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diff --git a/old/aaard10.txt b/old/aaard10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..89feb68 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/aaard10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4233 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Afghanistan and the Anglo-Russian Dispute +by Theo. F. Rodenbough + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Afghanistan and the Anglo-Russian Dispute + +Author: Theo. F. Rodenbough + +Release Date: January, 2005 [EBook #7320] +[This file was first posted on April 12, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, AFGHANISTAN AND THE ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE *** + + + + +Andrea Ball, Eric Eldred, Charles Franks, Juliet Sutherland, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +AFGHANISTAN AND THE ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE + +by THEO. F. RODENBOUGH + +Bvt. Brigadier General, U.S.A + + + + + + + +AN ACCOUNT OF RUSSIA'S ADVANCE TOWARD INDIA, BASED UPON THE +REPORTS AND EXPERIENCES OF RUSSIAN, GERMAN, AND BRITISH +OFFICERS AND TRAVELLERS; WITH A DESCRIPTION OF +AFGHANISTAN AND OF THE MILITARY RESOURCES +OF THE POWERS CONCERNED + + +[Illustration: Afghanistan: England versus Russia] + +[Illustration: The Ruler of Afghanistan, Abdurrahman Khan, +Ameer of Kabul] + + + + * * * * * + +WITH THREE MAPS AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS + + * * * * * + + + +CONTENTS. + +I. +THROUGH THE GATES OF ASIA + +II. +ON THE THRESHOLD OF INDIA + +III. +THE BRITISH FORCES AND ROUTES + +IV. +THE RUSSIAN FORCES AND APPROACHES + +V. +REVIEW OF THE MILITARY SITUATION +LIST OF AUTHORITIES +INDEX + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + +_MAPS_. + +Afghanistan and the Surrounding Territories (Drawn for this Work and +Corrected by the Latest Military Surveys--end of vol.) + +The Asiatic Territories Absorbed by Russia During the Past Two +Centuries, with the Dates of the Various Annexations + +The Russian Lines of Advance from their Base of Supplies + + + +_CUTS_. + +Abdurrahman Khan, Ameer of Kabul (Frontispiece) + +Mahaz Khan (A Tajik), Khan of Pest Bolak +Jehandad (Lohanir), from Ghazni + +Wullie Mohammed, a Dahzungi Hazara +Pozai Khan, a Shinwarri (Musician) + +Khan Baz, a Khumbhur Khel Afreedi +Tooro Baz, a Kookie Khel Afreedi + +Zool Kuddar, an Adam Khel Afreedi +Mousa, a Kizilbash, Born in Peshawur + +The City of Kandahar, Afghanistan + +Castle of Zohak, First March from Bamian, Irak Road to Kabul + +An Afghan Post-Chaise; Going to the Front + +Gate of the Bazaar at Kabul + +Major-General, Sir F. S. Roberts, V.C., K.C.B. + +Khelat-i-Ghilzi, between Kandahar and Ghazni + +Elephant with Artillery; on the Road to Ali Musjid + +Detail of Elephant Saddle + +Noah's Valley, Kunar River + +Watch Tower in the Khaiber Pass + +Fort of Ali Musjid, from the Heights above Lala Cheena, in the +Khaiber Pass + +Fort of Dakka, on the Kabul River + +The Ishbola Tepe, Khaiber Pass + +Entrance to the Bolan Pass, from Dadur + +Entrance to the Khojak Pass, from Pishin, on the Road to Kandahar + +The Order of March in Central Asia + +Gorge in the Tirband-i-Turkestan, through which the Murghab flows + +Jelalabad, from Piper's Hill + + + + +[Illustration: MAP Showing the Advances of RUSSIA towards INDIA +1734-1884.] + + + + +AFGHANISTAN +AND THE +ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE + + + +I. + +THROUGH THE GATES OF ASIA. + + +In universal history there is no more interesting subject for the +consideration of the political student than the record of Russian +progress through Central Asia. + +In one sense this advance is a practical reestablishment or +extension of the influence of the Aryan race in countries long +dominated by peoples of Turki or Mongolian origin; in another +sense it has resulted in a transition from the barbarism or rude +forms of Asiatic life to the enlightenment and higher moral +development of a European age. In a religious sense it embodies a +crusade against Oriental fanaticism; and it is a curious feature of +the Anglo-Russian dispute, that upon a question of temporal gain, +the greatest Christian nation finds itself allied with the followers +of Buddha and Mahomet against Russia under the Banner of the Cross. + +The descendants of the great Peter have opened up in Central Asia a +new region which, if as yet it has not been "made to blossom as the +rose," has nevertheless profited by the introduction of law, order, +and a certain amount of industrial prosperity. + +Russia commenced her relations with Central Asia as early as the +sixteenth century. Not only through embassies sent, but by military +expeditions; these, however, at that time were private ventures by +roving Cossacks and other inhabitants of Southern Russia. Authorized +government expeditions commenced with Peter the Great, who in +1716-17 sent two exploring parties into the Central Asian deserts-- +Bekovitch to Khiva, and Likhareff to the Black Irtish. These +expeditions were undertaken in search of gold, supposed to exist in +those regions, but failed in their object; the detachment under +Bekovitch being entirely destroyed after reaching Khiva. Peter +next turned his attention to the country bordering upon the +southern shores of the Caspian Sea; taking advantage of Persian +embarrassments, with the consent of the Shah and of the Sultan he +acquired, in 1722-3, the provinces of Gilan, Mazanderan, and +Asterabad; but the great expense of maintaining a large garrison so +remote from Russia, and the unhealthiness of the locality, induced +the Russian Government, in 1732, to restore the districts to Persia. +In the same year Abul-Khair, the Khan of the Little Kirghiz Horde, +voluntarily submitted to Russia. Twenty years later a small strip of +the kingdom of Djungaria, on the Irtish, was absorbed, and toward +the commencement of the reign of Catharine II, Russian authority +was asserted and maintained over the broad tract from the Altai to +the Caspian. This occupation was limited to a line of outposts along +the Ural, the Irtish, and in the intervening district. During +Catharine's reign the frontier nomads became reduced in numbers, by +the departure from the steppe between the Ural and Volga of the +Calmucks, who fled into Djungaria, and were nearly destroyed on the +road, by the Kirghiz. + +The connection between Russia and Central Asia at this time assumed +another character, that of complete tranquillity, in consequence of +the development of trade through Orenburg and to some extent through +Troitsk and Petropaulovsk. The lines along the Ural and Irtish +gradually acquired strength; the robber-raids into European Russia +and Western Siberia almost entirely ceasing. The allegiance of the +Kirghiz of the Little and Central Hordes was expressed in the fact +that their Khans were always selected under Russian influence and +from time to time appeared at St. Petersburg to render homage. With +the Central Asian khanates there was no connection except that of +trade, but as regarded the Turcomans, who, it is said, had +frequently asked for Russian protection, intercourse was +discouraged, as they could not be trusted "within the lines," being +simply bandits. + +The Emperor Paul imagined that the steppes offered a good road to +Southern Asia, and desiring to expel the English from India, in the +year 1800 he despatched a large number of Don Cossacks, under +Orloff, through the districts of the Little Horde. At the time a +treaty was concluded with Napoleon, then First Consul, by virtue of +which a combined Russo-French army was to disembark at Asterabad and +march from thence into India by way of Khorassan and Afghanistan. +The death of the Emperor of Russia put an end to this plan. + +During the reign of Alexander I, Central Asia was suffered to rest, +and even the Chinese made raids into Russian territory without +interruption. In the third decade of the present century, however, +several advanced military settlements of Cossacks were founded. +"Thus," says M. Veniukoff, "was inaugurated the policy which +afterward guided us in the steppe, the foundation of advanced +settlements and towns (at first forts, afterwards _stanitsas_ +[Footnote: Cossack settlements.]) until the most advanced of them +touches some natural barrier." + +About 1840, it was discovered that the system of military +colonization was more effectual in preserving order in the Orenburg +district than by flying detachments sent, as occasion required, from +Southern Russia; and in 1845-6 the Orenburg and Ural (or Targai and +Irgiz) forts were established. In 1846 the Great Kirghiz Horde +acknowledged its subjection to Russia on the farther side of the +Balkash, while at the same time a fort was constructed on the lower +Yaxartes. + +In 1847 the encroachments of Russia in Central Asia had brought her +upon the borders of the important khanates of Khiva and Khokand, +and, like some huge boa-constrictor, she prepared to swallow them. +In 1852 the inevitable military expedition was followed by the +customary permanent post. Another row of forts was planted on the +Lower Yaxartes, and in 1854 far to the eastward, in the midst of the +Great Horde, was built Fort Vernoye--the foundation of a new line, +more or less contiguous to natural boundaries (mountains and +rivers), but not a close line. Between Perovsky and Vernoye there +were upwards of four hundred and fifty miles of desert open to the +incursions of brigands, and between the Aral and Caspian seas there +was a gap, two hundred miles in width, favorable for raids into the +Orenburg Steppe from the side of Khiva. Finally, under the pretext +of closing this gap, a general convergent movement of the Siberian +and Orenburg forces commenced, culminating under General Tchernayeff +in the capture of Aulieata and Chemkent in 1864, and of Tashkent in +1865. + +Here, M. Veniukoff says: "The Government intended to halt in its +conquests, and, limiting itself to forming a closed line on the +south of the Kirghiz steppes, left it to the sedentary inhabitants +of Tashkent to form a separate khanate from the Khokand so hostile +to us." And this historian tells us that the Tashkendees declined +the honor of becoming the Czar's policemen in this way, evidently +foreseeing the end, and, to cut the matter short, chose the Russian +general, Tchernayeff, as their Khan. The few Central Asian rulers +whose necks had so far escaped the Muscovite heel, made an +ineffectual resistance, and in 1866 Hodjeni and Jizakh were duly +"annexed," thus separating Bokhara and Khokand. + +Here we may glance at the method by which Russia took firmer root on +the shores of the Caspian, and established a commercial link with +the Khivan region. In 1869 a military post and seaport was planted +at Krasnovodsk, on that point of the east shore of the Caspian, +which presents the greatest facilities for shipping, and as a base +of operations against the Turcomans, who were at that time very +troublesome. Several military expeditions set out from this point, +and every year detachments of troops were despatched to keep the +roads open toward Khiva, the Kepet Dagh, or the banks of the Attrek. +Within five years (1870-'75) the nomads living within the routes +named had become "good Turcomans," carried the Czar's mails to +Khiva, and furnished the Krasnovodsk-Khivan caravans with camels and +drivers. But the colonization scheme on the lower Caspian had once +more brought the Russians to the Persian boundary. In 1869 the Shah +had been rather officiously assured that Russia would not think of +going below the line of the Attrek; yet, as Colonel Veniukoff shows, +she now regrets having committed herself, and urges "geographical +ignorance" of the locality when the assurance was given, and the +fact that part of her restless subjects, on the Attrek, pass eight +months of the year in Russian territory and four in "so-called" +Persia; it is therefore not difficult to imagine the probable change +on the map of that quarter. + +The march continued toward Khiva, and after the usual iron-hand-in- +velvet-glove introduction, General Kaufmann in 1873 pounced upon +that important khanate, and thus added another to the jewels of the +Empire. Nominally, Khiva is independent, but nevertheless collects +and pays to Russia a considerable contribution annually. + +In 1868 Russia seized Samarcand, and established over the khanate of +Bokhara a similar supervision to that in Khiva. As the distinguished +Russian already quoted remarks: "The programme of the political +existence of Bokhara as a separate sovereignty was accorded to her +by us in the shape of two treaties, in 1868 and 1873, which defined +her subordinate relation to Russia. But no one looks at these acts +as the treaties of an equal with an equal. They are instructions in +a polite form, or programmes given by the civilized conqueror to the +conquered barbarians, and the execution of which is guaranteed by +the immediate presence of a military force." + +The district of Khokand, whose ruler, Khudoyar Khan, submitted +himself to Russia in 1867, was for a number of years nominally +independent, but becoming disturbed by domestic dissensions, was +ultimately annexed under the name of the Fergana Province. + +To this point we have followed Colonel Veniukoff's account of the +Russian advance. It will doubtless interest the reader to continue +the narrative from an English view, exceptionally accurate and +dispassionate in its nature. + +In a lecture before the Royal United Service Institution in London, +May 16, 1884, Lieut.-General Sir Edward Hamley, of the British Army, +discussed the Central Asian question before an audience comprising +such Indian experts as Sir Henry Rawlinson, Lord Napier of Magdala, +and Mr. Charles Marvin, and many distinguished officers, including +Lord Chelmsford, Sir F. Haines, and Colonel Malleson. Among other +things, General Hamley said: + +"Probably England has never been quite free, during the present +century, from some degree of anxiety caused by the steady, gradual +approaches of Russia through Central Asia toward India. It was seen +that where her foot was planted it never went back. It was seen that +with forces comparatively small she never failed to effect any +conquest she was bent on, and that the conquest, once effected, was +final. This security in possession was owing in great measure to the +fact that the governments she displaced were bad governments, and +that she substituted one far better in itself and of a simplicity +which was well adapted to the people with whom she was dealing. She +aimed mainly at three things--the establishment of order and of +confidence and the obtaining of some return for her own heavy +expenses. From the establishment of order and of confidence sprang a +prosperity which enabled her to obtain a certain revenue, though +entirely inadequate to her expenditure. Thus we beheld her pressing +solidly on, and we knew not where she might stop. Pretexts, such as +it was difficult to find a flaw in, were never wanting on which to +ground a fresh absorption of territory. And seeing behind this +advance a vast country--almost a continent--which was not merely a +great Asiatic Power, but a great European State, under autocratic, +irresponsible rule, with interests touching ours at many points, it +is not to be wondered at that we watched with anxiety her progress +as she bore steadily down toward our Indian frontier." + +General Hamley says that England became particularly suspicious of +Russia in 1867 when she absorbed Turkestan, and this feeling was +intensified in 1878, while the Treaty of Berlin was still pending. +General Kaufmann assembled a small army of about 12,000 men and +thirty-two guns on the frontier of Bokhara, and although upon the +signing of the treaty all threatening movements ceased, yet the +British commander then operating in Afghanistan knew that Kaufmann +had proposed to march in the direction of Kabul, and menace the +British frontier. + +It has ever been the practice of Russia, in her schemes of +aggrandizement, to combine her diplomatic with her military +machinery; but, unlike other nations, the ambassador has generally +been subordinate to the general. + +At the time that General Kaufmann sheathed his sword under the +influence of the Treaty of Berlin, in 1878, there remained another +representative of Russia--General Stolietoff--who had been quietly +negotiating with the Ameer of Afghanistan, Shere Ali, the terms of a +"Russian treaty," whose characteristics have already been described. +Hearing of this, the English Ambassador at St. Petersburg questioned +the Russian Minister, who answered him "that no mission had been, +nor was intended to be, sent to Kabul, either by the Imperial +Government or by General Kaufmann." This denial was given on July +3d, the day after Stolietoff and his mission had started from +Samarcand. After the envoy's arrival at Kabul, another remonstrance +met with the reply that the mission was "of a professional nature +and one of simple courtesy," and was not, therefore, inconsistent +with the pacific assurances already given. The real nature of this +mission became known from papers found by General Roberts at Kabul +in 1879. These showed that Shere Ali had been invited to form a +close alliance with the Russian Government. General Kaufmann had +advised Shere Ali to try and stir up disaffection among the Queen's +Indian subjects, promising to aid him, eventually, with troops. +Finding that this scheme was impracticable at the moment, Russia +dropped the Ameer, who fled from the scene of his misfortunes, and +died soon after. + +For the moment England breathed more freely. There were still great +natural obstacles between the empires of Russia and of India. Not +only the friendly state of Afghanistan, but on its northwestern +border the neutral territory of Merv, hitherto an independent +province, and inhabited by warlike tribes of Turcomans difficult to +reach through their deserts and likely to harass a Russian advance +to Herat to an embarrassing extent. It was seen that the possession +of this territory would at once free Russia from much difficulty in +case of an advance and give her the means of threatening Herat as +well as Kabul from her base in Turkestan, and even to some extent to +carry forward that base beyond the Oxus. + +On the part of Russia, the success of General Skobeleff in capturing +the fortified position of Geok Tepe, January 24, 1880, marked the +beginning of negotiations with the Turcomans for the acquisition of +Merv. For a long while these were unsuccessful, but early in 1884 it +was cabled to London, that "The Queen of the World" had accepted the +White Czar as her future liege lord. + +The immediate cause of this event was the effect produced upon the +minds of the Turcoman deputation to Moscow by the spectacle of the +Czar's coronation. The impression created by the gorgeous ceremonial +was heightened by the presence of so many Asiatic chiefs and +kinglets at the ancient and historic capital of Russia. The tales +they brought back were well calculated to influence the minds of a +wild and primitive people; and when the Khan of Khiva proffered his +services for the settlement of their relations with Russia, that +section of the Tekke tribe in favor of peace accepted them. The +chiefs tendered their formal submission to the Czar, and promised to +allow Russian merchants to reside among them, and pledged themselves +to maintain the security of the routes from the Oxus to the Tejend; +also accepting the responsibilities of Russian subjects by rendering +tribute either in money or by military service. To all intents and +purposes it is equivalent to the establishment of a Russian garrison +in Merv. + +The thorough way in which Russia seeks to bind her Asiatic subjects +is shown in the fact that in 1884, at the request of the Khan of +Khiva, a Russian tutor was selected to instruct his children. + +Soon after it was reported that the Russians had established +themselves at Sarakhs on the direct road to Herat and just over the +Persian boundary of Afghanistan. These later movements again aroused +the distrust of England, and a joint commission of Russian and +English officials was appointed early in the year 1885. + +While the English members of the commission under Sir Peter Lumsden +were awaiting the convenience of their foreign colleagues, the +presence of Russian troops was reported on the disputed territory in +the vicinity of Herat. + +This action alarmed the Afghans, and a collision seemed imminent. +The English Government considered M. de Giers' explanation of this +encroachment unsatisfactory. Pending an adjustment of the new +complication both nations prepared for the worst. + +Here we will leave the subject of the Russian advance through the +Gates of Asia and pass to the consideration of the present neutral +ground of Afghanistan. + + +[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP Showing RUSSIAN-CAUCASIAN and +TRANS-CASPIAN Territory, and NEW ODESSA-HERAT ROUTE.] + + + + +II. + +ON THE THRESHOLD OF INDIA. + + +From the Amu Daria and the Turcoman steppes to the deserts of +Beloochistan, from Persian Khorassan to the valley of the Indus, +stretches the country of the Afghans. Men of renown and events of +world-wide interest have been connected with its history. Its +records tell of the murder of Cavagnari in recent times; of the +tragedy of Elphinstone's command (1838-42); of Shah Nadir, the +butcher of Delhi (1738-39); of Baber Khan, the founder of Mongolian +rule in India (1520); of Timur, the assailer of the world (1398); of +Genghiz Khan, the annihilator of the civilization of ancient Asia +(1218-24); of the great ruler, Sultan Mahmoud (A. D. 1000); and yet +earlier, of Alexander, "the divinely favored Macedonian." Afghan +history dies away, in the hymns of the Indian Vedas, eighteen +hundred years before the birth of Christ. + +The territory of Afghanistan--which is destined to be the arena of a +great international duel--covers an area of 12,000 square miles, or +a tract measuring from north to south 688 miles, and from east to +west 736 miles. It is a mountainous country; a high plateau, 6,000 +feet above the sea, overlooked by lofty mountain ranges which open +out and sink toward the west and south. On the north it is bordered +by the western ranges of the Himalayas, which reach to the Amu +Daria; by the wall-like range of the Hindu Kush, some of whose peaks +are 19,000 feet high; and by several smaller ridges. Between the +Kabul and Kuram rivers rises the snow-capped Sufeid Koh, the +principal peak of which, to the south of Jelalabad, attains an +altitude of 15,000 feet. To the south of this, in Southern +Afghanistan, the Suleiman range, of an average height of 9,000 feet, +falls rapidly toward the valley of the Indus. Between the Hindu Kush +and the Suleiman ranges there are several lesser ones stretching +toward the southwest, including the Auran Mountains (7,000 feet). + +Of the principal rivers noted here (the Helmund, Har-i-Rud, Kabul, +Kuram, and the Gomal) the Helmund alone is navigable. The Helmund +terminates in the swamps of Seistan, as also do the Kash, Farrah, +and Herat rivers, running parallel to the Helmund across the +Kandahar-Herat roads, at 80, 150, and 200 miles, respectively, to +the west of it. These rivers are without bridges, but (with the +exception of the Helmund--provided with ferry at Girishk) are +fordable, save in the months of April and May. The country is +otherwise open and easily traversable, but only on the main routes +can water be readily obtained, and forage is scarce in the winter. + +The Turnuk valley, running northeast from Kandahar, is followed by +the great route to Ghazni and Kabul skirting the Guikok range-- +separated from the Hazaristan to its west by the parallel valley of +the Argandab. The latter valley is also followed by a route which +enters it from Mooktur, the source of the Turnuk. This debouches +upon the Herat road about ten miles west of Kandahar, and there is +no communication west of it between Herat and Kabul, save by +impracticable mountain routes across the Hazaristan. + +Three routes from Kandahar to Herat separate at Girishk on the +Helmund, cross the Kash at different points, and meet at Sabzawar +(280 miles from Kandahar) on the Herat; both of the southernmost +passing by the town of Farrah, which is 230 miles from Kandahar. +From Girishk also a road follows the Helmund to Seistan and Lash +Jowain, where it joins the Herat road at Farrah on the river of that +name, or at Sabzawar on the Herat. The southernmost of the routes to +Farrah also branches from Kash down the river named Kash, joining +the Seistan route at Lash. + +The general aspect of Afghanistan is that of a series of elevated +flat-bottomed valleys, in the vicinity of the streams, somewhat +under cultivation. The scenery is often wild and beautiful, and some +of the defiles to the north of the Hindu Kush are said to be of +appalling grandeur, while the soft, still loveliness of the +sheltered glens on the southern slope of that range strongly +impresses the traveller who visits them. Some of the ranges in the +north and northeast are well timbered with pine and oak. + +The eastern half of Afghanistan is generally cold and rugged, but +sustains innumerable flocks and herds, and abounds in mineral +wealth, especially lead and sulphur. In the more sheltered valleys +considerable fruit is grown, but only grain enough for the actual +consumption of the inhabitants. Water and fodder abound, but fuel is +deficient; a serious matter, as the cold in the winter is extreme. +The western part of Afghanistan is a more fertile region, +interspersed, it is true, with lofty ranges, but comprising many +pleasant valleys and pastures. + +The population is approximately estimated at eight millions. +Afghanistan is a genuine society of different nations, although the +greater part are of Persian descent. The strongholds of the German +self-protecting federations are here produced on a large scale. + +Thus the Duranis, Tajiks, Yusafzais, Ghilzais, Eimaks, Hazaris, +Kaffirs, Hindus, Jats, Arabs, Kizilbashis, Uzbeks, Biluchis, are +near neighbors; of these about 3,000,000 may be real Afghans who +profess the Suni faith and speak Indo-Persian Puchtu. There are over +four hundred inferior tribes known. The Duranis are numerically +strongest and live in the vicinity of Kandahar. Next in importance +are the Ghilzais, estimated at 30,000 fighting men living in the +triangle--Kabul, Jelalabad, Khelat-i-Ghilzai; until 1747 they +furnished the rulers of Afghanistan. To the south of the Ghilzais +live the Puchtu-speaking races who chiefly defend only their own +territory; the mountainous eastern border is inhabited by the +Momunds, Afridis, Arakzais, Zymukts, Waziris, who have never been +subdued. Their sense of independence, however, does not prevent them +from selling their friendship for ready money to the highest bidder. +On the watershed of the Helmund and Indus dwell the independent +Pathans and Biluchis. The Persian-speaking Kizilbashis in Kabul, +comprise 3,000,000 of Shiahs, who are not Afghans, many of whose +30,000 fighting men are in the Ameer's regular army. The Tajiks-- +about 10,000 men--are chiefly in the Kabul and Ghazni districts. +The Hazaris and Eimaks are in the central section of Afghanistan, +known as the Hazaristan, extending east and west from the Koushan +pass over the Hindu-Kush range to Marchat on the Turcoman frontier, +and north and south from Sirpool in Turkestan to Girishk, between +Kandahar and Herat; they are the descendants of the military +settlers left by the Tartar hordes that swept Central Asia under +Genghiz Khan, and still maintain a quasi-independence; they +cordially detest the Afghan Government, but pay an annual tribute in +money to its support. Finally there is a million of foreign +nationalities, including Turks, Persians, Indians, Armenians, and +Kaffirs; the last-named are Hindus, and violent antagonists of the +Mohammedans living around them. + + +[Illustration: Mahaz Khan (a Tajik), Khan of Pest Bolak. + Jehandad (Lohanir), from Ghazni.] + +Thus it is seen that modern Afghanistan comprises three great +districts--Herat in the west, Kabul in the east, and Kandahar in the +centre, with the seat of government at the cities of the same names +respectively. Within each district are, as already described, a +large number of tribes occupying sub-districts, closely connected +like the cells of a honey-comb, but each with its destinctive +manners and customs and irregular military forces, in no instance +numbering less than 6,000 men, and often twice that number, divided +about equally into horse and foot. Many of these render military +service to the Ameer, many are bandits in the worst sense. The +nomadic tribes--like the Eimaks peopling the Heratic region--live +principally in tents, encamping in winter in the valleys, and in +summer on the table-lands of the mountain ranges. They are ignorant, +hospitable, and brave and ardent hunters. Their principal trade is +with Herat, and consists of woollen and camel-hair fabrics and +clarified butter. + + +[Illustration: Wullie Mohammed, a Dahzungi Hazara. + Pozai Khan, a Shinwarri (Musician).] + + +The farming population all live in small hamlets. The better classes +of these live in villages surrounding or joined to the castle of a +Khan. These castles are encompassed by a rude wall, having +frequently turrets at the corners, and occasionally armed with +swivel-guns or wall-pieces. The principal gardens are always on the +outside of the castle, and the herds of horses and camels belonging +to the Khan are kept at distant pastures and attended by herders, +who live in tents. In the Bori and Ghazgar valleys the houses are of +wood. In the Ghazgar valley they are all fortified, as already +described; the doors are generally mere man-holes, and the top of +the towers are loopholes. The better class, and more modern of +these, have flat roofs, from which the water is carried by spouts; +the walls surrounding are at least twelve feet high, and cover +nearly an acre of ground. Three or four such houses usually +constitute a village. These semi-barbarians are noted for the length +and ferocity of their feuds. Sometimes two branches of a family who +are neighbors become enemies. The distance between their "fortlets" +may be two hundred yards, and on that space no one ventures. They go +out at opposite gates and walk straight from their own fort in a +line protected by its walls from the fire of the other, until out of +range, then they turn around to their fields. Broadfoot relates that +"once in Zurmat I saw a fort shut by rolling a stone against the +door, instead of with the usual heavy chain. On inquiring as to the +cause of such carelessness, the Malik, a fine old man with a plump, +good-humored face, stretched his arms out toward the line of distant +forts, and said: 'I have not an enemy!' It was a pleasing exception +to the rule." + + +[Illustration: Khan Baz, a Khumbhur Khel Afreedi. + Tooro Baz, a Kookie Khel Afreedi.] + + +These feuds are a system of petty warfare, carried on by long shots, +stealing cattle, and burning crops. Samson, burning his neighbor's +corn, acted just like an Afghan. When the harvest is nearly ripe, +neither party dare sleep. The remedy is sometimes for both to fight +until an equal number are killed on each side, when the neighbors +step in and effect a reconciliation; another method is to pay +forfeit of a feast and some sheep or cloth; in exceptional cases, a +few Afghan virgins are substituted for the sheep, but they are given +in marriage, and are well treated. + +Our space does not permit an extended reference to the manners and +customs of this primitive people but a few characteristics may be +briefly noted. The love of war is felt much more among Afghans than +by other Eastern peoples, although but little effort has been made +by them to augment the means of resistance and aggression. Pillage, +fighting, and disturbances are at times necessary to their very +existence, and are followed by long days of idleness, during which +they live on the fruits of their depredations. There is no shade of +difference between the character of the nomad and the citizen; a +town life does not soften their habits; they live there as they live +in a tent, armed to the teeth and ready for the onslaught. Though +full of duplicity, one is nevertheless liable to be taken in by +their apparent frankness. They are hospitable to strangers, but only +because this is an ancient custom which has the force of law and is +not a virtue which springs from the heart. The pride of the Afghans +is a marked feature of their national character. They boast of their +descent, their prowess in arms, their independence; and cap all by +"Am I not a Puktan?" + +The Afghan people, occupied with the defence of their homes, have +failed to assist the Ameer in the formation and maintenance of that +indispensable instrument--an organized, well-equipped, easily +mobilized army. In regular battle the Afghans can have but little +hope of success; their strength lies in the petty warfare peculiar +to a wild, mountainous country. As auxiliaries, as partisan troops +in their own country, they would be of great value to their allies +and extremely troublesome to their enemies. For outpost, courier, +and scouting purposes, they would doubtless be most efficient. The +strength of the organized army in the service of the Ameer of +Afghanistan is about 50,000 men of all arms. The traveller Vambery, +who visited Herat in 1863, says: + +"The Afghan's national costume consists of a long shirt, drawers, +and dirty linen clothes; or, if he is a soldier, he affects a +British red coat. He throws it over his shirt, while he gets on his +head the picturesque Indo-Afghan turban. Others again--and these are +the _beau-monde_--are wont to assume a half-Persian costume. Weapons +are borne by all. Rarely does any one, whether civil or military, +enter the bazar without his sword and shield. To be quite _a la +mode_ one must carry about one quite an arsenal, consisting of two +pistols, a sword, poniard, hand-jar, gun, and shield." M. Vambery +also describes a drill of some Afghan regulars. + +"The men had a very military bearing, far better than the Ottoman +army that was so drilled forty years ago. These might have been +mistaken for European troops if most of them had not had on their +bare feet the pointed Kabuli shoe, and had not had their short +trowsers so tightly stretched by their straps that they threatened +every moment to burst and fly up above the knee." + +The adventurous O'Donovan thus describes an Afghan cavalryman whom +he met unexpectedly, near Herat, in 1880: "He wore a dark-colored +turban, one end of the cloth pulled up in front so as to resemble a +small cockade. His uniform was blue-black, and he wore long boots. A +broad black leather cross-belt, with two very large brass buckles, +crossed his breast. He had sabre, pistols, and carbine." + + +[Illustration: Zool Kuddar, an Adam Khel Afreedi. + Mousa, a Kizilbash, Born in Peshawur.] + + +The actual fighting strength of the army of Afghanistan cannot be +definitely stated. Major Lumsden, who has represented the British +Government in that country in various diplomatic capacities, stated +(some years since) that the regular army of the Ameer consisted of +sixteen regiments of infantry, three of cavalry, and seventy-six +field guns. The infantry regiments numbered about 800 men each; the +men were obtained by compulsory levy. Their uniform consisted of +English cast-off clothes purchased at auction. The pay, about five +rupees per mensem, was paid irregularly and often in kind; two +months' pay was deducted for clothing. The cavalry and artillery +were badly horsed; and the horses were sent to graze in summer. A +Russian report of 1868 estimates the infantry at 10,000 men. The +armament, equipment, and instruction of the troops have doubtless +improved since that time, as ten years later the British Government +supplied the Afghan Government with 10,000 Enfield and 5,000 Snider +rifles and one field battery, and very recently (1885) it was +announced that a present of Martini-Henry rifles and improved field +guns had been sent to Abdurrahman by the Indian authorities. + +Besides the regular army there is a paid irregular mounted force of +about 20,000 men, active and formidable in "hill operations," and +known as Jezailchis. + +The late General Colin Mackenzie, in an account of his experiences +in the Elphinstone disaster of 1842, says: + +"The Jezailchis are so called from their jezails or long rifles. The +Afghans are said to be among the best marksmen in the world. They +are accustomed to arms from early boyhood, live in a chronic state +of warfare with their neighbors, and are most skilful in taking +advantage of cover. An Afghan will throw himself flat, behind a +stone barely big enough to cover his head, and scoop a hollow in the +ground with his left elbow as he loads. Men like these only require +training to make first-rate irregular troops. + +"As a trait of Afghan character, I must mention that whenever the +Jezailchis could snatch five minutes to refresh themselves with a +pipe, one of them would twang a sort of a rude guitar as an +accompaniment to some martial song, which, mingling with the notes +of war, sounded very strangely." + +The Russian General Staff have also estimated the Ameer's force, +exclusive of the irregulars, at 66,400 men with 30 guns. + +The efficiency of this body, by reason of their peculiar +surroundings, must vary with the character of the operations. For +defence--particularly of their own section--they form an important +consideration; for aggressive purposes their strength lies in +partisan operations, in small detachments, requiring great mobility. + +Just as it is difficult to understand the rapidity with which +large numbers are assembled in Afghanistan for fighting purposes, +so the dispersing of an Afghan army together with its attendant +masses of tribal levies in flight is almost beyond comprehension; +men who have been actually engaged in hand-to-hand combat dispose of +their arms in the villages they pass through, and meet their +pursuers with melons or other fruit in their hands, While they adopt +the _role_ of peaceful inhabitants. + +A brief description of some of the more noted cities of Afghanistan +may be appropriate here. + +Sir Henry Rawlinson gives the following details respecting the +so-called Key of India--the city of Herat: + +"That which distinguishes Herat from all other Oriental cities, and +at the same time constitutes its main defence, is the stupendous +character of the earthwork upon which the city wall is built. This +earthwork averages 250 feet in width at the base and about 50 feet +in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 feet high and 14 feet +thick at the base, supported by about 150 semicircular towers, and +is further protected by a ditch 45 feet in width and 16 feet in +depth, it presents an appearance of imposing strength. Whether the +place is really as strong as it looks has been differently +estimated. General Ferrier, who resided for some time in Herat, in +1846, states that the city is nothing more than an immense redoubt, +and gives it as his opinion that, as the line of wall is entirely +without flanking defences, the place could not hold out for twenty +days against a European army; and M. Khanikoff, who, although not a +professional soldier, was a very acute observer, further remarks +that the whole interior of the city is dominated from the rising +ground 700 yards distant and covered with solid buildings at the +northeast angle, while the water supply both for the ditch and the +city would be at the mercy of an enemy holding the outside country; +the wells and reservoirs inside the wall, which could then alone be +available--being quite inadequate to the wants of the inhabitants: +but on the other hand, all experience testifies to the defensibility +of the position. + +"Not to speak of the siege which Herat sustained at the hands of +Genghiz Khan, of Timur, and of Ahmed Shah, we have only to remember +that in 1837 the Afghans of Herat, under Major Eldred Pottinger, +beat off the continuous attacks, for nearly ten months, of a Persian +army of 35,000 regular troops supported by fifty pieces of +artillery, and in many cases directed and even commanded by Russian +officers. The truth seems to be that Herat, although in its present +state quite unfit to resist a European army, possesses great +capabilities of defence, and might by a skilful adaptation of the +resources of modern science be made almost impregnable. Major +Saunders, a British engineer officer, calculated in 1840 that, at an +outlay of L60,000, which would include the expenses of deepening the +ditch, clearing the glacis and esplanade, providing flanking +defences, and repairing the walls throughout, Herat might be +rendered secure against any possible renewal of the attack by +Persia." + +The location of this city upon the principal thoroughfare between +India, Persia, and Turkestan gives it a special importance in a +military sense. It is also the principal mart of Western +Afghanistan, and comprises extensive manufactures in wool and +leather. The natural fertility of the country near Herat has been +enhanced by irrigation. + +"The valley, or _julgah_ (as the Persians say), in which the +city lies is rich in the possession of a river. This valley is about +thirty miles long by sixteen in breadth, exclusive of the ground +taken up by the fortress and the walls. Four of these miles separate +the town from the northern and twelve from the southern hills, while +at one quarter of the greater distance runs the Her-i-Rud or Herat +River, which, rising near the Kuh-i-Baba, pursues a westerly course +till, passing the city, it sweeps, first gradually, then decidedly, +to the north, eventually to lose its identity in the environs of +Sarakhs. It is of political as well as of geographical importance, +for it passes between the Persian and Afghan frontier posts of +Kahriz and Kusun respectively, and may be considered to mark the +Perso-Afghan boundary at the Western Paropismus. The Plain, south of +the walls, is watered by a net-work of eight or nine large and many +minor ditches. The aqueducts are stated to be superior to those of +Bokhara, Samarcand, and Ispahan. The grain produced is abundant-- +beyond the requirements of town and suburbs together. The bread, the +water, and the vines have the merit of special excellence. Yet, with +all this wealth of means and material, capable of subsisting an army +of 150,000 men for some time, much of the legacy of past ages is +disregarded and nullified by the supineness of a present generation. +The ruins visible on all sides are not all useless or obsolete +works. As one conclusive instance may be cited the neglected +'Pul-i-Malan.' This bridge, of twenty-three arches, can scarcely be +considered void of purpose or practical benefit. It is, however, +rapidly falling into decay, and as the river has changed its bed, +part of it remains, barren of object, on dry land. On the rising of +the waters this state of things is inconvenient; for the river, at +such time, is no longer fordable, and the Kandahar caravans, going +to and fro, have difficulty in crossing." [Footnote: Sir F. J. +Goldsmid, "Journeys Between Herat and Khiva."] + +In 1830 Conolly was of opinion that the city was one of the dirtiest +in the world, being absolutely destitute of drainage; and Vambery, +thirty-three years afterward, when the city was captured by Dost +Mohammed, says the city was largely a heap of rubbish, having +suffered the horrors of a long siege. + +The city of Kabul, from which the surrounding territory of Eastern +Afghanistan takes its name, stands in lat. 34 degrees 30' N., and +long. 69 degrees 6' E., near the point where the Kabul River is +crossed by three bridges. Its altitude is 6,400 feet, and, within a +short distance to the north, is overtopped by pinnacles of the Hindu +Kush about 14,000 feet higher. + +The winters are severe, but the summers are very temperate--seldom +going above 80 degrees. Kabul is fortified without and within; being +separated into quarters by stone walls: the Bala Hissar, or citadel +proper, being on the east, while the Persian quarter of the city is +strongly protected on the southwest. In the days of Sultan Baber, +Kabul was the capital of the Mogul empire. In modern times, it has +been the scene of many Anglo-Indian struggles. It was taken by the +British in 1839, and lost by them, through treachery, in 1841; +in the following January, 4,000 British soldiers and 12,000 +camp-followers were massacred while retreating. + +Kandahar, the capital of Central Afghanistan, is about two hundred +miles S. W. of Kabul, and three hundred and seventy-one miles E. of +Herat. It is said to have been founded by Alexander of Macedon. The +city is laid out at right angles, and is watered from the +neighboring rivers through canals, which send to every street an +ample supply. Sir Michael Biddulph describes the surroundings: +"Kandahar stands on the western side of a plain, which was +originally a barren skirt of the mountain. Exactly opposite to the +city, and two miles to the westward, there is a wide break in the +dividing ridge, through which the road to Herat leads, and by which +are conducted the many canals and watercourses, taken from the +Argandab, to supply the town and fertilize its environs. The energy +and skill displayed in these extensive water-works cannot be too +highly extolled. Brought from a point many miles distant in the +Argandab valley, the chief canal, with its offshoots, conducts a +vast body of water, which is dispersed along the contours of the +declining plain in innumerable channels, spreading a rich fertility +for many miles in a fan-like form to the southeast of the gap. +Villages cluster around the city on three sides; cornfields, +orchards, gardens, and vineyards are seen in luxurious succession, +presenting a veritable oasis within the girdle of rugged hills and +desert wastes all around. And if we turn to the aspect of the +country beyond the gap, we see in the Argandab valley, along the +canals and the river banks, a fair and beautiful landscape of +village and cultivated ground, stretching for many miles in each +direction. This productive character of the immediate neighborhood +of Kandahar, and its commanding position within reach of other +fertile districts, would give to this place, under a strong, stable, +and just government, as much prosperity and happiness as falls to +the lot of any place in the world." + + +[Illustration: City of Kandahar, Afghanistan.] + + +Jelalabad stands on the Kabul River, about half-way between Kabul +and the Khaiber Pass. It was the scene of the stubborn defence by +Sir Robert Sale in 1842, referred to elsewhere. It has a floating +population of about three thousand souls. Our engraving is taken +from the south and west. The stream in the west is the Kabul River. +The Jati gate in the south wall is the exit from the Hindu quarter. +The Kabul exit is on the west, while the road to Peshawur commences +at the gate of that name on the east wall of the city. The northern +gate is known as the Pheel Khana, or elephant quarter. The walls of +the town and of its houses are of mud, and the roofs generally of +wood. The city is laid out in the form of a parallelogram +intersected by two main streets crossing in the centre. + +The town of Ghazni (the ancient Ghizni) is another historical +landmark in a region famous for its evidences of former grandeur. It +stands about 230 miles northeast of Kandahar on the road to Kabul; +it is literally "founded upon a rock" at an elevation of 7,726 feet, +and its base is 280 feet above the adjacent plain. It has walls +thirty-five feet high, and a wet ditch, but is not considered in any +sense formidable by modern engineers, as it is commanded by +neighboring heights; it will always be a rendezvous for the natives, +and forms a station or an important line of communication between +the Indus and the Murghab. In the tenth century it was the seat of +an empire comprising the present territory of Afghanistan, and which +had in the space of seventy years absorbed thirty-eight degrees of +longitude and twenty degrees of latitude. Its decline dates from the +twelfth century, when the seat of government was transferred to +Lahore. From 1839 to 1880 it has been occupied alternately by the +British and the Afghans. The climate is not exceptionally severe, +although in winter the mercury drops to 25 degrees below zero at +times. The population averages about ten thousand. + +Peshawur is one of the most important towns, both in a military and +commercial sense, in the _Derajat_. It is the capital of a province +of the same name on the N. W. frontier of India, eighteen miles from +the Khaiber Pass and one hundred and fifty miles S.E. of Kabul. It +has the usual bastioned defences, besides some detached works of +more importance. It was once a rich and populous city, but has, like +many other like places in that region, fallen from its high estate. +It is garrisoned by the British, and can boast of fair trade and a +population of about fifty thousand. It is the centre of a fruitful +district containing more than one million inhabitants. + +The fruitful valley and pass of Bamian lie on the road leading from +Kabul to Turkestan. The pass, at an elevation of 8,496 feet, is the +only known defile over the Hindu Kush practicable for artillery. +This valley was one of the chief centres of Buddhist worship, as +gigantic idols, mutilated indeed by fanatical Mussulmans, +conclusively prove. Bamian, with its colossal statues cut out in the +rock, was among the wonders described by the Buddhist monks who +traversed Central Asia in the fourth century. The statues are found +on a hill about three hundred feet high, in which are a number of +cells excavated in the rock, not unlike those found in the Zuni +country in the western part of the United States. The male figure is +about 160 feet, the female 120 feet, in height; they are clothed in +light drapery, and a winding stair may be ascended to the head. + +Eight miles eastward of Bamian lies the ancient fortress of Zohak, +attributed to the fabulous Persian serpent-king of that name. It is +still used as one of the defences of the pass. + + +[Illustration: Castle of Zohak, First March from Bamian, on the Irak +Road to Kabul.] + + +The animals of Afghanistan adapted to military transport purposes +are the camel, the _yabu_ (mountain pony), and the donkey. + +From certain professional papers, on the camel, by Captain Yaldwyn +and other officers of the Indian Army, we learn that this beast of +burden has been often utilized by the British in Afghanistan, and +the supply of camels raised in that country has generally been +augmented by drafts from India, although the last mentioned do not +thrive under the transition. The camel is docile, capable of +abstinence in an emergency, well adapted for the imposition of loads +and for traversing over flat or sandy ground, adapts itself to rough +roads, has acute sight and smell, and, during progression, moves +both feet on one side, simultaneously. Its flesh and milk are +wholesome articles of food. It is deficient in muscular power +behind, and cannot readily climb hills. Those found in Afghanistan +are of the Arabian species. They are strong, thickset, with +abundance of hair; are short in the leg, better climbers, and more +accustomed to cold than others of the species. Their feeding +requires as much care as that of cavalry or artillery horses; they +are fond of green food, and certain trees and shrubs. In grazing, +camels brought from India sometimes are poisoned by eating the +oleander bush and other plants which the native camel avoids. +Elphinstone's ill-fated expedition in 1841 lost 800 out of 2,500 +camels from this cause alone. On the march, or where grazing does +not abound, they are fed with grain and _bhoosa_ [Footnote: +Chopped straw.]; this is given them in one ration at the end of the +day. The theory that camels do not require much watering is declared +a fallacy; the Arabian species can take in five or six gallons, +sufficient for as many days; they will not drink cold running water; +but, where water can be had, they should be watered daily. The load +of the camel varies from 300 to 450 pounds, depending upon its +condition. It is admirably adapted for carrying long articles, as +ladders, tent-poles, and even light mountain guns. The marching +power of camels depends on a number of conditions. They are good +goers in loose sandy soil, and even over stony ground, if the stones +are not too large and sharp; in slippery places they are useless, as +they have no hold with their feet. They are very enduring, making +the longest marches at an average speed of two miles an hour, and +can ford deep rivers with ease if the current is not too rapid. When +the bottom of the ford is shifting sand, the passage of a number of +camels renders it firm. A string of 500 camels covers about one mile +of road; 1,250 mules, carrying the same weight of supplies, occupy +double the distance. Camels must be unladen at ferries. For military +purposes these animals are purchased between the ages of five and +nine years, and may be used up to the age of sixteen. They average +about one thousand pounds in weight, seven feet in height to the top +of the hump, and eight feet in length from nose to tail. In camp and +when not at work they are arranged in lines facing each other, or in +circles heads inward; the latter plan is the favorite formation at +night. The allowance of spare camels on service is ten per cent. + + +[Illustration: An Afghan Post-Chaise; Going to the Front. ] + + +Lieut. Martin, R. E., states that his company, of Sappers and +Miners, was able to get an exceptional percentage of labor from +the camels under his charge by attention to certain details; and +says further, that "camels are very quarrelsome and bite each other +badly when grazing. They can ford four feet of moderately running +water, easily, if the bed is good; but a yard of greasy mud, a few +inches deep, will throw many camels and delay a convoy for hours. +Camel-bridges were carried on the leading camels, with a few +shovels and picks, in every convoy of the Kandahar Field Force, and +all small cuts or obstructions were thus bridged in a few minutes; +the camels remaining by their bridges (two gang-boards eight by +three feet) until the last baggage camel had passed. In perfectly +open country, such as Kandahar to Girishk, it was found possible to +march the camels on a broad front, the whole convoy being a rough +square; camels starting at 3 A.M. have been known to arrive at camp +ten miles off as late as 5 P.M." + +Captain Yaldwyn says: "A camel's carrying-power is equal to that of +two and a half mules or ponies, whilst his ration is only about that +of one mule or pony. Thus 500 camels only eat as much as 500 mules +or ponies, and whilst the latter can only carry 1,000 _maunds_ +[Footnote: A _maund_ is 80 pounds.] the former can carry 2,500. +Again, 500 camels only require 125 attendants to be paid, clothed, +and fed, whilst 500 mules or ponies require 167 attendants." But, on +the other hand, the immense losses of camels from excessive heat or +cold, or over-exertion in mountainous or rough roads, and other +causes, greatly neutralize the force of this comparison. + +The _yabu_ is a hardy mountain pony used by the Afghans for the +saddle and packing purposes; they are very strong, active, and +sure-footed, and have been frequently used by the British forces in +their military operations. In 1839 Captain (afterward General) +Outram relates that his _yabu_, "although but thirteen hands high, +carried me and my saddlebags, weighing altogether upward of sixteen +stone, the whole distance from Kalat in seven days and a half (an +average of nearly forty-seven miles a day), during which time I had +passed 111 hours on its back; there was no saddle on the pony, +merely a cloth over his back." + +They will carry from four to five _maunds_ with perfect ease, making +journeys of thirty miles a day. Those which are ridden and which +amble, are called _yurgas_. The Afghans tie a knot in the middle of +the long tails of their horses, which, they say, strengthens the +animal's backbone! + +The Afghan donkey was severely tested in 1880 during the operations +of Sir Donald Stewart between Kabul and Kandahar, and this class of +carriage was found very useful in the conveyance of provisions. +Afghan donkeys will march with troops and carry loads of grain or +flour, averaging ninety pounds, without difficulty. They keep pace +with mules or ponies in a baggage column, as they avoid the frequent +checks which retard the larger animals; they browse on the line of +march, and find their own forage easily in the neighborhood of camp; +they are easily controlled and cared for, and are on all accounts +the most inexpensive transport in Eastern countries. [Footnote: +Lieut.-Col. E. F. Chapman, C.B., R.A.] + +The transport animals found in India and Turkestan will be described +in the parts of this book devoted to the military resources of those +regions. + +In concluding this sketch of the "Threshold of India," a mere glance +at the military history of the country will suffice. In fact, only +so far as it may have a bearing upon the present, has reference to +the past any place in this volume. + +The early periods of eventful interest to Afghanistan have been +already noted at the opening of this chapter. Its purely Oriental +experiences were beginning to fade with the death of Nadir Shah-- +variously termed the "Butcher of Delhi," and the "Wallace of +Persia," in 1747. His progress toward India, from which he was to +tear its choicest treasure and loot its greatest city, reminds one +of the Arabian Nights. A camp-follower from Jelalabad reported as +follows: "He has 36,000 horsemen with himself . . . After morning +prayers he sits on a throne, the canopy of which is in the form of a +dome and of gold. One thousand young men, with royal standards of +red silk and the lance tops and tassels of silver, are disposed +regularly; and, at a proper distance, five hundred beautiful slaves, +from twelve to twenty years old, stand--one half on his right and +the other on his left. All the great men stand fronting him; and the +Arzbegi stands between, in readiness to represent whatever he is +desired, and everybody has his cause decided at once: bribery is not +so much as known here. He has particular information given him of +every thing that passes; all criminals, great and small, rich and +poor, meet with immediate death. He sits till noon, after which he +dines, then reposes a little; when afternoon prayers are over he +sits till the evening prayers, and when they are over he shoots five +arrows into the _Khak Tudah_, and then goes into the women's +apartments." [Footnote: Fraser's "Nadir Shah."] + +The splendor of the Robber King has departed, but his deeds of blood +and treachery have often been repeated in the country of the +Afghans. + +A succession of struggles between Afghan and Persian leaders for the +control of Afghanistan marked the next fifty years. + +When the project of Russian invasion of India, suggested by +Napoleon, was under consideration in Persia, a British envoy was +sent, in 1809, to the then Shah Sujah, and received the most cordial +reception at Peshawur. But Shah Sujah was, in 1810, superseded by +his brother, Mahmud, and the latter was pressed hard by the son of +his Wazir to such an extent that Herat alone remained to him. In +1823 his former kingdom passed to Dost Mohammed, who in 1826 +governed Kabul, Kandahar, Ghazni, and Peshawur. The last-named place +fell into the hands of Runjeet Singh, the "Lion of the Punjab." Dost +Mohammed then applied to England for aid in recovering Peshawur, +failing in which he threatened to turn to Russia. + +That Power was (1837) engaged in fomenting trouble in the western +part of Afghanistan, encouraging an attack by 30,000 Persians, led +by Russian officers, upon Herat. Instead of acceding to the request +of Dost Mohammed, the British Governor-General--Lord Auckland-- +declared war against that potentate, alleging in a proclamation that +"the welfare of the English possessions in the East rendered it +necessary to have an ally on their western frontier who would be in +favor of peace, and opposed to all disorders and innovations." + +This was the beginning of intrigues relating to Afghanistan on the +part, alternately, of England and Russia, in which John Bull has had +to pay, literally, "the lion's share" of the cost in blood and +treasure. In 1850, Sir John Cam Hobhouse, President of the Board of +Control in India confessed: "The Afghan war _was done by myself_; +the Court of Directors had nothing to do with it." The reason +already mentioned was alleged as an excuse for hostilities. They +were declared, notwithstanding that the British political agent at +the Court of Dost Mohammed reported that ruler as "entirely English" +in his sympathies. This report was suppressed. Twenty years later +the facts were given to Parliament, Russian letters were found +implicating the Czar's ministers, and the English agent, Burnes, was +vindicated. + +The Anglo-Indian army--consisting of twenty thousand troops, fifty +thousand followers, and sixty thousand camels--advanced in two +columns, one from Bengal, and the other from Bombay by the Indus. +Scinde, which had hitherto been independent, like the Punjab and +Lahore, was subjugated _en route_, and nine thousand men were +left behind to occupy it. On the 23d of February, 1839, a +simultaneous advance from Shikarpur, on the Bolan Pass, commenced. +Kandahar was occupied April 25th, Ghazni July 23d, and Kabul August +6th, and Shah Sujah was proclaimed Ameer by British authority. By +the following September the greater part of the English forces +returned to India. Only five regiments of infantry and one of +cavalry remained in Afghanistan, where suspicious symptoms of +discontent with the new order of things began very soon to show +themselves. During the summer of 1840 insurrections had to be put +down by force in several places. In November of the same year Dost +Mohammed defeated the English in the Perwan Pass. From that time +until the autumn of 1841 a sultry calm reigned in the country. + +The English commanders, although fully aware of the state of mind of +the people, neglected to take the most simple measures of +precaution. + +The local control was vested in a mixed military and civil council, +consisting of General Elphinstone, unfitted by disease and natural +irresolution from exercising the functions of command, and Sir +William McNaghten, the British envoy, whose self-confidence and +trust in the treacherous natives made him an easy victim. In the +centre of an insurrection which was extending day by day under their +eyes and under their own roofs, these representatives of a powerful +nation, with a small but effective force, deliberately buried their +heads in the sand of their credulity, not realizing the nature of +the danger which for weeks was evident to many of their +subordinates. + +Finally a force of the insurgents, under the direction of the son of +the deposed ruler, Akbar Khan, threw off the disguise they had +assumed before the English, and taking possession of the Khurd Kabul +Pass near the city, entirely cut off the retreat to India which +Elphinstone had commenced. + +As there was no intelligent concert of action among the British +leaders, the garrison melted away in detail, the Afghan auxiliaries +refused to fight, or turned their arms against the Europeans. Sir +William McNaghten was murdered by Akbar, at a council in sight of +the garrison. A few attempts to force a passage, or to defend +themselves, made by certain brave officers of the beleagured force, +failed. + +On January 6, 1842, an agreement was made by which the Afghan leader +promised to ensure to the British forces a safe withdrawal to India. +This was violated with Afghan readiness, and the entire Anglo-Indian +contingent of seventeen thousand souls was destroyed; sacrificed to +the murderous brutality of the Afghan insurgents, or dying from +exposure to one of the most severe winters known to that region. +Months after, heaps of dead bodies, preserved by the intense cold, +obstructed the mountain passes. The horrors of Moscow were repeated +in the Khurd Kabul, and the noblest attributes of humanity were +exemplified in the acts of the officers and soldiers of the doomed +party. Only twenty of this entire force survived. The news of this +horrible disaster was brought to Jelalabad by the only man who +penetrated the Afghan environment, Dr. Brydon. + +On receipt of the news of this overwhelming catastrophe, the Indian +Government endeavored to rescue the garrisons of Kandahar and +Ghazni, as well as that of Jelalabad; but the Mohammedan troops +refused to march against their co-religionists, and the Sikhs also +showed great unwillingness. The garrison of Ghazni, thinking to +secure its safety by capitulation, was cut to pieces December 23, +1841. Jelalabad, held by 2,400 men under General Sale, still +withstood the storm like a rock of iron. General Nott, the energetic +officer commanding at Kandahar, on receiving the news of the +destruction of the British, blew up the citadel of the town, +destroyed every thing not necessary to his object, and started, +August 8, 1842, for Ghazni, which he also destroyed, September 6th. + + +[Illustration: Gate of the Bazaar at Kabul.] + + +Another British force of twelve thousand men, under General Pollock, +was organized at Peshawur, to punish the Afghans, and, so far as +might be, retrieve the errors of Elphinstone and McNaghten. +Pollock's operations were, in the sense of retaliation, successful. +An eminent German authority wrote: "Kabul and other towns were +levelled with the ground; Akbar's troops were blown from guns, and +the people were collected together and destroyed like worms." +General Pollock carried the famous Khaiber Pass, in advancing to the +relief of Jelalabad in April, 1842. This was the first time that the +great defile--twenty-eight miles in length--had ever been forced by +arms. Timur Lang and Nadir Shah, at the head of their enormous +hosts, bought a safe passage through it from the Afridis. Akbar the +Great, in 1587, is said to have lost forty thousand men in +attempting to force it, and Aurangzeb failed to get through. + +The misfortune of Elphinstone's command, great as it was, would have +been much more humiliating to England, had it not been for the +firmness of the gallant General Pollock, who, ordered to withdraw +with his command to Peshawur, by Lord Ellenborough, without +effecting one of the objects of the expedition--the deliverance of +the English captives in Akbar's hands at Kabul,--protested against +such a suicidal act on the part of any Englishman or any +Administration, and, at great personal risk, gained his point. + +In the forced march to Kabul, which Pollock made subsequently, the +force of about eight thousand men moved in as light order as +possible. After loading the commissariat camels to their utmost +carrying capacity, the General discovered that the mounted men had +in their kit a spare pair of pantaloons apiece, on which he ordered +the legs to be filled with grain and carried by the men in front of +them, on their saddles. By the middle of December the British had +started on their return march, pursued as far as the Indus by the +Afghans, and by this hurried conclusion to the war lessened their +prestige in Asia to an enormous degree. + +As Sir Henry Rawlinson wrote: + +"It was not so much the fact of our retreat; disaster would have +been diminished, if not altogether overcome; but retreating as we +did, pursued even through the last pass into the plains by an +implacable enemy, the impression became universal in India as well +as in Central Asia, that we had simply been driven back across the +mountains." + +A very able Hindu gentleman, very loyal to the British, traced the +mutiny of 1857 in a great measure to the Afghan campaign of 1842. He +said: "It was a direct breach of faith to take the Sepoys out of +India. Practically they were compelled to go for fear of being +treated as mutineers, but the double pay they received by no means +compensated them for losing caste. The Sepoys mistrusted the +Government from that time forward, and were always fearing that +their caste would be destroyed; besides, the Kabul disaster taught +them that Europeans were not invincible." + +The departure of the English forces was followed by the +reestablishment of Dost Mohammed's authority in Afghanistan. Once, +at the time of the Sikh insurrection, the Dost crossed the Indian +border with two thousand horsemen, and narrowly escaped falling into +the hands of the British in the affair of Gujrat, February 21, 1849, +where the speed of his horse alone saved him from capture. In 1855 a +better understanding was effected between the son of Dost Mohammed +and his powerful European neighbor. He reconquered Balkh in 1850, +and gained Kandahar by inheritance in 1855, while he lost Herat to +the Persians in 1856. With the aid of Great Britain, in 1857, Persia +relinquished all claims to Herat, but the Dost had eventually to +besiege that city, occupied by a rebellious faction, in 1863, and +after a siege of ten months reduced the place, only to find a tomb +within its walls. After the usual struggle for the throne, peculiar +to a change of dynasty in Afghanistan, Shere Ali, one of the Dost's +sons, prevailed, and was recognized in 1868. The next decade was +notable for a series of diplomatic manoeuvres between England and +Russia for Afghan friendship. Shere Ali now leaned toward the Lion, +now in the direction of the Bear, with the regularity of a pendulum. +The advances were received with presents and promises on the one +hand, and promises, powerful embassies, and imposing military +expeditions on the other. On September 21, 1878, a British +ambassador was turned back by the Afghan commandant of the frontier +fort of Ali Musjid, and on the 20th of November, of the same year, +war was declared against Shere Ali by the Anglo-Indian Government. +At that time the Russian General Kaufmann was operating on the +northern border of Afghanistan with a force of fifteen thousand men +and sixty guns, and the Ameer had reason to think that he could rely +on Russian cooperation against the English, who, with a force of +forty thousand men, promptly invaded his dominion. + +This force moved into Afghanistan in four columns, under the +command, respectively, of Generals Browne, Roberts, Biddulph, and +Stewart, with reserves under Generals Maude and Primrose. + +We shall have occasion later to consider some of the details of the +protracted operations which followed. They embraced several +admirably conducted marches, exposure to excessively severe winter +weather, the successful surmounting of great natural obstacles, the +development of the usual weakness in the department of transport, +with unnecessary losses in animals, a considerable sick-list, and an +inconsiderable proportion of killed and wounded in action. + +The military benefits were those resulting from a long and arduous +field experience in a rough country. The interruption to these +actual "field manoeuvres," this "fire-drill," by the enemy, was +comparatively feeble,--as a rule, stimulating the Anglo-Indian force +to put its best foot foremost. Under this system, at the end of the +two years' campaign, all departments of the army had become moulded +into the efficient machines essential to success in any military +venture. + +Politically, the campaign had been a failure. The fate of the +gallant Major Cavagnari and his mission, murdered at Kabul, +September 3, 1879, made a deeper impression on the Afghan mind than +the British occupation of Afghan cities or the Afghan losses in +battle. + +In the same year the British Secretary for India, in London, wrote +to the Governor-General that: "It appears that as the result of two +successful campaigns, of the employment of an immense force, and of +the expenditure of large sums of money, all that has yet been +accomplished has been the disintegration of the State which it was +desired to see strong, friendly, and independent, the assumption of +fresh and unwelcome liabilities in regard to one of its provinces, +and a condition of anarchy throughout the remainder of the country." + +Early in the year 1880, the British Government prepared to make a +dignified withdrawal from Afghanistan. That volcanic region was by +no means tranquil, although the chief rebel, Yakoub Khan, had been +driven out of Kabul by General Roberts, and had retired to the +distant country of the Her-i-rud. At this time appeared the +exiled Abdurrahman Khan, who had long resided at Tashkend, and who +was welcomed warmly by the local sirdars on the northern frontier of +Afghanistan. As he approached Kabul his authority and influence +increased, and the British political officers, acting under +instructions, formally recognized him as Ameer of that district. In +the meanwhile Yakoub advanced westward from Herat with a strong +force, encountered a British brigade, under General Burrows, near +the Helmund, and utterly routed it. The remnant of the European +force took refuge in Kandahar, where General Primrose was in +command. Surrounding the city, Yakoub succeeded in effectually +"bottling up" the British garrison for some time. Sir Frederick +Roberts, however, made a rapid march from Kabul on Kandahar, and +after a successful and decisive battle with the Afghans, completely +dispersed the native force, and relieved the beleaguered garrison. +Soon after, Abdurrahman was formally installed as Ameer of +Afghanistan, and the British army withdrew from the country. + + + + +III. + +THE BRITISH FORCES AND ROUTES. + + +A sketch of the military resources of Great Britain, more especially +those available for field service in Afghanistan, with notes upon +the strength and composition of the forces, means of transport and +supply, nature of important lines of communication, and of certain +strategic points in the probable theatre of operations, will be +attempted in this chapter. + +_Organization_.--The military system of Great Britain is based +upon voluntary enlistment instead of the usual European plan of +universal liability to service. Recruits may enlist either for the +"short-service" or "long-service" term; the first being for six +years in the ranks and six on furlough, and the last for twelve +years in the ranks; the furlough of short-service men is passed in +the army reserve, and then, in consideration of liability to be +recalled to the colors, the men are paid sixpence a day. + +The troops of the Standing Army, (United Kingdom,) March, 1885, were +proportionately distributed as follows: forty-three per cent. in +England, two per cent. in Scotland, twenty-five per cent. in +Ireland, and thirty-five per cent. abroad, not including India. + + +[Illustration: Major-General, Sir F. S. Roberts, V.C., K.C.B.] + + + AVAILABLE BRITISH LAND FORCES. + [Footnote: Approximately, from late returns (1885), but short of + authorized "establishment" by 90,000.] + + + ENGLAND. + ================================================================== + Army Army Militia Yeomanry Volunteers + Reserve + ================================================================== + Class: + Engineers + Officers 423 + Men 4,762 + + Cavalry + Officers 559 + Men 11,840 11,441 + + Royal Horse Artillery + Officers 108 + Men 2,426 + + Royal Artillery + Officers 690 + Men 18,351 + + Infantry + Officers 2,862 + Men 80,324 + + Aggregate ------- ------- ------- ------ ------- + All Ranks 122,345 44,503 108,462 11,441 209,365 + ================================================================== + Grand + Aggregate 469,116 + ================================================================== + + + INDIA. [Native Contingents, Independent States of India, [2] + about 349,831.] + ================================================================== + Army (E'r'p'n) (Native) + ================================================================== + Engineers + Officers 436 + Men [3] 232 3,109 + Cavalry + Officers 198 304 + Men 4,086 18,071 + Royal Horse Artillery + Officers + Men + Royal Artillery + Officers 453 19 + Men 10,809 1,842 + Infantry + Officers 1,400 1,068 + Men 44,106 102,648 + ------- ------- + Aggregate + All Ranks 61,488 127,263 + ================================================================= + Grand + Aggregate 188,751 + ================================================================= + + [Footnote 2: Cashmere 27,000, Nepaul 100,000, Hyderabad 44,000.] + + [Footnote 3: Sappers and Miners.] + +For purposes of administration, instruction, and mobilization, Great +Britain and Ireland are partitioned into thirteen military districts +commanded by general officers. These are sub-divided as follows: for +the infantry one hundred and two sub-districts under regimental +commanders; for the artillery there are twelve sub-districts, +and for the cavalry two districts. The brigade of an infantry +sub-district comprises usually two line battalions, two militia +battalions, the brigade depot, rifle volunteer corps, and infantry +of the army reserve. Of the line battalions one is generally at home +and one abroad. In an artillery sub-district are comprised a +proportion of the royal artillery and artillery of the militia, +volunteers, and army reserve respectively. In like manner a cavalry +sub-district includes the yeomanry and army reserve cavalry. + +The officers on duty in the Adjutant-General's and Quartermaster's +departments of the British army are, as a rule, detailed for a term +of five years from the Line, but must rejoin their regiments +immediately upon orders for foreign service. + +The Royal Engineers then were and are organized into forty-three +companies. + +The cavalry is divided into the Household Cavalry and Cavalry of the +Line. The first named comprises the 1st and 2d Life Guards and Royal +Horse Guards,--three regiments. The Line is composed of twenty-eight +regiments, as follows: seven of dragoon guards, three of dragoons, +thirteen of hussars, five of lancers. The strength of regiments +varies from 450 to 625 men with from 300 to 400 troop horses each. + +The artillery--under the title of the Royal Regiment of Artillery-- +is divided into three classes; the Royal Horse Artillery of two +brigades of twelve batteries each, making a brigade total of sixty +guns; the Field Artillery of four, brigades of seventy-six +batteries, and the Garrison Artillery of eleven brigades. For the +non-professional reader it may be well to say that, in the horse +artillery, all the _personnel_ of a battery is mounted, the better +to act with cavalry or mounted infantry; under the general term +"field artillery" may be classed mountain batteries (only maintained +in India), field batteries proper, in which the guns are somewhat +heavier, and served by gunners who are not mounted, but on occasion +are carried on the limbers and on seats attached to the axles, and +in an emergency may be carried on the "off" horses of teams. Under +the class "field artillery," also, would come such large guns as are +required in war for siege or other heavy operations, and which in +India or Afghanistan would be drawn by bullocks. + +The infantry is composed of the Guards, the Line, and the Rifles. +The Guards consist of three regiments--Grenadier Guards, Coldstream +Guards, and Scots Fusilier Guards; in all seven battalions. The Line +comprises 102 regiments (204 battalions); the Rifles four +battalions. Besides these there are two regiments of Colonial (West +India) colored troops. + +The Militia is intended for local defence, but can be ordered +anywhere within the United Kingdom, and is available for garrison +duty in the Mediterranean. Enlistment in the militia is for six +years. The officers are commissioned by the Queen, and, as before +noted, all the details of control and recruitment are entrusted to +district commanders. For instruction this force may be called out, +for a period not to exceed eight weeks annually, with regular +officers as instructors. There are 212 battalions of infantry, 25 +brigades of garrison artillery, and 3 regiments of engineers +comprised in this force. + +The Militia Reserve, limited to one fourth of the active militia, is +liable to army service in case of an emergency, and for the term of +six years is entitled to L1 per annum. + +The Volunteers represent "the bulwark" in case of invasion; they are +organized principally as garrison artillery and infantry. The +officers are commissioned by the county lieutenants, subject to the +approval of the Queen. The men are recruited, armed, and instructed +by the Government. Recruits are required to attend thirty drills, +and afterward not less than nine drills annually. The volunteer +force is composed of 278 battalions of infantry, 46 brigades of +garrison artillery and 15 battalions of engineers. + +The Yeomanry Cavalry are equipped as light cavalry, drill eight days +per year, and are subject to call in case of riot and insurrection, +when each man with a horse receives seven pence a day. There are +thirty-eight regiments. + +The Army of India differs from that of the United Kingdom, not only +in its composition, but in the character of its organization. This +organization dates from 1858, when the government passed from the +East India Company to the Crown. + +The European regiments serving in India are in all respects +organized and maintained, as in England. In each presidency forming +the three political subdivisions, and among which the Anglo-Indian +army is distributed, exists a staff corps which supplies all +European officers, permitted to serve with native troops. These +officers must pass certain examinations before they can be assigned +to any of the following vacancies in any native regiment. + + INDIAN REGIMENT. + + EUROPEANS + + 1 Commandant, + 1 Second-in-command and wing officer, + 1 Wing-officer, + 2 Wing-subalterns, + 1 Adjutant, + 1 Quartermaster, + 1 Medical officer. + + NATIVES + + 2 Subadars (captains), 1st class, + 2 " " 2d " + 4 " " 3d " + 4 Jemandars (lieuts.), 1st " + 4 " " 2d " + 1 Havildar (sergt.-major), + 40 Havildars (sergeants), + 40 Naicks (corporals), + 16 Drummers, + 600 Sepoys (privates). + +The duties of the commandant of a native regiment correspond in +general to those of a similar officer in a European corps. Three +times a week he holds a "durbar," for the trial of offenders and +transaction of general regimental business. The men are paid by the +native officers in presence of the European "Wing-officer," who is +responsible for all public property issued to his half battalion, or +wing. + +The native officers are commissioned by the Indian Government, and, +as a rule, are promoted from the ranks, and are of the same caste as +the privates. Certain native officers of the engineers and artillery +may be eligible to appointment in the corresponding European corps; +one is always assigned as an aide-de-camp to the Viceroy. When on +detailed service, a native officer is allowed to command his +company, but "no battalion parades should take place without the +presence of a British officer." [Footnote: Indian Army Regulations.] +In each regiment there is a drill-sergeant and drill-corporal, who +receive extra pay for their services. Corporals are promoted from +privates who know how to read and write in at least one character, +or who have displayed extraordinary courage. The pay per month of a +sepoy is equal to $3.50; havildar, $7; jemandar, $17.50; subadar, +$33.50 to $50. European officers with native regiments: commandant, +$620; wing-officers, $302 to $322; adjutant, $237.86; quartermaster, +$187.86; medical officers, $300, monthly. The annual pay-roll of a +native regiment of 720 combatants and 45 non-combatants amounts to +about $69,114. In consideration of the pay each sepoy is required to +provide his rations and clothing, except one coat and one pair of +trousers issued by the Government every two years; in consequence, +each regiment is accompanied by a native village called a bazaar, +containing tradesmen of all kinds; this bazaar is under strict +discipline and is managed by the quartermaster. The entire outfit +follows the regiment into the field. + +Colonel Gordon of the Indian army testifies: "With regard to native +troops under a cannonade I may say that I saw our native infantry +twice under the fire of the Afghan mountain guns, and they behaved +very steadily and coolly. Ammunition was economically expended. I +attributed much the small loss sustained by the troops in +Afghanistan to our excellent straight shooting." + +The cavalry of India has in certain instances borne an excellent +reputation for efficiency in action, is well set up, and in its +instruction and discipline is modelled after the British system. The +artillery comprises well-instructed native organizations, but its +principal experience has been with light field guns against +irregular troops. The Achilles heel of the Indian army consists in +this, that there are but eight European officers to each regiment, +and of these but six would be available to lead in battle: the +quartermaster and surgeon being at such a time otherwise engaged. +The native officers, seldom having an opportunity to command in +Peace, would be unreliable leaders in such an emergency. At the +action of Ali Musjid, November 21, 1878, the day before the +occupation of that fort, six British officers of a native battalion +were placed _hors de combat_, so that on the first day after +crossing the Afghan frontier there was but one European officer to +manage the regiment. + +Besides the regular establishment there are about 10,000 European +volunteers (including 4,000 railway officials and employes) +available for local defence. + +The feudatory chiefs of India enjoy an aggregate revenue of some +L15,000,000, equal to more than one third of the income of the +British Government of India. They maintain forces aggregating +350,000 men with 4,000 guns to perform the duties of court +ceremonial, garrison, military police, guards, and escorts, +throughout territories aggregating nearly 600,000 square miles with +50,000,000 of inhabitants. These forces are unreservedly held at the +disposal of the Crown by the native Princes. + +_Transport and Supply_.--This essential feature of all wars will be +briefly considered in the light of the Anglo-Afghan War of 1879-80. +Large quantities of supplies were transported from the main base of +operations on the Indus, and distributed to the troops in the field +over four or five distinct lines of communication, and over roads, +and mountain paths of varied degrees of ruggedness. The country on +both sides of the Indo-Afghan frontier was severely taxed to furnish +the necessary animals. Part of the transport was hired--and as in +the case of the Brahuis camels--with the services of the owners, who +were easily offended and likely to decamp with their property in a +night. During the first year the system was under the direct control +of the commissariat department; but as this proved unsatisfactory, +in the subsequent campaign it was entirely reorganized and +superintended by an officer of engineers, with a large number of +officers from the Line to assist. This gave better satisfaction. +Immense numbers of camels died from heat, [Footnote: Of a train of +eighteen hundred unloaded camels on the road from Dadur to +Jacobabad, for six days in June, six hundred died of exhaustion. In +March, 1855 Col. Green, C.B., lost one hundred and seventeen horses +out of four hundred, from the heat, during a march of thirty miles.] +overwork, irregular food, and neglect. Owing to the dryness of the +climate and intense heat of the summer the bullock-carts were +perpetually falling to pieces. The mules, donkeys, and ponies gave +the best results, but do not abound in sufficient quantities to +enable an army in Afghanistan to dispense with camels. A successful +experiment in rafting, from Jelalabad to Dakka, was tried. The rafts +consisted of inflated skins lashed together with a light framework; +between June 4-13, seven thousand skins were used, and, in all, 885 +soldiers and one thousand tons of stores were transported forty +miles down the Kabul River, the journey taking five hours. A great +deal of road-making and repairing was done under the supervision of +the transport corps. A system of "stages" or relays of pack-animals +or carts was organized, by which a regular quantity of supplies was +forwarded over the main lines, daily, with almost the regularity, if +not the speed, of rail carriage. The great number of animals +employed required a corresponding force of attendants, inspectors, +and native doctors, all of whom served to make up that excessive +army of "followers" for which Anglo-Indian expeditions are famous. +Drivers were required at the following rate: one driver for each +pair of bullocks, every four camels, every three mules and ponies, +every six donkeys. [Footnote: The average carrying power of certain +kinds of transport, in pounds, is as follows: _bullock-carts_ (with +two pairs), on fairly level ground, 1,400; on hilly ground, 1,000; +(with one pair) on fairly level ground, 850; on hilly ground, 650; +_camels_, 400; _mules_, 200; _ponies_, 175; _men_, 50.] + + +[Illustration: Khelat-i-Ghilzi, between Kandahar and Ghazni.] + + +The great obstacle to the satisfactory operation of the transport +system was its novelty and experimental character, and that its +organization had to be combined with its execution. Besides which, +cholera broke out in June and swept away three hundred employes. +Grazing camps were established in the neighborhood of the Bolan Pass +for the bullocks, and aqueducts built for the conveyance of a water +supply; one of these was of masonry, more than a mile in length, +from Dozan down to the Bolan. It has been stated that grazing was +scarce in the region of the Bolan: in 1879 more than four thousand +bullocks were grazed there during the summer, and large quantities +of forage were cut for winter use. + +Any prolonged military operations in Afghanistan must, to a certain +extent, utilize hired transport, although there are many objections +urged. + +Sir Richard Temple said (1879): "That the amount of transport +required for active service, such as the late campaign in +Afghanistan, is so great that to hire transport is synonymous to +pressing it from the people of the district from which it is hired, +and impressment of the means of transport must lead to impressment +of drivers, who naturally (having no interest whatever in the +campaign in which they are called upon to serve) render the most +unwilling service and take the earliest opportunity of rendering +their animals unserviceable in hopes of escaping a distasteful duty. +This service is frequently so unpopular that, sooner than leave the +boundaries of their native country, the impressed drivers desert, +leaving their animals in the hands of the transport authorities or +take them away with them. . . . For the above reasons I should +recommend that all transport for a campaign should be the property +of Government." + +In commenting on this subject, Lord Wolseley relates that when +serving in China with Indian troops he "awoke one morning and found +that all our drivers had bolted. Our transport consisted of carts +supplied by the Chinese Government, by contractors, and by the +country generally. I do not think that the carts had been carried +away, but all the mules and men had disappeared except three drivers +who belonged to me. I was very much astonished that these men had +not bolted also. I had a small detachment of cavalry with me and a +very excellent duffadar in charge of it. I asked him how he had +managed to keep these drivers--having some time before said that +unless he looked after them well he would never get to Pekin. He +replied, with some hesitation: 'I remember what you told me, and the +fact is I tied the tails of those three men together, overnight, and +then tied them to the tent pole, and put a man over them.'" + +The Elephant, like the stage coach, finds his field of usefulness, +as a means of transport, growing smaller by degrees. He is still a +feature in India, and has been used for military purposes to some +extent in the eastern part of Afghanistan. He will doubtless form +part of the means of transportation employed by the British forces +near their present base, and in rear of the Kabul-Kandahar line, and +for that reason is noticed here. [Footnote: The use of elephants in +transporting field guns in Afghanistan is emphatically discouraged +by those who served with it last; very few flankers were employed to +protect the Elephant artillery used in the Kuram valley, and its +success can only be interpreted by supposing the direct +interposition of Providence or the grossest stupidity to our feeble +enemy.] + +The Superintendent of the Government Elephant Kheddahs at Dakka has +given us, in a recent paper, much information concerning the +elephant in freedom and captivity. He does not claim a high order of +intelligence, but rather of extraordinary obedience and docility for +this animal Very large elephants are exceptional. Twice round the +forefoot gives the height at the shoulder; few females attain the +height of eight feet; "tuskers," or male elephants, vary from eight +to nine feet; the Maharajah of Nahur, Sirmoor, possesses one +standing ten feet five and one half inches. The age varies from 80 +to 150 years, according to the best authorities, and it is recorded +that those familiar with the haunts of the wild elephant have never +found the bones of an elephant that had died a natural death. In +freedom they roam in herds of thirty to fifty, always led by a +female; mature about twenty-five. In India the males only have +tusks; in Ceylon only the females. They are fond of the water, swim +well, [Footnote: Elephants have been known to swim a river three +hundred yards wide with the hind legs tied together.] but can +neither trot nor gallop; their only pace is a walk, which may be +Increased to a _shuffle_ of fifteen miles an hour for a very short +distance; they cannot leap, and a ditch eight by eight feet would be +impassable. + + +[Illustration: Elephant with Artillery; on the Road to Ali Musjid.] + + +In Bengal and Southern India elephants particularly abound, and seem +to be increasing in numbers. In the Billigurungan Hills, a range of +three hundred square miles on the borders of Mysore, they made their +appearance about eighty years ago; yet prior to that time this +region was under high cultivation, traces of orchards, orange +groves, and iron-smelting furnaces remaining in what is now a +howling wilderness. Elephants are caught in stockades or kraals. The +Government employs hunting parties of 350 natives trained to the +work, and more than 100 animals are sometimes secured in a single +drive. + +New elephants are trained by first rubbing them down with bamboo +rods, and shouting at them, and by tying them with ropes; they are +taught to kneel by taking them into streams about five feet deep, +when the sun is hot, and prodding them on the back with sharp +sticks. + +The total number of elephants maintained is eight hundred, of which +one half are used for military purposes. They consume about 400 +pounds of green, or 250 pounds of dry fodder daily, and are also +given unhusked rice. An elephant is expected to carry about 1,200 +pounds with ease. In the Abyssinian Expedition elephants travelled +many hundreds of miles, carrying from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds +(including their gear), but out of forty-four, five died from +exhaustion; they are capable of working from morning to night, or of +remaining under their loads for twenty hours at a stretch. +[Footnote: There is no "elephant gun-drill" laid down in the +Imperial Regulations, but when the gun goes into action the elephant +is made to kneel, and long "skids" are placed against the cradle +upon which the gun rests, so as to form an inclined plane to the +ground. The gun is then lifted off the cradle and down the skids by +levers and tackle.] + +An elephant's gear consists of a _gaddela_, or quilted cloth, 1-1/2 +inches thick, reaching half-way down his sides and from the neck to +the croup. On this is placed the _guddu_, or pad, 6x5 feet and 9 +inches thick, formed of stout sacking stuffed with dried grass. The +whole is girthed with a long rope passed twice around the body, +round the neck as a breast-strap, and under the tail as a crupper. +The whole weighs 200 pounds. An improvement upon this has been made +by our authority (Mr. Sanderson), which seems to bear the same +relation to the old gear that the open McClellan saddle does to the +ordinary British hunting saddle. It consists (see illustration) of +two pads entirely detached, each 4 feet long, 15 inches wide, and 6 +inches thick, made of blanket covered with tarpaulin, and encased in +stout sacking. One is placed on each side of the elephant's spine, +and retained there by two iron arches. There is no saddle-cloth, the +load rests on the ribs; the breast-strap and crupper hook into rings +on the saddle; there are rings to fasten the load to; it weighs 140 +pounds. With foot-boards it is convenient for riding; a cradle can +also be attached for carrying field guns. Recent experiments have +shown the practicability of conveying elephants by rail in ordinary +open cattle-trucks; they were indifferent to the motion, noises, or +bridges; it is said that 32 elephants could be thus carried on one +train. + + +[Illustration: Detail of Elephant Saddle.] + + +The excellent railway facilities for moving troops and supplies to +the Indo-Afghan frontier were described in 1880, by Traffic Manager +Ross, of the Scinde, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, before the United +Service Institution of India. + +He stated that experiments had been made by the military and railway +authorities in loading and disembarking troops and war _materiel_, +and that much experience had been afforded by the Afghan operations +of 1878-9. + +The movement of troops to and from the frontier commenced in +October, 1878, and ended June, 1879. During that period were +conveyed over his road 190,000 men, 33,000 animals, 500 guns, +112,000,000 pounds of military stores. The maximum number carried in +any one month was in November--40,000 men, 8,000 animals, and +20,800,000 pounds of stores. The greatest number of special trains +run in one day was eight, carrying 4,100 men, 300 animals, and +800,000 pounds of stores. As an instance of rapid loading, when the +both Bengal Cavalry left for Malta, 80 horses were loaded on a train +in 10 minutes appears to have been clean forgotten. The Politicals +were by no means silent, and the amount of knowledge they possessed +of border statistics was something marvellous. Did any step appear +to the military sense advisable, there was a much better, though +less comprehensible, _political_ reason why it should not be +undertaken. The oracle has spoken and the behest must be obeyed. An +enemy in sight who became afterwards hostile, must not be kept at a +distance; through political glasses they appear as 'children of +nature,' while the country out of sight must not be explored, the +susceptibilities of the sensitive 'Tammizais' having to be +respected. That much valuable service was performed by political +officers there can be no doubt, but that they caused great +exasperation among soldiers cannot be denied, and the example of the +War of 1839-40 causes them to be looked upon as a very possible +source of danger. + +_Anglo-Afghan Operations_.--The observations of a participant +[Footnote: Lieut. Martin, R. E. (_Journal U. S. I. of India_).] +in the last British campaign in Afghanistan will be found of value +in the study of future operations in that country. Of the Afghan +tactics he says: "The enemy (generally speaking, a race of +Highlanders) vastly preferred the attack, and usually obtained the +advantage of superior numbers before risking an attack; . . . being +able to dispense (for the time) with lines of communication and +baggage and commissariat columns, the Afghan tribes were often able +to raise large gatherings on chosen ground. They could always attack +us; we were rarely able (except when they chose) to find them at +home." This observer says the regular troops of the Ameer were +not so formidable as the tribal gatherings. The presence of a +tactically immovable artillery hinders the action of an Asiatic +army. The mounted men are usually the first to leave when the +fight is going against their side in a general engagement. One of +the best specimens of their tactics was at Ahmed-Kheyl, on the +Ghazni-Kandahar road, when the British division was one hundred +miles from any support. The Afghans assembled a force outnumbering +the British ten to one. The attack was made in a series of rushes, +twice dispersing the British cavalry, and once driving back the +infantry. Exposed to a constant fire of field guns, the Afghans +stood their ground, although poorly armed with a variety of obsolete +weapons--from an Enfield to a handjar or a stick. Trouble may +always be expected from the night attacks of certain tribes like the +Alizais and Waziris. + +The English infantry formation was an objectionably close one, and +Lieut. Martin says that the bayonets and rifle-barrels of the front +rank were sometimes struck and jammed _by bullets from the rear +rank_. The action of the English cavalry, as at Ahmed-Kheyl, was +suicidal in receiving the enemy's charge--practically at a halt. +Occasionally shelter trenches were used, but disapproved. + +In the Kuram valley column, under General Roberts, the cavalry +(principally native, with one regular squadron and a battery of +horse artillery) formed a brigade, but was never used independently, +nor was it instructed (although well equipped) for modern cavalry +work. The opposition to dismounted cavalry duty is still so great, +in the British army, that the mounted arm is paralyzed for effective +service. + +Very little was done by the horse artillery with the Kuram column. +In the case of the field artillery it was found necessary on two +occasions to transfer the ammunition boxes from the bullock-carts to +the backs of elephants, on account of the steepness of the hills. +The mountain artillery (native) was the most serviceable; a Gatling +battery, packed on ponies, and in charge of a detachment of +Highlanders, was never used however. + +The armament of the infantry included both Martini and Snider +rifles, requiring two kinds of ammunition, but, as the service by +pack-mules was ample, no confusion ensued, although Lieut. Martin +says: "In one case I heard a whisper that a regimental reserve of +ammunition was found to be _blank cartridges_, but this must be +a heavy joke." Intrenching tools were carried on camels. A mixture +of military and civil-engineer administration and operation +is mentioned as unsatisfactory in results. There was great +difficulty in getting tools and materials at the opening of the +campaign--particularly those required for road and bridge work, +although a railroad within two hundred miles had a large stock on +hand. + + +[Illustration: Noah's Valley, Kunar River.] + + +The art of camping and rough fortification was well practised. The +best defended camp was surrounded by bush abatis and flanked +by half-moon _sungas_ of boulder-stone work, which held the +sentries. The most approved permanent camps or "posts" were mud +_serais_ flanked by bastions at the alternate angles and overlooking +a yard or "kraal." These were established about ten miles apart, to +protect communications, and furnished frequent patrols. During the +latter part of the campaign these outposts were manned by the native +contingents of the Punjab who volunteered. + +The rapid march of General Roberts from Kabul to Kandahar in August, +1880, and the final dispersion of the forces of Ayoub Khan, +illustrated British operations in Afghanistan under the most +favorable circumstances. The forces included 2,800 European and +7,000 Indian troops; no wheeled artillery was taken; one regiment of +native infantry, trained to practical engineering work, did the work +of sappers and miners; for the transportation of sick and wounded +2,000 doolie-bearers, 286 ponies, and 43 donkeys; for transport of +supplies a pack-train of 1,589 yabus, 4,510 mules, 1,224 Indian +ponies, 912 donkeys--a total of 10,148 troops, 8,143 native +followers, and 11,224 animals, including cavalry horses; 30 days' +rations, of certain things, and dependence on the country for fresh +meat and forage. The absence of timber on this route rendered it +difficult to obtain fuel except by burning the roofs of the villages +and digging up the roots of "Southern-wood" for this purpose. The +manner of covering the movement rested with the cavalry commander. +Usually the front was covered by two regiments, one regiment on each +flank, at a mile from the column, detaching one or more troops as +rear-guard; once movement had commenced, the animals, moving at +different gaits were checked as little as possible. With such a +number of non-combatants the column was strung out for six or seven +miles, and the rear-guard leaving one camp at 7 A.M. rarely reached +the next--fifteen to twenty miles distant--before sundown. + + +[Illustration: Watch-Tower in the Khaiber Pass.] + + +_Routes_.--For operations in Afghanistan the general British base is +the frontier from Kurrachee to Peshawur. These points are connected +by a railway running east of the Indus, which forms a natural +boundary to the Indian frontier, supplemented by a line of posts +which are from north to south as follows: Jumrud, Baru, Mackeson, +Michni, Shub Kadar, Abazai, and Kohut; also by fortified posts +connected by military roads,--Thull, Bunnoo, and Doaba. + +From the Indus valley into the interior of Afghanistan there are +only four lines of communication which can be called military roads: +first, from _Peshawur_ through the Khaiber Pass to _Kabul_; second, +from _Thull_, over the Peiwar and Shuturgurdan passes to _Kabul_; +third, from _Dera Ismail Khan_ through the Guleir Surwandi and Sargo +passes to _Ghazni_; fourth, by _Quetta_ to Kandahar and thence to +_Herat_, or by Ghazni to _Kabul_. Besides these there are many +steep, difficult, mule tracks over the bleak, barren, Sulimani +range, which on its eastern side is very precipitous and impassable +for any large body of troops. + + +[Illustration: Fort of Ali Musjid, from the Heights above Lala +Cheena in the Khaiber Pass.] + + +The Peshawur-Kabul road, 170 miles long, was in 1880 improved and +put in good order. From Peshawur the road gradually rises, and after +7 miles reaches Jumrud (1,650 feet elevation), and 44 miles further +west passes through the great Khaiber Pass. This pass, 31 miles +long, can, however, be turned by going to the north through the +Absuna and Tartara passes; they are not practicable for wheels, and +the first part of the road along the Kabul River is very difficult +and narrow, being closed in by precipitous cliffs. + +As far as Fort Ali Musjid the Khaiber is a narrow defile between +perpendicular slate rocks 1,460 feet high; beyond that fort the road +becomes still more difficult, and in some of the narrowest parts, +along the rocky beds of torrents, it is not more than 56 feet wide. +Five miles further it passes through the valley of Lalabeg 1-1/2 +miles wide by 6 miles long, and then after rising for four miles it +reaches the top of the Pass, which from both sides offers very +strong strategical positions. From thence it descends for 2-1/2 +miles to the village of Landi Khana (2,463 feet), which lies in a +gorge about a quarter of a mile wide; then on to Dakka (altitude +1,979 feet). This pass, 100 to 225 feet wide and 60 feet long, is +shut in by steep but not high slopes, overgrown with bushes. + + +[Illustration: Fort of Dakka, on the Kabul River.] + + +On the eleven miles' march from Dakka to Hazarnao, the Khurd Khaiber +is passed, a deep ravine about one mile long, and in many places so +narrow that two horsemen cannot pass each other. Hazarnao is well +cultivated, and rich in fodder; 15 miles farther is Chardeh (1,800 +feet altitude), from which the road passes through a well-cultivated +country, and on through the desert of Surkh Denkor (1,892 feet +altitude), which is over 8-1/2 miles from Jelalabad. From this city +(elsewhere described) onward as far as Gundamuck the route presents +no great difficulties; it passes through orchards, vineyards, and +cornfields to the Surkhab River; but beyond this three spurs of the +Safed Koh range, running in a northeastern direction, have to be +surmounted. + + +[Illustration: The Ishbola Tepe, Khaiber Pass.] + + +Between Jelalabad [Footnote: The heat at Jelalabad from the end of +April is tremendous--105 degrees to 110 degrees in the shade.] and +Kabul two roads can be followed: the first crosses the range over +the Karkacha Pass (7,925 feet alt.) at the right of which is Assin +Kilo, thence through the Kotul defile, and ascending the Khurd Kabul +[Footnote: The Khurd Kabul Pass is about five miles long, with +an impetuous mountain torrent which the road (1842) crossed +twenty-eight times.] (7,397 feet alt.) to the north reaches the +high plateau on which Kabul is situated; the other leads over the +short but dangerous Jagdallak Pass to Jagdallak, from which there +are three roads to Kabul--the northernmost over the Khinar and the +third over the Sokhta passes; all these, more difficult than the +Khaiber, are impassable during the winter. It was here, as already +related, that the greater part of Elphinstone's command, in 1842, +perished. There is a dearth of fuel and supplies by this line of +communication. The second, or Thull-Kuram-Kabul, route, was taken by +General Roberts in 1878-9. It extends from Thull, one of the +frontier posts already mentioned, some forty miles into the Kuram +valley, and then inclining towards the west leads to the Kuram fort +(Mohammed Azim's), a walled quadrangular fortress with flanking +towers at an elevation of 6,000 feet. The Kuram valley is, up to +this point, well cultivated and productive; wood, water, and forage +abound. Winter only lasts with any severity for six weeks, and the +Spring and Autumn are delightful. + +A short distance above the fort commences the ascent toward the +Peiwar Pass (8,000 feet alt.), twenty-four miles distant. The road, +thickly bordered with cedar and pine trees, is covered with boulders +and is very difficult, and from the village of Peiwar--one of many +_en route_, of the usual Afghan fortified type--it leads through a +winding defile to the top of the pass. Here the road is confined by +perpendicular chalk rocks, the summits of which are covered with +scrub timber and a luxurious growth of laurel. On the farther side +of the pass the road ascends to the height of the Hazardarakht, +(which is covered with snow in the winter), and then climbs to the +Shuturgurdan Pass (11,375 feet alt.), reaching a plateau on which +the snow lies for six months of the year; thence it descends into +the fertile Logar valley and reaches Akton Khel, which is only +fifty-one miles from Kabul. The total length of this route is about +175 miles. + +The third, or Dera-Ismail-Khan-Sargo-Ghazni, route passes through a +region less frequented than those mentioned, and is not thought +sufficiently difficult for detailed description. Passing due west, +through seventy miles of mountain gorges destitute of supplies or +forage, it debouches, through the Gomal Pass, into a more promising +country, in which forage may be obtained. At this point it branches +to Ghazni, Kandahar, and Pishin respectively. A road exists from +Mooltan, crossing the Indus at Dera-Ghazi-Khan, Mithunkot, Rajanpur, +Rojan, Lalgoshi, Dadur to Quetta, and was utilized by General +Biddulph, from whose account of his march from the Indus to the +Helmund, in 1879, is gleaned the following. The main point of +concentration for the British forces, either from India or from +England via Kurrachee is thus minutely described. + +"The western frontier of India is, for a length of 600 miles, +bounded by Biluchistan and territories inhabited by Biluch tribes, +and for 300 miles Biluch country intervenes between our border and +Afghanistan. The plains of the Punjab and Sind run along the +boundary of Biluchistan, and at a distance of from 25 to 50 miles +the Indus pursues a course, as far down as Mithunkot, from north to +south, and then winds south-west through a country similar to that +of Egypt. A belt of cultivation and beyond that the desert . . . +this line of hills (the Eastern Sulimani) extends as a continuous +rampart with the plains running up to the foot of the range, and +having an elevation of 11,000 feet at the Tukl-i-Suliman, and of +7,400 near Fort Munro (opposite Dera-Ghazi-Khan), gradually +diminishes in height and dwindles away till it is lost in the plains +near Kusmore, at a point 12 miles from the Indus. The strip of +low-land country on the west bank of the Indus up to the foot of +the hills is called the _Derajat_. It is cut up and broken by +torrents, the beds of which are generally dry wastes, and the +country is, except at a few places where permanent water is found, +altogether sterile and hot. If we view the physical aspect looking +north and north-west from Jacobabad, we notice a wide bay of plains +extending between the broken spur of the Sulimani, and a second +range of hills having a direction parallel to the outer range. This +plain is called the Kachi, extends in an even surface for 150 miles +from the Indus at Sukkur, and is bounded on the north by successive +spurs lying between the two great ranges. The Kachi, thus bounded by +barren hills on all sides but the south, is one of the hottest +regions in the world. Except where subject to inundations or within +reach of irrigation it is completely sterile--a hard clay surface +called _Pat_,--and this kind of country extends around to the east +of the spur of the Suliman into the Derajat country. Subject to +terrific heats and to a fiercely hot pestilential wind, the Kachi is +at times fatal even to the natives." + + +[Illustration: Entrance to the Bolan Pass, from Dadur.] + + +The range of mountains bounding the Kachi to the westward is a +continuous wall with imperceptible breaks only, and it bears +the local names of Gindari, Takari, and Kirthar. Through this +uniform rampart there are two notable rents or defiles, viz.: the +_Mulla_ opening opposite Gundana, leading to Kelat; and the _Bolan_ +entering near Dadur, leading to Quetta, Kandahar, and Herat. The +Bolan is an abrupt defile--a rent in the range,--the bottom filled +with the pebbly bed of a mountain torrent. This steep ramp forms +for sixty miles the road from Dadur, elevation 750 feet, to the +Dasht-i-Bedowlat, elevation 6,225 feet. This inhospitable plateau +and the upper portion of the Bolan are subject to the most +piercingly cold winds and temperature; and the sudden change from +the heat of the Kachi to the cold above is most trying to the +strongest constitutions. Notwithstanding the difficulties of the +road, the absence of supplies and fuel, and the hostile character of +the predatory tribes around, this route has been always most in +favor as the great commercial and military communication from +Persia, Central Asia, and Khorassan to India. + +The causes which led to the establishment of a British garrison at +Quetta are not unlike those which are urged as good Russian reasons +for the occupation of territory in certain parts of Central Asia. +Briefly stated, it seems that after the conquest of the Punjab, the +proximity of certain disturbed portions of Biluchistan, and the +annoyance suffered by various British military expeditions, in +1839-1874, from certain tribes of Biluchis--notably the Maris and +Bugtis,--made it desirable that more decisive measures should be +adopted. In 1876 a force of British troops was marched to Kelat, and +by mutual agreement with the Khan a political agency was established +at Quetta, ostensibly to protect an important commercial highway, +but at the same time securing a military footing of great value. But +the character of the lords of the soil--the Maris, for instance--has +not changed for the better, and the temporary general European +occupation of the country would afford an opportunity to gratify +their predatory instincts, which these bandits would not hesitate to +utilize. The Maris can put 2,000 men into the field and march 100 +miles to make an attack. When they wish to start upon a raid they +collect their wise men together and tell the warriors where the +cattle and the corn are. If the reports of spies, sent forward, +confirm this statement, the march is undertaken. They ride upon +mares which make no noise; they travel only at night. They are the +most excellent outpost troops in the world. When they arrive at the +scene of action a perfect watch is kept and information by single +messengers is secretly sent back. Every thing being ready a rush of +horsemen takes place, the villages are surrounded, the cattle swept +away, the women and children hardly used--fortunate if they escape +with their lives. The villagers have their fortlets to retreat to, +and, if they reach them, can pull the ladders over after them and +fire away from their towers. + +Dadur is an insignificant town at the foot of the Bolan. From here +the Kandahar road leads for sixty miles through the Pass--a gradual +ascent; in winter there is not a mouthful of food in the entire +length of the defile. + +Quetta, compared with the region to the south, appears a very Garden +of Eden. It is a small oasis, green and well watered. + +From Quetta to Pishin the road skirts the southern border of a vast +plain, interspersed with valleys, which extend across the eastern +portion of Afghanistan toward the Russian dominion. A study of the +Pishin country shows that it is, on its northwestern side supported +on a limb of the Western Sulimani. This spur, which defines the west +of the Barshor valley, is spread out into the broad plateau of Toba, +and is then produced as a continuous ridge, dividing Pishin from the +plains of Kadani, under the name of Khoja Amran. The Barshor is a +deep bay of the plain, and there is an open valley within the outer +screen of hills. A road strikes off here to the Ghilzai country and +to Ghazni. Though intersected by some very low and unimportant hills +and ridges, the Pishin plains and those of Shallkot may be looked +upon as one feature. We may imagine the Shall Valley the vestibule, +the Kujlak-Kakur Vale the passage, the Gayud Yara Plain an +antechamber, and Pishin proper the great _salle_. Surrounded by +mountains which give forth an abundant supply of water, the lands +bordering on the hills are studded with villages, and there is much +cultivation; there is a total absence of timber, and the cultivation +of fruit-trees has been neglected. The Lora rivers cutting into the +plain interferes somewhat with the construction of roads. + + +[Illustration: Entrance to the Khojak Pass, from Pishin, on the Road +to Kandahar.] + + +The Plain of Pishin possesses exceptional advantages for the +concentration and rendezvous of large bodies of troops, and has +already been utilized for that purpose by the British. + +From the Khoja Amran, looking toward Kandahar, the plains, several +thousand feet below, are laid out like a sea, and the mountains run +out into isolated promontories; to the left the desert is seen like +a turbulent tide about to overflow the plains. + +The rivers on the Quetta-Kandahar route do not present much +impediment to the passage of troops in dry weather, but in flood +they become serious obstacles and cannot be passed until the waters +retire. + +The ascent from the east through the Khojak Pass is easy, the +descent on the west very precipitous. A thirteen-foot cart road was +made, over the entire length of twenty miles, by General Biddulph in +1878-9, by which the first wheeled vehicles, which ever reached +Khorassan from India, passed. + +From Kandahar (elsewhere described)--which is considered by General +Hamley and other authorities, one of the most important strategic +points in any scheme of permanent defence for India--diverge two +main roads: one a continuation of the Quetta-Herat route bearing +N.W., and one running N.E. to Kabul. + +Gen. Biddulph says: "The position of Kandahar near to the slopes of +the range to the westward of the city renders it impossible to +construct works close at hand to cover the road from Herat. The high +ridge and outlying hills dividing Kandahar and its suburbs from the +Argandab valley completely command all the level ground between the +city and the pass. Beyond the gap a group of detached mountains +extends, overlooking the approaches, and follows the left bank of +the Argandab as far down as Panjwai, fifteen miles distant. +Positions for defensive works must be sought, therefore, in front of +that place on the right bank of the river. To the N.E. of Kandahar +the open plain affords situations for forts, well removed from the +hills, at a short distance, and at Akhund Ziarut, thirty miles on +the road to Ghazni, there is a gorge which would, if held, add to +security on that quarter." + +The country between Kandahar and the Helmund has the same general +characteristics--plains and mountain spurs alternately,--and while +generally fit for grazing is, except in a few spots, unfit for +cultivation. + +According to the eminent authority just quoted, the great natural +strategic feature of this route is the elevated position of Atta +Karez, thirty-one miles from Kandahar. He says: "On the whole road +this is the narrowest gateway, and this remarkable feature and the +concentration of roads [Footnote: The roads which meet at Atta Karez +are: the great Herat highway passing through Kokeran and crossing +the Argandab opposite Sinjari, whence it lies along the open plain +all the way to Atta Karez; the road which crosses the Argandab at +Panjwai; and the road from Taktipul towards Herat.] here, give to +Atta Karez a strategic importance unequalled by any other spot +between India and Central Asia." + +General Biddulph examined this position carefully in 1879, and +discovered a site for a work which would command the valley of the +Argandab and sweep the elevated open plain toward the west and +northwest. + +Abbaza is a village at the crossing of the Herat road over the +Helmund, forty-six miles west of Atta Karez. On the west bank lies +the ancient castle of Girishk. The country between the Argandab and +the Helmund is rolling and inclining gradually from the hills toward +the junction of these rivers. The plateau opposite Girishk is 175 +feet above the river, which it commands. + +The Helmund has already been described. There are numerous fords, +but, at certain times, bridges would be required for military +purposes. The land in the vicinity of the Helmund is very fertile +and seamed with irrigating canals. + +From Girishk a road _via_ Washir runs through the hills to Herat; +this is said to be cool, well supplied with water and grazing, and +is a favorite military route. A road, parallel, to the south, goes +through Farrah, beyond which both roads blend into one main road to +the "Key." Still another road, by Bost, Rudbar, and Lash, along the +course of the river, exists. Although not so direct, it is an +important route to Herat; upon this road stand the ruins of the +ancient city of Bost in a wonderful state of preservation; here, as +elsewhere in this region, the remains of fortifications testify to +the former military importance of the spot. The citadel of Bost is +built on the debris of extensive works and rises 150 feet above the +river. + +_British Generals_.--Perhaps the most prominent of modern British +commanders, next to Lord Wolseley--is the young and successful +soldier, Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Roberts, G.C.B., C.I.E., +commanding the Anglo-Indian Army of the Madras Presidency. He has +already seen service in Afghanistan and elsewhere, and has been +appointed to the command of one of the principal divisions of the +British forces intended to oppose the threatened advance of the +Russians on Herat. It was said of him by one of the most brilliant +military leaders of the age,--Skobeleff: "For General Roberts I have +a great admiration. He seems to me to possess all the qualities of a +great general. That was a splendid march of his from Kabul to +Kandahar. I think more highly of him than I do of Sir Garnet +Wolseley, but there is this to be said of _all_ your generals, they +have only fought against Asiatic and savage foes. They have not +commanded an army against a European enemy, and we cannot tell, +therefore, what they are really made of." + +The Commander-in-chief of the Army of India, General Sir Donald M. +Stewart, G.C.B., C.I.E., to whom has been intrusted the conduct of +the British forces in Afghanistan, is also a very distinguished and +experienced officer--probably more familiar with the nature of the +probable field of operations than any other in Her Majesty's +Service. + +Like the United States, the great latent power of England is +indisputable, and so long as superiority at sea is maintained, time +is given to render that latent power active. For the first year of +the coming struggle England must lean heavily upon her navy. Nearly +all the regiments of infantry are below the average peace limit, and +if filled up simultaneously to a maximum war strength will include +more than fifty per cent, of imperfectly trained men, and as the +practice has been to fill up those corps ordered abroad with men +transferred from other small regiments, it may come to pass that +so-called "regular" regiments will consist largely of raw material. +Colonel Trench of the British Army says "the organization of the +regular cavalry is very defective," and especially complains of the +maladministration we have just noted. Demands for cavalry for the +Soudan were met by a heavy drain on the already depleted strength of +regiments in England. The Fifth Dragoon Guards, which stood next on +the roster for foreign service, gave away nearly two hundred horses +and one hundred men. Colonel Trench says that the reserve cavalry +have no training, and that there is no reserve of horses. It is +doubtful if more than seventy per cent. of the enlisted strength and +fifty per cent. of the horses, on paper, could be put in the field +now. + +Allusion has already been made to the notorious weakness of the +British transport system. [Footnote: Captain Gaisford, who commanded +the Khaiber Levies in the Afghan campaign, recommended reforms in +the system of transport and supply. He advocated certain American +methods, as wind and water-mills to crush and cleanse the petrified +and gravelled barley, often issued, and to cut up the inferior hay; +the selection of transport employes who understand animals; and more +care in transporting horses by sea.] If this has been the case in +the numerous small wars in which her forces have been engaged for +the last twenty-five years, what may be expected from the strain of +a great international campaign. + +On the other hand, Great Britain can boast of an inexhaustible +capital, not alone of the revenues which have been accumulating +during the last quarter of a century, but of patriotism, physical +strength, courage, and endurance, peculiar to a race of conquerors. + + + +IV. + +THE RUSSIAN FORCES AND APPROACHES. + + +A mere glance at the ponderous military machine with which Russia +enforces law and order within her vast domain, and by which she +preserves and extends her power, is all that we can give here. + +No army in the world has probably undergone, within the last thirty +years, such a succession of extensive alterations in organization, +in administrative arrangements, and in tactical regulations, as that +of Russia. The Crimean War surprised it during a period of +transition. Further changes of importance were carried out after +that war. Once more, in 1874, the whole military system was +remodelled, while ever since the Peace of San Stefano, radical +reforms have been in progress, and have been prosecuted with such +feverish haste, that it is difficult for the observer to keep pace +with them. [Footnote: Sir L. Graham (_Journal Royal U. S. +Institution_).] + +The military system of Russia is based upon the principles of +universal liability to serve and of territorial distribution. This +applies to the entire male population, with certain exemptions or +modifications on the ground, respectively, of age or education. +Annually there is a "lot-drawing," in which all over twenty, who +have not already drawn lots, must take part. Those who draw blanks +are excused from service with the colors, but go into the last +reserve, or "Opoltschenie." + +The ordinary term of service is fifteen years,--six with the colors +and nine with the reserves; a reduction is made for men serving at +remote Asiatic posts; the War Office may send soldiers into the +reserve before the end of their terms. Reduction is also made, from +eleven to thirteen years and a half, for various degrees of +educational acquirement. Exemptions are also made for family reasons +and on account of peculiar occupation or profession. Individuals who +personally manage their estates or direct their own commercial +affairs (with the exception of venders of strong liquors) may have +their entry into service postponed two years. Men are permitted to +volunteer at seventeen (with consent of parents or guardians); all +volunteers serve nine years in the reserve; those joining the Guards +or cavalry must maintain themselves at their own expense. The total +contingent demanded for army and navy in 1880 was 235,000, and +231,961 were enrolled; of this deficit of 3,039, the greater number, +3,000, were Jews. + +_Organization_.--The Emperor is the Commander-in-Chief, who issues +orders through the War Ministry, whose head is responsible for +the general efficiency of the Army. There is also the "Imperial +Head-quarters," under a general officer who, in the absence of the +War Minister, takes the Emperor's orders and sees to their +execution. The War Council, presided over by the War Minister, +supervises all financial matters in connection with the army. There +are also a High Court of Appeals, and the Head-quarters Staff, who +supervise the execution of all military duties. Commissariat, +artillery, engineer, medical, military education, Cossack, and +judge-advocate departments complete the list of bureaus. + +The military forces are arranged into nineteen army corps: five +comprise three divisions of infantry; one, two divisions of cavalry; +the remainder, two divisions of cavalry and one of infantry; with a +due proportion of light artillery and engineers the war strength of +an army corps is 42,303 combatants, 10,755 horses, and 108 guns. + +When war is declared an army is formed of two or more corps. The +general commanding exercises supreme control, civil and military, if +the force enters the enemy's country. His staff are detailed much as +usual at an American army head-quarters in the field. + +There are in the active army--_Infantry_: 768 battalions (192 +regiments, 48 divisions), 54 batt. riflemen. _Cavalry_: 56 regular +regiments (4 cuirassiers, 2 uhlans, 2 hussars, 48 dragoons); 29 +regt. Cossacks, divided into 20 divisions, kept in time of peace at +768 men (864 with sub-officers) per regiment. _Artillery_: 51 +brigades, or 303 batteries of 8 guns each; 30 horse-batteries of 6 +guns each; besides 14 batteries with Cossack divisions. Fifty +"parks" and 20 sections of "parks" supply each infantry brigade and +cavalry division with cartridges. + + +THE LAND FORCES OF RUSSIA. +[Footnote: Approximately from latest (1884-85) returns. (Combatants +only.)] + + + EUROPE. + Field Troops + PEACE. + Engineers. 21,335 + Cavalry. 52,902 + Infantry. 49,581 + Artillery. 323,701 + Total. 447,519 + Horses. 71,565 + Guns. 1,188 + WAR. + Total. 821,243 + Horses. 155,149 + Guns. 2,172 + + Reserve, Fortress, and Depot Troops + PEACE. + Engineers. - + Cavalry. 10,504 + Infantry. 23,704 + Artillery. 54,995 + Total. 89,203 + Horses. 8,703 + Guns. 144 + WAR. + Total. 891,404 + Horses. 109,822 + Guns. 1,236 + + + CAUCASUS. + Field Troops + PEACE. + Engineers. 1,548 + Cavalry. 12,364 + Infantry. 8,442 + Artillery. 59,254 + Total. 81,608 + Horses. 15,927 + Guns. 198 + WAR. + Total. 150,313 + Horses. 31,700 + Guns. 366 + + Reserve Fortress Troops + PEACE. + Engineers. - + Cavalry. 5,480 + Infantry. 2,860 + Artillery. 2,270 + Total. 10,610 + Horses. 6,137 + Guns. 8 + WAR. + Total. 51,776 + Horses. 36,862 + Guns. 12 + + + TURKESTAN. + PEACE. + Engineers. 496 + Cavalry. 6,744 + Infantry. 2,468 + Artillery. 12,522 + Total. 22,230 + Horses. 8,246 + Guns. 48 + WAR. + Total. 34,125 + Horses. 12,780 + Guns. 76 + + + SIBERIA. + PEACE. + Engineers. 244 + Cavalry. 2,606 + Infantry. 1,273 + Artillery. 7,752 + Total. 11,875 + Horses. 3,412 + Guns. 24 + WAR. + Total. 29,779 + Horses. 14,745 + Guns. 58 + + + _Grand Aggregate of the Empire_. + PEACE. + Engineers. 23,623 + Cavalry. 90,600 + Infantry. 83,328 + Artillery. 460,494 + Total. 663,045 + Horses. 113,990 + Guns. 1,610 + WAR. + Total. 1,978,640 + Horses. 367,089 + Guns. 3,920 + +During 1884 the engineer corps was reorganized. Henceforward the +peace establishment will consist of seventeen battalions of sappers; +eight battalions of pontoniers; sixteen field-telegraph companies, +each of which is mounted, so as to maintain telegraphic +communication for forty miles, and have two stations; six +engineering parks or trains, each ten sections, carrying each +sufficient tools and material for an infantry division; four +battalions of military railway engineers; four mine companies; two +siege trains, and one telegraph instruction company. The whole is +divided into six brigades, and provisions are taken for training +recruits and supplying the losses during war. The fortress troops, +for the defence of fortresses, consist of forty-three battalions of +twelve hundred men each in time of war, and nine companies of three +hundred men each. The depot troops, for garrison service, consist of +thirteen battalions and three hundred detachments. + +The reserve troops supply 204 battalions of infantry, 56 squadrons +of cavalry, 57 batteries of artillery, and 34 companies of sappers. +If mobilized, they are intended to supply 544 battalions, 56 +squadrons, 144 batteries, and 34 companies of engineers. The second +reserve, or "Zapas," consists of "cadres" for instruction, organized +in time of war. + +The training of the Russian infantry comprises that of skirmishing +as of most importance; the whistle is used to call attention; the +touch is looser in the ranks than formerly; squares to resist +cavalry are no longer used; [Footnote: A British officer, who has +had good opportunities, says the infantry drill is second to none.] +the Berdan breech-loader is the infantry arm; sergeant-majors wear +officers' swords, and together with musicians carry revolvers. + +A great stimulus has been given to rifle practice in the Russian +army, with fair results, but complaint is made of want of good +instructors. The dress and equipment of the infantry is noted for an +absence of ornament, and hooks are substituted for buttons. Every +thing has been made subordinate to comfort and convenience. Woollen +or linen bandages are worn instead of socks. The entire outfit of +the soldier weighs about fifty pounds. The Guards, alone, are yet +permitted to wear their old uniform with buttons. The arms of the +Turkestan troops are mixed Berdan and Bogdan rifles. The field +clothing is generally linen blouse with cloth shoulder-straps, +chamois-leather trousers, dyed red, and a white kepi. Officers wear +the same trousers in the field. Cossacks wear gray shirts of camel's +hair. + +The artillery is divided into field artillery and horse artillery, +of which the strength is given elsewhere. The horse batteries have +the steel four-pound gun. + +Col. Lumley, of the British army, says: "In Russia it is believed +that the field artillery is equal to that of any other Power, and +the horse artillery superior." Lieut. Grierson, R.A., from his +personal observation, confirms this opinion. + +It is not too much to say that, in any European conflict in the near +future, the Russian cavalry will be conspicuous and extraordinarily +effective. In a war with England, in Asia, the use of large bodies +of cavalry, organized, instructed, and equipped after the American +plan, must become the main feature. + +From the wonderful reforms instituted by Russia in her huge army of +horsemen, which have put her before all other nations, not excepting +Germany, we may expect to hear of wonderful mobility, stunning blows +at the enemy's depots, and the appropriation of choice positions +under his nose: of stubborn contests with the Anglo-Indian infantry, +the only weapon a Berdan carbine; of communications destroyed by +high explosives: especially, of the laying waste smiling Afghan +valleys, inexpedient to occupy:--these are a few of the surprises to +which we may be treated if Russia gets the chance. In this manner +she is doubtless prepared to take the initiative in her next war. + +[Footnote: The bold operations of General Gourko in the +Russo-Turkish war of 1878, afford the best illustration of the +versatile qualities of the progressive military horseman since the +American war, 1861-5. An Austrian officer says: "The Russian cavalry +reconnoitred boldly and continuously, and gave proof of an +initiative very remarkable. Every one knows that Russian dragoons +are merely foot soldiers mounted, and only half horsemen: however, +that it should come to such a point as making dragoons charge with +the bayonet, such as took place July 16th near Twardista, seems +strange. Cossacks and Hussars dismounted on the 30th, formed +skirmishing lines, coming and going under the fire of infantry, +protecting their battery, and conducting alone an infantry fight +against the enemy. At Eski Zagra, July 31st, the dragoons did not +leave the field until all their cartridges were exhausted. On the +other hand, the _offensive_ action, and the spirit of enterprise and +dash, which are the proper qualifications of cavalry, were not +wanting in the Russians."] + +The whole of the regular cavalry of the line has been converted into +dragoons armed with Berdan rifle and bayonet; the Guard regiments +must adopt the same change when ordered into the field, and the +Cossacks have been deprived of the lance (excepting for the front +rank); new musketry regulations have been prescribed. Great stress +is now laid upon the training of both horses and men in the +direction of long marches, and the passage of obstacles. Forced +marches are also made to cover the greatest possible distances in +the shortest possible time. + +[Footnote: Among other experiments are noted that of 7 officers and +14 men of the Orenburg Cossacks who in November last in bad weather +travelled 410 versts between Niji Novgorod and Moscow in 5 days-- +about 53 miles a day; then covering 685 versts from Moscow to St. +Petersburg in 8 days--56 miles a day; on arrival an inspector +reported horses fresh and ready for service; the party was mentioned +in orders, and presented to the Czar. A month before, in snow and +intense cold, 7 officers and 7 men of the cavalry school covered 370 +versts in 4 days--60 miles a day. It is asserted that the best +Russian cavalry can travel 70 miles a day, continuously, without +injury. General Gourko recently inspected two sotnias of Don +Cossacks who had cleared 340 versts in 3 days, or 74 miles a day.] + +Swimming was practised in the Warsaw, Odessa, and Moscow districts, +the horses being regularly taught with the aid of inflated bags tied +under them. The Suprasl was crossed by the entire 4th Cavalry +Division swimming. In order to acquire a thorough knowledge of +pioneer duty, both the officers and non-commissioned officers of +cavalry are attached to the engineer camp for a short course of +instruction. In one division a regular pioneer squadron has been +formed for telegraphic and heliographic duty. The mounted force, +provided for in the Russian establishment, comprises twenty-one +divisions of 3,503 sabres and 12 guns each, or an aggregate of +73,563 men and 252 field guns. + +A feature of the Russian cavalry equipment is the pioneer outfit, +consisting of tools for construction or destruction, as they desire +to repair a bridge or destroy a railroad; this outfit for each +squadron is carried on a pack-mule; dynamite is carried in a cart +with the ammunition train. + +The Cossack (except of the Caucasus) is armed with a long lance +(front rank only), a sabre without guard, and a Berdan rifle. Those +of the Caucasus have in addition pistol and dagger, besides a +_nagaska_ or native whip. The uniform is blue, high boots, fur cap, +cloak with cape. The snaffle-bit is universally used, even by the +officers, although the average Russian troop-horse is noted for his +hard mouth. + +In the mounted drill of the Cossacks there is a charge as +skirmishers (or "foragers") called the "lava," which is executed at +a great pace and with wild yells of "Hourra!" + +Lieut. Grierson, of the British army, writes that: "A big fine man +mounted on a pony, with his body bent forward and looking very +top-heavy, always at a gallop, and waving his enormous whip, the +Cossack presents an almost ludicrous appearance to one accustomed +to our stately troopers. But this feeling is dashed with regret that +we possess no such soldiers." + +_Transport and Supply_.--The Russian system of transport is in a +very experimental and unsatisfactory state. It is the only army +which provides regimentally for the _personnel_ and _materiel_ of +this department. In each regiment is a non-combatant company, in +which all men required for duty without arms are mustered. + +All military vehicles required for the regiment are under charge of +this company. The intention of the system now developing is to +reduce the quantity of transportation required. [Footnote: In 1878 +the head-quarters baggage of the Grand Duke Nicholas required five +hundred vehicles and fifteen hundred horses to transport it.] +Besides the wagons and carts used for ordinary movements of troops, +Russia will, in Afghanistan, depend upon the animals of the country +for pack-trains and saddle purposes. After the _Camel_, of which +large numbers exist in the region bordering Afghanistan on the +north, the most important aid to Russian military mobility is the +remarkable _Kirghiz Horse_. The accounts of the strength, speed, +endurance, and agility of this little animal are almost incredible, +[Footnote: In 1869 a Russian detachment of five hundred men, mounted +on Kirghiz horses, with one gun and two rocket-stands, traversed in +one month one thousand miles in the Orenburg Steppe, and only lost +three horses; half of this march was in deep sand. In October, M. +Nogak (a Russian officer) left his detachment _en route_, and rode +one horse into Irgiz, 166-2/3 miles in 34 hours.] but they are +officially indorsed in many instances. He is found in Turkestan, and +is more highly prized than any other breed. The Kirghiz horse is +seldom more than fourteen hands, and, with the exception of its +head, is fairly symmetrical; the legs are exceptionally fine, and +the hoofs well formed and hard as iron. It is seldom shod, and with +bare feet traverses the roughest country with the agility of a +chamois, leaping across wide fissures on the rocks, climbing the +steepest heights, or picking its way along mere sheep-tracks by the +side of yawning precipices, or covering hundreds of versts through +heavy sand, with a heavier rider, day after day. Its gaits are a +rapid and graceful walk of five and one half to six miles an hour, +and an amble [Footnote: Moving both feet on a side almost +simultaneously.] at the maximum rate of a mile in two minutes. This +animal crosses the most rapid streams not over three and one half +feet deep, lined with slippery boulders, with ease. They are good +weight carriers. [Footnote: The mounted messengers (pony express) +over the steppes, use these horses, and carry with them, over stages +of 350 miles in 8 days, an equipment and supplies for man and horse +of nearly 300 pounds.] With a view of stimulating horse-breeding in +Turkestan, the government in 1851 offered prizes for speed. +[Footnote: The greatest speed recorded (1853.) was 13-1/2 miles (on +a measured course) in 27 minutes and 30 seconds.] Kirghiz horses +have been thoroughly tested in the Russian army. For modern cavalry +and horse-artillery purposes they are unsurpassed. The average price +is L6, but an ambler will bring L12. Great Britain is said to +possess 2,800,000 horses, while Russia, in the Kirghiz steppes +alone, possesses 4,000,000 saddle or quick-draught horses. + +The supply of the Russian army is carefully arranged under the +central Intendance. The ration in the field was, in 1878, 14.3 +ounces of meat, 14.9 black bread, preserved vegetables and tea, with +an issue of brandy in the winter. Immense trains follow each +division, at intervals, forming consecutive mobile magazines of +food. A division provision train can carry ten days' supply for +230,000 men. + +Forage is now supplied for transport in compressed cakes, of which +20,000,000 were used by Russia in her last war. [Footnote: A +compressed ration of forage was extensively used by the Russians in +1878, weighing 3-1/2 pounds; 5 days' supply could be carried on the +saddle with ease.] + +Clothing is furnished by the supply bureau of certain regions in +which there are large government factories; it is usual to keep on +hand for an emergency 500,000 sets of uniform clothing. + +_Routes_.--Having devoted a share of our limited space to an account +of the roads leading to Herat, from India, we may consider, briefly, +certain approaches to Afghanistan or India from the northwest. This +subject has been so clearly treated in a recent paper read before +the Royal United Service Institution by Captain Holdich, R.E., who +surveyed the region referred to, in 1880, that we quote liberally as +follows: + + In improving our very imperfect acquaintance, both with the + present military resources and position of Russia in Central + Asia, and of the difficulties presented both geographically and + by the national characteristics of the races that she would have + to encounter in an advance south of the Oxus, a good deal has + been already learned from the Afghans themselves. Among the + turbulent tribes dwelling in and around Kabul, whose chief and + keenest interest always lies in that which bears, more or less + directly, on their chances of success in mere faction fights, + which they seem to regard as the highest occupation in life, the + Russian factor in the general game must be a matter of constant + discussion. Thus it may possibly arise from their individual + interest in their national position that there is no better + natural geographer in the world than the Afghan of the Kabul + district. There is often an exactness about his method of + imparting information (sometimes a careful little map drawn out + with a pointed stick on the ground) which would strike one as + altogether extraordinary, but for the reflection that this one + accomplishment is probably the practical outcome of the + education of half a lifetime. + + Russia's bases of military operations towards India are two: one + on the Caspian Sea at Krasnovodsk, and Chikishliar, with + outposts at Chat and Kizil Arvat; and the other on the line of + Khiva, Bokhara, Samarcand, and Margillan, which may roughly be + said to represent the frontier held (together with a large + extent of boundary south of Kuldja) by the Army of Tashkend, + under General Kaufmann. But between this latter line and the + Oxus, Russia is undoubtedly already the dominant Power. The mere + fact of Russia having already thoroughly explored all these + regions, gives her the key to their future disposal. There is no + doubt that in all matters relating to the acquirement of + geographical knowledge, where it bears on possible military + operations, Russian perceptions are of the keenest. Her + surveying energies appear to be always concentrated on that + which yet lies beyond her reach, rather than in the completion + of good maps to aid in the right government of that which has + already been acquired. + + With what lies north of the Oxus we can have very little to say + or to do; therefore it matters the less that in reality we know + very little about it. The Oxus is not a fordable river. At Khoja + Saleh, which is the furthest point supposed to have been reached + by the Aral flotilla, it is about half a mile wide, with a slow + current. At Charjui it is about the same width, only rapid and + deep. At Karki it is said to be one thousand yards wide, and at + Kilif perhaps a quarter of a mile. But at all these places there + are ferries, and there would be ample means of crossing an army + corps, if we take into account both the Aral flotilla and the + native material, in the shape of large flat-bottomed boats, + capable of containing one hundred men each, used for ferrying + purposes, of which there are said to be three hundred between + Kilif and Hazarasp. These boats are drawn across the river by + horses swimming with ropes attached to their manes. But under + any circumstances it seems about as unlikely that any British + force would oppose the passage of a Russian army across the Oxus + as that it would interfere with the Russian occupation of the + trans-Oxus districts; but once south of the Oxus, many new + conditions of opposition would come into play, arising + principally from the very different national characteristics of + the southern races to those farther north. It would no longer be + a matter of pushing an advance through sandy and waterless + deserts, or over wild and rugged mountains, difficulties which + in themselves have never yet retarded the advance of a + determined general, but there would be the reception that any + Christian foe would almost certainly meet at the hands of a + warlike and powerful people, who can unite with all the cohesion + of religious fanaticism, backed up by something like military + organization and a perfect acquaintance with the strategical + conditions of their country. Most probably there would be no + serious local opposition to the occupation by Russia of a line + extending from Balkh eastwards through Khulm and Kunduz to + Faizabad and Sarhadd, all of which places can be reached without + great difficulty from the Oxus, and are connected by excellent + lateral road communications. But the occupation of such a line + could have but one possible object, which would be to conceal + the actual line of further advance. Each of these places may be + said to dominate a pass to India over the Hindoo Kush. Opposite + Sarhadd is the Baroghil, leading either to Kashmir or to Mastuj + and the Kunar valley. Faizabad commands the Nuksa Pass. Khulm + looks southwards to Ghozi and the Parwan Pass into Kohistan, + while from Balkh two main routes diverge, one to Bamian and + Kabul, the other to Maimana and Herat. + + It would be a great mistake to suppose that this short list + disposes of all the practicable passes over the Hindoo Kush. The + range is a singularly well-defined one throughout its vast + length; but it is not by any means a range of startling peaks + and magnificent altitudes. It is rather a chain of very elevated + flattish-topped hills, spreading down in long spurs to the north + and south, abounding in warm sheltered valleys and smiling + corners, affording more or less pasture even in its highest + parts, and traversed by countless paths. Many of these paths are + followed by Kuchis in their annual migrations southward, with + their families and household goods piled up in picturesque heaps + on their hardy camels, or with large herds of sheep and goats, + in search of fresh pasturage. South of the Hindoo Kush we find + most of the eastern routes to our northwest frontier to converge + in one point, very near to Jelalabad. There are certain routes + existing between the Russian frontier and India which pass + altogether east of this point. There is one which can be + followed from Tashkend to Kashgar, and over the Karakoram range, + and another which runs by the Terek Pass to Sarhadd, and thence + over the Baroghil into Kashmir; but these routes have justly, + and by almost universal consent, been set aside as involving + difficulties of such obvious magnitude that it would be + unreasonable to suppose that any army under competent leadership + could be committed to them. The same might surely be said of the + route by the Nuksan Pass into the valley of Chitral and the + Kunar, which joins the Khyber route not far from Jelalabad. Its + length and intricacy alone, independently of the intractable + nature of the tribes which border it on either side, and of the + fact that the Nuksan Pass is only open for half the year, would + surely place it beyond the consideration of any general who + aspired to invade India after accomplishing the feat of carrying + an army through it. West of Kafirstan across the Hindoo Kush + are, as we have said, passes innumerable, but only three which + need be regarded as practicable for an advancing force, all the + others more or less converging into these three. These are the + Khak, the Kaoshan (or Parwan, also called Sar Alang), and the + Irak. The Khak leads from Kunduz _via_ Ghori and the valley of + the Indarab to the head of the Panjshir valley. Its elevation is + about thirteen thousand feet. It is described as an easy pass, + probably practicable for wheeled artillery. The Panjshiris are + Tajaks, and, like the Kohistanis generally, are most bigoted + Suniu Mohammedans. The rich and highly cultivated valley which + they inhabit forms a grand highway into Kohistan and Koh Dahman; + but all this land of terraced vineyards and orchards, watered by + snow-cold streams from the picturesque gorges and mountain + passes of the Hindoo Kush and Paghman mountains,--this very + garden of Afghanistan, stretching away southwards to the gates + of Kabul, is peopled by the same fierce and turbulent race who + have ever given the best fighting men to the armies of the + Amirs, and who have rendered the position of Kabul as the ruling + capital of Afghanistan a matter of necessity; with their + instincts of religious hostility, it will probably be found that + the Kohistani, rather than the Hindoo Kush, is the real barrier + between the north and the south. The Sar Alang or Parwan Pass + leads directly from Kunduz and Ghori to Charikar and Kabul. It + is the direct military route between Afghan Turkestan and the + seat of the Afghan Government, but is not much used for trade. + It cannot be much over eleven thousand feet elevation, and it is + known to be an easy pass, though somewhat destitute of fuel and + forage. The next route of importance is that which leads from + Balkh, _via_ Bamian, to the Irak Pass on the Hindoo Kush, and + into the upper watercourse of the Helmund River, and thence by + the Unai over the Paghman range to Kabul. This is the great + trade route from the markets of Turkestan and Central Asia + generally to Kabul and India. The Irak, like the Parwan, is not + nearly so high as has been generally assumed, while the Unai is + a notoriously easy pass. This route is at present very much + better known to the Russians, who have lately frequently + traversed it, than to ourselves. Like the Parwan and the Khak, + it is liable to be closed for three or four months of the year + by snow. During the winter of 1879-80 they were open till late + in December, and appear to be again free from snow about the + middle of April. Between these main passes innumerable tracks + follow the "durras," or lines of watercourse, over the ridges of + the Hindoo Kush and Paghman, which afford easy passage to men on + foot and frequently also to "Kuchi" camels. These passes (so far + as we can learn) could, any of them, be readily made available + for mountain artillery with a very small expenditure of + constructive labor and engineering skill. In Koh Dahman nearly + every village of importance lying at the foot of the eastern + slopes of the Paghman (such as Beratse, Farza, Istalif, etc.) + covers a practicable pass over the Paghman, which has its + continuation across the Shoreband valley and over the ridge of + the Hindoo Kush beyond it. But between the Khak Pass and the + Irak, the various routes across the Hindoo Kush, whether + regarded as routes to India or to Kandahar, although they by no + means converge on Kabul City, must necessarily pass within + striking distance of an army occupying Kabul. Such a force would + have, first of all, thoroughly to secure its communication with + the Oxus, and a strong position at Kabul itself. + +Having the official statement of a military engineer with reference +to the Oxus-Hindu-Kush line, as a barrier or base or curtain, we may +pass to the principal approach to Herat from the northwest. + +There are four distinct lines by which Russia could move on Herat: + +I. From the _Caspian_ base a trans-Caucasian army corps could move +(only with the concurrence and alliance of Persia) by the Mashed +route direct; + +II. Or it could move outside Persian territory, from _Chikishliar_ +by the Bendessen Pass to Asterabad, and would then have to pass +through Persian territory to Sarakhs, or across the desert to Merv; + +III. From the _Tashkend-Bokhara_ base a route exists _via_ Charjui, +the Oxus, direct to Merv; and there is + +IV. Also the well-known road by _Balkh_ and Mamiana, direct to +Herat. + +Routes III. and IV. having just been discussed, let us look at +Routes I. and II. + +Referring to the small outline map of the trans-Caspian region, +herewith, it will be seen that troops could embark from Odessa in +the fleet of merchant steamers available, and, if not molested _en +route_ by hostile cruisers, would reach Batum in from 2 to 3 days, +thence by rail to Baku in 24 hours, another 24 hours through the +Caspian Sea to Krasnovodsk, a transfer in lighters to the landing at +Michaelovsk, and the final rail transportation to the present +terminus of the track beyond Kizil Arvat; this, it is said, will +soon reach Askabad, 310 miles from Herat. The Secretary of the Royal +Asiatic Society, Mr. Cust, with his wife, passed over this route in +1883, and testifies to the ease and comfort of the transit and to +the great number of vessels engaged in the oil trade, which are +available for military purposes, both on the Black and Caspian seas. +He estimates that they could easily carry 8,000 men at a trip. +[Footnote: Mr. Cust says: "There are three classes of steamers on +the Caspian. 1, the Imperial war steamers with which Russia keeps +down piracy; 2, the steamers of the Caucasus and Mercury Company, +very numerous and large vessels; 3, petroleum vessels--each steamer +with a capacity of 500 men."] + +General Hamley [Footnote: Lecture before R. U. S. Institution +(London), 1884.] says: "We may assume that if on the railway (single +track) the very moderate number of 12 trains a day can run at the +rate of 12 miles an hour, the journey would occupy 40 hours. The +successive detachments would arrive, then, easily in two days at +Sarakhs. A division may be conveyed, complete, in 36 trains. Thus, +in six days a division would be assembled at Sarakhs ready to move +on the advanced guard. An army corps, with all its equipments and +departments, would be conveyed in 165 trains in 17 days. It would +then be 200 miles--another 17 days' march--from Herat. Thus, adding +a day for the crossing of the Caspian, the army corps from Baku +would reach Herat in 35 days. Also the advance of a corps from +Turkestan upon Kabul is even more practicable than before." +[Footnote: In his plan of invasion, Skobeleff thought 50,000 men +might undertake the enterprise without fear of disaster. This force +could be doubled from the Caucasus alone.] + +The route from Tchikishliar _via_ Asterabad (where it strikes the +main Teheran-Mashed-Herat road) would be an important auxiliary to +the railway line, _via_ Asterabad. There is also a more direct +caravan track running south of this across the Khorassan, from +Asterabad (through Shahrud, Aliabad, Khaf, Gurian) to Herat; or, at +Shahrud, an excellent road running between the two already described +straight (_via_ Sabzawar and Nishapar) to Mashed. + +From Sarakhs to Merv the road is said to be good and fairly supplied +with water. From Merv to Herat the well-worn expression "coach and +four" has been used to denote the excellent condition of the road. +[Footnote: For the first 100 miles the road follows the Murghab, +which Abbott describes as "a deep stream of very pure water, about +60 feet in breadth, and flowing in a channel mired to the depth of +30 feet in the clay soil of the valley; banks precipitous and +fringed with lamarisk and a few reeds."] Yalatun is described as +fertile, well populated, and unhealthy. [Footnote: Band-i-Yalatun, +or "bank which throws the waters of the Murghab into the canal of +Yalatun."] From Penjdeh, where the river is sometimes fordable, the +road follows the Khusk River, and, ascending the Koh-i-Baber Pass, +descends into the Herat valley, immediately beneath it. [Footnote: +Before closing the chapter on the "Russian Forces," a brief +description of the order of march customary in Central Asia may be +proper. From a translation by Major Clarke, R.A., from Kotensko's +"Turkestan," it appears that the horses accompanying Central Asian +detachments are so considerable that the latter form, as it were, +the escort of the former. As an Asiatic enemy nearly always attacks +from every side, the distribution of the troops, during the march, +must be such that they may be able to repulse the enemy no matter +where he may appear. Usually, a half sotnia (70 men) of cavalry +marches in advance at a distance from 3/4 to 1-1/3 miles, so as to +be in view of main body. Immediately in front of main body marches a +detachment of sappers and a company or two of infantry; then part of +the artillery; then more infantry; the train; behind the train, +remainder of artillery and infantry; as a rear guard, a sotnia of +cavalry. Bivouacs in the Steppe are usually chosen at wells, and +are, in many respects, similar to those customary in the Indian +country in America. First, an outer line of carts or wagons; then +the troops; and inside, all the animals. The accompanying diagram is +from _The Journal Royal United Service Institution_ (London).] + + +[Illustration: NORMAL ORDER OF MARCH IN CENTRAL ASIA. + NORMAL BIVOUAC IN CENTRAL ASIA.] + + + + +V. + +REVIEW OF THE MILITARY SITUATION. + + +The purpose of this volume has been to give as much reliable +information upon the cause of the Anglo-Russian dispute, the nature +of the probable theatre of operations in case of war, and of the +armies of the Powers concerned, as could be obtained and printed +within a single fortnight. The richness of the available material +made this especially difficult, comprising as it did the record of +recent campaigns in Afghanistan, as well as the opinions of those +who, like Vambery, Veniukoff, Rawlinson, Napier, and Cust, are +authorities upon Asiatic topics. + +As these lines are written [Footnore: April 18, 1885.] the civilized +nations of the world await with bated breath the next scene upon the +Afghan stage. + +Seldom when two gladiators, armed and stripped, enter the arena does +a doubt exist as to their purpose. Yet such an exceptional +uncertainty attends the presence of England and Russia on the border +of Afghanistan. + + +[Illustration: Gorge in the Tirband-i-Turkestan through which the +Murghab Flows.] + + +At least 50,000 British soldiers are drawn up in front of the Indus +awaiting a signal from their Queen. Nearly twice that number of +Russian troops are massed on or near the northwestern angle of the +Ameer's country. [Footnote: Since the events noted in our first +chapter (page 12) transpired, another page has been added to +Afghanistan's blood-stained record. After confronting each other on +the Khusk River for some weeks a large Russian force under General +Komaross attacked (March 30, 1885) the Afghan troops at Penjdeh, and +after a gallant resistance on the part of the native garrison it was +utterly routed and the town occupied by the victors. The Russian +casualties were inconsiderable, but the Afghans lost nearly 1,000 +men.] + +It is impossible to eliminate, altogether, from a study of the +present military situation, certain political elements. + +It is apparent that the Russians near Herat stand practically at +"the forks of the road"; it is a three-pronged fork--one branch +running due south to the sea and two branches due east to India. The +first-named requires but passing comment and only as it relates to +Herat, planted on a route which cannot be controlled without its +possession, for military and commercial reasons well understood. + +As already explained, the routes to India, available to Russia, +enable her to move from her base on the Merv-Herat line, both _via_ +Balkh and Kabul, for the purpose of flanking a British column moving +from Quetta westward, or of raiding the rich valley of the Helmund; +from Turkestan above this route, a British force moving from Kabul +to Balkh could also be threatened. By the main Herat-Kandahar route +an advance from the east could also be directly opposed; the +crossing of the Helmund by either army would probably be contested. + +In case of war, whether Anglo-Russian or Russo-Afghan, the first +great battle would doubtless be fought on the Kandahar-Ghazni-Kabul +line. + + +[Illustration: Jelalabad from Piper's Hill.] + + +General Hamley, the leading British military authority, [Footnote: +Lieut.-General Sir. E. Hamley, K.C.B.] shows that this line is, of +all proposed, at once the most practicable and desirable line for +the defence of India. [Footnote: Three lines had been considered: +first, the line of the Eastern Sulimani, but this would leave the +seaport of Kurrachee unprotected; second, from Pishin northeast to +Kabul.] He says: "We should have a strong British governor in +Kandahar, and a strong British force on the Helmund and on the road +to Kabul; the railway completed to Kandahar, and, in case of a +movement from Turkestan against Kabul, a force on our side on its +way to occupy that city, and new recruiting grounds open to us amid +warlike populations. Surely there can be no question as to which of +these two sets of circumstances would give us most influence in +Afghanistan, most power to oppose Russia and to maintain confidence +in India." [Footnote: Gen. Hamley's remarks were made before the +Royal United Service Institution (May 18, 1884), and, in the +discussion which followed, Colonel Malleson said: "Recently in India +some influential natives said to me: 'Russia will continue her +advance; she will not stop until she has gained the fertile country +of Herat, and then she will intrigue with the native princes behind +the Indus, and when you send an army to meet her, you will find +those native princes rising in your rear.' I may fortify my own +experience by what was told me by an Austrian gentleman who visited +India about seven years ago. He paid a visit to the Maharaja, of +Cashmere, who said to him: 'From you I hope to get the truth; you +are not an Englishman nor a Russian. Tell me which is the stronger-- +the English power or the Russian; because it will be necessarily my +duty, if Russia should advance, and if I should find Russia stronger +than England, to go for the defence of my throne on the side of +Russia.'"] + +The same authority approves Sir Michael Biddulph's recommendation to +utilize the strong natural positions near Girishk on the Helmund. As +to Afghanistan he testifies: "With a power like Russia closing on +it, holding Persia and Persian resources subject to its will, it is +in vain to think that Afghanistan will be long independent even in +name. It is between hammer and anvil, or, to use a still more +expressive metaphor, between the devil and the deep sea. Bound to us +by no traditions, by no strong political influences such as might +have been used to constrain them, the Afghan tribes, mercenary and +perfidious to a proverb, an aggregate of tribes--not a nation,--will +lose no time, when the moment occurs, in siding with the great power +which promises most lavishly, or which can lay strongest hold on +them." + +The burning words with which General Hamley closed his lecture one +year ago are singularly true to-day, and form a fitting termination +to this sketch: + +"I do not undervalue the many influences which will always oppose +any policy entailing expense. But if the present question is found +to be--How shall we guard against a terrible menace to our Indian +Empire? any cost to be incurred can hardly be admitted as a reason +which ought to influence our course. Magnanimous trustfulness in the +virtue and guilelessness of rival states; distrust and denunciation +of all who would chill this inverted patriotism by words of warning; +refusal of all measures demanding expense which do not promise a +pecuniary return:--such is the kind of liberality of sentiment which +may ruin great nations. The qualities of the lamb may be very +excellent qualities, but they are specially inapplicable to dealings +with the wolf. Do those who shrink from expense think that the +presence of Russia in Afghanistan will be inexpensive to us? Will +the weakness which will be the temptation and the opportunity of +Russia be less costly than effectual defence? When we enter the +councils of Europe to assert our most vital interests, shall we +speak as we have been accustomed to speak, when our free action is +fettered by the imminent perpetual menace to India? These are +questions which, now put forth to this limited audience, will, +perhaps, within the experience of most of us, be thundered in the +ears of the nation. England is just now not without serious +perplexities, but none are so fraught with possibilities of mischief +as the storm which is now gathering on the Afghan frontier." + + + + +LIST OF AUTHORITIES. + +[Footnote: Unless otherwise designated, the authors named are +officers of the British Army, and nearly all the works are in the +Library of the Military Service Institution of the United States, +(Governor's Island, N. Y. H.).] + +[Source 1: Journal Royal United Service Institution (London).] + +[Source 2: Journal of the United Service Institution of India +(Simla).] + +ANDERSON, Capt. "A Scheme for Increasing the Strength of the Native +Armies," etc. [2] + +ARMY LIST, British Official, 1885. + +BIDDULPH, Gen. "The March from the Indus to the Helmund." [2] + +BELLEW, H. W., C.S.I. "A New Afghan Question." [2] + +BENGOUGH, Lieut-Col. "Mounted Infantry." [2] (From the Russian.) + +BISCHOFF, Major. "The Caucasus and its Significance to Russia." +(Ger.) [2] + +BLUNDELL, Col. "British Military Power with Reference to War +Abroad." [1] + +BAKER, Col. "The Military Geography of Central Asia." [1] + +COLQUHOUN, Capt. "On the Development of the Resources of India in a +Military Point of View." [2] + +CANTLEY, Major. "Reserves for the Indian Army." [2] + +CALLEN, Major. "The Volunteer Force of India," etc. [2] + +CAVENAGH, Gen. "Our Indian Army." [1] + +CHAPMAN, Lieut-Col. "The March from Kabul to Kandahar in 1880." [1] + +CLARKE, Capt, "Recent Reforms in the Russian Army." [1] + +CUST, R., Sec. R.A.S. "The Russians on the Caspian and Black Seas." +[1] + +DAVIDSON, Major. "The Reasons why Difficulty is Experienced in +Recruiting for the Native Army." [2] + +DALTON, Capt. "Skobeleff's Instructions for the Reconnaisance and +Battle of Geok-Tepe." [1] (From the French.) + +ELIAS, Capt. "A Streak of the Afghan War." [1] + +ESME-FORBES, Lieut. "Cavalry Reform." [2] + +FURSE, Major. "Various Descriptions of Transport." [1] + +GAISFORD, Capt. "New Model Transport Cart for Ponies and Mules." [2] + +GLOAG, Col. "Military Reforms in India." [2] + +GOWAN, Major. "Progressive Advance of Russia in Central Asia." [2] +"The Army of Bokhara." [2] "Russian Military Manoeuvres in the +Province of Jaxartes." [2] (From the Russian.) + +GRAHAM, Col. "The Russian Army in 1882." [1] + +GORDON, Capt. "Bengal Cavalry in Egypt." [2] + +GRIERSON, Lieut. "The Russian Cavalry," and "The Russian Mounted +Troops in 1883." [2] + +GREENE, Capt. "Sketches of Army Life in Russia." (New York, 1881.) + +GRIFFITHS, Major. "The English Army." (London.) + +GREY, Major. "Military Operations in Afghanistan." [2] + +GERARD, Capt. "Rough Notes on the Russian Army in 1876." [2] + +GOLDSMID, Gen. "From Bamian to Sonmiani." [1] "On Certain Roads +between Turkistan and India." [1] + +HEYLAND, Major. "Military Transport Required for Rapid Movements." +[1] + +HOLDICH, Capt. "Between Russia and India." [1] + +HENNEKEN, Gen. "Studies on the Probable Course and Result of a War +between Russia and England." [2] (From the Russian.) + +HILDYARD, Lieut.-Col. "The Intendance, Transport, and Supply Service +in Continental Armies." [2] + +HASKYNS, Capt. "Notice of the Afghan Campaigns in 1879-81. From an +Engineer's View." [1] + +HAMLEY, Lieut.-Gen., Sir E. "Russia's Approaches to India." (1884.) +[1] + +JOURNAL of the Military Service Institution of the United States. + +KELTIE, J. S. "The Statesman's Year-Book." (London, 1885.) + +KIRCHHAMMER, A. "The Anglo-Afghan War." [2] (From the German.) + +KOTENSKO. "The Horses and Camels of Central Asia." [2] "Turkestan." +[1] (From the Russian.) + +LITTLE, Col. "Afghanistan and England in India." [2] (From the +German.) + +LEVERSON, Lieut. "March of the Turkistan Detachment across the +Desert," etc. [1] (From the Russian.) + +MARTIN, Capt. "Tactics in the Afghan Campaign," [2] "Notes on the +Operations in the Kurrum Valley." [2] "Horse-Breeding in Australia +and India." [2] "Notes on the Management of Camels in the 10th +Company Sappers and Miners on Field Service." [2] "British Infantry +in the Hills and Plains of India." [2] + +MORGAN, D. "A Visit to Kuldja, and the Russo-Chinese Frontier." [1] + +MORTON, Capt. "Gourko's Raid." [2] (From the French.) + +MACKENZIE, Lieut.-Gen. "Storms and Sunshine of a Soldier's Life." + +MOSA, P. "The Russian Campaign of 1879," etc. [2] (From the +Russian.) + +MEDLEY, Col. "The Defence of the Northwest Frontier." [2] + +NEWALL, Lieut.-Col. "On the Strategic Value of Cashmere in +Connection with the Defence of Our Northwest Frontier." [2] + +O'DONOVAN, E. "The Merv Oasis." (New York, 1883.) + +PRICE, Capt. "Notes on the Sikhs as Soldiers for Our Army." [2] + +PITT, Lieut. "A Transport Service for Asiatic Warfare," etc. [1] + +ROSS, D., (Delhi Railway). "Transport by Rail of Troops, Horses, +Guns, and War Materials." [2] + +ST. JOHN, Major. "Persia: Its Physical Geography and People." [2] + +STRONG, Capt. "The Education of Native Officers in the Indian Army." +[2] + +STEEL, Veterinary-Surgeon. "Camels in Connection with the South +African Expedition, 1878-1879." [2] + +SHAW, Major. "Army Transport." [1] + +SANDERSON, G. P. "The Elephant in Freedom and in Captivity." [2] + +TEMPLE, Lieut. "An Historical Parallel--The Afghans and Mainotes." +[2] + +TYRRELL, Lieut.-Col. "The Races of the Madras Army." [2] + +TROTTER, Capt. "The Tribes of Turkistan." [2] + +TRENCH, Col. "Cavalry in Modern War." (London, 1884.) + +UPTON, Gen. "The Armies of Asia and Europe." (New York, 1878.) + +VENIUKOFF, Col. "The Progress of Russia in Central Asia." [2] (From +the Russian.) + +YALDWYN, Capt. "Notes on the Camel." [2] + + + + +INDEX. + + +A + +Abazai, mil. post +Abbaza, village +Abdurrahman, the Ameer +Absuna, pass +Abul-Khair +Afghanistan: + Territory; mountains; rivers; + roads, animals; people; + army; cities; military history +Ahmed-Kheil, city +Ahmed-Shah +Akbar Khan +Akbar, the Great +Akhunt Ziarut, city +Akton Khel, city +Alexander I. +Alexander, Czar +Alexander of Macedon +Ali Musjid, fort +Altai, river +Aliabad +Amu Daria (Oxus), river +Aral, sea +Argandab, valley; river +Army, British: + Strength; organization; transport; + supply; routes; operations + Indian +Army, Russian: + Strength; organization; transport; + supply; routes +Aryan, race +Askabad +Assin Killo, city +Asterabad +Atta Karez, mountain +Attreck, river +Auckland, Lord +Aulicata, city +Auran, mountain +Aurangzeb +Ayoub Khan + +B + +Baber Khan +Baku +Balkash, mountain +Balkh, city +Bamian, pass +Baroghil, pass +Barshor, valley +Baru, military post +Batum +Bekovitch, Gen. +Beloochistan, state +Bendessen, pass +Bengal, city +Beratse, village +Berlin, city +Biddulph, Sir M. +Billigarungan, hills +Bolan, pass +Bokhara, province +Bombay, city +Bori, valley +Bost, city +Broadfoot, Capt. +Browne, Gen. +Brydon, Dr. +Bunnoo, mil. post +Burnes, agent +Burrows, Gen. + +C + +Calmucks +Camel +Cashmere, Maharaja +Caspian, sea +Catharine II. +Cavagnari, Major +Ceylon, island +Chapman, Col. +Charikar, town +Chat, town +Charjui, town +Chelmsford, Lord +Chemkent, city +Chikishliar, town +Chitral, town +Clarke, Major +Conolly, M. +Cossacks +Cust, Mr. + +D + +Dadur, city +Dakka, city +Dasht-i-Bedowlat, mountain +Delhi, city +Dera Ghazi Khan, village +Dera Ismail Khan, city +Derajat, district +Djungaria, province +Doaba, military post +Dost, Mohammed +Dozan, city + +E + +Elephant +Ellenborough, Lord +Elphinstone, Gen. +Eski Zagra, town + +F + +Faizabad, city +Farrah, town +Farza, village +Fergana, province +Ferrier, Gen. + +G + +Gaisford, Capt. +Gayud Yara, plain +Geok Tepe, fort +Genghiz Khan +Ghazgar, valley +Ghazni, city +Ghilzai, district +Ghori, valley +Gilan, province +Gindari, mountain +Girishk, city +Gordon, Col. +Gourko, Gen. +Graham, Sir L. +Green, Col. +Grierson, Lieut. +Guikok, range +Gujrat, city +Guleir Surwandi, pass +Gundamuck, city +Gundana, town +Gurian, city + +H + +Haines, Sir F. +Hamley, Gen. +Har-i-Rud +Hazaristan, river +Hazarasp, city +Hazardarakht, mountain +Hazarnao, city +Helmund, river +Herat, city; river +Himalayas, mountain +Hindu Kush, mountain +Hobhouse, Sir J. C. +Hodjeni, province +Holdich, Capt. +Horse, yabu; khirgiz + +I + +Inderabad, river +India, On the threshold of +Indus, river +Irak, pass +Irgiz, fort +Irtish, river +Ispahan, city +Istalif, village + +J + +Jacobadad, city +Jagdallack, pass +Jamrud, city +Jelalabad, city +Jizakh, province +Jumrud, military post + +K + +Kabul, city; river +Kachi, plains +Kadani, plains +Kafristan, province +Kabriz, fort +kalat, city +Kandahar, city +Karakoran, mountain +Karkacha, pass +Karki, town +Kash, river; city +Kashgar +Kashmir, city +Kaufmann, Gen. +Kelat, town +Khaiber, pass +Khanikoff, M. +Khaf +Khak, pass +Khinar, pass +Khiva, province +Khoja-Saleh, city +Khokand, province +Khoja-Amran, mountain ridge +Khorassan, province +Khulm, city +Khurd-Kabul, pass +Khurd-Khaiber, pass +Khusk', river +Khirtar, mountain +Kilif, city +Kizil Arvat, city +Koh Daman, mountain +Kohut, mil. post +Kohistan, province +Koh-i-Baber, mountain +Kokiran, district +Komaroff, Gen. +Kotensko +Krasnovodsk, city +Kuh-i-Baba, mountain +Kujlak-Kekur, valley +Kuldja, city +Kunar valley +Kunduz, city +Kurrachee, city +Kuram, river; valley; fort +Kusmore, village +Kussun, fort + +L + +Lalaberg, valley +Lalgoshi, village +Lahore, city +Landi Khana, village +Lash Jowain, city +Lakhareff, Gen. +Logar, valley +London, city +Lora, river +Lumsden, Sir P. +Lumley, Col. + +M + +Mackenzie, Gen. C. +Mackeson, fort +McNaghten, Sir W. +Mahmoud, sultan +Mahomet +Mahommed Azim +Maimana, town +Malleson, Col. +Malta +Margilan, town +Maris, tribe +Martin, Lieut. +Marvin, C. +Mashed, city +Mastuj, town +Maude, Gen. +Mazanderan, province +McClellan, saddle +Merv, province +Michaelovsk, town +Michni, fort +Mithunkot, town +Mogul +Mooktur valley +Mooltan, city +Moscow, city +Mulla, pass +Munro, fort +Murchat, town +Murghab, river +Mysore, province + +N + +Nadir, Shah +Nahur, Maharajah of +Napier, Lord +Napoleon +Nicholas, Grand Duke +Nijni Novgorod, town +Nishuper, town-- +Nogak, M. +Nott, Gen. +Nuksan, pass + +O + +Odessa, city +O'Donovan, M. +Orenburg, province +Orloff, Gen. +Outram, Capt. +Oxus, (See Amer. Daria) + +P + +Paghman, mountains +Panjshir, valley +Panjwai, town +Paropismus, mountains +Parwan, pass +Pat, clay +Paul, Emperor +Peiwar, pass +Pekin +Penjdeh, town +Persia +Perwan, pass +Perovsky, fort +Peter the Great +Petropanlovsk, province +Peshawur, city +Pishin, village; plain +Pollock, Gen. +Pottinger, Major +Primrose, Gen. + +Q + +Quetta, city + +R + +Raganpur, city +Rawlinson, Sir H. +Roberts, Gen. +Rogan, village +Ross, railway manager +Rudbar, town +Russian Army: strength; organization; + transport; supply; routes + +S + +Sabzawar, city +Sale, Sir R. +Samarcand, city +Samson +San Stefano +Sarahks, town +Sargo, pass +Sarhadd, town +Saunders, Major +Scinde, province +Seistan, district +Shahrud, town +Shere Ali +Shikapur, town +Shul Kadar, fort +Shurtargurdan, pass +Singh Runjit +Sirpul, town +Skobeleff, Gen. +Stewart, Sir D. +Stolietoff, Gen. +St. Petersburg +Sufed Koh, mountain +Sujah Shah +Sulimani, mountains +Suprasl, river +Surkh Denkor +Surkhab river + +T + +Takwir, mountain +Taktipul, town +Targai, fort +Tartara, pass +Tashkend, city +Teheran +Tehernayeff, Gen. +Tejend, river +Temple, Sir R. +Terek, pass +Timwi +Trench, Col. +Troitsk, province +Turkestan +Turnak, valley +Twarditsa, town + +U + +Unai, river +Ural, mountains + +V + +Vambery, M. +Veniukoff, M. +Vernoye, fort +Volga, river + +W + +Warsaw, city +Washir, town +Wolseley, Lord + +Y + +Yakoub, Khan +Yalatun, town +Yaldwin, Capt. +Yaxartes, river + +Z + +Zurmat, district +Zohak, fort + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, AFGHANISTAN AND THE ANGLO-RUSSIAN DISPUTE *** + +This file should be named aaard10.txt or aaard10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, aaard11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, aaard10a.txt + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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