps. A system of +"stages" or relays of pack-animals or carts was organized, by which +a regular quantity of supplies was forwarded over the main lines, +daily, with almost the regularity, if not the speed, of rail +carriage. The great number of animals employed required a +corresponding force of attendants, inspectors, and native doctors, +all of whom served to make up that excessive army of "followers" for +which Anglo-Indian expeditions are famous. Drivers were required at +the following rate: one driver for each pair of bullocks, every four +camels, every three mules and ponies, every six donkeys. [Footnote: +The average carrying power of certain kinds of transport, in pounds, +is as follows: <i>bullock-carts</i> (with two pairs), on fairly +level ground, 1,400; on hilly ground, 1,000; (with one pair) on +fairly level ground, 850; on hilly ground, 650; <i>camels</i>, 400; +<i>mules</i>, 200; <i>ponies</i>, 175; <i>men</i>, 50.] +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan15.jpg" +alt="Khelat-i-Ghilzi, between Kandahar and Ghazni."> + +<p> +The great obstacle to the satisfactory operation of the transport +system was its novelty and experimental character, and that its +organization had to be combined with its execution. Besides which, +cholera broke out in June and swept away three hundred employés. +Grazing camps were established in the neighborhood of the Bolan Pass +for the bullocks, and aqueducts built for the conveyance of a water +supply; one of these was of masonry, more than a mile in length, +from Dozan down to the Bolan. It has been stated that grazing was +scarce in the region of the Bolan: in 1879 more than four thousand +bullocks were grazed there during the summer, and large quantities +of forage were cut for winter use. +</p> +<p> +Any prolonged military operations in Afghanistan must, to a certain +extent, utilize hired transport, although there are many objections +urged. +</p> +<p> +Sir Richard Temple said (1879): "That the amount of transport +required for active service, such as the late campaign in +Afghanistan, is so great that to hire transport is synonymous to +pressing it from the people of the district from which it is hired, +and impressment of the means of transport must lead to impressment +of drivers, who naturally (having no interest whatever in the +campaign in which they are called upon to serve) render the most +unwilling service and take the earliest opportunity of rendering +their animals unserviceable in hopes of escaping a distasteful duty. +This service is frequently so unpopular that, sooner than leave the +boundaries of their native country, the impressed drivers desert, +leaving their animals in the hands of the transport authorities or +take them away with them. * * * For the above reasons I should +recommend that all transport for a campaign should be the property +of Government." +</p> +<p> +In commenting on this subject, Lord Wolseley relates that when +serving in China with Indian troops he "awoke one morning and found +that all our drivers had bolted. Our transport consisted of carts +supplied by the Chinese Government, by contractors, and by the +country generally. I do not think that the carts had been carried +away, but all the mules and men had disappeared except three drivers +who belonged to me. I was very much astonished that these men had +not bolted also. I had a small detachment of cavalry with me and a +very excellent duffadar in charge of it. I asked him how he had +managed to keep these drivers--having some time before said that +unless he looked after them well he would never get to Pekin. He +replied, with some hesitation: 'I remember what you told me, and the +fact is I tied the tails of those three men together, overnight, and +then tied them to the tent pole, and put a man over them.'" +</p> +<p> +The Elephant, like the stage coach, finds his field of usefulness, +as a means of transport, growing smaller by degrees. He is still a +feature in India, and has been used for military purposes to some +extent in the eastern part of Afghanistan. He will doubtless form +part of the means of transportation employed by the British forces +near their present base, and in rear of the Kabul-Kandahar line, and +for that reason is noticed here. [Footnote: The use of elephants in +transporting field guns in Afghanistan is emphatically discouraged +by those who served with it last; very few flankers were employed to +protect the Elephant artillery used in the Kuram valley, and its +success can only be interpreted by supposing the direct +interposition of Providence or the grossest stupidity to our feeble +enemy.] +</p> +<p> +The Superintendent of the Government Elephant Kheddahs at Dakka has +given us, in a recent paper, much information concerning the +elephant in freedom and captivity. He does not claim a high order of +intelligence, but rather of extraordinary obedience and docility for +this animal Very large elephants are exceptional. Twice round the +forefoot gives the height at the shoulder; few females attain the +height of eight feet; "tuskers," or male elephants, vary from eight +to nine feet; the Maharajah of Nahur, Sirmoor, possesses one +standing ten feet five and one half inches. The age varies from 80 +to 150 years, according to the best authorities, and it is recorded +that those familiar with the haunts of the wild elephant have never +found the bones of an elephant that had died a natural death. In +freedom they roam in herds of thirty to fifty, always led by a +female; mature about twenty-five. In India the males only have +tusks; in Ceylon only the females. They are fond of the water, swim +well, [Footnote: Elephants have been known to swim a river three +hundred yards wide with the hind legs tied together.] but can +neither trot nor gallop; their only pace is a walk, which may be +increased to a <i>shuffle</i> of fifteen miles an hour for a very +short distance; they cannot leap, and a ditch eight by eight feet +would be impassable. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan16.jpg" +alt="Elephant with Artillery; on the Road to Ali Musjid."> + +<p> +In Bengal and Southern India elephants particularly abound, and seem +to be increasing in numbers. In the Billigurungan Hills, a range of +three hundred square miles on the borders of Mysore, they made their +appearance about eighty years ago; yet prior to that time this +region was under high cultivation, traces of orchards, orange +groves, and iron-smelting furnaces remaining in what is now a +howling wilderness. Elephants are caught in stockades or kraals. The +Government employs hunting parties of 350 natives trained to the +work, and more than 100 animals are sometimes secured in a single +drive. +</p> +<p> +New elephants are trained by first rubbing them down with bamboo +rods, and shouting at them, and by tying them with ropes; they are +taught to kneel by taking them into streams about five feet deep, +when the sun is hot, and prodding them on the back with sharp +sticks. +</p> +<p> +The total number of elephants maintained is eight hundred, of which +one half are used for military purposes. They consume about 400 +pounds of green, or 250 pounds of dry fodder daily, and are also +given unhusked rice. An elephant is expected to carry about 1,200 +pounds with ease. In the Abyssinian Expedition elephants travelled +many hundreds of miles, carrying from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds +(including their gear), but out of forty-four, five died from +exhaustion; they are capable of working from morning to night, or of +remaining under their loads for twenty hours at a stretch. +[Footnote: There is no "elephant gun-drill" laid down in the +Imperial Regulations, but when the gun goes into action the elephant +is made to kneel, and long "skids" are placed against the cradle +upon which the gun rests, so as to form an inclined plane to the +ground. The gun is then lifted off the cradle and down the skids by +levers and tackle.] +</p> +<p> +An elephant's gear consists of a <i>gaddela</i>, or quilted cloth, +1-1/2 inches thick, reaching half-way down his sides and from the +neck to the croup. On this is placed the <i>guddu</i>, or pad, 6x5 +feet and 9 inches thick, formed of stout sacking stuffed with dried +grass. The whole is girthed with a long rope passed twice around the +body, round the neck as a breast-strap, and under the tail as a +crupper. The whole weighs 200 pounds. An improvement upon this has +been made by our authority (Mr. Sanderson), which seems to bear the +same relation to the old gear that the open McClellan saddle does to +the ordinary British hunting saddle. It consists (see illustration) +of two pads entirely detached, each 4 feet long, 15 inches wide, +and 6 inches thick, made of blanket covered with tarpaulin, and +encased in stout sacking. One is placed on each side of the +elephant's spine, and retained there by two iron arches. There is no +saddle-cloth, the load rests on the ribs; the breast-strap and +crupper hook into rings on the saddle; there are rings to fasten the +load to; it weighs 140 pounds. With foot-boards it is convenient for +riding; a cradle can also be attached for carrying field guns. +Recent experiments have shown the practicability of conveying +elephants by rail in ordinary open cattle-trucks; they were +indifferent to the motion, noises, or bridges; it is said that 32 +elephants could be thus carried on one train. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan17.jpg" +alt="Detail of Elephant Saddle."> + +<p> +The excellent railway facilities for moving troops and supplies to +the Indo-Afghan frontier were described in 1880, by Traffic Manager +Ross, of the Scinde, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, before the United +Service Institution of India. +</p> +<p> +He stated that experiments had been made by the military and +railway authorities in loading and disembarking troops and war +<i>matériel</i>, and that much experience had been afforded by the +Afghan operations of 1878-9. +</p> +<p> +The movement of troops to and from the frontier commenced in +October, 1878, and ended June, 1879. During that period were +conveyed over his road 190,000 men, 33,000 animals, 500 guns, +112,000,000 pounds of military stores. The maximum number carried in +any one month was in November--40,000 men, 8,000 animals, and +20,800,000 pounds of stores. The greatest number of special trains +run in one day was eight, carrying 4,100 men, 300 animals, and +800,000 pounds of stores. As an instance of rapid loading, when the +both Bengal Cavalry left for Malta, 80 horses were loaded on a train +in 10 minutes appears to have been clean forgotten. The Politicals +were by no means silent, and the amount of knowledge they possessed +of border statistics was something marvellous. Did any step appear +to the military sense advisable, there was a much better, though +less comprehensible, <i>political</i> reason why it should not be +undertaken. The oracle has spoken and the behest must be obeyed. An +enemy in sight who became afterwards hostile, must not be kept at a +distance; through political glasses they appear as 'children of +nature,' while the country out of sight must not be explored, the +susceptibilities of the sensitive 'Tammizais' having to be +respected. That much valuable service was performed by political +officers there can be no doubt, but that they caused great +exasperation among soldiers cannot be denied, and the example of the +War of 1839-40 causes them to be looked upon as a very possible +source of danger. +</p> +<p> +<i>Anglo-Afghan Operations</i>.--The observations of a participant +[Footnote: Lieut. Martin, R. E. (<i>Journal U. S. I. of India</i>).] +in the last British campaign in Afghanistan will be found of value +in the study of future operations in that country. Of the Afghan +tactics he says: "The enemy (generally speaking, a race of +Highlanders) vastly preferred the attack, and usually obtained the +advantage of superior numbers before risking an attack; * * * being +able to dispense (for the time) with lines of communication and +baggage and commissariat columns, the Afghan tribes were often able +to raise large gatherings on chosen ground. They could always attack +us; we were rarely able (except when they chose) to find them at +home." This observer says the regular troops of the Ameer were +not so formidable as the tribal gatherings. The presence of a +tactically immovable artillery hinders the action of an Asiatic +army. The mounted men are usually the first to leave when the +fight is going against their side in a general engagement. One of +the best specimens of their tactics was at Ahmed-Kheyl, on the +Ghazni- Kandahar road, when the British division was one hundred +miles from any support. The Afghans assembled a force outnumbering +the British ten to one. The attack was made in a series of rushes, +twice dispersing the British cavalry, and once driving back the +infantry. Exposed to a constant fire of field guns, the Afghans +stood their ground, although poorly armed with a variety of obsolete +weapons-- from an Enfield to a handjar or a stick. Trouble may +always be expected from the night attacks of certain tribes like the +Alizais and Waziris. +</p> +<p> +The English infantry formation was an objectionably close one, and +Lieut. Martin says that the bayonets and rifle-barrels of the front +rank were sometimes struck and jammed <i>by bullets from the rear +rank</i>. The action of the English cavalry, as at Ahmed-Kheyl, was +suicidal in receiving the enemy's charge--practically at a halt. +Occasionally shelter trenches were used, but disapproved. +</p> +<p> +In the Kuram valley column, under General Roberts, the cavalry +(principally native, with one regular squadron and a battery of +horse artillery) formed a brigade, but was never used independently, +nor was it instructed (although well equipped) for modern cavalry +work. The opposition to dismounted cavalry duty is still so great, +in the British army, that the mounted arm is paralyzed for effective +service. +</p> +<p> +Very little was done by the horse artillery with the Kuram column. +In the case of the field artillery it was found necessary on two +occasions to transfer the ammunition boxes from the bullock-carts to +the backs of elephants, on account of the steepness of the hills. +The mountain artillery (native) was the most serviceable; a Gatling +battery, packed on ponies, and in charge of a detachment of +Highlanders, was never used however. +</p> +<p> +The armament of the infantry included both Martini and Snider +rifles, requiring two kinds of ammunition, but, as the service by +pack-mules was ample, no confusion ensued, although Lieut. Martin +says: "In one case I heard a whisper that a regimental reserve of +ammunition was found to be <i>blank cartridges</i>, but this must be +a heavy joke." Intrenching tools were carried on camels. A mixture +of military and civil-engineer administration and operation is +mentioned as unsatisfactory in results. There was great difficulty +in getting tools and materials at the opening of the campaign-- +particularly those required for road and bridge work, although a +railroad within two hundred miles had a large stock on hand. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan18.jpg" +alt="Noah's Valley, Kunar River."> + +<p> +The art of camping and rough fortification was well practised. The +best defended camp was surrounded by bush abatis and flanked +by half-moon <i>sungas</i> of boulder-stone work, which held the +sentries. The most approved permanent camps or "posts" were +mud <i>serais</i> flanked by bastions at the alternate angles and +overlooking a yard or "kraal." These were established about ten +miles apart, to protect communications, and furnished frequent +patrols. During the latter part of the campaign these outposts were +manned by the native contingents of the Punjab who volunteered. +</p> +<p> +The rapid march of General Roberts from Kabul to Kandahar in August, +1880, and the final dispersion of the forces of Ayoub Khan, +illustrated British operations in Afghanistan under the most +favorable circumstances. The forces included 2,800 European and +7,000 Indian troops; no wheeled artillery was taken; one regiment of +native infantry, trained to practical engineering work, did the work +of sappers and miners; for the transportation of sick and wounded +2,000 doolie-bearers, 286 ponies, and 43 donkeys; for transport of +supplies a pack-train of 1,589 yabus, 4,510 mules, 1,224 Indian +ponies, 912 donkeys--a total of 10,148 troops, 8,143 native +followers, and 11,224 animals, including cavalry horses; 30 days' +rations, of certain things, and dependence on the country for fresh +meat and forage. The absence of timber on this route rendered it +difficult to obtain fuel except by burning the roofs of the villages +and digging up the roots of "Southern-wood" for this purpose. The +manner of covering the movement rested with the cavalry commander. +Usually the front was covered by two regiments, one regiment on each +flank, at a mile from the column, detaching one or more troops as +rear-guard; once movement had commenced, the animals, moving at +different gaits were checked as little as possible. With such a +number of non-combatants the column was strung out for six or seven +miles, and the rear-guard leaving one camp at 7 A.M. rarely reached +the next--fifteen to twenty miles distant--before sundown. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan19.jpg" +alt="Watch-Tower in the Khaiber Pass."> + +<p> +<i>Routes</i>.--For operations in Afghanistan the general British +base is the frontier from Kurrachee to Peshawur. These points are +connected by a railway running east of the Indus, which forms a +natural boundary to the Indian frontier, supplemented by a line of +posts which are from north to south as follows: Jumrud, Baru, +Mackeson, Michni, Shub Kadar, Abazai, and Kohut; also by fortified +posts connected by military roads,--Thull, Bunnoo, and Doaba. +</p> +<p> +From the Indus valley into the interior of Afghanistan there are +only four lines of communication which can be called military +roads: first, from <i>Peshawur</i> through the Khaiber Pass to +<i>Kabul</i>; second, from <i>Thull</i>, over the Peiwar and +Shuturgurdan passes to <i>Kabul</i>; third, from <i>Dera Ismail +Khan</i> through the Guleir Surwandi and Sargo passes to +<i>Ghazni</i>; fourth, by <i>Quetta</i> to Kandahar and thence to +<i>Herat</i>, or by Ghazni to <i>Kabul</i>. Besides these there are +many steep, difficult, mule tracks over the bleak, barren, Sulimani +range, which on its eastern side is very precipitous and impassable +for any large body of troops. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan20.jpg" +alt="Fort of Ali Musjid, from the Heights above Lala Cheena +in the Khaiber Pass."> + +<p> +The Peshawur-Kabul road, 170 miles long, was in 1880 improved and +put in good order. From Peshawur the road gradually rises, and after +7 miles reaches Jumrud (1,650 feet elevation), and 44 miles further +west passes through the great Khaiber Pass. This pass, 31 miles +long, can, however, be turned by going to the north through the +Absuna and Tartara passes; they are not practicable for wheels, and +the first part of the road along the Kabul River is very difficult +and narrow, being closed in by precipitous cliffs. +</p> +<p> +As far as Fort Ali Musjid the Khaiber is a narrow defile between +perpendicular slate rocks 1,460 feet high; beyond that fort the road +becomes still more difficult, and in some of the narrowest parts, +along the rocky beds of torrents, it is not more than 56 feet wide. +Five miles further it passes through the valley of Lalabeg 1-1/2 +miles wide by 6 miles long, and then after rising for four miles it +reaches the top of the Pass, which from both sides offers very +strong strategical positions. From thence it descends for 2-1/2 +miles to the village of Landi Khana (2,463 feet), which lies in a +gorge about a quarter of a mile wide; then on to Dakka (altitude +1,979 feet). This pass, 100 to 225 feet wide and 60 feet long, is +shut in by steep but not high slopes, overgrown with bushes. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan21.jpg" +alt="Fort of Dakka, on the Kabul River."> + +<p> +On the eleven miles' march from Dakka to Hazarnao, the Khurd Khaiber +is passed, a deep ravine about one mile long, and in many places so +narrow that two horsemen cannot pass each other. Hazarnao is well +cultivated, and rich in fodder; 15 miles farther is Chardeh (1,800 +feet altitude), from which the road passes through a well-cultivated +country, and on through the desert of Surkh Denkor (1,892 feet +altitude), which is over 8-1/2 miles from Jelalabad. From this city +(elsewhere described) onward as far as Gundamuck the route presents +no great difficulties; it passes through orchards, vineyards, and +cornfields to the Surkhab River; but beyond this three spurs of the +Safed Koh range, running in a northeastern direction, have to be +surmounted. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan22.jpg" +alt="The Ishbola Tepé, Khaiber Pass."> + +<p> +Between Jelalabad [Footnote: The heat at Jelalabad from the end of +April is tremendous--105° to 110° in the shade.] and Kabul two roads +can be followed: the first crosses the range over the Karkacha Pass +(7,925 feet alt.) at the right of which is Assin Kilo, thence +through the Kotul defile, and ascending the Khurd Kabul [Footnote: +The Khurd Kabul Pass is about five miles long, with an impetuous +mountain torrent which the road (1842) crossed twenty-eight times.] +(7,397 feet alt.) to the north reaches the high plateau on which +Kabul is situated; the other leads over the short but dangerous +Jagdallak Pass to Jagdallak, from which there are three roads to +Kabul--the northernmost over the Khinar and the third over the +Sokhta passes; all these, more difficult than the Khaiber, are +impassable during the winter. It was here, as already related, that +the greater part of Elphinstone's command, in 1842, perished. There +is a dearth of fuel and supplies by this line of communication. The +second, or Thull-Kuram-Kabul, route, was taken by General Roberts in +1878-9. It extends from Thull, one of the frontier posts already +mentioned, some forty miles into the Kuram valley, and then +inclining towards the west leads to the Kuram fort (Mohammed +Azim's), a walled quadrangular fortress with flanking towers at an +elevation of 6,000 feet. The Kuram valley is, up to this point, well +cultivated and productive; wood, water, and forage abound. Winter +only lasts with any severity for six weeks, and the Spring and +Autumn are delightful. +</p> +<p> +A short distance above the fort commences the ascent toward the +Peiwar Pass (8,000 feet alt.), twenty-four miles distant. The road, +thickly bordered with cedar and pine trees, is covered with boulders +and is very difficult, and from the village of Peiwar--one of +many <i>en route</i>, of the usual Afghan fortified type--it leads +through a winding defile to the top of the pass. Here the road is +confined by perpendicular chalk rocks, the summits of which are +covered with scrub timber and a luxurious growth of laurel. On the +farther side of the pass the road ascends to the height of the +Hazardarakht, (which is covered with snow in the winter), and then +climbs to the Shuturgurdan Pass (11,375 feet alt.), reaching a +plateau on which the snow lies for six months of the year; thence it +descends into the fertile Logar valley and reaches Akton Khel, which +is only fifty-one miles from Kabul. The total length of this route +is about 175 miles. +</p> +<p> +The third, or Dera-Ismail-Khan-Sargo-Ghazni, route passes through a +region less frequented than those mentioned, and is not thought +sufficiently difficult for detailed description. Passing due west, +through seventy miles of mountain gorges destitute of supplies or +forage, it debouches, through the Gomal Pass, into a more promising +country, in which forage may be obtained. At this point it branches +to Ghazni, Kandahar, and Pishin respectively. A road exists from +Mooltan, crossing the Indus at Dera-Ghazi-Khan, Mithunkot, Rajanpur, +Rojan, Lalgoshi, Dadur to Quetta, and was utilized by General +Biddulph, from whose account of his march from the Indus to the +Helmund, in 1879, is gleaned the following. The main point of +concentration for the British forces, either from India or from +England via Kurrachee is thus minutely described. +</p> +<p> +"The western frontier of India is, for a length of 600 miles, +bounded by Biluchistan and territories inhabited by Biluch tribes, +and for 300 miles Biluch country intervenes between our border and +Afghanistan. The plains of the Punjab and Sind run along the +boundary of Biluchistan, and at a distance of from 25 to 50 miles +the Indus pursues a course, as far down as Mithunkot, from north to +south, and then winds south-west through a country similar to that +of Egypt. A belt of cultivation and beyond that the desert * * * +this line of hills (the Eastern Sulimani) extends as a continuous +rampart with the plains running up to the foot of the range, and +having an elevation of 11,000 feet at the Tukl-i-Suliman, and of +7,400 near Fort Munro (opposite Dera-Ghazi-Khan), gradually +diminishes in height and dwindles away till it is lost in the plains +near Kusmore, at a point 12 miles from the Indus. The strip of +low-land country on the west bank of the Indus up to the foot of +the hills is called the <i>Derajat</i>. It is cut up and broken by +torrents, the beds of which are generally dry wastes, and the +country is, except at a few places where permanent water is found, +altogether sterile and hot. If we view the physical aspect looking +north and north-west from Jacobabad, we notice a wide bay of plains +extending between the broken spur of the Sulimani, and a second +range of hills having a direction parallel to the outer range. This +plain is called the Kachi, extends in an even surface for 150 miles +from the Indus at Sukkur, and is bounded on the north by successive +spurs lying between the two great ranges. The Kachi, thus bounded by +barren hills on all sides but the south, is one of the hottest +regions in the world. Except where subject to inundations or within +reach of irrigation it is completely sterile--a hard clay surface +called <i>Pat</i>,--and this kind of country extends around to the +east of the spur of the Suliman into the Derajat country. Subject to +terrific heats and to a fiercely hot pestilential wind, the Kachi is +at times fatal even to the natives." +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan23.jpg" +alt="Entrance to the Bolan Pass, from Dadur."> + +<p> +The range of mountains bounding the Kachi to the westward is a +continuous wall with imperceptible breaks only, and it bears +the local names of Gindari, Takari, and Kirthar. Through this +uniform rampart there are two notable rents or defiles, viz.: the +<i>Múlla</i> opening opposite Gundana, leading to Kelat; and the +<i>Bolan</i> entering near Dadur, leading to Quetta, Kandahar, and +Herat. The Bolan is an abrupt defile--a rent in the range,--the +bottom filled with the pebbly bed of a mountain torrent. This steep +ramp forms for sixty miles the road from Dadur, elevation 750 feet, +to the Dasht-i-Bedowlat, elevation 6,225 feet. This inhospitable +plateau and the upper portion of the Bolan are subject to the most +piercingly cold winds and temperature; and the sudden change from +the heat of the Kachi to the cold above is most trying to the +strongest constitutions. Notwithstanding the difficulties of the +road, the absence of supplies and fuel, and the hostile character of +the predatory tribes around, this route has been always most in +favor as the great commercial and military communication from +Persia, Central Asia, and Khorassan to India. +</p> +<p> +The causes which led to the establishment of a British garrison at +Quetta are not unlike those which are urged as good Russian reasons +for the occupation of territory in certain parts of Central Asia. +Briefly stated, it seems that after the conquest of the Punjab, the +proximity of certain disturbed portions of Biluchistan, and the +annoyance suffered by various British military expeditions, in +1839-1874, from certain tribes of Biluchis--notably the Maris and +Bugtis,--made it desirable that more decisive measures should be +adopted. In 1876 a force of British troops was marched to Kelat, and +by mutual agreement with the Khan a political agency was established +at Quetta, ostensibly to protect an important commercial highway, +but at the same time securing a military footing of great value. But +the character of the lords of the soil--the Maris, for instance--has +not changed for the better, and the temporary general European +occupation of the country would afford an opportunity to gratify +their predatory instincts, which these bandits would not hesitate to +utilize. The Maris can put 2,000 men into the field and march 100 +miles to make an attack. When they wish to start upon a raid they +collect their wise men together and tell the warriors where the +cattle and the corn are. If the reports of spies, sent forward, +confirm this statement, the march is undertaken. They ride upon +mares which make no noise; they travel only at night. They are the +most excellent outpost troops in the world. When they arrive at the +scene of action a perfect watch is kept and information by single +messengers is secretly sent back. Every thing being ready a rush of +horsemen takes place, the villages are surrounded, the cattle swept +away, the women and children hardly used--fortunate if they escape +with their lives. The villagers have their fortlets to retreat to, +and, if they reach them, can pull the ladders over after them and +fire away from their towers. +</p> +<p> +Dadur is an insignificant town at the foot of the Bolan. From here +the Kandahar road leads for sixty miles through the Pass--a gradual +ascent; in winter there is not a mouthful of food in the entire +length of the defile. +</p> +<p> +Quetta, compared with the region to the south, appears a very Garden +of Eden. It is a small oasis, green and well watered. +</p> +<p> +From Quetta to Pishin the road skirts the southern border of a vast +plain, interspersed with valleys, which extend across the eastern +portion of Afghanistan toward the Russian dominion. A study of the +Pishin country shows that it is, on its northwestern side supported +on a limb of the Western Sulimani. This spur, which defines the west +of the Barshor valley, is spread out into the broad plateau of Toba, +and is then produced as a continuous ridge, dividing Pishin from the +plains of Kadani, under the name of Khoja Amran. The Barshor is a +deep bay of the plain, and there is an open valley within the outer +screen of hills. A road strikes off here to the Ghilzai country and +to Ghazni. Though intersected by some very low and unimportant hills +and ridges, the Pishin plains and those of Shallkot may be looked +upon as one feature. We may imagine the Shall Valley the vestibule, +the Kujlak-Kakur Vale the passage, the Gayud Yara Plain an +antechamber, and Pishin proper the great <i>salle</i>. Surrounded by +mountains which give forth an abundant supply of water, the lands +bordering on the hills are studded with villages, and there is much +cultivation; there is a total absence of timber, and the cultivation +of fruit-trees has been neglected. The Lora rivers cutting into the +plain interferes somewhat with the construction of roads. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan24.jpg" +alt="Entrance to the Khojak Pass, from Pishin, on the Road +to Kandahar."> + +<p> +The Plain of Pishin possesses exceptional advantages for the +concentration and rendezvous of large bodies of troops, and has +already been utilized for that purpose by the British. +</p> +<p> +From the Khoja Amran, looking toward Kandahar, the plains, several +thousand feet below, are laid out like a sea, and the mountains run +out into isolated promontories; to the left the desert is seen like +a turbulent tide about to overflow the plains. +</p> +<p> +The rivers on the Quetta-Kandahar route do not present much +impediment to the passage of troops in dry weather, but in flood +they become serious obstacles and cannot be passed until the waters +retire. +</p> +<p> +The ascent from the east through the Khojak Pass is easy, the +descent on the west very precipitous. A thirteen-foot cart road was +made, over the entire length of twenty miles, by General Biddulph in +1878-9, by which the first wheeled vehicles, which ever reached +Khorassan from India, passed. +</p> +<p> +From Kandahar (elsewhere described)--which is considered by General +Hamley and other authorities, one of the most important strategic +points in any scheme of permanent defence for India--diverge two +main roads: one a continuation of the Quetta-Herat route bearing +N.W., and one running N.E. to Kabul. +</p> +<p> +Gen. Biddulph says: "The position of Kandahar near to the slopes of +the range to the westward of the city renders it impossible to +construct works close at hand to cover the road from Herat. The high +ridge and outlying hills dividing Kandahar and its suburbs from the +Argandab valley completely command all the level ground between the +city and the pass. Beyond the gap a group of detached mountains +extends, overlooking the approaches, and follows the left bank of +the Argandab as far down as Panjwai, fifteen miles distant. +Positions for defensive works must be sought, therefore, in front of +that place on the right bank of the river. To the N.E. of Kandahar +the open plain affords situations for forts, well removed from the +hills, at a short distance, and at Akhund Ziarut, thirty miles on +the road to Ghazni, there is a gorge which would, if held, add to +security on that quarter." +</p> +<p> +The country between Kandahar and the Helmund has the same general +characteristics--plains and mountain spurs alternately,--and while +generally fit for grazing is, except in a few spots, unfit for +cultivation. +</p> +<p> +According to the eminent authority just quoted, the great natural +strategic feature of this route is the elevated position of Atta +Karez, thirty-one miles from Kandahar. He says: "On the whole road +this is the narrowest gateway, and this remarkable feature and the +concentration of roads [Footnote: The roads which meet at Atta Karez +are: the great Herat highway passing through Kokeran and crossing +the Argandab opposite Sinjari, whence it lies along the open plain +all the way to Atta Karez; the road which crosses the Argandab at +Panjwai; and the road from Taktipul towards Herat.] here, give to +Atta Karez a strategic importance unequalled by any other spot +between India and Central Asia." +</p> +<p> +General Biddulph examined this position carefully in 1879, and +discovered a site for a work which would command the valley of the +Argandab and sweep the elevated open plain toward the west and +northwest. +</p> +<p> +Abbaza is a village at the crossing of the Herat road over the +Helmund, forty-six miles west of Atta Karez. On the west bank lies +the ancient castle of Girishk. The country between the Argandab and +the Helmund is rolling and inclining gradually from the hills toward +the junction of these rivers. The plateau opposite Girishk is 175 +feet above the river, which it commands. +</p> +<p> +The Helmund has already been described. There are numerous fords, +but, at certain times, bridges would be required for military +purposes. The land in the vicinity of the Helmund is very fertile +and seamed with irrigating canals. +</p> +<p> +From Girishk a road <i>via</i> Washir runs through the hills to +Herat; this is said to be cool, well supplied with water and +grazing, and is a favorite military route. A road, parallel, to the +south, goes through Farrah, beyond which both roads blend into one +main road to the "Key." Still another road, by Bost, Rudbar, and +Lash, along the course of the river, exists. Although not so direct, +it is an important route to Herat; upon this road stand the ruins of +the ancient city of Bost in a wonderful state of preservation; here, +as elsewhere in this region, the remains of fortifications testify +to the former military importance of the spot. The citadel of Bost +is built on the debris of extensive works and rises 150 feet above +the river. +</p> +<p> +<i>British Generals</i>.--Perhaps the most prominent of modern +British commanders, next to Lord Wolseley--is the young and +successful soldier, Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Roberts, +G.C.B., C.I.E., commanding the Anglo-Indian Army of the Madras +Presidency. He has already seen service in Afghanistan and +elsewhere, and has been appointed to the command of one of the +principal divisions of the British forces intended to oppose the +threatened advance of the Russians on Herat. It was said of him by +one of the most brilliant military leaders of the age,--Skobeleff: +"For General Roberts I have a great admiration. He seems to me to +possess all the qualities of a great general. That was a splendid +march of his from Kabul to Kandahar. I think more highly of him +than I do of Sir Garnet Wolseley, but there is this to be said of +<i>all</i> your generals, they have only fought against Asiatic and +savage foes. They have not commanded an army against a European +enemy, and we cannot tell, therefore, what they are really made of." +</p> +<p> +The Commander-in-chief of the Army of India, General Sir Donald M. +Stewart, G.C.B., C.I.E., to whom has been intrusted the conduct of +the British forces in Afghanistan, is also a very distinguished and +experienced officer--probably more familiar with the nature of the +probable field of operations than any other in Her Majesty's +Service. +</p> +<p> +Like the United States, the great latent power of England is +indisputable, and so long as superiority at sea is maintained, time +is given to render that latent power active. For the first year of +the coming struggle England must lean heavily upon her navy. Nearly +all the regiments of infantry are below the average peace limit, and +if filled up simultaneously to a maximum war strength will include +more than fifty per cent, of imperfectly trained men, and as the +practice has been to fill up those corps ordered abroad with men +transferred from other small regiments, it may come to pass that +so-called "regular" regiments will consist largely of raw material. +Colonel Trench of the British Army says "the organization of the +regular cavalry is very defective," and especially complains of the +maladministration we have just noted. Demands for cavalry for the +Soudan were met by a heavy drain on the already depleted strength of +regiments in England. The Fifth Dragoon Guards, which stood next on +the roster for foreign service, gave away nearly two hundred horses +and one hundred men. Colonel Trench says that the reserve cavalry +have no training, and that there is no reserve of horses. It is +doubtful if more than seventy per cent. of the enlisted strength and +fifty per cent. of the horses, on paper, could be put in the field +now. +</p> +<p> +Allusion has already been made to the notorious weakness of the +British transport system. [Footnote: Captain Gaisford, who commanded +the Khaiber Levies in the Afghan campaign, recommended reforms in +the system of transport and supply. He advocated certain American +methods, as wind and water-mills to crush and cleanse the petrified +and gravelled barley, often issued, and to cut up the inferior hay; +the selection of transport employés who understand animals; and more +care in transporting horses by sea.] If this has been the case in +the numerous small wars in which her forces have been engaged for +the last twenty-five years, what may be expected from the strain of +a great international campaign. +</p> +<p> +On the other hand, Great Britain can boast of an inexhaustible +capital, not alone of the revenues which have been accumulating +during the last quarter of a century, but of patriotism, physical +strength, courage, and endurance, peculiar to a race of conquerors. +</p> + +<p> </p> + +<h5>IV.</h5> +<h5>THE RUSSIAN FORCES AND APPROACHES.</h5> + +<p> +A mere glance at the ponderous military machine with which Russia +enforces law and order within her vast domain, and by which she +preserves and extends her power, is all that we can give here. +</p> +<p> +No army in the world has probably undergone, within the last thirty +years, such a succession of extensive alterations in organization, +in administrative arrangements, and in tactical regulations, as that +of Russia. The Crimean War surprised it during a period of +transition. Further changes of importance were carried out after +that war. Once more, in 1874, the whole military system was +remodelled, while ever since the Peace of San Stefano, radical +reforms have been in progress, and have been prosecuted with such +feverish haste, that it is difficult for the observer to keep pace +with them. [Footnote: Sir L. Graham (<i>Journal Royal U. S. +Institution</i>).] +</p> +<p> +The military system of Russia is based upon the principles of +universal liability to serve and of territorial distribution. This +applies to the entire male population, with certain exemptions or +modifications on the ground, respectively, of age or education. +Annually there is a "lot-drawing," in which all over twenty, who +have not already drawn lots, must take part. Those who draw blanks +are excused from service with the colors, but go into the last +reserve, or "Opoltschenié." +</p> +<p> +The ordinary term of service is fifteen years,--six with the colors +and nine with the reserves; a reduction is made for men serving at +remote Asiatic posts; the War Office may send soldiers into the +reserve before the end of their terms. Reduction is also made, from +eleven to thirteen years and a half, for various degrees of +educational acquirement. Exemptions are also made for family reasons +and on account of peculiar occupation or profession. Individuals who +personally manage their estates or direct their own commercial +affairs (with the exception of venders of strong liquors) may have +their entry into service postponed two years. Men are permitted to +volunteer at seventeen (with consent of parents or guardians); all +volunteers serve nine years in the reserve; those joining the Guards +or cavalry must maintain themselves at their own expense. The total +contingent demanded for army and navy in 1880 was 235,000, and +231,961 were enrolled; of this deficit of 3,039, the greater number, +3,000, were Jews. +</p> +<p> +<i>Organization</i>.--The Emperor is the Commander-in-Chief, who +issues orders through the War Ministry, whose head is responsible +for the general efficiency of the Army. There is also the "Imperial +Head-quarters," under a general officer who, in the absence of the +War Minister, takes the Emperor's orders and sees to their +execution. The War Council, presided over by the War Minister, +supervises all financial matters in connection with the army. There +are also a High Court of Appeals, and the Head-quarters Staff, who +supervise the execution of all military duties. Commissariat, +artillery, engineer, medical, military education, Cossack, and +judge-advocate departments complete the list of bureaus. +</p> +<p> +The military forces are arranged into nineteen army corps: five +comprise three divisions of infantry; one, two divisions of cavalry; +the remainder, two divisions of cavalry and one of infantry; with a +due proportion of light artillery and engineers the war strength of +an army corps is 42,303 combatants, 10,755 horses, and 108 guns. +</p> +<p> +When war is declared an army is formed of two or more corps. The +general commanding exercises supreme control, civil and military, if +the force enters the enemy's country. His staff are detailed much as +usual at an American army head-quarters in the field. +</p> +<p> +There are in the active army--<i>Infantry</i>: 768 battalions (192 +regiments, 48 divisions), 54 batt. riflemen. <i>Cavalry</i>: 56 +regular regiments (4 cuirassiers, 2 uhlans, 2 hussars, 48 dragoons); +29 regt. Cossacks, divided into 20 divisions, kept in time of peace +at 768 men (864 with sub-officers) per regiment. <i>Artillery</i>: +51 brigades, or 303 batteries of 8 guns each; 30 horse-batteries of +6 guns each; besides 14 batteries with Cossack divisions. Fifty +"parks" and 20 sections of "parks" supply each infantry brigade and +cavalry division with cartridges. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan25.jpg" +alt="THE LAND FORCES OF RUSSIA"> + +<pre> + +THE LAND FORCES OF RUSSIA. +[Footnote: Approximately from latest (1884-85) returns. (Combatants +only.)] + + + EUROPE. + Field Troops + PEACE. + Engineers. 21,335 + Cavalry. 52,902 + Infantry. 49,581 + Artillery. 323,701 + Total. 447,519 + Horses. 71,565 + Guns. 1,188 + WAR. + Total. 821,243 + Horses. 155,149 + Guns. 2,172 + + Reserve, Fortress, and Depot Troops + PEACE. + Engineers. - + Cavalry. 10,504 + Infantry. 23,704 + Artillery. 54,995 + Total. 89,203 + Horses. 8,703 + Guns. 144 + WAR. + Total. 891,404 + Horses. 109,822 + Guns. 1,236 + + + CAUCASUS. + Field Troops + PEACE. + Engineers. 1,548 + Cavalry. 12,364 + Infantry. 8,442 + Artillery. 59,254 + Total. 81,608 + Horses. 15,927 + Guns. 198 + WAR. + Total. 150,313 + Horses. 31,700 + Guns. 366 + + Reserve Fortress Troops + PEACE. + Engineers. - + Cavalry. 5,480 + Infantry. 2,860 + Artillery. 2,270 + Total. 10,610 + Horses. 6,137 + Guns. 8 + WAR. + Total. 51,776 + Horses. 36,862 + Guns. 12 + + + TURKESTAN. + PEACE. + Engineers. 496 + Cavalry. 6,744 + Infantry. 2,468 + Artillery. 12,522 + Total. 22,230 + Horses. 8,246 + Guns. 48 + WAR. + Total. 34,125 + Horses. 12,780 + Guns. 76 + + + SIBERIA. + PEACE. + Engineers. 244 + Cavalry. 2,606 + Infantry. 1,273 + Artillery. 7,752 + Total. 11,875 + Horses. 3,412 + Guns. 24 + WAR. + Total. 29,779 + Horses. 14,745 + Guns. 58 + + + <i>Grand Aggregate of the Empire</i>. + PEACE. + Engineers. 23,623 + Cavalry. 90,600 + Infantry. 83,328 + Artillery. 460,494 + Total. 663,045 + Horses. 113,990 + Guns. 1,610 + WAR. + Total. 1,978,640 + Horses. 367,089 + Guns. 3,920 + +</pre> +<p> +During 1884 the engineer corps was reorganized. Henceforward the +peace establishment will consist of seventeen battalions of sappers; +eight battalions of pontoniers; sixteen field-telegraph companies, +each of which is mounted, so as to maintain telegraphic +communication for forty miles, and have two stations; six +engineering parks or trains, each ten sections, carrying each +sufficient tools and material for an infantry division; four +battalions of military railway engineers; four mine companies; two +siege trains, and one telegraph instruction company. The whole is +divided into six brigades, and provisions are taken for training +recruits and supplying the losses during war. The fortress troops, +for the defence of fortresses, consist of forty-three battalions of +twelve hundred men each in time of war, and nine companies of three +hundred men each. The depot troops, for garrison service, consist of +thirteen battalions and three hundred detachments. +</p> +<p> +The reserve troops supply 204 battalions of infantry, 56 squadrons +of cavalry, 57 batteries of artillery, and 34 companies of sappers. +If mobilized, they are intended to supply 544 battalions, 56 +squadrons, 144 batteries, and 34 companies of engineers. The second +reserve, or "Zapas," consists of "cadres" for instruction, organized +in time of war. +</p> +<p> +The training of the Russian infantry comprises that of skirmishing +as of most importance; the whistle is used to call attention; the +touch is looser in the ranks than formerly; squares to resist +cavalry are no longer used; [Footnote: A British officer, who has +had good opportunities, says the infantry drill is second to none.] +the Berdan breech-loader is the infantry arm; sergeant-majors wear +officers' swords, and together with musicians carry revolvers. +</p> +<p> +A great stimulus has been given to rifle practice in the Russian +army, with fair results, but complaint is made of want of good +instructors. The dress and equipment of the infantry is noted for an +absence of ornament, and hooks are substituted for buttons. Every +thing has been made subordinate to comfort and convenience. Woollen +or linen bandages are worn instead of socks. The entire outfit of +the soldier weighs about fifty pounds. The Guards, alone, are yet +permitted to wear their old uniform with buttons. The arms of the +Turkestan troops are mixed Berdan and Bogdan rifles. The field +clothing is generally linen blouse with cloth shoulder-straps, +chamois-leather trousers, dyed red, and a white képi. Officers wear +the same trousers in the field. Cossacks wear gray shirts of camel's +hair. +</p> +<p> +The artillery is divided into field artillery and horse artillery, +of which the strength is given elsewhere. The horse batteries have +the steel four-pound gun. +</p> +<p> +Col. Lumley, of the British army, says: "In Russia it is believed +that the field artillery is equal to that of any other Power, and +the horse artillery superior." Lieut. Grierson, R.A., from his +personal observation, confirms this opinion. +</p> +<p> +It is not too much to say that, in any European conflict in the near +future, the Russian cavalry will be conspicuous and extraordinarily +effective. In a war with England, in Asia, the use of large bodies +of cavalry, organized, instructed, and equipped after the American +plan, must become the main feature. +</p> +<p> +From the wonderful reforms instituted by Russia in her huge army of +horsemen, which have put her before all other nations, not excepting +Germany, we may expect to hear of wonderful mobility, stunning blows +at the enemy's depots, and the appropriation of choice positions +under his nose: of stubborn contests with the Anglo-Indian infantry, +the only weapon a Berdan carbine; of communications destroyed by +high explosives: especially, of the laying waste smiling Afghan +valleys, inexpedient to occupy:--these are a few of the surprises to +which we may be treated if Russia gets the chance. In this manner +she is doubtless prepared to take the initiative in her next war. +</p> +<p> +[Footnote: The bold operations of General Gourko in the Russo- +Turkish war of 1878, afford the best illustration of the versatile +qualities of the progressive military horseman since the American +war, 1861-5. An Austrian officer says: "The Russian cavalry +reconnoitred boldly and continuously, and gave proof of an +initiative very remarkable. Every one knows that Russian dragoons +are merely foot soldiers mounted, and only half horsemen: however, +that it should come to such a point as making dragoons charge with +the bayonet, such as took place July 16th near Twardista, seems +strange. Cossacks and Hussars dismounted on the 30th, formed +skirmishing lines, coming and going under the fire of infantry, +protecting their battery, and conducting alone an infantry fight +against the enemy. At Eski Zagra, July 31st, the dragoons did not +leave the field until all their cartridges were exhausted. On the +other hand, the <i>offensive</i> action, and the spirit of +enterprise and dash, which are the proper qualifications of cavalry, +were not wanting in the Russians."] +</p> +<p> +The whole of the regular cavalry of the line has been converted into +dragoons armed with Berdan rifle and bayonet; the Guard regiments +must adopt the same change when ordered into the field, and the +Cossacks have been deprived of the lance (excepting for the front +rank); new musketry regulations have been prescribed. Great stress +is now laid upon the training of both horses and men in the +direction of long marches, and the passage of obstacles. Forced +marches are also made to cover the greatest possible distances in +the shortest possible time. +</p> +<p> +[Footnote: Among other experiments are noted that of 7 officers and +14 men of the Orenburg Cossacks who in November last in bad weather +travelled 410 versts between Niji Novgorod and Moscow in 5 days--about +53 miles a day; then covering 685 versts from Moscow to St. +Petersburg in 8 days--56 miles a day; on arrival an inspector +reported horses fresh and ready for service; the party was mentioned +in orders, and presented to the Czar. A month before, in snow and +intense cold, 7 officers and 7 men of the cavalry school covered 370 +versts in 4 days--60 miles a day. It is asserted that the best +Russian cavalry can travel 70 miles a day, continuously, without +injury. General Gourko recently inspected two sotnias of Don +Cossacks who had cleared 340 versts in 3 days, or 74 miles a day.] +</p> +<p> +Swimming was practised in the Warsaw, Odessa, and Moscow districts, +the horses being regularly taught with the aid of inflated bags tied +under them. The Suprasl was crossed by the entire 4th Cavalry +Division swimming. In order to acquire a thorough knowledge of +pioneer duty, both the officers and non-commissioned officers of +cavalry are attached to the engineer camp for a short course of +instruction. In one division a regular pioneer squadron has been +formed for telegraphic and heliographic duty. The mounted force, +provided for in the Russian establishment, comprises twenty-one +divisions of 3,503 sabres and 12 guns each, or an aggregate of +73,563 men and 252 field guns. +</p> +<p> +A feature of the Russian cavalry equipment is the pioneer outfit, +consisting of tools for construction or destruction, as they desire +to repair a bridge or destroy a railroad; this outfit for each +squadron is carried on a pack-mule; dynamite is carried in a cart +with the ammunition train. +</p> +<p> +The Cossack (except of the Caucasus) is armed with a long lance +(front rank only), a sabre without guard, and a Berdan rifle. Those +of the Caucasus have in addition pistol and dagger, besides a +<i>nagaska</i> or native whip. The uniform is blue, high boots, fur +cap, cloak with cape. The snaffle-bit is universally used, even by +the officers, although the average Russian troop-horse is noted for +his hard mouth. +</p> +<p> +In the mounted drill of the Cossacks there is a charge as +skirmishers (or "foragers") called the "lava," which is executed at +a great pace and with wild yells of "Hourra!" +</p> +<p> +Lieut. Grierson, of the British army, writes that: "A big fine man +mounted on a pony, with his body bent forward and looking very +top-heavy, always at a gallop, and waving his enormous whip, the +Cossack presents an almost ludicrous appearance to one accustomed +to our stately troopers. But this feeling is dashed with regret that +we possess no such soldiers." +</p> +<p> +<i>Transport and Supply</i>.--The Russian system of transport +is in a very experimental and unsatisfactory state. It is the +only army which provides regimentally for the <i>personnel</i> +and <i>matériel</i> of this department. In each regiment is a +non-combatant company, in which all men required for duty without +arms are mustered. +</p> +<p> +All military vehicles required for the regiment are under charge of +this company. The intention of the system now developing is to +reduce the quantity of transportation required. [Footnote: In 1878 +the head-quarters baggage of the Grand Duke Nicholas required five +hundred vehicles and fifteen hundred horses to transport it.] +Besides the wagons and carts used for ordinary movements of troops, +Russia will, in Afghanistan, depend upon the animals of the country +for pack-trains and saddle purposes. After the <i>Camel</i>, of +which large numbers exist in the region bordering Afghanistan on the +north, the most important aid to Russian military mobility is the +remarkable <i>Kirghiz Horse</i>. The accounts of the strength, +speed, endurance, and agility of this little animal are almost +incredible, [Footnote: In 1869 a Russian detachment of five hundred +men, mounted on Kirghiz horses, with one gun and two rocket-stands, +traversed in one month one thousand miles in the Orenburg Steppe, +and only lost three horses; half of this march was in deep sand. In +October, M. Nogak (a Russian officer) left his detachment <i>en +route</i>, and rode one horse into Irgiz, 166-2/3 miles in 34 +hours.] but they are officially indorsed in many instances. He is +found in Turkestan, and is more highly prized than any other breed. +The Kirghiz horse is seldom more than fourteen hands, and, with the +exception of its head, is fairly symmetrical; the legs are +exceptionally fine, and the hoofs well formed and hard as iron. It +is seldom shod, and with bare feet traverses the roughest country +with the agility of a chamois, leaping across wide fissures on the +rocks, climbing the steepest heights, or picking its way along mere +sheep-tracks by the side of yawning precipices, or covering hundreds +of versts through heavy sand, with a heavier rider, day after day. +Its gaits are a rapid and graceful walk of five and one half to six +miles an hour, and an amble [Footnote: Moving both feet on a side +almost simultaneously.] at the maximum rate of a mile in two +minutes. This animal crosses the most rapid streams not over three +and one half feet deep, lined with slippery boulders, with ease. +They are good weight carriers. [Footnote: The mounted messengers +(pony express) over the steppes, use these horses, and carry with +them, over stages of 350 miles in 8 days, an equipment and supplies +for man and horse of nearly 300 pounds.] With a view of stimulating +horse-breeding in Turkestan, the government in 1851 offered prizes +for speed. [Footnote: The greatest speed recorded (1853.) was 13-1/2 +miles (on a measured course) in 27 minutes and 30 seconds.] Kirghiz +horses have been thoroughly tested in the Russian army. For modern +cavalry and horse-artillery purposes they are unsurpassed. The +average price is £6, but an ambler will bring £12. Great Britain is +said to possess 2,800,000 horses, while Russia, in the Kirghiz +steppes alone, possesses 4,000,000 saddle or quick-draught horses. +</p> +<p> +The supply of the Russian army is carefully arranged under the +central Intendance. The ration in the field was, in 1878, 14.3 +ounces of meat, 14.9 black bread, preserved vegetables and tea, with +an issue of brandy in the winter. Immense trains follow each +division, at intervals, forming consecutive mobile magazines of +food. A division provision train can carry ten days' supply for +230,000 men. +</p> +<p> +Forage is now supplied for transport in compressed cakes, of which +20,000,000 were used by Russia in her last war. [Footnote: A +compressed ration of forage was extensively used by the Russians in +1878, weighing 3-1/2 pounds; 5 days' supply could be carried on the +saddle with ease.] +</p> +<p> +Clothing is furnished by the supply bureau of certain regions in +which there are large government factories; it is usual to keep on +hand for an emergency 500,000 sets of uniform clothing. +</p> +<p> +<i>Routes</i>.--Having devoted a share of our limited space to an +account of the roads leading to Herat, from India, we may consider, +briefly, certain approaches to Afghanistan or India from the +northwest. This subject has been so clearly treated in a recent +paper read before the Royal United Service Institution by Captain +Holdich, R.E., who surveyed the region referred to, in 1880, that we +quote liberally as follows: +</p> +<blockquote> + In improving our very imperfect acquaintance, both with the + present military resources and position of Russia in Central + Asia, and of the difficulties presented both geographically and + by the national characteristics of the races that she would have + to encounter in an advance south of the Oxus, a good deal has + been already learned from the Afghans themselves. Among the + turbulent tribes dwelling in and around Kabul, whose chief and + keenest interest always lies in that which bears, more or less + directly, on their chances of success in mere faction fights, + which they seem to regard as the highest occupation in life, the + Russian factor in the general game must be a matter of constant + discussion. Thus it may possibly arise from their individual + interest in their national position that there is no better + natural geographer in the world than the Afghan of the Kabul + district. There is often an exactness about his method of + imparting information (sometimes a careful little map drawn out + with a pointed stick on the ground) which would strike one as + altogether extraordinary, but for the reflection that this one + accomplishment is probably the practical outcome of the + education of half a lifetime. + <p> + Russia's bases of military operations towards India are two: one + on the Caspian Sea at Krasnovodsk, and Chikishliar, with + outposts at Chat and Kizil Arvat; and the other on the line of + Khiva, Bokhara, Samarcand, and Margillan, which may roughly be + said to represent the frontier held (together with a large + extent of boundary south of Kuldja) by the Army of Tashkend, + under General Kaufmann. But between this latter line and the + Oxus, Russia is undoubtedly already the dominant Power. The mere + fact of Russia having already thoroughly explored all these + regions, gives her the key to their future disposal. There is no + doubt that in all matters relating to the acquirement of + geographical knowledge, where it bears on possible military + operations, Russian perceptions are of the keenest. Her + surveying energies appear to be always concentrated on that + which yet lies beyond her reach, rather than in the completion + of good maps to aid in the right government of that which has + already been acquired. + </p> + <p> + With what lies north of the Oxus we can have very little to say + or to do; therefore it matters the less that in reality we know + very little about it. The Oxus is not a fordable river. At Khoja + Saleh, which is the furthest point supposed to have been reached + by the Aral flotilla, it is about half a mile wide, with a slow + current. At Charjui it is about the same width, only rapid and + deep. At Karki it is said to be one thousand yards wide, and at + Kilif perhaps a quarter of a mile. But at all these places there + are ferries, and there would be ample means of crossing an army + corps, if we take into account both the Aral flotilla and the + native material, in the shape of large flat-bottomed boats, + capable of containing one hundred men each, used for ferrying + purposes, of which there are said to be three hundred between + Kilif and Hazarasp. These boats are drawn across the river by + horses swimming with ropes attached to their manes. But under + any circumstances it seems about as unlikely that any British + force would oppose the passage of a Russian army across the Oxus + as that it would interfere with the Russian occupation of the + trans-Oxus districts; but once south of the Oxus, many new + conditions of opposition would come into play, arising + principally from the very different national characteristics of + the southern races to those farther north. It would no longer be + a matter of pushing an advance through sandy and waterless + deserts, or over wild and rugged mountains, difficulties which + in themselves have never yet retarded the advance of a + determined general, but there would be the reception that any + Christian foe would almost certainly meet at the hands of a + warlike and powerful people, who can unite with all the cohesion + of religious fanaticism, backed up by something like military + organization and a perfect acquaintance with the strategical + conditions of their country. Most probably there would be no + serious local opposition to the occupation by Russia of a line + extending from Balkh eastwards through Khulm and Kunduz to + Faizabad and Sarhadd, all of which places can be reached without + great difficulty from the Oxus, and are connected by excellent + lateral road communications. But the occupation of such a line + could have but one possible object, which would be to conceal + the actual line of further advance. Each of these places may be + said to dominate a pass to India over the Hindoo Kush. Opposite + Sarhadd is the Baroghil, leading either to Kashmir or to Mastuj + and the Kunar valley. Faizabad commands the Nuksa Pass. Khulm + looks southwards to Ghozi and the Parwan Pass into Kohistan, + while from Balkh two main routes diverge, one to Bamian and + Kabul, the other to Maimana and Herat. + </p> + <p> + It would be a great mistake to suppose that this short list + disposes of all the practicable passes over the Hindoo Kush. The + range is a singularly well-defined one throughout its vast + length; but it is not by any means a range of startling peaks + and magnificent altitudes. It is rather a chain of very elevated + flattish-topped hills, spreading down in long spurs to the north + and south, abounding in warm sheltered valleys and smiling + corners, affording more or less pasture even in its highest + parts, and traversed by countless paths. Many of these paths are + followed by Kuchis in their annual migrations southward, with + their families and household goods piled up in picturesque heaps + on their hardy camels, or with large herds of sheep and goats, + in search of fresh pasturage. South of the Hindoo Kush we find + most of the eastern routes to our northwest frontier to converge + in one point, very near to Jelalabad. There are certain routes + existing between the Russian frontier and India which pass + altogether east of this point. There is one which can be + followed from Tashkend to Kashgar, and over the Karakoram range, + and another which runs by the Terek Pass to Sarhadd, and thence + over the Baroghil into Kashmir; but these routes have justly, + and by almost universal consent, been set aside as involving + difficulties of such obvious magnitude that it would be + unreasonable to suppose that any army under competent leadership + could be committed to them. The same might surely be said of the + route by the Nuksan Pass into the valley of Chitral and the + Kunar, which joins the Khyber route not far from Jelalabad. Its + length and intricacy alone, independently of the intractable + nature of the tribes which border it on either side, and of the + fact that the Nuksan Pass is only open for half the year, would + surely place it beyond the consideration of any general who + aspired to invade India after accomplishing the feat of carrying + an army through it. West of Kafirstan across the Hindoo Kush + are, as we have said, passes innumerable, but only three which + need be regarded as practicable for an advancing force, all the + others more or less converging into these three. These are the + Khák, the Kaoshan (or Parwan, also called Sar Alang), and the + Irâk. The Khák leads from Kunduz <i>via</i> Ghori and the valley + of the Indarab to the head of the Panjshir valley. Its elevation + is about thirteen thousand feet. It is described as an easy + pass, probably practicable for wheeled artillery. The Panjshiris + are Tajaks, and, like the Kohistanis generally, are most bigoted + Suniu Mohammedans. The rich and highly cultivated valley which + they inhabit forms a grand highway into Kohistan and Koh Dahman; + but all this land of terraced vineyards and orchards, watered by + snow-cold streams from the picturesque gorges and mountain + passes of the Hindoo Kush and Paghman mountains,--this very + garden of Afghanistan, stretching away southwards to the gates + of Kabul, is peopled by the same fierce and turbulent race who + have ever given the best fighting men to the armies of the + Amirs, and who have rendered the position of Kabul as the ruling + capital of Afghanistan a matter of necessity; with their + instincts of religious hostility, it will probably be found that + the Kohistani, rather than the Hindoo Kush, is the real barrier + between the north and the south. The Sar Alang or Parwan Pass + leads directly from Kunduz and Ghori to Charikar and Kabul. It + is the direct military route between Afghan Turkestan and the + seat of the Afghan Government, but is not much used for trade. + It cannot be much over eleven thousand feet elevation, and it is + known to be an easy pass, though somewhat destitute of fuel and + forage. The next route of importance is that which leads from + Balkh, <i>via</i> Bamian, to the Irâk Pass on the Hindoo Kush, + and into the upper watercourse of the Helmund River, and thence + by the Unai over the Paghman range to Kabul. This is the great + trade route from the markets of Turkestan and Central Asia + generally to Kabul and India. The Irâk, like the Parwan, is not + nearly so high as has been generally assumed, while the Unai is + a notoriously easy pass. This route is at present very much + better known to the Russians, who have lately frequently + traversed it, than to ourselves. Like the Parwan and the Khak, + it is liable to be closed for three or four months of the year + by snow. During the winter of 1879-80 they were open till late + in December, and appear to be again free from snow about the + middle of April. Between these main passes innumerable tracks + follow the "durras," or lines of watercourse, over the ridges of + the Hindoo Kush and Paghman, which afford easy passage to men on + foot and frequently also to "Kuchi" camels. These passes (so far + as we can learn) could, any of them, be readily made available + for mountain artillery with a very small expenditure of + constructive labor and engineering skill. In Koh Dahman nearly + every village of importance lying at the foot of the eastern + slopes of the Paghman (such as Beratse, Farza, Istalif, etc.) + covers a practicable pass over the Paghman, which has its + continuation across the Shoreband valley and over the ridge of + the Hindoo Kush beyond it. But between the Khák Pass and the + Irâk, the various routes across the Hindoo Kush, whether + regarded as routes to India or to Kandahar, although they by no + means converge on Kabul City, must necessarily pass within + striking distance of an army occupying Kabul. Such a force would + have, first of all, thoroughly to secure its communication with + the Oxus, and a strong position at Kabul itself. +</blockquote> + +Having the official statement of a military engineer with reference +to the Oxus-Hindu-Kush line, as a barrier or base or curtain, we may +pass to the principal approach to Herat from the northwest. + +<p> +There are four distinct lines by which Russia could move on Herat: +</p> +<p> +I. From the <i>Caspian</i> base a trans-Caucasian army corps could +move (only with the concurrence and alliance of Persia) by the +Mashed route direct; +</p> +<p> +II. Or it could move outside Persian territory, from +<i>Chikishliar</i> by the Bendessen Pass to Asterabad, and would +then have to pass through Persian territory to Sarakhs, or across +the desert to Merv; +</p> +<p> +III. From the <i>Tashkend-Bokhara</i> base a route exists <i>via</i> +Charjui, the Oxus, direct to Merv; and there is +</p> +<p> +IV. Also the well-known road by <i>Balkh</i> and Mamiana, direct to +Herat. +</p> +<p> +Routes III. and IV. having just been discussed, let us look at +Routes I. and II. +</p> +<p> +Referring to the small outline map of the trans-Caspian region, +herewith, it will be seen that troops could embark from Odessa in +the fleet of merchant steamers available, and, if not molested <i>en +route</i> by hostile cruisers, would reach Batúm in from 2 to 3 +days, thence by rail to Bakú in 24 hours, another 24 hours through +the Caspian Sea to Krasnovodsk, a transfer in lighters to the +landing at Michaelovsk, and the final rail transportation to the +present terminus of the track beyond Kizil Arvat; this, it is said, +will soon reach Askabad, 310 miles from Herat. The Secretary of the +Royal Asiatic Society, Mr. Cust, with his wife, passed over this +route in 1883, and testifies to the ease and comfort of the transit +and to the great number of vessels engaged in the oil trade, which +are available for military purposes, both on the Black and Caspian +seas. He estimates that they could easily carry 8,000 men at a trip. +[Footnote: Mr. Cust says: "There are three classes of steamers on +the Caspian. 1, the Imperial war steamers with which Russia keeps +down piracy; 2, the steamers of the Caucasus and Mercury Company, +very numerous and large vessels; 3, petroleum vessels--each steamer +with a capacity of 500 men."] +</p> +<p> +General Hamley [Footnote: Lecture before R. U. S. Institution +(London), 1884.] says: "We may assume that if on the railway (single +track) the very moderate number of 12 trains a day can run at the +rate of 12 miles an hour, the journey would occupy 40 hours. The +successive detachments would arrive, then, easily in two days at +Sarakhs. A division may be conveyed, complete, in 36 trains. Thus, +in six days a division would be assembled at Sarakhs ready to move +on the advanced guard. An army corps, with all its equipments and +departments, would be conveyed in 165 trains in 17 days. It would +then be 200 miles--another 17 days' march--from Herat. Thus, adding +a day for the crossing of the Caspian, the army corps from Bakú +would reach Herat in 35 days. Also the advance of a corps from +Turkestan upon Kabul is even more practicable than before." +[Footnote: In his plan of invasion, Skobeleff thought 50,000 men +might undertake the enterprise without fear of disaster. This force +could be doubled from the Caucasus alone.] +</p> +<p> +The route from Tchikishliar <i>via</i> Asterabad (where it strikes +the main Teheran-Mashed-Herat road) would be an important auxiliary +to the railway line, <i>via</i> Asterabad. There is also a more +direct caravan track running south of this across the Khorassan, +from Asterabad (through Shahrud, Aliabad, Khaf, Gurian) to Herat; +or, at Shahrud, an excellent road running between the two already +described straight (<i>via</i> Sabzawar and Nishapar) to Mashed. +</p> +<p> +From Sarakhs to Merv the road is said to be good and fairly supplied +with water. From Merv to Herat the well-worn expression "coach and +four" has been used to denote the excellent condition of the road. +[Footnote: For the first 100 miles the road follows the Murghab, +which Abbott describes as "a deep stream of very pure water, about +60 feet in breadth, and flowing in a channel mired to the depth of +30 feet in the clay soil of the valley; banks precipitous and +fringed with lamarisk and a few reeds."] Yalatun is described as +fertile, well populated, and unhealthy. [Footnote: Band-i-Yalatun, +or "bank which throws the waters of the Murghab into the canal of +Yalatun."] From Penjdeh, where the river is sometimes fordable, the +road follows the Khusk River, and, ascending the Koh-i-Baber Pass, +descends into the Herat valley, immediately beneath it. [Footnote: +Before closing the chapter on the "Russian Forces," a brief +description of the order of march customary in Central Asia may be +proper. From a translation by Major Clarke, R.A., from Kotensko's +"Turkestan," it appears that the horses accompanying Central Asian +detachments are so considerable that the latter form, as it were, +the escort of the former. As an Asiatic enemy nearly always attacks +from every side, the distribution of the troops, during the march, +must be such that they may be able to repulse the enemy no matter +where he may appear. Usually, a half sotnia (70 men) of cavalry +marches in advance at a distance from 3/4 to 1-1/3 miles, so as to +be in view of main body. Immediately in front of main body marches a +detachment of sappers and a company or two of infantry; then part of +the artillery; then more infantry; the train; behind the train, +remainder of artillery and infantry; as a rear guard, a sotnia of +cavalry. Bivouacs in the Steppe are usually chosen at wells, and +are, in many respects, similar to those customary in the Indian +country in America. First, an outer line of carts or wagons; then +the troops; and inside, all the animals. The accompanying diagram is +from <i>The Journal Royal United Service Institution</i> (London).] +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan26.jpg" +alt="NORMAL ORDER OF MARCH IN CENTRAL ASIA. +NORMAL BIVOUAC IN CENTRAL ASIA."> + +<p> </p> + + +<h5>V.</h5> +<h5>REVIEW OF THE MILITARY SITUATION.</h5> + +<p> +The purpose of this volume has been to give as much reliable +information upon the cause of the Anglo-Russian dispute, the nature +of the probable theatre of operations in case of war, and of the +armies of the Powers concerned, as could be obtained and printed +within a single fortnight. The richness of the available material +made this especially difficult, comprising as it did the record of +recent campaigns in Afghanistan, as well as the opinions of those +who, like Vámbéry, Veniukoff, Rawlinson, Napier, and Cust, are +authorities upon Asiatic topics. +</p> +<p> +As these lines are written [Footnore: April 18, 1885.] the civilized +nations of the world await with bated breath the next scene upon the +Afghan stage. +</p> +<p> +Seldom when two gladiators, armed and stripped, enter the arena does +a doubt exist as to their purpose. Yet such an exceptional +uncertainty attends the presence of England and Russia on the border +of Afghanistan. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan27.jpg" +alt="Gorge in the Tirband-i-Turkestan through which +the Murghab Flows."> + +<p> +At least 50,000 British soldiers are drawn up in front of the Indus +awaiting a signal from their Queen. Nearly twice that number of +Russian troops are massed on or near the northwestern angle of the +Ameer's country. [Footnote: Since the events noted in our first +chapter (page 12) transpired, another page has been added to +Afghanistan's blood-stained record. After confronting each other on +the Khusk River for some weeks a large Russian force under General +Komaross attacked (March 30, 1885) the Afghan troops at Penjdeh, and +after a gallant resistance on the part of the native garrison it was +utterly routed and the town occupied by the victors. The Russian +casualties were inconsiderable, but the Afghans lost nearly 1,000 +men.] +</p> +<p> +It is impossible to eliminate, altogether, from a study of the +present military situation, certain political elements. +</p> +<p> +It is apparent that the Russians near Herat stand practically at +"the forks of the road"; it is a three-pronged fork--one branch +running due south to the sea and two branches due east to India. The +first-named requires but passing comment and only as it relates to +Herat, planted on a route which cannot be controlled without its +possession, for military and commercial reasons well understood. +</p> +<p> +As already explained, the routes to India, available to Russia, +enable her to move from her base on the Merv-Herat line, both +<i>via</i> Balkh and Kabul, for the purpose of flanking a British +column moving from Quetta westward, or of raiding the rich valley of +the Helmund; from Turkestan above this route, a British force +moving from Kabul to Balkh could also be threatened. By the main +Herat-Kandahar route an advance from the east could also be directly +opposed; the crossing of the Helmund by either army would probably +be contested. +</p> +<p> +In case of war, whether Anglo-Russian or Russo-Afghan, the first +great battle would doubtless be fought on the Kandahar-Ghazni-Kabul +line. +</p> + +<img src="images/afghan28.jpg" +alt="Jelalabad from Piper's Hill."> + +<p> +General Hamley, the leading British military authority, [Footnote: +Lieut.-General Sir. E. Hamley, K.C.B.] shows that this line is, of +all proposed, at once the most practicable and desirable line for +the defence of India. [Footnote: Three lines had been considered: +first, the line of the Eastern Sulimani, but this would leave the +seaport of Kurrachee unprotected; second, from Pishin northeast to +Kabul.] He says: "We should have a strong British governor in +Kandahar, and a strong British force on the Helmund and on the road +to Kabul; the railway completed to Kandahar, and, in case of a +movement from Turkestan against Kabul, a force on our side on its +way to occupy that city, and new recruiting grounds open to us amid +warlike populations. Surely there can be no question as to which of +these two sets of circumstances would give us most influence in +Afghanistan, most power to oppose Russia and to maintain confidence +in India." [Footnote: Gen. Hamley's remarks were made before the +Royal United Service Institution (May 18, 1884), and, in the +discussion which followed, Colonel Malleson said: "Recently in India +some influential natives said to me: 'Russia will continue her +advance; she will not stop until she has gained the fertile country +of Herat, and then she will intrigue with the native princes behind +the Indus, and when you send an army to meet her, you will find +those native princes rising in your rear.' I may fortify my own +experience by what was told me by an Austrian gentleman who visited +India about seven years ago. He paid a visit to the Maharaja, of +Cashmere, who said to him: 'From you I hope to get the truth; you +are not an Englishman nor a Russian. Tell me which is the stronger--the +English power or the Russian; because it will be necessarily my +duty, if Russia should advance, and if I should find Russia stronger +than England, to go for the defence of my throne on the side of +Russia.'"] +</p> +<p> +The same authority approves Sir Michael Biddulph's recommendation to +utilize the strong natural positions near Girishk on the Helmund. As +to Afghanistan he testifies: "With a power like Russia closing on +it, holding Persia and Persian resources subject to its will, it is +in vain to think that Afghanistan will be long independent even in +name. It is between hammer and anvil, or, to use a still more +expressive metaphor, between the devil and the deep sea. Bound to us +by no traditions, by no strong political influences such as might +have been used to constrain them, the Afghan tribes, mercenary and +perfidious to a proverb, an aggregate of tribes--not a nation,--will +lose no time, when the moment occurs, in siding with the great power +which promises most lavishly, or which can lay strongest hold on +them." +</p> +<p> +The burning words with which General Hamley closed his lecture one +year ago are singularly true to-day, and form a fitting termination +to this sketch: +</p> +<p> +"I do not undervalue the many influences which will always oppose +any policy entailing expense. But if the present question is found +to be--How shall we guard against a terrible menace to our Indian +Empire? any cost to be incurred can hardly be admitted as a reason +which ought to influence our course. Magnanimous trustfulness in the +virtue and guilelessness of rival states; distrust and denunciation +of all who would chill this inverted patriotism by words of warning; +refusal of all measures demanding expense which do not promise a +pecuniary return:--such is the kind of liberality of sentiment which +may ruin great nations. The qualities of the lamb may be very +excellent qualities, but they are specially inapplicable to dealings +with the wolf. Do those who shrink from expense think that the +presence of Russia in Afghanistan will be inexpensive to us? Will +the weakness which will be the temptation and the opportunity of +Russia be less costly than effectual defence? When we enter the +councils of Europe to assert our most vital interests, shall we +speak as we have been accustomed to speak, when our free action is +fettered by the imminent perpetual menace to India? These are +questions which, now put forth to this limited audience, will, +perhaps, within the experience of most of us, be thundered in the +ears of the nation. England is just now not without serious +perplexities, but none are so fraught with possibilities of mischief +as the storm which is now gathering on the Afghan frontier." +</p> + +<p> </p> + + +<h5>LIST OF AUTHORITIES.</h5> + + +[Footnote: Unless otherwise designated, the authors named are +officers of the British Army, and nearly all the works are in the +Library of the Military Service Institution of the United States, +(Governor's Island, N. Y. H.).] + +<p> +ANDERSON, Capt. "A Scheme for Increasing the Strength of the Native +Armies," etc. [2] +</p> +<p> +ARMY LIST, British Official, 1885. +</p> +<p> +BIDDULPH, Gen. "The March from the Indus to the Helmund." [2] +</p> +<p> +BELLEW, H. W., C.S.I. "A New Afghan Question." [2] +</p> +<p> +BENGOUGH, Lieut-Col. "Mounted Infantry." [2] (From the Russian.) +</p> +<p> +BISCHOFF, Major. "The Caucasus and its Significance to Russia." +(Ger.) [2] +</p> +<p> +BLUNDELL, Col. "British Military Power with Reference to War +Abroad." [1] +</p> +<p> +BAKER, Col. "The Military Geography of Central Asia." [1] +</p> +<p> +COLQUHOUN, Capt. "On the Development of the Resources of India in a +Military Point of View." [2] +</p> +<p> +CANTLEY, Major. "Reserves for the Indian Army." [2] +</p> +<p> +CALLEN, Major. "The Volunteer Force of India," etc. [2] +</p> +<p> +CAVENAGH, Gen. "Our Indian Army." [1] +</p> +<p> +CHAPMAN, Lieut-Col. "The March from Kabul to Kandahar in 1880." [1] +</p> +<p> +CLARKE, Capt, "Recent Reforms in the Russian Army." [1] +</p> +<p> +CUST, R., Sec. R.A.S. "The Russians on the Caspian and Black Seas." +[1] +</p> +<p> +DAVIDSON, Major. "The Reasons why Difficulty is Experienced in +Recruiting for the Native Army." [2] +</p> +<p> +DALTON, Capt. "Skobeleff's Instructions for the Reconnaisance and +Battle of Geok-Tepé." [1] (From the French.) +</p> +<p> +ELIAS, Capt. "A Streak of the Afghan War." [1] +</p> +<p> +ESME-FORBES, Lieut. "Cavalry Reform." [2] +</p> +<p> +FURSE, Major. "Various Descriptions of Transport." [1] +</p> +<p> +GAISFORD, Capt. "New Model Transport Cart for Ponies and Mules." [2] +</p> +<p> +GLOAG, Col. "Military Reforms in India." [2] +</p> +<p> +GOWAN, Major. "Progressive Advance of Russia in Central Asia." [2] +"The Army of Bokhara." [2] "Russian Military Manoeuvres in the +Province of Jaxartes." [2] (From the Russian.) +</p> +<p> +GRAHAM, Col. "The Russian Army in 1882." [1] +</p> +<p> +GORDON, Capt. "Bengal Cavalry in Egypt." [2] +</p> +<p> +GRIERSON, Lieut. "The Russian Cavalry," and "The Russian Mounted +Troops in 1883." [2] +</p> +<p> +GREENE, Capt. "Sketches of Army Life in Russia." (New York, 1881.) +</p> +<p> +GRIFFITHS, Major. "The English Army." (London.) +</p> +<p> +GREY, Major. "Military Operations in Afghanistan." [2] +</p> +<p> +GERARD, Capt. "Rough Notes on the Russian Army in 1876." [2] +</p> +<p> +GOLDSMID, Gen. "From Bamian to Sonmiani." [1] "On Certain Roads +between Turkistan and India." [1] +</p> +<p> +HEYLAND, Major. "Military Transport Required for Rapid Movements." +[1] +</p> +<p> +HOLDICH, Capt. "Between Russia and India." [1] +</p> +<p> +HENNEKEN, Gen. "Studies on the Probable Course and Result of a War +between Russia and England." [2] (From the Russian.) +</p> +<p> +HILDYARD, Lieut.-Col. "The Intendance, Transport, and Supply Service +in Continental Armies." [2] +</p> +<p> +HASKYNS, Capt. "Notice of the Afghan Campaigns in 1879-81. From an +Engineer's View." [1] +</p> +<p> +HAMLEY, Lieut.-Gen., Sir E. "Russia's Approaches to India." (1884.) +[1] +</p> +<p> +JOURNAL of the Military Service Institution of the United States. +</p> +<p> +KELTIE, J. S. "The Statesman's Year-Book." (London, 1885.) +</p> +<p> +KIRCHHAMMER, A. "The Anglo-Afghan War." [2] (From the German.) +</p> +<p> +KOTENSKO. "The Horses and Camels of Central Asia." [2] "Turkestan." +[1] (From the Russian.) +</p> +<p> +LITTLE, Col. "Afghanistan and England in India." [2] (From the +German.) +</p> +<p> +LEVERSON, Lieut. "March of the Turkistan Detachment across the +Desert," etc. [1] (From the Russian.) +</p> +<p> +MARTIN, Capt. "Tactics in the Afghan Campaign," [2] "Notes on the +Operations in the Kurrum Valley." [2] "Horse-Breeding in Australia +and India." [2] "Notes on the Management of Camels in the 10th +Company Sappers and Miners on Field Service." [2] "British Infantry +in the Hills and Plains of India." [2] +</p> +<p> +MORGAN, D. "A Visit to Kuldja, and the Russo-Chinese Frontier." [1] +</p> +<p> +MORTON, Capt. "Gourko's Raid." [2] (From the French.) +</p> +<p> +MACKENZIE, Lieut.-Gen. "Storms and Sunshine of a Soldier's Life." +</p> +<p> +MOSA, P. "The Russian Campaign of 1879," etc. [2] (From the +Russian.) +</p> +<p> +MEDLEY, Col. "The Defence of the Northwest Frontier." [2] +</p> +<p> +NEWALL, Lieut.-Col. "On the Strategic Value of Cashmere in +Connection with the Defence of Our Northwest Frontier." [2] +</p> +<p> +O'DONOVAN, E. "The Merv Oasis." (New York, 1883.) +</p> +<p> +PRICE, Capt. "Notes on the Sikhs as Soldiers for Our Army." [2] +</p> +<p> +PITT, Lieut. "A Transport Service for Asiatic Warfare," etc. [1] +</p> +<p> +ROSS, D., (Delhi Railway). "Transport by Rail of Troops, Horses, +Guns, and War Materials." [2] +</p> +<p> +ST. JOHN, Major. "Persia: Its Physical Geography and People." [2] +</p> +<p> +STRONG, Capt. "The Education of Native Officers in the Indian Army." +[2] +</p> +<p> +STEEL, Veterinary-Surgeon. "Camels in Connection with the South +African Expedition, 1878-1879." [2] +</p> +<p> +SHAW, Major. "Army Transport." [1] +</p> +<p> +SANDERSON, G. P. "The Elephant in Freedom and in Captivity." [2] +</p> +<p> +TEMPLE, Lieut. "An Historical Parallel--The Afghans and Mainotes." +[2] +</p> +<p> +TYRRELL, Lieut.-Col. "The Races of the Madras Army." [2] +</p> +<p> +TROTTER, Capt. "The Tribes of Turkistan." [2] +</p> +<p> +TRENCH, Col. "Cavalry in Modern War." (London, 1884.) +</p> +<p> +UPTON, Gen. "The Armies of Asia and Europe." (New York, 1878.) +</p> +<p> +VENIUKOFF, Col. "The Progress of Russia in Central Asia." [2] (From +the Russian.) +</p> +<p> +YALDWYN, Capt. "Notes on the Camel." [2] +</p> +<p> + [1: Journal Royal United Service Institution (London).] +<br> <br> + [2: Journal of the United Service Institution of India +(Simla).] +</p> + +<p> </p> + +<h5>INDEX.</h5> + + +A<br> +<br> +Abazai, mil. post<br> +Abbaza, village<br> +Abdurrahman, the Ameer<br> +Absuna, pass<br> +Abul-Khair<br> +Afghanistan:<br> + Territory; mountains; rivers;<br> + roads, animals; people;<br> + army; cities; military history<br> +Ahmed-Kheil, city<br> +Ahmed-Shah<br> +Akbar Khan<br> +Akbar, the Great<br> +Akhunt Ziarut, city<br> +Akton Khel, city<br> +Alexander I.<br> +Alexander, Czar<br> +Alexander of Macedon<br> +Ali Musjid, fort<br> +Altai, river<br> +Aliabad<br> +Amu Daria (Oxus), river<br> +Aral, sea<br> +Argandab, valley; river<br> +Army, British:<br> + Strength; organization; transport;<br> + supply; routes; operations<br> + Indian<br> +Army, Russian:<br> + Strength; organization; transport;<br> + supply; routes<br> +Aryan, race<br> +Askabad<br> +Assin Killo, city<br> +Asterabad<br> +Atta Karez, mountain<br> +Attreck, river<br> +Auckland, Lord<br> +Aulicata, city<br> +Auran, mountain<br> +Aurangzeb<br> +Ayoub Khan<br> +<br> +B<br> +<br> +Baber Khan<br> +Bakú<br> +Balkash, mountain<br> +Balkh, city<br> +Bamian, pass<br> +Baroghil, pass<br> +Barshor, valley<br> +Baru, military post<br> +Batúm<br> +Bekovitch, Gen.<br> +Beloochistan, state<br> +Bendessen, pass<br> +Bengal, city<br> +Beratse, village<br> +Berlin, city<br> +Biddulph, Sir M.<br> +Billigarungan, hills<br> +Bolan, pass<br> +Bokhara, province<br> +Bombay, city<br> +Bori, valley<br> +Bost, city<br> +Broadfoot, Capt.<br> +Browne, Gen.<br> +Brydon, Dr.<br> +Bunnoo, mil. post<br> +Burnes, agent<br> +Burrows, Gen.<br> +<br> +C<br> +<br> +Calmucks<br> +Camel<br> +Cashmere, Maharaja<br> +Caspian, sea<br> +Catharine II.<br> +Cavagnari, Major<br> +Ceylon, island<br> +Chapman, Col.<br> +Charikar, town<br> +Chat, town<br> +Charjui, town<br> +Chelmsford, Lord<br> +Chemkent, city<br> +Chikishliar, town<br> +Chitral, town<br> +Clarke, Major<br> +Conolly, M.<br> +Cossacks<br> +Cust, Mr.<br> +<br> +D<br> +<br> +Dadur, city<br> +Dakka, city<br> +Dasht-i-Bedowlat, mountain<br> +Delhi, city<br> +Dera Ghazi Khan, village<br> +Dera Ismail Khan, city<br> +Derajat, district<br> +Djungaria, province<br> +Doaba, military post<br> +Dost, Mohammed<br> +Dozan, city<br> +<br> +E<br> +<br> +Elephant<br> +Ellenborough, Lord<br> +Elphinstone, Gen.<br> +Eski Zagra, town<br> +<br> +F<br> +<br> +Faizabad, city<br> +Farrah, town<br> +Farza, village<br> +Fergana, province<br> +Ferrier, Gen.<br> +<br> +G<br> +<br> +Gaisford, Capt.<br> +Gayud Yara, plain<br> +Geok Tepé, fort<br> +Genghiz Khan<br> +Ghazgar, valley<br> +Ghazni, city<br> +Ghilzai, district<br> +Ghori, valley<br> +Gilan, province<br> +Gindari, mountain<br> +Girishk, city<br> +Gordon, Col.<br> +Gourko, Gen.<br> +Graham, Sir L.<br> +Green, Col.<br> +Grierson, Lieut.<br> +Guikok, range<br> +Gujrat, city<br> +Guleir Surwandi, pass<br> +Gundamuck, city<br> +Gundana, town<br> +Gurian, city<br> +<br> +H<br> +<br> +Haines, Sir F.<br> +Hamley, Gen.<br> +Har-i-Rúd<br> +Hazaristan, river<br> +Hazarasp, city<br> +Hazardarakht, mountain<br> +Hazarnao, city<br> +Helmund, river<br> +Herat, city; river<br> +Himalayas, mountain<br> +Hindu Kush, mountain<br> +Hobhouse, Sir J. C.<br> +Hodjeni, province<br> +Holdich, Capt.<br> +Horse, yabu; khirgiz<br> +<br> +I<br> +<br> +Inderabad, river<br> +India, On the threshold of<br> +Indus, river<br> +Irâk, pass<br> +Irgiz, fort<br> +Irtish, river<br> +Ispahan, city<br> +Istalif, village<br> +<br> +J<br> +<br> +Jacobadad, city<br> +Jagdallack, pass<br> +Jamrud, city<br> +Jelalabad, city<br> +Jizakh, province<br> +Jumrud, military post<br> +<br> +K<br> +<br> +Kabul, city; river<br> +Kachi, plains<br> +Kadani, plains<br> +Kafristan, province<br> +Kabriz, fort<br> +kalát, city<br> +Kandahar, city<br> +Karakoran, mountain<br> +Karkacha, pass<br> +Karki, town<br> +Kash, river; city<br> +Kashgar<br> +Kashmir, city<br> +Kaufmann, Gen.<br> +Kelat, town<br> +Khaiber, pass<br> +Khanikoff, M.<br> +Khaf<br> +Khak, pass<br> +Khinar, pass<br> +Khiva, province<br> +Khoja-Saleh, city<br> +Khokand, province<br> +Khoja-Amran, mountain ridge<br> +Khorassan, province<br> +Khulm, city<br> +Khurd-Kabul, pass<br> +Khurd-Khaiber, pass<br> +Khusk', river<br> +Khirtar, mountain<br> +Kilif, city<br> +Kizil Arvat, city<br> +Koh Daman, mountain<br> +Kohut, mil. post<br> +Kohistan, province<br> +Koh-i-Baber, mountain<br> +Kokiran, district<br> +Komaroff, Gen.<br> +Kotensko<br> +Krasnovodsk, city<br> +Kuh-i-Baba, mountain<br> +Kujlak-Kekur, valley<br> +Kuldja, city<br> +Kunar valley<br> +Kunduz, city<br> +Kurrachee, city<br> +Kuram, river; valley; fort<br> +Kusmore, village<br> +Kussun, fort<br> +<br> +L<br> +<br> +Lalaberg, valley<br> +Lalgoshi, village<br> +Lahore, city<br> +Landi Khana, village<br> +Lash Jowain, city<br> +Lakhareff, Gen.<br> +Logar, valley<br> +London, city<br> +Lora, river<br> +Lumsden, Sir P.<br> +Lumley, Col.<br> +<br> +M<br> +<br> +Mackenzie, Gen. C.<br> +Mackeson, fort<br> +McNaghten, Sir W.<br> +Mahmoud, sultan<br> +Mahomet<br> +Mahommed Azim<br> +Maimana, town<br> +Malleson, Col.<br> +Malta<br> +Margilan, town<br> +Maris, tribe<br> +Martin, Lieut.<br> +Marvin, C.<br> +Mashed, city<br> +Mastuj, town<br> +Maude, Gen.<br> +Mazanderan, province<br> +McClellan, saddle<br> +Merv, province<br> +Michaelovsk, town<br> +Michni, fort<br> +Mithunkot, town<br> +Mogul<br> +Mooktur valley<br> +Mooltan, city<br> +Moscow, city<br> +Múlla, pass<br> +Munro, fort<br> +Murchat, town<br> +Murghab, river<br> +Mysore, province<br> +<br> +N<br> +<br> +Nadir, Shah<br> +Nahur, Maharajah of<br> +Napier, Lord<br> +Napoleon<br> +Nicholas, Grand Duke<br> +Nijni Novgorod, town<br> +Nishuper, town<br> +Nogak, M.<br> +Nott, Gen.<br> +Nuksan, pass<br> +<br> +O<br> +<br> +Odessa, city<br> +O'Donovan, M.<br> +Orenburg, province<br> +Orloff, Gen.<br> +Outram, Capt.<br> +Oxus, (See Amer. Daria)<br> +<br> +P<br> +<br> +Paghman, mountains<br> +Panjshir, valley<br> +Panjwai, town<br> +Paropismus, mountains<br> +Parwan, pass<br> +Pat, clay<br> +Paul, Emperor<br> +Peiwar, pass<br> +Pekin<br> +Penjdeh, town<br> +Persia<br> +Perwan, pass<br> +Perovsky, fort<br> +Peter the Great<br> +Petropanlovsk, province<br> +Peshawur, city<br> +Pishin, village; plain<br> +Pollock, Gen.<br> +Pottinger, Major<br> +Primrose, Gen.<br> +<br> +Q<br> +<br> +Quetta, city<br> +<br> +R<br> +<br> +Raganpur, city<br> +Rawlinson, Sir H.<br> +Roberts, Gen.<br> +Rogan, village<br> +Ross, railway manager<br> +Rudbar, town<br> +Russian Army: strength; organization;<br> + transport; supply; routes<br> +<br> +S<br> +<br> +Sabzawar, city<br> +Sale, Sir R.<br> +Samarcand, city<br> +Samson<br> +San Stefano<br> +Sarahks, town<br> +Sargo, pass<br> +Sarhadd, town<br> +Saunders, Major<br> +Scinde, province<br> +Seistan, district<br> +Shahrud, town<br> +Shere Ali<br> +Shikapur, town<br> +Shul Kadar, fort<br> +Shurtargurdan, pass<br> +Singh Runjit<br> +Sirpul, town<br> +Skobeleff, Gen.<br> +Stewart, Sir D.<br> +Stolietoff, Gen.<br> +St. Petersburg<br> +Sufed Koh, mountain<br> +Sujah Shah<br> +Sulimani, mountains<br> +Suprasl, river<br> +Surkh Denkor<br> +Surkhab river<br> +<br> +T<br> +<br> +Takwir, mountain<br> +Taktipul, town<br> +Targai, fort<br> +Tartara, pass<br> +Tashkend, city<br> +Teheran<br> +Tehernayeff, Gen.<br> +Tejend, river<br> +Temple, Sir R.<br> +Terek, pass<br> +Timwi<br> +Trench, Col.<br> +Troitsk, province<br> +Turkestan<br> +Turnak, valley<br> +Twarditsa, town<br> +<br> +U<br> +<br> +Unai, river<br> +Ural, mountains<br> +<br> +V<br> +<br> +Vámbéry, M.<br> +Veniukoff, M.<br> +Vernoye, fort<br> +Volga, river<br> +<br> +W<br> +<br> +Warsaw, city<br> +Washir, town<br> +Wolseley, Lord<br> +<br> +Y<br> +<br> +Yakoub, Khan<br> +Yalatun, town<br> +Yaldwin, Capt.<br> +Yaxartes, river<br> +<br> +Z<br> +<br> +Zurmat, district<br> +Zohâk, fort<br> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Afghanistan and the Anglo-Russian +Dispute, by Theo. F. Rodenbough + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AFGHANISTAN, ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE *** + +***** This file should be named 7320-h.htm or 7320-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/3/2/7320/ + +Produced by Andrea Ball, Eric Eldred, Charles Franks, +Juliet Sutherland, and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at + www.gutenberg.org/license. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan1.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan1.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..654733c --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan1.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan10.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan10.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6a753a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan10.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan11.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan11.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fa59118 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan11.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan12.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan12.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..98fde23 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan12.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan13.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan13.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1323777 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan13.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan14.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan14.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..82f345b --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan14.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan15.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan15.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..116fafd --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan15.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan16.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan16.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f343be --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan16.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan17.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan17.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ef11c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan17.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan18.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan18.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b5fb819 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan18.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan19.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan19.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..97371b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan19.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan2.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan2.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b34fbc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan2.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan20.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan20.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c96e0e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan20.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan21.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan21.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..682bad0 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan21.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan22.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan22.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1d3b40d --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan22.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan23.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan23.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2078b6c --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan23.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan24.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan24.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c8809b --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan24.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan25.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan25.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8186ef5 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan25.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan26.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan26.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0a3e254 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan26.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan27.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan27.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..83108e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan27.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan28.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan28.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8eaad86 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan28.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan3.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan3.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b5e02dc --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan3.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan4.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan4.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e6889f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan4.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan5.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan5.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..32bafc9 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan5.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan6.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan6.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1cef59 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan6.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan7.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan7.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..079d9a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan7.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan8.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan8.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2208556 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan8.jpg diff --git a/7320-h/images/afghan9.jpg b/7320-h/images/afghan9.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c98a89 --- /dev/null +++ b/7320-h/images/afghan9.jpg |
