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diff --git a/74250-0.txt b/74250-0.txt index 0680dbf..0f74be0 100644 --- a/74250-0.txt +++ b/74250-0.txt @@ -1,8207 +1,8207 @@ -
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74250 ***
-
-
-
-
-
- YOGA
- AS PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGIONS
-
- BY
-
- SURENDRANATH DASGUPTA
-
- M.A., PH.D.(CAL.), PH.D.(CANTAB.)
-
- AUTHOR OF “A HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY”, ETC.
-
- _Professor of Philosophy, Presidency College, Calcutta_
- _Late Professor of Sanskrit, Chittagong College_
- _Late Lecturer in the University of Cambridge_
-
-
- LONDON:
-
- KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD
- NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.
-
- 1924
-
-
-
-
- YOGA AS PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION
-
-
-
-
- Printed in Great Britain at
- _The Mayflower Press, Plymouth_, William Brendon & Son, Ltd.
-
-
-
-
- AS A HUMBLE TOKEN
-
- OF DEEPEST REGARD AND GRATEFULNESS
-
- TO THE
-
- MAHARAJA SIR MANINDRACHANDRA NUNDY
-
- K.C.I.E
-
- WHOSE NOBLE CHARACTER AND SELF-DENYING CHARITIES
-
- HAVE ENDEARED HIM TO THE PEOPLE OF BENGAL
-
- AND
-
- WHO SO KINDLY OFFERED ME HIS WHOLE-HEARTED
-
- PATRONAGE IN
-
- ENCOURAGING MY ZEAL FOR LEARNING AT A TIME
-
- WHEN I WAS IN SO GREAT A NEED OF IT
-
-
-
-
- PREFACE
-
-
-This little volume is an attempt at a brief exposition of the
-philosophical and religious doctrines found in Patañjali’s _Yoga-sūtra_
-as explained by its successive commentaries of Vyāsa, Vācaspati, Vijñāna
-Bhikshu, and others. The exact date of Patañjali cannot be definitely
-ascertained, but if his identity with the other Patañjali, the author of
-the Great Commentary (_Mahābhāshya_) on Pāṇini’s grammar, could be
-conclusively established, there would be some evidence in our hands that
-he lived in 150 B.C. I have already discussed this subject in the first
-volume of my _A History of Indian Philosophy_, where the conclusion to
-which I arrived was that, while there was some evidence in favour of
-their identity, there was nothing which could be considered as being
-conclusively against it. The term Yoga, according to Patañjali’s
-definition, means the final annihilation (_nirodha_) of all the mental
-states (_cittavṛtti_) involving the preparatory stages in which the mind
-has to be habituated to being steadied into particular types of
-graduated mental states. This was actually practised in India for a long
-time before Patañjali lived; and it is very probable that certain
-philosophical, psychological, and practical doctrines associated with it
-were also current long before Patañjali. Patañjali’s work is, however,
-the earliest systematic compilation on the subject that is known to us.
-It is impossible, at this distance of time, to determine the extent to
-which Patañjali may claim originality. Had it not been for the labours
-of the later commentators, much of what is found in Patañjali’s
-aphorisms would have remained extremely obscure and doubtful, at least
-to all those who were not associated with such ascetics as practised
-them, and who derived the theoretical and practical knowledge of the
-subject from their preceptors in an upward succession of generations
-leading up to the age of Patañjali, or even before him. It is well to
-bear in mind that Yoga is even now practised in India, and the
-continuity of traditional instruction handed down from teacher to pupil
-is not yet completely broken.
-
-If anyone wishes methodically to pursue a course which may lead him
-ultimately to the goal aimed at by Yoga, he must devote his entire life
-to it under the strict practical guidance of an advanced teacher. The
-present work can in no sense be considered as a practical guide for such
-purposes. But it is also erroneous to think—as many uninformed people
-do—that the only interest of Yoga lies in its practical side. The
-philosophical, psychological, cosmological, ethical, and religious
-doctrines, as well as its doctrines regarding matter and change, are
-extremely interesting in themselves, and have a definitely assured place
-in the history of the progress of human thought; and, for a right
-understanding of the essential features of the higher thoughts of India,
-as well as of the practical side of Yoga, their knowledge is
-indispensable.
-
-The Yoga doctrines taught by Patañjali are regarded as the highest of
-all Yogas (_Rājayoga_), as distinguished from other types of Yoga
-practices, such as _Haṭhayoga_ or _Mantrayoga_. Of these _Haṭhayoga_
-consists largely of a system of bodily exercises for warding off
-diseases, and making the body fit for calmly bearing all sorts of
-physical privations and physical strains. _Mantrayoga_ is a course of
-meditation on certain mystical syllables which leads to the audition of
-certain mystical sounds. This book does not deal with any of these
-mystical practices nor does it lay any stress on the performance of any
-of those miracles described by Patañjali. The scope of this work is
-limited to a brief exposition of the intellectual foundation—or the
-theoretical side—of the Yoga practices, consisting of the philosophical,
-psychological, cosmological, ethical, religious, and other doctrines
-which underlie these practices. The affinity of the system of Sāṃkhya
-thought, generally ascribed to a mythical sage, Kapila, to that of Yoga
-of Patañjali is so great on most important points of theoretical
-interest that they may both be regarded as two different modifications
-of one common system of ideas. I have, therefore, often taken the
-liberty of explaining Yoga ideas by a reference to kindred ideas in
-Sāṃkhya. But the doctrines of Yoga could very well have been compared or
-contrasted with great profit with the doctrines of other systems of
-Indian thought. This has purposely been omitted here as it has already
-been done by me in my _Yoga Philosophy in relation to other Systems of
-Indian Thought_, the publication of which has for long been unavoidably
-delayed. All that may be expected from the present volume is that it
-will convey to the reader the essential features of the Yoga system of
-thought. How far this expectation will be realized from this book it
-will be for my readers to judge. It is hoped that the chapter on “Kapila
-and Pātañjala School of Sāṃkhya” in my _A History of Indian Philosophy_
-(Vol. I. Cambridge University Press, 1922) will also prove helpful for
-the purpose.
-
-I am deeply indebted to my friend Mr. Douglas Ainslie for the numerous
-corrections and suggestions regarding the English style that he was
-pleased to make throughout the body of the manuscript and the very warm
-encouragement that he gave me for the publication of this work. In this
-connection I also beg to offer my best thanks for the valuable
-suggestions which I received from the reviser of the press. Had it not
-been for these, the imperfections of the book would have been still
-greater. The quaintness and inelegance of some of my expressions would,
-however, be explained if it were borne in mind that here, as well as in
-my _A History of Indian Philosophy_, I have tried to resist the
-temptation of making the English happy at the risk of sacrificing the
-approach to exactness of the philosophical sense; and many ideas of
-Indian philosophy are such that an exact English rendering of them often
-becomes hopelessly difficult.
-
-I am grateful to my friend and colleague, Mr. D. K. Sen, M.A., for the
-kind assistance that he rendered in helping me to prepare the index.
-
-Last of all, I must express my deep sense of gratefulness to Sir
-Ashutosh Mookerjee, Kt., C.S.I., etc. etc., and the University of
-Calcutta, for kindly permitting me to utilize my _A Study of Patañjāli_,
-which is a Calcutta University publication, for the present work.
-
- S. N. DASGUPTA.
-
- PRESIDENCY COLLEGE, CALCUTTA,
- _April, 1924_.
-
-
-
-
- CONTENTS
-
-
- BOOK I. YOGA METAPHYSICS:
-
- CHAPTER PAGE
- I. PRAKṚTI 1
- II. PURUSHA 13
- III. THE REALITY OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD 31
- IV. THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION 40
- V. THE EVOLUTION OF THE CATEGORIES 48
- VI. EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES 64
- VII. EVOLUTION AND GOD 84
-
-
- BOOK II. YOGA ETHICS AND PRACTICE:
-
- VIII. MIND AND MORAL STATES 92
- IX. THE THEORY OF KARMA 102
- X. THE ETHICAL PROBLEM 114
- XI. YOGA PRACTICE 124
- XII. THE YOGĀṄGAS 132
- XIII. STAGES OF SAMADHI 150
- XIV. GOD IN YOGA 159
- XV. MATTER AND MIND 166
- APPENDIX 179
- INDEX 188
-
-
-
-
- YOGA AS PHILOSOPHY
- AND RELIGION
-
-
-
-
- BOOK I. YOGA METAPHYSICS
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER I
- PRAKRTI
-
-
-However dogmatic a system of philosophical enquiry may appear to us, it
-must have been preceded by a criticism of the observed facts of
-experience. The details of the criticism and the processes of
-self-argumentation by which the thinker arrived at his theory of the
-Universe might indeed be suppressed, as being relatively unimportant,
-but a thoughtful reader would detect them as lying in the background
-behind the shadow of the general speculations, but at the same time
-setting them off before our view. An Aristotle or a Patañjali may not
-make any direct mention of the arguments which led him to a dogmatic
-assertion of his theories, but for a reader who intends to understand
-them thoroughly it is absolutely necessary that he should read them in
-the light as far as possible of the inferred presuppositions and inner
-arguments of their minds; it is in this way alone that he can put
-himself in the same line of thinking with the thinker whom he is willing
-to follow, and can grasp him to the fullest extent. In offering this
-short study of the Pātañjala metaphysics, I shall therefore try to
-supplement it with such of my inferences of the presuppositions of
-Patañjali’s mind, which I think will add to the clearness of the
-exposition of his views, though I am fully alive to the difficulties of
-making such inferences about a philosopher whose psychological, social,
-religious and moral environments differed so widely from ours.
-
-An enquiry into the relations of the mental phenomena to the physical
-has sometimes given the first start to philosophy. The relation of mind
-to matter is such an important problem of philosophy that the existing
-philosophical systems may roughly be classified according to the
-relative importance that has been attached to mind or to matter. There
-have been chemical, mechanical and biological conceptions which have
-ignored mind as a separate entity and have dogmatically affirmed it to
-be the product of matter only.[1] There have been theories of the other
-extreme, which have dispensed with matter altogether and have boldly
-affirmed that matter as such has no reality at all, and that thought is
-the only thing which can be called Real in the highest sense. All matter
-as such is non-Being or Māyā or Avidyā. There have been Nihilists like
-the Śūnyavādi Buddhists who have gone so far as to assert that neither
-matter nor mind exists. Some have asserted that matter is only thought
-externalized, some have regarded the principle of matter as the
-unknowable Thing-in-itself, some have regarded them as separate
-independent entities held within a higher reality called God, or as two
-of his attributes only, and some have regarded their difference as being
-only one of grades of intelligence, one merging slowly and imperceptibly
-into the other and held together in concord with each other by
-pre-established harmony.
-
-Underlying the metaphysics of the Yoga system of thought as taught by
-Patañjali and as elaborated by his commentators we find an acute
-analysis of matter and thought. Matter on the one hand, mind, the
-senses, and the ego on the other are regarded as nothing more than two
-different kinds of modifications of one primal cause, the Prakṛti. But
-the self-intelligent principle called Purusha (spirit) is distinguished
-from them. Matter consists only of three primal qualities or rather
-substantive entities, which he calls the Sattva or intelligence-stuff,
-Rajas or energy, and Tamas—the factor of obstruction or mass or inertia.
-It is extremely difficult truly to conceive of the nature of these three
-kinds of entities or Guṇas, as he calls them, when we consider that
-these three elements alone are regarded as composing all phenomena,
-mental and physical. In order to comprehend them rightly it will be
-necessary to grasp thoroughly the exact relation between the mental and
-the physical. What are the real points of agreement between the two? How
-can the same elements be said to behave in one case as the conceiver and
-in the other case as the conceived? Thus Vācaspati says:—
-
-“The reals (guṇas) have two forms, viz. the determiner or the perceiver,
-and the perceived or the determined. In the aspect of the determined or
-the perceived, the guṇas evolve themselves as the five infra-atomic
-potentials, the five gross elements and their compounds. In the aspect
-of perceiver or determiner, they form the modifications of the ego
-together with the senses.”[2]
-
-It is interesting to notice here the two words used by Vācaspati in
-characterising the twofold aspect of the guṇa viz. _vyavasāyātmakatva_,
-their nature as the determiner or perceiver, and _vyavaseyātmakatva_,
-their nature as determined or perceived. The elements which compose the
-phenomena of the objects of perception are the same as those which form
-the phenomena of the perceiving; their only distinction is that one is
-the determined and the other is the determiner. What we call the
-psychosis involving intellection, sensing and the ego, and what may be
-called the infra-atoms, atoms and their combinations, are but two
-different types of modifications of the same stuff of reals. There is no
-intrinsic difference in nature between the mental and the physical.
-
-The mode of causal transformation is explained by Vijñāna Bhikshu in his
-commentary on the system of Sāṃkhya as if its functions consisted only
-in making manifest what was already there in an unmanifested form. Thus
-he says, “just as the image already existing in the stone is only
-manifested by the activity of the statuary, so the causal activity also
-generates only that activity by which an effect is manifested as if it
-happened or came into being at the present moment.”[3] The effects are
-all always existent, but some of them are sometimes in an unmanifested
-state. What the causal operation, viz. the energy of the agent and the
-suitable collocating instruments and conditions, does is to set up an
-activity by which the effect may be manifested at the present moment.
-
-With Sāṃkhya-Yoga, sattva, rajas and tamas are substantive entities
-which compose the reality of the mental and the physical.[4] The mental
-and the physical represent two different orders of modifications, and
-one is not in any way superior to the other. As the guṇas conjointly
-form the manifold without, by their varying combinations, as well as all
-the diverse internal functions, faculties and phenomena, they are in
-themselves the absolute potentiality of all things, mental and physical.
-Thus Vyāsa in describing the nature of the knowable, writes: “The nature
-of the knowable is now described:—The knowable, consisting of the
-objects of enjoyment and liberation, as the gross elements and
-the perceptive senses, is characterised by three essential
-traits—illumination, energy and inertia. The sattva is of the nature of
-illumination. Rajas is of the nature of energy. Inertia (tamas) is of
-the nature of inactivity. The guṇa entities with the above
-characteristics are capable of being modified by mutual influence on one
-another, by their proximity. They are evolving. They have the
-characteristics of conjunction and separation. They manifest forms by
-one lending support to the others by proximity. None of these loses its
-distinct power into those of the others, even though any one of them may
-exist as the principal factor of a phenomenon with the others as
-subsidiary thereto. The guṇas forming the three classes of substantive
-entities manifest themselves as such by their similar kinds of power.
-When any one of them plays the rôle of the principal factor of any
-phenomenon, the others also show their presence in close contact. Their
-existence as subsidiary energies of the principal factor is inferred by
-their distinct and independent functioning, even though it be as
-subsidiary qualities.”[5] The Yoga theory does not acknowledge qualities
-as being different from substances. The ultimate substantive entities
-are called guṇas, which as we have seen are of three kinds. The guṇa
-entities are infinite in number; each has an individual existence, but
-is always acting in co-operation with others. They may be divided into
-three classes in accordance with their similarities of behaviour (śīla).
-Those which behave in the way of intellection are called _sattva_, those
-which behave in the way of producing effort of movement are called
-_rajas_, and those which behave differently from these and obstruct
-their process are called _tamas_. We have spoken above of a primal cause
-_prakṛti_. But that is not a separate category independent of the guṇas.
-Prakṛti is but a name for the guṇa entities when they exist in a state
-of equilibrium. All that exists excepting the purushas are but the guṇa
-entities in different kinds of combination amongst themselves. The
-effects they produce are not different from them but it is they
-themselves which are regarded as causes in one state and effects in
-another. The difference of combination consists in this, that in some
-combinations there are more of sattva entities than rajas or tamas, and
-in others more of rajas or more of tamas. These entities are continually
-uniting and separating. But though they are thus continually dividing
-and uniting in new combinations the special behaviour or feature of each
-class of entities remains ever the same. Whatever may be the nature of
-any particular combination the sattva entities participating in it will
-retain their intellective functions, rajas their energy
-functions, and tamas the obstructing ones. But though they retain
-their special features in spite of their mutual difference
-they hold fast to one another in any particular combination
-(_tulyajātīyātulyajātīyaśaktibhedānupātinaḥ_, which Bhikshu explains as
-_aviśesheṇopashṭambhakasvabhāvāḥ_). In any particular combination it is
-the special features of those entities which predominate that manifest
-themselves, while the other two classes lend their force in drawing the
-minds of perceivers to it as an object as a magnet draws a piece of
-iron. Their functionings at this time are undoubtedly feeble
-(_sūkshmavṛttimantaḥ_) but still they do exist.[6]
-
-In the three guṇas, none of them can be held as the goal of the others.
-All of them are equally important, and the very varied nature of the
-manifold represents only the different combinations of these guṇas as
-substantive entities. In any combination one of the guṇas may be more
-predominant than the others, but the other guṇas are also present there
-and perform their functions in their own way. No one of them is more
-important than the other, but they serve conjointly one common purpose,
-viz. the experiences and the liberation of the purusha, or spirit. They
-are always uniting, separating and re-uniting again and there is neither
-beginning nor end of this (_anyonyamithunāḥ sarvve naishāmādisamprayogo
-viprayogo vā upalabhyate_).
-
-They have no purpose of their own to serve, but they all are always
-evolving, as Dr. Seal says, “ever from a relatively less differentiated,
-less determinate, less coherent whole, to a relatively more
-differentiated, more determinate, more coherent whole”[7] for the
-experiences and liberation of purusha, or spirit. When in a state of
-equilibrium they cannot serve the purpose of the purusha, so that state
-of the guṇas is not for the sake of the purusha; it is its own
-independent eternal state. All the other three stages of evolution, viz.
-the liṅga (sign), aviśesha (unspecialised) and viśesha (specialised)
-have been caused for the sake of the purusha.[8] Thus Vyāsa writes:—[9]
-“The objects of the purusha are no cause of the original state
-(_aliṅga_). That is to say, the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha
-is not the cause which brings about the manifestation of the original
-state of prakṛti in the beginning. The fulfilment of the objects of the
-purusha is not therefore the reason of the existence of that ultimate
-state. Since it is not brought into existence by the need of the
-fulfilment of the purusha’s objects it is said to be eternal. As to the
-three specialised states, the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha
-becomes the cause of their manifestation in the beginning. The
-fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not therefore the reason for
-the existence of the cause. Since it is not brought into existence by
-the purusha’s objects it is said to be eternal. As to the three
-specialised states, the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha being
-the cause of their manifestation in the beginning, they are said to be
-non-eternal.”
-
-Vācaspati again says:—“The fulfilment of the objects of the purusha
-could be said to be the cause of the original state, if that state could
-bring about the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha, such as the
-enjoyment of sound, etc., or manifest the discrimination of the
-distinction between true self and other phenomena. If however it did
-that, it could not be a state of equilibrium,” (_yadyaliṅgāvasthā
-śabdādyupabhogam vā sattvapurushānyatākhyātim vā purushārtham
-nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na sāmyavasthā syāt_). This state is
-called the prakṛti. It is the beginning, indeterminate, unmediated and
-undetermined. It neither exists nor does it not exist, but is the
-principium of almost all existence. Thus Vyāsa describes it as “the
-state which neither is nor is not; that which exists and yet does not;
-that in which there is no non-existence; the unmanifested, the noumenon
-(lit. without any manifested indication), the background of all”
-(_niḥsattāsattam niḥsadasat nirasat avyaktam aliṅgam pradhānam_).[10]
-Vācaspati explains it as follows:—“Existence consists in possessing the
-capacity of effecting the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha.
-Non-existence means a mere imaginary trifle (e.g. the horn of a hare).”
-It is described as being beyond both these states of existence and
-non-existence. The state of the equipoise of the three guṇas of
-intelligence-stuff, inertia and energy, is nowhere of use in fulfilling
-the objects of the purusha. It therefore does not exist as such. On the
-other hand, it does not admit of being rejected as non-existent like an
-imaginary lotus of the sky. It is therefore not non-existent. But even
-allowing the force of the above arguments about the want of phenomenal
-existence of prakṛti on the ground that it cannot serve the objects of
-the purusha, the difficulty arises that the principles of Mahat, etc.,
-exist in the state of the unmanifested also, because nothing that exists
-can be destroyed; and if it is destroyed, it cannot be born again,
-because nothing that does not exist can be born; it follows therefore
-that since the principles of mahat, etc., exist in the state of the
-unmanifested, that state can also affect the fulfilment of the objects
-of the purusha. How then can it be said that the unmanifested is not
-possessed of existence? For this reason, he describes it as that in
-which it exists and does not exist. This means that the cause exists in
-that state in a potential form but not in the form of the effect.
-Although the effect exists in the cause as mere potential power, yet it
-is incapable of performing the function of fulfilling the objects of the
-purusha; it is therefore said to be non-existent as such. Further he
-says that this cause is not such, that its effect is of the nature of
-hare’s horn. It is beyond the state of non-existence, that is, of the
-existence of the effect as mere nothing. If it were like that, then it
-would be like the lotus of the sky and no effect would follow.[11]
-
-But as Bhikshu points out (_Yoga-vārttika_, II. 18) this prakṛti is
-not simple substance, for it is but the guṇa reals. It is simple only
-in the sense that no complex qualities are manifested in it. It is the
-name of the totality of the guṇa reals existing in a state of
-equilibrium through their mutual counter opposition. It is a
-hypothetical state of the guṇas preceding the states in which they
-work in mutual co-operation for the creation of the cosmos for giving
-the purushas a chance for ultimate release attained through a full
-enjoyment of experiences. Some European scholars have often asked me
-whether the prakṛti were real or whether the guṇas were real. This
-question, in my opinion, can only arise as a result of confusion and
-misapprehension, for it is the guṇas in a state of equilibrium that
-are called prakṛti. Apart from guṇas there is no prakṛti (_guṇā eva
-prakṛtiśabdavācyā na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti. Yoga-vārttika_, II.
-18). In this state, the different guṇas only annul themselves and no
-change takes place, though it must be acknowledged that the state of
-equipoise is also one of tension and action, which, however, being
-perfectly balanced does not produce any change. This is what is meant
-by evolution of similars (_adṛśapariṇāma_). Prakṛti as the equilibrium
-of the three guṇas is the absolute ground of all the mental and
-phenomenal modifications—pure potentiality.
-
-Veṅkaṭa, a later Vaishṇava writer, describes prakṛti as one ubiquitous,
-homogeneous matter which evolves itself into all material productions by
-condensation and rarefaction. In this view the guṇas would have to be
-translated as three different classes of qualities or characters, which
-are found in the evolutionary products of the prakṛti. This will of
-course be an altogether different view of the prakṛti from that which is
-described in the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, and the guṇas could not be considered
-as reals or as substantive entities in such an interpretation. A
-question arises, then, as to which of these two prakṛtis is the earlier
-conception. I confess that it is difficult to answer it. For though the
-Vaishṇava view is elaborated in later times, it can by no means be
-asserted that it had not quite as early a beginning as 2nd or 3rd
-century B.C. If _Ahirbudhnyasamhitā_ is to be trusted then the
-_Shashṭitantraśāstra_ which is regarded as an authoritative Sāṃkhya work
-is really a Vaishṇava work. Nothing can be definitely stated about the
-nature of prakṛti in Sāṃkhya from the meagre statement of the _Kārikā_.
-The statement in the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ is, however, definitely in favour
-of the interpretation that we have adopted, and so also the
-_Sāṃkhya-sūtra_, which is most probably a later work. Caraka’s account
-of prakṛti does not seem to be the prakṛti of _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ for here
-the guṇas are not regarded as reals or substantive entities, but as
-characters, and prakṛti is regarded as containing its evolutes, mahat,
-etc., as its elements (_dhātu_). If Caraka’s treatment is the earliest
-view of Sāṃkhya that is available to us, then it has to be admitted that
-the earliest Sāṃkhya view did not accept prakṛti as a state of the
-guṇas, or guṇas as substantive entities. But the _Yoga-sūtra_, II. 19,
-and the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ support the interpretation that I have adopted
-here, and it is very curious that if the Sāṃkhya view was known at the
-time to be so different from it, no reference to it should have been
-made. But whatever may be the original Sāṃkhya view, both the Yoga view
-and the later Sāṃkhya view are quite in consonance with my
-interpretation.
-
-In later Indian thinkers there had been a tendency to make a compromise
-between the Vedānta and Sāṃkhya doctrines and to identify prakṛti with
-the avidyā of the Vedāntists. Thus Lokācāryya writes:—“It is called
-prakṛti since it is the source of all change, it is called avidyā since
-it is opposed to knowledge, it is called māyā since it is the cause of
-diversion creation (_prakṛtirityucyate vikārotpādakatvāt avidyā
-jñānavirodhitvāt māyā vicitrasṛshṭikaratvāt_).”[12] But this is
-distinctly opposed to the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ which defines avidyā as
-_vidyāviparītaṃ jñānāntaraṃ avidyā_, i.e. avidyā is that other knowledge
-which is opposed to right knowledge. In some of the Upanishads,
-_Svetāśvatara_ for example, we find that māyā and prakṛti are identified
-and the great god is said to preside over them (_māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ
-vidyāt māyinaṃ tumaheśvaraṃ_). There is a description also in the
-Ṛgveda, X. 92, where it is said that (_nāsadāsīt na sadāsīt tadānīṃ_),
-in the beginning there was neither the “Is” nor the “Is not,” which
-reminds one of the description of prakṛti (_niḥsattāsattaṃ_ as that in
-which there is no existence or non-existence). In this way it may be
-shown from _Gītā_ and other Sanskrit texts that an undifferentiated,
-unindividuated cosmic matter as the first principle, was often thought
-of and discussed from the earliest times. Later on this idea was
-utilised with modifications by the different schools of Vedāntists, the
-Sāṃkhyists and those who sought to make a reconciliation between them
-under the different names of prakṛti, avidyā and māyā. What avidyā
-really means according to the Pātañjala system we shall see later on;
-but here we see that whatever it might mean it does not mean prakṛti
-according to the Pātañjala system. _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 13, makes
-mention of māyā also in a couplet from _Shashṭitantraśāstra_;
-
- _guṇānāṃ paramaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati
- yattu dṛshṭipathaṃ prāptaṃ tanmāyeva sutucch akaṃ._
-
-The real appearance of the guṇas does not come within the line of our
-vision. That, however, which comes within the line of vision is but
-paltry delusion and Vācaspati Miśra explains it as follows:—Prakṛti is
-like the māyā but it is not māyā. It is trifling (_sutucchaka_) in the
-sense that it is changing. Just as māyā constantly changes, so the
-transformations of prakṛti are every moment appearing and vanishing and
-thus suffering momentary changes. Prakṛti being eternal is real and thus
-different from māyā.
-
-This explanation of Vācaspati’s makes it clear that the word māyā is
-used here only in the sense of illusion, and without reference to the
-celebrated māyā of the Vedāntists; and Vācaspati clearly says that
-prakṛti can in no sense be called māyā, since it is real.[13]
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER II
- PURUSHA
-
-
-We shall get a more definite notion of prakṛti as we advance further
-into the details of the later transformations of the prakṛti in
-connection with the purushas. The most difficult point is to understand
-the nature of its connection with the purushas. Prakṛti is a material,
-non-intelligent, independent principle, and the souls or spirits are
-isolated, neutral, intelligent and inactive. Then how can the one come
-into connection with the other?
-
-In most systems of philosophy the same trouble has arisen and has caused
-the same difficulty in comprehending it rightly. Plato fights the
-difficulty of solving the unification of the idea and the non-being and
-offers his participation theory; even in Aristotle’s attempt to avoid
-the difficulty by his theory of form and matter, we are not fully
-satisfied, though he has shown much ingenuity and subtlety of thought in
-devising the “expedient in the single conception of development.”
-
-The universe is but a gradation between the two extremes of potentiality
-and actuality, matter and form. But all students of Aristotle know that
-it is very difficult to understand the true relation between form and
-matter, and the particular nature of their interaction with each other,
-and this has created a great divergence of opinion among his
-commentators. It was probably to avoid this difficulty that the
-dualistic appearance of the philosophy of Descartes had to be
-reconstructed in the pantheism of Spinoza. Again we find also how Kant
-failed to bring about the relation between noumenon and phenomenon, and
-created two worlds absolutely unrelated to each other. He tried to
-reconcile the schism that he effected in his _Critique of Pure Reason_
-by his _Critique of Practical Reason_, and again supplemented it with
-his _Critique of Judgment_, but met only with dubious success.
-
-In India also this question has always been a little puzzling, and
-before trying to explain the Yoga point of view, I shall first give some
-of the other expedients devised for the purpose, by the different
-schools of Advaita (monistic) Vedāntism.
-
-I. The reflection theory of the Vedānta holds that the māyā is without
-beginning, unspeakable, mother of gross matter, which comes in
-connection with intelligence, so that by its reflection in the former we
-have Īśvara. The illustrations that are given to explain it both in
-_Siddhāntaleśa_[14] and in _Advaita-Brahmasiddhi_ are only cases of
-physical reflection, viz. the reflection of the sun in water, or of the
-sky in water.
-
-II. The limitation theory of the Vedānta holds that the all-pervading
-intelligence must necessarily be limited by mind, etc., so of necessity
-it follows that “the soul” is its limitation. This theory is illustrated
-by giving those common examples in which the Ākāśa (space) though
-unbounded in itself is often spoken of as belonging to a jug or limited
-by the jug and as such appears to fit itself to the shape and form of
-the jug and is thus called _ghaṭāvacchinna ākāśa_, i.e. space as within
-the jug.
-
-Then we have a third school of Vedāntists, which seeks to explain it in
-another way:—The soul is neither a reflection nor a limitation, but just
-as the son of Kuntī was known as the son of Rādhā, so the pure Brahman
-by his nescience is known as the jīva, and like the prince who was
-brought up in the family of a low caste, it is the pure Brahman who by
-his own nescience undergoes birth and death, and by his own nescience is
-again released.[15]
-
-The _Sāṃkhya-sūtra_ also avails itself of the same story in IV. 1,
-“_rājaputtravattattvopadeśāt_,” which Vijñāna Bhikshu explains as
-follows:—A certain king’s son in consequence of his being born under the
-star Gaṇḍa having been expelled from his city and reared by a certain
-forester remains under the idea: “I am a forester.” Having learnt that
-he is alive, a certain minister informs him. “Thou art not a forester,
-thou art a king’s son.” As he, immediately having abandoned the idea of
-being an outcast, betakes himself to his true royal state, saying, “I am
-a king,” so too the soul realises its purity in consequence of
-instruction by some good tutor, to the effect—“Thou, who didst originate
-from the first soul, which manifests itself merely as pure thought, art
-a portion thereof.”
-
-In another place there are two sūtras:—(1) _niḥsaṅge’pi uparāgo
-vivekāt_. (2) _japāsphaṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ_. (1) Though
-it be associated still there is a tingeing through non-discrimination.
-(2) As in the case of the hibiscus and the crystal, there is not a
-tinge, but a fancy. Now it will be seen that all these theories only
-show that the transcendent nature of the union of the principle of pure
-intelligence is very difficult to comprehend. Neither the reflection nor
-the limitation theory can clear the situation from vagueness and
-incomprehensibility, which is rather increased by their physical
-illustrations, for the cit or pure intelligence cannot undergo
-reflection like a physical thing, nor can it be obstructed or limited by
-it. The reflection theory adduced by the _Sāṃkhya-sūtra_,
-“_japāsphiṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ_,” is not an adequate
-explanation. For here the reflection produces only a seeming redness of
-the colourless crystal, which was not what was meant by the Vedāntists
-of the reflection school. But here, though the metaphor is more suitable
-to express the relation of purusha with the prakṛti, the exact nature of
-the relation is more lost sight of than comprehended. Let us now see how
-Patañjali and Vyāsa seek to explain it.
-
-Let me quote a few sūtras of Patañjali and some of the most important
-extracts from the _Bhāshya_ and try, as far as possible, to get the
-correct view:—
-
- (1) _dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā_ II. 6.
-
- (2) _drashṭā dṛśimātraḥ śuddho’pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ_ II. 20.
-
- (3) _tadartha eva drśyasya ātmā_ II. 21.
-
- (4) _kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt_ II. 22.
-
- (5) _Svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṃyogah_ II. 22.
-
- (6) _tadabhāvāt saṃyogābhāvo hānaṃ taddṛśeḥ kaivalyaṃ_ II. 25.
-
- (7) _sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ_ III. 25.
-
- (8) _citerapratisaṃkramāyāstadākārāpattau svabuddhisaṃvedanaṃ_ IV. 22.
-
- (9) _sattvapurushayoratyantāsaṅkīrṇayoḥ pratyayāvśesho bhogaḥ
- parārthatvāt svārthasaṃyamāt purushajñānam_ III. 35.
-
-(1) The Ego-sense is the illusory appearance of the identity of the
-power as perceiver and the power as perceived.
-
-(2) The seer though pure as mere “seeing” yet perceives the forms
-assumed by the psychosis (_buddhi_).
-
-(3) It is for the sake of the purusha that the being of the knowable
-exists.
-
-(4) For the emancipated person the world-phenomena cease to exist, yet
-they are not annihilated since they form a common field of experience
-for other individuals.
-
-(5) The cause of the realisation of the natures of the knowable and
-purusha in consciousness is their mutual contact.
-
-(6) Cessation is the want of mutual contact arising from the destruction
-of ignorance and this is called the state of oneness.
-
-(7) This state of oneness arises out of the equality in purity of the
-purusha and buddhi or sattva.
-
-(8) Personal consciousness arises when the purusha, though in its nature
-unchangeable, is cast into the mould of the psychosis.
-
-(9) Since the mind-objects exist only for the purusha, experience
-consists in the non-differentiation of these two which in their natures
-are absolutely distinct; the knowledge of self arises out of
-concentration on its nature.
-
-Thus in _Yoga-sūtra_, II. 6, dṛik or purusha the seer is spoken of as
-śakti or power as much as the prakṛti itself, and we see that their
-identity is only apparent. Vyāsa in his _Bhāshya_ explains _ekātmatā_
-(unity of nature or identity) as _avibhāgaprāptāviva_, “as if there is
-no difference.” And Pañcaśikha, as quoted in _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, writes:
-“not knowing the purusha beyond the mind to be different therefrom, in
-nature, character and knowledge, etc., a man has the notion of self, in
-the mind through delusion.”
-
-Thus we see that when the mind and purusha are known to be separated,
-the real nature of purusha is realised. This seeming identity is again
-described as that which perceives the particular form of the mind and
-thereby appears, as identical with it though it is not so
-(_pratyayānupaśya—pratyayāni bauddhamanupaśyati tamanupaśyannatadātmāpi
-tadātmaka iva pratibhāti_, _Vāysa-bhāshya_, II. 20).
-
-The purusha thus we see, cognises the phenomena of consciousness after
-they have been formed, and though its nature is different from conscious
-states yet it appears to be the same. Vyāsa in explaining this sūtra
-says that purusha is neither quite similar to the mind nor altogether
-different from it. For the mind (_buddhi_) is always changeful,
-according to the change of the objects that are offered to it; so that
-it may be said to be changeful according as it knows or does not know
-objects; but the purusha is not such, for it always appears as the self,
-being reflected through the mind by which it is thus connected with the
-phenomenal form of knowledge. The notion of self that appears connected
-with all our mental phenomena and which always illumines them is only
-duo to this reflection of purusha in the mind. All phenomenal knowledge
-which has the form of the object can only be transformed into conscious
-knowledge as “I know this,” when it becomes connected with the self or
-purusha. So the purusha may in a way be said to see again what was
-perceived by the mind and thus to impart consciousness by transferring
-its illumination into the mind. The mind suffers changes according to
-the form of the object of cognition, and thus results a state of
-conscious cognition in the shape of “I know it,” when the mind, having
-assumed the shape of an object, becomes connected with the constant
-factor purusha, through the transcendent reflection or identification of
-purusha in the mind. This is what is meant by _pratyayānupaśya_
-reperception of the mind-transformations by purusha, whereby the mind
-which has assumed the shape of any object of consciousness becomes
-intelligent. Even when the mind is without any objective form, it is
-always being seen by purusha. The exact nature of this reflection is
-indeed very hard to comprehend; no physical illustrations can really
-serve to make it clear. And we see that neither the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ nor
-the sūtras offer any such illustrations as Sāṃkhya did. But the
-_Bhāshya_ proceeds to show the points in which the mind may be said to
-differ from purusha, as well as those in which it agrees with it. So
-that though we cannot express it anyhow, we may at least make some
-advance towards conceiving the situation.
-
-Thus the _Bhāshya_ says that the main difference between the mind and
-purusha is that the mind is constantly undergoing modifications, as it
-grasps its objects one by one; for the grasping of an object, the act of
-having a percept is nothing but its own undergoing of different
-modifications, and thus, since an object sometimes comes within the
-grasp of the mind and again disappears in the subconscious as a saṃskāra
-(potency) and again comes into the field of the understanding as smṛti
-(memory), we see that it is pariṇāmi or changing. But purusha is the
-constant seer of the mind when it has an object, as in ordinary forms of
-phenomenal knowledge, or when it has no object as in the state of
-nirodha or cessation. Purusha is unchanging. It is the light which
-remains unchanged amidst all the changing modifications of the mind, so
-that we cannot distinguish purusha separately from the mind. This is
-what is meant by saying _buddheḥ pratisaṃvedī purushaḥ_, i.e. purusha
-reflects or turns into its own light the concepts of mind and thus is
-said to know it. Its knowing is manifested in our consciousness as the
-ever-persistent notion of the self, which is always a constant factor in
-all the phenomena of consciousness. Thus purusha always appears in our
-consciousness as the knowing agent. Truly speaking, however, purusha
-only sees himself; he is not in any way in touch with the mind. He is
-absolutely free from all bondage, absolutely unconnected with prakṛti.
-From the side of appearance he seems only to be the intelligent seer
-imparting consciousness to our conscious-like conception, though in
-reality he remains the seer of himself all the while. The difference
-between purusha and prakṛti will be clear when we see that purusha is
-altogether independent, existing in and for himself, free from any
-bondage whatsoever; but buddhi exists on the other hand for the
-enjoyment and release of purusha. That which exists in and for itself,
-must ever be the selfsame, unchangeable entity, suffering no
-transformations or modifications, for it has no other end owing to which
-it will be liable to change. It is the self-centred, self-satisfied
-light, which never seeks any other end and never leaves itself. But
-prakṛti is not such; it is always undergoing endless, complex
-modifications and as such does not exist for itself but for purusha, and
-is dependent upon him. The mind is unconscious, while purusha is the
-pure light of intelligence, for the three guṇas are all non-intelligent,
-and the mind is nothing but a modification of these three guṇas which
-are all non-intelligent.
-
-But looked at from another point of view, prakṛti is not altogether
-different from purusha; for had it been so how could purusha, which is
-absolutely pure, reperceive the mind-modifications? Thus the _Bhāshya_
-(II. 20) writes:—
-
-“Well then let him be dissimilar. To meet this he says: He is not quite
-dissimilar. Why? Although pure, he sees the ideas after they have come
-into the mind. Inasmuch as purusha cognises the ideas in the form of
-mind-modification, he appears to be, by the act of cognition, the very
-self of the mind although in reality he is not.” As has been said, the
-power of the enjoyer, purusha (_dṛkśakti_), is certainly unchangeable
-and it does not run after every object. In connection with a changeful
-object it appears forever as if it were being transferred to every
-object and as if it were assimilating its modifications. And when the
-modifications of the mind assume the form of the consciousness by which
-it is coloured, they imitate it and look as if they were manifestations
-of purusha’s consciousness unqualified by the modifications of the
-non-intelligent mind.
-
-All our states of consciousness are analysed into two parts—a permanent
-and a changing part. The changing part is the form of our consciousness,
-which is constantly varying according to the constant change of its
-contents. The permanent part is that pure light of intelligence, by
-virtue of which we have the notion of self reflected in our
-consciousness. Now, as this self persists through all the varying
-changes of the objects of consciousness, it is inferred that the light
-which thus shines in our consciousness is unchangeable. Our mind is
-constantly suffering a thousand modifications, but the notion of self is
-the only thing permanent amidst all this change. It is this self that
-imports consciousness to the material parts of our knowledge. All our
-concepts originated from our perception of external material objects.
-Therefore the forms of our concepts which could exactly and clearly
-represent these material objects in their own terms, must be made of a
-stuff which in essence is not different from them. But with the
-reflection of purusha, the soul, the notion of self comes within the
-content of our consciousness, spiritualising, as it were, all our
-concepts and making them conscious and intelligent. Thus this seeming
-identity of purusha and the mind, by which purusha may be spoken of as
-the seer of the concept, appears to the self, which is manifested in
-consciousness by virtue of the seeming reflection. For this is that
-self, or personality, which remains unchanged all through our
-consciousness. Thus our phenomenal intelligent self is partially a
-material reality arising out of the seeming interaction of the spirit
-and the mind. This interaction is the only way by which matter releases
-spirit from its seeming bondage.
-
-But the question arises, how is it that there can even be a seeming
-reflection of purusha in the mind which is altogether non-intelligent?
-How is it possible for the mind to catch a glimpse of purusha, which
-illuminates all the concepts of consciousness, the expression
-“_anupaśya_” meaning that he perceives by imitation (_anukāreṇa
-paśyati_)? How can purusha, which is altogether formless, allow any
-reflection of itself to imitate the form of buddhi, by virtue of which
-it appears as the self—the supreme possessor and knower of all our
-mental conceptions? There must be at least some resemblance between the
-mind and the purusha, to justify in some sense this seeming reflection.
-And we find that the last sūtra of the Vibhūtipāda says:
-_sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ_—which means that when the
-sattva or the preponderating mind-stuff becomes as pure as purusha,
-kaivalya or oneness is attained. This shows that the pure nature of
-sattva has a great resemblance to the pure nature of purusha. So much
-so, that the last stage preceding the state of kaivalya, is almost the
-same as kaivalya itself, when purusha is in himself and there are no
-thoughts to reflect. In this state, we see that the mind can be so pure
-as to reflect exactly the nature of purusha, as he is in himself. This
-state in which the mind becomes as pure as purusha and reflects him in
-his purity, does not materially differ from the state of kaivalya, in
-which purusha is in himself—the only difference being that the mind,
-when it becomes so pure as this, becomes gradually lost in prakṛti and
-cannot again serve to bind purusha.
-
-I cannot refrain here from the temptation of referring to a beautiful
-illustration from Vyāsa, to explain the way in which the mind serves the
-purposes of purusha. _Cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṃ sannidhimātropakāri
-dṛśyatvena svaṃ bhavati purushasya svāminaḥ_ (I. 4), which is explained
-in _Yoga-vārttika_ as follows: _Tathāyaskāntamaṇiḥ svasminneva
-ayaḥsannidhīkaraṇamātrāt śalyarishkarshaṇākhyam upakāram kurvat
-purushasya svāminaḥ svam bhvati bhogasādhanatvāt_, i.e. just as a magnet
-draws iron towards it, though it remains unmoved itself, so the
-mind-modifications become drawn towards purusha, and thereby become
-visible to purusha and serve his purpose.
-
-To summarise: We have seen that something like a union takes place
-between the mind and purusha, i.e. there is a seeming reflection of
-purusha in the mind, simultaneously with its being determined
-conceptually, as a result whereof this reflection of purusha in the
-mind, which is known as the self, becomes united with these conceptual
-determinations of the mind and the former is said to be the perceiver of
-all these determinations. Our conscious personality or self is thus the
-seeming unity of the knowable as the mind in the shape of conceptual or
-judgmental representations with the reflections of purusha in the mind.
-Thus, in the single act of cognition, we have the notion of our own
-personality and the particular conceptual or perceptual representation
-with which this ego identifies itself. The true seer, the pure
-intelligence, the free, the eternal, remains all the while beyond any
-touch of impurity from the mind, though it must be remembered that it is
-its own seeming reflection in the mind that appears as the ego, the
-cogniser of all our states, pleasures and sorrows of the mind and one
-who is the apperceiver of this unity of the seeming reflection—of
-purusha and the determinations of the mind. In all our conscious states,
-there is such a synthetic unity between the determinations of our mind
-and the self, that they cannot be distinguished one from the other—a
-fact which is exemplified in all our cognitions, which are the union of
-the knower and the known. The nature of this reflection is a
-transcendent one and can never be explained by any physical
-illustration. Purusha is altogether different from the mind, inasmuch as
-he is the pure intelligence and is absolutely free, while the latter is
-non-intelligent and dependent on purusha’s enjoyment and release, which
-are the sole causes of its movement. But there is some similarity
-between the two, for how could the mind otherwise catch a seeming
-glimpse of him? It is also said that the pure mind can adapt itself to
-the pure form of purusha; this is followed by the state of kaivalya.
-
-We have discussed the nature of purusha and its general relations with
-the mind. We must now give a few more illustrations. The chief point in
-which purusha of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala differs from the similar
-spiritual principle of Vedānta is, that it regards its soul, not as one,
-but as many. Let us try to discuss this point, in connection with the
-arguments of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine in favour of a separate
-principle of purusha. Thus the _Kārikā_ says: _saṃghātaparārthatvāt
-triguṇādiviparyyayādadhishthānāt purusho’sti bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṃ
-pravṛtteśca_,[16] “Because an assemblage of things is for the sake of
-another; because there must be an entity different from the three guṇas
-and the rest (their modifications); because there must be a
-superintending power; because there must be someone who enjoys; and
-because of (the existence of) active exertion for the sake of
-abstraction or isolation (from the contact with prakṛti) therefore the
-soul exists.” The first argument is from design or teleology by which it
-is inferred that there must be some other simple entity for which these
-complex collocations of things are intended. Thus Gauḍapāda says: “In
-such manner as a bed, which is an assemblage of bedding, props, cotton,
-coverlet and pillows, is for another’s use, not for its own, and its
-several component parts render no mutual service, and it is concluded
-that there is a man who sleeps upon the bed and for whose sake it was
-made; so this world, which is an assemblage of the five elements, is for
-use and there is a soul, for whose enjoyment this body, another’s
-consisting of intellect and the rest, has been produced.”[17]
-
-The _second argument_ is that all the knowable is composed of just three
-elements: first, the element of sattva, or intelligence-stuff, causing
-all manifestations; second, the element of rajas or energy, which is
-ever causing transformations; and third, tamas, or the mass, which
-enables rajas to actualise. Now such a prakṛti, composed of these three
-elements, cannot itself be a seer. For the seer must be always the same
-unchangeable, actionless entity, the ever present, ever constant factor
-in all stages of our consciousness.
-
-_Third argument_: There must be a supreme background of pure
-consciousness, all our co-ordinated basis of experience. This background
-is the pure actionless purusha, reflected in which all our mental states
-become conscious. Davies explains this a little differently, in
-accordance with a simile in the _Tattva-Kaumudī_, _yathā rathādi
-yantrādibhiḥ_, thus: “This idea of Kapila seems to be that the power of
-self-control cannot be predicted of matter, which must be directed or
-controlled for the accomplishment of any purpose, and this controlling
-power must be something external to matter and diverse from it. The
-soul, however, never acts. It only seems to act; and it is difficult to
-reconcile this part of the system with that which gives to the soul a
-controlling force. If the soul is a charioteer, it must be an active
-force.” But Davies here commits the mistake of carrying the simile too
-far. The comparison of the charioteer and the chariot holds good, to the
-extent that the chariot can take a particular course only when there is
-a particular purpose for the charioteer to perform. The motion of the
-chariot is fulfilled only when it is connected with the living person of
-the charioteer, whose purpose it must fulfil.
-
-_Fourth argument_: Since prakṛti is non-intelligent, there must be one
-who enjoys its pains and pleasures. The emotional and conceptual
-determinations of such feelings are aroused in consciousness by the
-seeming reflection of the light of purusha.
-
-_Fifth argument_: There is a tendency in all persons to move towards the
-oneness of purusha, to be achieved by liberation; there must be one for
-whose sake the modifications of buddhi are gradually withheld, and a
-reverse process set up, by which they return to their original cause
-prakṛti and thus liberate purusha. It is on account of this reverse
-tendency of prakṛti to release purusha that a man feels prompted to
-achieve his liberation as the highest consummation of his moral ideal.
-
-Thus having proved the existence of purusha, the _Kārikā_ proceeds to
-prove his plurality: “_janmamaraṇakaraṇānāṃ pratiniyamādayugapat
-pravṛtteśca purushabahutvaṃ siddhaṃ traiguṇyaviparyyayācca_.” “From
-the individual allotment of birth, death and the organs; from
-diversity of occupations and from the different conditions of the
-three guṇas, it is proved that there is a plurality of souls.” In
-other words, since with the birth of one individual, all are not born;
-since with the death of one, all do not die; and since each individual
-has separate sense organs for himself; and since all beings do not
-work at the same time in the same manner; and since the qualities of
-the different guṇas are possessed differently by different
-individuals, purushas are many. Patañjali, though he does not infer
-the plurality of purushas in this way, yet holds the view of the
-sūtra, _kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt_.
-“Although destroyed in relation to him whose objects have been
-achieved, it is not destroyed, being common to others.”
-
-Davies, in explaining the former _Kārikā_, says: “There is, however, the
-difficulty that the soul is not affected by the three guṇas. How can
-their various modifications prove the individuality of souls in
-opposition to the Vedāntist doctrine, that all souls are only portions
-of the one, an infinitely extended monad?”
-
-This question is the most puzzling in the Sāṃkhya doctrine. But careful
-penetration of the principles of Sāṃkhya-Yoga would make clear to us
-that this is a necessary and consistent outcome of the Sāṃkhya view of a
-dualistic universe.
-
-For if it is said that purusha is one and we have the notion of
-different selves by his reflection into different minds, it follows that
-such notions as self, or personality, are false. For the only true being
-is the one, purusha. So the knower being false, the known also becomes
-false; the knower and the known having vanished, everything is reduced
-to that which we can in no way conceive. It may be argued that according
-to the Sāṃkhya philosophy also, the knower is false, for the pure
-purusha as such is not in any way connected with prakṛti. But even then
-it must be observed that the Sāṃkhya-Yoga view does not hold that the
-knower is false but analyses the nature of the ego and says that it is
-due to the seeming unity of the mind and purusha, both of which are
-reals in the strictest sense of the term. Purusha is there justly called
-the knower. He sees and simultaneously with this, there is a
-modification of buddhi (mind); this seeing becomes joined with this
-modification of buddhi and thus arises the ego, who perceives that
-particular form of the modification of buddhi. Purusha always remains
-the knower. Buddhi suffers modifications and at the same time catches a
-glimpse of the light of purusha, so that contact (_saṃyoga_) of purusha
-and prakṛti occurs at one and the same point of time, in which there is
-unity of the reflection of purusha and the particular transformation of
-buddhi.
-
-The knower, the ego and the knowable, are none of them false in the
-Sāṃkhya-Yoga system at the stage preceding kaivalya, when buddhi becomes
-as pure as purusha; its modification resembles the exact form of purusha
-and then purusha knows himself in his true nature in buddhi; after which
-buddhi vanishes. The Vedānta has to admit the modifications of māyā, but
-must at the same time hold it to be unreal. The Vedānta says that māyā
-is as beginningless as prakṛti yet has an ending with reference to the
-released person as the buddhi of the Sāṃkhyists.
-
-But according to the Vedānta philosophy, knowledge of ego is only false
-knowledge—an illusion as many imposed upon the formless Brahman. Māyā,
-according to the Vedāntist, can neither be said to exist nor to
-non-exist. It is _anirvācyā_, i.e. can never be described or defined.
-Such an unknown and unknowable māyā causes the Many of the world by
-reflection upon the Brahman. But according to the Sāṃkhya doctrine,
-prakṛti is as real as purusha himself. Prakṛti and purusha are two
-irreducible metaphysical remainders whose connection is beginningless
-(_anādisaṃyoga_). But this connection is not unreal in the Vedānta sense
-of the term. We see that according to the Vedānta system, all notions of
-ego or personality are false and are originated by the illusive action
-of the māyā, so that when they ultimately vanish there are no other
-remainders. But this is not the case with Sāṃkhya, for as purusha is the
-real seer, his cognitions cannot be dismissed as unreal, and so purushas
-or knowers as they appear to us to be, must be held real. As prakṛti is
-not the māyā of the Vedāntist (the nature of whose influence over the
-spiritual principle cannot be determined) we cannot account for the
-plurality of purushas by supposing that one purusha is being reflected
-into many minds and generating the many egos. For in that case it will
-be difficult to explain the plurality of their appearances in the minds
-(buddhis). For if there be one spiritual principle, how should we
-account for the supposed plurality of the buddhis? For we should rather
-expect to find one buddhi and not many to serve the supposed one
-purusha, and this will only mean that there can be only one ego, his
-enjoyment and release. Supposing for argument’s sake that there are many
-buddhis and one purusha, which reflected in them, is the cause of the
-plurality of selves, then we cannot see how prakṛti is moving for the
-enjoyment and release of one purusha; it would rather appear to be moved
-for the sake of the enjoyment and release of the reflected or unreal
-self. For purusha is not finally released with the release of any number
-of particular individual selves. For it may be released with reference
-to one individual but remain bound to others. So prakṛti would not
-really be moved in this hypothetical case for the sake of purusha, but
-for the sake of the reflected selves only. If we wish to avoid the said
-difficulties, then with the release of one purusha, all purushas will
-have to be released. For in the supposed theory there would not really
-be many different purushas, but the one purusha appearing as many, so
-that with his release all the other so-called purushas must be released.
-We see that if it is the enjoyment (_bhoga_) and salvation (_apavarga_)
-of one purusha which appear as so many different series of enjoyments
-and emancipations, then with his experiences all should have the same
-experiences. With his birth and death, all should be born or all should
-die at once. For, indeed, it is the experiences of one purusha which
-appear in all the seeming different purushas. And in the other
-suppositions there is neither emancipation nor enjoyment by purusha at
-all. For there, it is only the illusory self that enjoys or releases
-himself. By his release no purusha is really released at all. So the
-fundamental conception of prakṛti as moving for the sake of the
-enjoyment and release of purusha has to be abandoned.
-
-So we see that from the position in which Sāṃkhya and Yoga stood, this
-plurality of the purushas was the most consistent thing that they could
-think of. Any compromise with the Vedānta doctrine here would have
-greatly changed the philosophical aspect and value of the Sāṃkhya
-philosophy. As the purushas are nothing but pure intelligences they can
-as well be all-pervading though many. But there is another objection
-that, since number is a conception of the phenomenal mind, how then can
-it be applied to the purushas which are said to be many?[18] But that
-difficulty remains unaltered even if we regard the purusha as one. When
-we go into the domain of metaphysics and try to represent Reality with
-the symbols of our phenomenal conceptions we have really to commit
-almost a violence towards it. But we must perforce do this in all our
-attempts to express in our own terms that pure, inexpressible, free
-illumination which exists in and for itself beyond the range of any
-mediation by the concepts or images of our mind. So we see that Sāṃkhya
-was not inconsistent in holding the doctrine of the plurality of the
-purushas. Patañjali does not say anything about it, since he is more
-anxious to discuss other things connected with the presupposition of the
-plurality of purusha. Thus he speaks of it only in one place as quoted
-above and says that though for a released person this world disappears
-altogether, still it remains unchanged in respect to all the other
-purushas.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER III
- THE REALITY OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD
-
-
-We may now come to the attempt of Yoga to prove the reality of an
-external world as against the idealistic Buddhists. In sūtra 12 of the
-chapter on kaivalya we find: “The past and the future exist in reality,
-since all qualities of things manifest themselves in these three
-different ways. The future is the manifestation which is to be. The past
-is the appearance which has been experienced. The present is that which
-is in active operation. It is this threefold substance which is the
-object of knowledge. If it did not exist in reality, there would not
-exist a knowledge thereof. How could there be knowledge in the absence
-of anything knowable? For this reason the past and present in reality
-exist.”[19]
-
-So we see that the present holding within itself the past and the future
-exists in reality. For the past though it has been negated has really
-been preserved and kept in the present, and the future also though it
-has not made its appearance yet exists potentially in the present. So,
-as we know the past and the future worlds in the present, they both
-exist and subsist in the present. That which once existed cannot die,
-and that which never existed cannot come to be (_nāstyasataḥ saṃbhavaḥ
-na cāsti sato vināsāḥ_, _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, V. 12). So the past has not
-been destroyed but has rather shifted its position and hidden itself in
-the body of the present, and the future that has not made its appearance
-exists in the present only in a potential form. It cannot be argued, as
-Vācaspati says, that because the past and the future are not present
-therefore they do not exist, for if the past and future do not exist how
-can there be a present also, since its existence also is only relative?
-So all the three exist as truly as any one of them, and the only
-difference among them is the different way or mode of their existence.
-
-He next proceeds to refute the arguments of those idealists who hold
-that since the external knowables never exist independently of our
-knowledge of them, their separate external existence as such may be
-denied. Since it is by knowledge alone that the external knowables can
-present themselves to us we may infer that there is really no knowable
-external reality apart from knowledge of it, just as we see that in
-dream-states knowledge can exist apart from the reality of any external
-world.
-
-So it may be argued that there is, indeed, no external reality as
-it appears to us. The Buddhists, for example, hold that a blue
-thing and knowledge of it as blue are identical owing to the maxim
-that things which are invariably perceived together are one
-(_sahopalambhaniyamādabhedo nīlataddhiyoḥ_). So they say that
-external reality is not different from our idea of it. To this it
-may be replied that if, as you say, external reality is identical
-with my ideas and there is no other external reality existing as
-such outside my ideas, why then does it appear as existing apart,
-outside and independent of my ideas? The idealists have no basis
-for the denial of external reality, and for their assertion that
-it is only the creation of our imagination like experiences in
-dreams. Even our ideas carry with them the notion that reality
-exists outside our mental experiences. If all our percepts and
-notions as this and that arise only by virtue of the influence of
-the external world, how can they deny the existence of the
-external world as such? The objective world is present by its own
-power. How then can this objective world be given up on the
-strength of mere logical or speculative abstraction?
-
-Thus the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 14, says: “There is no object without the
-knowledge of it, but there is knowledge as imagined in dreams without
-any corresponding object; thus the reality of external things is like
-that of dream-objects, mere imagination of the subject and unreal. How
-can they who say so be believed? Since they first suppose that the
-things which present themselves to us by their own force do so only on
-account of the invalid and delusive imagination of the intellect, and
-then deny the reality of the external world on the strength of such an
-imaginary supposition of their own.”
-
-The external world has generated knowledge of itself by its own
-presentative power (_arthena svakīyayāgrāhyaśaktyā vijñānamajani_), and
-has thus caused itself to be represented in our ideas, and we have no
-right to deny it.[20] Commenting on the _Bhāshya_ IV. 14, Vācaspati says
-that the method of agreement applied by the Buddhists by their
-_sahopalambhaniyama_ (maxim of simultaneous revelation) may possibly be
-confuted by an application of the method of difference. The method of
-agreement applied by the idealists when put in proper form reads thus:
-“Wherever there is knowledge there is external reality, or rather every
-case of knowledge agrees with or is the same as every case of the
-presence of external reality, so knowledge is the cause of the presence
-of the external reality, i.e. the external world depends for its reality
-on our knowledge or ideas and owes its origin or appearance as such to
-them.” But Vācaspati says that this application of the method of
-agreement is not certain, for it cannot be corroborated by the method of
-difference. For the statement that every case of absence of knowledge is
-also a case of absence of external reality cannot be proved, i.e. we
-cannot prove that the external reality does not exist when we have no
-knowledge of it (_sahopalambhaniyamaśca vedyatvañca hetū
-sandigdhavyatirekatayānaikāntikau_) IV. 14.
-
-Describing the nature of grossness and externality, the attributes of
-the external world, he says that grossness means the pervading of more
-portions of space than one, i.e. grossness means extension, and
-externality means being related to separate space, i.e. co-existence in
-space. Thus we see that extension and co-existence in space are the two
-fundamental qualities of the gross external world. Now an idea can never
-be said to possess them, for it cannot be said that an idea has extended
-into more spaces than one and yet co-existed separately in separate
-places. An idea cannot be said to exist with other ideas in space and to
-extend in many points of space at one and the same time. To avoid this
-it cannot be said that there may be plurality of ideas so that some may
-co-exist and others may extend in space. For co-existence and extension
-can never be asserted of our ideas, since +hey are very fine and subtle,
-and can be known only at the time of their individual operation, at
-which time, however, other ideas may be quite latent and unknown.
-Imagination has no power to negate their reality, for the sphere of
-imagination is quite distinct from the sphere of external reality, and
-it can never be applied to an external reality to negate it. Imagination
-is a mental function, and as such has no touch with the reality outside,
-which it can by no means negate.
-
-Further it cannot be said that, because grossness and externality can
-abide neither in the external world nor in our ideas, they are therefore
-false. For this falsity cannot be thought as separable from our ideas,
-for in that case our ideas would be as false as the false itself. The
-notion of externality and grossness pervades all our ideas, and if they
-are held to be false, no true thing can be known by our ideas and they
-therefore become equally false.
-
-Again, knowledge and the external world can never be said to be
-identical because they happen to be presented together. For the method
-of agreement cannot by itself prove identity. Knowledge and the knowable
-external world may be independently co-existing things like the notions
-of existence and non-existence. Both co-exist independently of one
-another. It is therefore clear enough, says Vācaspati, that the
-certainty arrived at by perception, which gives us a direct knowledge of
-things, can never be rejected on the strength of mere logical
-abstraction or hair-splitting discussion.
-
-We further see, says Patañjali, that the thing remains the same though
-the ideas and feelings of different men may change differently about
-it.[21] Thus A, B, C may perceive the same identical woman and may feel
-pleasure, pain or hatred. We see that the same common thing generates
-different feelings and ideas in different persons; external reality
-cannot be said to owe its origin to the idea or imagination of any one
-man, but exists independently of any person’s imagination in and for
-itself. For if it be due to the imagination of any particular man, it is
-his own idea which as such cannot generate the same ideas in another
-man. So it must be said that the external reality is what we perceive it
-outside.
-
-There are, again, others who say that just as pleasure and pain
-arise along with our ideas and must be said to be due to them so the
-objective world also must be said to have come into existence along
-with our ideas. The objective world therefore according to these
-philosophers has no external existence either in the past or in the
-future, but has only a momentary existence in the present due to our
-ideas about it. That much existence only are they ready to attribute
-to external objects which can be measured by the idea of the moment.
-The moment I have an idea of a thing, the thing rises into existence
-and may be said to exist only for that moment and as soon as the
-idea disappears the object also vanishes, for when it cannot be
-presented to me in the form of ideas it can be said to exist in no
-sense. But this argument cannot hold good, for if the objective
-reality should really depend upon the idea of any individual man,
-then the objective reality corresponding to an idea of his ought to
-cease to exist either with the change of his idea, or when he
-directs attention to some other thing, or when he restrains his mind
-from all objects of thought. Now, then, if it thus ceases to exist,
-how can it again spring into existence when the attention of the
-individual is again directed towards it? Again, all parts of an
-object can never be seen all at once. Thus supposing that the front
-side of a thing is visible, then the back side which cannot be seen
-at the time must not be said to exist at all. So if the back side
-does not exist, the front side also can as well be said not to exist
-(_ye cāsyānupasthitā bhāgaste cāsya na syurevaṃ nāsti pṛshṭhamiti
-udaramapi na gṛhyeta._ _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 16). Therefore it must
-be said that there is an independent external reality which is the
-common field of observation for all souls in general; and there are
-also separate “Cittas” for separate individual souls (_tasmāt
-svatantro’rthaḥ sarvapurusasādhdāraṇaḥ svatantrāṇi ca cittāni
-pratipurushaṃ, pravarttante_, _ibid._). And all the experiences of
-the purusha result from the connection of this “Citta” (mind) with
-the external world.
-
-Now from this view of the reality of the external world we are
-confronted with another question—what is the ground which underlies the
-manifold appearance of this external world which has been proved to be
-real? What is that something which is thought as the vehicle of such
-qualities as produce in us the ideas? What is that self-subsistent
-substratum which is the basis of so many changes, actions and reactions
-that we always meet in the external world? Locke called this substratum
-substance and regarded it as unknown, but said that though it did not
-follow that it was a product of our own subjective thought yet it did
-not at the same time exist without us. Hume, however, tried to explain
-everything from the standpoint of association of ideas and denied all
-notions of substantiality. We know that Kant, who was much influenced by
-Hume, agreed to the existence of some such unknown reality which he
-called the Thing-in-itself, the nature of which, however, was absolutely
-unknowable, but whose influence was a great factor in all our
-experiences.
-
-But the _Bhāshya_ tries to penetrate deeper into the nature of this
-substratum or substance and says: _dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ,
-dharmivikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā prapañcyate_, _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III.
-13. The characteristic qualities form the very being itself of the
-characterised, and it is the change of the characterised alone that is
-detailed by means of the characteristic. To understand thoroughly the
-exact significance of this statement it will be necessary to take a more
-detailed review of what has already been said about the guṇas. We know
-that all things mental or physical are formed by the different
-collocations of sattva of the nature of illumination (_prakāśa_),
-rajas—the energy or mutative principle of the nature of action
-(_kriyā_)—and tamas—the obstructive principle of the nature of inertia
-(_sthiti_) which in their original and primordial state are too fine to
-be apprehended (_gunānāṃparamaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati_,
-_Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 13). These different guṇas combine in various
-proportions to form the manifold universe of the knowable, and thus are
-made the objects of our cognition. Through combining in different
-proportions they become, in the words of Dr. B. N. Seal, “more and more
-differentiated, determinate and coherent,” and thus make themselves
-cognisable, yet they never forsake their own true nature as the guṇas.
-So we see that they have thus got two natures, one in which they remain
-quite unchanged as guṇas, and another in which they collocate and
-combine themselves in various ways and thus appear under the veil of a
-multitude of qualities and states of the manifold knowable (_te
-vyaktasūkshmā guṇātmānaḥ_ [IV. 13] ... _sarvamidaṃ guṇānāṃ
-sanniveśaviśeshamātramiti paramārthato guṇātmānaḥ_, _Bhāshya_, _ibid._).
-
-Now these guṇas take three different courses of development from the ego
-or ahaṃkāra according to which the ego or ahaṃkāra may be said to be
-sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa. Thus from the sāttvika side of the ego by a
-preponderance of sattva the five knowledge-giving senses, e.g. hearing,
-sight, touch, taste and smell are derived. From the rajas side of ego by
-a preponderance of rajas the five active senses of speech, etc., are
-derived. From the tamas side of ego or ahaṃkāra by a preponderance of
-tamas are derived the five tanmātras. From which again by a
-preponderance of tamas the atoms of the five gross elements—earth,
-water, fire, air and ether are derived.
-
-In the derivation of these it must be remembered that all the three
-guṇas are conjointly responsible. In the derivation of a particular
-product one of the guṇas may indeed be predominant, and thus may bestow
-the prominent characteristic of that product, but the other two guṇas
-are also present there and perform their functions equally well. Their
-opposition does not withhold the progress of evolution but rather helps
-it. All the three combine together in varying degrees of mutual
-preponderance and thus together help the process of evolution to produce
-a single product. Thus we see that though the guṇas are three, they
-combine to produce on the side of perception, the senses, such as those
-of hearing, sight, etc.; and on the side of the knowable, the individual
-tanmātras of gandha, rasa, rūpa, sparśa and śabda. The guṇas composing
-each tanmātra again harmoniously combine with each other with a
-preponderance of tamas to produce the atoms of each gross element. Thus
-in each combination one class of guṇas remains prominent, while the
-others remain dependent upon it but help it indirectly in the evolution
-of that particular product.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER IV
- THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION
-
-
-The evolution which we have spoken of above may be characterised in two
-ways: (1) That arising from modifications or products of some other
-cause which are themselves capable of originating other products like
-themselves; (2) That arising from causes which, though themselves
-derived, yet cannot themselves be the cause of the origination of other
-existences like themselves. The former may be said to be slightly
-specialised (_aviśesha_) and the latter thoroughly specialised
-(_viśesha_).
-
-Thus we see that from prakṛti comes mahat, from mahat comes ahaṃkāra,
-and from ahaṃkāra, as we have seen above, the evolution takes three
-different courses according to the preponderance of sattva, rajas and
-tamas originating the cognitive and conative senses and manas, the
-superintendent of them both on one side and the tanmātras on the other.
-These tanmātras again produce the five gross elements. Now when ahaṃkāra
-produces the tanmātras or the senses, or when the tanmātras produce the
-five gross elements, or when ahaṃkāra itself is produced from buddhi or
-mahat, it is called _tattvāntara-pariṇāma_, i.e. the production of a
-different tattva or substance.
-
-Thus in the case of _tattvāntara-pariṇāma_ (as for example when the
-tanmātras are produced from ahaṃkāra), it must be carefully noticed
-that the state of being involved in the tanmātras is altogether
-different from the state of being of ahaṃkāra; it is not a mere change
-of quality but a change of existence or state of being.[22] Thus
-though the tanmātras are derived from ahaṃkāra the traces of ahaṃkāra
-cannot be easily followed in them. This derivation is not such that
-the ahaṃkāra remains principally unchanged and there is only a change
-of quality in it, but it is a different existence altogether, having
-properties which differ widely from those of ahaṃkāra. So it is called
-tattvāntara-pariṇāma, i.e. evolution of different categories of
-existence.
-
-Now the evolution that the senses and the five gross elements can
-undergo can never be of this nature, for they are viśeshas, or
-substances which have been too much specialised to allow the evolution
-of any other substance of a different grade of existence from
-themselves. With them there is an end of all emanation. So we see that
-the aviśeshas or slightly specialised emanations are those which being
-themselves but emanations can yet yield other emanations from
-themselves. Thus we see that mahat, ahaṃkāra and the five tanmātras are
-themselves emanations, as well as the source of other emanations. Mahat,
-however, though it is undoubtedly an aviśesha or slightly specialised
-emanation, is called by another technical name liṅga or sign, for from
-the state of mahat, the prakṛti from which it must have emanated may be
-inferred. Prakṛti, however, from which no other primal state is
-inferable, is called the aliṅga or that which is not a sign for the
-existence of any other primal and more unspecialised state. In one sense
-all the emanations can be with justice called the liṅgas or states of
-existence standing as the sign by which the causes from which they have
-emanated can be directly inferred. Thus in this sense the five gross
-elements maybe called the liṅga of the tanmātras, and they again of the
-ego, and that again of the mahat, for the unspecialised ones are
-inferred from their specialised modifications or emanations. But this
-technical name liṅga is reserved for the mahat from which the aliṅga or
-prakṛti can be inferred. This prakṛti, however, is the eternal state
-which is not an emanation itself but the basis and source of all other
-emanations.
-
-The liṅga and the aliṅga have thus been compared in the _Kārikā_:
-
- “_hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekāśritaṃ liṅgaṃ
- sāvayavam paratantraṃ vyaktaṃ viparītamavyaktaṃ_.”
-
-The liṅga has a cause, it is neither eternal nor universal, but mobile,
-multiform, dependent, determinate, and possesses parts, whereas the
-aliṅga is the reverse. The aliṅga or prakṛti, however, being the cause
-has some characteristics in common with its liṅgas as distinguished from
-the purushas, which are altogether different from it.
-
-Thus the _Kārikā_ says:
-
- “_triguṇamaviveki vishayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṃ prasavadharmi
- vyaktaṃ tathā pradhānaṃ tadviparītastathā pumān_.”
-
-The manifested and the unmanifested _pradhāna_ or _prakṛti_ are both
-composed of the three guṇas, non-intelligent, objective, universal,
-unconscious and productive. Soul in these respects is the reverse. We
-have seen above that prakṛti is the state of equilibrium of the guṇas,
-which can in no way be of any use to the purushas, and is thus held to
-be eternal, though all other states are held to be non-eternal as they
-are produced for the sake of the purushas.
-
-The state of prakṛti is that in which the guṇas completely overpower
-each other and the characteristics (_dharma_) and the characterised
-(_dharmī_) are one and the same.
-
-Evolution is thus nothing but the manifestation of change, mutation, by
-the energy of rajas. The rajas is the one mediating activity that breaks
-up all compounds, builds up new ones and initiates original
-modifications. Whenever in any particular combination the proportion of
-sattva, rajas or tamas alters, as a condition of this alteration, there
-is the dominating activity of rajas by which the old equilibrium is
-destroyed and another equilibrium established; this in its turn is again
-disturbed and again another equilibrium is restored. Now the
-manifestation of this latent activity of rajas is what is called change
-or evolution. In the external world the time that is taken by a paramāṇu
-or atom to move from its place is identical with a unit of change.[23]
-Now an atom will be that quantum which is smaller or finer than that
-point or limit at which it can in any way be perceived by the senses.
-Atoms are therefore mere points without magnitude or dimension, and the
-unit of time or moment (_kshaṇa_) that is taken up in changing the
-position of these atoms is identical with one unit of change or
-evolution. The change or evolution in the external world must therefore
-be measured by these units of spatial motion of the atoms; i.e. an atom
-changing its own unit of space is the measure of all physical change or
-evolution.
-
-Each unit of time (_kshaṇa_) corresponding to this change of an atom of
-its own unit of space is the unit-measure of change. This instantaneous
-succession of time as discrete moments one following the other is the
-notion of the series of moments or pure and simple succession. Now the
-notion of these discrete moments is the notion of time. Even the notion
-of succession is one that does not really exist but is imagined, for a
-moment comes into being just when the moment just before had passed so
-that they have never taken place together. Thus Vyāsa in III. 52, says:
-“_kshaṇatatkramayornāsti vastusamāhāraḥ iti buddhisamāhāraḥ
-muhūrttāhorātrātrādayaḥ_.” _Sa tvayaṃ kālaḥ vastuśūnyo’pi
-buddhinirmāṇaḥ._ The moments and their succession do not belong to the
-category of actual things; the hour, the day and night, are all
-aggregates of mental conceptions. This time which is not a substantive
-reality in itself, but is only a mental concept, represented to us
-through linguistic usage, appears to ordinary minds as if it were an
-objective reality.
-
-So the conception of time as discrete moments is the real one, whereas
-the conception of time as successive or as continuous is unreal, being
-only due to the imagination of our empirical and relative consciousness.
-Thus Vācaspati further explains it. A moment is real (_vastupatitaḥ_)
-and is the essential element of the notion of succession. Succession
-involves the notion of change of moments, and the moment is called time
-by those sages who know what time is. Two moments cannot happen
-together. There cannot be any succession of two simultaneous things.
-Succession means the notion of change involving a preceding and a
-succeeding moment. Thus there is only the present moment and there are
-no preceding and later moments. Therefore there cannot be any union of
-these moments. The past and the future moments may be said to exist only
-if we speak of past and future as identical with the changes that have
-become latent and others that exist potentially but are not manifested.
-Thus in one moment, the whole world suffers changes. All these
-characteristics are associated with the thing as connected with one
-particular moment.[24]
-
-So we find here that time is essentially discrete, being only the
-moments of our cognitive life. As two moments never co-exist, there is
-no succession or continuous time. They exist therefore only in our
-empirical consciousness which cannot take the real moments in their
-discrete nature but connects the one with the other and thereby imagines
-either succession or continuous time.
-
-Now we have said before, that each unit of change or evolution is
-measured by this unit of time _kshaṇa_ or moment; or rather the units of
-change are expressed in terms of these moments or _kshaṇas_. Of course
-in our ordinary consciousness these moments of change cannot be grasped,
-but they can be reasonably inferred. For at the end of a certain period
-we observe a change in a thing; now this change, though it becomes
-appreciable to us after a long while, was still going on every moment,
-so, in this way, the succession of evolution or change cannot be
-distinguished from the moments coming one after another. Thus the
-_Yoga-sūtra_ says in IV. 33: “Succession involving a course of changes
-is associated with the moments.” Succession as change of moments is
-grasped only by a course of changes. A cloth which has not passed
-through a course of changes through a series of moments cannot be found
-old all at once at any time. Even a new cloth kept with good care
-becomes old after a time. This is what is called the termination of a
-course of changes and by it the succession of a course of changes can be
-grasped. Even before a thing is old there can be inferred a sequence of
-the subtlest, subtler, subtle, grossest, grosser and gross changes
-(_Tattvavaiśāradī_, IV. 33).[25]
-
-Now as we have seen that the unit of time is indistinguishable from the
-unit of change or evolution, and as these moments are not co-existing
-but one follows the other, we see that there is no past or future
-existing as a continuous before or past, and after or future. It is the
-present that really exists as the manifested moment; the past has been
-conserved as sublatent and the future as the latent. So the past and
-future exist in the present, the former as one which has already had its
-manifestation and is thus conserved in the fact of the manifestation of
-the present. For the manifestation of the present as such could not have
-taken place until the past had already been manifested; so the
-manifestation of the present is a concrete product involving within
-itself the manifestation of the past; in a similar way it may be said
-that the manifestation of the present contains within itself the seed or
-the unmanifested state of the future, for if this had not been the case,
-the future never could have happened. So we see that the whole world
-undergoes a change at one unit point of time, and not only that but it
-conserves within itself all the past and future history of cosmic
-evolution.
-
-We have pointed out before that the manifestation of the rajas or energy
-as action is what is called change. Now this manifestation of action can
-only take place when equilibrium of a particular collocation of guṇas is
-disturbed and the rajas arranges or collocates with itself the sattva
-and tamas, the whole group being made intelligible by the inherent
-sattva. So the cosmic history is only the history of the different
-collocations of the guṇas. Now, therefore, if it is possible for a seer
-to see in one vision the possible number of combinations that the rajas
-will have with sattva and tamas, he can in one moment perceive the past,
-present or future of this cosmic evolutionary process; for with such
-minds all past and future are concentrated at one point of vision which
-to a person of ordinary empirical consciousness appears only in the
-series. For the empirical consciousness, impure as it is, it is
-impossible that all the powers and potencies of sattva and rajas should
-become manifested at one point of time; it has to take things only
-through its senses and can thus take the changes only as the senses are
-affected by them; whereas, on the other hand, if its power of knowing
-was not restricted to the limited scope of the senses, it could have
-grasped all the possible collocations or changes all at once. Such a
-perceiving mind whose power of knowing is not narrowed by the senses can
-perceive all the finest modifications or changes that are going on in
-the body of a substance (see _Yoga-sūtra_, III. 53).
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER V
- THE EVOLUTION OF THE CATEGORIES
-
-
-The Yoga analysis points to the fact that all our cognitive states are
-distinguished from their objects by the fact of their being intelligent.
-This intelligence is the constant factor which persists amidst all
-changes of our cognitive states. We are passing continually from one
-state to another without any rest, but in this varying change of these
-states we are never divested of intelligence. This fact of intelligence
-is therefore neither the particular possession of any one of these
-states nor that of the sum of these states; for if it is not the
-possession of any one of these states it cannot be the possession of the
-sum of these states. In the case of the released person again there is
-no mental state, but the self-shining intelligence. So Yoga regarded
-this intelligence as quite distinct from the so-called mental states
-which became intelligent by coming in connection with this intelligence.
-The actionless, absolutely pure and simple intelligence it called the
-purusha.
-
-Yoga tacitly assumed a certain kind of analysis of the nature of these
-mental states which sought to find out, if possible, the nature of their
-constituent elements or moments of existence. Now in analysing the
-different states of our mind we find that a particular content of
-thought is illuminated and then passed over. The ideas rise, are
-illuminated and pass away. Thus they found that “movement” was one of
-the principal elements that constituted the substance of our thoughts.
-Thought as such is always moving. This principle of movement, mutation
-or change, this energy, they called rajas.
-
-Now apart from this rajas, thought when seen as divested of its sensuous
-contents seems to exhibit one universal mould or form of knowledge which
-assumes the form of all the sensuous contents that are presented to it.
-It is the one universal of all our particular concepts or ideas—the
-basis or substratum of all the different shapes imposed upon itself, the
-pure and simple. Sattva in which there is no particularity is that
-element of our thought which, resembling purusha most, can attain its
-reflection within itself and thus makes the unconscious mental states
-intelligible. All the contents of our thought are but modes and
-limitations of this universal form and are thus made intelligible. It is
-the one principle of intelligibility of all our conscious states.
-
-Now our intellectual life consists in a series of shining ideas or
-concepts; concepts after concepts shine forth in the light of the pure
-intelligence and pass away. But each concept is but a limitation of the
-pure shining universal of our knowledge which underlies all its changing
-modes or modifications of concepts or judgments. This is what is called
-pure knowledge in which there is neither the knower nor the known. This
-pure object—subjectless knowledge differs from the pure intelligence or
-purusha only in this that later on it is liable to suffer various
-modifications, as the ego, the senses, and the infinite percepts and
-concepts, etc., connected therewith, whereas the pure intelligence
-remains ever pure and changeless and is never the substratum of any
-change. At this stage sattva, the intelligence-stuff, is prominent and
-rajas and tamas are altogether suppressed. It is for this reason that
-the buddhi or mind is often spoken of as the sattva. Being an absolute
-preponderance of sattva it has nothing else to manifest, but it is its
-pure-shining self. Both tamas and rajas being mostly suppressed they
-cannot in any way affect the effulgent nature of this pure shining of
-contentless knowledge in which there is neither the knower nor the
-known.
-
-But it must be remembered that it is holding suspended as it were within
-itself the elements of rajas and tamas which cannot manifest themselves
-owing to the preponderance of the sattva.
-
-This notion of pure contentless consciousness is immediate and abstract
-and as such is at once mediated by other necessary phases. Thus we see
-that this pure contentless universal consciousness is the same as the
-ego-universal (_asmitāmātra_). For this contentless universal
-consciousness is only another name for the contentless unlimited,
-infinite of the ego-universal. A quotation from Fichte may here be
-useful as a comparison. Thus he says in the introduction to his _Science
-of Ethics_: “How an object can ever become a subject, or how a being can
-ever become an object of representation: this curious change will never
-be explained by anyone who does not find a point where the objective and
-subjective are not distinguished at all, but are altogether one. Now
-such a point is established by, and made the starting point of our
-system. This point is the Egohood, the Intelligence, Reason, or whatever
-it may be named.”[26] The _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 19, describes it as
-_liṅgamātram mahattatvaṃ sattāmātre mahati ātmani_, and again in I. 36
-we find it described as the waveless ocean, peaceful infinite pure
-egohood. This obscure egohood is known merely as being. This mahat has
-also been spoken of by Vijñāna Bhikshu as the manas, or mind, as it has
-the function of assimilation (_niścaya_). Now what we have already said
-about mahat will, we hope, make it clear that this mahat is the last
-limit at which the subject and the object can be considered as one
-indistinguishable point which is neither the one nor the other, but the
-source of both.
-
-This buddhi is thus variously called _mahat_, _asmitāmātra_, _manas_,
-_sattva_, _buddhi_ and _liṅga_, according to the aspects from which this
-state is observed.
-
-This state is called mahat as it is the most universal thing conceivable
-and the one common source from which all other things originate.
-
-Now this phase of sattva or pure shining naturally passes into the other
-phase, that of the Ego as knower or Ego as subject. The first phase as
-mahat or asmitāmātra was the state in which the sattva was predominant
-and the rajas and tamas were in a suppressed condition. The next moment
-is that in which the rajas comes uppermost, and thus the ego as the
-subject of all cognition—the subject I—the knower of all the mental
-states—is derived. The contentless subject-objectless “I” is the passive
-sattva aspect of the buddhi catching the reflection of the spirit of
-purusha.
-
-In its active aspect, however, it feels itself one with the spirit and
-appears as the ego or subject which knows, feels and wills. Thus
-Patañjali says, in II. 6: _dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā_, i.e. the
-seeming identity of the seer and the perceiving capacity is called
-asmitā-ego. Again in _Bhāshya_, I. 17, we have _ekātmikā saṃvidasmitā_
-(knowledge as one identical is asmitā) which Vācaspati explains as _sā
-ca ātmanā grahītrā saha buddhirekātmikā saṃvid_, i.e. it is the feeling
-of identity of the buddhi (mind) with the self, the perceiver. Thus we
-find that the mind is affected by its own rajas or activity and posits
-itself as the ego or subject as activity. By reason of this position of
-the “I” as active it perceives itself in the objective, in all its
-conative and cognitive senses in its thoughts and feelings and also in
-the external world of extension and co-existence; in the words of
-Pañcaśikha (II. 5) thinking the animate and inanimate beings to be the
-self, man regards their prosperity as his own and becomes glad, and
-regards their adversity as his own and is sorry. Here the “I” is posited
-as the active entity which becomes conscious of itself, or in other
-words the “I” becomes self-conscious. In analysing this notion of
-self-consciousness we find that here the rajas or element of activity or
-mobility has become predominant and this predominance of rajas has been
-manifested by the inherent sattva. Thus we find that the rajas side or
-“I as active” has become manifested or known as such, i.e. “I” becomes
-conscious of itself as active. And this is just what is meant by
-self-consciousness.
-
-This ego or self-consciousness then appears as the modification of the
-contentless pure consciousness of the mind (_buddhi_); it is for this
-reason that we see that this self-consciousness is but a modification of
-the universal mind. The absolute identity of subject and object as the
-egohood is not A part of our natural consciousness, for in all stages of
-our actual consciousness, even in that of self-consciousness, there is
-an element of the preponderance of rajas or activity which directs this
-unity as the knower and the known and then unites them as it were. Only
-so far as I distinguish myself as the conscious, from myself as the
-object of consciousness, am I at all conscious of myself.
-
-When we see that the buddhi transforms itself into the ego, the subject,
-or the knower, at this its first phase there is no other content which
-it can know, it therefore knows itself in a very abstract way as the
-“I,” or in other words, the ego becomes self-conscious; but at this
-moment the ego has no content; the tamas being quite under suppression,
-it is evolved by a preponderance of the rajas; and thus its nature as
-rajas is manifested by the sattva and thus the ego now essentially knows
-itself to be active, and holds itself as the permanent energising
-activity which connects with itself all the phenomena of our life.
-
-But now when the ego first directs itself towards itself and becomes
-conscious of itself, one question which naturally comes to our mind is,
-“Can the ego direct itself towards itself and thus divide itself into a
-part that sees and one that is seen?” To meet this question it is
-assumed that the guṇas contain within themselves the germs of both
-subjectivity and objectivity (_guṇānāṃ hi dvairūpyaṃ vyavasāyātmkatvam
-vyavaseyātmakatvaṃ ca. Tattvavaiśāradī_, III. 47); the guṇas have two
-forms, the perceiver and the perceived. Thus we find that in the ego the
-quality of the guṇas as the perceiver comes to be first manifested and
-the ego turns back upon itself and makes itself its own object. It is at
-this stage that we are reminded of the twofold nature of the guṇas.
-
-It is by virtue of this twofold nature that the subject can make itself
-its own object; but as these two sides have not yet developed they are
-still only abstract and exist but in an implicit way in this state of
-the ego (_ahaṃkāra_).
-
-Enquiring further into the nature of the relation of this ego and the
-buddhi, we find that the ego is only another phase or modification of
-the buddhi; however different it might appear from buddhi it is only
-an appearance or phase of it; its reality is the reality of the
-buddhi. Thus we see that when the knower is affected in his different
-modes of concepts and judgments, this too is to be ascribed to the
-buddhi. Thus Vyāsa writes (II. 18) that perception, memory,
-differentiation, reasoning, right knowledge, decision belong properly
-to mind (buddhi) and are only illusorily imposed on the purusha
-(_grahaṇadhāraṇohāpohatattvajñānābhiniveśā buddhau varttamānā purushe
-adhyāropitasadbhāvāḥ_).
-
-Now from this ego we find that three developments take place in three
-distinct directions according to the preponderance of sattva, rajas or
-tamas.
-
-By the preponderance of rajas, the ego develops itself into the five
-conative senses, vāk (speech), pāṇi (hands), pāda (feet), pāyu (organ of
-passing the excreta) and upastha (generative organ). By the
-preponderance of sattva, the ego develops itself into the five cognitive
-senses—hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell; and by a preponderance of
-tamas it stands as the bhūtādi and produces the five tanmātras, and
-these again by further preponderance of tamas develops into the
-particles of the five gross elements of earth, water, light, heat, air
-and ether.
-
-Now it is clear that when the self becomes conscious of itself as object
-we see that there are three phases in it: (i) that in which the self
-becomes an object to itself; (ii) when it directs itself or turns as the
-subject upon itself as the object, this moment of activity which can
-effect an aspect of change in itself; (iii) the aspect of the
-consciousness of the self, the moment in which it perceives itself in
-its object, the moment of the union of itself as the subject and itself
-as the object in one luminosity of self-consciousness. Now that phase of
-self in which it is merely an object to itself is the phase of its union
-with prakṛti which further develops the prakṛti in moments of
-materiality by a preponderance of the inert tamas of the bhūtādi into
-tanmātras and these again into the five grosser elements which are then
-called the _grāhya_ or perceptible.
-
-The sattva side of this ego or self-consciousness which was hitherto
-undifferentiated becomes further differentiated, specialised and
-modified into the five cognitive senses with their respective functions
-of hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell, synchronising with the
-evolution of the prakṛti on the tanmātric side of evolution. These again
-individually suffer infinite modifications themselves and thus cause an
-infinite variety of sensations in their respective spheres in our
-conscious life. The rajas side of the ego becomes specialised as the
-active faculties of the five different conative organs.
-
-There is another specialisation of the ego as the manas which is its
-direct instrument for connecting itself with the five cognitive and
-conative senses. What is perceived as mere sensations by the senses is
-connected and generalised and formed into concepts by the manas; it is
-therefore spoken of as partaking of both the conative and the cognitive
-aspects in the _Sāṃkhya-kārikā_, 27.
-
-Now though the modifications of the ego are formed successively by the
-preponderance of sattva, rajas and tamas, yet the rajas is always the
-accessory cause (_sahakāri_) of all these varied collocations of the
-guṇas; it is the supreme principle of energy and supplies even
-intelligence with the energy which it requires for its own conscious
-activity. Thus Lokācāryya says in his _Tattvatraya_: “the tāmasa ego
-developing into the material world and the sāttvika ego developing into
-the eleven senses, both require the help of the rājasa ego for the
-production of this development” (_anyābhyāṃ ahaṃkārābhyām
-svakāryyopajanane rājasāhaṃkūraḥ sahakārī bhavati_); and Barabara in his
-_Bhāshya_ writes: “just as a seed-sprout requires for its growth the
-help of water as instrumental cause, so the rājasa ahaṃkāra (ego) works
-as the accessory cause (_sahakāri_) for the transformations of sāttvika
-and tāmasa ahaṃkāra into their evolutionary products.” The mode of
-working of this instrumental cause is described as “rajas is the mover.”
-The rājasa ego thus moves the sattva part to generate the senses; the
-tamas part generating the gross and subtle matter is also moved by the
-rajas, agent of movement. The rājasa ego is thus called the common cause
-of the movement of the sāttvika and the tāmasa ego. Vācaspati also says:
-“though rajas has no separate work by itself yet since sattva and tamas
-(which though capable of undergoing modification, do not do their work)
-are actionless in themselves, the agency of rajas lies in this that it
-moves them both for the production of the effect.”[27] And according as
-the modifications are sāttvika, tāmasa or rājasika, the ego which is the
-cause of these different modifications is also called vaikārika, bhūtādi
-and taijasa. The mahat also as the source of the vaikārika, taijasa and
-bhūtādi ego may be said to have three aspects.
-
-Now speaking of the relation of the sense faculties with the sense
-organs, we see that the latter, which are made up of the grosser
-elements are the vehicle of the former, for if the latter are injured in
-any way, the former are also necessarily affected.[28]
-
-To take for example the specific case of the faculty of hearing and its
-organ, we see that the faculty of hearing is seated in the ether
-(_ākāśa_) within our ear-hole. It is here that the power of hearing is
-located. When soundness or defect is noticed therein, soundness or
-defect is noticed in the power of hearing also. When the sounds of
-solids, etc., are heard, then the power of hearing located in the hollow
-of the ear stands in need of the resonance produced in the ākāśa of the
-ear.
-
-This sense of hearing, then, having its origin in the principle of
-ahaṃkāra, behaves like iron, and is drawn by the sounds originated and
-located in the mouth of the speaker acting as loadstone, and transforms
-them into its own successive modifications (_vṛtti_) and thus senses the
-sounds of the speaker. And it is for this reason that for every living
-creature, the perception of sound in external space in the absence of
-defects is never void of authority. Thus Pancasikha also says, as quoted
-in _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 41:
-
-“To all those whose organs of hearing are situated in the same place (at
-different times) the ākāśa sustaining the sense of hearing is the same.”
-The ākāśa, again, in which the power of hearing is seated, is born out
-of the soniferous tanmātra, and has therefore the quality of sound
-inherent in itself. It is by this sound acting in unison that it takes
-the sounds of external solids, etc. This then proves that the ākāśa is
-the substratum of the power of hearing, and also possesses the quality
-of sound. And this sameness of the situation of sound is an indication
-of the existence of ākāśa as that which is the substratum of the
-auditory power (_śruti_) which manifests the sounds of the same class in
-ākāśa. Such a manifestation of sound cannot be without such an auditory
-sense-power. Nor is such an auditory power a quality of pṛthivī (earth),
-etc., because it cannot be in its own self both the manifestor and the
-manifested (_vyahṅgya_ and _vyañjaka_), _Tattvavaiśāradī_, III. 41. It
-is the auditory power which manifests all sounds with the help of the
-ākāśa of the sense organ.
-
-The theory of the guṇas was accepted by many others outside the
-Sāṃkhya-Yoga circle and they also offered their opinions on the nature
-of the categories.
-
-There are thus other views prevalent about the genesis of the senses, to
-which it may be worth our while to pay some attention as we pass by.
-
-The sāttvika ego in generating the cognitive senses with limited powers
-for certain specified objects of sense only accounted for their
-developments from itself in accompaniment with the specific tanmātras.
-Thus
-
-sāttvika ego + sound potential (śabda-tanmātra) = sense of hearing.
-
-sāttvika ego + touch potential (śparś-tanmātra) = sense of touch.
-
-sāttvika ego + sight potential (śrūpa-tanmātra) = sense of vision.
-
-sāttvika ego + taste potential (vasa-tanmātra) = sense of taste.
-
-sāttvika ego + smell potential (gandha-tanmātra) = sense of smell.
-
-The conative sense of speech is developed in association with the sense
-of hearing; that of hand in association with the sense of touch; that of
-feet in association with the sense of vision; that of upastha in
-association with the sense of taste; that of pāyu in association with
-the sense of smell.
-
-Last of all, the manas is developed from the ego without any
-co-operating or accompanying cause.
-
-The Naiyāyikas, however, think that the senses are generated by the
-gross elements, the ear for example by ākāśa, the touch by air and so
-forth. But Lokācāryya in his _Tattvatraya_ holds that the senses are not
-generated by gross matter but are rather sustained and strengthened by
-it.
-
-There are others who think that the ego is the instrumental and that the
-gross elements are the material causes in the production of the senses.
-
-The view of the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ is, I believe, now quite clear since we
-see that the mahat through the asmitā generates from the latter (as
-differentiations from it, though it itself exists as integrated in the
-mahat), the senses, and their corresponding gross elements.
-
-Before proceeding further to trace the development of the bhūtādi on the
-tanmātric side, I think it is best to refer to the views about the
-supposed difference between the Yoga and the views of the Sāṃkhya works
-about the evolution of the categories. Now according to the Yoga view
-two parallel lines of evolution start from mahat, one of which develops
-into the ego, manas, the five cognitive and the five conative senses,
-while on the other side it develops into the five grosser elements
-through the five tanmātras which are directly produced from mahat
-through the medium ahaṃkāra.
-
-Thus the view as found in the Yoga works may be tabulated thus:—
-
- Prakṛti
- |
- Mahat or Asmitāmātra
- |
- +----------+---------+
- | |
- Asmitā Tanmātras--5
- | |
- ---+--- ---------+--------
- 11 senses 5 gross elements
-
-The view of the Śaṃkhya works may be tabulated thus:--
-
- Prakṛti
- |
- Mahat
- |
- Ego
- |
- +-----------+--------+
- | |
- 11 senses 5 Tanmātras
- |
- 5 gross elements
-
-The place in the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ which refers to this genesis is that
-under _viśeshāviśeshaliṅgamātrāliṅgāni guṇaparvāṇi_, II. 19. There it
-says that the four bhūtas are ether, air, fire, water and earth. These
-are the viśeshas (specialised modifications) of the unspecialised
-modifications the tanmātras of sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. So
-also are the cognitive senses of hearing, touch, eye, tongue, and nose
-and the conative senses of speech, hand, feet, anus and the generative
-organ. The eleventh one manas (the co-ordinating organ) has for its
-object the objects of all the above ten senses. So these are the
-specialised modifications (_viśeshas_) of the unspecialised (aviśesha)
-asmitā. The guṇas have these sixteen kinds of specialised modifications
-(_viśeshapariṇāma_). The six unspecialised modifications are the sound
-tanmātra, touch tanmātra, colour tanmātra, taste tanmātra and smell
-tanmātra. These tanmātras respectively contain one, two, three, four,
-and five special characteristics. The sixth unspecialised modification
-is asmitāmātra. These are the six aviśesha evolutions of the pure being,
-the mahat. The category of mahat is merely a sign beyond the aviśeshas
-and it is there that these exist and develop.
-
-In this _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ the fully specialised ones, viśeshas, the
-grosser elements are said to have been derived from the tanmātras and
-the senses and manas, the faculty of reflection are said to have been
-specialised from the ego or asmitā. The tanmātras, however, have not
-been derived from the ego or asmitā here. But they together with asmitā
-are spoken of as the six slightly specialised ones, the five being the
-five tanmātras and the sixth one being the ego. These six aviśeshas are
-the specialisations of the mahat, the great egohood of pure Be-ness. It
-therefore appears that the six aviśeshas are directly derived from the
-mahat, after which the ego develops into the eleven senses and the
-tanmātras into the five gross elements in three different lines.
-
-But let us see how _Yoga-vārttika_ explains the point here:—
-
-“But like the senses the tanmātras are also special modifications of the
-ahaṃkāra having specially modified characteristics such as sound, touch,
-etc., why, therefore, are they not mentioned as special modifications
-(_viśeshas_)? The answer is that those only are mentioned as special
-modification which are ultimate special modifications. The tanmātras are
-indeed the special modifications of the ego, but they themselves produce
-further special modifications, the bhūtas. The aviśeshas are explained
-as the six aviśeshas. The tanmātras are generated from the tāmasa
-ahaṃkāra gradually through sound, etc. The category of mahat which is
-the ground of all modifications, called also the buddhi, has six
-evolutionary products called the aviśeshas. Though the mahat and the
-prakṛti may also be regarded as the root-causes out of which the
-tanmātras have evolved, yet the word aviśesha is used as a technical
-term having a special application to the six aviśeshas only.” The
-modifications of these are from the buddhi through the intermediate
-stage of the ahaṃkāra, as has been explained in the _Bhāshya_, I. 45.
-
-Thus we see that the _Yoga-vārttika_ says that the _Bhāshya_ is here
-describing the modifications of buddhi in two distinct classes, the
-aviśeshas and the viśeshas; and that the mahat has been spoken of as the
-source of all the aviśeshas, the five tanmātras and the ego; strictly
-speaking, however, the genesis of the tanmātras from mahat takes place
-through the ego and in association with the ego, for it has been so
-described in the _Bhāshya_, I. 45.
-
-Nāgeśa in explaining this _Bhāshya_ only repeats the view of
-_Yoga-vārttika_.
-
-Now let us refer to the _Bhāshya_ of I. 45, alluded to by the
-_Yoga-vārttika_: “The gradual series of subtler causes proceeds up to
-the aliṅga or the prakṛti. The earth atom has the smell tanmātra as its
-subtle cause; the water atom has the taste tanmātra; the air atom the
-touch tanmātra; the ākāśa atom the sound tanmātra; and of these ahaṃkāra
-is the subtle cause; and of this the mahat is the subtle cause.” Here by
-subtle cause (_sūkshma_) it is upādānakāraṇa or material cause which is
-meant; so the _Bhāshya_ further says: “It is true that purusha is the
-subtlest of all. But yet as prakṛti is subtler than the mahat, it is not
-in that sense that purusha is subtler than prakṛti for purusha is only
-an instrumental cause of the evolution of mahat, but not its material
-cause.” I believe it is quite clear that ahaṃkāra is spoken of here as
-the _sūkshma anvayikārana_ of the tanmātras. This anvayikāraṇa is the
-same as upādāna (material cause) as Vācaspati calls it. Now again in the
-_Bhāshya_ of the same _sūtra_ II. 19 later on we see the liṅga or the
-mahat is the stage next to prakṛti, it is differentiated from it though
-still remaining integrated in the regular order of evolution. The six
-aviśeshas are again differentiated while still remaining integrated in
-the mahat in the order of evolution (_pariṇāmakramaniyama_).
-
-The mahat tattva (liṅga) is associated with the prakṛti (aliṅga). Its
-development is thus to be considered as the production of a
-differentiation as integrated within the prakṛti. The six aviśeshas are
-also to be considered as the production of successive differentiations
-as integrated within the mahat.
-
-The words _saṃsṛshṭa vivicyante_ are the most important here for they
-show us the real nature of the transformations. “_Saṃsṛshtā_” means
-integrated and “_vivicyante_” means differentiated. This shows that the
-order of evolution as found in the Sāṃkhya works (viz. mahat from
-prakṛti, ahaṃkāra from mahat and the eleven senses and the tanmātras
-from ahaṃkāra) is true only in this sense that these modifications of
-ahaṃkāra take place directly as differentiations of characters in the
-body of mahat. As these differentiations take place through ahaṃkāra as
-the first moment in the series of transformations it is said that the
-transformations take place directly from ahaṃkāra; whereas when stress
-is laid on the other aspect it appears that the transformations are but
-differentiations as integrated in the body of the mahat, and thus it is
-also said that from mahat the six aviśeshas—namely, ahaṃkāra and the
-five tanmātras—come out. This conception of evolution as differentiation
-within integration bridges the gulf between the views of Yoga and the
-Saṃkhya works. We know that the tanmātras are produced from the tāmasa
-ahaṃkāra. This ahaṃkāra is nothing but the tāmasa side of mahat roused
-into creative activity by rajas. The sāttvika ahaṃkāra is given as a
-separate category producing the senses, whereas the tamas as bhūtādi
-produces the tanmātras from its disturbance while held up within the
-mahat.[29]
-
-Nāgeśa in the _Chāyā-vyākhyā_ of II. 19, however, follows the Sāṃkhya
-explanation. He says: “The five tanmātras having in order one, two,
-three, four and five characteristics are such that the preceding ones
-are the causes of the succeeding ones. The śabdatanmātra has only the
-characteristic of sound, the sparśatanmātra of sound and touch and so
-on.... All these tanmātras are produced from the tāmasa ahaṃkāra in the
-order of śabda, sparśa, etc.” This ignores the interpretation of the
-_Vyāsā-bhāshya_ that the tanmātras are differentiations within the
-integrated whole of mahat through the intermediary stage of the tāmasa
-ahaṃkāra.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER VI
- EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES
-
-
-The order of the evolution of the tanmātras as here referred to is as
-follows:—
-
- Bhūtādi (tāmasa ahaṃkāra)
- |
- Śabdatanmātra
- |
- Sparśatanmātra
- |
- Rūpatanmātra
- |
- Rasatanmātra
- |
- Gandhatanmātra
-
-The evolution of the tanmātras has been variously described in the
-Purāṇas and the Smṛti literature. These divergent views can briefly be
-brought under two headings: those which derive the tanmātras from the
-bhûtas and those which derive them from the ahaṃkāra and the bhûtas from
-them. Some of these schools have been spoken of in the Barabara Muni’s
-commentary on the _Tattvatraya_—a treatise on the Rāmānuja
-Philosophy—and have been already explained in a systematic way by Dr. B.
-N. Seal. I therefore refrain from repeating them needlessly. About the
-derivation of the tanmātras all the other Sāṃkhya treatises, the
-_Kārikā_, the _Kaumudī_, the _Tattvavaiśāradī_, the _Sūtra_ and
-_Pravacana-bhāshya_, the _Siddhāntacandrikā_, _Sūtrārthabodhinī_, the
-_Rajamārtaṇḍa_ and the _Maṇiprabhā_ seem to be silent. Further speaking
-of the tanmātras, Vijñāna Bhikshu says that the tanmātras exist only in
-unspecialised forms; they therefore can be neither felt nor perceived in
-any way by the senses of ordinary men. This is that indeterminate state
-of matter in which they can never be distinguished one from the other,
-and they cannot be perceived to be possessed of different qualities or
-specialised in any way. It is for this that they are called tanmātras,
-i.e. their only specialization is a mere thatness. The Yogins alone
-perceive them.
-
-Now turning towards the further evolution of the grosser elements from
-the tanmātras, we see that there are great divergences of view here
-also, some of which are shown below. Thus Vācaspati says: “The earth
-atom is produced from the five tanmātras with a predominance of the
-smell tanmātra, the water atom from the four tanmātras excepting the
-smell tanmātra with a preponderance of the taste tanmātra, and so on”
-(I. 44).
-
-Thus here we find that the ākāśa atom (aṇu) has been generated simply by
-the ākāśa tanmātra; the vāyu atom has been generated by two tanmātras,
-śabda and sparśa, of which the sparśa appears there as the chief. The
-tejas atom has been developed from the śabda, sparśa and rûpa tanmātras,
-though the rûpa is predominant in the group. The ap atom has been
-developed from the four tanmātras, śabda, sparśa, rûpa and rasa, though
-rasa is predominant in the group, and the earth or kshiti atom has been
-developed from the five tanmātras, though the gandha tanmātra is
-predominant in the group.
-
-Now the _Yoga-vārttika_ agrees with Vācaspati in all these details, but
-differs from him only in maintaining that the ākāśa atom has been
-generated from the śabda tanmātra with an accretion from bhūtādi,
-whereas Vācaspati says that the ākāśa atom is generated simply by the
-ākāśa tanmātra.[30]
-
-Nāgeśa, however, takes a slightly different view and says that to
-produce the gross atoms from the tanmātras, an accretion of bhūtādi as
-an accompanying agent is necessary at every step; so that we see that
-the vāyu atom is produced from these three: śabda + sparśa + accretion
-from bhūtādi. Tejas atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + accretion from
-bhūtādi. Ap atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + rasa + accretion from
-bhūtādi. Kshiti atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + rasa + gandha + accretion
-from bhūtādi.
-
-I refrain from giving the _Vishṇu Purāṇa_ view which has also been
-quoted in the _Yoga-vārttika_, and the view of a certain school of
-Vedāntists mentioned in the _Tattva-nirūpaṇa_ and referred to and
-described in the _Tattvatraya_, as Dr. B. N. Seal has already described
-them in his article.
-
-We see thus that from bhūtādi come the five tanmātras which can be
-compared to the Vaiśeshika atoms as they have no parts and neither
-grossness nor visible differentiation.[31] Some differentiation has of
-course already begun in the tanmātras, as they are called śabda, śparśa,
-rūpa, rasa and gandha, which therefore may be said to belong to a class
-akin to the grosser elements of ākāśa, vāyu, tejas, ap and kshiti.[32]
-
-The next one, the paramāṇu (atom), which is gross in its nature and is
-generated from the tanmātras which exist in it as parts
-(_tanmātrāvayava_) may be compared with the trasareṇu of the
-Vaiśeshikas. Thus the _Yoga-vārttika_ says: “this is called paramāṇu by
-the Vaiśeshikas. We however call the subtlest part of the visible earth,
-earth atoms” (IV. 14). The doctrine of atoms is recognised both in the
-_Yoga-sūtrās_ (I. 46) and the _Bhāshya_ (III. 52, IV. 14, etc.).
-
-Whether Sāṃkhya admitted the paramāṇus (atoms) or not cannot be
-definitely settled. The _Sāṃkhya-kārikā_ does not mention the paramāṇus,
-but Vijñāna Bhikshu thinks that the word “_sūkshma_” in _Kārikā_, 39,
-means paramāṇus (_Yoga-vārttika_, IV. 14). Though the word paramāṇu is
-not mentioned in the _Kārikā_, I can hardly suppose that Sāṃkhya did not
-admit it in the sense in which Yoga did. For it does not seem probable
-that Sāṃkhya should think that by the combination of the subtle
-tanmātras we could all at once have the bigger lumps of bhūta without
-there being any particles. Moreover, since the Yoga paramāṇus are the
-finest visible particles of matter it could not have been denied by
-Sāṃkhya. The supposition of some German scholars that Sāṃkhya did not
-admit the paramāṇus does not seem very plausible. Bhikshu in
-_Yoga-vārttika_, III. 52, says that the guṇas are in reality Vaiśeshika
-atoms.
-
-The third form is gross air, fire, water, etc., which is said to belong
-to the mahat (gross) class. I cannot express it better than by quoting a
-passage from _Yoga-vārttika_, IV. 4: “The _Bhāshya_ holds that in the
-tanmātras there exists the specific differentiation that constitutes the
-five tanmātras, the kshiti atom is generated and by the conglomeration
-of these gross atoms gross earth is formed. So again by the combination
-of the four tanmātras the water atom is formed and the conglomeration of
-these water atoms makes gross water.”
-
-“It should be noted here: since the _Bhāshya_ holds that the tanmātras
-of sound, etc., are of the same class as the corresponding gross
-elements it may be assumed that the combining tanmātras possess the
-class characteristics which are made manifest in gross elements by
-hardness, smoothness, etc.” Bhikshu holds that since Sāṃkhya and Yoga
-are similar (_samānatantra_) this is to be regarded as being also the
-Sāṃkhya view.
-
-There is, however, another measure which is called the measure of parama
-mahat, which belongs to ākāśa for example.
-
-Now these paramāṇus or atoms are not merely atoms of matter but they
-contain within themselves those particular qualities by virtue of which
-they appear, as pleasant, unpleasant or passive to us. If we have
-expressed ourselves clearly, I believe it has been shown that when the
-inner and the outer proceed from one source, the ego and the external
-world do not altogether differ in nature from the inner; both have been
-formed by the collocation of the guṇas (_sarvamidaṃ guṇānāṃ
-sanniveśaviseshamātram_). The same book which in the inner microcosm is
-written in the language of ideas has been in the external world written
-in the language of matter. So in the external world we have all the
-grounds of our inner experience, cognitive as well as emotional,
-pleasurable as well as painful. The modifications of the external world
-are only translated into ideas and feelings; therefore these paramāṇus
-are spoken of as endowed with feelings.
-
-There is another difference between the tanmātras and the paramāṇus. The
-former cannot be perceived to be endowed with the feeling elements as
-the latter. Some say, however, that it is not true that the tanmātras
-are not endowed with the feeling elements, but they cannot be perceived
-by any save the Yogins; thus it is said: _tanmātrāṇāmapi
-parasparavyāvṛttasvabhāvatvamastyeva tacca yogimātragamyam_. The
-tanmātras also possess differentiated characters, but they can be
-perceived only by the Yogins; but this is not universally admitted.
-
-Now these paramāṇus cannot further be evolved into any other different
-kind of existence or tattvāntara.[33] We see that the paramāṇus though
-they have been formed from the tanmātras resemble them only in a very
-remote way and are therefore placed in a separate stage of evolution.
-
-With the bhūtas we have the last stage of evolution of the guṇas. The
-course of evolution, however, does not cease here, but continues
-ceaselessly, though by its process no new stage of existence is
-generated, but the product of the evolution is such that in it the
-properties of the gross elements which compose its constitution can be
-found directly. This is what is called _dharmapariṇāma_, as
-distinguished from the _tattvāntara-pariṇāma_ spoken above. The
-evolution of the viśeshas from the aviśeshas is always styled
-tattvāntara-pariṇāma, as opposed to the evolution that takes place among
-the viśeshas themselves, which is called _dharmapariṇāma_ or evolution
-by change of qualities. Now these atoms or paramāṇus of kshiti, ap,
-tejas, marut or ākāśa conglomerate together and form all sentient or
-non-sentient bodies in the world. The different atoms of earth, air,
-fire, water, etc., conglomerate together and form the different animate
-bodies such as cow, etc., or inanimate bodies such as jug, etc., and
-vegetables like the tree, etc. These bodies are built up by the
-conglomerated units of the atoms in such a way that they are almost in a
-state of combination which has been styled _ayutasiddhāvayava_. In such
-a combination the parts do not stand independently, but only hide
-themselves as it were in order to manifest the whole body, so that by
-the conglomeration of the particles we have what may be called a body,
-which is regarded as quite a different thing from the atoms of which it
-is composed. These bodies change with the different sorts of change or
-arrangement of the particles, according to which the body may be spoken
-of as “one,” “large,” “small,” “tangible” or “possessing” the quality of
-action. Some philosophers hold the view that a body is really nothing
-but the conglomeration of the atoms; but they must be altogether wrong
-here since they have no right to ignore the “body,” which appears before
-them with all its specific qualities and attributes; moreover, if they
-ignore the body they have to ignore almost everything, for the atoms
-themselves are not visible.
-
-Again, these atoms, though so much unlike the Vaiśeshika atoms since
-they contain tanmātras of a different nature as their constituents and
-thus differ from the simpler atoms of the Vaiśeshikas, compose the
-constituents of all inorganic, organic or animal bodies in such a way
-that there is no break of harmony—no opposition between them;—but, on
-the contrary, when any one of the guṇas existing in the atoms and their
-conglomerations becomes prominent, the other guṇas though their
-functions are different from it, yet do not run counter to the prominent
-guṇas, but conjointly with them, help to form the specific modification
-for the experiences of the purusha. In the production of a thing, the
-different guṇas do not choose different independent courses for their
-evolution, but join together and effectuate themselves in the evolution
-of a single product. Thus we see also that when the atoms of different
-gross elements possessing different properties and attributes coalesce,
-their difference of attributes does not produce confusion, but they
-unite in the production of the particular substances by a common
-teleological purpose (see _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 14).
-
-We thus see that the bodies or things composed by the collocation of the
-atoms in one sense differ from the atoms themselves and in another are
-identical with the atoms themselves. We see therefore that the
-appearance of the atoms as bodies or things differs with the change of
-position of the atoms amongst themselves. So we can say that the change
-of the appearance of things and bodies only shows the change of the
-collocation of the atoms, there being always a change of appearance in
-the bodies consequent on every change in the position of the atoms. The
-former therefore is only an explicit appearance of the change that takes
-place in the substance itself; for the appearance of a thing is only an
-explicit aspect of the very selfsame thing—the atoms; thus the _Bhāshya_
-says: _dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ, dharmivrikriyā eva eshā
-dharmadvārā prapañcyate_, i.e. a dharma (quality) is merely the nature
-of the dharmin (substance), and it is the changes of the dharmin that
-are made explicit by the dharmas.[34] Often it happens that the change
-of appearance of a thing or a body, a tree or a piece of cloth, for
-example, can be marked only after a long interval. This, however, only
-shows that the atoms of the body had been continually changing and
-consequently the appearance of the body or the thing also had been
-continually changing; for otherwise we can in no way account for the
-sudden change of appearance. All bodies are continually changing the
-constituent collocation of atoms and their appearances. In the smallest
-particle of time or kshaṇa the whole universe undergoes a change. Each
-moment or the smallest particle of time is only the manifestation of
-that particular change. Time therefore has not a separate existence in
-this philosophy as in the Vaiśeshika, but it is only identical with the
-smallest amount of change—viz. that of an atom of its own amount of
-space. Now here the appearance is called the dharma, and that particular
-arrangement of atoms or guṇas which is the basis of the particular
-appearance is called the dharmin. The change of appearance is therefore
-called the dharma-pariṇāma.[35]
-
-Again this change of appearance can be looked at from two other aspects
-which though not intrinsically different from the change of appearance
-have their own special points of view which make them remarkable. These
-are _lakshaṇa-pariṇāma_ and _avasthā-pariṇāma_. Taking the particular
-collocation of atoms in a body for review, we see that all the
-subsequent changes that take place in it exist in it only in a latent
-way in it which will be manifested in future. All the previous changes
-of the collocating atoms are not also lost but exist only in a sublatent
-way in the particular collocation of atoms present before us. For the
-past changes are by no means destroyed but are preserved in the peculiar
-and particular collocation of atoms of the present moment. For had not
-the past changes taken place, the present could not appear. The present
-had held itself hidden in the past just as the future is hidden within
-the present. It therefore only comes into being with the unfolding of
-the past, which therefore exists only in a sublatent form in it.
-
-It is on account of this that we see that a body comes into being and
-dies away. Though this birth or death is really subsumed the change of
-appearance yet it has its own special aspect, on account of which it has
-been given a separate name as lakshaṇa-pariṇāma. It considers the three
-stages of an appearance—the unmanifested when it exists in the future,
-the manifested moment of the present, and the past when it has been
-manifested—lost to view but preserved and retained in all the onward
-stages of the evolution. Thus when we say that a thing has not yet come
-into being, that it has just come into being, and that it is no longer,
-we refer to this lakshaṇa-pariṇāma which records the history of the
-thing in future, present and past, which are only the three different
-moments of the same thing according to its different characters, as
-unmanifested, manifested and manifested in the past but conserved.
-
-Now it often happens that though the appearance of a thing is constantly
-changing owing to the continual change of the atoms that compose it, yet
-the changes are so fine and infinitesimal that they cannot be marked by
-anyone except the Yogins; for though structural changes may be going on
-tending towards the final passing away of that structure and body into
-another structure and body, which greatly differs from it, yet they may
-not be noticed by us, who can take note of the bigger changes alone.
-Taking therefore two remarkable stages of things, the difference between
-which may be so notable as to justify us in calling the later the
-dissolution or destruction of the former, we assert that the thing has
-suffered growth and decay in the interval, during which the actual was
-passing into the sublatent and the potential was tending towards
-actualization. This is what is called the avasthā-pariṇāma, or change of
-condition, which, however, does not materially differ from the
-lakshaṇa-pariṇāma and can thus be held to be a mode of it. It is on
-account of this that a substance is called new or old, grown or decayed.
-Thus in explaining the illustration given in the _Bhāshya_, III. 13:
-“there is avasthā-pariṇāma. At the moments of cessation the potencies of
-cessation become stronger and those of ordinary experience weaker.” The
-_Yoga-vārttika_ says: “The strength and weakness of the two potencies is
-like the newness or oldness of a jug; growth and decay being the same as
-origination and decease, there is no difference here from
-_lakshaṇa-pariṇāma_.”
-
-It is now time for us to examine once more the relation of dharmin,
-substance, and dharma, its quality or appearance.
-
-Dharmin, or substance, is that which remains common to the latent (as
-having passed over or _śānta_), the rising (the present or _udita_) and
-the unpredicable (future or _avyapadeśya_) characteristic qualities of
-the substance.
-
-Substance (take for example, earth) has the power of existing in the
-form of particles of dust, a lump or a jug by which water may be
-carried. Now taking the stage of lump for examination we may think of
-its previous stage, that of particles of dust, as being latent, and its
-future stage as jug as the unpredicable. The earth we see here to be
-common to all these three stages which have come into being by its own
-activity and consequent changes. Earth here is the common quality which
-remains unchanged in all these stages, and so relatively constant among
-its changes as particles, lump and jug. This earth therefore is regarded
-as the dharmin, characterised one, the substance; and its stages as its
-dharma or qualities. When this dharmin, or substance, undergoes a change
-from a stage of lump to a stage of jug, it undergoes what is called
-_dharma-pariṇāma_ or change of quality.
-
-But its dharma, as the shape of the jug may be thought to have itself
-undergone a change—inasmuch as it has now come into being, from a state
-of relative non-being, latency or unpredicability. This is called the
-lakshaṇa-pariṇāma of the dharma or qualities as constituting a jug. This
-jug is again suffering another change as new or old according as it is
-just produced or is gradually running towards its dissolution, and this
-is called the avasthā-pariṇāma or change of condition. These three,
-however, are not separate from the dharma-pariṇāma, but are only aspects
-of it; so it may be said that the dharmin or substance directly suffers
-the dharma-pariṇāma and indirectly the lakshaṇa and the
-avasthā-pariṇāma. The dharma, however, changes and the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma
-can be looked at from another point of view, that of change of state,
-viz. growth and decay. Thus we see that though the atoms of kshiti, ap,
-etc., remain unchanged, they are constantly suffering changes from the
-inorganic to plants and animals, and from thence again back to the
-inorganic. There is thus a constant circulation of changes in which the
-different atoms of kshiti, ap, tejas, vāyu and ākāśa remaining
-themselves unchanged are suffering dharma-pariṇāma as they are changed
-from the inorganic to plants and animals and back again to the
-inorganic. These different states or dharmas (as inorganic, etc.),
-again, according as they are not yet, now, or no longer or passed over,
-are suffering the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma. There is also the avasthā-pariṇāma
-of these states according as any one of them (the plant state for
-example) is growing or suffering decay towards its dissolution.
-
-This circulation of cosmic matter in general applies also to all
-particular things, such as the jug, the cloth, etc.; the order of
-evolution here will be that of powdered particles of earth, lump of
-earth, the earthen jug, the broken halves of the jug, and again the
-powdered earth. As the whole substance has only one identical evolution,
-these different states only happen in order of succession, the
-occurrence of one characteristic being displaced by another
-characteristic which comes after it immediately. We thus see that one
-substance may undergo endless changes of characteristic in order of
-succession; and along with the change of characteristic or dharma we
-have the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma and the avasthā-pariṇāma as old or new, which
-is evidently one of infinitesimal changes of growth and decay. Thus
-Vācaspati gives the following beautiful example: “Even the most
-carefully preserved rice in the granary becomes after long years so
-brittle that it crumbles into atoms. This change cannot happen to new
-rice all on a sudden. Therefore we have to admit an order of successive
-changes” (_Tattvavaivśāradī_, III. 15).
-
-We now see that substance has neither past nor future; appearances or
-qualities only are manifested in time, by virtue of which substance is
-also spoken of as varying and changing temporally, just as a line
-remains unchanged in itself but acquires different significances
-according as one or two zeros are placed on its right side.
-Substance—the atoms of kshiti, ap, tejas, marut, vyoman, etc., by
-various changes of quality appear as the manifold varieties of cosmical
-existence. There is no intrinsic difference between one thing and
-another, but only changes of character of one and the same thing; thus
-the gross elemental atoms like water and earth particles acquire various
-qualities and appear as the various juices of all fruits and herbs. Now
-in analogy with the arguments stated above, it will seem that even a
-qualified thing or appearance may be relatively regarded as substance,
-when it is seen to remain common to various other modifications of that
-appearance itself. Thus a jug, which may remain common in all its
-modifications of colour, may be regarded relatively as the dharmin or
-substance of all these special appearances or modifications of the same
-appearance.
-
-We remember that the guṇas, which are the final substratum of all the
-grosser particles, are always in a state of commotion and always
-evolving in the manner previously stated, for the sake of the experience
-and final realisation of the parusha, the only object or end of the
-prakṛti. Thus the _Bhāshya_, III. 13, says: “So it is the nature of the
-guṇas that there cannot remain even a moment without the evolutionary
-changes of dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthā; movement is the characteristic
-of the guṇas. The nature of the guṇas is the cause of their constant
-movement.”
-
-Although the pioneers of modern scientific evolution have tried to
-observe scientifically some of the stages of the growth of the inorganic
-and of the animal worlds into the man, yet they do not give any reason
-for it. Theirs is more an experimental assertion of facts than a
-metaphysical account of evolution. According to Darwin the general form
-of the evolutionary process is that which is accomplished by “very
-slight variations which are accumulated by the effect of natural
-selection.” And according to a later theory, we see that a new species
-is constituted all at once by the simultaneous appearance of several new
-characteristics very different from the old. But why this accidental
-variation, this seeming departure from the causal chain, comes into
-being, the evolutionists cannot explain. But the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala
-doctrine explains it from the standpoint of teleology or the final goal
-inherent in all matter, so that it may be serviceable to the purusha. To
-be serviceable to the purusha is the one moral purpose in all prakṛti
-and its manifestations in the whole material world, which guide the
-course and direction of the smallest particle of matter. From the
-scientific point of view, the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine is very much in
-the same position as modern science, for it does not explain the cause
-of the accidental variation noticed in all the stages of evolutionary
-process from any physical point of view based on the observation of
-facts.
-
-But it does much credit to the Pātañjala doctrines that they explain
-this accidental variation, this _avyapadeśyatva_ or unpredicability of
-the onward course of evolution from a moral point of view, that of
-teleology, the serviceability of the purusha. They found, however, that
-this teleology should not be used to usurp the whole nature and function
-of matter. We find that the atoms are always moving by virtue of the
-rajas or energy, and it is to this movement of the atoms in space that
-all the products of evolution are due. We have found that the difference
-between the juices of Coco-nut, Palm, Bel, Tinduka (Diospyros
-Embryopteries), Āmalaka (Emblic Myrobalan) can be accounted for by the
-particular and peculiar arrangement of the atoms of earth and water
-alone, by their stress and strain; and we see also that the evolution of
-the organic from the inorganic is due to this change of position of the
-atoms themselves; for the unit of change is the change in an atom of its
-own dimension of spatial position. There is always the transformation of
-energy from the inorganic to the organic and back again from the
-organic. Thus the differences among things are solely due to the
-different stages which they occupy in the scale of evolution, as
-different expressions of the transformation of energy; but virtually
-there is no intrinsic difference among things _sarvaṃ sarvātmakaṃ_; the
-change of the collocation of atoms only changes potentiality into
-actuality, for there is potentiality of everything for every thing
-everywhere throughout this changing world. Thus Vācaspati writes: “The
-water possessing taste, colour, touch and sound and the earth possessing
-smell, taste, colour, touch, and sound suffer an infinite variety of
-changes as roots, flowers, fruits, leaves and their specific tastes and
-other qualities. The water and the earth which do not possess these
-qualities cannot have them, for we have proved that what is non-existent
-cannot come into being. The trees and plants produce the varied tastes
-and colours in animals, for it is by eating these that they acquire such
-richness of colour, etc. Animal products can again produce changes in
-plant bodies. By sprinkling blood on it a pomegranate may be made as big
-as a palm” (_Tattvavaiśaradī_, III. 14).
-
-Looked at from the point of view of the guṇas, there is no intrinsic
-difference between things, though there are a thousand manifestations of
-differences, according to time, place, form and causality. The
-expressions of the guṇas, and the manifestations of the transformations
-of energy differ according to time, place, shape, or causality—these are
-the determining circumstances and environments which determine the modes
-of the evolutionary process; surrounding environments are also involved
-in determining this change, and it is said that two Āmalaka fruits
-placed in two different places undergo two different sorts of changes in
-connection with the particular spots in which they are placed, and that
-if anybody interchanges them a Yogin can recognise and distinguish the
-one from the other by seeing the changes that the fruits have undergone
-in connection with their particular points of space. Thus the _Bhāshya_
-says: “Two Āmalaka fruits having the same characteristic genus and
-species, their situation in two different points of space contributes to
-their specific distinction of development, so that they may be
-identified as this and that. When an Āmalaka is brought from a distance
-to a man previously inattentive to it, he naturally cannot distinguish
-this Āmalaka as being the distant one which has been brought before him
-without his knowledge. But right knowledge should be competent to
-discern the distinction; and the sūtra says that the place associated
-with one Āmalaka fruit is different from the place associated with
-another Āmalaka at another point of space; and the Yogin can perceive
-the difference of their specific evolution in association with their
-points of space; similarly the atoms also suffer different modifications
-at different points of space which can be perceived by Īśvara and the
-Yogins” (_Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 53).
-
-Vācaspati again says: “Though all cause is essentially all effects yet a
-particular cause takes effect in a particular place, thus though the
-cause is the same, yet saffron grows in Kāśmīra and not in Pāñcāla. So,
-the rains do not come in summer, the vicious do not enjoy happiness.
-Thus in accordance with the obstructions of place, time, animal form,
-and instrumental accessories, the same cause does not produce the same
-effect. Though as cause everything is essentially everything else, yet
-there is a particular country for a particular effect, such as Kāśmīra
-is for saffron. Even though the causes may be in other countries such as
-Pāñcāla, yet the effect will not happen there, and for this reason
-saffron does not manifest itself in Pāñcāla. So in summer there are no
-rains and so no paddy grows then” (_Tattvavaiśāradī_, III. 14).
-
-We see therefore that time, space, etc., are the limitations which
-regulate, modify and determine to a certain extent the varying
-transformations and changes and the seeming differences of things,
-though in reality they are all ultimately reducible to the three guṇas;
-thus Kāśmīra being the country of saffron, it will not grow in the
-Pāñcāla country, even though the other causes of its growth should all
-be present there;—here the operation of cause is limited by space.
-
-After considering the inorganic, vegetable and animal kingdoms as three
-stages in the evolutionary process, our attention is at once drawn to
-their conception of the nature of relation of plant life to animal life.
-Though I do not find any special reference in the _Bhāshya_ to this
-point, yet I am reminded of a few passages in the _Mahābhārata_, which I
-think may be added as a supplement to the general doctrine of evolution
-according to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala philosophy as stated here. Thus the
-_Mahābhārata_ says: “Even the solid trees have ether (ākāśa) in them
-which justifies the regular appearance of flowers and fruits. By heat
-the leaves, the bark, flowers and fruits become withered, and since
-there is withering and decay in them, there is in them the sensation of
-touch. Since by the sound of air, fire and thunder the fruits and
-flowers fall away, there must be the sense of hearing in them. The
-creepers encircle the trees and they go in all directions, and since
-without sight there could not be any choice of direction, the trees have
-the power of vision. By various holy and unholy smells and incenses of
-various kinds the trees are cured of their diseases and blossom forth,
-therefore the trees can smell. Since they drink by their roots, and
-since they get diseases, and since their diseases can be cured, there is
-the sense of taste in the trees. Since they enjoy pleasure and suffer
-pain, and since their parts which are cut grow, I see life everywhere in
-trees and not want of life” (_Sāntiparva_, 184).
-
-Nīlakaṇṭha in his commentary goes still further and says that a hard
-substance called vajramaṇi also may be called living. Here we see that
-the ancients had to a certain extent forestalled the discovery of Sir J.
-C. Bose that the life functions differed only in degree between the
-three classes, the inorganic, plants and animals.
-
-These are all, however, only illustrations of dharma-pariṇāma, for here
-there is no radical change in the elements themselves, the appearance of
-qualities being due only to the different arrangement of the atoms of
-the five gross elements. This change applies to the viśeshas only—the
-five gross elements externally and the eleven senses internally. How the
-inner microcosm, the manas and the senses are affected by
-dharma-pariṇāma we shall see hereafter, when we deal with the psychology
-of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine. For the present it will suffice to
-say that the citta or mind also suffers this change and is modified in a
-twofold mode; the patent in the form of the ideas and the latent, as the
-substance itself, in the form of saṃskāras of subconscious impressions.
-Thus the _Bhāshya_ says: “The mind has two kinds of characteristics,
-perceived and unperceived. Those of the nature of ideas are perceived
-and those inherent in the integral nature of it are unperceived. The
-latter are of seven kinds and may be ascertained by inference. These are
-cessation of mental states by samādhi, virtue and vice, subconscious
-impressions, change, life-functioning, power of movement, and energy”
-(III. 15).
-
-This dharma-pariṇāma as we have shown it, is essentially different from
-the satkāraṇavāda of the aviśeshas described above. We cannot close this
-discussion about evolution without noticing the Sāṃkhya view of
-causation.
-
-We have seen that the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala view holds that the effect is
-already existent in the cause, but only in a potential form. “The
-grouping or collocation alone changes, and this brings out the
-manifestation of the latent powers of the guṇas, but without creation of
-anything absolutely new or non-existent.” This is the true satkāryyavāda
-theory as distinguished from the so-called satkāryyavāda theory of the
-Vedāntists, which ought more properly to be called the satkāraṇavāda
-theory, for with them the cause alone is true, and all effects are
-illusory, being only impositions on the cause. For with them the
-material cause alone is true, whilst all its forms and shapes are merely
-illusory, whereas according to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine all the
-appearances or effects are true and are due to the power which the
-substance has of transforming itself into those various appearances and
-effects _yogyatāvacchinnā dharmiṇaḥ śaktireva dharmaḥ_ (III. 14). The
-operation of the concomitant condition or efficient cause serves only to
-effect the passage of a thing from potency to actualisation.
-
-Everything in the phenomenal world is but a special collocation of the
-guṇas; so that the change of collocation explains the diversity of
-things. Considered from the point of view of the guṇas, things are all
-the same, so excluding that, the cause of the diversity in things is the
-power which the guṇas have of changing their particular collocations and
-thus assuming various shapes. We have seen that the prakṛti unfolds
-itself through various stages—the mahat called the great being—the
-ahaṃkāra, the tanmātras called the aviśeshas. Now the liṅga at once
-resolves itself into the ahaṃkāra and through it again into the
-tanmātras. The ahaṃkāra and the tanmātras again resolve themselves into
-the senses and the gross elements, and these again are constantly
-suffering thousands of modifications called the dharma, lakshaṇa, and
-avasthā-pariṇāma according to the definite law of evolution
-(_pariṇāmakramaniyama_).
-
-Now according to the Saṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine, the śakti—power,
-force—and the śaktimān—the possessor of power or force—are not different
-but identical. So the prakṛti and all its emanations and modifications
-are of the nature of substantive entities as well as power or force.
-Their appearances as substantive entities and as power or force are but
-two aspects, and so it will be erroneous to make any such distinction as
-the substantive entity and its power or force. That which is the
-substantive entity is the force, and that which is the force is the
-substantive entity. Of course for all practical purposes we can indeed
-make some distinction, but that distinction is only relatively true.
-Thus when we say that earth is the substantive entity and the power
-which it has of transforming itself into the produced form, lump, or jug
-as its attribute, we see on the one hand that no distinction is really
-made between the appearance of the earth as jug and its power of
-transforming itself into the jug. As this power of transforming itself
-into lump or jug, etc., always abides in the earth we say that the jug,
-etc., are also abiding in the earth; when the power is in the potential
-state, we say that the jug is in the potential state, and when it is
-actualised, we say that the jug has been actualised. Looked at from the
-tanmātric side, the earth and all the other gross elements must be said
-to be mere modifications, and as such identical with the power which the
-tanmātras have of changing themselves into them. The potentiality or
-actuality of any state is the mere potentiality or actuality of the
-power which its antecedent cause has of transforming itself into it.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER VII
- EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES
-
-
-Prakṛti, though a substantive entity is yet a potential power, being
-actualised as its various modifications, the aviśeshas and the viśeshas.
-Being of the nature of power, the movement by which it actualises itself
-is immanent within itself and not caused from without. The operation of
-the concomitant conditions is only manifested in the removal of the
-negative barriers by which the power was stopped or prevented from
-actualising itself. Being of the nature of power, its potentiality means
-that it is kept in equilibrium by virtue of the opposing tendencies
-inherent within it, which serve to obstruct one another and are
-therefore called the āvaraṇa śakti. Of course it is evident that there
-is no real or absolute distinction between the opposing force (_āvaraṇa
-śakti_) and the energising force (_kāryyakarī śakti_); they may be
-called so only relatively, for the same tendency which may appear as the
-_āvaraṇa śakti_ of some tendencies may appear as the _kāryyakarī śakti_
-elsewhere. The example chosen to explain the nature of prakṛti and its
-modifications conceived as power tending towards actuality from
-potentiality in the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ is that of a sheet of water enclosed
-by temporary walls within a field, but always tending to run out of it.
-As soon as the temporary wall is broken in some direction, the water
-rushes out of itself, and what one has to do is to break the wall at a
-particular place. Prakṛti is also the potential for all the infinite
-diversity of things in the phenomenal world, but the potential tendency
-of all these mutually opposed and diverse things cannot be actualised
-together. Owing to the concomitant conditions when the barrier of a
-certain tendency is removed, it at once actualises itself in its effect
-and so on.
-
-We can only expect to get any effect from any cause if the necessary
-barriers can be removed, for everything is everything potentially and it
-is only necessary to remove the particular barrier which is obstructing
-the power from actualising itself in that particular effect towards
-which it is always potentially tending. Thus Nandī who was a man is at
-once turned into a god for his particular merit, which served to break
-all the barriers of the potential tendency of his body towards becoming
-divine, so that the barriers being removed the potential power of the
-prakṛti of his body at once actualises itself in the divine body.
-
-The _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ (III. 14) mentions four sorts of concomitant
-conditions which can serve to break the barrier in a particular way and
-thus determine the mode or form of the actualisations of the potential.
-These are (1) ākāra, form and constitution of a thing; deśa, place, (3)
-kāla, time; thus from a piece of stone, the shoot of a plant cannot
-proceed, for the arrangement of the particles in stone is such that it
-will oppose and stand as a bar to its potential tendencies to develop
-into the shoot of a plant; of course if these barriers could be removed,
-say by the will of God, as Vijñāna Bhikshu says, then it is not
-impossible that the shoot of a plant might grow from a stone. By the
-will of God poison may be turned into nectar and nectar into poison, and
-there is no absolute certainty of the course of the evolutionary
-process, for God’s will can make any change in the direction of its
-process (_avyavasthitākhilapariṇāmo bhavatyeva_, III. 14).
-
-According to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala theory dharma, merit, can only be
-said to accrue from those actions which lead to a man’s salvation, and
-adharma from just the opposite course of conduct. When it is said that
-these can remove the barriers of the prakṛti and thus determine its
-modifications, it amounts almost to saying that the modifications of the
-prakṛti are being regulated by the moral conditions of man. According to
-the different stages of man’s moral evolution, different kinds of merit,
-dharma or adharma, accrue, and these again regulate the various physical
-and mental phenomena according to which a man may be affected either
-pleasurably or painfully. It must, however, be always remembered that
-the dharma and adharma are also the productions of prakṛti, and as such
-cannot affect it except by behaving as the cause for the removal of the
-opposite obstructions—the dharma for removing the obstructions of
-adharma and adharma for those of dharma. Vijñāna Bhikshu and Nāgeśa
-agree here in saying that the modifications due to dharma and adharma
-are those which affect the bodies and senses. What they mean is possibly
-this, that it is dharma or adharma alone which guides the
-transformations of the bodies and senses of all living beings in general
-and the Yogins.
-
-The body of a person and his senses are continually decaying and being
-reconstructed by refilling from the gross elements and from ahaṃkāra
-respectively. These refillings proceed automatically and naturally; but
-they follow the teleological purpose as chalked out by the law of karma
-in accordance with the virtues or vices of a man. Thus the gross insult
-to which the sages were subjected by Nahusha[36] was so effective a sin
-that by its influence the refilling of Nahusha’s body and the senses was
-stopped and the body and senses of a snake were directly produced by a
-process of refilling from the gross elements and ahaṃkāra, for providing
-him with a body in which he could undergo the sufferings which were his
-due owing to the enormity of his vice. Thus by his vicious action the
-whole machinery of prakṛti was set in operation so that he at once died
-and was immediately reborn as a snake. In another place Vācaspati “the
-virtuous enjoys happiness” as an illustration of the cause of dharma and
-adharma as controlling the course of the development of prakṛti. We
-therefore see that the sphere of merit and demerit lies in the helping
-of the formation of the particular bodies and senses (from the gross
-elements and ahaṃkāra respectively) suited to all living beings
-according to their stages of evolution and their growth, decay, or other
-sorts of their modifications as pleasure, pain, and also as illness or
-health. Thus it is by his particular merit that the Yogin can get his
-special body or men or animals can get their new bodies after leaving
-the old ones at death. Thus _Yoga-vārttika_ says: “Merit by removing the
-obstructions of demerit causes the development of the body and the
-senses.”
-
-As for Īśvara I do not remember that the _Bhāshya_ or the sūtras ever
-mention Him as having anything to do with the controlling of the
-modifications of the prakṛti by removing the barriers, but all the later
-commentators agree in holding him responsible for the removal of all
-barriers in the way of prakṛtis development. So that Īśvara is the root
-cause of all the removal of barriers, including those that are affected
-by merit and demerit. Thus Vācaspati says (IV. 3): _Īśvarasyāpi
-dharmādhishṭhānārthaṃ pratibandhāpanaya eva vyāpāro_, i.e. God stands as
-the cause of the removal of such obstacles in the prakṛti as may lead to
-the fruition of merit or demerit.
-
-_Yoga-vārttika_ and Nāgeśa agree in holding Īśvara responsible for the
-removal of all obstacles in the way of the evolution of prakṛti. Thus
-Bhikshu says that God rouses prakṛti by breaking the opposing forces of
-the state of equilibrium and also of the course of evolution (IV. 3).
-
-It is on account of God that we can do good or bad actions and thus
-acquire merit or demerit. Of course God is not active and cannot cause
-any motion in prakṛti. But He by His very presence causes the obstacles,
-as the barriers in the way of prakṛti’s development, to be removed, in
-such a way that He stands ultimately responsible for the removal of all
-obstacles in the way of prakṛti’s development and thus also of all
-obstacles in the way of men’s performance of good or bad deeds. Man’s
-good or bad deeds “puṇyakarma,” apuṇyakarma, dharma or adharma serve to
-remove the obstacles of prakṛti in such a way as to result in
-pleasurable or painful effects; but it is by God’s help that the
-barriers of prakṛti are removed and it yields itself in such a way that
-a man may perform good or bad deeds according to his desire. Nīlakaṇṭha,
-however, by his quotations in explanation of 300/2, _Śāntiparva_, leads
-us to suppose that he regards God’s will as wholly responsible for the
-performance of our good or bad actions. For if we lay stress on his
-quotation “He makes him do good deeds whom He wants to raise, and He
-makes him commit bad deeds whom He wants to throw down,” it appears that
-he whom God wants to raise is made to perform good actions and he whom
-God wants to throw downwards is made to commit bad actions. But this
-seems to be a very bold idea, as it will altogether nullify the least
-vestige of freedom in and responsibility for our actions and is
-unsupported by the evidence of other commentators. Vijñāna Bhikshu also
-says with reference to this śruti in his _Vijñānamṛta-bhāshya_, III. 33:
-“As there is an infinite _regressus_ between the causal connection of
-seed and shoot, so one karma is being determined by the previous karma
-and so on; there is no beginning to this chain.” So we take the
-superintendence of merits and demerits (_dharmādhispṭhānatā_) by Īśvara
-to mean only in a general way the help that is offered by Him in
-removing the obstructions of the external world in such a manner that it
-may be possible for a man to perform practically meritorious acts in the
-external world.
-
-Nīlakaṇṭha commenting on the Yoga view says that “like a piece of
-magnet, God though inactive, may by His very presence stir up prakṛti
-and help His devotees. So the Yoga holds that for the granting of
-emancipation God has to be admitted” (_Śāntiparva_, 300/2).
-
-In support of our view we also find that it is by God’s influence that
-the unalterable nature of the external world is held fast and a limit
-imposed on the powers of man in producing changes in the external world.
-Thus Vācaspati in explaining the Bhāshya (III. 45) says: “Though capable
-of doing it, yet he does not change the order of things, because another
-earlier omnipotent being had wished the things to be such as they were.
-They would not disobey the orders of the omnipotent God.”
-
-Men may indeed acquire unlimited powers of producing any changes they
-like, for the powers of objects as they change according to the
-difference of class, space, time and condition, are not permanent, and
-so it is proper that they should act in accordance with the desire of
-the Yogin; but there is a limit to men’s will by the command of God—thus
-far and no further.
-
-Another point in our favour is that the Yoga philosophy differs from the
-Sāṃkhya mainly in this that the purushārtha or serviceability to the
-purusha is only the aim or end of the evolution of prakṛti and not
-actually the agent which removes the obstacles of the prakṛti in such a
-way as to determine its course as this cosmical process of evolution.
-Purushārtha is indeed the aim for which the process of evolution exists;
-for this manifold evolution in its entirety affects the interests of the
-purusha alone; but that does not prove that its teleology can really
-guide the evolution on its particular lines so as to ensure the best
-possible mode of serving all the interests of the purusha, for this
-teleology being immanent in the prakṛti is essentially non-intelligent.
-Thus Vācaspati says: “The fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha is
-not also the prime mover. God has the fulfilment of the purpose of the
-purusha as His own purpose, for which He behaves as the prime mover. The
-fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha may be regarded as cause only
-in the sense that it is the object in view of God, the prime mover.”[37]
-
-The Sāṃkhya, however, hopes that this immanent purpose in prakṛti acts
-like a blind instinct and is able to guide the course of its evolution
-in all its manifold lines in accordance with the best possible service
-of the purusha.
-
-The Pātañjala view, as we have seen, maintains that Īśvara removes all
-obstacles of prakṛti in such a way that this purpose may find scope for
-its realisation. Thus _Sūtrārthabodhinī_, IV. 3, of Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha
-says: “According to atheistic Sāṃkhya the future serviceability of
-purusha alone is the mover of prakṛti. But with us theists the
-serviceability of purusha is the object for which prakṛti moves. It is
-merely as an object that the serviceability of the purusha may be said
-to be the mover of the prakṛti.”
-
-As regards the connection of prakṛti and purusha, however, both Sāṃkhya
-and Pātañjala agree according to Vijñāna Bhikshu in denying the
-interference of Īśvara; it is the movement of prakṛti by virtue of
-immanent purpose that connects itself naturally with the purusha.
-Vijñāna Bhikshu’s own view, however, is that this union is brought about
-by God (_Vijñānāmṛta-bhāshya_, p. 34).
-
-To recapitulate, we see that there is an immanent purpose in prakṛti
-which connects it with the purushas. This purpose is, however, blind and
-cannot choose the suitable lines of development and cause the movement
-of Prakṛti along them for its fullest realisation. Prakṛti itself,
-though a substantial entity, is also essentially of the nature of
-conserved energy existing in the potential form but always ready to flow
-out and actualise itself, if only its own immanent obstructions are
-removed. Its teleological purpose is powerless to remove its own
-obstruction. God by His very presence removes the obstacles, by which,
-prakṛti of itself moves in the evolutionary process, and thus the
-purpose is realised; for the removal of obstacles by the influence of
-God takes place in such a way that the purpose may realise its fullest
-scope. Realisation of the teleology means that the interests of purusha
-are seemingly affected and purusha appears to see and feel in a manifold
-way, and after a long series of such experiences it comes to understand
-itself in its own nature, and this being the last and final realisation
-of the purpose of prakṛti with reference to that purusha all connections
-of prakṛti with such a purusha at once cease; the purusha is then said
-to be liberated and the world ceases for him to exist, though it exists
-for the other unliberated purushas, the purpose of the prakṛti with
-reference to whom has not been realised. So the world is both eternal
-and non-eternal, i.e. its eternality is only relative and not absolute.
-Thus the _Bhāshya_ says the question “whether the world will have an end
-or not cannot be directly answered. The world-process gradually ceases
-for the wise and not for others, so no one-sided decision can be true”
-(IV. 33).
-
-
-
-
- BOOK II. ETHICS AND PRACTICE
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER VIII
- MIND AND MORAL STATES
-
-
-The Yoga philosophy has essentially a practical tone and its object
-consists mainly in demonstrating the means of attaining salvation,
-oneness, the liberation of the purusha. The metaphysical theory which we
-have discussed at some length, though it is the basis which justifies
-its ethical goal, is not itself the principal subject of Yoga
-discussion, and is only dealt with to the extent that it can aid in
-demonstrating the ethical view. We must now direct our attention to
-these ethical theories. Citta or mind always exists in the form of its
-states which are called vṛttis.[38] These comprehend all the manifold
-states of consciousness of our phenomenal existence. We cannot
-distinguish states of consciousness from consciousness itself, for the
-consciousness is not something separate from its states; it exists in
-them, passes away with their passing and submerges when they are
-submerged. It differs from the senses in this, that they represent the
-functions and faculties, whereas citta stands as the entity containing
-the conscious states with which we are directly concerned. But the citta
-which we have thus described as existing only in its states is called
-the kāryyacitta or citta as effect as distinguished from the kāraṇacitta
-or citta as cause. These kāraṇacittas or cittas as cause are
-all-pervading like the ākāśa and are infinite in number, each being
-connected with each of the numberless purushas or souls (_Chāyāvyākhyā_,
-IV. 10). The reason assigned for acknowledging such a kāraṇacitta which
-must be all-pervading, as is evident from the quotation, is that the
-Yogin may have knowledge of all things at once.
-
-Vācaspati says that this citta being essentially of the nature of
-ahaṃkāra is as all-pervading as the ego itself (IV. 10).
-
-This kāraṇacitta contracts or expands and appears as our individual
-cittas in our various bodies at successive rebirths. The kāraṇacitta is
-always connected with the purusha and appears contracted when the
-purusha presides over animal bodies, and as relatively expanded when he
-presides over human bodies, and more expanded when he presides over the
-bodies of gods, etc. This contracted or expanded citta appears as our
-kāryyacitta which always manifests itself as our states of
-consciousness. After death the kāraṇacitta, which is always connected
-with the purusha, manifests itself in the new body which is formed by
-the āpūra (filling in of prakṛti on account of effective merit or
-demerit that the purusha had apparently acquired). The formation of the
-body as well as the contraction or expansion of the kāraṇacitta as the
-corresponding kāryyacitta to suit it is due to this āpūra. The Yoga does
-not hold that the citta has got a separate fine astral body within which
-it may remain encased and be transferred along with it to another body
-on rebirth. The citta being all-pervading, it appears both to contract
-or expand to suit the particular body destined for it owing to its merit
-or demerit, but there is no separate astral body (_Tattvavaiśāradī_, IV.
-10). In reality the karaṇacitta as such always remains vibhu or
-all-pervading; it is only its kāryyacitta or vṛtti that appears in a
-contracted or expanded form, according to the particular body which it
-may be said to occupy.
-
-The Sāṃkhya view, however, does not regard the citta to be essentially
-all-pervading, but small or great according as the body it has to
-occupy. Thus Bhikshu and Nāgeśa in explaining the _Bhāshya_, “others
-think that the citta expands or contracts according as it is in a bigger
-or smaller body, just as light rays do according as they are placed in
-the jug or in a room,” attributes this view to the Sāṃkhya
-(_Vyāsabhāshya_, IV. 10, and the commentaries by Bhikshu and Nāgeśa on
-it).[39]
-
-It is this citta which appears as the particular states of consciousness
-in which both the knower and the known are reflected, and it comprehends
-them both in one state of consciousness. It must, however, be remembered
-that this citta is essentially a modification of prakṛti, and as such is
-non-intelligent; but by the seeming reflection of the purusha it appears
-as the knower knowing a certain object, and we therefore see that in the
-states themselves are comprehended both the knower and the known. This
-citta is not, however, a separate tattva, but is the sum or unity of the
-eleven senses and the ego and also of the five prāṇas or biomotor forces
-(_Nāgeśa_, IV. 10). It thus stands for all that is psychical in man: his
-states of consciousness including the living principle in man
-represented by the activity of the five prāṇas.
-
-It is the object of Yoga gradually to restrain the citta from its
-various states and thus cause it to turn back to its original cause, the
-kāraṇacitta, which is all-pervading. The modifications of the
-kāraṇacitta into such states as the kāryyacitta is due to its being
-overcome by its inherent tamas and rajas; so when the transformations of
-the citta into the passing states are arrested by concentration, there
-takes place a backward movement and the all-pervading state of the citta
-being restored to itself and all tamas being overcome, the Yogin
-acquires omniscience, and finally when this citta becomes as pure as the
-form of purusha itself, the purusha becomes conscious of himself and is
-liberated from the bonds of prakṛti.
-
-The Yoga philosophy in the first chapter describes the Yoga for him
-whose mind is inclined towards trance-cognition. In the second chapter
-is described the means by which one with an ordinary worldly mind
-(_vyutthāna citta_) may also acquire Yoga. In the third chapter are
-described those phenomena which strengthen the faith of the Yogin on the
-means of attaining Yoga described in the second chapter. In the fourth
-chapter is described kaivalya, absolute independence or oneness, which
-is the end of all the Yoga practices.
-
-The _Bhāshya_ describes the five classes of cittas and comments upon
-their fitness for the Yoga leading to kaivalya. Those are I. _kshipta_
-(wandering), II. _mūḍha_ (forgetful), III. _vikshipta_ (occasionally
-steady), IV. _ekāgra_ (one-pointed), _niruddha_ (restrained).
-
-I. The _kshiptacitta_ is characterised as wandering, because it is being
-always moved by the rajas. This is that citta which is always moved to
-and fro by the rise of passions, the excess of which may indeed for the
-time overpower the mind and thus generate a temporary concentration, but
-it has nothing to do with the contemplative concentration required for
-attaining absolute independence. The man moved by rajas, far from
-attaining any mastery of himself, is rather a slave to his own passions
-and is always being moved to and fro and shaken by them (see
-_Siddhānta-candrikā_, I. 2, _Bhojavṛtti_, I. 2).
-
-II. The mūḍhacitta is that which is overpowered by tamas, or passions,
-like that of anger, etc., by which it loses its senses and always
-chooses the wrong course. Svāmin Hariharāraṇya suggests a beautiful
-example of such concentration as similar to that of certain snakes which
-become completely absorbed in the prey upon which they are about to
-pounce.
-
-III. The vikshiptacitta, or distracted or occasionally steady citta, is
-that mind which rationally avoids the painful actions and chooses the
-pleasurable ones. Now none of these three kinds of mind can hope to
-attain that contemplative concentration called Yoga. This last type of
-mind represents ordinary people, who sometimes tend towards good but
-relapse back to evil.
-
-IV. The one-pointed (ekāgra) is that kind of mind in which true
-knowledge of the nature of reality is present and the afflictions due to
-nescience or false knowledge are thus attenuated and the mind better
-adapted to attain the nirodha or restrained state. All these come under
-the saṃprajñāta (concentration on an object of knowledge) type.
-
-V. The nirodha or restrained mind is that in which all mental states are
-arrested. This leads to kaivalya.
-
-Ordinarily our minds are engaged only in perception, inference,
-etc.—those mental states which we all naturally possess. These ordinary
-mental states are full of rajas and tamas. When these are arrested, the
-mind flows with an abundance of sattva in the saṃprajñāta samādhi;
-lastly when even the saṃprajñāta state is arrested, all possible states
-become arrested.
-
-Another important fact which must be noted is the relation of the actual
-states of mind called the vṛttis with the latent states called the
-saṃskāras—the potency. When a particular mental state passes away into
-another, it is not altogether lost, but is preserved in the mind in a
-latent form as a saṃskāra, which is always trying to manifest itself in
-actuality. The vṛttis or actual states are thus both generating the
-saṃskāras and are also always tending to manifest themselves and
-actually generating similar vṛttis or actual states. There is a
-circulation from vṛttis to saṃskāras and from them again to vṛttis
-(_saṃskārāḥ vṛttibhiḥ kriyante, saṃskāraiśca vṛttayaḥ evaṃ
-vṛttisaṃskāracakramaniśamāvarttate_). So the formation of saṃskāras and
-their conservation are gradually being strengthened by the habit of
-similar vṛttis or actual states, and their continuity is again
-guaranteed by the strength and continuity of these saṃskāras. The
-saṃskāras are like roots striking deep into the soil and growing with
-the growth of the plant above, but even when the plant above the soil is
-destroyed, the roots remain undisturbed and may again shoot forth as
-plants whenever they obtain a favourable season. Thus it is not enough
-for a Yogin to arrest any particular class of mental states; he must
-attain such a habit of restraint that the saṃskāra thus generated is
-able to overcome, weaken and destroy the saṃskāra of those actual states
-which he has arrested by his contemplation. Unless restrained by such a
-habit, the saṃskāra of cessation (_nirodhaja saṃskāra_) which is opposed
-to the previously acquired mental states become powerful and destroy the
-latter, these are sure to shoot forth again in favourable season into
-their corresponding actual states.
-
-The conception of avidyā or nescience is here not negative but has a
-definite positive aspect. It means that kind of knowledge which is
-opposed to true knowledge (_vidyāviparītaṃ jñānāntaramavidyā_). This is
-of four kinds: (1) The thinking of the non-eternal world, which is
-merely an effect, as eternal. (2) The thinking of the impure as the
-pure, as for example the attraction that a woman’s body may have for a
-man leading him to think the impure body pure. (3) The thinking of vice
-as virtue, of the undesirable as the desirable, of pain as pleasure. We
-know that for a Yogin every phenomenal state of existence is painful
-(II. 15). A Yogin knows that attachment (_rāga_) to sensual and other
-objects can only give temporary pleasure, for it is sure to be soon
-turned into pain. Enjoyment can never bring satisfaction, but only
-involves a man further and further in sorrows. (4) Considering the
-non-self, e.g. the body as the self. This causes a feeling of being
-injured on the injury of the body.
-
-At the moment of enjoyment there is always present suffering from pain
-in the form of aversion to pain; for the tendency to aversion from pain
-can only result from the incipient memory of previous sufferings. Of
-course this is also a case of pleasure turned into pain
-(_pariṇāmaduḥkhatā_), but it differs from it in this that in the case of
-pariṇāmaduḥkha pleasure is turned into pain as a result of change or
-pariṇāma in the future, whereas in this case the anxiety as to pain is a
-thing of the present, happening at one and the same time that a man is
-enjoying pleasure.
-
-Enjoyment of pleasure or suffering from pain causes those impressions
-called saṃskāra or potencies, and these again when aided by association
-naturally create their memory and thence comes attachment or aversion,
-then again action, and again pleasure and pain and hence impressions,
-memory, attachment or aversion, and again action and so forth.
-
-All states are modifications of the three guṇas; in each one of them the
-functions of all the three guṇas are seen, contrary to one another.
-These contraries are observable in their developed forms, for the guṇas
-are seen to abide in various proportions and compose all our mental
-states. Thus a Yogin who wishes to be released from pain once for all is
-very sensitive and anxious to avoid even our so-called pleasures. The
-wise are like the eye-ball. As a thread of wool thrown into the eye
-pains by merely touching it, but not when it comes into contact with any
-other organ, so the Yogin is as tender as the eye-ball, when others are
-insensible of pain. Ordinary persons, however, who have again and again
-suffered pains as the consequence of their own karma, and who again seek
-them after having given them up, are all round pierced through as it
-were by nescience, their minds become full of afflictions, variegated by
-the eternal residua of the passions. They follow in the wake of the “I”
-and the “Mine” in relation to things that should be left apart, pursuing
-threefold pain in repeated births, due to external and internal causes.
-The Yogin seeing himself and the world of living beings surrounded by
-the eternal flow of pain, turns for refuge to right knowledge, cause of
-the destruction of all pains (_Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 15).
-
-Thinking of the mind and body and the objects of the external world as
-the true self and feeling affected by their change is avidyā (false
-knowledge).
-
-The modifications that this avidyā suffers may be summarised under four
-heads.
-
-I. The ego, which, as described above, springs from the identification
-of the buddhi with the purusha.
-
-II. From this ego springs attachment (_rāga_) which is the inclination
-towards pleasure and consequently towards the means necessary for
-attaining it in a person who has previously experienced pleasures and
-remembers them.
-
-II. Repulsion from pain also springs from the ego and is of the nature
-of anxiety for its removal; anger at pain and the means which produces
-pain, remains in the mind in consequence of the feeling of pain, in the
-case of him who has felt and remembers pain.
-
-IV. Love of life also springs from the ego. This feeling exists in all
-persons and appears in a positive aspect in the form “would that I were
-never to cease.” This is due to the painful experience of death in some
-previous existence, which abides in us as a residual potency (_vāsanā_)
-and causes the instincts of self-preservation, fear of death and love of
-life. These modifications including avidyā are called the five kleśas or
-afflictions.
-
-We are now in a position to see the far-reaching effects of the
-identification of the purusha with the buddhi. We have already seen how
-it has generated the macrocosm or external world on the one hand, and
-manas and the senses on the other. Now we see that from it also spring
-attachment to pleasure, aversion from pain and love of life, motives
-observable in most of our states of consciousness, which are therefore
-called the _klishṭa vṛtti_ or afflicted states. The five afflictions
-(false knowledge and its four modifications spoken above) just mentioned
-are all comprehended in avidyā, since avidyā or false knowledge is at
-the root of all worldly experiences. The sphere of avidyā is all false
-knowledge generally, and that of asmitā is also inseparably connected
-with all our experiences which consist in the identification of the
-intelligent self with the sensual objects of the world, the attainment
-of which seems to please us and the loss of which is so painful to us.
-It must, however, be remembered that these five afflictions are only
-different aspects of avidyā and cannot be conceived separately from
-avidyā. These always lead us into the meshes of the world, far from our
-final goal—the realisation of our own self—emancipation of the purusha.
-
-Opposed to it are the vṛttis or states which are called unafflicted,
-aklishṭa, the habit of steadiness (_abhyāsa_) and non-attachment to
-pleasures (_vairāgya_) which being antagonistic to the afflicted states,
-are helpful towards achieving true knowledge. These represent such
-thoughts as tend towards emancipation and are produced from our attempts
-to conceive rationally our final state of emancipation, or to adopt
-suitable means for this. They must not, however, be confused with
-puṇyakarma (virtuous action), for both puṇya and pāpa karma are said to
-have sprung from the kleśas. There is no hard and fast rule with regard
-to the appearance of these klishṭa and aklishṭa states, so that in the
-stream of the klishṭa states or in the intervals thereof, aklishṭa
-states may also appear—as practice and desirelessness born from the
-study of the Veda-reasoning and precepts—and remain quite distinct in
-itself, unmixed with the klishṭa states. A Brahman being in a village
-which is full of the Kirātas, does not himself become a Kirāta (a forest
-tribe) for that reason.
-
-Each aklishṭa state produces its own potency or saṃskāra, and with the
-frequency of the states their saṃskāra is strengthened which in due
-course suppresses the aklishṭa states.
-
-These klishṭa and aklishṭa modifications are of five descriptions:
-pramāṇa (real cognition), viparyyaya (unreal cognition), vikalpa
-(logical abstraction and imagination), nidrā (sleep), smṛti (memory).
-These vṛttis or states, however, must be distinguished from the six
-kinds of mental activity mentioned in _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 18: grahaṇa
-(reception or presentative ideation), dhāraṇa (retention), ūha
-(assimilation), apoha (differentiation), tattvajñāna (right knowledge),
-abhiniveśa (decision and determination), of which these states are the
-products.
-
-We have seen that from avidyā spring all the kleśas or afflictions,
-which are therefore seen to be the source of the klishṭa vṛttis as well.
-Abhyāsa and vairāgya—the aklishṭa vṛttis, which spring from precepts,
-etc., lead to right knowledge, and as such are antagonistic to the
-modification of the guṇas on the avidyā side.
-
-We know also that both these sets of vṛttis—the klishṭa and the
-aklishṭa—produce their own kinds of saṃskāras, the klishṭa saṃskāra and
-the aklishṭa or prajñā saṃskāra. All these modifications of citta as
-vṛtti and saṃskāra are the dharmas of citta, considered as the dharmin
-or substance.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER IX
- THE THEORY OF KARMA
-
-
-The vṛttis are called the mānasa karmas (mental work) as different from
-the bāhya karmas (external work) achieved in the exterior world by the
-five motor or active senses. These may be divided into four classes: (1)
-kṛshṇa (black), (2) śukla (white), (3) śuklakṛshṇa (white and black),
-(4) aśuklākṛshṇa (neither white nor black). (1) The kṛshṇa karmas are
-those committed by the wicked and, as such, are wicked actions called
-also adharma (demerit). These are of two kinds, viz. bāhya and mānasa,
-the former being of the nature of speaking ill of others, stealing
-others’ property, etc., and the latter of the nature of such states as
-are opposed to śraddhā, vīrya, etc., which are called the śukla karma.
-(2) The śukla karmas are virtuous or meritorious deeds. These can only
-occur in the form of mental states, and as such can take place only in
-the mānasa karma. These are śraddhā (faith), vīrya (strength), smṛti
-(meditation), samādhi (absorption), and prajñā (wisdom), which are
-infinitely superior to actions achieved in the external world by the
-motor or active senses. The śukla karma belongs to those who resort to
-study and meditation. (3) The śuklakṛshṇa karma are the actions achieved
-in the external world by the motor or active senses. These are called
-white and black, because actions achieved in the external world, however
-good (śukla) they might be, cannot be altogether devoid of wickedness
-(kṛshṇa), since all external actions entail some harm to other living
-beings.
-
-Even the Vedic duties, though meritorious, are associated with sins, for
-they entail the sacrificing of animals.[40]
-
-The white side of these actions, viz.: that of helping others and doing
-good is therefore called dharma, as it is the cause of the enjoyment of
-pleasure and happiness for the doer. The kṛshṇa or black side of these
-actions, viz. that of doing injury to others is called adharma, as it is
-the cause of the suffering of pain to the doer. In all our ordinary
-states of existence we are always under the influence of dharma and
-adharma, which are therefore called vehicles of actions (_āśerate
-sāṃsārikā purushā asmin niti āśayaḥ_). That in which some thing lives is
-its vehicle. Here the purushas in evolution are to be understood as
-living in the sheath of actions (which is for that reason called a
-vehicle or āśaya). Merit or virtue, and sin or demerit are the vehicles
-of actions. All śukla karma, therefore, either mental or external, is
-called merit or virtue and is productive of happiness; all kṛshṇa karma,
-either mental or external, is called demerit, sin or vice and is
-productive of pain.
-
-(4) The karma called aśuklakṛshṇa (neither black nor white) is of those
-who have renounced everything, whose afflictions have been destroyed and
-whose present body is the last one they will have. Those who have
-renounced actions, the karma-sannyāsis (and not those who belong to the
-sannyāsāśrama merely), are nowhere found performing actions which depend
-upon external means. They have not got the black vehicle of actions,
-because they do not perform such actions. Nor do they possess the white
-vehicle of actions, because they dedicate to Īśvara the fruits of all
-vehicles of action, brought about by the practice of Yoga.
-
-Returning to the question of karmāśaya again for review, we see that
-being produced from desire (_kāma_), avarice (_lobha_), ignorance
-(_moha_), and anger (_krodha_) it has really got at its root the kleśas
-(afflictions) such as avidyā (ignorance), asmitā (egoism), rāga
-(attachment), dvesha (antipathy), abhiniveśa (love of life). It will be
-easily seen that the passions named above, desire, lust, etc., are not
-in any way different from the kleśas or afflictions previously
-mentioned; and as all actions, virtuous or sinful, have their springs in
-the said sentiments of desire, anger, covetousness, and infatuation, it
-is quite enough that all these virtuous or sinful actions spring from
-the kleśas.
-
-Now this karmāśaya ripens into life-state, life-experience and
-life-time, if the roots—the afflictions—exist. Not only is it true that
-when the afflictions are rooted out, no karmāśaya can accumulate, but
-even when many karmāśayas of many lives are accumulated, they are rooted
-out when the afflictions are destroyed. Otherwise, it is difficult to
-conceive that the karmāśaya accumulated for an infinite number of years,
-whose time of ripeness is uncertain, will be rooted out! So even if
-there be no fresh karmāśaya after the rise of true knowledge, the
-purusha cannot be liberated but will be required to suffer an endless
-cycle of births and rebirths to exhaust the already accumulated
-karmāśayas of endless lives. For this reason, the mental plane becomes a
-field for the production of the fruits of action only, when it is
-watered by the stream of afflictions. Hence the afflictions help the
-vehicle of actions (karmāśaya) in the production of their fruits also.
-It is for this reason that when the afflictions are destroyed the power
-which helps to bring about the manifestation also disappears; and on
-that account the vehicles of actions although existing in innumerable
-quantities have no time for their fruition and do not possess the power
-of producing fruit, because their seed-powers are destroyed by
-intellection.
-
-Karmāśaya is of two kinds. (1) Ripening in the same life
-_dṛshṭajanmavedanīya_. (2) Ripening in another unknown life. That puṇya
-karmāśaya, which is generated by intense purificatory action, trance and
-repetition of mantras, and that pāpa karmāśaya, which is generated by
-repeated evil done either to men who are suffering the extreme misery of
-fear, disease and helplessness, or to those who place confidence in them
-or to those who are high-minded and perform tapas, ripen into fruit in
-the very same life, whereas other kinds of karmāśayas ripen in some
-unknown life.
-
-Living beings in hell have no dṛshṭajanma karmāśaya, for this life is
-intended for suffering only and their bodies are called the
-bhoga-śarīras intended for suffering alone and not for the accumulation
-of any karmāśaya which could take effect in that very life.
-
-There are others whose afflictions have been spent and exhausted and
-thus they have no such karmāśaya, the effect of which they will have
-to reap in some other life. They are thus said to have no
-adṛshṭa-janmavedanīya karma.
-
-The karmāśaya of both kinds described above ripens into life-state,
-life-time and life-experience. These are called the three ripenings or
-vipākas of the karmāśaya; and they are conducive to pleasure or pain,
-according as they are products of puṇyakarmāśaya (virtue) or pāpa
-karmāśaya (vice or demerit). Many karmāśayas combine to produce one
-life-state; for it is not possible that each karma should produce one or
-many life-states, for then there would be no possibility of experiencing
-the effects of the karmas, because if for each one of the karmas we had
-one or more lives, karmas, being endless, space for obtaining lives in
-which to experience effects would not be available, for it would take
-endless time to exhaust the karmas already accumulated. It is therefore
-held that many karmas unite to produce one life-state or birth (jāti)
-and to determine also its particular duration (āyush) and experience
-(bhoga). The virtuous and sinful karmāśayas accumulated in one life, in
-order to produce their effects, cause the death of the individual and
-manifest themselves in producing his rebirth, his duration of life and
-particular experiences, pleasurable or painful. The order of undergoing
-the experiences is the order in which the karmas manifest themselves as
-effects, the principal ones being manifested earlier in life. The
-principal karmas here refer to those which are quite ready to generate
-their effects. Thus it is said that those karmas which produce their
-effects immediately are called primary, whereas those which produce
-effects after some delay are called secondary. Thus we see that there is
-continuity of existence throughout; when the karmas of this life ripen
-jointly they tend to fructify by causing another birth as a means to
-which death is caused, and along with it life is manifested in another
-body (according to the dharma and adharma of the karmāśaya) formed by
-the prakṛtyāpūra (cf. the citta theory described above); and the same
-karmāśaya regulates the life-period and experiences of that life, the
-karmāśayas of which again take a similar course and manifest themselves
-in the production of another life and so on.
-
-We have seen that the karmāśaya has three fructifications, viz. jāti,
-āyush and bhoga. Now generally the karmāśaya is regarded as ekabhavika
-or unigenital, i.e. it accumulates in one life. Ekabhava means one life
-and ekabhavika means the product of one life, or accumulated in one
-life. Regarded from this point of view, it may be contrasted with the
-vāsanās which remain accumulated from thousands of previous lives since
-eternity, the mind, being pervaded all over with them, as a fishing-net
-is covered all over with knots. This vāsanā results from memory of the
-experiences of a life generated by the fructification of the karmāśaya
-and kept in the citta in the form of potency or impressions (saṃskāra).
-Now we have previously seen that the citta remains constant in all the
-births and rebirths that an individual has undergone from eternity; it
-therefore keeps the memory of those various experiences of thousands of
-lives in the form of saṃskāra or potency and is therefore compared with
-a fishing-net pervaded all over with knots. The vāsanās therefore are
-not the results of the accumulation of experiences or their memory in
-one life but in many lives, and are therefore called anekabhavika as
-contrasted with the karmāśaya representing virtuous and vicious actions
-which are accumulated in one life and which produce another life, its
-experiences and its life-duration as a result of fructification
-(vipāka). This vāsanā is the cause of the instinctive tendencies, or
-habits of deriving pleasures and pains peculiar to different animal
-lives.
-
-Thus the habits of a dog-life and its peculiar modes of taking its
-experiences and of deriving pleasures and pains are very different in
-nature from those of a man-life; they must therefore be explained on the
-basis of an incipient memory in the form of potency, or impressions
-(saṃskāra) of the experiences that an individual must have undergone in
-a previous dog-life.
-
-Now when by the fructification of the karmāśaya a dog-life is settled
-for a person, his corresponding vāsanās of a previous dog-life are at
-once revived and he begins to take interest in his dog-life in the
-manner of a dog; the same principle applies to the virtue of individuals
-as men or as gods (IV. 8).
-
-If there was not this law of vāsanās, then any vāsanā would be revived
-in any life, and with the manifestation of the vāsanā of animal life a
-man would take interest in eating grass and derive pleasure from it.
-Thus Nāgeśa says: “Now if those karmas which produce a man-life should
-manifest the vāsanās of animal lives, then one might be inclined to eat
-grass as a man, and it is therefore said that only the vāsanās
-corresponding to the karmas are revived.”
-
-Now as the vāsanās are of the nature of saṃskāras or impressions, they
-lie ingrained in the citta and nothing can prevent their being revived.
-The intervention of other births has no effect. For this reason, the
-vāsanās of a dog-life are at once revived in another dog-life, though
-between the first dog-life and the second dog-life, the individual may
-have passed through many other lives, as a man, a bull, etc., though the
-second dog-life may take place many hundreds of years after the first
-dog-life and in quite different countries. The difference between
-saṃskāras, impressions, and smṛti or memory is simply this that the
-former is the latent state whereas the latter is the manifested state;
-so we see that the memory and the impressions are identical in nature,
-so that whenever a saṃskāra is revived, it means nothing but the
-manifestation of the memory of the same experiences conserved in the
-saṃskāra in a latent state. Experiences, when they take place, keep
-their impressions in the mind, though thousands of other experiences,
-lapse of time, etc., may intervene. They are revived in one moment with
-the proper cause of their revival, and the other intervening experiences
-can in no way hinder this revival. So it is with the vāsanās, which are
-revived at once according to the particular fructification of the
-karmāśaya, in the form of a particular life, as a man, a dog, or
-anything else.
-
-It is now clear that the karmāśaya tending towards fructification is the
-cause of the manifestation of the vāsanās already existing in the mind
-in a latent form. Thus the Sūtra says:—“When two similar lives are
-separated by many births, long lapses of time and remoteness of space,
-even then for the purpose of the revival of the vāsanās, they may be
-regarded as immediately following each other, for the memories and
-impressions are the same” (_Yoga-sūtra_, IV. 9). The _Bhāshya_ says:
-“the vāsanā is like the memory (smṛti), and so there can be memory from
-the impressions of past lives separated by many lives and by remote
-tracts of country. From these memories the impressions (saṃskāras) are
-derived, and the memories are revived by manifestation of the
-karmāśayas, and though memories from past impressions may have many
-lives intervening, these interventions do not destroy the causal
-antecedence of those past lives” (IV. 9).
-
-These vāsanās are, however, beginningless, for a baby just after birth
-is seen to feel the fear of death instinctively, and it could not have
-derived it from its experience in this life. Again, if a small baby is
-thrown upwards, it is seen to shake and cry like a grown-up man, and
-from this it may be inferred that it is afraid of falling down on the
-ground and is therefore shaking through fear. Now this baby has never
-learnt in this life from experience that a fall on the ground will cause
-pain, for it has never fallen on the ground and suffered pain therefrom;
-so the cause of this fear cannot be sought in the experiences of this
-life, but in the memory of past experiences of fall and pain arising
-therefrom, which is innate in this life as vāsanā and causes this
-instinctive fear. So this innate memory which causes instinctive fear of
-death from the very time of birth, has not its origin in this life but
-is the memory of the experience of some previous life, and in that life,
-too, it existed as innate memory of some other previous life, and in
-that again as the innate memory of some other life and so on to
-beginningless time. This goes to show that the vāsanās are without
-beginning.
-
-We come now to the question of unigenitality—ekabhavikatva—of the
-karmāśaya and its exceptions. We find that great confusion has occurred
-among the commentators about the following passage in the _Bhāshya_
-which refers to this subject: The _Bhāshya_ according to Vācaspati in
-II. 13 reads: _tatra dṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya_, etc. Here
-Bhikshu and Nāgeśa read _tatrādṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya_,
-etc. There is thus a divergence of meaning on this point between
-_Yoga-vārttika_ and his follower Nāgeśa, on one side, and Vācaspati on
-the other.
-
-Vācaspati says that the dṛshṭajanmavedanīya (to be fructified in the
-same visible life) karma is the only true karma where the karmāśaya is
-ekabhavika, unigenital, for here these effects are positively not due to
-the karma of any other previous lives, but to the karma of that very
-life. Thus these are the only true causes of ekabhavika karmāśaya.
-
-Thus according to Vācaspati we see that the adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma
-(to be fructified in another life) of unappointed fruition is never an
-ideal of ekabhavikatva or unigenital character; for it may have three
-different courses: (1) It may be destroyed without fruition. (2) It may
-become merged in the ruling action. (3) It may exist for a long time
-overpowered by the ruling action whose fruition has been appointed.
-
-Vijñāna Bhikshu and his follower Nāgeśa, however, say that the
-dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (to be fructified in the same visible life)
-can never be ekabhavika or unigenital for there is no bhava, or previous
-birth there, whose product is being fructified in that life, for this
-karma is of that same visible life and not of some other previous bhava
-or life; and they agree in holding that it is for that reason that the
-_Bhāshya_ makes no mention of this dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma; it is
-clear that the karmāśaya in no other bhava is being fructified here.
-Thus we see that about dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma, Vācaspati holds that
-it is the typical case of ekabhavika karma (karma of the same birth),
-whereas Vijñāna Bhikshu holds just the opposite view, viz. that the
-dṛhṭajanmavedanīya karma should by no means be considered as ekabhavika
-since there is here no bhava or birth, it being fructified in the same
-life.
-
-The adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (works to be fructified in another life)
-of unfixed fruition has three different courses: (I) As we have observed
-before, by the rise of _aśuklākṛshṇa_ (neither black nor white) karma,
-the other karmas—_śukla_ (black), _kṛshṇa_ (white) and _śuklakṛshṇa_
-(both black and white)—are rooted out. The śukla karmāśaya again arising
-from study and asceticism destroys the kṛshṇa karmas without their being
-able to generate their effects. These therefore can never be styled
-ekabhavika, since they are destroyed without producing any effect. (II)
-When the effects of minor actions are merged in the effects of the major
-and ruling action. The sins originating from the sacrifice of animals at
-a holy sacrifice are sure to produce bad effects, though they may be
-minor and small in comparison with the good effects arising from the
-performance of the sacrifice in which they are merged. Thus it is said
-that the experts being immersed in floods of happiness brought about by
-their sacrifices bear gladly particles of the fire of sorrow brought
-about by the sin of killing animals at sacrifice. So we see that here
-also the minor actions having been performed with the major do not
-produce their effects independently, and so all their effects are not
-fully manifested, and hence these secondary karmāśayas cannot be
-regarded as ekabhavika. (III) Again the adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (to
-be fructified in another life) of unfixed fruition (_aniyata vipāka_)
-remains overcome for a long time by another adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma
-of fixed fruition. A man may for example do some good actions and some
-extremely vicious ones, so that at the time of death, the karmāśaya of
-those vicious actions becoming ripe and fit for appointed fruition,
-generates an animal life. His good action, whose benefits are such as
-may be reaped only in a man-life, will remain overcome until the man is
-born again as a man: so this also cannot be said to be ekabhavika (to be
-reaped in one life). We may summarise the classification of karmas
-according to Vācaspati in a table as follows:—
-
- Karmāśaya
- |
- +-------------------+--------------------+
- | |
- Ekabhavika Anekabhavika
- | |
- Niyata Vipāka Aniyatavipāka
- (of fixed fruition). |
- | Adṛshṭajanmavedanīya
- +------+--------------------+ |
- | | |
- Dṛshṭajanmavedanīya Adṛshṭajanmavedanīya |
- |
- +----------------+----------+-----+
- | | |
- (Destruction) (Merged in the (To remain
- effect of the overcome by
- major action.) the influence
- of some other
- action.)
-
-Thus the karmāśaya may be viewed from two sides, one being that of fixed
-fruition and the other unfixed fruition, and the other that of
-dṛshṭajanmavedanīya and adṛshṭajanmavedanīya. Now the theory is that the
-niyatavipāka (of fixed fruition) karmāśaya is always ekabhavika, i.e. it
-does not remain separated by other lives, but directly produces its
-effects in the succeeding life.
-
-Ekabhavika means that which is produced from the accumulation of karmas
-in one life in the life which succeeds it. Vācaspati, however, takes it
-also to mean that action which attains fruition in the same life in
-which it is performed, whereas what Vijñāna Bhikshu understands by
-ekabhavika is that action alone which is produced in the life
-immediately succeeding the life in which it was accumulated. So
-according to Vijñāna Bhikshu, the niyata vipāka (of fixed fruition)
-dṛshṭajanmavedanīya (to be fructified in the same life) action is not
-ekabhavika, since it has no bhava, i.e. it is not the production of a
-preceding life. Neither can it be anekabhavika; thus this
-niyatavipākadṛshṭajanmavedanīya action is neither ekabhavika nor
-anekbhavika. Whereas Vācaspati is inclined to call this also ekabhavika.
-About the niyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya action being called
-ekabhavika (unigenital) there seems to be no dispute. The
-aniyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya action cannot be called ekabhavika as
-it undergoes three different courses described above.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER X
- THE ETHICAL PROBLEM
-
-
-We have described avidyā and its special forms as the kleśas, from which
-also proceed the actions virtuous and vicious, which in their turn again
-produce as a result of their fruition, birth, life and experiences of
-pleasure and pain and the vāsanās or residues of the memory of these
-experiences. Again every new life or birth is produced from the
-fructification of actions of a previous life; a man is made to perform
-actions good or bad by the kleśas which are rooted in him, and these
-actions, as a result of their fructification, produce another life and
-its experiences, in which life again new actions are earned by virtue of
-the kleśas, and thus the cycle is continued. When there is pralaya or
-involution of the cosmical world-process the individual cittas of the
-separate purushas return back to the prakṛti and lie within it, together
-with their own avidyās, and at the time of each new creation or
-evolution these are created anew with such changes as are due according
-to their individual avidyās, with which they had to return back to their
-original cause, the prakṛti, and spend an indivisible inseparable
-existence with it. The avidyās of some other creation, being merged in
-the prakṛti along with the cittas, remain in the prakṛti as vāsanās, and
-prakṛti being under the influence of these avidyās as vāsanās creates as
-modifications of itself the corresponding minds for the individual
-purushas, connected with them before the last pralaya dissolution. So we
-see that though the cittas had returned to their original causes with
-their individual nescience (_avidyā_), the avidyā was not lost but was
-revived at the time of the new creation and created such minds as should
-be suitable receptacles for it. These minds (buddhi) are found to be
-modified further into their specific cittas or mental planes by the same
-avidyā which is manifested in them as the kleśas, and these again in the
-karmāśaya, jāti, āyush and bhoga, and so on; the individual, however, is
-just in the same position as he was or would have been before the
-involution of pralaya. The avidyās of the cittas which had returned to
-the prakṛti at the time of the creation being revived, create their own
-buddhis of the previous creation, and by their connection with the
-individual purushas are the causes of the saṃsāra or cosmic
-evolution—the evolution of the microcosm, the cittas, and the macrocosm
-or the exterior world.
-
-In this new creation, the creative agencies of God and avidyā are thus
-distinguished in that the latter represents the end or purpose of the
-prakṛti—the ever-evolving energy transforming itself into its
-modifications as the mental and the material world; whereas the former
-represents that intelligent power which abides outside the pale of
-prakṛti, but removes obstructions offered by the prakṛti. Though
-unintelligent and not knowing how and where to yield so as to form the
-actual modifications necessary for the realisation of the particular and
-specific objects of the numberless purushas, these avidyās hold within
-themselves the serviceability of the purushas, and are the cause of the
-connection of the purusha and the prakṛti, so that when these avidyās
-are rooted out it is said that the purushārthatā or serviceability of
-the purusha is at an end and the purusha becomes liberated from the
-bonds of prakṛti, and this is called the final goal of the purusha.
-
-The ethical problem of the Pātañjala philosophy is the uprooting of this
-avidyā by the attainment of true knowledge of the nature of the purusha,
-which will be succeeded by the liberation of the purusha and his
-absolute freedom or independence—kaivalya—the last realisation of the
-purusha—the ultimate goal of all the movements of the prakṛti.
-
-This final uprooting of the avidyā with its vāsanās directly follows the
-attainment of true knowledge called prajñā, in which state the seed of
-false knowledge is altogether burnt and cannot be revived again. Before
-this state, the discriminative knowledge which arises as the recognition
-of the distinct natures of purusha and buddhi remains shaky; but when by
-continual practice this discriminative knowledge becomes strengthened in
-the mind, its potency gradually grows stronger and stronger, and roots
-out the potency of the ordinary states of mental activity, and thus the
-seed of false knowledge becomes burnt up and incapable of fruition, and
-the impurity of the energy of rajas being removed, the sattva as the
-manifesting entity becomes of the highest purity, and in that state
-flows on the stream of the notion of discrimination—the recognition of
-the distinct natures of purusha and buddhi—free from impurity. Thus when
-the state of buddhi becomes almost as pure as the purusha itself, all
-self-enquiry subsides, the vision of the real form of the purusha
-arises, and false knowledge, together with the kleśas and the consequent
-fruition of actions, ceases once for all. This is that state of citta
-which, far from tending towards the objective world, tends towards the
-kaivalya of the purusha.
-
-In the first stages, when the mind attains discriminative knowledge, the
-prajñā is not deeply seated, and occasionally phenomenal states of
-consciousness are seen to intervene in the form of “I am,” “Mine,” “I
-know,” “I do not know,” because the old potencies, though becoming
-weaker and weaker are not finally destroyed, and consequently
-occasionally produce their corresponding conscious manifestation as
-states which impede the flow of discriminative knowledge. But constant
-practice in rooting out the potency of this state destroys the potencies
-of the outgoing activity, and finally no intervention occurs in the flow
-of the stream of prajñā through the destructive influence of phenomenal
-states of consciousness. In this higher state when the mind is in its
-natural, passive, and objectless stream of flowing prajñā, it is called
-the dharmamegha-saṁādhi. When nothing is desired even from dhyāna arises
-the true knowledge which distinguishes prakṛti from purusha and is
-called the dharmamegha-samādhi (_Yoga-sūtra_, IV. 29). The potency,
-however, of this state of consciousness lasts until the purusha is
-finally liberated from the bonds of prakṛti and is absolutely free
-(kevalī). Now this is the state when the citta becomes infinite, and all
-its tamas being finally overcome, it shines forth like the sun, which
-can reflect all, and in comparison to which the crippled insignificant
-light of objective knowledge shrinks altogether, and thus an infinitude
-is acquired, which has absorbed within itself all finitude, which cannot
-have any separate existence or manifestation through this infinite
-knowledge. All finite states of knowledge are only a limitation of true
-infinite knowledge, in which there is no limitation of this and that. It
-absorbs within itself all these limitations.
-
-The purusha in this state may be called the emancipated being,
-jīvanmukta. Nāgeśa in explaining _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 31, describing the
-emancipated life says: “In this jīvanmukta stage, being freed from all
-impure afflictions and karmas, the consciousness shines in its
-infirmity. The infiniteness of consciousness is different from the
-infiniteness of materiality veiled by tamas. In those stages there could
-be consciousness only with reference to certain things with reference to
-which the veil of tamas was raised by rajas. When all veils and
-impurities are removed, then little is left which is not known. If there
-were other categories besides the 25 categories, these also would then
-have been known” (_Chāyāvyākhyā_, IV. 31).
-
-Now with the rise of such dharmamegha the succession of the changes of
-the qualities is over, inasmuch as they have fulfilled their object by
-having achieved experience and emancipation, and their succession having
-ended, they cannot stay even for a moment. And now comes absolute
-freedom, when the guṇas return back to the pradhāna their primal cause,
-after performing their service for the purusha by providing his
-experience and his salvation, so that they lose all their hold on
-purusha and purusha remains as he is in himself, and never again has any
-connection with the buddhi. The purusha remains always in himself in
-absolute freedom.
-
-The order of the return of the guṇas for a kevalī purusha is described
-below in the words of Vācaspati: The guṇas as cause and effect involving
-ordinary experiences samādhi and nirodha, become submerged in the manas;
-the manas becomes submerged in the asmitā, the asmitā in the liṅga, and
-the liṅga in the aliṅga.
-
-This state of kaivalya must be distinguished from the state of
-mahāpralaya in which also the guṇas return back to prakṛti, for that
-state is again succeeded by later connections of prakṛti with purushas
-through the buddhis, but the state of kaivalya is an eternal state which
-is never again disturbed by any connection with prakṛti, for now the
-separation of prakṛti from purusha is eternal, whereas that in the
-mahāpralaya state was only temporary.
-
-We shall conclude this section by noting two kinds of eternity of
-purusha and of prakṛti, and by offering a criticism of the prajñā state.
-The former is said to be perfectly and unchangeably eternal (_kūṭastha
-nitya_), and the latter is only eternal in an evolutionary form. The
-permanent or eternal reality is that which remains unchanged amid its
-changing appearances; and from this point of view both purusha and
-prakṛti are eternal. It is indeed true, as we have seen just now, that
-the succession of changes of qualities with regard to buddhi, etc.,
-comes to an end when kaivalya is attained, but this is with reference to
-purusha, for the changes of qualities in the guṇas themselves never come
-to an end. So the guṇas in themselves are eternal in their changing or
-evolutionary character, and are therefore said to possess evolutionary
-eternity (_pariṇāminityatā_). Our phenomenal conception cannot be free
-from change, and therefore it is that in our conception of the released
-purushas we affirm their existence, as for example when we say that the
-released purushas exist eternally. But it must be carefully noted that
-this is due to the limited character of our thoughts and expressions,
-not to the real nature of the released purushas, which remain for ever
-unqualified by any changes or modifications, pure and colourless as the
-very self of shining intelligence (see _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 33).
-
-We shall conclude this section by giving a short analysis of the prajñā
-state from its first appearance to the final release of purusha from the
-bondage of prakṛti. Patañjali says that this prajñā state being final in
-each stage is sevenfold. Of these the first four stages are due to our
-conscious endeavour, and when these conscious states of prajñā
-(supernatural wisdom) flow in a stream and are not hindered or
-interfered with in any way by other phenomenal conscious states of
-pratyayas the purusha becomes finally liberated through the natural
-backward movement of the citta to its own primal cause, and this
-backward movement is represented by the other three stages.
-
-The seven prajñā stages may be thus enumerated:—
-
-I. The pain to be removed is known. Nothing further remains to be known
-of it.
-
-This is the first aspect of the prajñā, in which the person willing to
-be released knows that he has exhausted all that is knowable of the
-pains.
-
-II. The cause of the pains has been removed and nothing further remains
-to be removed of it. This is the second stage or aspect of the rise of
-prajñā.
-
-III. The nature of the extinction of pain has already been perceived by
-me in the state of samādhi, so that I have come to learn that the final
-extinction of my pain will be something like it.
-
-IV. The final discrimination of prakṛti and purusha, the true and
-immediate means of the extinction of pain, has been realised.
-
-After this stage, nothing remains to be done by the purusha himself. For
-this is the attainment of final true knowledge. It is also called the
-para vairāgya. It is the highest consummation, in which the purusha has
-no further duties to perform. This is therefore called the kārya vimukti
-(or salvation depending on the endeavour of the purusha) or jīvanmukti.
-
-After this follows the citta vimukti or the process of release of the
-purusha from the citta, in three stages.
-
-V. The aspect of the buddhi, which has finally finished its services to
-purusha by providing scope for purusha’s experiences and release; so
-that it has nothing else to perform for purusha. This is the first stage
-of the retirement of the citta.
-
-VI. As soon as this state is attained, like the falling of stones thrown
-from the summit of a hill, the guṇas cannot remain even for a moment to
-bind the purusha, but at once return back to their primal cause, the
-prakṛti; for the avidyā being rooted out, there is no tie or bond which
-can keep it connected with purusha and make it suffer changes for the
-service of purusha. All the purushārthatā being ended, the guṇas
-disappear of themselves.
-
-VII. The seventh and last aspect of the guṇas is that they never return
-back to bind purusha again, their teleological purpose being fulfilled
-or realised. It is of course easy to see that, in these last three
-stages, purusha has nothing to do; but the guṇas of their own nature
-suffer these backward modifications and return back to their own primal
-cause and leave the purusha kevalī (for ever solitary). _Vyāsa-bhāshya_,
-II. 15.
-
-Vyāsa says that as the science of medicine has four divisions: (1)
-disease, (2) the cause of disease, (3) recovery, (4) medicines; so this
-Yoga philosophy has also four divisions, viz.: (I) Saṃsāra (the
-evolution of the prakṛti in connection with the purusha). (II) The cause
-of saṃsāra. (III) Release. (IV) The means of release.
-
-Of these the first three have been described at some length above. We
-now direct our attention to the fourth. We have shown above that the
-ethical goal, the ideal to be realised, is absolute freedom or kaivalya,
-and we shall now consider the line of action that must be adopted to
-attain this goal—the _summum bonum_. All actions which tend towards the
-approximate realisation of this goal for man are called kuśala, and the
-man who achieves this goal is called kuśalī. It is in the inherent
-purpose of prakṛti that man should undergo pains which include all
-phenomenal experiences of pleasures as well, and ultimately adopt such a
-course of conduct as to avoid them altogether and finally achieve the
-true goal, the realisation of which will extinguish all pains for him
-for ever. The motive therefore which prompts a person towards this
-ethico-metaphysical goal is the avoidance of pain. An ordinary man feels
-pain only in actual pain, but a Yogin who is as highly sensitive as the
-eye-ball, feels pain in pleasure as well, and therefore is determined to
-avoid all experiences, painful or so-called pleasurable. The
-extinguishing of all experiences, however, is not the true ethical goal,
-being only a means to the realisation of kaivalya or the true self and
-nature of the purusha. But this means represents the highest end of a
-person, the goal beyond which all his duties cease; for after this comes
-kaivalya which naturally manifests itself on the necessary retirement of
-the prakṛti. Purusha has nothing to do in effectuating this state, which
-comes of itself. The duties of the purusha cease with the thorough
-extinguishing of all his experiences. This therefore is the means of
-extinguishing all his pains, which are the highest end of all his
-duties; but the complete extinguishing of all pains is identical with
-the extinguishing of all experiences, the states or vṛttis of
-consciousness, and this again is identical with the rise of prajñā or
-true discriminative knowledge of the difference in nature of prakṛti and
-its effects from the purusha—the unchangeable. These three sides are
-only the three aspects of the same state which immediately precede
-kaivalya. The prajñā aspect is the aspect of the highest knowledge, the
-suppression of the states of consciousness or experiences, and it is the
-aspect of the cessation of all conscious activity and of painlessness or
-the extinguishing of all pains as the feeling aspect of the same
-nirvīja—samādhi state. But when the student directs his attention to
-this goal in his ordinary states of experience, he looks at it from the
-side of the feeling aspect, viz. that of acquiring a state of
-painlessness, and as a means thereto he tries to purify the mind and be
-moral in all his actions, and begins to restrain and suppress his mental
-states, in order to acquire this nirvīja or seedless state. This is the
-sphere of conduct which is called Yogāṅga.
-
-Of course there is a division of duties according to the advancement of
-the individual, as we shall have occasion to show hereafter. This
-suppression of mental states which has been described as the means of
-attaining final release, the ultimate ethical goal of life, is called
-Yoga. We have said before that of the five kinds of mind—kshipta, mūḍha,
-vikshipta, ekāgra, niruddha—only the last two are fit for the process of
-Yoga and ultimately acquire absolute freedom. In the other three, though
-concentration may occasionally happen, yet there is no extrication of
-the mind from the afflictions of avidyā and consequently there is no
-final release.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER XI
- YOGA PRACTICE
-
-
-The Yoga which, after weakening the hold of the afflictions and causing
-the real truth to dawn upon our mental vision, gradually leads us
-towards the attainment of our final goal, is only possible for the last
-two kinds of minds and is of two kinds: (1) samprajñāta (cognitive) and
-(2) asamprajñāta (ultra-cognitive). The samprajñāta Yoga is that in
-which the mind is concentrated upon some object, external or internal,
-in such a way that it does not oscillate or move from one object to
-another, but remains fixed and settled in the object that it holds
-before itself. At first, the Yogin holds a gross material object before
-his view, but when he can make himself steady in doing this, he tries
-with the subtle tanmātras, the five causes of the grosser elements, and
-when he is successful in this he takes his internal senses as his object
-and last of all, when he has fully succeeded in these attempts, he takes
-the great egohood as his object, in which stage his object gradually
-loses all its determinate character and he is said to be in a state of
-suppression in himself, although devoid of any object. This state, like
-the other previous states of the samprajñāta type, is a positive state
-of the mind and not a mere state of vacuity of objects or negativity. In
-this state, all determinate character of the states disappears and their
-potencies only remain alive. In the first stages of a Yogin practising
-samādhi conscious states of the lower stages often intervene, but
-gradually, as the mind becomes fixed, the potencies of the lower stages
-are overcome by the potencies of this stage, so that the mind flows in a
-calm current and at last the higher prajñā dawns, whereupon the
-potencies of this state also are burnt and extinguished, the citta
-returns back to its own primal cause, prakṛti, and purusha attains
-absolute freedom.
-
-The first four stages of the samprajñāta state are called _madhumatī_,
-_madhupratīka_, _viśoka_ and the _saṃskāraśesha_ and also
-_vitarkānugata_, _vicārānugata_, _ānandānugata_ and _asmitānugata_. True
-knowledge begins to dawn from the first stage of this samprajñāta state,
-and when the Yogin reaches the last stage the knowledge reaches its
-culminating point, but still so long as the potencies of the lower
-stages of relative knowledge remain, the knowledge cannot obtain
-absolute certainty and permanency, as it will always be threatened with
-a possible encroachment by the other states of the past phenomenal
-activity now existing as the subconscious. But the last stage of
-asamprajñāta samādhi represents the stage in which the ordinary
-consciousness has been altogether surpassed and the mind is in its own
-true infinite aspect, and the potencies of the stages in which the mind
-was full of finite knowledge are also burnt, so that with the return of
-the citta to its primal cause, final emancipation is effected. The last
-state of samprajñāta samādhi is called saṃskāraśesha, only because here
-the residua of the potencies of subconscious thought only remain and the
-actual states of consciousness become all extinct. It is now easy to see
-that no mind which is not in the ekāgra or one-pointed state can be fit
-for the asamprajñāta samādhi in which it has to settle itself on one
-object and that alone. So also no mind which has not risen to the state
-of highest suppression is fit for the asamprajñāta or nirvīja state.
-
-It is now necessary to come down to a lower level and examine the
-obstructions, on account of which a mind cannot easily become
-one-pointed or ekāgra. These, nine in number, are the following:—
-
-Disease, languor, indecision, want of the mental requirements necessary
-for samādhi, idleness of body and mind, attachment to objects of sense,
-false and illusory knowledge, non-attainment of the state of
-concentrated contemplation, unsteadiness and unstability of the mind in
-a samādhi state even if it can somehow attain it. These are again seen
-to be accompanied with pain and despair owing to the non-fulfilment of
-desire, physical shakiness or unsteadiness of the limbs, taking in of
-breath and giving out of it, which are seen to follow the nine
-distractions of a distracted mind described above.
-
-To prevent these distractions and their accompaniments it is necessary
-that we should practise concentration on one truth. Vācaspati says that
-this one truth on which the mind should be settled and fixed is Īśvara,
-and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī and Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha agree with him. Vijñāna
-Bhikshu, however, says that one truth means any object, gross or fine,
-and Bhoja supports Vijñāna Bhikshu, staying that here “one truth” might
-mean any desirable object.
-
-Abhyāsa means the steadiness of the mind in one state and not complete
-absence of any state; for the Bhāshyakāra himself has said in the
-samāpattisūtra, that samprajñāta trance comes after this steadiness. As
-we shall see later, it means nothing but the application of the five
-means, śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi and prajñā; it is an endeavour to
-settle the mind on one state, and as such does not differ from the
-application of the five means of Yoga with a view to settle and steady
-the mind (_Yoga-vārttika_, I. 13). This effort becomes firmly rooted,
-being well attended to for a long time without interruption and with
-devotion.
-
-Now it does not matter very much whether this one truth is Īśvara or any
-other object; for the true principle of Yoga is the setting of the mind
-on one truth, principle or object. But for an ordinary man this is no
-easy matter; for in order to be successful the mind must be equipped
-with śraddhā or faith—the firm conviction of the Yogin in the course
-that he adopts. This keeps the mind steady, pleased, calm and free from
-doubts of any kind, so that the Yogin may proceed to the realisation of
-his object without any vacillation. Unless a man has a firm hold on the
-course that he pursues, all the steadiness that he may acquire will
-constantly be threatened with the danger of a sudden collapse. It will
-be seen that vairāgya or desirelessness is only the negative aspect of
-this śraddhā. For by it the mind is restrained from the objects of
-sense, with an aversion or dislike towards the objects of sensual
-pleasure and worldly desires; this aversion towards worldly joys is only
-the other aspect of the faith of the mind and the calmness of its
-currents (_cittaprasāda_) towards right knowledge and absolute freedom.
-So it is said that the vairāgya is the effect of śraddhā and its product
-(_Yoga-vārttika_, I. 20). In order to make a person suitable for Yoga,
-vairāgya represents the cessation of the mind from the objects of sense
-and their so-called pleasures, and śraddhā means the positive faith of
-the mind in the path of Yoga that one adopts, and the right aspiration
-towards attaining the highest goal of absolute freedom.
-
-In its negative aspect, vairāgya is of two kinds, apara and para. The
-apara is that of a mind free from attachment to worldly enjoyments, such
-as women, food, drinks and power, as also from thirst for heavenly
-pleasures attainable by practising the vedic rituals and sacrifices.
-Those who are actuated by apara vairāgya do not desire to remain in a
-bodiless state (_videha_) merged in the senses or merged in the prakṛti
-(_prakṛtilīna_). It is a state in which the mind is indifferent to all
-kinds of pleasures and pains. This vairāgya may be said to have four
-stages: (1) Yatamāna—in which sensual objects are discovered to be
-defective and the mind recoils from them. (2) Vyatireka—in which the
-senses to be conquered are noted. (3) Ekendriya—in which attachment
-towards internal pleasures and aversion towards external pains, being
-removed, the mind sets before it the task of removing attachment and
-aversion towards mental passions for obtaining honour or avoiding
-dishonour, etc. (4) The fourth and last stage of vairāgya called
-vaśīkāra is that in which the mind has perceived the futility of all
-attractions towards external objects of sense and towards the pleasures
-of heaven, and having suppressed them altogether feels no attachment,
-even should it come into connection with them.
-
-With the consummation of this last stage of apara vairāgya, comes the
-para vairāgya which is identical with the rise of the final prajñā
-leading to absolute independence. This vairāgya, śraddhā and the abhyāsa
-represent the unafflicted states (aklishṭavṛtti) which suppress
-gradually the klishṭa or afflicted mental states. These lead the Yogin
-from one stage to another, and thus he proceeds higher and higher until
-the final state is attained.
-
-As vairāgya advances, śraddhā also advances; from śraddhā comes vīrya,
-energy, or power of concentration (_dhāraṇā_); and from it again springs
-smṛti—or continuity of one object of thought; and from it comes samādhi
-or cognitive and ultra-cognitive trance; after which follows prajñā,
-cognitive and ultra-cognitive trance; after which follows prajñā and
-final release. Thus by the inclusion of śraddhā within vairāgya, its
-effect, and the other products of śraddhā with abhyāsa, we see that the
-abhyāsa and vairāgya are the two internal means for achieving the final
-goal of the Yogin, the supreme suppression and extinction of all states
-of consciousness, of all afflictions and the avidyā—the last state of
-supreme knowledge or prajñā.
-
-As śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi which are not different from vairāgya
-and abhyāsa (they being only their other aspects or simultaneous
-products), are the means of attaining Yoga, it is possible to make a
-classification of the Yogins according to the strength of these with
-each, and the strength of the quickness (_saṃvega_) with which they may
-be applied towards attaining the goal of the Yogin. Thus Yogins are of
-nine kinds:—
-
-(1) mildly energetic, (2) of medium energy, (3) of intense energy.
-
-Each of these may vary in a threefold way according to the mildness,
-medium state, or intensity of quickness or readiness with which the
-Yogin may apply the means of attaining Yoga. There are nine kinds of
-Yogins. Of these the best is he whose mind is most intensely engaged and
-whose practice is also the strongest.
-
-There is a difference of opinion here about the meaning of the word
-saṃvega, between Vācaspati and Vijñāna Bhikshu. The former says that
-saṃvega means vairāgya here, but the latter holds that saṃvega cannot
-mean vairāgya, and vairāgya being the effect of śraddhā cannot be taken
-separately from it. “Saṃvega” means quickness in the performance of the
-means of attaining Yoga; some say that it means “vairāgya.” But that is
-not true, for if vairāgya is an effect of the due performance of the
-means of Yoga, there cannot be the separate ninefold classification of
-Yoga apart from the various degrees of intensity of the means of Yoga
-practice. Further, the word “saṃvega” does not mean “vairāgya”
-etymologically (_Yoga-vārttika_, I. 20).
-
-We have just seen that śraddhā, etc., are the means of attaining Yoga,
-but we have not discussed what purificatory actions an ordinary man must
-perform in order to attain śraddhā, from which the other requisites are
-derived. Of course these purificatory actions are not the same for all,
-since they must necessarily depend upon the conditions of purity or
-impurity of each mind; thus a person already in an advanced state, may
-not need to perform those purificatory actions necessary for a man in a
-lower state. We have just said that Yogins are of nine kinds, according
-to the strength of their mental acquirements—śraddhā, etc.—the requisite
-means of Yoga and the degree of rapidity with which they may be applied.
-Neglecting division by strength or quickness of application along with
-these mental requirements, we may again divide Yogins again into three
-kinds: (1) Those who have the best mental equipment. (2) Those who are
-mediocres. (3) Those who have low mental equipment.
-
-In the first chapter of Yoga aphorisms, it has been stated that abhyāsa,
-the application of the mental acquirements of śraddhā, etc., and
-vairāgya, the consequent cessation of the mind from objects of
-distraction, lead to the extinction of all our mental states and to
-final release. When a man is well developed, he may rest content with
-his mental actions alone, in his abhyāsa and vairāgya, in his dhāraṇā
-(concentration), dhyāna (meditation), and samādhi (trance), which may be
-called the jñānayoga. But it is easy to see that this jñānayoga requires
-very high mental powers and thus is not within easy reach of ordinary
-persons. Ordinary persons whose minds are full of impurities, must pass
-through a certain course of purificatory actions before they can hope to
-obtain those mental acquirements by which they can hope to follow the
-course of jñānayoga with facility.
-
-These actions, which remove the impurities of the mind, and thus
-gradually increase the lustre of knowledge, until the final state of
-supreme knowledge is acquired, are called kriyāyoga. They are also
-called yogāṅgas, as they help the maturity of the Yoga process by
-gradually increasing the lustre of knowledge. They represent the means
-by which even an ordinary mind (_vikshiptacitta_) may gradually purify
-itself and become fit for the highest ideals of Yoga. Thus the _Bhāshya_
-says: “By the sustained practice of these yogāṅgas or accessories of
-Yoga is destroyed the fivefold unreal cognition (_avidyā_), which is of
-the nature of impurity.” Destruction means here disappearance; thus when
-that is destroyed, real knowledge is manifested. As the means of
-achievement are practised more and more, so is the impurity more and
-more attenuated. And as more and more of it is destroyed, so does the
-light of wisdom go on increasing more and more. This process reaches its
-culmination in discriminative knowledge, which is knowledge of the
-nature of purusha and the guṇas.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER XII
- THE YOGĀṄGAS
-
-
-Now the assertion that these actions are the causes of the attainment of
-salvation brings up the question of the exact natures of their operation
-with regard to this supreme attainment. Bhāshyakara says with respect to
-this that they are the causes of the separation of the impurities of the
-mind just as an axe is the cause of the splitting of a piece of wood;
-and again they are the causes of the attainment of the supreme knowledge
-just as dhaṛma is the cause of happiness. It must be remembered that
-according to the Yoga theory causation is viewed as mere transformation
-of energy; the operation of concomitant causes only removes obstacles
-impeding the progress of these transformations in a particular
-direction; no cause can of itself produce any effect, and the only way
-in which it can help the production of an effect into which the causal
-state passes out of its own immanent energy by the principles of
-conservation and transformation of energy, is by removing the
-intervening obstacles. Thus just as the passage of citta into a happy
-state is helped by dharma removing the intervening obstacles, so also
-the passage of the citta into the state of attainment of true knowledge
-is helped by the removal of obstructions due to the performance of the
-yogāṅgas; the necessary obstructions being removed, the citta passes
-naturally of itself into this infinite state of attainment of true
-knowledge, in which all finitude is merged.
-
-In connection with this, Vyāsa mentions nine kinds of operation of
-causes: (1) cause of birth; (2) of preservation; (3) of manifestation;
-(4) of modification; (5) knowledge of a premise leading to a deduction;
-(6) of otherness; (7) of separation; (8) of attainment; (9) of upholding
-(_Vyāsabhāshya_, II. 28.)
-
-The principle of conservation of energy and transformation of energy
-being the root idea of causation in this system, these different aspects
-represent the different points of view in which the word causation is
-generally used.
-
-Thus, the first aspect as the cause of birth or production is seen when
-knowledge springs from manas which renders indefinite cognition definite
-so that mind is called the cause of the birth of knowledge. Here mind is
-the material cause (_upādāna kāraṇa_) of the production of knowledge,
-for knowledge is nothing but manas with its particular modifications as
-states (_Yoga-vārttika_, II. 18). The difference of these positive cause
-from _āptikāraṇa_, which operates only in a negative way and helps
-production, in an indirect way by the removal of obstacles, is quite
-manifest. The _sthitikāraṇa_ or cause through which things are preserved
-as they are, is the end they serve; thus the serviceability of purusha
-is the cause of the existence and preservation of the mind as it is, and
-not only of mind but of all our phenomenal experiences.
-
-The third cause of the _abhivyaktikāraṇa_ or manifestation which is
-compared to a lamp which manifests things before our view is an
-epistemological cause, and as such includes all sense activity in
-connection with material objects which produce cognition.
-
-Then come the fourth and the fifth causes, vikāra (change) and pratyaya
-(inseparable connection); thus the cause of change (_vikāra_) is
-exemplified as that which causes a change; thus the manas suffers a
-change by the objects presented to it, just as bile changes and digests
-the food that is eaten; the cause of pratyaya[41] is that in which from
-inseparable connection, with the knowledge of the premise (e.g. there is
-smoke in the hill) we can also have inferential knowledge of the other
-(e.g. there is fire in the hill). The sixth cause as otherness
-(_anyatva_) is that which effects changes of form as that brought about
-by a goldsmith in gold when he makes a bangle from it, and then again a
-necklace, is regarded as differing from the change spoken of as vikāra.
-Now the difference between the gold being turned into bangles or
-necklaces and the raw rice being turned into soft rice is this, that in
-the former case when bangles are made out of gold, the gold remains the
-same in each case, whereas in the case of the production of cooked rice
-from raw by fire, the case is different, for heat changes paddy in a far
-more definite way; goldsmith and heat are both indeed efficient causes,
-but the former only effects mechanical changes of shape and form,
-whereas the latter is the cause of structural and chemical changes. Of
-course these are only examples from the physical world, their causal
-operations in the mental sphere varying in a corresponding manner; thus
-the change produced in the mind by the presentation of different
-objects, follows a law which is the same as is found in the physical
-world, when the same object causes different kinds of feelings in
-different persons; when ignorance causes forgetfulness in a thing, anger
-makes it painful and desire makes it pleasurable, but knowledge of its
-true reality produces indifference; there is thus the same kind of
-causal change as is found in the external world. Next for consideration
-is the cause of separation (_viyoga_) which is only a negative aspect of
-the positive side of the causes of transformations, as in the gradual
-extinction of impurities, consequent upon the transformation of the
-citta towards the attainment of the supreme state of absolute
-independence through discriminative knowledge. The last cause for
-consideration is that of upholding (_dhṛti_); thus the body upholds the
-senses and supports them for the actualisation of their activities in
-the body, just as the five gross elements are the upholding causes of
-organic bodies; the bodies of animals, men, etc., also employ one
-another for mutual support. Thus the human body lives by eating the
-bodies of many animals; the bodies of tigers, etc., live on the bodies
-of men and other animals; many animals live on the bodies of plants,
-etc. (_Tattvavaiśāradī_, II. 28). The four kinds of causes mentioned in
-Śaṅkara’s works and grammatical commentaries like that of Susheṇa, viz.:
-utpādya, vikāryya, āpya and saṃskāryya, are all included within the nine
-causes contained mentioned by Vyāsa.
-
-The yogāṅgas not only remove the impurities of the mind but help it
-further by removing obstacles in the way of attaining the highest
-perfection of discriminative knowledge. Thus they are the causes in a
-double sense (1) of the dissociation of impurities (_viyogakāraṇa_); (2)
-of removing obstacles which impede the course of the mind in attaining
-the highest development (_āptikāraṇa_).
-
-Coming now to the yogāṅgas, we enumerate them thus:—restraint,
-observance, posture, regulation of breath, abstraction, concentration,
-meditation and trance: these are the eight accessories of Yoga.
-
-It must be remembered that abhyāsa and vairāgya and also the five means
-of attaining Yoga, viz.: śraddhā, vīryya, etc., which are not different
-from abhyāsa and vairāgya, are by their very nature included within the
-yogāṅgas mentioned above, and are not to be considered as independent
-means different from them. The parikarmas or embellishments of the mind
-spoken of in the first chapter, with which we shall deal later on, are
-also included under the three yogāṅgas dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi. The
-five means śraddhā, vīryya, smṛti, samādhi and prajñā are said to be
-included under asceticism (_tapaḥ_) studies (_svādhyāya_) and devotion
-to God of the niyamas and vairāgya in contentment.
-
-In order to understand these better, we will first give the definitions
-of the yogāṅgas and then discuss them and ascertain their relative
-values for a man striving to attain the highest perfection of Yoga.
-
-I. Yama (restraint). These yama restraints are: abstinence from injury
-(ahiṃsā); veracity; abstinence from theft; continence; abstinence from
-avarice.
-
-II. Niyama (observances). These observances are cleanliness,
-contentment, purificatory action, study and the making of God the motive
-of all action.
-
-III. Āsanas (posture). Steady posture and easy position are regarded as
-an aid to breath control.
-
-IV. Regulation of breath (prāṇāyāma) is the stoppage of the inspiratory
-and expiratory movements (of breath) which may be practised when
-steadiness of posture has been secured.
-
-V. Pratyāhāra (abstraction). With the control of the mind all the senses
-become controlled and the senses imitate as it were the vacant state of
-the mind. Abstraction is that by which the senses do not come in contact
-with their objects and follow as it were the nature of the mind.
-
-VI. Dhāraṇā (concentration). Concentration is the steadfastness of the
-mind applied to a particular object.
-
-VII. Dhyāna (mediation). The continuation there of the mental effort by
-continually repeating the object is meditation (dhyāna).
-
-VIII. Samādhi (trance contemplation). The same as above when shining
-with the light of the object alone, and devoid as it were of itself, is
-trance. In this state the mind becomes one with its object and there is
-no difference between the knower and the known.
-
-These are the eight yogāṅgas which a Yogin must adopt for his higher
-realisation. Of these again we see that some have the mental side more
-predominant, while others are mostly to be actualised in exterior
-action. Dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi, which are purely of the samprajñāta
-type, and also the prāṇāyāma and pratyāhāra, which are accessories to
-them, serve to cleanse the mind of impurities and make it steady, and
-can therefore be assimilated with the parikarmas mentioned in Book I.
-Sūtras 34–39. These samādhis of the samprajñāta type, of course, only
-serve to steady the mind and to assist attaining discriminative
-knowledge.
-
-In this connection, it will be well to mention the remaining aids for
-cleansing the mind as mentioned in _Yoga-sūtra_ I., viz. the cultivation
-of the habits of friendliness, compassion, complacency and indifference
-towards happiness, misery, virtue and vice.
-
-This means that we are to cultivate the habit of friendliness towards
-those who are happy, which will remove all jealous feelings and purify
-the mind. We must cultivate the habit of compassion towards those who
-are suffering pain; when the mind shows compassion (which means that it
-wishes to remove the miseries of others as if they were his own) it
-becomes cleansed of the stain of desire to do injury to others, for
-compassion is only another name for sympathy which naturally identifies
-the compassionate one with the objects of his sympathy. Next comes the
-habit of complacency, which one should diligently cultivate, for it
-leads to pleasure in virtuous deeds. This removes the stain of envy from
-the mind. Next comes the habit of indifference, which we should acquire
-towards vice in vicious persons. We should acquire the habit of
-remaining indifferent where we cannot sympathise; we should not on any
-account get angry with the wicked or with those with whom sympathy is
-not possible. This will remove the stain of anger. It will be clearly
-seen here that maītrī, karuṇā, muditā and upekshā are only different
-aspects of universal sympathy, which should remove all perversities in
-our nature and unite us with our fellow-beings. This is the positive
-aspect of the mind with reference to abstinence from injuring ahiṃsā
-(mentioned under yamas), which will cleanse the mind and make it fit for
-the application of means of śraddhā, etc. For unless the mind is pure,
-there is no scope for the application of the means of making it steady.
-These are the mental endeavours to cleanse the mind and to make it fit
-for the proper manifestation of śraddhā, etc., and for steadying it with
-a view to attaining true discriminative knowledge.
-
-Again of the parikarmas by dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and saṃprajñāta samādhi and
-the habit of sympathy as manifested in maitrī, karuṇā, etc., the former
-is a more advanced state of the extinction of impurities than the
-latter.
-
-But it is easy to see that ordinary minds can never commence with these
-practices. They are naturally so impure that the positive universal
-sympathy as manifested in maitrī, etc., by which turbidity of mind is
-removed, is too difficult. It is also difficult for them to keep the
-mind steady on an object as in dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and samādhi, for only
-those in advanced stages can succeed in this. For ordinary people,
-therefore, some course of conduct must be discovered by which they can
-purify their minds and elevate them to such an extent that they may be
-in a position to avail themselves of the mental parikarmas or
-purifications just mentioned. Our minds become steady in proportion as
-their impurities are cleansed. The cleansing of impurities only
-represents the negative aspect of the positive side of making the mind
-steady. The grosser impurities being removed, finer ones remain, and
-these are removed by the mental parikarmas, supplemented by abhyāsa or
-by śraddhā, etc. As the impurities are gradually more and more
-attenuated, the last germs of impurity are destroyed by the force of
-dhyāna or the habit of nirodha samādhi, and kaivalya is attained.
-
-We now deal with yamas, by which the gross impurities of ordinary minds
-are removed. They are, as we have said before, non-injury, truthfulness,
-non-stealing, continence, and non-covetousness; of these non-injury is
-given such a high place that it is regarded as the root of the other
-yamas; truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, non-covetousness and the
-other niyamas mentioned previously only serve to make the non-injury
-perfect. We have seen before that maitrī, karuṇa, muditā and upekshā
-serve to strengthen the non-injury since they are only its positive
-aspects, but we see now that not only they but other yamas and also the
-other niyamas, purity, contentment, asceticism, studies and devotion to
-God, only serve to make non-injury more and more perfect. This
-non-injury when it is performed without being limited or restricted in
-any way by caste, country, time and circumstances, and is always adhered
-to, is called mahāvrata or the great duty of abstinence from injury. It
-is sometimes limited to castes, as for example injury inflicted by a
-fisherman, and in this case it is called anuvrata or restricted ahiṃsā
-of ordinary men as opposed to universal ahiṃsā of the Yogins called
-mahāvrata; the same non-injury is limited by locality, as in the case of
-a man who says to himself, “I shall not cause injury at a sacred place”;
-or by time, when a person says to himself, “I shall not cause injury on
-the sacred day of Caturdaśī”; or by circumstances, as when a man says to
-himself, “I shall cause injury for the sake of gods and Brahmans only”;
-or when injury is caused by warriors in the battle-field alone and
-nowhere else. This restricted ahiṃsā is only for ordinary men who cannot
-follow the Yogin’s universal law of ahiṃsā.
-
-Ahiṃsā is a great universal duty which a man should impose on himself in
-all conditions of life, everywhere, and at all times without restricting
-or qualifying it with any limitation whatsoever. In _Mahābhārata
-Mokshadharmādhyāya_ it is said that the Sāṃkhya lays stress upon
-non-injury, whereas the Yoga lays stress upon samādhi; but here we see
-that Yoga also holds that ahiṃsā should be the greatest ethical motive
-for all our conduct. It is by ahiṃsā alone that we can make ourselves
-fit for the higher type of samādhi. All other virtues of truthfulness,
-non-stealing only serve to make non-injury more and more perfect. It is
-not, however, easy to say whether the Sāṃkhyists attached so much
-importance to non-injury that they believed it to lead to samādhi
-directly without the intermediate stages of samādhi. We see, however,
-that the Yoga also attaches great importance to it and holds that a man
-should refrain from all external acts; for however good they may be they
-cannot be such as not to lead to some kind of injury or hiṃsā towards
-beings, for external actions can never be performed without doing some
-harm to others. We have seen that from this point of view Yoga holds
-that the only pure works (śuklakarma) are those mental works of good
-thoughts in which perfection of ahiṃsā is attained. With the growth of
-good works (śuklakarma) and the perfect realisation of non-injury the
-mind naturally passes into the state in which its actions are neither
-good (śukla) nor bad (aśukla); and this state is immediately followed by
-that of kaivalya.
-
-Veracity consists in word and thought being in accordance with facts.
-Speech and mind correspond to what has been seen, heard and inferred.
-Speech is for the purpose of transferring knowledge to another. It is
-always to be employed for the good of others and not for their injury;
-for it should not be defective as in the case of Yudhishṭhira, where his
-motive was bad.[42] If it prove to be injurious to living beings, even
-though uttered as truth, it is not truth; it is sin only. Though
-outwardly such a truthful course may be considered virtuous, yet since
-by his truth he has caused injury to another person, he has in reality
-violated the true standard of non-injury (_ahiṃsā_). Therefore let
-everyone first examine well and then utter truth for the benefit of all
-living beings. All truths should be tested by the canon of non-injury
-(_ahiṃsā_).
-
-Asteya is the virtue of abstaining from stealing. Theft is making one’s
-own unlawfully things that belong to others. Abstinence from theft
-consists in the absence of the desire thereof.
-
-Brahmacaryya (continence) is the restraint of the generative organ and
-the thorough control of sexual tendencies.
-
-Aparigraha is want of avariciousness, the non-appropriation of things
-not one’s own; this is attained on seeing the defects of attachment and
-of the injury caused by the obtaining, preservation and destruction of
-objects of sense.
-
-If, in performing the great duty of non-injury and the other virtues
-auxiliary to it, a man be troubled by thoughts of sin, he should try to
-remove sinful ideas by habituating himself to those which are contrary
-to them. Thus if the old habit of sins opposed to virtues tend to drive
-him along the wrong path, he should in order to banish them entertain
-ideas such as the following:—“Being burnt up as I am in the fires of the
-world, I have taken refuge in the practice of Yoga which gives
-protection to all living beings. Were I to resume the sins which I have
-abandoned, I should certainly be behaving like a dog, which eats its own
-vomit. As the dog takes up his own vomit, so should I be acting if I
-were to take up again what I have once given up.” This is called the
-practice of _pratipaksha bhāvān_, meditating on the opposites of the
-temptations.
-
-A classification of sins of non-injury, etc., may be made according as
-they are actually done, or caused to be done, or permitted to be done;
-and these again may be further divided according as they are preceded by
-desire, anger or ignorance; these are again mild, middling or intense.
-Thus we see that there may be twenty-seven kinds of such sins. Mild,
-middling and intense are each again threefold, mild-mild, mild-middling
-and mild-intense; middling-mild, middling-middling and middling-intense;
-also intense-mild, intense-middling and intense-intense. Thus there are
-eighty-one kinds of sins. But they become infinite on account of rules
-of restriction, option and conjunction.
-
-The contrary tendency consists in the notion that these immoral
-tendencies cause an infinity of pains and untrue knowledge. Pain and
-unwisdom are the unending fruits of these immoral tendencies, and in
-this idea lies the power which produces the habit of giving a contrary
-trend to our thoughts.
-
-These yamas, together with the niyamas about to be described, are called
-kriyāyoga, by the performance of which men become fit to rise gradually
-to the state of jñānayoga by samādhi and to attain kaivalya. This course
-thus represents the first stage with which ordinary people should begin
-their Yoga work.
-
-Those more advanced, who naturally possess the virtues mentioned in
-Yama, have no need of beginning here.
-
-Thus it is said that some may begin with the niyamas, asceticism,
-svādhyāya and devotion to God; it is for this reason that, though
-mentioned under the niyamas, they are also specially selected and spoken
-of as the kriyāyoga in the very first rule of the second Book.
-Asceticism means the strength of remaining unchanged in changes like
-that of heat and cold, hunger and thirst, standing and sitting, absence
-of speech and absence of all indications by gesture, etc.
-
-Svādhyāya means the study of philosophy and repetition of the syllable
-“Aum.”
-
-This Īśvarapraṇidhāna (devotion to God) is different from the
-Īśvarapraṇidhāna mentioned in _Yoga-sūtra_, I. 23, where it meant love,
-homage and adoration of God, by virtue of which God by His grace makes
-samādhi easy for the Yogin.
-
-Here it is a kind of kriyāyoga, and hence it means the bestowal of all
-our actions upon the Great Teacher, God, i.e. to work, not for one’s own
-self but for God, so that a man desists from all desires for fruit
-therefrom.
-
-When these are duly performed, the afflictions become gradually
-attenuated and trance is brought about. The afflictions thus attenuated
-become characterised by unproductiveness, and when their seed-power has,
-as it were, been burnt up by the fire of high intellection and the mind
-untouched by afflictions realises the distinct natures of purusha and
-sattva, it naturally returns to its own primal cause prakṛti and
-kaivalya is attained.
-
-Those who are already far advanced do not require even this kriyāyoga,
-as their afflictions are already in an attenuated state and their minds
-in a fit condition to adapt themselves to samādhi; they can therefore
-begin at once with jñānayoga. So in the first chapter it is with respect
-to these advanced men that it is said that kaivalya can be attained by
-abhyāsa and vairāgya, without adopting the kriyāyoga (_Yoga-vārttika_,
-II. 2) kriyāyogas. Only śauca and santosha now remain to be spoken of.
-Śauca means cleanliness of body and mind. Cleanliness of body is brought
-about by water, cleanliness of mind by removal of the mental impurities
-of pride, jealousy and vanity.
-
-Santosha (contentment) is the absence of desire to possess more than is
-necessary for the preservation of one’s life. It should be added that
-this is the natural result of ceasing to desire to appropriate the
-property of others.
-
-At the close of this section on the yamas and niyamas, it is best to
-note their difference, which lies principally in this that the former
-are the negative virtues, whereas the latter are positive. The former
-can, and therefore must, be practised at all stages of Yoga, whereas the
-latter being positive are attainable only by distinct growth of mind
-through Yoga. The virtues of non-injury, truthfulness, sex restraint,
-etc., should be adhered to at all stages of the Yoga practice. They are
-indispensable for steadying the mind.
-
-It is said that in the presence of a person who has acquired steadiness
-in ahiṃsā all animals give up their habits of enmity; when a person
-becomes steady in truthfulness, whatever he says becomes fulfilled. When
-a person becomes steady in asteya (absence of theft) all jewels from all
-quarters approach him.
-
-Continence being confirmed, vigour is obtained. Non-covetousness being
-confirmed, knowledge of the causes of births is attained. By steadiness
-of cleanliness, disinclination to this body and cessation of desire for
-other bodies is obtained.
-
-When the mind attains internal śauca, or cleanliness of mind, his sattva
-becomes pure, and he acquires highmindedness, one-pointedness, control
-of the senses and fitness for the knowledge of self. By the steadiness
-of contentment comes the acquisition of extreme happiness. By steadiness
-of asceticism the impurities of this body are removed, and from that
-come miraculous powers of endurance of the body and also miraculous
-powers of the sense, viz. clairaudience and thought-reading from a
-distance. By steadiness of studies the gods, the ṛshis and the siddhas
-become visible. When Īśvara is made the motive of all actions, trance is
-attained. By this the Yogin knows all that he wants to know, just as it
-is in reality, whether in another place, another body or another time.
-His intellect knows everything as it is.
-
-It should not, however, be said, says Vācaspati, that inasmuch as the
-saṃprajñāta is attained by making Īśvara the motive of all actions, the
-remaining seven yogāṅgas are useless. For the yogāṅgas are useful in the
-attainment of that mental mood which devotes all actions to the purposes
-of Īśvara. They are also useful in the attainment of saṃprajñāta samādhi
-by separate kinds of collocations, and samādhi also leads to the
-fruition of saṃprajñāta, but though this meditation on Īśvara is itself
-a species of Īśvarapraṇidhāna, saṃprajñāta Yoga is a yet more direct
-means. As to the relation of Īśvarapraṇidhāna with the other aṅgas of
-Yoga, Bhikshu writes:—It cannot be asked what is the use of the other
-disciplinary practices of the Yoga since Yoga can be attained by
-meditation on Īśvara, for meditation on Īśvara only removes ignorance.
-The other accessories bring about samādhi by their own specific modes of
-operation. Moreover, it is by help of meditation on Īśvara that one
-succeeds in bringing about samādhi, through the performance of all the
-accessories of Yoga; so the accessories of Yoga cannot be regarded as
-unnecessary; for it is the accessories which produce dhāraṇa, dhyāna and
-samādhi, through meditation on God, and thereby salvation; devotion to
-God brings in His grace and through it the yogāṅgas can be duly
-performed. So though devotion to God may be considered as the direct
-cause, it cannot be denied that the due performance of the yogāṅgas is
-to be considered as the indirect cause.
-
-Āsanas are secured when the natural involuntary movements cease, and
-this may be effected by concentrating the mind on the mythological snake
-which quietly bears the burden of the earth on its head. Thus posture
-becomes perfect and effort to that end ceases, so that there is no
-movement of the body; or the mind is transformed into the infinite,
-which makes the idea of infinity its own and then brings about the
-perfection of posture. When posture has once been mastered there is no
-disturbance through the contraries of heat and cold, etc.
-
-After having secured stability in the Āsanas the prāṇāyāmas should be
-attempted. The pause that comes after a deep inhalation and that after a
-deep exhalation are each called a prāṇāyāma; the first is external, the
-second internal. There is, however, a third mode, by means of which,
-since the lungs are neither too much dilated nor too much contracted,
-total restraint is obtained; cessation of both these motions takes place
-by a single effort, just as water thrown on a heated stone shrivels up
-on all sides.
-
-These can be regulated by calculating the strength of inhalation and
-exhalation through space, time or number. Thus as the breathing becomes
-slower, the space that it occupies also becomes smaller and smaller.
-Space again is of two kinds, internal and external. At the time of
-inhalation, the breath occupies internal space, which can be felt even
-in the soles of hand and feet, like the slight touch of an ant. To try
-to feel this touch along with deep inhalation serves to lengthen the
-period of cessation of breathing. External space is the distance from
-the tip of the nose to the remotest point at which breath when inhaled
-can be felt, by the palm of the hand, or by the movement of any light
-substance like cotton, etc., placed there. Just as the breathing becomes
-slower and slower, the distances traversed by it also becomes smaller
-and smaller. Regulations by time is seen when the attention is fixed
-upon the time taken up in breathing by moments, a moment (_kshaṇa_) is
-the fourth part of the twinkling of the eye. Regulation by time thus
-means the fact of our calculating the strength of the prāṇāyāma the
-moments or kshaṇas spent in the acts of inspiration, pause and
-respiration. These prāṇāyāmas can also be measured by the number of
-moments in the normal duration of breaths. The time taken by the
-respiration and expiration of a healthy man is the same as that measured
-by snapping the fingers after turning the hand thrice over the knee and
-is the measure of duration of normal breath; the first attempt or
-udghāta called mild is measured by thirty-six such mātrās or measures;
-when doubled it is the second udghāta called middling; when trebled it
-is the third udghāta called intense. Gradually the Yogin acquires the
-practice of prāṇāyāma of long duration, by daily practice increasing in
-succession from a day, a fortnight, a month, etc. Of course he proceeds
-first by mastering the first udghāta, then the second, and so on until
-the duration increases up to a day, a fortnight, a month as stated.
-There is also a fourth kind of prāṇāyāma transcending all these stages
-of unsteady practice, when the Yogin is steady in his cessation of
-breath. It must be remembered, however, that while the prāṇāyāmas are
-being practised, the mind must be fixed by dhyāna and dhāraṇā to some
-object external or internal, without which these will be of no avail for
-the true object of Yoga. By the practice of prāṇāyāma, mind becomes fit
-for concentration as described in the _sūtra_ I. 34, where it is said
-that steadiness is acquired by prāṇāyāma in the same way as
-concentration, as we also find in the _sūtra_ II. 53.
-
-When the senses are restrained from their external objects by pratyāhāra
-we have what is called pratyāhāra, by which the mind remains as if in
-its own nature, being altogether identified with the object of inner
-concentration or contemplation; and thus when the citta is again
-suppressed, the senses, which have already ceased coming into contact
-with other objects and become submerged in the citta, also cease along
-with it. Dharaṇa is the concentration of citta on a particular place,
-which is so very necessary at the time of prāṇāyāmas mentioned before.
-The mind may thus be held steadfast in such places as the sphere of the
-navel, the lotus of the heart, the light in the brain, the forepart of
-the nose, the forepart of the tongue, and such like parts of the body.
-
-Dhyāna is the continuance or changing flow of the mental effort in the
-object of dharaṇa unmediated by any other break of conscious states.
-
-Samādhi, or trance contemplation, results when by deep concentration
-mind becomes transformed into the shape of the object of contemplation.
-By pratyāhāra or power of abstraction, mind desists from all other
-objects, except the one on which it is intended that it should be
-centred; the Yogin, as he thus abstracts his mind, should also try to
-fix it upon some internal or external object, which is called dhāraṇā;
-it must also be noticed that to acquire the habit of dhāraṇā and in
-order to inhibit the abstraction arising from shakiness and unsteadiness
-of the body, it is necessary to practise steadfast posture and to
-cultivate the prāṇāyāma. So too for the purpose of inhibiting
-distractions arising from breathing. Again, before a man can hope to
-attain steadfastness in these, he must desist from any conduct opposed
-to the yamas, and also acquire the mental virtues stated in the niyamas,
-and thus secure himself against any intrusion of distractions arising
-from his mental passions. These are the indirect and remote conditions
-which qualify a person for attaining dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and samādhi. A man
-who through his good deeds or by the grace of God is already so much
-advanced that he is naturally above all such distractions, for the
-removal of which it is necessary to practise the yamas, the niyamas, the
-āsanas, the prāṇāyāma and pratyāhara, may at once begin with dhāraṇā;
-dhāraṇā we have seen means concentration, with the advancement of which
-the mind becomes steady in repeating the object of its concentration,
-i.e. thinking of that thing alone and no other thing; thus we see that
-with the practice of this state called dhyāna, or meditation, in which
-the mind flows steadily in that one state without any interruption,
-gradually even the conscious flow of this activity ceases and the mind,
-transformed into the shape of the object under concentration, becomes
-steady therein. We see therefore that samādhi is the consummation of
-that process which begins in dhāraṇā or concentration. These three,
-dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi, represent the three stages of the same
-process of which the last one is the perfection; and these three are
-together technically called saṃyama, which directly leads to and is
-immediately followed by the samprajñāta state, whereas the other five
-yogāṅgas are only its indirect or remote causes. These three are,
-however, not essential for the asamprajñāta state, for a person who is
-very far advanced, or one who is the special object of God’s grace, may
-pass at once by intense vairāgya and abhyāsa into the nirodha state or
-state of suppression.
-
-As the knowledge of samādhi gradually dawns through the possession of
-saṃyama, so is the saṃyama gradually strengthened. For this saṃyama also
-rises higher and higher with the dawning of prajñāloka or light of
-samādhi knowledge. This is the beginning, for here the mind can hold
-saṃyama or concentrate and become one with a gross object together with
-its name, etc., which is called the savitarka state; the next plane or
-stage of saṃyama is that where the mind becomes one with the object of
-its meditation, without any consciousness of its name, etc. Next come
-the other two stages called savicāra and nirvicāra when the mind is
-fixed on subtle substances, as we shall see later on.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER XIII
- STAGES OF SAMĀDHI
-
-
-Saṃprajñāta samādhi (absorptive concentration in an object) may be
-divided into four classes, savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra and
-nirvicāra.
-
-To comprehend its scope we must first of all understand the relation
-between a thing, its concept, and the particular name with which the
-concept or thing is associated. It is easy to see that the thing
-(_artha_), the concept (_jñāna_), and the name (_śabda_) are quite
-distinct. But still, by force of association, the word or name stands
-both for the thing and its concept; the function of mind, by virtue of
-which despite this unreality or want of their having any real identity
-of connection they seem to be so much associated that the name cannot be
-differentiated from the thing or its idea, is called vikalpa.
-
-Now that state of samādhi in which the mind seems to become one with the
-thing, together with its name and concept, is the lowest stage of
-samādhi called savitarka; it is the lowest stage, because here the gross
-object does not appear to the mind in its true reality, but only in the
-false illusory way in which it appears associated with the concept and
-the name in ordinary life. This state does not differ from ordinary
-conceptual states, in which the particular thing is not only associated
-with the concepts and their names, but also with other concepts and
-their various relations; thus a cow will not only appear before the mind
-with its concept and name, but also along with other relations and
-thoughts associated with cows, as for example—“This is a cow, it belongs
-to so and so, it has so many hairs on its body, and so forth.” This
-state is therefore the first stage of samādhi, in which the mind has not
-become steady and is not as yet beyond the range of our ordinary
-consciousness.
-
-The nirvitarka stage arises from this when the mind by its steadiness
-can become one with its object, divested of all other associations of
-name and concept, so that it is in direct touch with the reality of the
-thing, uncontaminated by associations. The thing in this state does not
-appear to be an object of my consciousness, but my consciousness
-becoming divested of all “I” or “mine,” becomes one with the object
-itself; so that there is no such notion here as “I know this,” but the
-mind becomes one with the thing, so that the notion of subject and
-object drops off and the result is the one steady transformation of the
-mind into the object of its contemplation. This state brings home to us
-real knowledge of the thing, divested from other false and illusory
-associations, which far from explaining the real nature of the object,
-serves only to hide it. This samādhi knowledge or prajñā is called
-nirvitarka. The objects of this state may be the gross material objects
-and the senses.
-
-Now this state is followed by the state of savicārā prajñā, which dawns
-when the mind neglecting the grossness of the object sinks deeper and
-deeper into its finer constituents; the appearance of the thing in its
-grosser aspects drops off and the mind having sunk deep, centres in and
-identifies itself with the subtle tanmātras, which are the constituents
-of the atoms, as a conglomeration of which the object appeared before
-our eyes in the nirvitarka state. Thus when the mind, after identifying
-itself with the sun in its true aspect as pure light, tends to settle on
-a still finer state of it, either by making the senses so steady that
-the outward appearance vanishes, or by seeking finer and finer stages
-than the grosser manifestation of light as such, it apprehends the
-tanmātric state of the light and knows it as such, and we have what is
-called the savicāra stage. It has great similarities with the savitarka
-stage, while its differences from that stage spring from the fact that
-here the object is the tanmātra and not the gross bhūta. The mind in
-this stage holding communion with the rūpa tanmātra, for example, is not
-coloured variously as red, blue, etc., as in the savitarka communion
-with gross light, for the tanmātric light or light potential has no such
-varieties as different kinds of colour, etc., so that there are also no
-such different kinds of feeling of pleasure or pain as arise from the
-manifold varieties of ordinary light. This is a state of feelingless
-representation of one uniform tanmātric state, when the object appears
-as a conglomeration of tanmātras of rūpa, rasa or gandha, as the case
-might be. This state, however, is not indeterminate, as the nirvitarka
-stage, for this tanmātric conception is associated with the notions of
-time, space and causality, for the mind here feels that it sees those
-tanmātras which are in such a subtle state that they are not associated
-with pleasures and pains. They are also endowed with causality in such a
-way that from them and their particular collocations originate the
-atoms.
-
-It must be noted here that the subtle objects of concentration in this
-stage are not the tanmātras alone, but also other subtle substances
-including the ego, the buddhi and the prakṛti.
-
-But when the mind acquires the complete habit of this state in which it
-becomes identified with these fine objects—the tanmātras—etc., then all
-conceptual notions of the associations of time, space, causality, etc.,
-spoken of in the savicāra and the savitarka state vanish away and it
-becomes one with the fine object of its communion. These two kinds of
-prajñā, savicāra and nirvicāra, arising from communion with the fine
-tanmātras, have been collocated under one name as vicārānugata. But when
-the object of communion is the senses, the samādhi is called
-ānandānugata, and when the object of communion is the subtle cause the
-ego (_asmitā_), the samādhi is known as asmitānugata.
-
-There is a difference of opinion regarding the object of the last two
-varieties of samādhi, viz. ānandānugata and asmitānugata, and also about
-the general scheme of division of the samādhis. Vācaspati thinks that
-_Yoga-sūtra_ I. 41 suggests the interpretation that the saṃprajñāta
-samādhis may be divided into three different classes according as their
-objects of concentration belong to one or other of the three different
-planes of grāhya (external objects), grahaṇa (the senses) and grahītṛ
-(the ego). So he refers vitarka and vicāra to the plane of grāhya
-(physical objects and tanmātras), ānandānugata to the plane of grahaṇa
-(the senses) and asmitānugata to the plane of grahītṛ. Bhikshu, however,
-disapproves of such an interpretation. He holds that in ānandānugata the
-object of concentration is bliss (ānanda) and not the senses. When the
-Yogin rises to the vicārānugata stage there is a great flow of sattva
-which produces bliss, and at this the mind becomes one with this ānanda
-or bliss, and this samādhi is therefore called ānandānugata. Bhikshu
-does not think that in asmitānugata samādhi the object of concentration
-is the ego. He thinks that in this stage the object of concentration is
-the concept of self (_kevalapurushākārā saṃvit_) which has only the form
-of ego or “I” (_asmītyetāvanmātrākāratvādasmitā_).
-
-Again according to Vācaspati in addition to the four varieties of
-savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra and nirvicāra there are two varieties of
-ānandanugata as sānanda and nirānanda and two varieties of asmitānugata
-as sāsmita and nirasmita. This gives us eight different kinds of
-samādhi. With Bhikshu there are only six kinds of samādhi, for he admits
-only one variety as ānandānugata and one variety as asmitānugata.
-Bhikshu’s classification of samādhis is given below in a tabular form
-(see Vācaspati’s _Tattvavaiśāradī_ and _Yoga-vārttika_, I. 17, 41, 42,
-43, 44).
-
- samprajñāta samādhi
- |
- +---------------------+----------------------+
- | |
- sthūlavishayaka sūkshma vishayaka
- (vitarkānugata) |
- samādhi +--------+-----+--------------+
- +-------------------+ | | |
- | | | ānanda asmitā
- 1. savitarka 2. nirvitarka | or purusha
- (with associations (without association |
- of name and concept of name) | 5. (ānandānugata) 6. (asmitānugata)
- of the object) |
- |
- tanmātra
- vicārānugata
- samādhi
- |
- +---------------+--------------+
- | |
- 3. savicāra 4. nirvicāra
- (with association of (without association
- name and concept of name, etc. )
- of the tanmātras)
-
-Through the nirvicāra state our minds become altogether purified and
-there springs the prajñā or knowledge called ṛtambharā or true; this
-true knowledge is altogether different from the knowledge which is
-derived from the Vedas or from inferences or from ordinary perceptions;
-for the knowledge that it can give of Reality can never be had by any
-other means, by perception, inference or testimony, for their
-communication is only by the conceptual process of generalisations and
-abstractions and these can never help us to affirm anything about things
-as they are in themselves, which are altogether different from their
-illusory demonstrations in conceptual terms which only prevent us from
-knowing the true reality. The potency of this prajñā arrests the potency
-of ordinary states of consciousness and thus attains stability. When,
-however, this prajñā is also suppressed, we have what is called the
-state of nirvīja samādhi, at the end of which comes final prajñā leading
-to the dissolution of the citta and the absolute freedom of the purusha.
-
-Samādhi we have seen is the mind’s becoming one with an object by a
-process of acute concentration upon it and a continuous repetition of it
-with the exclusion of all other thoughts of all kinds. We have indeed
-described the principal stages of the advancement of samprajñāta Yoga,
-but it is impossible to give an exact picture of it with the symbolical
-expressions of our concepts; for the stages only become clear to the
-mental vision of the Yogin as he gradually acquires firmness in his
-practice. The Yogin who is practising at once comes to know them as the
-higher stages gradually dawn in his mind and he distinguishes them from
-each other; it is thus a matter of personal experience, so that no
-teacher can tell him whether a certain stage which follows is higher or
-lower, for Yoga itself is its own teacher.
-
-Even when the mind is in the samprajñāta state it is said to be in
-vyutthāna (phenomenal) in comparison with the nirodha state, just as the
-ordinary conscious states are called vyutthāna in comparison with the
-samprajñāta state; the potencies of the samprajñāta state become weaker
-and weaker, while the potencies of the nirodha state become stronger and
-stronger until finally the mind comes to the nirodha state and becomes
-stable therein; of course this contains within itself a long mental
-history, for the potency of the nirodha state can become stronger only
-when the mind practises it and remains in this suppressed condition for
-long intervals of time. This shows that the mind, being made up of the
-three guṇas, is always suffering transformations and changes. Thus from
-the ordinary state of phenomenal consciousness it gradually becomes
-one-pointed and then gradually becomes transformed into the state of an
-object (internal or external), when it is said to be undergoing the
-samādhi pariṇāma or samādhi change of the samprajñāta type; next comes
-the change, when the mind passes from the samprajñāta stage to the state
-of suppression (_nirodha_). Here also, therefore, we see that the same
-dharma, lakshṇa, avasthāpariṇāma which we have already described at some
-length with regard to sensible objects apply also to the mental states.
-Thus the change from the vyutthāna (ordinary experience) to the nirodha
-state is the dharmapariṇāma, the change as manifested in time, so that
-we can say that the change of vyutthāna into nirodha has not yet come,
-or has just come, or that the vyutthāna state (ordinary experience)
-exists no longer, the mind having transformed itself into the nirodha
-state. There is also here the third change of condition, when we see
-that the potencies of the samprajñāta state become weaker and weaker,
-while that of the nirodha state becomes stronger and stronger. These are
-the three kinds of change which the mind undergoes called the dharma,
-lakshaṇa and avasthā change. But there is one difference between this
-change thus described from the changes observed in sensible objects that
-here the changes are not visible but are only to be inferred by the
-passage of the mind from one state to another.
-
-It has been said that there are two different kinds of qualities of the
-mind, visible and invisible. The visible qualities whose changes can be
-noticed are conscious states, or thought-products, or percepts, etc. The
-invisible ones are seven in number and cannot be directly seen, but
-their existence and changes or modifications may be established by
-inference. These are suppression, characterisation, subconscious
-maintenance of experience, constant change, life, movement and power or
-energy.
-
-In connection with samprajñāta samādhi some miraculous attainments are
-described, which are said to strengthen the faith or belief of the Yogin
-in the processes of Yoga as the path of salvation. These are like the
-products or the mental experiments in the Yoga method, by which people
-may become convinced of the method of Yoga as being the true one. No
-reasons are offered as to the reason for these attainments, but they are
-said to happen as a result of mental union with different objects. It is
-best to note them here in a tabular form.
-
- ─────────────────────────────────┬────────┬────────────────────────────
- Object of Saṃyama. │Saṃyama.│ Attainment.
- ─────────────────────────────────┼────────┼────────────────────────────
- (1) Threefold change of things │Saṃyama.│
- as dharma, lakshaṇa and │ │
- avasthāpariṇāma. │ │
- (2) The distinctions of name, │ „ │Knowledge of the sounds of
- external object and the │ │ all living beings.
- concept which ordinarily │ │
- appears united as one. │ │
- (3) Residual potencies saṃskāra │ „ │Knowledge of previous life.
- of the nature of dharma │ │
- and adharma. │ │
- (4) Concepts alone (separated │ „ │Knowledge of other minds.
- from the objects). │ │
- (5) Over the form of body. │ „ │Disappearance (by virtue of
- │ │ perceptibility being
- │ │ checked).
- (6) Karma of fast or slow │ „ │Knowledge of death.
- fruition. │ │
- (7) Friendliness, sympathy, and │ „ │Power.
- compassion. │ │
- (8) Powers of elephant. │ „ │Power of elephant.
- (9) Sun. │ „ │Knowledge of the world (the
- │ │ geographical position of
- │ │ countries, etc.).
- (10) Heavens. │ „ │Knowledge of the heavenly
- │ │ systems.
- (11) Pole star. │ „ │Knowledge of its movements.
- (12) Plenus of the navel. │ „ │Knowledge of the system of
- │ │ the body.
- (13) Base of the throat. │ „ │Subdual of hunger and
- │ │ thirst.
- (14) Tortoise tube. │Saṃyama.│Steadiness.
- (15) Coronal light. │ „ │Vision of the perfected
- │ │ ones—the knowledge of the
- │ │ seer, or all knowledge by
- │ │ prescience.
- (16) Heat. │ „ │Knowledge of the mind.
- (17) Purusha. │ „ │Knowledge of purusha.
- (18) Gross nature subtle │ „ │Control over the element
- pervasiveness and │ │ from which follows
- purposefulness. │ │ attenuation, perfection of
- │ │ the body and
- │ │ non-resistance by their
- │ │ characteristics.
- (19) Act, substantive appearance,│ „ │Mastery over the senses;
- egoism, pervasiveness and │ │ thence quickness of mind,
- purposefulness of │ │ unaided mental perception
- sensation. │ │ and mastery over the
- │ │ pradhāna.
- ─────────────────────────────────┴────────┴────────────────────────────
-
-These vibhūtis, as they rise with the performance of the processes of
-Yoga, gradually deepen the faith _śraddha_ of the Yogin in the
-performance of his deeds and thus help towards his main goal or ideal by
-always pushing or drawing him forward towards it by the greater and
-greater strengthening of his faith. Divested from the ideal, they have
-no value.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER XIV
- GOD IN YOGA
-
-
-After describing the nature of karmayoga, and the way in which it leads
-to jñānayoga, we must now describe the third and easiest means of
-attaining salvation, the bhaktiyoga and the position of Īśvara in the
-Yoga system, with reference to a person who seeks deliverance from the
-bonds and shackles of avidyā.
-
-Īśvara in the Yoga system is that purusha who is distinguished from all
-others by the fact of his being untouched by the afflictions or the
-fruits of karma. Other purushas are also in reality untouched by the
-afflictions, but they, seemingly at least, have to undergo the
-afflictions and consequently birth and rebirth, etc., until they are
-again finally released; but Īśvara, though he is a purusha, yet does not
-suffer in any way any sort of bondage. He is always free and ever the
-Lord. He never had nor will have any relation to these bonds. He is also
-the teacher of the ancient teachers beyond the range of conditioning
-time.
-
-This nature of Īśvara has been affirmed in the scriptures and is
-therefore taken as true on their authority. The authority of the
-scriptures is again acknowledged only because they have proceeded from
-God or Īśvara. The objection that this is an argument in a circle has no
-place here, since the connection of the scriptures with Īśvara is
-beginningless.
-
-There is no other divinity equal to Īśvara, because in the case of such
-equality there might be opposition between rival Īśvaras, which might
-result in the lowering in degree of any of them. He is omniscient in the
-highest degree, for in him is the furthest limit of omniscience, beyond
-which there is nothing.
-
-This Īśvara is all-merciful, and though he has no desires to satisfy,
-yet for the sake of his devotees he dictates the Vedas at each evolution
-of the world after dissolution. But he does not release all persons,
-because he helps only so far as each deserves; he does not nullify the
-law of karma, just as a king, though quite free to act in any way he
-likes, punishes or rewards people as they deserve.
-
-At the end of each kalpa, he adopts pure body from his sattva, which is
-devoid of any karmāśaya, and thus communicates through it to all his
-devotees and dictates the Vedas. Again at the time of dissolution this
-body of pure sattva becomes submerged in prakṛti; and at the time of its
-submersion, Īśvara wishes that it might come forth again at the
-beginning of the new creation; thus for ever at each new creation the
-pure sattva body springs forth and is submerged again into prakṛti at
-the time of the dissolution of the universe.
-
-In accepting this body he has no personal desires to satisfy, as we have
-said before. He adopts it only for the purpose of saving mankind by
-instructing them as to knowledge and piety, which is not possible
-without a pure sattvamaya body; so he adopts it, but is not affected in
-any way by it. One who is under the control of nescience cannot
-distinguish his real nature from nescience, and thus is always led by
-it, but such is not the case with Īśvara, for he is not in any way under
-its control, but only adopts it as a means of communicating knowledge to
-mankind.
-
-A Yogin also who has attained absolute independence may similarly accept
-one or more pure sattvamaya nirmāṇa cittas from asmitāmātra and may
-produce one citta as the superintendent of all these. Such a citta
-adopted by a true Yogin by the force of his meditation is not under the
-control of the vehicles of action as is the case with the other four
-kinds of citta from birth, oshadhi, mantra and tapas.
-
-The praṇava or oṃkāra is his name; though at the time of dissolution,
-the word of praṇava together with its denotative power becomes submerged
-in the prakṛti, to reappear with the new creation, just as roots shoot
-forth from the ground in the rainy season. This praṇava is also called
-svādhyāya. By concentration of this svādhyāya or praṇava, the mind
-becomes one-pointed and fit for Yoga.
-
-Now one of the means of attaining Yoga is Īśvarapraṇidhāna, or worship
-of God. This word, according to the commentators, is used in two senses
-in the first and the second books of the Pātañjala Yoga aphorisms. In
-the first book it means love or devotion to God as the one centre of
-meditation, in the second it is used to mean the abnegation of all
-desires of the fruits of action to Īśvara, and thus Īśvarapraṇidhāna in
-this sense is included under kriyāyoga. This dedication of all fruits of
-action to Īśvara, purifies the mind and makes it fit for Yoga and is
-distinguished from the Īśvarapraṇidhāna of the first book as the bhāvanā
-of praṇava and Īśvara in this that it is connected with actions and the
-abnegation of their fruits, whereas the latter consists only in keeping
-the mind in a worshipful state towards Īśvara and his word or name
-praṇava.
-
-By devotion (bhakti) Īśvara is drawn towards the devotee through his
-nirmāṇa citta of pure sattva and by his grace he removes all
-obstructions of illness, etc., described in I. 30, 31, and at once
-prepares his mind for the highest realisation of his own absolute
-independence. So for a person who can love and adore Īśvara, this is the
-easiest course of attaining samādhi. We can make our minds pure most
-easily by abandoning all our actions to Īśvara and attaining salvation
-by firm and steady devotion to Him. This is the sphere of bhaktiyoga by
-which the tedious complexity of the Yoga process may be avoided and
-salvation speedily acquired by the supreme grace of Īśvara.
-
-This means is not, however, distinct from the general means of Yoga,
-viz. abhyāsa and vairāgya, which applies to all stages. For here also
-abhyāsa applies to the devotion of Īśvara as one supreme truth and
-vairāgya is necessarily associated with all true devotion and adoration
-of Īśvara.
-
-This conception of Īśvara differs from the conception of Īśvara in the
-Rāmānuja system in this that there prakṛti and purusha, acit and cit,
-form the body of Īśvara, whereas here Īśvara is considered as being only
-a special purusha with the aforesaid powers.
-
-In this system Īśvara is not the superintendent of prakṛti in the sense
-of the latter’s remaining in him in an undifferentiated way, but is
-regarded as the superintendent of dharma and adharma, and his agency is
-active only in the removal of obstacles, thereby helping the
-evolutionary process of prakṛti.
-
-Thus Īśvara is distinguished from the Īśvara of Saṅkara Vedānta in this
-that there true existence is ascribed only to Īśvara, whereas all other
-forms and modes of Being are only regarded as illusory.
-
-From what we have seen above it is clear that the main stress of the
-Yoga philosophy is on the method of samādhi. The knowledge that can be
-acquired by it differs from all other kinds of knowledge, ordinary
-perception, inference, etc., in this that it alone can bring objects
-before our mental eye with the clearest and most unerring light of
-comprehensibility in which the true nature of the thing is at once
-observed. Inferences and the words of scriptures are based on concepts
-or general notions of things. For the teaching of the Vedas is
-manifested in words; and words are but names, terms or concepts formed
-by noting the general similarities of certain things and binding them
-down by a symbol. All deductive inferences are also based upon major
-propositions arrived at by inductive generalisations; so it is easy to
-see that all knowledge that can be acquired by them is only generalised
-conceptions. Their process only represents the method by which the mind
-can pass from one generalised conception to another; so the mind can in
-no way attain the knowledge of real things, absolute species, which are
-not the genus of any other thing; so inference and scripture can only
-communicate to us the nature of the agreement or similarity of things
-and not the real things as they are. Ordinary perception also is not of
-much avail here, since it cannot bring within its scope subtle and fine
-things and things that are obstructed from the view of the senses. But
-samādhi has no such limitations and the knowledge that can be attained
-by it is absolutely unobstructed, true and real in the strictest sense
-of the terms.
-
-Of all the points of difference between Yoga and Sāṃkhya the admission
-of Īśvara by the former and the emphasis given by it to the Yoga
-practice are the most important in distinguishing it from the latter. It
-seems probable that Īśvara was traditionally believed in the Yoga school
-to be a protector of the Yogins proceeding in their arduous course of
-complete self-control and absorptive concentration. The chances of a
-person adopting the course of Yoga practice for the attainment of
-success in this field does not depend only on the exertions of the
-Yogin, but upon the concurrence of many convenient circumstances such as
-physical fitness, freedom from illnesses and other obstacles. Faith in
-the patronage of God in favour of honest workers and believers served to
-pacify their minds and fill them with the cheerful hope and confidence
-which were so necessary for the success of Yoga practice. The
-metaphysical functions which are ascribed to Īśvara seem to be later
-additions for the sake of rendering his position more in harmony with
-the system. Mere faith in Īśvara for the practical benefit of the Yogins
-is thus interpreted by a reference to his superintendence of the
-development of cosmic evolution. Sāṃkhya relied largely on philosophical
-thinking leading to proper discrimination as to the difference between
-prakrti and purusha which is the stage immediately antecedent to
-emancipation. There being thus no practical need for the admission of
-Īśvara, the theoretical need was also ignored and it was held that the
-inherent teleological purpose (_purushārthatā_) of prakṛti was
-sufficient to explain all the stages of cosmic evolution as well as its
-final separation from the purushas.
-
-We have just seen that Sāṃkhya does not admit the existence of God, and
-considers that salvation can be obtained only by a steady perseverance
-in philosophical thinking, and does not put emphasis on the practical
-exercises which are regarded as essential by the Yoga. One other point
-of difference ought to be noted with regard to the conception of avidyā.
-According to Yoga, avidyā, as we have already explained it, means
-positive untrue beliefs such as believing the impure, uneternal, sorrow,
-and non-self to be the pure eternal, pleasure and the self respectively.
-With Sāṃkhya, however, avidyā is only the non-distinction of the
-difference between prakṛti and purusha. Both Sāṃkhya and Yoga admit that
-our bondage to prakṛti is due to an illusion or ignorance (avidyā), but
-Sāṃkhya holds the akhyāti theory which regards non-distinction of the
-difference as the cause of illusion whereas the Yoga holds the
-anyathākhyāti theory which regards positive misapprehension of the one
-as the other to be the cause of illusion. We have already referred to
-the difference in the course of the evolution of the categories as held
-by Sāṃkhya and Yoga. This also accounts for the difference between the
-technical terms of prakṛti, vikṛti and prakṛti-vikṛti of Sāṃkhya and the
-viśesha and aviśesha of the Yoga. The doctrine of dharma, lakshaṇa and
-avasthāpariṇāma, though not in any way antagonistic to Sāṃkhya, is not
-so definitely described as in the Yoga. Some scholars think that Sāṃkhya
-did not believe in atoms as Yoga did. But though the word paramāṇu has
-not been mentioned in the _Kārikā_, it does not seem that Sāṃkhya did
-not believe in atoms; and we have already noticed that Bhikshu considers
-the word sūkshma in _Kārikā_ 39 as referring to the atoms. There are
-also slight differences with regard to the process involved in
-perception and this has been dealt with in my _Yoga philosophy in
-relation to other Indian systems of thought_.[43] On almost all other
-fundamental points Sāṃkhya and Yoga are in complete agreement.
-
-
-
-
- CHAPTER XV
- MATTER AND MIND
-
-
-In conclusion it may be worth while saying a few words as to theories of
-the physical world supplementary to the views that have already been
-stated above.
-
-Gross matter, as the possibility of sensation, has been divided into
-five classes, according to their relative grossness, corresponding to
-the relative grossness of the senses. Some modern investigators have
-tried to understand the five bhūtas, viz. ākāśa, marut, tejas, ap and
-kshiti as ether, gaseous heat and light, liquids and solids. But I
-cannot venture to agree when I reflect that solidity, liquidity and
-gaseousness represent only an impermanent aspect of matter. The division
-of matter from the standpoint of the possibility of our sensations, has
-a firm root in our nature as cognising beings and has therefore a better
-rational footing than the modern chemical division into elements and
-compounds, which are being daily threatened by the gradual advance of
-scientific culture. This carries with it no fixed and consistent
-rational conception as do the definitions of the ancients, but is a mere
-makeshift for understanding or representing certain chemical changes of
-matter and has therefore a merely relative value.
-
-There are five aspects from which gross matter can be viewed. These are
-(1) sthūla (gross), (2) svarūpa (substantive), (3) sūkshma (subtle), (4)
-anvaya (conjunction), (5) arthavattva (purpose for use). The sthūla or
-gross physical characteristics of the bhūtas are described as follows:—
-
-Qualities of Earth—Form, heaviness, roughness, obstruction, stability,
-manifestation (vṛtti), difference, support, turbidity, hardness and
-enjoyability.
-
-Ap—Smoothness, subtlety, clearness, whiteness, softness, heaviness,
-coolness, conservation, purity, cementation.
-
-Tejas—Going upwards, cooking, burning, light, shining, dissipating,
-energising.
-
-Vāyu—Transverse motion, purity, throwing, pushing, strength, movability,
-want of shadow.
-
-Ākāśa—Motion in all directions, non-agglomeration, non-obstruction.
-
-These physical characteristics are distinguished from the aspects by
-which they appeal to the senses, which are called their svarūpas. Earth
-is characterised by gandha or smell, ap by rasa or taste, tejas by rūpa,
-etc. Looked at from this point of view, we see that smell arises by the
-contact of the nasal organ with the hard particles of matter; so this
-hardness or solidity which can so generate the sensibility of gandha, is
-said to be the svarūpa of kshiti. Taste can originate only in connection
-with liquidity, so this liquidity or sneha is the svarūpa or nature of
-ap. Light—the quality of visibility—manifests itself in connection with
-heat, so heat is the svarūpa of fire. The sensibility of touch is
-generated in connection with the vibration of air on the epidermal
-surface; so this vibratory nature is the svarūpa of air.
-
-The sensibility to sound proceeds from the nature of
-obstructionlessness, which belongs to ākāśa, so this obstructionlessness
-is the svarūpa of ākāśa.
-
-The third aspect is the aspect of tanmātras, which are the causes of the
-atoms or paramāṇus. Their fourth aspect is their aspect of guṇas or
-qualities of illumination, action, inertia. Their fifth aspect is that
-by which they are serviceable to purusha, by causing his pleasurable or
-painful experiences and finally his liberation.
-
-Speaking of aggregation with regard to the structure of matter, we see
-that this is of two kinds (1) when the parts are in intimate union and
-fusion, e.g. any vegetable or animal body, the parts of which can never
-be considered separately. (2) When there are such mechanical aggregates
-or collocations of distinct and independent parts _yutasiddhāvayava_ as
-the trees in a forest.
-
-A dravya or substance is an aggregate of the former type, and is the
-grouping of generic or specific qualities and is not a separate
-entity—the abode of generic and specific qualities like the dravya of
-the Vaiśeshika conception. The aspect of an unification of generic and
-specific qualities seen in parts united in intimate union and fusion is
-called the dravya aspect. The aggregation of parts is the structural
-aspect of which the side of appearance is the unification of generic and
-specific qualities called the dravya.
-
-The other aggregation of yutasiddhāvayava, i.e. the collocation of the
-distinct and independent parts, is again of two kinds, (1) in which
-stress may be laid on the distinction of parts, and (2) that in which
-stress is laid on their unity rather than on their distinctness. Thus in
-the expression mango-grove, we see that many mangoes make a grove, but
-the mangoes are not different from the grove. Here stress is laid on the
-aspect that mangoes are the same as the grove, which, however, is not
-the case when we say that here is a grove of mangoes, for the expression
-“grove of mangoes” clearly brings home to our minds the side of the
-distinct mango-trees which form a grove.
-
-Of the gross elements, ākāśa seems especially to require a word of
-explanation. There are according to Vijñāna Bhikshu and Nāgeśa two kinds
-of ākāśa—kāraṇa (or primal) and kārya (atomic). The first or original is
-the undifferentiated formless tamas, for in that stage it has not the
-quality of manifesting itself in sounds. This kāraṇa later on develops
-into the atomic ākāśa, which has the property of sound. According to the
-conception of the purāṇas, this karyākāśa evolves from the ego as the
-first envelope of vāyu or air. The kāraṇakāśa or non-atomic ākāśa should
-not be considered as a mere vacuum, but must be conceived as a positive,
-all-pervasive entity, something like the ether of modern physicists.
-
-From this ākāśa springs the atomic ākāśa or kāryākāśa, which is the
-cause of the manifestation of sound. All powers of hearing, even though
-they have their origin in the principle of egoism, reside in the ākāśa
-placed in the hollow of the ear. When soundness or defect is noticed
-therein, soundness or defect is also noticed in the power of hearing.
-Further, when of the sounds working in unison with the power of hearing,
-the sounds of solids, etc., are to be apprehended, then the power of
-hearing located in the hollow of the ear requires the capacity of
-resonance residing in the substratum of the ākāśa of the ear. This sense
-of hearing, then, operates when it is attracted by the sound originated
-and located in the mouth of the speaker, which acts as a loadstone. It
-is this ākāśa which gives penetrability to all bodies; in the absence of
-this, all bodies would be so compact that it would be difficult to
-pierce them even with a needle. In the _Sāṃkhya-sūtra_ II. 12, it is
-said that eternal time and space are of the nature of ākāśa. So this
-so-called eternal time and space do not differ from the one
-undifferentiated formless tamas of which we have just spoken. Relative
-and infinite time arise from the motion of atoms in space—the cause of
-all change and transformation; and space as relative position cannot be
-better expressed than in the words of Dr. B. N. Seal, as “totality of
-positions as an order of co-existent points, and as such it is wholly
-relative to the understanding like order in time, being constructed on
-the basis of relations of position intuited by our empirical or relative
-consciousness. But there is this difference between space order and time
-order:—there is no unit of space as position (_dik_) though we may
-conceive time, as the moment (_kshaṇa_) regarded as the unit of change
-in the causal series. Spatial position (_dik_) results only from the
-different relations in which the all-pervasive ākāśa stands to the
-various finite objects. On the other hand, space as extension or locus
-of a finite body, or deśa, has an ultimate unit, being analysable into
-the infinitesimal extension quality inherent in the guṇas of
-prakṛti.”[44]
-
-Citta or mind has two degrees: (1) the form of states such as real
-cognition, including perception, inference, competent evidence, unreal
-cognition, imagination, sleep and memory. (2) In the form in which all
-those states are suppressed. Between the stage of complete outgoing
-activity of ordinary experience (_vyutthāna_) and complete suppression
-of all states, there are thousands of states of infinite variety,
-through which a man’s experiences have to pass, from the vyutthāna state
-to the nirodha. In addition to the five states spoken of above, there is
-another kind of real knowledge and intuition, called prajñā, which dawns
-when by concentration the citta is fixed upon any one state and that
-alone. This prajñā is superior to all other means of knowledge, whether
-perception, inference or competent evidence of the Vedas, in this, that
-it is altogether unerring, unrestricted and unlimited in its scope.
-
-Pramāṇa, we have seen, includes perception, inference and competent
-evidence. Perception originates when the mind or citta, through the
-senses (ear, skin, eye, taste and nose) is modified by external objects
-and passes to them, generating a kind of knowledge about them in which
-their specific characters become more predominant.
-
-Mind is all-pervasive and can come in touch with the external world, by
-which we have the perception of the thing. Like light, which emits rays
-and pervades all, though it remains in one place, the citta by its
-vṛttis comes in contact with the external world, is changed into the
-form of the object of perception and thus becomes the cause of
-perception; as the citta has to pass through the senses, it becomes
-coloured by them, which explains the fact that perception is impossible
-without the help of the senses. As it has to pass through the senses, it
-undergoes the limitations of the senses, which it can avoid, if it can
-directly concentrate itself upon any object without the help of the
-senses; from this originates the prajñā, through which dawns absolute
-real knowledge of the thing; unhampered by the limitations of the senses
-which can act only within a certain area or distance and cannot cognize
-subtler objects.
-
-We see that in ordinary perception our minds are drawn towards the
-object, as iron is attracted by magnets. Thus Bhikshu says in explaining
-_Vyāsa-bhāshya_ IV. 17:—
-
-“The objects of knowledge, though inactive in themselves, may yet draw
-the everchanging cittas towards them like a magnet and change them in
-accordance with their own forms, just as a piece of cloth is turned red
-by coming into contact with red lac.” So it is that the cittas attain
-the form of anything with which they come in touch and there is then the
-perception that that thing is known. Perception (_pratyaksha_) is
-distinguished from inference, etc., in this, that here the knowledge
-arrived at is predominantly of the specific and special characters
-(_viśesha_) of the thing and not of its generic qualities us in
-inference, etc.
-
-Inference proceeds from inference, and depends upon the fact that
-certain common qualities are found in all the members of a class, as
-distinguished from the members of a different class. Thus the qualities
-affirmed of a class will be found to exist in all the individual members
-of that class; this attribution of the generic characters of a class to
-the individual members that come under it is the essence of inference.
-
-An object perceived or inferred by a competent man is described by him
-in words with the intention of transferring his knowledge to another;
-and the mental modification, which has for its sphere the meaning of
-such words, is the verbal cognition of the hearer. When the speaker has
-neither perceived nor inferred the object, and speaks of things which
-cannot be believed, the authority of verbal cognition fails. But it does
-not fail in the original speaker, God or Īśvara, and his dictates the
-Śāstras with reference either to the object of perception or of
-inference.
-
-Viparyyaya or unreal cognition is the knowledge of the unreal as in
-doubt—a knowledge which possesses a form that does not tally with the
-real nature of the thing either as doubt or as false knowledge. Doubt
-may be illustrated by taking the case of a man who sees something in dim
-light and doubts its nature. “Is it a wooden post or a man?” In nature
-there is either the wooden post or the man, but there is no such fact or
-entity which corresponds with doubt: “Is it a wooden post or a man?”
-Knowledge as doubt is not cognition of a fact or entity. The illusion of
-seeing all things yellow through a defect of the eye (as in jaundice)
-can only be corrected when the objects are seen in their true colours.
-In doubt, however, their defective nature is at once manifest. Thus when
-we cannot be sure whether a certain thing is a post or a man, we know
-that our knowledge is not definite. So we have not to wait till the
-illusoriness of the previous knowledge is demonstrated by the advent of
-right knowledge. The evil nature of viparyyaya is exemplified in avidyā
-nescience, asmitā, rāga, etc.[45]
-
-Viparyyaya is distinguished from vikalpa—imagination—in this, that
-though the latter is also unreal knowledge its nature as such is not
-demonstrated by any knowledge that follows, but is on the contrary
-admitted on all sides by the common consent of mankind. But it is only
-the learned who can demonstrate by arguments the illusoriness of vikalpa
-or imagination.
-
-All class notions and concepts are formed by taking note only of the
-general characters of things and associating them with a symbol called
-“name.” Things themselves, however, do not exist in the nature of these
-symbols or names or concepts; it is only an aspect of them that is
-diagrammatically represented by the intellect in the form of concepts.
-When concepts are united or separated in our thought and language, they
-consequently represent only an imaginary plane of knowledge, for the
-things are not as the concepts represent them. Thus when we say
-“Caitra’s cow,” it is only an imaginary relation for, strictly speaking,
-no such thing exists as the cow of Caitra. Caitra has no connection in
-reality with the cow. When we say purusha is of the nature of
-consciousness, there is the same illusory relation. Now what is here
-predicated of what? Purusha is consciousness itself, but in predication
-there must always be a statement of the relation of one to another. Thus
-it sometimes breaks a concept into two parts and predicates the one of
-the other, and sometimes predicates the unity of two concepts which are
-different. Thus its sphere has a wide latitude in all thought-process
-conducted through language and involves an element of abstraction and
-construction which is called vikalpa. This represents the faculty by
-which our concepts are arranged in an analytical or synthetical
-proposition. It is said to be _śabdajñānānupāti vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ_,
-i.e. the knowledge that springs from relating concepts or names, which
-relating does not actually exist in the objective world as it is
-represented in propositional forms.
-
-Sleep is that mental state which has for its objective substratum the
-feeling of emptiness. It is called a state or notion of mind, for it is
-called back on awakening; when we feel that we have slept well our minds
-are clear, when we have slept badly our minds are listless, wandering
-and unsteady. For a person who seeks to attain communion or samādhi,
-these desires of sleep are to be suppressed, like all other desires.
-Memory is the retaining in the mind of objects perceived when perception
-occurs by the union of the cittas with external objects, according to
-the forms of which the cittas are transformed; it retains these
-perceptions, as impressions or saṃskāras by means of its inherent tamas.
-These saṃskāras generate memory, when such events occur as can manifest
-them by virtue of associations.
-
-Thus memory comes when the percepts already known and acquired are kept
-in the mind in the form of impressions and are manifested by the
-udbodhakas or associative manifestors. It differs from perceptions in
-this that the latter are of the nature of perceiving the unknown and
-unperceived, whereas the former serves to bring before the mind percepts
-that have already been acquired. Memory is therefore of percepts already
-acquired by real cognition, unreal cognition, imagination, sleep and
-memory. It manifests itself in dreams as well as in waking states.
-
-The relation between these states of mind and the saṃskāras is this that
-their frequency and repetition strengthens the saṃskāras and thus
-ensures the revival of these states.
-
-They are all endowed with sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain) and moha
-(ignorance). These feelings cannot be treated separately from the states
-themselves, for their manifestations are not different from the
-manifestation of the states themselves. Knowledge and feeling are but
-two different aspects of the modifications of cittas derived from
-prakṛti; hence neither can be thought separately from the other. The
-fusion of feeling with knowledge is therefore here more fundamental than
-in the modern tripartite division of mind.
-
-In connection with this we are to consider the senses whose action on
-the external world is known as “perceiving,” “grahaṇa,” which is
-distinguished from “pratyaksha,” which means the effect of “perceiving,”
-viz. perception. Each sense has got its special sphere of work, e.g.
-sight is of the eye, and this is called their second aspect, viz.
-svarūpa. Their third aspect is of “asmitā” or ego, which manifests
-itself through the senses. Their fourth aspect is their characteristic
-of guṇas, viz. that of manifestation (_prakāśa_), action (_kriyā_) and
-retention (_sthiti_). Their fifth aspect is that they are set in motion
-for purusha, his experiences and liberation.
-
-It is indeed difficult to find the relation of manas with the senses and
-the cittas. In more than one place manas is identified with cittas, and,
-on the other hand, it is described as a sense organ. There is another
-aspect in which manas is said to be the king of the cognitive and motor
-senses. Looked at in this aspect, manas is possibly the directive side
-of the ego by which it guides the cognitive and conative senses in the
-external world and is the cause of their harmonious activity for the
-experience of purusha. As a necessary attribute of this directive
-character of manas, the power of concentration, which is developed by
-prāṇāyāma, is said to belong to manas. This is the rajas side of manas.
-
-There is another aspect of manas which is called the anuvyavasāya or
-reflection, by which the sensations (ālocana) are associated,
-differentiated, integrated, assimilated into percepts and concepts. This
-is possibly the sāttvika side of manas.
-
-There is another aspect by which the percepts and concepts are retained
-(_dhāraṇa_) in the mind as saṃskāras, to be repeated or revealed again
-in the mind as actual states. This is the tamas side of manas.
-
-In connection with this we may mention ūha (positive argumentation),
-apoha (negative argumentation) and tattvajñāna (logical conclusion)
-which are the modes of different anuvyavasāyas of the manas. Will, etc.,
-are to be included with these (_Yoga-varttikā_, II. 18). Looked at from
-the point of view of cittas, these may equally be regarded as the
-modifications of cittas.
-
-The motives which sustain this process of outgoing activity are false
-knowledge, and such other emotional elements as egoism, attachment,
-aversion, and love of life. These emotional elements remain in the mind
-in the germinal state as power alone; or they exist in a fully operative
-state when a man is under the influence of any one of them; or they
-alternate with others, such as attachment or aversion; or they may
-become attenuated by meditation upon opposites. Accordingly they are
-called respectively prasupta, udāra, vicchinna or tanu. Man’s minds or
-cittas may follow these outgoing states or experiences, or gradually
-remove those emotions which are commonly called afflictions, thus
-narrowing their sphere and proceeding towards final release.
-
-All the psychic states described above, viz. pramāṇa, viparyyaya, etc.,
-are called either afflicted or unafflicted according as they are moved
-towards outgoing activity or are actuated by the higher motive of
-emancipation by narrowing the field of experiences gradually to a
-smaller and smaller sphere and afterwards to suppress them altogether.
-These two kinds of motives, one of afflictions that lead towards
-external objects of attachment and aversion or love of life, and the
-other which leads to striving for kaivalya, are the sole motives which
-guide all human actions and psychic states.
-
-They influence us whenever suitable opportunities occur, so that by the
-study of the Vedas, self-criticism or right argumentation, or from the
-instruction of good men, abhyāsa and vairāgya may be roused by vidyā.
-Right knowledge and a tendency towards kaivalya may appear in the mind
-even when a man is immersed in the afflicted states of outgoing
-activity. So also afflicted states may appear when a man is bent upon or
-far advanced in those actions which are roused by vidyā or the tendency
-towards kaivalya.
-
-It seems that the Yoga view of actions, or karma, does not deprive man
-of his freedom of will. The habit of performing particular types of
-action only strengthens the corresponding subconscious impressions or
-saṃskāras of those actual states, and thus makes it more and more
-difficult to overcome their propensity to generate their corresponding
-actual states, and thus obstructs the adoption of an unhampered and free
-course of action. The other limitation to the scope of the activity of
-his free will is the vāsanā aspect of the saṃskāras by which he
-naturally feels himself attached by pleasurable ties to certain
-experiences and by painful ones to others. But these only represent the
-difficulties and impediments which come to a man, when he has to adopt
-the Yoga course of life, the contrary of which he might have been
-practising for a very long period, extending over many life-states.
-
-The free will is not curbed in any way, for it follows directly from the
-teleological purpose of prakṛti, which moves for the experience and
-liberation of purusha. So this motive of liberation, which is the basis
-of all good conduct, can never be subordinated to the other impulse,
-which goads man towards outgoing experiences. But, on the other hand,
-this original impulse which attracts man towards these ordinary
-experiences, as it is due to the false knowledge which identifies
-prakṛti with purusha, becomes itself subordinate and loses its influence
-and power, when such events occur, which nullify false knowledge by
-tending to produce a vision of the true knowledge of the relation of
-prakṛti with purusha. Thus, for example, if by the grace of God false
-knowledge (avidyā) is removed, true knowledge at once dawns upon the
-mind and all the afflictions lose their power.
-
-Free will and responsibility for action cease in those life-states which
-are intended for suffering from actions only, e.g. life-states of
-insects, etc.
-
-
-
-
- APPENDIX
- SPHOṬAVĀDA
-
-
-Another point to be noted in connection with the main metaphysical
-theories of Patañjali is the Sphoṭa theory which considers the relation
-of words with their ideas and the things which they signify. Generally
-these three are not differentiated one from the other, and we are not
-accustomed to distinguish them from one another. Though distinct yet
-they are often identified or taken in one act of thought, by a sort of
-illusion. The nature of this illusory process comes to our view when we
-consider the process of auditory perception of words. Thus if we follow
-the _Bhāshya_ as explained by Vijñāna Bhikshu we find that by an effect
-of our organs of speech, the letters are pronounced. This vocal sound is
-produced in the mouth of the speaker from which place the sound moves in
-aerial waves until it reaches the ear drum of the hearer, by coming in
-contact with which it produces the audible sound called dhvani
-(_Yoga-vārttika_, III. 17). The special modifications of this dhvani are
-seen to be generated in the form of letters (_varṇa_) and the general
-name for these modifications is nāda. This sound as it exists in the
-stage of varṇas or letters is also called varṇa. If we apply the word
-śabda or sound in the most general sense, then we can say that this is
-the second stage of sound moving towards word-cognition, the first stage
-being that of its utterance in the mouth of the speaker. The third stage
-of śabda is that in which the letters, for example, g, au, and ḥ, of the
-word “gauḥ” are taken together and the complete word-form “gauḥ” comes
-before our view. The comprehension of this complete word-form is an
-attribute of the mind and not of the sense of hearing. For the sense of
-hearing senses the letter-forms of the sound one by one as the
-particular letters are pronounced by the speaker and as they approach
-the ear one by one in air-waves. But each letter-form sound vanishes as
-it is generated, for the sense of hearing has no power to hold them
-together and comprehend the letter-forms as forming a complete
-word-form. The ideation of this complete word-form in the mind is called
-sphoṭa. It differs from the letter-form in this that it is a complete,
-inseparable, and unified whole, devoid of any past, and thus is quite
-unlike the letter-forms which die the next moment after they originate.
-According to the system of Patañjali as explained by the commentators,
-all significance belongs to this sphoṭa-form and never to the letters
-pronounced or heard. Letters when they are pronounced and heard in a
-particular order serve to give rise to such complete ideational
-word-images which possess some denotation and connotation of meaning and
-are thus called “sphoṭas,” or that which illuminates. These are
-essentially different in nature from the sounds in letter-forms
-generated in the senses of hearing which are momentary and evanescent
-and can never be brought together to form one whole, have no meaning,
-and have the sense of hearing as their seat.
-
-_The Vaiśeshika view._—Saṅkara Miśra, however, holds that this “sphoṭa”
-theory is absolutely unnecessary, for even the supporters of sphoṭa
-agree that the sphoṭa stands conventionally for the thing that it
-signifies; now if that be the case what is the good of admitting sphoṭa
-at all? It is better to say that the conventionality of names belongs to
-the letters themselves, which by virtue of that can conjointly signify a
-thing; and it is when you look at the letters from this aspect—their
-unity with reference to their denotation of one thing—that you call them
-a pada or name (_Upaskāra_, II. 2, 21). So according to this view we
-find that there is no existence of a different entity called “name” or
-“sphoṭa” which can be distinguished from the letters coming in a
-definite order within the range of the sense of hearing. The letters
-pronounced and heard in a definite order are jointly called a name when
-they denote a particular meaning or object.
-
-_Kumārila’s view_:—Kumārila, the celebrated scholar of the Mīmāṃsa
-school, also denies the sphoṭa theory and asserts like the Vaiśeshika
-that the significance belongs to the letters themselves and not to any
-special sphoṭa or name. To prove this he first proves that the
-letter-forms are stable and eternal and suffer no change on account of
-the differences in their modes of accent and pronunciation. He then goes
-on to show that the sphoṭa view only serves to increase the complexity
-without any attendant advantage. Thus the objection that applies to the
-so-called defect of the letter-denotation theory that the letters cannot
-together denote a thing since they do not do it individually, applies to
-the name-denotation of the sphoṭa theory, since there also it is said
-that though there is no sphoṭa or name corresponding to each letter yet
-the letters conjointly give rise to a sphoṭa or complete name
-(_Ślokavārttika_, Sphoṭavāda, śl. 91–93).
-
-The letters, however, are helped by their potencies (saṃskāras) in
-denoting the object, or the meaning. The sphoṭa theory has, according to
-Kumārila and Pārthasārathi, also to admit this saṃskāra of the letters
-in the manifestation of the name or the śabda-sphoṭa, whereas they only
-admit it as the operating power of the letters in denoting the object or
-the thing signified. Saṃskāras according to Kumārila are thus admitted
-both by the sphoṭa theorists and the Kumārila school of Mīmāṃsa, only
-with this difference that the latter with its help can directly denote
-the object of the signified, whereas the former have only to go a step
-backwards in thinking their saṃskāra to give rise to the name or the
-śabda-sphoṭa alone (_Nyāyaratnākara_, Sphoṭavāda, śl. 104).
-
-Kumārila says that he takes great pains to prove the nullity of the
-sphoṭa theory only because if the sphoṭa view be accepted then it comes
-to the same thing as saying that words and letters have no validity, so
-that all actions depending on them also come to lose their validity
-(_Ślokavārttika_, Sphoṭavāda, śl. 137).
-
-_Prabhākara._—Prabhākara also holds the same view; for according to him
-also the letters are pronounced in a definite order; though when
-individually considered they are momentary and evanescent, yet they
-maintain themselves by their potency in the form of a pāda or name, and
-thus signify an object. Thus Śāliknātha Miśra says in his _Prakaraṇa
-Pañcikā_, p. 89: “It is reasonable to suppose that since the later
-letters in a word are dependent upon the perception of a preceding one
-some special change is wrought in the letters themselves which leads to
-the comprehension of the meaning of a word.... It cannot be proved
-either by perception or by inference that there is any word apart from
-the letters; the word has thus for its constituents the letters.”
-
-_Śabara._—The views of Kamārila and Prahhākara thus explicated are but
-elaborate explanations of the view of Śabara who states the whole theory
-in a single line—_pūrvavarṇajanitasaṃskārasahito’ntyo varṇaḥ
-pratyāyakaḥ_.
-
-“The last letter together with the potency generated by the preceding
-letters is the cause of significance.”
-
-_Mahābhāshya and Kaiyaṭa._—After describing the view of those who are
-antagonistic to the sphoṭa theory it is necessary to mention the
-Vaiākaraṇa school which is in favour of it; thus we find that in
-explaining the following passage of Mahābhāshya,
-
-“What is then a word? It is that which being pronounced one can
-understand specific objects such as those (cows) which have tail, hoofs,
-horns, etc.”
-
-Kaiyata says: “The grammarians think that denotation belongs to words,
-as distinct from letters which are pronounced, for if each of the
-letters should denote the object, there would be no need of pronouncing
-the succeeding letters....”
-
-The vaiyakaraṇas admit the significant force of names as distinguished
-from letters. For if the significant force be attributed to letters
-individually, then the first letter being quite sufficient to signify
-the object, the utterance of other letters becomes unnecessary; and
-according to this view if it is held that each letter has the generating
-power, then also they cannot do it simultaneously, since they are
-uttered one after another. On the view of manifestation, also, since the
-letters are manifested one after another, they cannot be collected
-together in due order; if their existence in memory is sufficient, then
-we should expect no difference of signification or meaning by the change
-of order in the utterance of the letters; that is “_sara_” ought to have
-the same meaning as “_rasa_.” So it must be admitted that the power of
-signification belongs to the sphoṭa as manifested by the nādas as has
-been described in detail in _Vākyapadīya_.
-
-As the relation between the perceiving capacity and the object of
-perception is a constant one so also is the relation between the sphoṭa
-and the nāda as the manifested and the manifestor (_Vākyapadīya_ 98).
-Just as the image varies corresponding to the variation of the
-reflector, as oil, water, etc., so also the reflected or manifested
-image differs according to the difference of the manifestor (_Vāk._
-100). Though the manifestation of letters, propositions and names occurs
-at one and the same time yet there seems to be a “before and after”
-according to the “before and after” of the nāda utterances (_Vāk._ 102).
-That which is produced through the union and disunion (of nādas or
-dhvanis) is called sphoṭa, whereas other sound-perceptions arising from
-sounds are called dhvanis (_Vāk._ 103). As by the movement of water the
-image of a thing situated elsewhere also appears to adopt the movement
-of the water and thus seems to move, so also the sphoṭa, though
-unchanging in itself, yet appears to suffer change in accordance with
-the change of nāda which manifests it (_Vāk._ 49). As there are no parts
-of the letters themselves so the letters also do not exist as parts of
-the name. There is again no ultimate or real difference between names
-and propositions (_Vāk._ 73). It is only in popular usage that they are
-regarded as different. That which others regard as the most important
-thing is regarded as false here, for propositions only are here regarded
-as valid (_Vāk._ 74). Though the letters which manifest names and
-propositions are altogether different from them, yet their powers often
-appear as quite undifferentiated from them (_Vāk._ 89). Thus when
-propositions are manifested by the cause of the manifestation of
-propositions they appear to consist of parts when they first appear
-before the mind. Thus, though the pada-sphoṭa or the vākya-sphoṭa does
-not really consist of parts, yet, as the powers of letters cannot often
-be differentiated from them, they also appear frequently to be made up
-of parts (_Vāk._ 91).
-
-_The Yoga View._—As to the relation of the letters to the sphoṭa,
-Vācaspati says, in explaining the _Bhāshya_, that each of the letters
-has the potentiality of manifesting endless meanings, but none of them
-can do so individually; it is only when the letter-form sounds are
-pronounced in succession by one effort of speech that the individual
-letters by their own particular contiguity or distance from one another
-can manifest a complete word called the sphoṭa. Thus owing to the
-variation of contiguity of distance by intervention from other
-letter-form sounds any letter-form sound may manifest any meaning or
-word; for the particular order and the association of letter-form sounds
-depend upon the particular output of energy required in uttering them.
-The sphoṭa is thus a particular modification of buddhi, whereas the
-letter-form sounds have their origin in the organ of speech when they
-are uttered, and the sense of hearing when they are heard. It is well to
-note here that the theory that the letters themselves have endless
-potentiality and can manifest any word-sphoṭas, according to their
-particular combinations and recombinations, is quite in keeping with the
-main metaphysical doctrine of the Pātañjala theory.
-
-_Vākya-sphoṭa._—What is said here of the letter-form sounds and the
-śabda-sphoṭas also applies to the relation that the śabda-sphoṭas bear
-to propositions or sentences. A word or name does not stand alone; it
-always exists as combined with other words in the form of a proposition.
-Thus the word “tree” whenever it is pronounced carries with it the
-notion of a verb “asti” or “exists,” and thereby demonstrates its
-meaning. The single word “tree” without any reference to any other word
-which can give it a propositional form has no meaning. Knowledge of
-words always comes in propositional forms; just as different letter-form
-sounds demonstrate by their mutual collocation a single word or
-śabda-sphoṭa, so the words also by their mutual combination or
-collocation demonstrate judgmental or propositional significance or
-meaning. As the letters themselves have no meaning so the words
-themselves have also no meaning; it is only by placing them side by side
-in a particular order that a meaning dawns in the mind. When single
-words are pronounced they associate other words with themselves and thus
-appear to signify a meaning. But though a single word is sufficient by
-association with other words to carry a meaning, yet sentences or
-propositions should not be deemed unnecessary for they serve to
-specialise that meaning (_niyamārthe anuvādaḥ_). Thus “cooks” means that
-any subject makes something the object of his cooking. The mention of
-the subject “Devadatta” and the object “rice” only specialises the
-subject and the object. Though the analysis of a sentence into the words
-of which it is constituted is as imaginary as the analysis of a word
-into the letter-form sounds, it is generally done in order to get an
-analytical view of the meaning of a sentence—an imaginary division of it
-as into cases, verbs, etc.
-
-_Abhihitānvayavada and Anvitābhidhānavāda._—This reminds us of the two
-very famous theories about the relation of sentences to words, viz. the
-“Abhihitānvayavāda” and the “Anvitābhidhānavāda.” The former means that
-words themselves can express their separate meanings by the function
-abhidhā or denotation; these are subsequently combined into a sentence
-expressing one connected idea. The latter means that words only express
-a meaning as parts of a sentence, and as grammatically connected with
-each other; they only express an action or something connected with
-action; in “sāmānaya”, “bring the cow”—“gām” does not properly mean
-“gotva” but “ānayanānvitagotva,” that is, the bovine genus as connected
-with bringing. We cannot have a case of a noun without some governing
-verb and vice versa—(Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha, Cowell).
-
-_The Yoga point of view._—It will be seen that strictly speaking the
-Yoga view does not agree with any one of these views though it
-approaches nearer to the Anvitābhidhāna view than to the Abhihitānvaya
-view. For according to the Yoga view the idea of the sentence is the
-only true thing; words only serve to manifest this idea but have
-themselves no meaning. The division of a sentence into the component
-word-conceptions is only an imaginary analysis—an afterthought.
-
-_Confusion the cause of verbal cognition._—According to Patañjali’s view
-verbal cognition proceeds only from a confusion of the letter-form
-sounds (which are perceived in the sense of hearing), the śabda-sphoṭa
-which is manifested in the buddhi, and the object which exists in the
-external world. These three though altogether distinct from one another
-yet appear to be unified on account of the saṅketa or sign, so that the
-letter-form sounds, the śabda-sphoṭa, and the thing, can never be
-distinguished from one another. Of course knowledge can arise even in
-those cases where there is no actual external object, simply by virtue
-of the manifesting power of the letter-form sounds. This saṅketa is
-again defined as the confusion of words and their meanings through
-memory, so that it appears that what a word is, so is its denoted
-object, and what a denoted word is, so is its object. Convention is a
-manifestation of memory of the nature of mutual confusion of words and
-their meanings. This object is the same as this word, and this word is
-the same as this object. Thus there is no actual unity of words and
-their objects: such unity is imaginary and due to beginningless
-tradition. This view may well be contrasted with Nyāya, according to
-which the convention of works as signifying objects is due to the will
-of God.
-
-
-
-
- INDEX
-
-
- _abhihitānvayavāda_, 186
-
- abhiniveśa, 101, 104
-
- _abhivyaktikāraṇa_, 133
-
- abhyāsa, 100, 101, 126, 128, 129, 130, 138, 143, 149, 162, 177
-
- Absorption, 102
-
- Abstraction, 135, 136, 148, 154, 174
-
- Accessories, 135, 137, 145
-
- Accidental variation, 77
-
- _acit_, 162
-
- Actual, 73
-
- Actuality, 83
-
- adharma, 85, 86, 88, 102, 106, 162
-
- adhikārin, 123
-
- adṛshṭajanmavedanīya, 112
-
- _adṛshṭa-janmavedanīya karma_, 105, 110, 111
-
- advaita, 14
-
- _Advaita-Brahmasiddhi_, 14
-
- Afflictions, 100, 103, 104, 105, 123, 124, 128, 143, 173 n., 176, 177,
- 178
-
- Agent, 4
-
- Aggregation, 168
-
- Agreement, 33
-
- ahaṃkāra, 38, 40, 41, 53, 56, 58, 61, 82, 86, 87, 93
-
- ahaṃkāra-sāttvika, rājasa, tāmasa, 55
-
- ahiṃsā, 136, 138, 139, 144
-
- _Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā_, 10
-
- akhyāti, 164
-
- aklishṭa, 101
-
- aklishṭavṛtti, 128
-
- _aliṇga_, 7, 41, 42, 62, 118
-
- _anādisaṃyoga_, 28
-
- _anāśrita_, 29 n.
-
- anekabhavika, 107, 112, 113
-
- Anger, 141
-
- _anirvācyā_, 28
-
- aniyatavipāka, 112
-
- aniyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya, 113
-
- antaḥkaraṇa, 43 n.
-
- _anukāreṇa paśyati_, 21
-
- anupaśya, 21
-
- anuvrata, 139
-
- anuvyavasāya, 176
-
- anvaya, 166, 167
-
- anvayikāraṇa, 61
-
- _anvitābhidhānavāda_, 186
-
- anvitābhidhānavāda, Yoga view, near to, 186
-
- _anyābhyāṃ ahaṃkārābhyām svakāryyopajanane rājasāhaṃkāraḥ
- sahakārībhavati_, 55
-
- anyathākhyāti, 164, 173 n.
-
- _anyatvakāraṇa_, 134
-
- _anyonyamithunāḥ sarvve naishāmādisamprayogo viprayogo vā úpalabhyate_,
- 7
-
- aṅga, 145
-
- aṇu, 43 n., 65
-
- ap, 74, 75, 166, 167
-
- ap atom, 65, 66
-
- apara vairāgya, 127, 128
-
- aparigraha, 141
-
- _apavarga_, 29
-
- apoha, 101, 176
-
- Appearance, 36
-
- apuṇya karma, 88
-
- Aristotle, 1, 13
-
- _artha_, 150
-
- arthavattva, 166, 167
-
- _arthena svakīyayā grāhyaśaktyā vijñānamajani_, 33
-
- asamprajñāta, 124, 149
-
- asamprajñāta samādhi, 125
-
- Asceticism, 136, 139, 142, 144
-
- asmitā, 51, 59, 100, 104, 118, 153, 154, 172, 175
-
- asmitā-ego, 51
-
- _asmitāmātra_, 50, 51, 59, 160
-
- _asmitānugata_, 125, 153, 154
-
- _asmītyetāvanmātrākāratvādasmitā_, 153
-
- Assimilation, 101
-
- Association of ideas, 37
-
- asteya, 141, 144
-
- Astral body, 93
-
- aśukla, 140
-
- aśuklākṛshṇa, 102, 103, 111
-
- Atheistic, 90
-
- Atomic change as unit of time, 43
-
- Atoms, 4, 38, 39, 43, 65, 72, 74, 77, 81, 152, 167;
- continual change, 71
-
- Attachment, 99, 100, 176, 177
-
- Avariciousness, 136, 141
-
- avasthā, 76
-
- avasthāpariṇāma, 71, 73, 82, 156, 165
-
- Aversion, 98, 176, 177
-
- _avibhāgaprāptāviva_, 17
-
- avidyā, 2, 11, 12, 97, 99, 100, 101, 104, 114, 115, 116, 120, 123, 128,
- 131, 159, 172, 173 n., 178;
- its definition, 11;
- uprooting of, 115, 116
-
- avidyā of yoga and Sāṃkhya, 164
-
- aviśesha, 7, 7 n., 40, 41, 60, 61, 62, 81, 82, 84, 165
-
- _aviśesheṇopashṭambhakasvabhāvāḥ_, 6
-
- aviveka, 173 n.
-
- _avyapadeśyatva_, 77
-
- _avyavasthitākhilapariṇamo bhavatyeva_, 85
-
- _ayutasiddhāvayava_, 69
-
- _ādisamprayoga_, 7
-
- ākāra, 85
-
- ākāśa, 14, 43 n., 56, 57, 58, 68, 80, 93, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170
-
- ākāśa, two kinds of, 168
-
- ākāśa atom, 65, 66;
- Bhikshu and Vācaspati on, 65
-
- ākāśa tanmātra, 66
-
- ālocana, 176
-
- āmalaka, 77, 78, 79
-
- ānanda, 153,154
-
- ānandānugata, 125, 153, 154
-
- _āptikāraṇa_, 133, 135
-
- āpūra, 93
-
- _āpyakāraṇa_, 135
-
- āsana, 136, 145
-
- āśaya, 103
-
- _āśerate sāṃsārikā purushā asminniti āśayaḥ_, 103
-
- āvaraṇa śakti, 84
-
- āyush, 105, 106, 115
-
-
- Barabara muni, 64
-
- bāhya karma, 102
-
- Beginningless, 28
-
- Behaviour, 6
-
- Bel, 77
-
- Benares, 11 n.
-
- bhakti, 161
-
- bhaktiyoga, 159, 161
-
- bhava, 110
-
- _bhavishyadvyaktikamanāgataṃanudbhūtavyaktikamatītam svavyāpāropārūḍhaṃ
- varttamānaṃ trayaṃ caitadvastu jñānasya jñeyam yadi caitat svarūpato
- nābhavishyannedaṃ nirvishayaṃ jñānamudapatsyata tasmādatītamanāgataṃ
- svarūpato’stīti_, 31 n.
-
- _Bhāshya_, 16, 17, 18, 19, 33, 61, 62, 67, 71, 76, 78, 80, 91, 95, 99,
- 109, 110, 131
-
- bhāvanā, 161
-
- Bhikshu, 6, 9, 12 n., 43 n., 45 n., 46 n., 50, 65, 67, 85, 86, 88, 90,
- 94, 109, 110, 112, 126, 129, 145, 153, 168
-
- _bhoga_, 29, 105, 106, 115
-
- bhoga-śarīra, 105
-
- Bhoja, 126
-
- Bhojavṛtti, 95
-
- bhrama, 173 n.
-
- bhūta, 60, 69, 166
-
- bhūtādi, 54, 56, 58, 63, 64;
- accretion from, 65, 66
-
- Biological, 2
-
- Birth, 133, 161
-
- Body, sattvamaya, 160
-
- Bondage, 19
-
- Brahmacaryya, 141
-
- Brahman, 27, 28, 139
-
- Breath, 146, 147
-
- Breath regulation, 135, 136
-
- _buddheḥ pratisaṃvedi purushaḥ_, 19
-
- _buddhi_, 16, 18, 21, 27, 28, 40, 51, 52, 61, 115, 116, 118, 152, 173
- n.
-
- Buddhist, 33, 45 n.
-
- Buddhists, their theory of _sahopalambhaniyama_ refuted, 33
-
-
- Caitra, 173
-
- Caraka, 11
-
- Caste, 139
-
- Categories of existence, 41
-
- Category, 6, 117
-
- Caturdaśī, 139
-
- Causal activity, 4
-
- Causal operation, 4
-
- Causal transformation, 4
-
- Causality, 152
-
- Causation, 132, 133;
- Sāṃkhya view of, 81
-
- Cause, 79, 81, 85, 133, 134;
- nine kinds of, 133
-
- Cessation, 19
-
- Change, 43, 44;
- Buddhist and Yoga idea contrasted, 45 n.;
- units of, 45, 46
-
- Changeful, 18
-
- Characterised, 37
-
- Characteristic, 37
-
- _Chāyā-vyākhyā_, 63, 93
-
- Chemical, 2
-
- Chowkhamba, 11 n.
-
- Circumstance, 139
-
- cit, 15, 162
-
- citta, 36, 81, 92, 93, 94, 96, 101, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 125, 132,
- 147, 154, 161, 175;
- different forms of, 92, 93;
- different states of, 170;
- its nature, 94
-
- _cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṃ sannidhimātropakāri dṛśyatvena svaṃ bhavati
- purushasya svāminaḥ_, 22
-
- _cittaprasāda_, 127
-
- Clairaudience, 144
-
- Class-characteristics, 4 n.
-
- Cleanliness, 136, 143, 144
-
- Coco-nut, 77
-
- Co-existence, 34
-
- Cognitive states, 48
-
- Coherent, 7, 37
-
- Collocation, 37
-
- Commentary, 4
-
- Compassion, 137
-
- Complacency, 137
-
- Compounds, 3, 166
-
- Conceived, 3
-
- Conceiver, 3
-
- Concentration, 17, 94, 95, 96, 123, 126, 128, 135, 136, 147, 148, 150,
- 152, 153, 155, 163, 170
-
- Concept, 150, 162, 173
-
- Conceptual, 23, 25
-
- Concomitant causes, 85
-
- Condensation, 10
-
- Conscious-like, 19
-
- Consciousness, 17, 18, 20, 21, 25, 45, 92, 93, 122, 149, 151, 154, 173
-
- Consciousness contentless, 50
-
- Conscious states, 17
-
- Conservation, 132, 133
-
- Contact, 27, 29 n.
-
- Contemplation, 97
-
- Contentment, 136, 139, 144
-
- Continence, 136, 139, 141, 144
-
- Contrary, 141
-
- Co-operation, 5
-
- Cosmic evolution, 47
-
- Cosmic matter, 74
-
- Country, 139
-
- Creation, 114, 115, 160, 161
-
- _Critique of Judgment_, 14
-
- _Critique of Practical Reason_, 14
-
- _Critique of Pure Reason_, 14
-
-
- Davies, 25
-
- Decision, 53
-
- Demerit, 86, 87, 88, 93, 102, 103
-
- Denotation, 7 n.
-
- deśa, 85, 170
-
- Descartes, 13
-
- Desire, 141
-
- Determinate, 7
-
- Determined, 3, 37
-
- Determiner, 3
-
- Devotion, 139, 142, 145, 161
-
- dhāraṇā, 101, 128, 130, 135, 136, 137, 138, 145, 147, 148, 176
-
- dharma, 42, 71, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 101, 103, 106, 162
-
- dharmamegha-samādhi, 117
-
- _dharmapariṇāma_, 69, 71, 74, 80, 81, 156, 165
-
- dharmin, 71, 73, 74, 76
-
- _dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ, dharmivikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā
- propañcyate_, 37, 71
-
- dharmī, 42
-
- _dhātu_, 11
-
- _dhṛtikāraṇa_, 135
-
- dhyāna, 117, 130, 135, 136, 138, 139, 145, 147, 148
-
- Difference, 33
-
- Differentiated, 7, 37, 62
-
- Differentiation, 53, 66, 101
-
- dik, 170
-
- Discrimination, 8, 116, 120, 164
-
- Distractions, 126, 148
-
- Doubt, 172
-
- _drashṭā dṛśiṃātraḥ śuddho’pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ_, 16
-
- dravya, 4 n., 29 n., 168
-
- Droṇa, 140 n.
-
- _dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā_, 16, 51
-
- dṛk, 17
-
- _dṛkśakti_, 20
-
- dṛshṭajanma karmāśaya, 105
-
- _dṛshṭajanmavedanīya_, 105, 110, 112
-
- duḥkha, 175
-
- dvesha, 104
-
-
- Earth, 167
-
- Effect, 81, 82, 85, 132
-
- Efficient cause, 82
-
- Ego, 3, 4, 27, 28, 38, 42, 51, 52, 53, 60, 61, 99, 152, 153, 175;
- a modification of buddhi, 53;
- evolution in three lines from, 54;
- three kinds of, 55
-
- Egohood, 50, 124
-
- Ego-universal, 50
-
- ekabhavika, 105, 110, 111, 112
-
- ekabhavikatva, 109
-
- _ekāgra_, 95, 96, 123, 126
-
- ekātmatā, 17
-
- _ekātmikā saṃvidasmitā_, 51
-
- ekendriya, 128
-
- Elements, 3, 166
-
- Emancipation, 164
-
- Energy, 3, 5, 8, 132
-
- Enjoyment, 28, 29
-
- Equilibrium, 6, 7, 8, 9, 42, 43, 87
-
- Error, 173 n.
-
- Eternal, 8, 91
-
- Eternity, two kinds of, 118
-
- Ethics, 92
-
- European, 10
-
- Evolutes, 11
-
- Evolution, 7, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 62, 65, 69, 72, 76, 81, 84,
- 87, 89, 114;
- as change, 43;
- as change of qualities and as derivation of categories, 69;
- definite law of, 82;
- its limitations by time and space, 79;
- measured by units of spatial motion, 44;
- of manas, 55;
- of the senses, 54;
- of categories, difference between Sāṃkhya and Yoga view, 58–62;
- of similars, 10
-
- Evolutionary process, 77, 85, 91
-
- Exhalation, 146
-
- Existence as capacity of effecting, 8
-
- Expiratory, 136
-
- Extension, 34
-
- Externality, 34
-
- External reality, 34;
- Buddhist objection to, 32;
- has more than a momentary existence, 36;
- its ground, 36;
- not due to imagination, 35;
- not identical with our ideas, 35
-
- External world, 31;
- refutation of Buddhist objections, 33
-
-
- Faith, 102
-
- Fichte, 50
-
- Fisherman, 139
-
- Force, 82
-
- Freedom, 123, 125, 127;
- of will, 177
-
- Friendliness, 137
-
- Future, 31, 32, 46, 72
-
-
- Gaṇḍa, 15
-
- gandha, 38, 152, 167
-
- gandha-tanmātra, 58, 64
-
- Gauḍapāda, 24
-
- Generalisation, 154
-
- Generic, 168
-
- _ghaṭāvacchinna ākāśa_, 14
-
- _Gītā_, 12
-
- _Gītābhāshya_, 4 n.
-
- Goal, 115, 121, 124, 127, 129
-
- God, 2, 85, 87, 88, 90, 91, 115, 136, 139, 142, 143, 145, 148, 149,
- 161, 163, 164, 172, 178, 187
-
- Gold, 134
-
- grahaṇa, 101, 153, 175
-
- _grahaṇadhāraṇohāpohatattvajñānābhiniveśā buddhau varttamānā purushe
- adhyāropitasadbhāvāḥ_, 53
-
- grahītṛ, 153
-
- grāhya, 54, 153
-
- Gross elements, derivation of, 65 _et seq._
-
- Grossness, 34
-
- _guṇā eva prakṛtiśabdavācyā na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti_, 10
-
- _guṇānāṃ hi dvairūpyaṃ vyavasāyātmkatvam vyavaseyātmakatvaṃca_, 53
-
- _guṇānāṃ paramaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati, yattu drshṭipathaṃ
- prāptam tanmāyeva sutucchakaṃ_, 12, 37
-
- guṇas, 3, 4 n., 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 24, 26, 37, 38, 39, 42, 53, 76, 78,
- 81, 82, 98, 101, 118, 120, 121, 131, 155, 167, 170
-
- guṇas, three classes, 5;
- as causal effect, 6;
- evolution of the cognitive and conative senses and tanmātras, 38;
- identity of qualities and substances, 5;
- relative preponderance of, 7;
- special affinity of each class, 6;
- special behaviour of each class of, 6;
- their atomic qualities consistent with their all-pervasiveness, 43
- n.;
- their common purpose, 7;
- their co-operation, 38;
- their mode of combination, 6;
- their mode of mutual operation, 5;
- their mode of evolution, 7;
- their nature as feelings, 68;
- their twofold nature, 53;
- their threefold course of development, 38;
- their want of purpose in the state of equilibrium, 7;
- two classes of their evolution, _aviśesha_ and _viśesha_, 40
-
-
- Hariharāraṇya, 96
-
- Heaven, 86 n.
-
- _hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekāśritaṃ liṅgaṃ sāvayavamparatantraṃ
- vyaktaṃ viparītamavyaktaṃ_, 42
-
- Hibiscus, 15 n.
-
- hiṃsā, 140, 141
-
- _History of Hindu Chemistry_, 7 n., 63 n., 170 n.
-
- Horn of a hare, 8
-
- Hume, 37
-
-
- Idealistic Buddhists, 31
-
- Ignorance, 141, 145
-
- Illumination, 5
-
- Illusion, 173 n.;
- of Yoga and Sāṃkhya, 164
-
- Illusive, 28
-
- Imagination, 34
-
- Immanent purpose, 90
-
- Independence, 95, 128, 134
-
- Indeterminate, 8
-
- India, 14
-
- Indra, 86 n.
-
- Inertia, 3, 5, 8, 37, 167
-
- Inference, 1, 2, 81, 96, 154, 156, 162, 163, 170, 171
-
- Infra-atomic, 3
-
- Infra-atoms, 4
-
- Inhalation, 146
-
- Injury, 139
-
- Inorganic, 74
-
- Inspiratory, 136
-
- Intellection, 6
-
- Intelligence, 2, 48
-
- Intelligence-stuff, 3, 8, 49
-
- Iron, 6
-
- Īśvara, 14, 79, 87, 88, 90, 103, 126, 144, 145, 159, 160, 161, 162,
- 164, 172;
- removal of barriers, 87
-
- Īśvarakṛshṇa, 7 n.
-
- Īśvarapraṇidhāna, 142, 145, 161
-
- _Īśvarasyāpi dharmādhisṭhānārthaṃ pratibandhāpanaya eva vyāpāro_, 87
-
-
- _janmamaraṇakaraṇānāṃ pratiniyamādayugapat pravṛtteśca purushabahutvam
- siddhaṃ traiguṇyaviparyyayācca_, 26
-
- _japāsphaṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ_, 15
-
- _jāti_, 105, 106, 115
-
- Jealousy, 143
-
- jīva, 14
-
- jīvanmukta, 117
-
- jīvanmukti, 120
-
- jñāna, 150
-
- jñānayoga, 130, 142, 143, 159
-
- Judgmental, 23
-
-
- kaivalya, 22, 23, 27, 31, 95, 96, 116, 118, 121, 122, 139, 140, 142,
- 143, 177
-
- kalpa, 160
-
- Kant, 14, 37
-
- Kapila, 25
-
- karma, 86, 98, 117, 159, 160, 177;
- its classification and divergence of views, 109–113
-
- karma-sannyāsin, 103
-
- karmāśaya, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 160
-
- karmayoga, 159
-
- karuṇā, 137, 138, 139
-
- Kaumudī, 64
-
- kāla, 85
-
- kāma, 104
-
- kāraṇa, 168
-
- kāraṇacitta, 93
-
- _kārikā_, 7 n., 11, 24, 26, 42, 64, 165
-
- Kārya, 168
-
- kārya vimukti, 120
-
- kāryya citta, 92
-
- kāryyakarī śakti, 84
-
- Kāśmīra, 79
-
- _kevalapurushākārā saṃvit_, 153
-
- kevalī, 117, 118
-
- kirātā, 101
-
- kleśa, 99, 100, 104, 114
-
- klishṭa, 128
-
- klishṭavṛtti, 100
-
- Knowable, 5, 27, 32, 38
-
- Knower, 27, 50
-
- Knowledge, different kinds of, differentiated, 163
-
- Known, 27
-
- _kriyā_, 37, 175
-
- kriyāyoga, 129, 130, 142, 143, 161
-
- krodha, 104
-
- kṛshṇa, 102, 103, 111
-
- kṛshṇa karma, 103, 111
-
- _kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt_, 26
-
- _kshaṇa_, 43, 44, 45, 46 n., 146, 170
-
- _kshaṇabhaṅguram_, 12 n.
-
- _kshaṇapracayāśraya_, 46 n.
-
- _kshaṇapratiyogi_, 46 n.
-
- _kshaṇatatkramayornāsti vastusamāhāraḥ iti buddhisamāhāraḥ
- muhūrttāhorātrātrādayaḥ. sa tvayaṃ kālaḥ vastuśūnyo’pi
- buddhinirmāṇah_, 44
-
- _kshipta_, 95, 122
-
- kshiti, 74, 75, 166
-
- kshiti atom, 66
-
- kuntī, 14, 15 n.
-
- kuśala, 121
-
- kuśalī, 121
-
- kūṭastha nitya, 118
-
-
- lakshaṇa, 76, 82
-
- lakshaṇa-pariṇāma, 71, 72, 73, 74, 156, 165
-
- Latent, 46, 73, 81, 96, 108
-
- _laukikamāyeva_, 12 n.
-
- liberation, 7, 25, 167, 175, 177
-
- Light, 167
-
- Limitation theory, 14, 15
-
- liṅga, 7, 41, 42, 51, 62, 118
-
- _liṅgamātram mahattatvaṃ sattāmātre mahati ātmani_, 50
-
- _lobha_, 104
-
- Locke, 37
-
- Lokācāryya, 11, 55, 58
-
- Lotus, 9
-
-
- _madhumatī_, 125
-
- _madhupratīka_, 125
-
- Magnet, 6, 89, 171
-
- mahat, 9, 11, 40, 41, 42, 51, 56, 58, 59, 61, 82;
- its potential existence in prakṛti, 9
-
- _Mahābhārata_, 15 n., 80, 140
-
- mahāpralaya, 118
-
- mahāvrata, 139
-
- maitrī, 137, 138, 139
-
- manas, 40, 51, 55, 60, 81, 100, 118, 133, 175, 176
-
- Manifested, 72
-
- mantra, 161
-
- Many, 27, 28
-
- _Maṇiprabhā_, 65
-
- marut, 75, 166
-
- Mass, 3
-
- Material cause, 61, 81
-
- Matter, 2, 3, 166
-
- mānasa karma, 102
-
- mātrā, 146
-
- māyā, 2, 11, 12, 14, 27, 28
-
- _māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ vidyāt māyinaṃ tu maheśvaraṃ_, 11
-
- _māyeva_, 12 n.
-
- Mechanical, 2
-
- Meditation, 102, 135, 136, 145, 148, 149, 161, 176
-
- Memory, 53, 98
-
- Mental, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 37, 48
-
- Mental states, analysis of, 48
-
- Merit, 85, 86, 87, 88, 93, 103
-
- Metaphysics, 30
-
- Method of agreement, 33, 35;
- of difference, 33
-
- Mind, 2, 3, 18, 19, 81;
- its seven qualities, 156
-
- Mind-modification, 20, 22;
- -transformations, 18
-
- _moha_, 104, 175
-
- _Mokshadharmādhyāya_, 140
-
- Moment, 44, 45
-
- Momentary, 12, 35
-
- Moral, 2
-
- Moral ideal, 26
-
- Movement, 48
-
- muditā, 137, 139
-
- _mūḍha_, 95, 122
-
-
- Nahusha, 86
-
- Naiyāyika, 58
-
- Name, 150, 173;
- and thing, 173
-
- Nandī, 85
-
- _na tu kshaṇātiriktaḥ kshaṇikaḥ padārthaḥ kaścidishyate taistu
- kshaṇamātrasthāyyeva padārthaḥ ishyate_, 45 n.
-
- _Naturalism and agnosticism_, 2 n.
-
- Natural selection, 76
-
- Nāgeśa, 61, 63, 66, 86, 87, 94, 107, 109, 117, 168
-
- Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha, 90, 126
-
- _nāsadāsīt na sadāsīt tadānīm_, 12
-
- _nāstyasataḥ saṃbhavaḥ na cāsti sato vināśāḥ_, 31
-
- Nectar, 85
-
- Nescience, 14, 15, 97, 99;
- its different forms, 172 n.
-
- nidrā, 101
-
- Nihilists, 2
-
- _niḥsaṅge’pi uparāgo vivekāt_, 15
-
- _niḥsattāsattam niḥsadasat nirasat avyaktam aliṅgam pradhānam_, 8
-
- niḥsattāsattaṃ, 12
-
- nirasmitā, 153
-
- nirmāṇa citta, 160, 161
-
- nirānanda, 153
-
- nirodha, 19, 96, 118, 149, 155, 156, 170
-
- _nirodhaja saṃskāra_, 97
-
- nirodha samādhi, 139
-
- _niruddha_, 95, 123
-
- nirvicāra, 149, 153, 154
-
- nirvīja, 122, 125
-
- nirvīja samādhi, 154
-
- nirvitarka, 150, 151, 153, 154
-
- niścaya, 50
-
- niyama, 136, 139, 142, 143, 148
-
- niyata vipāka, 112
-
- niyatavipākadṛshṭajanmavedanīya, 113
-
- Nīlakaṇṭha, 80, 88, 89
-
- Non-being, 2
-
- Non-covetousness, 139, 144
-
- Non-discrimination, 15
-
- Non-distinction, 173 n.
-
- Non-existence, 8, 12
-
- Non-injury, 139, 140, 144;
- its classification, 141
-
- Non-stealing, 139
-
- Noumenon, 8, 14
-
-
- Observance, 135, 136
-
- oṃkāra, 161
-
- Omniscience, 95
-
- oshadhi, 161
-
-
- Pain, 98, 121, 122, 126, 137, 142
-
- Palm, 77
-
- Pantheism, 13
-
- Pañcaśikha, 17, 52, 103 n.
-
- parama mahat, 68
-
- paramāṇu in Sāṃkhya and Yoga, 43 n., 66, 67, 165, 167
-
- para vairāgya, 120, 127, 128
-
- parikarma, 129, 130, 135, 137
-
- pariṇāma, 98
-
- _pariṇāmaduḥkhatā_, 98
-
- _pariṇāmakramaniyama_, 62, 82
-
- pariṇāmi, 19
-
- pariṇāminityatā, 119
-
- Past, 31, 32, 46, 72
-
- Patañjali, 1, 2, 5 n., 16, 26, 30, 35, 51, 119
-
- Patent, 81
-
- pāda, 54
-
- Pāñcāla, 79
-
- pāṇi, 54
-
- pāpa karma, 100
-
- pāpakarmāśaya, 105
-
- Pātañjala, 1, 12, 90, 115
-
- pāyu, 54, 58
-
- Perceived, 3
-
- Perceiver, 3
-
- Percept, 19
-
- Perception, 3, 53, 96, 154, 162, 170, 171, 175
-
- Permanent, 21
-
- Phenomena, 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 14, 17, 18, 19, 95
-
- Phenomenal, 29, 84, 125, 155
-
- Philosopher, 2
-
- Philosophical, 2
-
- Physical, 2, 3, 4, 5, 37, 166
-
- _Physical, Chemical and Mechanical Theories of the Ancient Hindus_, 63
- n.
-
- Plant: its possession of life and senses, 80
-
- Plato, 13
-
- Pleasure, 98
-
- Plurality, 26–29, 30
-
- Poison, 85
-
- Posture, 135, 136, 145
-
- Potency, 19, 82, 96, 98, 101, 106, 116, 124, 125, 154, 155;
- destroying other potencies, 117
-
- Potential, 9, 32, 73, 77, 83, 84, 85
-
- Potentiality, 5, 83, 84
-
- Potentials, 3
-
- Power, 82
-
- pradhāna, 118
-
- prajñā, 102, 116, 117, 120, 122, 125, 126, 128, 136, 151, 154, 170,
- 171;
- its seven stages, 119–120
-
- prajñāsaṃskāra, 101
-
- prajñāloka, 149
-
- prakāśa, 37, 175
-
- prakṛti, 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 16, 17, 22, 25, 27, 28, 29, 40, 41,
- 42, 54, 59, 62, 77, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 114,
- 115, 117, 118, 120, 122, 125, 143, 152, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165,
- 170, 173 n., 175, 177, 178;
- as undifferentiated cosmic matter, 12;
- as equilibrium of dharma and dharmī, 42;
- avidyā and vāsanā lie merged in it, 114;
- different views of, 10, 11;
- different from avidyā, 12;
- evolution of the second category of asmitā, 51;
- its difference from māyā, 12;
- its difference from purusha, 20;
- its first evolutionary product, mahat, 50, 51;
- its goal, 116;
- its identity with guṇa reals, 9;
- its relation with guṇas, 6;
- its similarity with purusha, 20;
- Lokācāryya’s view of, 11;
- nature in the state of equilibrium, 8;
- refilling from, 86;
- roused by God, 87;
- Venkaṭa’s view of, 10
-
- prakṛtilīna, 127
-
- _prakṛtivikṛti_, 7 n.
-
- _prakṛtiṛityucyate vikārotpādakatvāt avidyā jñānavirodhitvāt māyā
- vicitrasṛshṭikaratvāt_, 11
-
- prakṛtyāpūra, 106
-
- pralaya, 114
-
- pramāṇa, 101, 170, 176
-
- praṇava, 161
-
- prāṇāyāma, 136, 137, 145, 146, 147, 148, 175
-
- prasupta, 176
-
- _pratipaksha bhāvanā_, 141
-
- _pratisambandhī_, 46 n.
-
- pratiyogī, 46 n.
-
- pratyāhāra, 136, 137, 147, 148
-
- pratyaksha, 171, 175
-
- pratyaya, 119, 134
-
- _pratyayakāraṇa_, 133
-
- _pratyayaṃ bauddhamanupaśyati tamanupaśyannatadātmāpi tadātmaka iva
- pratibhāti_, 17
-
- _pratyayānupaśya_, 17, 18
-
- _Pravacana-bhāshya_, 64
-
- _prāmāṇyaniścaya_, 134 n.
-
- Pre-established harmony, 2
-
- Present, 31, 32, 46, 72
-
- Presentative ideation, 101
-
- Presentative power, 33
-
- Pride, 143
-
- Primal, 3
-
- Primal cause, 3, 6
-
- pṛthivī, 57
-
- Psychological, 2
-
- Psychology, 81
-
- Psychosis, 3, 16
-
- puṇya, 100
-
- puṇya karma, 88, 100
-
- puṇya karmāśaya, 105
-
- Purāṇa, 64
-
- Purification, 138
-
- Purificatory, 129, 130, 136
-
- Purity, 139
-
- purusha, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 16, 17, 19, 23, 28, 29, 42, 48, 53, 61, 76,
- 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 100, 104, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 125,
- 131, 133, 143, 154, 159, 162, 164, 173, 173 n., 175, 177, 178;
- arguments in favour of its separate existence, 24;
- contrast with vedantic Brahman, 26;
- different from the mental states, 17;
- fulfilment of its objects, 7, 8;
- its connection with prakṛti real, 28;
- its final separation from prakṛti, 118;
- its permanence, 21;
- its plurality, 26–30;
- its reflection in the mind, 18;
- its relation with concepts and ideas, 49;
- its similarity with sattva, 49;
- meaning determined from the sūtras, 16, 17;
- nature of its reflection in buddhi, 21, 22
-
- purushārtha, 89
-
- purushārthatā, 120, 164;
- its relation with avidyā, 115
-
- pūrvadeśa, 43 n.
-
-
- rajas, 3, 4, 5, 6, 24, 37, 40, 43, 47, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 62, 95, 96,
- 116, 175
-
- Rarefaction, 10
-
- rasa, 38, 152
-
- rasa-tanmātra, 58, 64
-
- Ray, P. C., 7 n., 63 n., 170 n.
-
- Rādhā, 14, 15 n.
-
- rāga, 97, 99, 104, 172
-
- _Rājamārtaṇda_, 65
-
- _rājaputtravattattvopadeśāt_, 15
-
- rājasa, 38
-
- Rāmānuja, 64, 162
-
- Realisation, 137
-
- Reality, 2, 4, 30, 118, 154
-
- Reals, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 28
-
- Reason, 50
-
- Reasoning, 53
-
- Rebirth, 93, 107
-
- Reflection, 18, 28
-
- Reflection theory, 14, 15
-
- Release, 28, 29, 123, 128
-
- Religious, 2
-
- Reperception, 18
-
- Restraint, 135, 136
-
- Retention, 101
-
- Right knowledge, 53
-
- rūpa, 38, 65, 152, 167
-
- rūpa tanmātra, 57, 64
-
- Ṛgveda, 11
-
- ṛshi, 144
-
- ṛtambharā, 154
-
-
- _sadṛśapariṇāmā_, 10
-
- sahakāri, 55
-
- _sahopalambhaniyama_, 33
-
- _sahopalambhaniyamaś ca vedyatvañca hetū
- sandigdhavyatirekatayānaikāntikau_, 34
-
- _sahopalambhaniyamādabhedo nilataddhiyoḥ_, 32
-
- Salvation, 145, 159, 162
-
- samādhi, 81, 96, 102, 118, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 135, 136, 137, 140,
- 142, 143, 145, 147, 148, 149, 151, 153, 155, 161, 162;
- classification of, 153, 154
-
- samādhipariṇāma, 155
-
- samāna tantra, 67
-
- samprajñāta, 96, 124, 125, 126, 137, 144, 149, 153, 155, 156
-
- samprajñāta samādhi, 138, 145, 150, 154
-
- _sampratyaya_, 134 n.
-
- _saṃghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyyayādadhishṭhānāt purusho’sti
- bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṃ pravṛtteśca_, 24
-
- saṃsāra, 115, 121
-
- saṃskāra, 19, 81, 96, 98, 101, 108, 109, 125, 174, 176, 177
-
- _saṃskārāḥ vṛttibhiḥ kriyante saṃskāraiśca vṛttayaḥ evaṃ
- vṛttisaṃskāracakram aniśamāvarttate_, 97
-
- saṃskāraśesha, 125
-
- _saṃskāryyakāraṇa_, 135
-
- _saṃsṛshṭā vivicyante_, 62
-
- _saṃvega_, 129
-
- saṃyama, 149, 157
-
- _saṃyoga_, 27, 29 n.
-
- sannyāsāśrama, 103
-
- santosha, 143
-
- saṅketa, 187
-
- Sarasvatī Rāmānanda, 126
-
- _sarvaṃ sarvātmakaṃ_, 77
-
- satkāraṇavāda, 81
-
- satkāryyavāda, 81
-
- sattva, 3, 4, 5, 6, 22, 24, 37, 38, 40, 43, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55,
- 56, 96, 116, 143, 144, 153, 160, 161
-
- _sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ_, 16, 22
-
- _sattvapurushayoratyantāsaṅkīrṇayoḥ pratyayāviśesho bhogaḥ parārthatvāt
- svārthasamyamāt purushajñā, nam_, 16
-
- savicāra, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154;
- prajñā, 151
-
- savitarka, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154
-
- _sā ca ātmanā grahītrā saha buddhirekātmikā saṃvid_, 51
-
- _sāmānya guṇa_, 29 n.
-
- Sāṃkhya, 4, 7 n., 10, 11, 18, 26, 27, 28, 29, 29 n., 30, 58, 62, 67,
- 89, 90, 94, 140, 164, 165;
- Jaina influence on, 94 n.
-
- _Sāṃkhya-kārikā_, 55, 56 n., 67
-
- Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala, 24, 76, 77, 80, 81, 82, 85
-
- Sāṃkhya philosophy, 4 n.
-
- _Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāshya_, 4 n.
-
- _Sāṃkhya-sūtra_, 11, 15, 169
-
- _Sāṃkhya-Yoga_, 4, 26, 27, 50 n., 57
-
- Sāṃkhyists, 12
-
- sānanda, 153
-
- sāttvika, 38, 56
-
- sāttvikaahaṃkāra, 63
-
- _Science of Ethics_, 50
-
- Seal, Dr. B. N., 7, 37, 63 n., 66–169
-
- Seeming reflection, 22, 23
-
- Seer, 17, 19, 23, 24, 28, 47, 51
-
- Self, 8, 18, 21, 26, 49, 51, 54
-
- Self-consciousness, 52, 54
-
- Self-control, 24
-
- Self-intelligent, 3
-
- Self-subsistent, 36
-
- Sensation, 166
-
- Sense, 141
-
- Sense faculties, 56
-
- Sense organs, 56
-
- Senses, 3, 40, 41, 47, 54, 60, 86, 87, 100, 102, 135, 147, 167, 171;
- divergent views about their evolution, 57
-
- Separation, 29 n.
-
- Sex restraint, 144
-
- _Shashṭitantraśāstra_, 10, 12
-
- siddha, 144
-
- _Siddhānta-candrikā_, 65, 95
-
- _Siddhāntaleśa_, 14
-
- Sign, 7, 41
-
- Simultaneous revelation, 33
-
- Sins, 103
-
- Sleep, 174
-
- smṛti, 19, 64, 101, 102, 108, 126, 128, 136
-
- Social, 2
-
- Soul, 13, 14, 24, 25
-
- Sound, 169
-
- Space, 79, 146, 152;
- as relative position, 169
-
- Space order, 170
-
- sparśa, 38, 65
-
- sparśâtanmātra, 57, 64
-
- Specialised, 7, 8
-
- Specific, 168
-
- sphoṭavāda, 178–187;
- _Kumāril’s view_, 181;
- Mahābhāshya and Kaiyaṭa, 182;
- Prabhākara, 182;
- Śabara’s view, 182;
- _Vaiśeshika view_, 180;
- Vākya-sphoṭa, 185;
- _Yoga view_, 184
-
- Spinoza, 13
-
- Spirits, 7, 13
-
- Spiritual principle, 24, 28
-
- _sthiti_, 37, 175
-
- _sthitikāraṇa_, 133
-
- sthūla, 166
-
- sthūlavishayaka, 154
-
- Strength, 102
-
- Studies, 136, 139
-
- Subconscious, 81
-
- Sub-latent, 46, 73
-
- Substance, 4 n., 29 n., 40, 47, 73, 74, 76, 81, 168;
- its nature, 37
-
- Substantive entities, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 82, 84
-
- Substratum, 36, 37, 49
-
- Succession, 44, 45
-
- _summum bonum_, 121
-
- Susheṇa, 135
-
- _sutucchaka_, 12
-
- _sūkshma_, 61, 67, 166, 167
-
- sūkshmavishayaka, 154
-
- _sūkshmavṛttimantaḥ_, 6
-
- Sūtra, 15, 17, 22, 26, 31, 62, 64, 108, 137, 147
-
- _Sūtrārthabodhinī_, 65, 90
-
- svarūpa, 166, 167, 175
-
- svādhyāya, 136, 142, 161
-
- _Svetāśvatara_, 11
-
- Sympathy, 137, 138
-
- śabda, 38, 65, 150
-
- _śabdajñānānupātī vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ_, 174
-
- śabda-tanmātra, 57, 64
-
- _śabdādīnām mūrttisamānajātīyānām_, 66 n.
-
- śakti, 17, 82, 83
-
- śaktimān, 82, 83
-
- Śaṅkara, 4 n., 135, 162
-
- śānta, 73
-
- _Sānti-parva_, 80, 88, 89
-
- śāstra, 172
-
- śauca, 143, 144
-
- śīla, 6
-
- śraddhā, 102, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 135, 138, 158
-
- śruti, 57
-
- śukla, 102, 111, 140, 175
-
- śukla karma, 103, 140
-
- śukla karmāśaya, 111
-
- śuklakṛshṇa, 102, 111
-
- Śūnyavādi Buddhists, 2
-
- _svalpasaṅkaraḥ saparihāraḥ sapratyavamarshaḥ_, 103 n.
-
- _svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṃyogaḥ_, 16
-
-
- _tadartha eva drśyasya ātmā_, 16
-
- _tadabhāvāt saṃyogābhāvo hānaṃ taddṛśeḥ kaivalyaṃ_, 16
-
- taijasa, 56
-
- tamas, 3, 4, 5, 6, 37, 39, 40, 43, 47, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 94, 95,
- 117, 169, 176
-
- tanmātra, 38, 40, 42, 54, 59, 61, 65, 66, 67, 70, 82, 83, 124, 151, 167
-
- tanmātras, evolution of grosser elements from, 65;
- their difference from paramānus, 68;
- their evolution, _et seq._, 64;
- their relation to ahaṃkāra, 40, 41
-
- tanmātrāvayava, 66
-
- _tanmātrāṇāmapi parasparavyārvṛttasvabhāvatvamastyeva tacca
- yogimātragamyam_, 68
-
- tanu, 176
-
- _tapaḥ_, 136
-
- tapas, 161
-
- _tasmāt svatantro’rthaḥ sarvapurushasādhāraṇaḥ svatantrāṇi ca cittāni
- pratipurushaṃ, pravarttante_, 36
-
- Taste, 167
-
- _tatradṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya_, 109
-
- tattva, 40, 94
-
- tattvajñāna, 101, 176
-
- _Tattva-kaumudī_, 25, 56 n., 103 n.
-
- _Tattva-nirūpaṇa_, 66
-
- _Tattvatraya_, 11 n., 55, 58, 64, 66
-
- _Tattvavaiśāradī_, 3 n., 5 n., 9 n., 33 n., 46, 53, 56 n., 64, 75, 78,
- 79, 93, 135, 154
-
- tattvāntara, 68
-
- _tattvāntara-pariṇāma_, 40, 41, 69
-
- tāmasa, 38, 56
-
- tāmasa ahaṃkāra, 60, 62
-
- _te vyaktasūkshmā guṇātmānaḥ ... sarvamidaṃ guṇānāṃ
- Sanniveśaviśeshamātramiti paramārthato guṇātmānaḥ_, 38
-
- tejas, 65, 75, 166, 167
-
- tejas atom, 66
-
- Teleological, 86, 121
-
- Teleology, 24, 76, 77, 89
-
- Temptation, 141
-
- Theft, 136, 141
-
- Theists, 90
-
- Theories, 2
-
- Thing, 150
-
- Thing-in-itself, 2, 37
-
- Thought, 2
-
- Time, 79, 139, 152, 169;
- as discrete moments, 44;
- as unit of change, 43;
- element of imagination in, 44;
- unit of, 46;
- order, 170
-
- Tinduka, 77
-
- Trance, 135, 136, 143;
- Trance-cognition, 95
-
- Transcendent, 18
-
- Transformations, 20, 24
-
- trasareṇu, 66
-
- _triguṇamaviveki vishayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṃ prasavadharmi vyaktaṃ tathā
- pradhānaṃ, tadviparītastathā pumān_, 42
-
- Truth, 141
-
- Truthfulness, 139, 140, 144
-
- _Tulyajātīyātulyajātīyaśaktibhedānupātinaḥ_, 6
-
-
- udāra, 176
-
- udbodhaka, 174
-
- udghāta, 146, 147
-
- udita, 73
-
- Ultimate state, 7
-
- Unafflicted, 176
-
- Understanding, 19
-
- Undetermined, 8
-
- Undifferentiated, 12, 162
-
- Unindividuated, 12
-
- Universe, 1, 13;
- a product of guṇa combinations, 37
-
- Unknowable, 2, 37
-
- Unmanifested, 4, 8, 72
-
- Unmediated, 8
-
- Unpredicable, 73
-
- Unreal, 28
-
- Unspecialised, 7
-
- Unwisdom, 142
-
- Upanishads, 11
-
- upastha, 54, 58
-
- upādāna, 61
-
- upādāna kāraṇa, 61, 133
-
- upekshā, 137, 139
-
- _utpādyakāraṇa_, 135
-
- uttaradeśa, 43 n.
-
- ūha, 101, 176
-
-
- vaikārika, 56
-
- vairāgya, 100, 101, 127, 129, 130, 135, 136, 143, 149, 162, 177
-
- Vaiśeshika, 43 n., 71, 168
-
- Vaiśeshika atoms, 70
-
- vaishṇava, 10
-
- Vanity, 143
-
- vaśīkāra, 128
-
- _vastupatitaḥ_, 44
-
- _vastusāmye cittabhedāt tayor vibhaktaḥ panthāḥ_, 35 n.
-
- Vācaspati, 3, 5 n., 8, 12, 32, 33, 35, 44, 46 n., 51, 55, 62, 65, 66,
- 67, 75, 78, 87, 89, 93, 109, 110, 112, 118, 126, 129, 144, 153, 154
-
- vāk, 54
-
- _Vākyapadīya_, 183
-
- vāsanā, 99, 106, 108, 114, 116, 177;
- contrasted with karmāśaya, 107
-
- Vāyu, 167
-
- Vāyu atom, 65
-
- Vedas, 154, 160, 162, 170, 177
-
- Vedānta, 11, 14, 24, 27, 28, 29, 162
-
- Vedāntism, 14
-
- Vedāntists, 12, 26, 66, 81
-
- Vedic, 103
-
- Vehicles of actions, 103
-
- Venkaṭa, 10
-
- Veracity, 136, 140
-
- Verbal cognition, cause of, 186;
- view of Nyāya, 187
-
- vibhu, 43 n.
-
- _vibhu parimāṇa_, 29 n.
-
- vibhūti, 158
-
- Vibhūtipāda, 22
-
- vicāra, 153
-
- vicārānugata, 125, 153
-
- vicchinna, 176
-
- Vice, 86, 87
-
- _videha_, 127
-
- vidyā, 177
-
- _vidyāviparītam jñānāntaraṃ avidyā_, 11, 97
-
- _Vijñanāmṛta-bhāshya_, 88, 90
-
- Vijñāna Bhikshu, 4, 15
-
- vikalpa, 101, 150, 173, 174
-
- _vikārakāraṇa_, 133
-
- _vikāryyakāraṇa_, 135
-
- _vikṛti_, 7 n., 165
-
- _vikshipta_, 95, 123
-
- vikshiptacitta, 96, 130
-
- vipāka, 105, 107
-
- viparyyaya, 101, 172, 173, 176
-
- _viprayoga_, 7
-
- Virtue, 86
-
- _Vishṇu Purāṇa_, 66
-
- viśesha, 7, 7 n., 40, 59, 81, 84, 165, 171
-
- _viśeshapariṇāma_, 60
-
- _viśeshāviśeshaliṅgamātrāliṅgāniguṇaparvāṇi_, 59
-
- visokā, 125
-
- vitarka, 153
-
- vitarkānugata, 125, 154
-
- _viyoga_, 29 n.
-
- _viyogakāraṇa_, 134, 135
-
- vīryya, 102, 126, 128, 135, 136
-
- Vomit, 141
-
- _Vṛtti_, 56, 92, 96, 97, 101, 102, 122, 171
-
- vyaṇgya, 57
-
- vyaṅjaka, 57
-
- vyatireka, 128
-
- _vyavasāyātmakatva_, 3
-
- _vyavaseyātmakatva_, 3
-
- Vyāsa, 5, 7, 8, 8 n., 22, 53, 121, 133, 135
-
- _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, 3 n., 5 n., 7 n., 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 33, 36, 37,
- 43 n., 50, 56, 58, 59, 60, 66 n., 68 n., 70, 71 n., 79, 84, 85, 94,
- 99, 101, 117, 119, 121, 133, 171
-
- vyoman, 75
-
- vyutthāna, 155, 156, 170
-
- _vyutthāna citta_, 95
-
-
- Ward, 2 n.
-
- Wicked, 102
-
- World-phenomena, 16
-
- World-process, 91
-
-
- _yadyaliṅgāvasthā śabdādyupabhogaṃ vā sattvapurushānyatākhyātim vā
- purushārtham nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na sāmyāvasthā syāt_, 8
-
- Yama, 136, 138, 139, 142, 143, 148
-
- Yatamāna, 127
-
- _yathā rathādi yantradibhiḥ_, 25
-
- _yathāyaskāntamaṇiḥ svasminneva ayaḥsannidhīkaraṇamātrāt
- śalyanishkarshaṇākhyam upakāram kurvat purushasya svāminaḥ svam
- bhavati bhogasādhanatvāt_, 22
-
- _ye cāsyānupasthitā bhāgaste cāsya na syurevaṃ nāsti pṛshṭhamiti
- udaramapi na gṛhyeta_, 36
-
- Yoga, 14, 29, 48, 62, 89, 96, 122, 123, 124, 129, 130, 131, 140, 144,
- 147, 155, 162, 177;
- its points of difference with Sāṃkhya, 163–165
-
- Yoga metaphysics, 1
-
- _Yoga philosophy in relation to other Indian systems of thought_, 165
-
- Yoga system, 2
-
- Yoga theory, 5
-
- yogāṅga, 122, 130, 131, 132, 135, 136, 144, 145, 149
-
- _Yoga-sūtra_, 5 n., 11, 17, 35 n., 43 n., 45, 47, 108, 117, 142, 153
-
- _Yoga-vārttika_, 4 n., 6 n., 9, 10, 12 n., 22, 29 n., 43 n., 45 n., 60,
- 61, 65, 66, 67, 87, 110, 126, 127, 129, 134 n., 143, 154, 176
-
- Yogins, 79, 87, 95, 97, 98, 121, 125, 127, 128, 129, 136, 139, 143,
- 147, 153, 155, 156, 158, 160;
- nine kinds of, 129
-
- _yogyatāvacchinnā dharmiṇaḥ śaktireva dharmaḥ_, 82
-
- Yudhishṭhira, 140
-
- _yutasiddhāvayaba_, 168
-
------
-
-Footnote 1:
-
- See Ward’s _Naturalism and Agnosticism_.
-
-Footnote 2:
-
- Vācaspati’s _Tattvavaiśāradī_ on the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 47.
-
-Footnote 3:
-
- _Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāshya_, I. 120.
-
-Footnote 4:
-
- It is indeed difficult to say what was the earliest conception of the
- guṇas. But there is reason to believe, as I have said elsewhere, that
- guṇa in its earliest acceptance meant qualities. It is very probable
- that as the Sāṃkhya philosophy became more and more systematised it
- was realised that there was no ultimate distinction between substance
- and qualities. In consequence of such a view the guṇas which were
- originally regarded as qualities began to be regarded as substantive
- entities and no contradiction was felt. Bhikshu in many places
- describes the guṇas as substantive entities (_dravya_) and their
- division into three classes as being due to the presence of three
- kinds of class-characteristics. This would naturally mean that within
- the same class there were many other differences which have not been
- taken into account (_Yoga-vārttika_, II. 18). But it cannot be said
- that the view that the guṇas are substantive entities and that there
- is no difference between qualities and substances is regarded as a
- genuine Sāṃkhya view even as early as Śaṅkara. See _Ghābhāshya_, XIV.
- 5.
-
-Footnote 5:
-
- See _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ on Patañjali’s _Yoga-sūtras_, II. 18, and
- Vācaspati’s _Tattvavaiśāradī_ on it.
-
-Footnote 6:
-
- See Bhikshu’s _Yoga-vārttika_, II. 18.
-
-Footnote 7:
-
- _History of Hindu Chemistry_, Vol. II, by P. C. Ray, p. 66.
-
-Footnote 8:
-
- The usual Sāṃkhya terms as found in Iśvarakṛshṇa’s _Kārikā_, having
- the same denotation as aviśesha and viśesha, are _prakṛtivikṛti_ and
- _vikṛti_.
-
-Footnote 9:
-
- _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 19.
-
-Footnote 10:
-
- _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 19.
-
-Footnote 11:
-
- _Tattvavaiśāradī_, II. 19.
-
-Footnote 12:
-
- _Tattvatraya_, p. 48 (Chowkhamba edition), Benares.
-
-Footnote 13:
-
- Bhikshu in his _Yoga-vārttika_ explains “_māyeva_” as “_laukikamāyeva
- kshaṇabhaṇguram_” evanescent like the illusions of worldly experience.
-
-Footnote 14:
-
- _Siddhāntalleśa_ (Jīveśvara nirūpaiṇa).
-
-Footnote 15:
-
- Princess Kuntī of the Mahābhārata had a son born to her by means of a
- charm when she was still a virgin. Being afraid of a public scandal
- she floated the child in a stream; the child was picked up by the wife
- of a carpenter (Rādhā). The boy grew up to be the great hero Karṇa and
- he thought that he was the son of a carpenter until the fact of his
- royal lineage was disclosed to him later in life.
-
-Footnote 16:
-
- _Kārikā_ 17.
-
-Footnote 17:
-
- Gauḍapāda’s commentary on _Kārikā_ 17.
-
-Footnote 18:
-
- Purusha is a substance (_dravya_) because it has independent existence
- (_anāśrita_) and has a measure (_vibhu parimāṇa_) of its own. So it
- always possesses the common characteristics (_sāmānya guṇa_) of
- substances, contact (_saṃyoga_), separation (_viyoga_) and number
- (_saṃkhyā_). Purusha cannot be considered to be suffering change or
- impure on account of the possession of the above common
- characteristics of all substances. _Yoga-vārttika_, II. 17.
-
-Footnote 19:
-
- Thus the _Bhāshya_ says:
- _bhavishyadvyaktikamanāgataṃanudbhūtavyaktikamatītaṃ
- svavyāpāropārūḍhaṃ varttamānaṃ trayaṃ, caitadvastu jñānasya jñeyaṃ
- yadi caitat svarūpato nābhavishyannedaṃ nirvishayaṃ jñānamudapatsyata
- tasmādatītamanāgataṃ svarūpato’ stīti_.
-
-Footnote 20:
-
- _Tattvavaiśāradī_, IV. 14.
-
-Footnote 21:
-
- _Vastusāmye cittabhedāt tayor vibhaktaḥ panthāḥ._ _Yoga-sūtra_, IV.
- 15.
-
-Footnote 22:
-
- “_Tattvāntara-pariṇāma_” means the evolution of a wholly new category
- of existence. Thus the tanmātras are wholly different from the ego
- from which they are produced. So the atoms are wholly different from
- the tanmātras from which they are produced, for the latter, unlike the
- former, have no sense-properties. In all combinations of atoms, there
- would arise thousands of new qualities, but none of the products of
- the combination of atoms can be called a tattvāntara, or a new
- category of existence since all these qualities are the direct
- manifestations of the specific properties of the atoms.
-
-Footnote 23:
-
- _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 52, says that the smallest indivisible part of a
- thing is called a paramāṇu. Vijñāna Bhikshu in explaining it says that
- paramāṇu here means guṇa, for if a thing say a stone is divided, then
- the furthest limit of division is reached when we come to the
- indivisible guṇas. But if the prakṛti is all-pervading (_vibhu_) how
- can the guṇas be atomic? Bhikshu says (_Yoga-vārttika_, III. 52) in
- reply that there are some classes of guṇas (e.g. those which produce
- mind _antaḥkaraṇa_ and _ākāśa_) which are all-pervading, while the
- others are all atomic. In Bhikshu’s interpretation a moment is to be
- defined as the time which a guṇa entity takes to change its own unit
- of space. Guṇas are thus equivalent to the Vaiśeshika paramāṇus.
- Bhikshu, however, does not deny that there are no atoms of earth,
- water, etc., but he says that where reference is not made to these
- atoms but to guṇa atoms for the partless units of time can only be
- compared with the partless guṇas. But Vācaspati does not make any
- comment here to indicate that the smallest indivisible unit of matter
- should mean guṇas. Moreover, _Yoga-sūtra_, I. 40, and _Vyāsa-bhāshya_,
- I. 45, speak of _paramāṇu_ and _aṇu_ in the sense of earth-atoms, etc.
- Even Bhikshu does not maintain that paramāṇu is used there in the
- sense of atomic guṇa entities. I could not therefore accept Bhikshu’s
- interpretation that paramāṇu here refers to guṇa. Paramāṇu may here be
- taken in the sense of material atoms of earth, water, etc. The atoms
- (paramāṇu) here cannot be absolutely partless, for it has two sides,
- prior (_pūrvadeśa_) and posterior (_uttaradeśa_).
-
-Footnote 24:
-
- Bhikshu regards the movement of a guṇa of its own unit of space as the
- ultimate unit of time (_kshaṇa_). The whole world is nothing else but
- a series of _kshaṇas_. This view differs from the Buddhist view that
- everything is momentary in this that it does not admit of any other
- thing but the _kshaṇas_ (_na tu kskaṇātiriktaḥ kshaṇikaḥ padārthaḥ
- kaścidishyate taistu kskaṇamātrasthāyyeva padārthaḥ ishyate_.
- _Yoga-vārttika_, III. 52).
-
-Footnote 25:
-
- There is a difference of opinion as regards the meaning of the word
- “_kshaṇapratiyogi_” in IV. 33. Vācaspati says that it means the
- growth associated with a particular _kshaṇa_ or moment
- (_kshaṇapracayāśraya_). The word _pratiyogī_ is interpreted by
- Vācaspati as related (_pratisambandhī_). Bhikshu, however, gives a
- quite different meaning. He interprets _kshaṇa_ as “interval” and
- pratiyogī as “opposite of” (_virodhī_). So “_kshaṇapratiyogī_” means
- with him “without any interval” or “continuous.” He holds that the
- sūtra means that all change is continuous and not in succession.
- There is according to his interpretation no interval between the
- cessation of a previous character and the rise of a new one.
-
-Footnote 26:
-
- Nothing more than a superficial comparison with Fichte is here
- intended. A large majority of the texts and the commentary literature
- would oppose the attempts of all those who would like to interpret
- Sāṃkhya-yoga on Fichtean lines.
-
-Footnote 27:
-
- _Tattvakaumudī_ on _Sāṃkhya-kārikā_, 25.
-
-Footnote 28:
-
- _Tattvavaiśāradī_, III. 41.
-
-Footnote 29:
-
- This was first pointed out by Dr. B. N. Seal in his _Physical,
- Chemical and Mechanical Theories of the Ancient Hindus_ in Dr. P. C.
- Ray’s _Hindu Chemistry_, Vol. II.
-
-Footnote 30:
-
- _Yoga-vārttika_, I. 45.
-
-Footnote 31:
-
- I have already said before that Bhikshu thinks that the guṇas (except
- the all-pervading ones) may be compared to the Vaiśeshika atoms. See
- _Yoga-vārttika_, III. 52.
-
-Footnote 32:
-
- Cf. _Vyāsa-bhāshya_—“_sabdādīnāṃ mūrttisamānajátīyānāṃ_,” IV. 14.
-
-Footnote 33:
-
- _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 19.
-
-Footnote 34:
-
- _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 13.
-
-Footnote 35:
-
- _Ibid._
-
-Footnote 36:
-
- Nahusha an earthly king became Indra the king of the gods by the
- fruition of his virtues, but on account of gross misdeeds fell from
- Heaven and was turned into a snake.
-
-Footnote 37:
-
- _Tattravaiśāradī_, IV, 3.
-
-Footnote 38:
-
- I have translated both citta and buddhi as mind. The word buddhi is
- used when emphasis is laid on the intellective and cosmical functions
- of the mind. The word citta is used when emphasis is laid on the
- conservative side of mind as the repository of all experiences,
- memory, etc.
-
-Footnote 39:
-
- If this is a Sāṃkhya doctrine, it seems clearly to be a case of Jaina
- influence.
-
-Footnote 40:
-
- Compare Pañcaśikha, _svalpasaṇkaraḥ saparihāraḥ sapratyavamarshaḥ_,
- _Tattvakaumudī_, 2.
-
-Footnote 41:
-
- Pratyaya is explained in _Yoga-vārttika_, II. 28, as _sampratyaya_ or
- _prāmāṇyaniścaya_.
-
-Footnote 42:
-
- Yudhishṭhira led falsely Droṇa to believe that the latter’s son was
- dead by inaudibly muttering that it was only an elephant having the
- same name as that of his son that had died.
-
-Footnote 43:
-
- This book has, however, not yet been published.
-
-Footnote 44:
-
- Dr. Ray’s _Hindu Chemistry_, Vol. II, p. 81.
-
-Footnote 45:
-
- Avidyā manifests itself in different forms: (1) as the afflictions
- (_kleśa_) of asmitā (egoism), rāga (attachment), dvesha (antipathy)
- and abhiniveśa (self-love); (2) as doubt and intellectual error; (3)
- as error of sense. All these manifestations of avidyā are also the
- different forms of viparyyaya or bhrama (error, illusion, mistake).
- This bhrama in Yoga is the thinking of something as that which it is
- not (_anyathākhyāti_). Thus we think the miserable worldly existence
- as pleasurable and attribute the characteristics of prakṛti to purusha
- and vice versa. All afflictions are due to this confusion and
- misjudgment, the roots of which stay in the buddhis in all their
- transmigrations from one life to another. Sāṃkhya, however, differs
- from Yoga and thinks that all error (_avidyā_ or _bhrama_) is due only
- to non-distinction between the true and the untrue. Thus
- non-distinction (_aviveka_) between prakṛti and purusha is the cause
- of all our miserable mundane existence. Avidyā and aviveka are thus
- synonymous with Sāṃkhya.
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
- TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
-
-
- ● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained.
- ● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last
- chapter.
- ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
-
-
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74250 ***
+ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74250 *** + + + + + + YOGA + AS PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGIONS + + BY + + SURENDRANATH DASGUPTA + + M.A., PH.D.(CAL.), PH.D.(CANTAB.) + + AUTHOR OF “A HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY”, ETC. + + _Professor of Philosophy, Presidency College, Calcutta_ + _Late Professor of Sanskrit, Chittagong College_ + _Late Lecturer in the University of Cambridge_ + + + LONDON: + + KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD + NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO. + + 1924 + + + + + YOGA AS PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION + + + + + Printed in Great Britain at + _The Mayflower Press, Plymouth_, William Brendon & Son, Ltd. + + + + + AS A HUMBLE TOKEN + + OF DEEPEST REGARD AND GRATEFULNESS + + TO THE + + MAHARAJA SIR MANINDRACHANDRA NUNDY + + K.C.I.E + + WHOSE NOBLE CHARACTER AND SELF-DENYING CHARITIES + + HAVE ENDEARED HIM TO THE PEOPLE OF BENGAL + + AND + + WHO SO KINDLY OFFERED ME HIS WHOLE-HEARTED + + PATRONAGE IN + + ENCOURAGING MY ZEAL FOR LEARNING AT A TIME + + WHEN I WAS IN SO GREAT A NEED OF IT + + + + + PREFACE + + +This little volume is an attempt at a brief exposition of the +philosophical and religious doctrines found in Patañjali’s _Yoga-sūtra_ +as explained by its successive commentaries of Vyāsa, Vācaspati, Vijñāna +Bhikshu, and others. The exact date of Patañjali cannot be definitely +ascertained, but if his identity with the other Patañjali, the author of +the Great Commentary (_Mahābhāshya_) on Pāṇini’s grammar, could be +conclusively established, there would be some evidence in our hands that +he lived in 150 B.C. I have already discussed this subject in the first +volume of my _A History of Indian Philosophy_, where the conclusion to +which I arrived was that, while there was some evidence in favour of +their identity, there was nothing which could be considered as being +conclusively against it. The term Yoga, according to Patañjali’s +definition, means the final annihilation (_nirodha_) of all the mental +states (_cittavṛtti_) involving the preparatory stages in which the mind +has to be habituated to being steadied into particular types of +graduated mental states. This was actually practised in India for a long +time before Patañjali lived; and it is very probable that certain +philosophical, psychological, and practical doctrines associated with it +were also current long before Patañjali. Patañjali’s work is, however, +the earliest systematic compilation on the subject that is known to us. +It is impossible, at this distance of time, to determine the extent to +which Patañjali may claim originality. Had it not been for the labours +of the later commentators, much of what is found in Patañjali’s +aphorisms would have remained extremely obscure and doubtful, at least +to all those who were not associated with such ascetics as practised +them, and who derived the theoretical and practical knowledge of the +subject from their preceptors in an upward succession of generations +leading up to the age of Patañjali, or even before him. It is well to +bear in mind that Yoga is even now practised in India, and the +continuity of traditional instruction handed down from teacher to pupil +is not yet completely broken. + +If anyone wishes methodically to pursue a course which may lead him +ultimately to the goal aimed at by Yoga, he must devote his entire life +to it under the strict practical guidance of an advanced teacher. The +present work can in no sense be considered as a practical guide for such +purposes. But it is also erroneous to think—as many uninformed people +do—that the only interest of Yoga lies in its practical side. The +philosophical, psychological, cosmological, ethical, and religious +doctrines, as well as its doctrines regarding matter and change, are +extremely interesting in themselves, and have a definitely assured place +in the history of the progress of human thought; and, for a right +understanding of the essential features of the higher thoughts of India, +as well as of the practical side of Yoga, their knowledge is +indispensable. + +The Yoga doctrines taught by Patañjali are regarded as the highest of +all Yogas (_Rājayoga_), as distinguished from other types of Yoga +practices, such as _Haṭhayoga_ or _Mantrayoga_. Of these _Haṭhayoga_ +consists largely of a system of bodily exercises for warding off +diseases, and making the body fit for calmly bearing all sorts of +physical privations and physical strains. _Mantrayoga_ is a course of +meditation on certain mystical syllables which leads to the audition of +certain mystical sounds. This book does not deal with any of these +mystical practices nor does it lay any stress on the performance of any +of those miracles described by Patañjali. The scope of this work is +limited to a brief exposition of the intellectual foundation—or the +theoretical side—of the Yoga practices, consisting of the philosophical, +psychological, cosmological, ethical, religious, and other doctrines +which underlie these practices. The affinity of the system of Sāṃkhya +thought, generally ascribed to a mythical sage, Kapila, to that of Yoga +of Patañjali is so great on most important points of theoretical +interest that they may both be regarded as two different modifications +of one common system of ideas. I have, therefore, often taken the +liberty of explaining Yoga ideas by a reference to kindred ideas in +Sāṃkhya. But the doctrines of Yoga could very well have been compared or +contrasted with great profit with the doctrines of other systems of +Indian thought. This has purposely been omitted here as it has already +been done by me in my _Yoga Philosophy in relation to other Systems of +Indian Thought_, the publication of which has for long been unavoidably +delayed. All that may be expected from the present volume is that it +will convey to the reader the essential features of the Yoga system of +thought. How far this expectation will be realized from this book it +will be for my readers to judge. It is hoped that the chapter on “Kapila +and Pātañjala School of Sāṃkhya” in my _A History of Indian Philosophy_ +(Vol. I. Cambridge University Press, 1922) will also prove helpful for +the purpose. + +I am deeply indebted to my friend Mr. Douglas Ainslie for the numerous +corrections and suggestions regarding the English style that he was +pleased to make throughout the body of the manuscript and the very warm +encouragement that he gave me for the publication of this work. In this +connection I also beg to offer my best thanks for the valuable +suggestions which I received from the reviser of the press. Had it not +been for these, the imperfections of the book would have been still +greater. The quaintness and inelegance of some of my expressions would, +however, be explained if it were borne in mind that here, as well as in +my _A History of Indian Philosophy_, I have tried to resist the +temptation of making the English happy at the risk of sacrificing the +approach to exactness of the philosophical sense; and many ideas of +Indian philosophy are such that an exact English rendering of them often +becomes hopelessly difficult. + +I am grateful to my friend and colleague, Mr. D. K. Sen, M.A., for the +kind assistance that he rendered in helping me to prepare the index. + +Last of all, I must express my deep sense of gratefulness to Sir +Ashutosh Mookerjee, Kt., C.S.I., etc. etc., and the University of +Calcutta, for kindly permitting me to utilize my _A Study of Patañjāli_, +which is a Calcutta University publication, for the present work. + + S. N. DASGUPTA. + + PRESIDENCY COLLEGE, CALCUTTA, + _April, 1924_. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + BOOK I. YOGA METAPHYSICS: + + CHAPTER PAGE + I. PRAKṚTI 1 + II. PURUSHA 13 + III. THE REALITY OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD 31 + IV. THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION 40 + V. THE EVOLUTION OF THE CATEGORIES 48 + VI. EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES 64 + VII. EVOLUTION AND GOD 84 + + + BOOK II. YOGA ETHICS AND PRACTICE: + + VIII. MIND AND MORAL STATES 92 + IX. THE THEORY OF KARMA 102 + X. THE ETHICAL PROBLEM 114 + XI. YOGA PRACTICE 124 + XII. THE YOGĀṄGAS 132 + XIII. STAGES OF SAMADHI 150 + XIV. GOD IN YOGA 159 + XV. MATTER AND MIND 166 + APPENDIX 179 + INDEX 188 + + + + + YOGA AS PHILOSOPHY + AND RELIGION + + + + + BOOK I. YOGA METAPHYSICS + + + + + CHAPTER I + PRAKRTI + + +However dogmatic a system of philosophical enquiry may appear to us, it +must have been preceded by a criticism of the observed facts of +experience. The details of the criticism and the processes of +self-argumentation by which the thinker arrived at his theory of the +Universe might indeed be suppressed, as being relatively unimportant, +but a thoughtful reader would detect them as lying in the background +behind the shadow of the general speculations, but at the same time +setting them off before our view. An Aristotle or a Patañjali may not +make any direct mention of the arguments which led him to a dogmatic +assertion of his theories, but for a reader who intends to understand +them thoroughly it is absolutely necessary that he should read them in +the light as far as possible of the inferred presuppositions and inner +arguments of their minds; it is in this way alone that he can put +himself in the same line of thinking with the thinker whom he is willing +to follow, and can grasp him to the fullest extent. In offering this +short study of the Pātañjala metaphysics, I shall therefore try to +supplement it with such of my inferences of the presuppositions of +Patañjali’s mind, which I think will add to the clearness of the +exposition of his views, though I am fully alive to the difficulties of +making such inferences about a philosopher whose psychological, social, +religious and moral environments differed so widely from ours. + +An enquiry into the relations of the mental phenomena to the physical +has sometimes given the first start to philosophy. The relation of mind +to matter is such an important problem of philosophy that the existing +philosophical systems may roughly be classified according to the +relative importance that has been attached to mind or to matter. There +have been chemical, mechanical and biological conceptions which have +ignored mind as a separate entity and have dogmatically affirmed it to +be the product of matter only.[1] There have been theories of the other +extreme, which have dispensed with matter altogether and have boldly +affirmed that matter as such has no reality at all, and that thought is +the only thing which can be called Real in the highest sense. All matter +as such is non-Being or Māyā or Avidyā. There have been Nihilists like +the Śūnyavādi Buddhists who have gone so far as to assert that neither +matter nor mind exists. Some have asserted that matter is only thought +externalized, some have regarded the principle of matter as the +unknowable Thing-in-itself, some have regarded them as separate +independent entities held within a higher reality called God, or as two +of his attributes only, and some have regarded their difference as being +only one of grades of intelligence, one merging slowly and imperceptibly +into the other and held together in concord with each other by +pre-established harmony. + +Underlying the metaphysics of the Yoga system of thought as taught by +Patañjali and as elaborated by his commentators we find an acute +analysis of matter and thought. Matter on the one hand, mind, the +senses, and the ego on the other are regarded as nothing more than two +different kinds of modifications of one primal cause, the Prakṛti. But +the self-intelligent principle called Purusha (spirit) is distinguished +from them. Matter consists only of three primal qualities or rather +substantive entities, which he calls the Sattva or intelligence-stuff, +Rajas or energy, and Tamas—the factor of obstruction or mass or inertia. +It is extremely difficult truly to conceive of the nature of these three +kinds of entities or Guṇas, as he calls them, when we consider that +these three elements alone are regarded as composing all phenomena, +mental and physical. In order to comprehend them rightly it will be +necessary to grasp thoroughly the exact relation between the mental and +the physical. What are the real points of agreement between the two? How +can the same elements be said to behave in one case as the conceiver and +in the other case as the conceived? Thus Vācaspati says:— + +“The reals (guṇas) have two forms, viz. the determiner or the perceiver, +and the perceived or the determined. In the aspect of the determined or +the perceived, the guṇas evolve themselves as the five infra-atomic +potentials, the five gross elements and their compounds. In the aspect +of perceiver or determiner, they form the modifications of the ego +together with the senses.”[2] + +It is interesting to notice here the two words used by Vācaspati in +characterising the twofold aspect of the guṇa viz. _vyavasāyātmakatva_, +their nature as the determiner or perceiver, and _vyavaseyātmakatva_, +their nature as determined or perceived. The elements which compose the +phenomena of the objects of perception are the same as those which form +the phenomena of the perceiving; their only distinction is that one is +the determined and the other is the determiner. What we call the +psychosis involving intellection, sensing and the ego, and what may be +called the infra-atoms, atoms and their combinations, are but two +different types of modifications of the same stuff of reals. There is no +intrinsic difference in nature between the mental and the physical. + +The mode of causal transformation is explained by Vijñāna Bhikshu in his +commentary on the system of Sāṃkhya as if its functions consisted only +in making manifest what was already there in an unmanifested form. Thus +he says, “just as the image already existing in the stone is only +manifested by the activity of the statuary, so the causal activity also +generates only that activity by which an effect is manifested as if it +happened or came into being at the present moment.”[3] The effects are +all always existent, but some of them are sometimes in an unmanifested +state. What the causal operation, viz. the energy of the agent and the +suitable collocating instruments and conditions, does is to set up an +activity by which the effect may be manifested at the present moment. + +With Sāṃkhya-Yoga, sattva, rajas and tamas are substantive entities +which compose the reality of the mental and the physical.[4] The mental +and the physical represent two different orders of modifications, and +one is not in any way superior to the other. As the guṇas conjointly +form the manifold without, by their varying combinations, as well as all +the diverse internal functions, faculties and phenomena, they are in +themselves the absolute potentiality of all things, mental and physical. +Thus Vyāsa in describing the nature of the knowable, writes: “The nature +of the knowable is now described:—The knowable, consisting of the +objects of enjoyment and liberation, as the gross elements and +the perceptive senses, is characterised by three essential +traits—illumination, energy and inertia. The sattva is of the nature of +illumination. Rajas is of the nature of energy. Inertia (tamas) is of +the nature of inactivity. The guṇa entities with the above +characteristics are capable of being modified by mutual influence on one +another, by their proximity. They are evolving. They have the +characteristics of conjunction and separation. They manifest forms by +one lending support to the others by proximity. None of these loses its +distinct power into those of the others, even though any one of them may +exist as the principal factor of a phenomenon with the others as +subsidiary thereto. The guṇas forming the three classes of substantive +entities manifest themselves as such by their similar kinds of power. +When any one of them plays the rôle of the principal factor of any +phenomenon, the others also show their presence in close contact. Their +existence as subsidiary energies of the principal factor is inferred by +their distinct and independent functioning, even though it be as +subsidiary qualities.”[5] The Yoga theory does not acknowledge qualities +as being different from substances. The ultimate substantive entities +are called guṇas, which as we have seen are of three kinds. The guṇa +entities are infinite in number; each has an individual existence, but +is always acting in co-operation with others. They may be divided into +three classes in accordance with their similarities of behaviour (śīla). +Those which behave in the way of intellection are called _sattva_, those +which behave in the way of producing effort of movement are called +_rajas_, and those which behave differently from these and obstruct +their process are called _tamas_. We have spoken above of a primal cause +_prakṛti_. But that is not a separate category independent of the guṇas. +Prakṛti is but a name for the guṇa entities when they exist in a state +of equilibrium. All that exists excepting the purushas are but the guṇa +entities in different kinds of combination amongst themselves. The +effects they produce are not different from them but it is they +themselves which are regarded as causes in one state and effects in +another. The difference of combination consists in this, that in some +combinations there are more of sattva entities than rajas or tamas, and +in others more of rajas or more of tamas. These entities are continually +uniting and separating. But though they are thus continually dividing +and uniting in new combinations the special behaviour or feature of each +class of entities remains ever the same. Whatever may be the nature of +any particular combination the sattva entities participating in it will +retain their intellective functions, rajas their energy +functions, and tamas the obstructing ones. But though they retain +their special features in spite of their mutual difference +they hold fast to one another in any particular combination +(_tulyajātīyātulyajātīyaśaktibhedānupātinaḥ_, which Bhikshu explains as +_aviśesheṇopashṭambhakasvabhāvāḥ_). In any particular combination it is +the special features of those entities which predominate that manifest +themselves, while the other two classes lend their force in drawing the +minds of perceivers to it as an object as a magnet draws a piece of +iron. Their functionings at this time are undoubtedly feeble +(_sūkshmavṛttimantaḥ_) but still they do exist.[6] + +In the three guṇas, none of them can be held as the goal of the others. +All of them are equally important, and the very varied nature of the +manifold represents only the different combinations of these guṇas as +substantive entities. In any combination one of the guṇas may be more +predominant than the others, but the other guṇas are also present there +and perform their functions in their own way. No one of them is more +important than the other, but they serve conjointly one common purpose, +viz. the experiences and the liberation of the purusha, or spirit. They +are always uniting, separating and re-uniting again and there is neither +beginning nor end of this (_anyonyamithunāḥ sarvve naishāmādisamprayogo +viprayogo vā upalabhyate_). + +They have no purpose of their own to serve, but they all are always +evolving, as Dr. Seal says, “ever from a relatively less differentiated, +less determinate, less coherent whole, to a relatively more +differentiated, more determinate, more coherent whole”[7] for the +experiences and liberation of purusha, or spirit. When in a state of +equilibrium they cannot serve the purpose of the purusha, so that state +of the guṇas is not for the sake of the purusha; it is its own +independent eternal state. All the other three stages of evolution, viz. +the liṅga (sign), aviśesha (unspecialised) and viśesha (specialised) +have been caused for the sake of the purusha.[8] Thus Vyāsa writes:—[9] +“The objects of the purusha are no cause of the original state +(_aliṅga_). That is to say, the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha +is not the cause which brings about the manifestation of the original +state of prakṛti in the beginning. The fulfilment of the objects of the +purusha is not therefore the reason of the existence of that ultimate +state. Since it is not brought into existence by the need of the +fulfilment of the purusha’s objects it is said to be eternal. As to the +three specialised states, the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha +becomes the cause of their manifestation in the beginning. The +fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not therefore the reason for +the existence of the cause. Since it is not brought into existence by +the purusha’s objects it is said to be eternal. As to the three +specialised states, the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha being +the cause of their manifestation in the beginning, they are said to be +non-eternal.” + +Vācaspati again says:—“The fulfilment of the objects of the purusha +could be said to be the cause of the original state, if that state could +bring about the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha, such as the +enjoyment of sound, etc., or manifest the discrimination of the +distinction between true self and other phenomena. If however it did +that, it could not be a state of equilibrium,” (_yadyaliṅgāvasthā +śabdādyupabhogam vā sattvapurushānyatākhyātim vā purushārtham +nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na sāmyavasthā syāt_). This state is +called the prakṛti. It is the beginning, indeterminate, unmediated and +undetermined. It neither exists nor does it not exist, but is the +principium of almost all existence. Thus Vyāsa describes it as “the +state which neither is nor is not; that which exists and yet does not; +that in which there is no non-existence; the unmanifested, the noumenon +(lit. without any manifested indication), the background of all” +(_niḥsattāsattam niḥsadasat nirasat avyaktam aliṅgam pradhānam_).[10] +Vācaspati explains it as follows:—“Existence consists in possessing the +capacity of effecting the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha. +Non-existence means a mere imaginary trifle (e.g. the horn of a hare).” +It is described as being beyond both these states of existence and +non-existence. The state of the equipoise of the three guṇas of +intelligence-stuff, inertia and energy, is nowhere of use in fulfilling +the objects of the purusha. It therefore does not exist as such. On the +other hand, it does not admit of being rejected as non-existent like an +imaginary lotus of the sky. It is therefore not non-existent. But even +allowing the force of the above arguments about the want of phenomenal +existence of prakṛti on the ground that it cannot serve the objects of +the purusha, the difficulty arises that the principles of Mahat, etc., +exist in the state of the unmanifested also, because nothing that exists +can be destroyed; and if it is destroyed, it cannot be born again, +because nothing that does not exist can be born; it follows therefore +that since the principles of mahat, etc., exist in the state of the +unmanifested, that state can also affect the fulfilment of the objects +of the purusha. How then can it be said that the unmanifested is not +possessed of existence? For this reason, he describes it as that in +which it exists and does not exist. This means that the cause exists in +that state in a potential form but not in the form of the effect. +Although the effect exists in the cause as mere potential power, yet it +is incapable of performing the function of fulfilling the objects of the +purusha; it is therefore said to be non-existent as such. Further he +says that this cause is not such, that its effect is of the nature of +hare’s horn. It is beyond the state of non-existence, that is, of the +existence of the effect as mere nothing. If it were like that, then it +would be like the lotus of the sky and no effect would follow.[11] + +But as Bhikshu points out (_Yoga-vārttika_, II. 18) this prakṛti is +not simple substance, for it is but the guṇa reals. It is simple only +in the sense that no complex qualities are manifested in it. It is the +name of the totality of the guṇa reals existing in a state of +equilibrium through their mutual counter opposition. It is a +hypothetical state of the guṇas preceding the states in which they +work in mutual co-operation for the creation of the cosmos for giving +the purushas a chance for ultimate release attained through a full +enjoyment of experiences. Some European scholars have often asked me +whether the prakṛti were real or whether the guṇas were real. This +question, in my opinion, can only arise as a result of confusion and +misapprehension, for it is the guṇas in a state of equilibrium that +are called prakṛti. Apart from guṇas there is no prakṛti (_guṇā eva +prakṛtiśabdavācyā na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti. Yoga-vārttika_, II. +18). In this state, the different guṇas only annul themselves and no +change takes place, though it must be acknowledged that the state of +equipoise is also one of tension and action, which, however, being +perfectly balanced does not produce any change. This is what is meant +by evolution of similars (_adṛśapariṇāma_). Prakṛti as the equilibrium +of the three guṇas is the absolute ground of all the mental and +phenomenal modifications—pure potentiality. + +Veṅkaṭa, a later Vaishṇava writer, describes prakṛti as one ubiquitous, +homogeneous matter which evolves itself into all material productions by +condensation and rarefaction. In this view the guṇas would have to be +translated as three different classes of qualities or characters, which +are found in the evolutionary products of the prakṛti. This will of +course be an altogether different view of the prakṛti from that which is +described in the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, and the guṇas could not be considered +as reals or as substantive entities in such an interpretation. A +question arises, then, as to which of these two prakṛtis is the earlier +conception. I confess that it is difficult to answer it. For though the +Vaishṇava view is elaborated in later times, it can by no means be +asserted that it had not quite as early a beginning as 2nd or 3rd +century B.C. If _Ahirbudhnyasamhitā_ is to be trusted then the +_Shashṭitantraśāstra_ which is regarded as an authoritative Sāṃkhya work +is really a Vaishṇava work. Nothing can be definitely stated about the +nature of prakṛti in Sāṃkhya from the meagre statement of the _Kārikā_. +The statement in the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ is, however, definitely in favour +of the interpretation that we have adopted, and so also the +_Sāṃkhya-sūtra_, which is most probably a later work. Caraka’s account +of prakṛti does not seem to be the prakṛti of _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ for here +the guṇas are not regarded as reals or substantive entities, but as +characters, and prakṛti is regarded as containing its evolutes, mahat, +etc., as its elements (_dhātu_). If Caraka’s treatment is the earliest +view of Sāṃkhya that is available to us, then it has to be admitted that +the earliest Sāṃkhya view did not accept prakṛti as a state of the +guṇas, or guṇas as substantive entities. But the _Yoga-sūtra_, II. 19, +and the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ support the interpretation that I have adopted +here, and it is very curious that if the Sāṃkhya view was known at the +time to be so different from it, no reference to it should have been +made. But whatever may be the original Sāṃkhya view, both the Yoga view +and the later Sāṃkhya view are quite in consonance with my +interpretation. + +In later Indian thinkers there had been a tendency to make a compromise +between the Vedānta and Sāṃkhya doctrines and to identify prakṛti with +the avidyā of the Vedāntists. Thus Lokācāryya writes:—“It is called +prakṛti since it is the source of all change, it is called avidyā since +it is opposed to knowledge, it is called māyā since it is the cause of +diversion creation (_prakṛtirityucyate vikārotpādakatvāt avidyā +jñānavirodhitvāt māyā vicitrasṛshṭikaratvāt_).”[12] But this is +distinctly opposed to the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ which defines avidyā as +_vidyāviparītaṃ jñānāntaraṃ avidyā_, i.e. avidyā is that other knowledge +which is opposed to right knowledge. In some of the Upanishads, +_Svetāśvatara_ for example, we find that māyā and prakṛti are identified +and the great god is said to preside over them (_māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ +vidyāt māyinaṃ tumaheśvaraṃ_). There is a description also in the +Ṛgveda, X. 92, where it is said that (_nāsadāsīt na sadāsīt tadānīṃ_), +in the beginning there was neither the “Is” nor the “Is not,” which +reminds one of the description of prakṛti (_niḥsattāsattaṃ_ as that in +which there is no existence or non-existence). In this way it may be +shown from _Gītā_ and other Sanskrit texts that an undifferentiated, +unindividuated cosmic matter as the first principle, was often thought +of and discussed from the earliest times. Later on this idea was +utilised with modifications by the different schools of Vedāntists, the +Sāṃkhyists and those who sought to make a reconciliation between them +under the different names of prakṛti, avidyā and māyā. What avidyā +really means according to the Pātañjala system we shall see later on; +but here we see that whatever it might mean it does not mean prakṛti +according to the Pātañjala system. _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 13, makes +mention of māyā also in a couplet from _Shashṭitantraśāstra_; + + _guṇānāṃ paramaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati + yattu dṛshṭipathaṃ prāptaṃ tanmāyeva sutucch akaṃ._ + +The real appearance of the guṇas does not come within the line of our +vision. That, however, which comes within the line of vision is but +paltry delusion and Vācaspati Miśra explains it as follows:—Prakṛti is +like the māyā but it is not māyā. It is trifling (_sutucchaka_) in the +sense that it is changing. Just as māyā constantly changes, so the +transformations of prakṛti are every moment appearing and vanishing and +thus suffering momentary changes. Prakṛti being eternal is real and thus +different from māyā. + +This explanation of Vācaspati’s makes it clear that the word māyā is +used here only in the sense of illusion, and without reference to the +celebrated māyā of the Vedāntists; and Vācaspati clearly says that +prakṛti can in no sense be called māyā, since it is real.[13] + + + + + CHAPTER II + PURUSHA + + +We shall get a more definite notion of prakṛti as we advance further +into the details of the later transformations of the prakṛti in +connection with the purushas. The most difficult point is to understand +the nature of its connection with the purushas. Prakṛti is a material, +non-intelligent, independent principle, and the souls or spirits are +isolated, neutral, intelligent and inactive. Then how can the one come +into connection with the other? + +In most systems of philosophy the same trouble has arisen and has caused +the same difficulty in comprehending it rightly. Plato fights the +difficulty of solving the unification of the idea and the non-being and +offers his participation theory; even in Aristotle’s attempt to avoid +the difficulty by his theory of form and matter, we are not fully +satisfied, though he has shown much ingenuity and subtlety of thought in +devising the “expedient in the single conception of development.” + +The universe is but a gradation between the two extremes of potentiality +and actuality, matter and form. But all students of Aristotle know that +it is very difficult to understand the true relation between form and +matter, and the particular nature of their interaction with each other, +and this has created a great divergence of opinion among his +commentators. It was probably to avoid this difficulty that the +dualistic appearance of the philosophy of Descartes had to be +reconstructed in the pantheism of Spinoza. Again we find also how Kant +failed to bring about the relation between noumenon and phenomenon, and +created two worlds absolutely unrelated to each other. He tried to +reconcile the schism that he effected in his _Critique of Pure Reason_ +by his _Critique of Practical Reason_, and again supplemented it with +his _Critique of Judgment_, but met only with dubious success. + +In India also this question has always been a little puzzling, and +before trying to explain the Yoga point of view, I shall first give some +of the other expedients devised for the purpose, by the different +schools of Advaita (monistic) Vedāntism. + +I. The reflection theory of the Vedānta holds that the māyā is without +beginning, unspeakable, mother of gross matter, which comes in +connection with intelligence, so that by its reflection in the former we +have Īśvara. The illustrations that are given to explain it both in +_Siddhāntaleśa_[14] and in _Advaita-Brahmasiddhi_ are only cases of +physical reflection, viz. the reflection of the sun in water, or of the +sky in water. + +II. The limitation theory of the Vedānta holds that the all-pervading +intelligence must necessarily be limited by mind, etc., so of necessity +it follows that “the soul” is its limitation. This theory is illustrated +by giving those common examples in which the Ākāśa (space) though +unbounded in itself is often spoken of as belonging to a jug or limited +by the jug and as such appears to fit itself to the shape and form of +the jug and is thus called _ghaṭāvacchinna ākāśa_, i.e. space as within +the jug. + +Then we have a third school of Vedāntists, which seeks to explain it in +another way:—The soul is neither a reflection nor a limitation, but just +as the son of Kuntī was known as the son of Rādhā, so the pure Brahman +by his nescience is known as the jīva, and like the prince who was +brought up in the family of a low caste, it is the pure Brahman who by +his own nescience undergoes birth and death, and by his own nescience is +again released.[15] + +The _Sāṃkhya-sūtra_ also avails itself of the same story in IV. 1, +“_rājaputtravattattvopadeśāt_,” which Vijñāna Bhikshu explains as +follows:—A certain king’s son in consequence of his being born under the +star Gaṇḍa having been expelled from his city and reared by a certain +forester remains under the idea: “I am a forester.” Having learnt that +he is alive, a certain minister informs him. “Thou art not a forester, +thou art a king’s son.” As he, immediately having abandoned the idea of +being an outcast, betakes himself to his true royal state, saying, “I am +a king,” so too the soul realises its purity in consequence of +instruction by some good tutor, to the effect—“Thou, who didst originate +from the first soul, which manifests itself merely as pure thought, art +a portion thereof.” + +In another place there are two sūtras:—(1) _niḥsaṅge’pi uparāgo +vivekāt_. (2) _japāsphaṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ_. (1) Though +it be associated still there is a tingeing through non-discrimination. +(2) As in the case of the hibiscus and the crystal, there is not a +tinge, but a fancy. Now it will be seen that all these theories only +show that the transcendent nature of the union of the principle of pure +intelligence is very difficult to comprehend. Neither the reflection nor +the limitation theory can clear the situation from vagueness and +incomprehensibility, which is rather increased by their physical +illustrations, for the cit or pure intelligence cannot undergo +reflection like a physical thing, nor can it be obstructed or limited by +it. The reflection theory adduced by the _Sāṃkhya-sūtra_, +“_japāsphiṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ_,” is not an adequate +explanation. For here the reflection produces only a seeming redness of +the colourless crystal, which was not what was meant by the Vedāntists +of the reflection school. But here, though the metaphor is more suitable +to express the relation of purusha with the prakṛti, the exact nature of +the relation is more lost sight of than comprehended. Let us now see how +Patañjali and Vyāsa seek to explain it. + +Let me quote a few sūtras of Patañjali and some of the most important +extracts from the _Bhāshya_ and try, as far as possible, to get the +correct view:— + + (1) _dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā_ II. 6. + + (2) _drashṭā dṛśimātraḥ śuddho’pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ_ II. 20. + + (3) _tadartha eva drśyasya ātmā_ II. 21. + + (4) _kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt_ II. 22. + + (5) _Svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṃyogah_ II. 22. + + (6) _tadabhāvāt saṃyogābhāvo hānaṃ taddṛśeḥ kaivalyaṃ_ II. 25. + + (7) _sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ_ III. 25. + + (8) _citerapratisaṃkramāyāstadākārāpattau svabuddhisaṃvedanaṃ_ IV. 22. + + (9) _sattvapurushayoratyantāsaṅkīrṇayoḥ pratyayāvśesho bhogaḥ + parārthatvāt svārthasaṃyamāt purushajñānam_ III. 35. + +(1) The Ego-sense is the illusory appearance of the identity of the +power as perceiver and the power as perceived. + +(2) The seer though pure as mere “seeing” yet perceives the forms +assumed by the psychosis (_buddhi_). + +(3) It is for the sake of the purusha that the being of the knowable +exists. + +(4) For the emancipated person the world-phenomena cease to exist, yet +they are not annihilated since they form a common field of experience +for other individuals. + +(5) The cause of the realisation of the natures of the knowable and +purusha in consciousness is their mutual contact. + +(6) Cessation is the want of mutual contact arising from the destruction +of ignorance and this is called the state of oneness. + +(7) This state of oneness arises out of the equality in purity of the +purusha and buddhi or sattva. + +(8) Personal consciousness arises when the purusha, though in its nature +unchangeable, is cast into the mould of the psychosis. + +(9) Since the mind-objects exist only for the purusha, experience +consists in the non-differentiation of these two which in their natures +are absolutely distinct; the knowledge of self arises out of +concentration on its nature. + +Thus in _Yoga-sūtra_, II. 6, dṛik or purusha the seer is spoken of as +śakti or power as much as the prakṛti itself, and we see that their +identity is only apparent. Vyāsa in his _Bhāshya_ explains _ekātmatā_ +(unity of nature or identity) as _avibhāgaprāptāviva_, “as if there is +no difference.” And Pañcaśikha, as quoted in _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, writes: +“not knowing the purusha beyond the mind to be different therefrom, in +nature, character and knowledge, etc., a man has the notion of self, in +the mind through delusion.” + +Thus we see that when the mind and purusha are known to be separated, +the real nature of purusha is realised. This seeming identity is again +described as that which perceives the particular form of the mind and +thereby appears, as identical with it though it is not so +(_pratyayānupaśya—pratyayāni bauddhamanupaśyati tamanupaśyannatadātmāpi +tadātmaka iva pratibhāti_, _Vāysa-bhāshya_, II. 20). + +The purusha thus we see, cognises the phenomena of consciousness after +they have been formed, and though its nature is different from conscious +states yet it appears to be the same. Vyāsa in explaining this sūtra +says that purusha is neither quite similar to the mind nor altogether +different from it. For the mind (_buddhi_) is always changeful, +according to the change of the objects that are offered to it; so that +it may be said to be changeful according as it knows or does not know +objects; but the purusha is not such, for it always appears as the self, +being reflected through the mind by which it is thus connected with the +phenomenal form of knowledge. The notion of self that appears connected +with all our mental phenomena and which always illumines them is only +duo to this reflection of purusha in the mind. All phenomenal knowledge +which has the form of the object can only be transformed into conscious +knowledge as “I know this,” when it becomes connected with the self or +purusha. So the purusha may in a way be said to see again what was +perceived by the mind and thus to impart consciousness by transferring +its illumination into the mind. The mind suffers changes according to +the form of the object of cognition, and thus results a state of +conscious cognition in the shape of “I know it,” when the mind, having +assumed the shape of an object, becomes connected with the constant +factor purusha, through the transcendent reflection or identification of +purusha in the mind. This is what is meant by _pratyayānupaśya_ +reperception of the mind-transformations by purusha, whereby the mind +which has assumed the shape of any object of consciousness becomes +intelligent. Even when the mind is without any objective form, it is +always being seen by purusha. The exact nature of this reflection is +indeed very hard to comprehend; no physical illustrations can really +serve to make it clear. And we see that neither the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ nor +the sūtras offer any such illustrations as Sāṃkhya did. But the +_Bhāshya_ proceeds to show the points in which the mind may be said to +differ from purusha, as well as those in which it agrees with it. So +that though we cannot express it anyhow, we may at least make some +advance towards conceiving the situation. + +Thus the _Bhāshya_ says that the main difference between the mind and +purusha is that the mind is constantly undergoing modifications, as it +grasps its objects one by one; for the grasping of an object, the act of +having a percept is nothing but its own undergoing of different +modifications, and thus, since an object sometimes comes within the +grasp of the mind and again disappears in the subconscious as a saṃskāra +(potency) and again comes into the field of the understanding as smṛti +(memory), we see that it is pariṇāmi or changing. But purusha is the +constant seer of the mind when it has an object, as in ordinary forms of +phenomenal knowledge, or when it has no object as in the state of +nirodha or cessation. Purusha is unchanging. It is the light which +remains unchanged amidst all the changing modifications of the mind, so +that we cannot distinguish purusha separately from the mind. This is +what is meant by saying _buddheḥ pratisaṃvedī purushaḥ_, i.e. purusha +reflects or turns into its own light the concepts of mind and thus is +said to know it. Its knowing is manifested in our consciousness as the +ever-persistent notion of the self, which is always a constant factor in +all the phenomena of consciousness. Thus purusha always appears in our +consciousness as the knowing agent. Truly speaking, however, purusha +only sees himself; he is not in any way in touch with the mind. He is +absolutely free from all bondage, absolutely unconnected with prakṛti. +From the side of appearance he seems only to be the intelligent seer +imparting consciousness to our conscious-like conception, though in +reality he remains the seer of himself all the while. The difference +between purusha and prakṛti will be clear when we see that purusha is +altogether independent, existing in and for himself, free from any +bondage whatsoever; but buddhi exists on the other hand for the +enjoyment and release of purusha. That which exists in and for itself, +must ever be the selfsame, unchangeable entity, suffering no +transformations or modifications, for it has no other end owing to which +it will be liable to change. It is the self-centred, self-satisfied +light, which never seeks any other end and never leaves itself. But +prakṛti is not such; it is always undergoing endless, complex +modifications and as such does not exist for itself but for purusha, and +is dependent upon him. The mind is unconscious, while purusha is the +pure light of intelligence, for the three guṇas are all non-intelligent, +and the mind is nothing but a modification of these three guṇas which +are all non-intelligent. + +But looked at from another point of view, prakṛti is not altogether +different from purusha; for had it been so how could purusha, which is +absolutely pure, reperceive the mind-modifications? Thus the _Bhāshya_ +(II. 20) writes:— + +“Well then let him be dissimilar. To meet this he says: He is not quite +dissimilar. Why? Although pure, he sees the ideas after they have come +into the mind. Inasmuch as purusha cognises the ideas in the form of +mind-modification, he appears to be, by the act of cognition, the very +self of the mind although in reality he is not.” As has been said, the +power of the enjoyer, purusha (_dṛkśakti_), is certainly unchangeable +and it does not run after every object. In connection with a changeful +object it appears forever as if it were being transferred to every +object and as if it were assimilating its modifications. And when the +modifications of the mind assume the form of the consciousness by which +it is coloured, they imitate it and look as if they were manifestations +of purusha’s consciousness unqualified by the modifications of the +non-intelligent mind. + +All our states of consciousness are analysed into two parts—a permanent +and a changing part. The changing part is the form of our consciousness, +which is constantly varying according to the constant change of its +contents. The permanent part is that pure light of intelligence, by +virtue of which we have the notion of self reflected in our +consciousness. Now, as this self persists through all the varying +changes of the objects of consciousness, it is inferred that the light +which thus shines in our consciousness is unchangeable. Our mind is +constantly suffering a thousand modifications, but the notion of self is +the only thing permanent amidst all this change. It is this self that +imports consciousness to the material parts of our knowledge. All our +concepts originated from our perception of external material objects. +Therefore the forms of our concepts which could exactly and clearly +represent these material objects in their own terms, must be made of a +stuff which in essence is not different from them. But with the +reflection of purusha, the soul, the notion of self comes within the +content of our consciousness, spiritualising, as it were, all our +concepts and making them conscious and intelligent. Thus this seeming +identity of purusha and the mind, by which purusha may be spoken of as +the seer of the concept, appears to the self, which is manifested in +consciousness by virtue of the seeming reflection. For this is that +self, or personality, which remains unchanged all through our +consciousness. Thus our phenomenal intelligent self is partially a +material reality arising out of the seeming interaction of the spirit +and the mind. This interaction is the only way by which matter releases +spirit from its seeming bondage. + +But the question arises, how is it that there can even be a seeming +reflection of purusha in the mind which is altogether non-intelligent? +How is it possible for the mind to catch a glimpse of purusha, which +illuminates all the concepts of consciousness, the expression +“_anupaśya_” meaning that he perceives by imitation (_anukāreṇa +paśyati_)? How can purusha, which is altogether formless, allow any +reflection of itself to imitate the form of buddhi, by virtue of which +it appears as the self—the supreme possessor and knower of all our +mental conceptions? There must be at least some resemblance between the +mind and the purusha, to justify in some sense this seeming reflection. +And we find that the last sūtra of the Vibhūtipāda says: +_sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ_—which means that when the +sattva or the preponderating mind-stuff becomes as pure as purusha, +kaivalya or oneness is attained. This shows that the pure nature of +sattva has a great resemblance to the pure nature of purusha. So much +so, that the last stage preceding the state of kaivalya, is almost the +same as kaivalya itself, when purusha is in himself and there are no +thoughts to reflect. In this state, we see that the mind can be so pure +as to reflect exactly the nature of purusha, as he is in himself. This +state in which the mind becomes as pure as purusha and reflects him in +his purity, does not materially differ from the state of kaivalya, in +which purusha is in himself—the only difference being that the mind, +when it becomes so pure as this, becomes gradually lost in prakṛti and +cannot again serve to bind purusha. + +I cannot refrain here from the temptation of referring to a beautiful +illustration from Vyāsa, to explain the way in which the mind serves the +purposes of purusha. _Cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṃ sannidhimātropakāri +dṛśyatvena svaṃ bhavati purushasya svāminaḥ_ (I. 4), which is explained +in _Yoga-vārttika_ as follows: _Tathāyaskāntamaṇiḥ svasminneva +ayaḥsannidhīkaraṇamātrāt śalyarishkarshaṇākhyam upakāram kurvat +purushasya svāminaḥ svam bhvati bhogasādhanatvāt_, i.e. just as a magnet +draws iron towards it, though it remains unmoved itself, so the +mind-modifications become drawn towards purusha, and thereby become +visible to purusha and serve his purpose. + +To summarise: We have seen that something like a union takes place +between the mind and purusha, i.e. there is a seeming reflection of +purusha in the mind, simultaneously with its being determined +conceptually, as a result whereof this reflection of purusha in the +mind, which is known as the self, becomes united with these conceptual +determinations of the mind and the former is said to be the perceiver of +all these determinations. Our conscious personality or self is thus the +seeming unity of the knowable as the mind in the shape of conceptual or +judgmental representations with the reflections of purusha in the mind. +Thus, in the single act of cognition, we have the notion of our own +personality and the particular conceptual or perceptual representation +with which this ego identifies itself. The true seer, the pure +intelligence, the free, the eternal, remains all the while beyond any +touch of impurity from the mind, though it must be remembered that it is +its own seeming reflection in the mind that appears as the ego, the +cogniser of all our states, pleasures and sorrows of the mind and one +who is the apperceiver of this unity of the seeming reflection—of +purusha and the determinations of the mind. In all our conscious states, +there is such a synthetic unity between the determinations of our mind +and the self, that they cannot be distinguished one from the other—a +fact which is exemplified in all our cognitions, which are the union of +the knower and the known. The nature of this reflection is a +transcendent one and can never be explained by any physical +illustration. Purusha is altogether different from the mind, inasmuch as +he is the pure intelligence and is absolutely free, while the latter is +non-intelligent and dependent on purusha’s enjoyment and release, which +are the sole causes of its movement. But there is some similarity +between the two, for how could the mind otherwise catch a seeming +glimpse of him? It is also said that the pure mind can adapt itself to +the pure form of purusha; this is followed by the state of kaivalya. + +We have discussed the nature of purusha and its general relations with +the mind. We must now give a few more illustrations. The chief point in +which purusha of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala differs from the similar +spiritual principle of Vedānta is, that it regards its soul, not as one, +but as many. Let us try to discuss this point, in connection with the +arguments of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine in favour of a separate +principle of purusha. Thus the _Kārikā_ says: _saṃghātaparārthatvāt +triguṇādiviparyyayādadhishthānāt purusho’sti bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṃ +pravṛtteśca_,[16] “Because an assemblage of things is for the sake of +another; because there must be an entity different from the three guṇas +and the rest (their modifications); because there must be a +superintending power; because there must be someone who enjoys; and +because of (the existence of) active exertion for the sake of +abstraction or isolation (from the contact with prakṛti) therefore the +soul exists.” The first argument is from design or teleology by which it +is inferred that there must be some other simple entity for which these +complex collocations of things are intended. Thus Gauḍapāda says: “In +such manner as a bed, which is an assemblage of bedding, props, cotton, +coverlet and pillows, is for another’s use, not for its own, and its +several component parts render no mutual service, and it is concluded +that there is a man who sleeps upon the bed and for whose sake it was +made; so this world, which is an assemblage of the five elements, is for +use and there is a soul, for whose enjoyment this body, another’s +consisting of intellect and the rest, has been produced.”[17] + +The _second argument_ is that all the knowable is composed of just three +elements: first, the element of sattva, or intelligence-stuff, causing +all manifestations; second, the element of rajas or energy, which is +ever causing transformations; and third, tamas, or the mass, which +enables rajas to actualise. Now such a prakṛti, composed of these three +elements, cannot itself be a seer. For the seer must be always the same +unchangeable, actionless entity, the ever present, ever constant factor +in all stages of our consciousness. + +_Third argument_: There must be a supreme background of pure +consciousness, all our co-ordinated basis of experience. This background +is the pure actionless purusha, reflected in which all our mental states +become conscious. Davies explains this a little differently, in +accordance with a simile in the _Tattva-Kaumudī_, _yathā rathādi +yantrādibhiḥ_, thus: “This idea of Kapila seems to be that the power of +self-control cannot be predicted of matter, which must be directed or +controlled for the accomplishment of any purpose, and this controlling +power must be something external to matter and diverse from it. The +soul, however, never acts. It only seems to act; and it is difficult to +reconcile this part of the system with that which gives to the soul a +controlling force. If the soul is a charioteer, it must be an active +force.” But Davies here commits the mistake of carrying the simile too +far. The comparison of the charioteer and the chariot holds good, to the +extent that the chariot can take a particular course only when there is +a particular purpose for the charioteer to perform. The motion of the +chariot is fulfilled only when it is connected with the living person of +the charioteer, whose purpose it must fulfil. + +_Fourth argument_: Since prakṛti is non-intelligent, there must be one +who enjoys its pains and pleasures. The emotional and conceptual +determinations of such feelings are aroused in consciousness by the +seeming reflection of the light of purusha. + +_Fifth argument_: There is a tendency in all persons to move towards the +oneness of purusha, to be achieved by liberation; there must be one for +whose sake the modifications of buddhi are gradually withheld, and a +reverse process set up, by which they return to their original cause +prakṛti and thus liberate purusha. It is on account of this reverse +tendency of prakṛti to release purusha that a man feels prompted to +achieve his liberation as the highest consummation of his moral ideal. + +Thus having proved the existence of purusha, the _Kārikā_ proceeds to +prove his plurality: “_janmamaraṇakaraṇānāṃ pratiniyamādayugapat +pravṛtteśca purushabahutvaṃ siddhaṃ traiguṇyaviparyyayācca_.” “From +the individual allotment of birth, death and the organs; from +diversity of occupations and from the different conditions of the +three guṇas, it is proved that there is a plurality of souls.” In +other words, since with the birth of one individual, all are not born; +since with the death of one, all do not die; and since each individual +has separate sense organs for himself; and since all beings do not +work at the same time in the same manner; and since the qualities of +the different guṇas are possessed differently by different +individuals, purushas are many. Patañjali, though he does not infer +the plurality of purushas in this way, yet holds the view of the +sūtra, _kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt_. +“Although destroyed in relation to him whose objects have been +achieved, it is not destroyed, being common to others.” + +Davies, in explaining the former _Kārikā_, says: “There is, however, the +difficulty that the soul is not affected by the three guṇas. How can +their various modifications prove the individuality of souls in +opposition to the Vedāntist doctrine, that all souls are only portions +of the one, an infinitely extended monad?” + +This question is the most puzzling in the Sāṃkhya doctrine. But careful +penetration of the principles of Sāṃkhya-Yoga would make clear to us +that this is a necessary and consistent outcome of the Sāṃkhya view of a +dualistic universe. + +For if it is said that purusha is one and we have the notion of +different selves by his reflection into different minds, it follows that +such notions as self, or personality, are false. For the only true being +is the one, purusha. So the knower being false, the known also becomes +false; the knower and the known having vanished, everything is reduced +to that which we can in no way conceive. It may be argued that according +to the Sāṃkhya philosophy also, the knower is false, for the pure +purusha as such is not in any way connected with prakṛti. But even then +it must be observed that the Sāṃkhya-Yoga view does not hold that the +knower is false but analyses the nature of the ego and says that it is +due to the seeming unity of the mind and purusha, both of which are +reals in the strictest sense of the term. Purusha is there justly called +the knower. He sees and simultaneously with this, there is a +modification of buddhi (mind); this seeing becomes joined with this +modification of buddhi and thus arises the ego, who perceives that +particular form of the modification of buddhi. Purusha always remains +the knower. Buddhi suffers modifications and at the same time catches a +glimpse of the light of purusha, so that contact (_saṃyoga_) of purusha +and prakṛti occurs at one and the same point of time, in which there is +unity of the reflection of purusha and the particular transformation of +buddhi. + +The knower, the ego and the knowable, are none of them false in the +Sāṃkhya-Yoga system at the stage preceding kaivalya, when buddhi becomes +as pure as purusha; its modification resembles the exact form of purusha +and then purusha knows himself in his true nature in buddhi; after which +buddhi vanishes. The Vedānta has to admit the modifications of māyā, but +must at the same time hold it to be unreal. The Vedānta says that māyā +is as beginningless as prakṛti yet has an ending with reference to the +released person as the buddhi of the Sāṃkhyists. + +But according to the Vedānta philosophy, knowledge of ego is only false +knowledge—an illusion as many imposed upon the formless Brahman. Māyā, +according to the Vedāntist, can neither be said to exist nor to +non-exist. It is _anirvācyā_, i.e. can never be described or defined. +Such an unknown and unknowable māyā causes the Many of the world by +reflection upon the Brahman. But according to the Sāṃkhya doctrine, +prakṛti is as real as purusha himself. Prakṛti and purusha are two +irreducible metaphysical remainders whose connection is beginningless +(_anādisaṃyoga_). But this connection is not unreal in the Vedānta sense +of the term. We see that according to the Vedānta system, all notions of +ego or personality are false and are originated by the illusive action +of the māyā, so that when they ultimately vanish there are no other +remainders. But this is not the case with Sāṃkhya, for as purusha is the +real seer, his cognitions cannot be dismissed as unreal, and so purushas +or knowers as they appear to us to be, must be held real. As prakṛti is +not the māyā of the Vedāntist (the nature of whose influence over the +spiritual principle cannot be determined) we cannot account for the +plurality of purushas by supposing that one purusha is being reflected +into many minds and generating the many egos. For in that case it will +be difficult to explain the plurality of their appearances in the minds +(buddhis). For if there be one spiritual principle, how should we +account for the supposed plurality of the buddhis? For we should rather +expect to find one buddhi and not many to serve the supposed one +purusha, and this will only mean that there can be only one ego, his +enjoyment and release. Supposing for argument’s sake that there are many +buddhis and one purusha, which reflected in them, is the cause of the +plurality of selves, then we cannot see how prakṛti is moving for the +enjoyment and release of one purusha; it would rather appear to be moved +for the sake of the enjoyment and release of the reflected or unreal +self. For purusha is not finally released with the release of any number +of particular individual selves. For it may be released with reference +to one individual but remain bound to others. So prakṛti would not +really be moved in this hypothetical case for the sake of purusha, but +for the sake of the reflected selves only. If we wish to avoid the said +difficulties, then with the release of one purusha, all purushas will +have to be released. For in the supposed theory there would not really +be many different purushas, but the one purusha appearing as many, so +that with his release all the other so-called purushas must be released. +We see that if it is the enjoyment (_bhoga_) and salvation (_apavarga_) +of one purusha which appear as so many different series of enjoyments +and emancipations, then with his experiences all should have the same +experiences. With his birth and death, all should be born or all should +die at once. For, indeed, it is the experiences of one purusha which +appear in all the seeming different purushas. And in the other +suppositions there is neither emancipation nor enjoyment by purusha at +all. For there, it is only the illusory self that enjoys or releases +himself. By his release no purusha is really released at all. So the +fundamental conception of prakṛti as moving for the sake of the +enjoyment and release of purusha has to be abandoned. + +So we see that from the position in which Sāṃkhya and Yoga stood, this +plurality of the purushas was the most consistent thing that they could +think of. Any compromise with the Vedānta doctrine here would have +greatly changed the philosophical aspect and value of the Sāṃkhya +philosophy. As the purushas are nothing but pure intelligences they can +as well be all-pervading though many. But there is another objection +that, since number is a conception of the phenomenal mind, how then can +it be applied to the purushas which are said to be many?[18] But that +difficulty remains unaltered even if we regard the purusha as one. When +we go into the domain of metaphysics and try to represent Reality with +the symbols of our phenomenal conceptions we have really to commit +almost a violence towards it. But we must perforce do this in all our +attempts to express in our own terms that pure, inexpressible, free +illumination which exists in and for itself beyond the range of any +mediation by the concepts or images of our mind. So we see that Sāṃkhya +was not inconsistent in holding the doctrine of the plurality of the +purushas. Patañjali does not say anything about it, since he is more +anxious to discuss other things connected with the presupposition of the +plurality of purusha. Thus he speaks of it only in one place as quoted +above and says that though for a released person this world disappears +altogether, still it remains unchanged in respect to all the other +purushas. + + + + + CHAPTER III + THE REALITY OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD + + +We may now come to the attempt of Yoga to prove the reality of an +external world as against the idealistic Buddhists. In sūtra 12 of the +chapter on kaivalya we find: “The past and the future exist in reality, +since all qualities of things manifest themselves in these three +different ways. The future is the manifestation which is to be. The past +is the appearance which has been experienced. The present is that which +is in active operation. It is this threefold substance which is the +object of knowledge. If it did not exist in reality, there would not +exist a knowledge thereof. How could there be knowledge in the absence +of anything knowable? For this reason the past and present in reality +exist.”[19] + +So we see that the present holding within itself the past and the future +exists in reality. For the past though it has been negated has really +been preserved and kept in the present, and the future also though it +has not made its appearance yet exists potentially in the present. So, +as we know the past and the future worlds in the present, they both +exist and subsist in the present. That which once existed cannot die, +and that which never existed cannot come to be (_nāstyasataḥ saṃbhavaḥ +na cāsti sato vināsāḥ_, _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, V. 12). So the past has not +been destroyed but has rather shifted its position and hidden itself in +the body of the present, and the future that has not made its appearance +exists in the present only in a potential form. It cannot be argued, as +Vācaspati says, that because the past and the future are not present +therefore they do not exist, for if the past and future do not exist how +can there be a present also, since its existence also is only relative? +So all the three exist as truly as any one of them, and the only +difference among them is the different way or mode of their existence. + +He next proceeds to refute the arguments of those idealists who hold +that since the external knowables never exist independently of our +knowledge of them, their separate external existence as such may be +denied. Since it is by knowledge alone that the external knowables can +present themselves to us we may infer that there is really no knowable +external reality apart from knowledge of it, just as we see that in +dream-states knowledge can exist apart from the reality of any external +world. + +So it may be argued that there is, indeed, no external reality as +it appears to us. The Buddhists, for example, hold that a blue +thing and knowledge of it as blue are identical owing to the maxim +that things which are invariably perceived together are one +(_sahopalambhaniyamādabhedo nīlataddhiyoḥ_). So they say that +external reality is not different from our idea of it. To this it +may be replied that if, as you say, external reality is identical +with my ideas and there is no other external reality existing as +such outside my ideas, why then does it appear as existing apart, +outside and independent of my ideas? The idealists have no basis +for the denial of external reality, and for their assertion that +it is only the creation of our imagination like experiences in +dreams. Even our ideas carry with them the notion that reality +exists outside our mental experiences. If all our percepts and +notions as this and that arise only by virtue of the influence of +the external world, how can they deny the existence of the +external world as such? The objective world is present by its own +power. How then can this objective world be given up on the +strength of mere logical or speculative abstraction? + +Thus the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 14, says: “There is no object without the +knowledge of it, but there is knowledge as imagined in dreams without +any corresponding object; thus the reality of external things is like +that of dream-objects, mere imagination of the subject and unreal. How +can they who say so be believed? Since they first suppose that the +things which present themselves to us by their own force do so only on +account of the invalid and delusive imagination of the intellect, and +then deny the reality of the external world on the strength of such an +imaginary supposition of their own.” + +The external world has generated knowledge of itself by its own +presentative power (_arthena svakīyayāgrāhyaśaktyā vijñānamajani_), and +has thus caused itself to be represented in our ideas, and we have no +right to deny it.[20] Commenting on the _Bhāshya_ IV. 14, Vācaspati says +that the method of agreement applied by the Buddhists by their +_sahopalambhaniyama_ (maxim of simultaneous revelation) may possibly be +confuted by an application of the method of difference. The method of +agreement applied by the idealists when put in proper form reads thus: +“Wherever there is knowledge there is external reality, or rather every +case of knowledge agrees with or is the same as every case of the +presence of external reality, so knowledge is the cause of the presence +of the external reality, i.e. the external world depends for its reality +on our knowledge or ideas and owes its origin or appearance as such to +them.” But Vācaspati says that this application of the method of +agreement is not certain, for it cannot be corroborated by the method of +difference. For the statement that every case of absence of knowledge is +also a case of absence of external reality cannot be proved, i.e. we +cannot prove that the external reality does not exist when we have no +knowledge of it (_sahopalambhaniyamaśca vedyatvañca hetū +sandigdhavyatirekatayānaikāntikau_) IV. 14. + +Describing the nature of grossness and externality, the attributes of +the external world, he says that grossness means the pervading of more +portions of space than one, i.e. grossness means extension, and +externality means being related to separate space, i.e. co-existence in +space. Thus we see that extension and co-existence in space are the two +fundamental qualities of the gross external world. Now an idea can never +be said to possess them, for it cannot be said that an idea has extended +into more spaces than one and yet co-existed separately in separate +places. An idea cannot be said to exist with other ideas in space and to +extend in many points of space at one and the same time. To avoid this +it cannot be said that there may be plurality of ideas so that some may +co-exist and others may extend in space. For co-existence and extension +can never be asserted of our ideas, since +hey are very fine and subtle, +and can be known only at the time of their individual operation, at +which time, however, other ideas may be quite latent and unknown. +Imagination has no power to negate their reality, for the sphere of +imagination is quite distinct from the sphere of external reality, and +it can never be applied to an external reality to negate it. Imagination +is a mental function, and as such has no touch with the reality outside, +which it can by no means negate. + +Further it cannot be said that, because grossness and externality can +abide neither in the external world nor in our ideas, they are therefore +false. For this falsity cannot be thought as separable from our ideas, +for in that case our ideas would be as false as the false itself. The +notion of externality and grossness pervades all our ideas, and if they +are held to be false, no true thing can be known by our ideas and they +therefore become equally false. + +Again, knowledge and the external world can never be said to be +identical because they happen to be presented together. For the method +of agreement cannot by itself prove identity. Knowledge and the knowable +external world may be independently co-existing things like the notions +of existence and non-existence. Both co-exist independently of one +another. It is therefore clear enough, says Vācaspati, that the +certainty arrived at by perception, which gives us a direct knowledge of +things, can never be rejected on the strength of mere logical +abstraction or hair-splitting discussion. + +We further see, says Patañjali, that the thing remains the same though +the ideas and feelings of different men may change differently about +it.[21] Thus A, B, C may perceive the same identical woman and may feel +pleasure, pain or hatred. We see that the same common thing generates +different feelings and ideas in different persons; external reality +cannot be said to owe its origin to the idea or imagination of any one +man, but exists independently of any person’s imagination in and for +itself. For if it be due to the imagination of any particular man, it is +his own idea which as such cannot generate the same ideas in another +man. So it must be said that the external reality is what we perceive it +outside. + +There are, again, others who say that just as pleasure and pain +arise along with our ideas and must be said to be due to them so the +objective world also must be said to have come into existence along +with our ideas. The objective world therefore according to these +philosophers has no external existence either in the past or in the +future, but has only a momentary existence in the present due to our +ideas about it. That much existence only are they ready to attribute +to external objects which can be measured by the idea of the moment. +The moment I have an idea of a thing, the thing rises into existence +and may be said to exist only for that moment and as soon as the +idea disappears the object also vanishes, for when it cannot be +presented to me in the form of ideas it can be said to exist in no +sense. But this argument cannot hold good, for if the objective +reality should really depend upon the idea of any individual man, +then the objective reality corresponding to an idea of his ought to +cease to exist either with the change of his idea, or when he +directs attention to some other thing, or when he restrains his mind +from all objects of thought. Now, then, if it thus ceases to exist, +how can it again spring into existence when the attention of the +individual is again directed towards it? Again, all parts of an +object can never be seen all at once. Thus supposing that the front +side of a thing is visible, then the back side which cannot be seen +at the time must not be said to exist at all. So if the back side +does not exist, the front side also can as well be said not to exist +(_ye cāsyānupasthitā bhāgaste cāsya na syurevaṃ nāsti pṛshṭhamiti +udaramapi na gṛhyeta._ _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 16). Therefore it must +be said that there is an independent external reality which is the +common field of observation for all souls in general; and there are +also separate “Cittas” for separate individual souls (_tasmāt +svatantro’rthaḥ sarvapurusasādhdāraṇaḥ svatantrāṇi ca cittāni +pratipurushaṃ, pravarttante_, _ibid._). And all the experiences of +the purusha result from the connection of this “Citta” (mind) with +the external world. + +Now from this view of the reality of the external world we are +confronted with another question—what is the ground which underlies the +manifold appearance of this external world which has been proved to be +real? What is that something which is thought as the vehicle of such +qualities as produce in us the ideas? What is that self-subsistent +substratum which is the basis of so many changes, actions and reactions +that we always meet in the external world? Locke called this substratum +substance and regarded it as unknown, but said that though it did not +follow that it was a product of our own subjective thought yet it did +not at the same time exist without us. Hume, however, tried to explain +everything from the standpoint of association of ideas and denied all +notions of substantiality. We know that Kant, who was much influenced by +Hume, agreed to the existence of some such unknown reality which he +called the Thing-in-itself, the nature of which, however, was absolutely +unknowable, but whose influence was a great factor in all our +experiences. + +But the _Bhāshya_ tries to penetrate deeper into the nature of this +substratum or substance and says: _dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ, +dharmivikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā prapañcyate_, _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. +13. The characteristic qualities form the very being itself of the +characterised, and it is the change of the characterised alone that is +detailed by means of the characteristic. To understand thoroughly the +exact significance of this statement it will be necessary to take a more +detailed review of what has already been said about the guṇas. We know +that all things mental or physical are formed by the different +collocations of sattva of the nature of illumination (_prakāśa_), +rajas—the energy or mutative principle of the nature of action +(_kriyā_)—and tamas—the obstructive principle of the nature of inertia +(_sthiti_) which in their original and primordial state are too fine to +be apprehended (_gunānāṃparamaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati_, +_Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 13). These different guṇas combine in various +proportions to form the manifold universe of the knowable, and thus are +made the objects of our cognition. Through combining in different +proportions they become, in the words of Dr. B. N. Seal, “more and more +differentiated, determinate and coherent,” and thus make themselves +cognisable, yet they never forsake their own true nature as the guṇas. +So we see that they have thus got two natures, one in which they remain +quite unchanged as guṇas, and another in which they collocate and +combine themselves in various ways and thus appear under the veil of a +multitude of qualities and states of the manifold knowable (_te +vyaktasūkshmā guṇātmānaḥ_ [IV. 13] ... _sarvamidaṃ guṇānāṃ +sanniveśaviśeshamātramiti paramārthato guṇātmānaḥ_, _Bhāshya_, _ibid._). + +Now these guṇas take three different courses of development from the ego +or ahaṃkāra according to which the ego or ahaṃkāra may be said to be +sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa. Thus from the sāttvika side of the ego by a +preponderance of sattva the five knowledge-giving senses, e.g. hearing, +sight, touch, taste and smell are derived. From the rajas side of ego by +a preponderance of rajas the five active senses of speech, etc., are +derived. From the tamas side of ego or ahaṃkāra by a preponderance of +tamas are derived the five tanmātras. From which again by a +preponderance of tamas the atoms of the five gross elements—earth, +water, fire, air and ether are derived. + +In the derivation of these it must be remembered that all the three +guṇas are conjointly responsible. In the derivation of a particular +product one of the guṇas may indeed be predominant, and thus may bestow +the prominent characteristic of that product, but the other two guṇas +are also present there and perform their functions equally well. Their +opposition does not withhold the progress of evolution but rather helps +it. All the three combine together in varying degrees of mutual +preponderance and thus together help the process of evolution to produce +a single product. Thus we see that though the guṇas are three, they +combine to produce on the side of perception, the senses, such as those +of hearing, sight, etc.; and on the side of the knowable, the individual +tanmātras of gandha, rasa, rūpa, sparśa and śabda. The guṇas composing +each tanmātra again harmoniously combine with each other with a +preponderance of tamas to produce the atoms of each gross element. Thus +in each combination one class of guṇas remains prominent, while the +others remain dependent upon it but help it indirectly in the evolution +of that particular product. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION + + +The evolution which we have spoken of above may be characterised in two +ways: (1) That arising from modifications or products of some other +cause which are themselves capable of originating other products like +themselves; (2) That arising from causes which, though themselves +derived, yet cannot themselves be the cause of the origination of other +existences like themselves. The former may be said to be slightly +specialised (_aviśesha_) and the latter thoroughly specialised +(_viśesha_). + +Thus we see that from prakṛti comes mahat, from mahat comes ahaṃkāra, +and from ahaṃkāra, as we have seen above, the evolution takes three +different courses according to the preponderance of sattva, rajas and +tamas originating the cognitive and conative senses and manas, the +superintendent of them both on one side and the tanmātras on the other. +These tanmātras again produce the five gross elements. Now when ahaṃkāra +produces the tanmātras or the senses, or when the tanmātras produce the +five gross elements, or when ahaṃkāra itself is produced from buddhi or +mahat, it is called _tattvāntara-pariṇāma_, i.e. the production of a +different tattva or substance. + +Thus in the case of _tattvāntara-pariṇāma_ (as for example when the +tanmātras are produced from ahaṃkāra), it must be carefully noticed +that the state of being involved in the tanmātras is altogether +different from the state of being of ahaṃkāra; it is not a mere change +of quality but a change of existence or state of being.[22] Thus +though the tanmātras are derived from ahaṃkāra the traces of ahaṃkāra +cannot be easily followed in them. This derivation is not such that +the ahaṃkāra remains principally unchanged and there is only a change +of quality in it, but it is a different existence altogether, having +properties which differ widely from those of ahaṃkāra. So it is called +tattvāntara-pariṇāma, i.e. evolution of different categories of +existence. + +Now the evolution that the senses and the five gross elements can +undergo can never be of this nature, for they are viśeshas, or +substances which have been too much specialised to allow the evolution +of any other substance of a different grade of existence from +themselves. With them there is an end of all emanation. So we see that +the aviśeshas or slightly specialised emanations are those which being +themselves but emanations can yet yield other emanations from +themselves. Thus we see that mahat, ahaṃkāra and the five tanmātras are +themselves emanations, as well as the source of other emanations. Mahat, +however, though it is undoubtedly an aviśesha or slightly specialised +emanation, is called by another technical name liṅga or sign, for from +the state of mahat, the prakṛti from which it must have emanated may be +inferred. Prakṛti, however, from which no other primal state is +inferable, is called the aliṅga or that which is not a sign for the +existence of any other primal and more unspecialised state. In one sense +all the emanations can be with justice called the liṅgas or states of +existence standing as the sign by which the causes from which they have +emanated can be directly inferred. Thus in this sense the five gross +elements maybe called the liṅga of the tanmātras, and they again of the +ego, and that again of the mahat, for the unspecialised ones are +inferred from their specialised modifications or emanations. But this +technical name liṅga is reserved for the mahat from which the aliṅga or +prakṛti can be inferred. This prakṛti, however, is the eternal state +which is not an emanation itself but the basis and source of all other +emanations. + +The liṅga and the aliṅga have thus been compared in the _Kārikā_: + + “_hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekāśritaṃ liṅgaṃ + sāvayavam paratantraṃ vyaktaṃ viparītamavyaktaṃ_.” + +The liṅga has a cause, it is neither eternal nor universal, but mobile, +multiform, dependent, determinate, and possesses parts, whereas the +aliṅga is the reverse. The aliṅga or prakṛti, however, being the cause +has some characteristics in common with its liṅgas as distinguished from +the purushas, which are altogether different from it. + +Thus the _Kārikā_ says: + + “_triguṇamaviveki vishayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṃ prasavadharmi + vyaktaṃ tathā pradhānaṃ tadviparītastathā pumān_.” + +The manifested and the unmanifested _pradhāna_ or _prakṛti_ are both +composed of the three guṇas, non-intelligent, objective, universal, +unconscious and productive. Soul in these respects is the reverse. We +have seen above that prakṛti is the state of equilibrium of the guṇas, +which can in no way be of any use to the purushas, and is thus held to +be eternal, though all other states are held to be non-eternal as they +are produced for the sake of the purushas. + +The state of prakṛti is that in which the guṇas completely overpower +each other and the characteristics (_dharma_) and the characterised +(_dharmī_) are one and the same. + +Evolution is thus nothing but the manifestation of change, mutation, by +the energy of rajas. The rajas is the one mediating activity that breaks +up all compounds, builds up new ones and initiates original +modifications. Whenever in any particular combination the proportion of +sattva, rajas or tamas alters, as a condition of this alteration, there +is the dominating activity of rajas by which the old equilibrium is +destroyed and another equilibrium established; this in its turn is again +disturbed and again another equilibrium is restored. Now the +manifestation of this latent activity of rajas is what is called change +or evolution. In the external world the time that is taken by a paramāṇu +or atom to move from its place is identical with a unit of change.[23] +Now an atom will be that quantum which is smaller or finer than that +point or limit at which it can in any way be perceived by the senses. +Atoms are therefore mere points without magnitude or dimension, and the +unit of time or moment (_kshaṇa_) that is taken up in changing the +position of these atoms is identical with one unit of change or +evolution. The change or evolution in the external world must therefore +be measured by these units of spatial motion of the atoms; i.e. an atom +changing its own unit of space is the measure of all physical change or +evolution. + +Each unit of time (_kshaṇa_) corresponding to this change of an atom of +its own unit of space is the unit-measure of change. This instantaneous +succession of time as discrete moments one following the other is the +notion of the series of moments or pure and simple succession. Now the +notion of these discrete moments is the notion of time. Even the notion +of succession is one that does not really exist but is imagined, for a +moment comes into being just when the moment just before had passed so +that they have never taken place together. Thus Vyāsa in III. 52, says: +“_kshaṇatatkramayornāsti vastusamāhāraḥ iti buddhisamāhāraḥ +muhūrttāhorātrātrādayaḥ_.” _Sa tvayaṃ kālaḥ vastuśūnyo’pi +buddhinirmāṇaḥ._ The moments and their succession do not belong to the +category of actual things; the hour, the day and night, are all +aggregates of mental conceptions. This time which is not a substantive +reality in itself, but is only a mental concept, represented to us +through linguistic usage, appears to ordinary minds as if it were an +objective reality. + +So the conception of time as discrete moments is the real one, whereas +the conception of time as successive or as continuous is unreal, being +only due to the imagination of our empirical and relative consciousness. +Thus Vācaspati further explains it. A moment is real (_vastupatitaḥ_) +and is the essential element of the notion of succession. Succession +involves the notion of change of moments, and the moment is called time +by those sages who know what time is. Two moments cannot happen +together. There cannot be any succession of two simultaneous things. +Succession means the notion of change involving a preceding and a +succeeding moment. Thus there is only the present moment and there are +no preceding and later moments. Therefore there cannot be any union of +these moments. The past and the future moments may be said to exist only +if we speak of past and future as identical with the changes that have +become latent and others that exist potentially but are not manifested. +Thus in one moment, the whole world suffers changes. All these +characteristics are associated with the thing as connected with one +particular moment.[24] + +So we find here that time is essentially discrete, being only the +moments of our cognitive life. As two moments never co-exist, there is +no succession or continuous time. They exist therefore only in our +empirical consciousness which cannot take the real moments in their +discrete nature but connects the one with the other and thereby imagines +either succession or continuous time. + +Now we have said before, that each unit of change or evolution is +measured by this unit of time _kshaṇa_ or moment; or rather the units of +change are expressed in terms of these moments or _kshaṇas_. Of course +in our ordinary consciousness these moments of change cannot be grasped, +but they can be reasonably inferred. For at the end of a certain period +we observe a change in a thing; now this change, though it becomes +appreciable to us after a long while, was still going on every moment, +so, in this way, the succession of evolution or change cannot be +distinguished from the moments coming one after another. Thus the +_Yoga-sūtra_ says in IV. 33: “Succession involving a course of changes +is associated with the moments.” Succession as change of moments is +grasped only by a course of changes. A cloth which has not passed +through a course of changes through a series of moments cannot be found +old all at once at any time. Even a new cloth kept with good care +becomes old after a time. This is what is called the termination of a +course of changes and by it the succession of a course of changes can be +grasped. Even before a thing is old there can be inferred a sequence of +the subtlest, subtler, subtle, grossest, grosser and gross changes +(_Tattvavaiśāradī_, IV. 33).[25] + +Now as we have seen that the unit of time is indistinguishable from the +unit of change or evolution, and as these moments are not co-existing +but one follows the other, we see that there is no past or future +existing as a continuous before or past, and after or future. It is the +present that really exists as the manifested moment; the past has been +conserved as sublatent and the future as the latent. So the past and +future exist in the present, the former as one which has already had its +manifestation and is thus conserved in the fact of the manifestation of +the present. For the manifestation of the present as such could not have +taken place until the past had already been manifested; so the +manifestation of the present is a concrete product involving within +itself the manifestation of the past; in a similar way it may be said +that the manifestation of the present contains within itself the seed or +the unmanifested state of the future, for if this had not been the case, +the future never could have happened. So we see that the whole world +undergoes a change at one unit point of time, and not only that but it +conserves within itself all the past and future history of cosmic +evolution. + +We have pointed out before that the manifestation of the rajas or energy +as action is what is called change. Now this manifestation of action can +only take place when equilibrium of a particular collocation of guṇas is +disturbed and the rajas arranges or collocates with itself the sattva +and tamas, the whole group being made intelligible by the inherent +sattva. So the cosmic history is only the history of the different +collocations of the guṇas. Now, therefore, if it is possible for a seer +to see in one vision the possible number of combinations that the rajas +will have with sattva and tamas, he can in one moment perceive the past, +present or future of this cosmic evolutionary process; for with such +minds all past and future are concentrated at one point of vision which +to a person of ordinary empirical consciousness appears only in the +series. For the empirical consciousness, impure as it is, it is +impossible that all the powers and potencies of sattva and rajas should +become manifested at one point of time; it has to take things only +through its senses and can thus take the changes only as the senses are +affected by them; whereas, on the other hand, if its power of knowing +was not restricted to the limited scope of the senses, it could have +grasped all the possible collocations or changes all at once. Such a +perceiving mind whose power of knowing is not narrowed by the senses can +perceive all the finest modifications or changes that are going on in +the body of a substance (see _Yoga-sūtra_, III. 53). + + + + + CHAPTER V + THE EVOLUTION OF THE CATEGORIES + + +The Yoga analysis points to the fact that all our cognitive states are +distinguished from their objects by the fact of their being intelligent. +This intelligence is the constant factor which persists amidst all +changes of our cognitive states. We are passing continually from one +state to another without any rest, but in this varying change of these +states we are never divested of intelligence. This fact of intelligence +is therefore neither the particular possession of any one of these +states nor that of the sum of these states; for if it is not the +possession of any one of these states it cannot be the possession of the +sum of these states. In the case of the released person again there is +no mental state, but the self-shining intelligence. So Yoga regarded +this intelligence as quite distinct from the so-called mental states +which became intelligent by coming in connection with this intelligence. +The actionless, absolutely pure and simple intelligence it called the +purusha. + +Yoga tacitly assumed a certain kind of analysis of the nature of these +mental states which sought to find out, if possible, the nature of their +constituent elements or moments of existence. Now in analysing the +different states of our mind we find that a particular content of +thought is illuminated and then passed over. The ideas rise, are +illuminated and pass away. Thus they found that “movement” was one of +the principal elements that constituted the substance of our thoughts. +Thought as such is always moving. This principle of movement, mutation +or change, this energy, they called rajas. + +Now apart from this rajas, thought when seen as divested of its sensuous +contents seems to exhibit one universal mould or form of knowledge which +assumes the form of all the sensuous contents that are presented to it. +It is the one universal of all our particular concepts or ideas—the +basis or substratum of all the different shapes imposed upon itself, the +pure and simple. Sattva in which there is no particularity is that +element of our thought which, resembling purusha most, can attain its +reflection within itself and thus makes the unconscious mental states +intelligible. All the contents of our thought are but modes and +limitations of this universal form and are thus made intelligible. It is +the one principle of intelligibility of all our conscious states. + +Now our intellectual life consists in a series of shining ideas or +concepts; concepts after concepts shine forth in the light of the pure +intelligence and pass away. But each concept is but a limitation of the +pure shining universal of our knowledge which underlies all its changing +modes or modifications of concepts or judgments. This is what is called +pure knowledge in which there is neither the knower nor the known. This +pure object—subjectless knowledge differs from the pure intelligence or +purusha only in this that later on it is liable to suffer various +modifications, as the ego, the senses, and the infinite percepts and +concepts, etc., connected therewith, whereas the pure intelligence +remains ever pure and changeless and is never the substratum of any +change. At this stage sattva, the intelligence-stuff, is prominent and +rajas and tamas are altogether suppressed. It is for this reason that +the buddhi or mind is often spoken of as the sattva. Being an absolute +preponderance of sattva it has nothing else to manifest, but it is its +pure-shining self. Both tamas and rajas being mostly suppressed they +cannot in any way affect the effulgent nature of this pure shining of +contentless knowledge in which there is neither the knower nor the +known. + +But it must be remembered that it is holding suspended as it were within +itself the elements of rajas and tamas which cannot manifest themselves +owing to the preponderance of the sattva. + +This notion of pure contentless consciousness is immediate and abstract +and as such is at once mediated by other necessary phases. Thus we see +that this pure contentless universal consciousness is the same as the +ego-universal (_asmitāmātra_). For this contentless universal +consciousness is only another name for the contentless unlimited, +infinite of the ego-universal. A quotation from Fichte may here be +useful as a comparison. Thus he says in the introduction to his _Science +of Ethics_: “How an object can ever become a subject, or how a being can +ever become an object of representation: this curious change will never +be explained by anyone who does not find a point where the objective and +subjective are not distinguished at all, but are altogether one. Now +such a point is established by, and made the starting point of our +system. This point is the Egohood, the Intelligence, Reason, or whatever +it may be named.”[26] The _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 19, describes it as +_liṅgamātram mahattatvaṃ sattāmātre mahati ātmani_, and again in I. 36 +we find it described as the waveless ocean, peaceful infinite pure +egohood. This obscure egohood is known merely as being. This mahat has +also been spoken of by Vijñāna Bhikshu as the manas, or mind, as it has +the function of assimilation (_niścaya_). Now what we have already said +about mahat will, we hope, make it clear that this mahat is the last +limit at which the subject and the object can be considered as one +indistinguishable point which is neither the one nor the other, but the +source of both. + +This buddhi is thus variously called _mahat_, _asmitāmātra_, _manas_, +_sattva_, _buddhi_ and _liṅga_, according to the aspects from which this +state is observed. + +This state is called mahat as it is the most universal thing conceivable +and the one common source from which all other things originate. + +Now this phase of sattva or pure shining naturally passes into the other +phase, that of the Ego as knower or Ego as subject. The first phase as +mahat or asmitāmātra was the state in which the sattva was predominant +and the rajas and tamas were in a suppressed condition. The next moment +is that in which the rajas comes uppermost, and thus the ego as the +subject of all cognition—the subject I—the knower of all the mental +states—is derived. The contentless subject-objectless “I” is the passive +sattva aspect of the buddhi catching the reflection of the spirit of +purusha. + +In its active aspect, however, it feels itself one with the spirit and +appears as the ego or subject which knows, feels and wills. Thus +Patañjali says, in II. 6: _dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā_, i.e. the +seeming identity of the seer and the perceiving capacity is called +asmitā-ego. Again in _Bhāshya_, I. 17, we have _ekātmikā saṃvidasmitā_ +(knowledge as one identical is asmitā) which Vācaspati explains as _sā +ca ātmanā grahītrā saha buddhirekātmikā saṃvid_, i.e. it is the feeling +of identity of the buddhi (mind) with the self, the perceiver. Thus we +find that the mind is affected by its own rajas or activity and posits +itself as the ego or subject as activity. By reason of this position of +the “I” as active it perceives itself in the objective, in all its +conative and cognitive senses in its thoughts and feelings and also in +the external world of extension and co-existence; in the words of +Pañcaśikha (II. 5) thinking the animate and inanimate beings to be the +self, man regards their prosperity as his own and becomes glad, and +regards their adversity as his own and is sorry. Here the “I” is posited +as the active entity which becomes conscious of itself, or in other +words the “I” becomes self-conscious. In analysing this notion of +self-consciousness we find that here the rajas or element of activity or +mobility has become predominant and this predominance of rajas has been +manifested by the inherent sattva. Thus we find that the rajas side or +“I as active” has become manifested or known as such, i.e. “I” becomes +conscious of itself as active. And this is just what is meant by +self-consciousness. + +This ego or self-consciousness then appears as the modification of the +contentless pure consciousness of the mind (_buddhi_); it is for this +reason that we see that this self-consciousness is but a modification of +the universal mind. The absolute identity of subject and object as the +egohood is not A part of our natural consciousness, for in all stages of +our actual consciousness, even in that of self-consciousness, there is +an element of the preponderance of rajas or activity which directs this +unity as the knower and the known and then unites them as it were. Only +so far as I distinguish myself as the conscious, from myself as the +object of consciousness, am I at all conscious of myself. + +When we see that the buddhi transforms itself into the ego, the subject, +or the knower, at this its first phase there is no other content which +it can know, it therefore knows itself in a very abstract way as the +“I,” or in other words, the ego becomes self-conscious; but at this +moment the ego has no content; the tamas being quite under suppression, +it is evolved by a preponderance of the rajas; and thus its nature as +rajas is manifested by the sattva and thus the ego now essentially knows +itself to be active, and holds itself as the permanent energising +activity which connects with itself all the phenomena of our life. + +But now when the ego first directs itself towards itself and becomes +conscious of itself, one question which naturally comes to our mind is, +“Can the ego direct itself towards itself and thus divide itself into a +part that sees and one that is seen?” To meet this question it is +assumed that the guṇas contain within themselves the germs of both +subjectivity and objectivity (_guṇānāṃ hi dvairūpyaṃ vyavasāyātmkatvam +vyavaseyātmakatvaṃ ca. Tattvavaiśāradī_, III. 47); the guṇas have two +forms, the perceiver and the perceived. Thus we find that in the ego the +quality of the guṇas as the perceiver comes to be first manifested and +the ego turns back upon itself and makes itself its own object. It is at +this stage that we are reminded of the twofold nature of the guṇas. + +It is by virtue of this twofold nature that the subject can make itself +its own object; but as these two sides have not yet developed they are +still only abstract and exist but in an implicit way in this state of +the ego (_ahaṃkāra_). + +Enquiring further into the nature of the relation of this ego and the +buddhi, we find that the ego is only another phase or modification of +the buddhi; however different it might appear from buddhi it is only +an appearance or phase of it; its reality is the reality of the +buddhi. Thus we see that when the knower is affected in his different +modes of concepts and judgments, this too is to be ascribed to the +buddhi. Thus Vyāsa writes (II. 18) that perception, memory, +differentiation, reasoning, right knowledge, decision belong properly +to mind (buddhi) and are only illusorily imposed on the purusha +(_grahaṇadhāraṇohāpohatattvajñānābhiniveśā buddhau varttamānā purushe +adhyāropitasadbhāvāḥ_). + +Now from this ego we find that three developments take place in three +distinct directions according to the preponderance of sattva, rajas or +tamas. + +By the preponderance of rajas, the ego develops itself into the five +conative senses, vāk (speech), pāṇi (hands), pāda (feet), pāyu (organ of +passing the excreta) and upastha (generative organ). By the +preponderance of sattva, the ego develops itself into the five cognitive +senses—hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell; and by a preponderance of +tamas it stands as the bhūtādi and produces the five tanmātras, and +these again by further preponderance of tamas develops into the +particles of the five gross elements of earth, water, light, heat, air +and ether. + +Now it is clear that when the self becomes conscious of itself as object +we see that there are three phases in it: (i) that in which the self +becomes an object to itself; (ii) when it directs itself or turns as the +subject upon itself as the object, this moment of activity which can +effect an aspect of change in itself; (iii) the aspect of the +consciousness of the self, the moment in which it perceives itself in +its object, the moment of the union of itself as the subject and itself +as the object in one luminosity of self-consciousness. Now that phase of +self in which it is merely an object to itself is the phase of its union +with prakṛti which further develops the prakṛti in moments of +materiality by a preponderance of the inert tamas of the bhūtādi into +tanmātras and these again into the five grosser elements which are then +called the _grāhya_ or perceptible. + +The sattva side of this ego or self-consciousness which was hitherto +undifferentiated becomes further differentiated, specialised and +modified into the five cognitive senses with their respective functions +of hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell, synchronising with the +evolution of the prakṛti on the tanmātric side of evolution. These again +individually suffer infinite modifications themselves and thus cause an +infinite variety of sensations in their respective spheres in our +conscious life. The rajas side of the ego becomes specialised as the +active faculties of the five different conative organs. + +There is another specialisation of the ego as the manas which is its +direct instrument for connecting itself with the five cognitive and +conative senses. What is perceived as mere sensations by the senses is +connected and generalised and formed into concepts by the manas; it is +therefore spoken of as partaking of both the conative and the cognitive +aspects in the _Sāṃkhya-kārikā_, 27. + +Now though the modifications of the ego are formed successively by the +preponderance of sattva, rajas and tamas, yet the rajas is always the +accessory cause (_sahakāri_) of all these varied collocations of the +guṇas; it is the supreme principle of energy and supplies even +intelligence with the energy which it requires for its own conscious +activity. Thus Lokācāryya says in his _Tattvatraya_: “the tāmasa ego +developing into the material world and the sāttvika ego developing into +the eleven senses, both require the help of the rājasa ego for the +production of this development” (_anyābhyāṃ ahaṃkārābhyām +svakāryyopajanane rājasāhaṃkūraḥ sahakārī bhavati_); and Barabara in his +_Bhāshya_ writes: “just as a seed-sprout requires for its growth the +help of water as instrumental cause, so the rājasa ahaṃkāra (ego) works +as the accessory cause (_sahakāri_) for the transformations of sāttvika +and tāmasa ahaṃkāra into their evolutionary products.” The mode of +working of this instrumental cause is described as “rajas is the mover.” +The rājasa ego thus moves the sattva part to generate the senses; the +tamas part generating the gross and subtle matter is also moved by the +rajas, agent of movement. The rājasa ego is thus called the common cause +of the movement of the sāttvika and the tāmasa ego. Vācaspati also says: +“though rajas has no separate work by itself yet since sattva and tamas +(which though capable of undergoing modification, do not do their work) +are actionless in themselves, the agency of rajas lies in this that it +moves them both for the production of the effect.”[27] And according as +the modifications are sāttvika, tāmasa or rājasika, the ego which is the +cause of these different modifications is also called vaikārika, bhūtādi +and taijasa. The mahat also as the source of the vaikārika, taijasa and +bhūtādi ego may be said to have three aspects. + +Now speaking of the relation of the sense faculties with the sense +organs, we see that the latter, which are made up of the grosser +elements are the vehicle of the former, for if the latter are injured in +any way, the former are also necessarily affected.[28] + +To take for example the specific case of the faculty of hearing and its +organ, we see that the faculty of hearing is seated in the ether +(_ākāśa_) within our ear-hole. It is here that the power of hearing is +located. When soundness or defect is noticed therein, soundness or +defect is noticed in the power of hearing also. When the sounds of +solids, etc., are heard, then the power of hearing located in the hollow +of the ear stands in need of the resonance produced in the ākāśa of the +ear. + +This sense of hearing, then, having its origin in the principle of +ahaṃkāra, behaves like iron, and is drawn by the sounds originated and +located in the mouth of the speaker acting as loadstone, and transforms +them into its own successive modifications (_vṛtti_) and thus senses the +sounds of the speaker. And it is for this reason that for every living +creature, the perception of sound in external space in the absence of +defects is never void of authority. Thus Pancasikha also says, as quoted +in _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 41: + +“To all those whose organs of hearing are situated in the same place (at +different times) the ākāśa sustaining the sense of hearing is the same.” +The ākāśa, again, in which the power of hearing is seated, is born out +of the soniferous tanmātra, and has therefore the quality of sound +inherent in itself. It is by this sound acting in unison that it takes +the sounds of external solids, etc. This then proves that the ākāśa is +the substratum of the power of hearing, and also possesses the quality +of sound. And this sameness of the situation of sound is an indication +of the existence of ākāśa as that which is the substratum of the +auditory power (_śruti_) which manifests the sounds of the same class in +ākāśa. Such a manifestation of sound cannot be without such an auditory +sense-power. Nor is such an auditory power a quality of pṛthivī (earth), +etc., because it cannot be in its own self both the manifestor and the +manifested (_vyahṅgya_ and _vyañjaka_), _Tattvavaiśāradī_, III. 41. It +is the auditory power which manifests all sounds with the help of the +ākāśa of the sense organ. + +The theory of the guṇas was accepted by many others outside the +Sāṃkhya-Yoga circle and they also offered their opinions on the nature +of the categories. + +There are thus other views prevalent about the genesis of the senses, to +which it may be worth our while to pay some attention as we pass by. + +The sāttvika ego in generating the cognitive senses with limited powers +for certain specified objects of sense only accounted for their +developments from itself in accompaniment with the specific tanmātras. +Thus + +sāttvika ego + sound potential (śabda-tanmātra) = sense of hearing. + +sāttvika ego + touch potential (śparś-tanmātra) = sense of touch. + +sāttvika ego + sight potential (śrūpa-tanmātra) = sense of vision. + +sāttvika ego + taste potential (vasa-tanmātra) = sense of taste. + +sāttvika ego + smell potential (gandha-tanmātra) = sense of smell. + +The conative sense of speech is developed in association with the sense +of hearing; that of hand in association with the sense of touch; that of +feet in association with the sense of vision; that of upastha in +association with the sense of taste; that of pāyu in association with +the sense of smell. + +Last of all, the manas is developed from the ego without any +co-operating or accompanying cause. + +The Naiyāyikas, however, think that the senses are generated by the +gross elements, the ear for example by ākāśa, the touch by air and so +forth. But Lokācāryya in his _Tattvatraya_ holds that the senses are not +generated by gross matter but are rather sustained and strengthened by +it. + +There are others who think that the ego is the instrumental and that the +gross elements are the material causes in the production of the senses. + +The view of the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ is, I believe, now quite clear since we +see that the mahat through the asmitā generates from the latter (as +differentiations from it, though it itself exists as integrated in the +mahat), the senses, and their corresponding gross elements. + +Before proceeding further to trace the development of the bhūtādi on the +tanmātric side, I think it is best to refer to the views about the +supposed difference between the Yoga and the views of the Sāṃkhya works +about the evolution of the categories. Now according to the Yoga view +two parallel lines of evolution start from mahat, one of which develops +into the ego, manas, the five cognitive and the five conative senses, +while on the other side it develops into the five grosser elements +through the five tanmātras which are directly produced from mahat +through the medium ahaṃkāra. + +Thus the view as found in the Yoga works may be tabulated thus:— + + Prakṛti + | + Mahat or Asmitāmātra + | + +----------+---------+ + | | + Asmitā Tanmātras--5 + | | + ---+--- ---------+-------- + 11 senses 5 gross elements + +The view of the Śaṃkhya works may be tabulated thus:-- + + Prakṛti + | + Mahat + | + Ego + | + +-----------+--------+ + | | + 11 senses 5 Tanmātras + | + 5 gross elements + +The place in the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ which refers to this genesis is that +under _viśeshāviśeshaliṅgamātrāliṅgāni guṇaparvāṇi_, II. 19. There it +says that the four bhūtas are ether, air, fire, water and earth. These +are the viśeshas (specialised modifications) of the unspecialised +modifications the tanmātras of sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. So +also are the cognitive senses of hearing, touch, eye, tongue, and nose +and the conative senses of speech, hand, feet, anus and the generative +organ. The eleventh one manas (the co-ordinating organ) has for its +object the objects of all the above ten senses. So these are the +specialised modifications (_viśeshas_) of the unspecialised (aviśesha) +asmitā. The guṇas have these sixteen kinds of specialised modifications +(_viśeshapariṇāma_). The six unspecialised modifications are the sound +tanmātra, touch tanmātra, colour tanmātra, taste tanmātra and smell +tanmātra. These tanmātras respectively contain one, two, three, four, +and five special characteristics. The sixth unspecialised modification +is asmitāmātra. These are the six aviśesha evolutions of the pure being, +the mahat. The category of mahat is merely a sign beyond the aviśeshas +and it is there that these exist and develop. + +In this _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ the fully specialised ones, viśeshas, the +grosser elements are said to have been derived from the tanmātras and +the senses and manas, the faculty of reflection are said to have been +specialised from the ego or asmitā. The tanmātras, however, have not +been derived from the ego or asmitā here. But they together with asmitā +are spoken of as the six slightly specialised ones, the five being the +five tanmātras and the sixth one being the ego. These six aviśeshas are +the specialisations of the mahat, the great egohood of pure Be-ness. It +therefore appears that the six aviśeshas are directly derived from the +mahat, after which the ego develops into the eleven senses and the +tanmātras into the five gross elements in three different lines. + +But let us see how _Yoga-vārttika_ explains the point here:— + +“But like the senses the tanmātras are also special modifications of the +ahaṃkāra having specially modified characteristics such as sound, touch, +etc., why, therefore, are they not mentioned as special modifications +(_viśeshas_)? The answer is that those only are mentioned as special +modification which are ultimate special modifications. The tanmātras are +indeed the special modifications of the ego, but they themselves produce +further special modifications, the bhūtas. The aviśeshas are explained +as the six aviśeshas. The tanmātras are generated from the tāmasa +ahaṃkāra gradually through sound, etc. The category of mahat which is +the ground of all modifications, called also the buddhi, has six +evolutionary products called the aviśeshas. Though the mahat and the +prakṛti may also be regarded as the root-causes out of which the +tanmātras have evolved, yet the word aviśesha is used as a technical +term having a special application to the six aviśeshas only.” The +modifications of these are from the buddhi through the intermediate +stage of the ahaṃkāra, as has been explained in the _Bhāshya_, I. 45. + +Thus we see that the _Yoga-vārttika_ says that the _Bhāshya_ is here +describing the modifications of buddhi in two distinct classes, the +aviśeshas and the viśeshas; and that the mahat has been spoken of as the +source of all the aviśeshas, the five tanmātras and the ego; strictly +speaking, however, the genesis of the tanmātras from mahat takes place +through the ego and in association with the ego, for it has been so +described in the _Bhāshya_, I. 45. + +Nāgeśa in explaining this _Bhāshya_ only repeats the view of +_Yoga-vārttika_. + +Now let us refer to the _Bhāshya_ of I. 45, alluded to by the +_Yoga-vārttika_: “The gradual series of subtler causes proceeds up to +the aliṅga or the prakṛti. The earth atom has the smell tanmātra as its +subtle cause; the water atom has the taste tanmātra; the air atom the +touch tanmātra; the ākāśa atom the sound tanmātra; and of these ahaṃkāra +is the subtle cause; and of this the mahat is the subtle cause.” Here by +subtle cause (_sūkshma_) it is upādānakāraṇa or material cause which is +meant; so the _Bhāshya_ further says: “It is true that purusha is the +subtlest of all. But yet as prakṛti is subtler than the mahat, it is not +in that sense that purusha is subtler than prakṛti for purusha is only +an instrumental cause of the evolution of mahat, but not its material +cause.” I believe it is quite clear that ahaṃkāra is spoken of here as +the _sūkshma anvayikārana_ of the tanmātras. This anvayikāraṇa is the +same as upādāna (material cause) as Vācaspati calls it. Now again in the +_Bhāshya_ of the same _sūtra_ II. 19 later on we see the liṅga or the +mahat is the stage next to prakṛti, it is differentiated from it though +still remaining integrated in the regular order of evolution. The six +aviśeshas are again differentiated while still remaining integrated in +the mahat in the order of evolution (_pariṇāmakramaniyama_). + +The mahat tattva (liṅga) is associated with the prakṛti (aliṅga). Its +development is thus to be considered as the production of a +differentiation as integrated within the prakṛti. The six aviśeshas are +also to be considered as the production of successive differentiations +as integrated within the mahat. + +The words _saṃsṛshṭa vivicyante_ are the most important here for they +show us the real nature of the transformations. “_Saṃsṛshtā_” means +integrated and “_vivicyante_” means differentiated. This shows that the +order of evolution as found in the Sāṃkhya works (viz. mahat from +prakṛti, ahaṃkāra from mahat and the eleven senses and the tanmātras +from ahaṃkāra) is true only in this sense that these modifications of +ahaṃkāra take place directly as differentiations of characters in the +body of mahat. As these differentiations take place through ahaṃkāra as +the first moment in the series of transformations it is said that the +transformations take place directly from ahaṃkāra; whereas when stress +is laid on the other aspect it appears that the transformations are but +differentiations as integrated in the body of the mahat, and thus it is +also said that from mahat the six aviśeshas—namely, ahaṃkāra and the +five tanmātras—come out. This conception of evolution as differentiation +within integration bridges the gulf between the views of Yoga and the +Saṃkhya works. We know that the tanmātras are produced from the tāmasa +ahaṃkāra. This ahaṃkāra is nothing but the tāmasa side of mahat roused +into creative activity by rajas. The sāttvika ahaṃkāra is given as a +separate category producing the senses, whereas the tamas as bhūtādi +produces the tanmātras from its disturbance while held up within the +mahat.[29] + +Nāgeśa in the _Chāyā-vyākhyā_ of II. 19, however, follows the Sāṃkhya +explanation. He says: “The five tanmātras having in order one, two, +three, four and five characteristics are such that the preceding ones +are the causes of the succeeding ones. The śabdatanmātra has only the +characteristic of sound, the sparśatanmātra of sound and touch and so +on.... All these tanmātras are produced from the tāmasa ahaṃkāra in the +order of śabda, sparśa, etc.” This ignores the interpretation of the +_Vyāsā-bhāshya_ that the tanmātras are differentiations within the +integrated whole of mahat through the intermediary stage of the tāmasa +ahaṃkāra. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES + + +The order of the evolution of the tanmātras as here referred to is as +follows:— + + Bhūtādi (tāmasa ahaṃkāra) + | + Śabdatanmātra + | + Sparśatanmātra + | + Rūpatanmātra + | + Rasatanmātra + | + Gandhatanmātra + +The evolution of the tanmātras has been variously described in the +Purāṇas and the Smṛti literature. These divergent views can briefly be +brought under two headings: those which derive the tanmātras from the +bhûtas and those which derive them from the ahaṃkāra and the bhûtas from +them. Some of these schools have been spoken of in the Barabara Muni’s +commentary on the _Tattvatraya_—a treatise on the Rāmānuja +Philosophy—and have been already explained in a systematic way by Dr. B. +N. Seal. I therefore refrain from repeating them needlessly. About the +derivation of the tanmātras all the other Sāṃkhya treatises, the +_Kārikā_, the _Kaumudī_, the _Tattvavaiśāradī_, the _Sūtra_ and +_Pravacana-bhāshya_, the _Siddhāntacandrikā_, _Sūtrārthabodhinī_, the +_Rajamārtaṇḍa_ and the _Maṇiprabhā_ seem to be silent. Further speaking +of the tanmātras, Vijñāna Bhikshu says that the tanmātras exist only in +unspecialised forms; they therefore can be neither felt nor perceived in +any way by the senses of ordinary men. This is that indeterminate state +of matter in which they can never be distinguished one from the other, +and they cannot be perceived to be possessed of different qualities or +specialised in any way. It is for this that they are called tanmātras, +i.e. their only specialization is a mere thatness. The Yogins alone +perceive them. + +Now turning towards the further evolution of the grosser elements from +the tanmātras, we see that there are great divergences of view here +also, some of which are shown below. Thus Vācaspati says: “The earth +atom is produced from the five tanmātras with a predominance of the +smell tanmātra, the water atom from the four tanmātras excepting the +smell tanmātra with a preponderance of the taste tanmātra, and so on” +(I. 44). + +Thus here we find that the ākāśa atom (aṇu) has been generated simply by +the ākāśa tanmātra; the vāyu atom has been generated by two tanmātras, +śabda and sparśa, of which the sparśa appears there as the chief. The +tejas atom has been developed from the śabda, sparśa and rûpa tanmātras, +though the rûpa is predominant in the group. The ap atom has been +developed from the four tanmātras, śabda, sparśa, rûpa and rasa, though +rasa is predominant in the group, and the earth or kshiti atom has been +developed from the five tanmātras, though the gandha tanmātra is +predominant in the group. + +Now the _Yoga-vārttika_ agrees with Vācaspati in all these details, but +differs from him only in maintaining that the ākāśa atom has been +generated from the śabda tanmātra with an accretion from bhūtādi, +whereas Vācaspati says that the ākāśa atom is generated simply by the +ākāśa tanmātra.[30] + +Nāgeśa, however, takes a slightly different view and says that to +produce the gross atoms from the tanmātras, an accretion of bhūtādi as +an accompanying agent is necessary at every step; so that we see that +the vāyu atom is produced from these three: śabda + sparśa + accretion +from bhūtādi. Tejas atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + accretion from +bhūtādi. Ap atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + rasa + accretion from +bhūtādi. Kshiti atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + rasa + gandha + accretion +from bhūtādi. + +I refrain from giving the _Vishṇu Purāṇa_ view which has also been +quoted in the _Yoga-vārttika_, and the view of a certain school of +Vedāntists mentioned in the _Tattva-nirūpaṇa_ and referred to and +described in the _Tattvatraya_, as Dr. B. N. Seal has already described +them in his article. + +We see thus that from bhūtādi come the five tanmātras which can be +compared to the Vaiśeshika atoms as they have no parts and neither +grossness nor visible differentiation.[31] Some differentiation has of +course already begun in the tanmātras, as they are called śabda, śparśa, +rūpa, rasa and gandha, which therefore may be said to belong to a class +akin to the grosser elements of ākāśa, vāyu, tejas, ap and kshiti.[32] + +The next one, the paramāṇu (atom), which is gross in its nature and is +generated from the tanmātras which exist in it as parts +(_tanmātrāvayava_) may be compared with the trasareṇu of the +Vaiśeshikas. Thus the _Yoga-vārttika_ says: “this is called paramāṇu by +the Vaiśeshikas. We however call the subtlest part of the visible earth, +earth atoms” (IV. 14). The doctrine of atoms is recognised both in the +_Yoga-sūtrās_ (I. 46) and the _Bhāshya_ (III. 52, IV. 14, etc.). + +Whether Sāṃkhya admitted the paramāṇus (atoms) or not cannot be +definitely settled. The _Sāṃkhya-kārikā_ does not mention the paramāṇus, +but Vijñāna Bhikshu thinks that the word “_sūkshma_” in _Kārikā_, 39, +means paramāṇus (_Yoga-vārttika_, IV. 14). Though the word paramāṇu is +not mentioned in the _Kārikā_, I can hardly suppose that Sāṃkhya did not +admit it in the sense in which Yoga did. For it does not seem probable +that Sāṃkhya should think that by the combination of the subtle +tanmātras we could all at once have the bigger lumps of bhūta without +there being any particles. Moreover, since the Yoga paramāṇus are the +finest visible particles of matter it could not have been denied by +Sāṃkhya. The supposition of some German scholars that Sāṃkhya did not +admit the paramāṇus does not seem very plausible. Bhikshu in +_Yoga-vārttika_, III. 52, says that the guṇas are in reality Vaiśeshika +atoms. + +The third form is gross air, fire, water, etc., which is said to belong +to the mahat (gross) class. I cannot express it better than by quoting a +passage from _Yoga-vārttika_, IV. 4: “The _Bhāshya_ holds that in the +tanmātras there exists the specific differentiation that constitutes the +five tanmātras, the kshiti atom is generated and by the conglomeration +of these gross atoms gross earth is formed. So again by the combination +of the four tanmātras the water atom is formed and the conglomeration of +these water atoms makes gross water.” + +“It should be noted here: since the _Bhāshya_ holds that the tanmātras +of sound, etc., are of the same class as the corresponding gross +elements it may be assumed that the combining tanmātras possess the +class characteristics which are made manifest in gross elements by +hardness, smoothness, etc.” Bhikshu holds that since Sāṃkhya and Yoga +are similar (_samānatantra_) this is to be regarded as being also the +Sāṃkhya view. + +There is, however, another measure which is called the measure of parama +mahat, which belongs to ākāśa for example. + +Now these paramāṇus or atoms are not merely atoms of matter but they +contain within themselves those particular qualities by virtue of which +they appear, as pleasant, unpleasant or passive to us. If we have +expressed ourselves clearly, I believe it has been shown that when the +inner and the outer proceed from one source, the ego and the external +world do not altogether differ in nature from the inner; both have been +formed by the collocation of the guṇas (_sarvamidaṃ guṇānāṃ +sanniveśaviseshamātram_). The same book which in the inner microcosm is +written in the language of ideas has been in the external world written +in the language of matter. So in the external world we have all the +grounds of our inner experience, cognitive as well as emotional, +pleasurable as well as painful. The modifications of the external world +are only translated into ideas and feelings; therefore these paramāṇus +are spoken of as endowed with feelings. + +There is another difference between the tanmātras and the paramāṇus. The +former cannot be perceived to be endowed with the feeling elements as +the latter. Some say, however, that it is not true that the tanmātras +are not endowed with the feeling elements, but they cannot be perceived +by any save the Yogins; thus it is said: _tanmātrāṇāmapi +parasparavyāvṛttasvabhāvatvamastyeva tacca yogimātragamyam_. The +tanmātras also possess differentiated characters, but they can be +perceived only by the Yogins; but this is not universally admitted. + +Now these paramāṇus cannot further be evolved into any other different +kind of existence or tattvāntara.[33] We see that the paramāṇus though +they have been formed from the tanmātras resemble them only in a very +remote way and are therefore placed in a separate stage of evolution. + +With the bhūtas we have the last stage of evolution of the guṇas. The +course of evolution, however, does not cease here, but continues +ceaselessly, though by its process no new stage of existence is +generated, but the product of the evolution is such that in it the +properties of the gross elements which compose its constitution can be +found directly. This is what is called _dharmapariṇāma_, as +distinguished from the _tattvāntara-pariṇāma_ spoken above. The +evolution of the viśeshas from the aviśeshas is always styled +tattvāntara-pariṇāma, as opposed to the evolution that takes place among +the viśeshas themselves, which is called _dharmapariṇāma_ or evolution +by change of qualities. Now these atoms or paramāṇus of kshiti, ap, +tejas, marut or ākāśa conglomerate together and form all sentient or +non-sentient bodies in the world. The different atoms of earth, air, +fire, water, etc., conglomerate together and form the different animate +bodies such as cow, etc., or inanimate bodies such as jug, etc., and +vegetables like the tree, etc. These bodies are built up by the +conglomerated units of the atoms in such a way that they are almost in a +state of combination which has been styled _ayutasiddhāvayava_. In such +a combination the parts do not stand independently, but only hide +themselves as it were in order to manifest the whole body, so that by +the conglomeration of the particles we have what may be called a body, +which is regarded as quite a different thing from the atoms of which it +is composed. These bodies change with the different sorts of change or +arrangement of the particles, according to which the body may be spoken +of as “one,” “large,” “small,” “tangible” or “possessing” the quality of +action. Some philosophers hold the view that a body is really nothing +but the conglomeration of the atoms; but they must be altogether wrong +here since they have no right to ignore the “body,” which appears before +them with all its specific qualities and attributes; moreover, if they +ignore the body they have to ignore almost everything, for the atoms +themselves are not visible. + +Again, these atoms, though so much unlike the Vaiśeshika atoms since +they contain tanmātras of a different nature as their constituents and +thus differ from the simpler atoms of the Vaiśeshikas, compose the +constituents of all inorganic, organic or animal bodies in such a way +that there is no break of harmony—no opposition between them;—but, on +the contrary, when any one of the guṇas existing in the atoms and their +conglomerations becomes prominent, the other guṇas though their +functions are different from it, yet do not run counter to the prominent +guṇas, but conjointly with them, help to form the specific modification +for the experiences of the purusha. In the production of a thing, the +different guṇas do not choose different independent courses for their +evolution, but join together and effectuate themselves in the evolution +of a single product. Thus we see also that when the atoms of different +gross elements possessing different properties and attributes coalesce, +their difference of attributes does not produce confusion, but they +unite in the production of the particular substances by a common +teleological purpose (see _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 14). + +We thus see that the bodies or things composed by the collocation of the +atoms in one sense differ from the atoms themselves and in another are +identical with the atoms themselves. We see therefore that the +appearance of the atoms as bodies or things differs with the change of +position of the atoms amongst themselves. So we can say that the change +of the appearance of things and bodies only shows the change of the +collocation of the atoms, there being always a change of appearance in +the bodies consequent on every change in the position of the atoms. The +former therefore is only an explicit appearance of the change that takes +place in the substance itself; for the appearance of a thing is only an +explicit aspect of the very selfsame thing—the atoms; thus the _Bhāshya_ +says: _dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ, dharmivrikriyā eva eshā +dharmadvārā prapañcyate_, i.e. a dharma (quality) is merely the nature +of the dharmin (substance), and it is the changes of the dharmin that +are made explicit by the dharmas.[34] Often it happens that the change +of appearance of a thing or a body, a tree or a piece of cloth, for +example, can be marked only after a long interval. This, however, only +shows that the atoms of the body had been continually changing and +consequently the appearance of the body or the thing also had been +continually changing; for otherwise we can in no way account for the +sudden change of appearance. All bodies are continually changing the +constituent collocation of atoms and their appearances. In the smallest +particle of time or kshaṇa the whole universe undergoes a change. Each +moment or the smallest particle of time is only the manifestation of +that particular change. Time therefore has not a separate existence in +this philosophy as in the Vaiśeshika, but it is only identical with the +smallest amount of change—viz. that of an atom of its own amount of +space. Now here the appearance is called the dharma, and that particular +arrangement of atoms or guṇas which is the basis of the particular +appearance is called the dharmin. The change of appearance is therefore +called the dharma-pariṇāma.[35] + +Again this change of appearance can be looked at from two other aspects +which though not intrinsically different from the change of appearance +have their own special points of view which make them remarkable. These +are _lakshaṇa-pariṇāma_ and _avasthā-pariṇāma_. Taking the particular +collocation of atoms in a body for review, we see that all the +subsequent changes that take place in it exist in it only in a latent +way in it which will be manifested in future. All the previous changes +of the collocating atoms are not also lost but exist only in a sublatent +way in the particular collocation of atoms present before us. For the +past changes are by no means destroyed but are preserved in the peculiar +and particular collocation of atoms of the present moment. For had not +the past changes taken place, the present could not appear. The present +had held itself hidden in the past just as the future is hidden within +the present. It therefore only comes into being with the unfolding of +the past, which therefore exists only in a sublatent form in it. + +It is on account of this that we see that a body comes into being and +dies away. Though this birth or death is really subsumed the change of +appearance yet it has its own special aspect, on account of which it has +been given a separate name as lakshaṇa-pariṇāma. It considers the three +stages of an appearance—the unmanifested when it exists in the future, +the manifested moment of the present, and the past when it has been +manifested—lost to view but preserved and retained in all the onward +stages of the evolution. Thus when we say that a thing has not yet come +into being, that it has just come into being, and that it is no longer, +we refer to this lakshaṇa-pariṇāma which records the history of the +thing in future, present and past, which are only the three different +moments of the same thing according to its different characters, as +unmanifested, manifested and manifested in the past but conserved. + +Now it often happens that though the appearance of a thing is constantly +changing owing to the continual change of the atoms that compose it, yet +the changes are so fine and infinitesimal that they cannot be marked by +anyone except the Yogins; for though structural changes may be going on +tending towards the final passing away of that structure and body into +another structure and body, which greatly differs from it, yet they may +not be noticed by us, who can take note of the bigger changes alone. +Taking therefore two remarkable stages of things, the difference between +which may be so notable as to justify us in calling the later the +dissolution or destruction of the former, we assert that the thing has +suffered growth and decay in the interval, during which the actual was +passing into the sublatent and the potential was tending towards +actualization. This is what is called the avasthā-pariṇāma, or change of +condition, which, however, does not materially differ from the +lakshaṇa-pariṇāma and can thus be held to be a mode of it. It is on +account of this that a substance is called new or old, grown or decayed. +Thus in explaining the illustration given in the _Bhāshya_, III. 13: +“there is avasthā-pariṇāma. At the moments of cessation the potencies of +cessation become stronger and those of ordinary experience weaker.” The +_Yoga-vārttika_ says: “The strength and weakness of the two potencies is +like the newness or oldness of a jug; growth and decay being the same as +origination and decease, there is no difference here from +_lakshaṇa-pariṇāma_.” + +It is now time for us to examine once more the relation of dharmin, +substance, and dharma, its quality or appearance. + +Dharmin, or substance, is that which remains common to the latent (as +having passed over or _śānta_), the rising (the present or _udita_) and +the unpredicable (future or _avyapadeśya_) characteristic qualities of +the substance. + +Substance (take for example, earth) has the power of existing in the +form of particles of dust, a lump or a jug by which water may be +carried. Now taking the stage of lump for examination we may think of +its previous stage, that of particles of dust, as being latent, and its +future stage as jug as the unpredicable. The earth we see here to be +common to all these three stages which have come into being by its own +activity and consequent changes. Earth here is the common quality which +remains unchanged in all these stages, and so relatively constant among +its changes as particles, lump and jug. This earth therefore is regarded +as the dharmin, characterised one, the substance; and its stages as its +dharma or qualities. When this dharmin, or substance, undergoes a change +from a stage of lump to a stage of jug, it undergoes what is called +_dharma-pariṇāma_ or change of quality. + +But its dharma, as the shape of the jug may be thought to have itself +undergone a change—inasmuch as it has now come into being, from a state +of relative non-being, latency or unpredicability. This is called the +lakshaṇa-pariṇāma of the dharma or qualities as constituting a jug. This +jug is again suffering another change as new or old according as it is +just produced or is gradually running towards its dissolution, and this +is called the avasthā-pariṇāma or change of condition. These three, +however, are not separate from the dharma-pariṇāma, but are only aspects +of it; so it may be said that the dharmin or substance directly suffers +the dharma-pariṇāma and indirectly the lakshaṇa and the +avasthā-pariṇāma. The dharma, however, changes and the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma +can be looked at from another point of view, that of change of state, +viz. growth and decay. Thus we see that though the atoms of kshiti, ap, +etc., remain unchanged, they are constantly suffering changes from the +inorganic to plants and animals, and from thence again back to the +inorganic. There is thus a constant circulation of changes in which the +different atoms of kshiti, ap, tejas, vāyu and ākāśa remaining +themselves unchanged are suffering dharma-pariṇāma as they are changed +from the inorganic to plants and animals and back again to the +inorganic. These different states or dharmas (as inorganic, etc.), +again, according as they are not yet, now, or no longer or passed over, +are suffering the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma. There is also the avasthā-pariṇāma +of these states according as any one of them (the plant state for +example) is growing or suffering decay towards its dissolution. + +This circulation of cosmic matter in general applies also to all +particular things, such as the jug, the cloth, etc.; the order of +evolution here will be that of powdered particles of earth, lump of +earth, the earthen jug, the broken halves of the jug, and again the +powdered earth. As the whole substance has only one identical evolution, +these different states only happen in order of succession, the +occurrence of one characteristic being displaced by another +characteristic which comes after it immediately. We thus see that one +substance may undergo endless changes of characteristic in order of +succession; and along with the change of characteristic or dharma we +have the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma and the avasthā-pariṇāma as old or new, which +is evidently one of infinitesimal changes of growth and decay. Thus +Vācaspati gives the following beautiful example: “Even the most +carefully preserved rice in the granary becomes after long years so +brittle that it crumbles into atoms. This change cannot happen to new +rice all on a sudden. Therefore we have to admit an order of successive +changes” (_Tattvavaivśāradī_, III. 15). + +We now see that substance has neither past nor future; appearances or +qualities only are manifested in time, by virtue of which substance is +also spoken of as varying and changing temporally, just as a line +remains unchanged in itself but acquires different significances +according as one or two zeros are placed on its right side. +Substance—the atoms of kshiti, ap, tejas, marut, vyoman, etc., by +various changes of quality appear as the manifold varieties of cosmical +existence. There is no intrinsic difference between one thing and +another, but only changes of character of one and the same thing; thus +the gross elemental atoms like water and earth particles acquire various +qualities and appear as the various juices of all fruits and herbs. Now +in analogy with the arguments stated above, it will seem that even a +qualified thing or appearance may be relatively regarded as substance, +when it is seen to remain common to various other modifications of that +appearance itself. Thus a jug, which may remain common in all its +modifications of colour, may be regarded relatively as the dharmin or +substance of all these special appearances or modifications of the same +appearance. + +We remember that the guṇas, which are the final substratum of all the +grosser particles, are always in a state of commotion and always +evolving in the manner previously stated, for the sake of the experience +and final realisation of the parusha, the only object or end of the +prakṛti. Thus the _Bhāshya_, III. 13, says: “So it is the nature of the +guṇas that there cannot remain even a moment without the evolutionary +changes of dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthā; movement is the characteristic +of the guṇas. The nature of the guṇas is the cause of their constant +movement.” + +Although the pioneers of modern scientific evolution have tried to +observe scientifically some of the stages of the growth of the inorganic +and of the animal worlds into the man, yet they do not give any reason +for it. Theirs is more an experimental assertion of facts than a +metaphysical account of evolution. According to Darwin the general form +of the evolutionary process is that which is accomplished by “very +slight variations which are accumulated by the effect of natural +selection.” And according to a later theory, we see that a new species +is constituted all at once by the simultaneous appearance of several new +characteristics very different from the old. But why this accidental +variation, this seeming departure from the causal chain, comes into +being, the evolutionists cannot explain. But the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala +doctrine explains it from the standpoint of teleology or the final goal +inherent in all matter, so that it may be serviceable to the purusha. To +be serviceable to the purusha is the one moral purpose in all prakṛti +and its manifestations in the whole material world, which guide the +course and direction of the smallest particle of matter. From the +scientific point of view, the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine is very much in +the same position as modern science, for it does not explain the cause +of the accidental variation noticed in all the stages of evolutionary +process from any physical point of view based on the observation of +facts. + +But it does much credit to the Pātañjala doctrines that they explain +this accidental variation, this _avyapadeśyatva_ or unpredicability of +the onward course of evolution from a moral point of view, that of +teleology, the serviceability of the purusha. They found, however, that +this teleology should not be used to usurp the whole nature and function +of matter. We find that the atoms are always moving by virtue of the +rajas or energy, and it is to this movement of the atoms in space that +all the products of evolution are due. We have found that the difference +between the juices of Coco-nut, Palm, Bel, Tinduka (Diospyros +Embryopteries), Āmalaka (Emblic Myrobalan) can be accounted for by the +particular and peculiar arrangement of the atoms of earth and water +alone, by their stress and strain; and we see also that the evolution of +the organic from the inorganic is due to this change of position of the +atoms themselves; for the unit of change is the change in an atom of its +own dimension of spatial position. There is always the transformation of +energy from the inorganic to the organic and back again from the +organic. Thus the differences among things are solely due to the +different stages which they occupy in the scale of evolution, as +different expressions of the transformation of energy; but virtually +there is no intrinsic difference among things _sarvaṃ sarvātmakaṃ_; the +change of the collocation of atoms only changes potentiality into +actuality, for there is potentiality of everything for every thing +everywhere throughout this changing world. Thus Vācaspati writes: “The +water possessing taste, colour, touch and sound and the earth possessing +smell, taste, colour, touch, and sound suffer an infinite variety of +changes as roots, flowers, fruits, leaves and their specific tastes and +other qualities. The water and the earth which do not possess these +qualities cannot have them, for we have proved that what is non-existent +cannot come into being. The trees and plants produce the varied tastes +and colours in animals, for it is by eating these that they acquire such +richness of colour, etc. Animal products can again produce changes in +plant bodies. By sprinkling blood on it a pomegranate may be made as big +as a palm” (_Tattvavaiśaradī_, III. 14). + +Looked at from the point of view of the guṇas, there is no intrinsic +difference between things, though there are a thousand manifestations of +differences, according to time, place, form and causality. The +expressions of the guṇas, and the manifestations of the transformations +of energy differ according to time, place, shape, or causality—these are +the determining circumstances and environments which determine the modes +of the evolutionary process; surrounding environments are also involved +in determining this change, and it is said that two Āmalaka fruits +placed in two different places undergo two different sorts of changes in +connection with the particular spots in which they are placed, and that +if anybody interchanges them a Yogin can recognise and distinguish the +one from the other by seeing the changes that the fruits have undergone +in connection with their particular points of space. Thus the _Bhāshya_ +says: “Two Āmalaka fruits having the same characteristic genus and +species, their situation in two different points of space contributes to +their specific distinction of development, so that they may be +identified as this and that. When an Āmalaka is brought from a distance +to a man previously inattentive to it, he naturally cannot distinguish +this Āmalaka as being the distant one which has been brought before him +without his knowledge. But right knowledge should be competent to +discern the distinction; and the sūtra says that the place associated +with one Āmalaka fruit is different from the place associated with +another Āmalaka at another point of space; and the Yogin can perceive +the difference of their specific evolution in association with their +points of space; similarly the atoms also suffer different modifications +at different points of space which can be perceived by Īśvara and the +Yogins” (_Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 53). + +Vācaspati again says: “Though all cause is essentially all effects yet a +particular cause takes effect in a particular place, thus though the +cause is the same, yet saffron grows in Kāśmīra and not in Pāñcāla. So, +the rains do not come in summer, the vicious do not enjoy happiness. +Thus in accordance with the obstructions of place, time, animal form, +and instrumental accessories, the same cause does not produce the same +effect. Though as cause everything is essentially everything else, yet +there is a particular country for a particular effect, such as Kāśmīra +is for saffron. Even though the causes may be in other countries such as +Pāñcāla, yet the effect will not happen there, and for this reason +saffron does not manifest itself in Pāñcāla. So in summer there are no +rains and so no paddy grows then” (_Tattvavaiśāradī_, III. 14). + +We see therefore that time, space, etc., are the limitations which +regulate, modify and determine to a certain extent the varying +transformations and changes and the seeming differences of things, +though in reality they are all ultimately reducible to the three guṇas; +thus Kāśmīra being the country of saffron, it will not grow in the +Pāñcāla country, even though the other causes of its growth should all +be present there;—here the operation of cause is limited by space. + +After considering the inorganic, vegetable and animal kingdoms as three +stages in the evolutionary process, our attention is at once drawn to +their conception of the nature of relation of plant life to animal life. +Though I do not find any special reference in the _Bhāshya_ to this +point, yet I am reminded of a few passages in the _Mahābhārata_, which I +think may be added as a supplement to the general doctrine of evolution +according to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala philosophy as stated here. Thus the +_Mahābhārata_ says: “Even the solid trees have ether (ākāśa) in them +which justifies the regular appearance of flowers and fruits. By heat +the leaves, the bark, flowers and fruits become withered, and since +there is withering and decay in them, there is in them the sensation of +touch. Since by the sound of air, fire and thunder the fruits and +flowers fall away, there must be the sense of hearing in them. The +creepers encircle the trees and they go in all directions, and since +without sight there could not be any choice of direction, the trees have +the power of vision. By various holy and unholy smells and incenses of +various kinds the trees are cured of their diseases and blossom forth, +therefore the trees can smell. Since they drink by their roots, and +since they get diseases, and since their diseases can be cured, there is +the sense of taste in the trees. Since they enjoy pleasure and suffer +pain, and since their parts which are cut grow, I see life everywhere in +trees and not want of life” (_Sāntiparva_, 184). + +Nīlakaṇṭha in his commentary goes still further and says that a hard +substance called vajramaṇi also may be called living. Here we see that +the ancients had to a certain extent forestalled the discovery of Sir J. +C. Bose that the life functions differed only in degree between the +three classes, the inorganic, plants and animals. + +These are all, however, only illustrations of dharma-pariṇāma, for here +there is no radical change in the elements themselves, the appearance of +qualities being due only to the different arrangement of the atoms of +the five gross elements. This change applies to the viśeshas only—the +five gross elements externally and the eleven senses internally. How the +inner microcosm, the manas and the senses are affected by +dharma-pariṇāma we shall see hereafter, when we deal with the psychology +of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine. For the present it will suffice to +say that the citta or mind also suffers this change and is modified in a +twofold mode; the patent in the form of the ideas and the latent, as the +substance itself, in the form of saṃskāras of subconscious impressions. +Thus the _Bhāshya_ says: “The mind has two kinds of characteristics, +perceived and unperceived. Those of the nature of ideas are perceived +and those inherent in the integral nature of it are unperceived. The +latter are of seven kinds and may be ascertained by inference. These are +cessation of mental states by samādhi, virtue and vice, subconscious +impressions, change, life-functioning, power of movement, and energy” +(III. 15). + +This dharma-pariṇāma as we have shown it, is essentially different from +the satkāraṇavāda of the aviśeshas described above. We cannot close this +discussion about evolution without noticing the Sāṃkhya view of +causation. + +We have seen that the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala view holds that the effect is +already existent in the cause, but only in a potential form. “The +grouping or collocation alone changes, and this brings out the +manifestation of the latent powers of the guṇas, but without creation of +anything absolutely new or non-existent.” This is the true satkāryyavāda +theory as distinguished from the so-called satkāryyavāda theory of the +Vedāntists, which ought more properly to be called the satkāraṇavāda +theory, for with them the cause alone is true, and all effects are +illusory, being only impositions on the cause. For with them the +material cause alone is true, whilst all its forms and shapes are merely +illusory, whereas according to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine all the +appearances or effects are true and are due to the power which the +substance has of transforming itself into those various appearances and +effects _yogyatāvacchinnā dharmiṇaḥ śaktireva dharmaḥ_ (III. 14). The +operation of the concomitant condition or efficient cause serves only to +effect the passage of a thing from potency to actualisation. + +Everything in the phenomenal world is but a special collocation of the +guṇas; so that the change of collocation explains the diversity of +things. Considered from the point of view of the guṇas, things are all +the same, so excluding that, the cause of the diversity in things is the +power which the guṇas have of changing their particular collocations and +thus assuming various shapes. We have seen that the prakṛti unfolds +itself through various stages—the mahat called the great being—the +ahaṃkāra, the tanmātras called the aviśeshas. Now the liṅga at once +resolves itself into the ahaṃkāra and through it again into the +tanmātras. The ahaṃkāra and the tanmātras again resolve themselves into +the senses and the gross elements, and these again are constantly +suffering thousands of modifications called the dharma, lakshaṇa, and +avasthā-pariṇāma according to the definite law of evolution +(_pariṇāmakramaniyama_). + +Now according to the Saṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine, the śakti—power, +force—and the śaktimān—the possessor of power or force—are not different +but identical. So the prakṛti and all its emanations and modifications +are of the nature of substantive entities as well as power or force. +Their appearances as substantive entities and as power or force are but +two aspects, and so it will be erroneous to make any such distinction as +the substantive entity and its power or force. That which is the +substantive entity is the force, and that which is the force is the +substantive entity. Of course for all practical purposes we can indeed +make some distinction, but that distinction is only relatively true. +Thus when we say that earth is the substantive entity and the power +which it has of transforming itself into the produced form, lump, or jug +as its attribute, we see on the one hand that no distinction is really +made between the appearance of the earth as jug and its power of +transforming itself into the jug. As this power of transforming itself +into lump or jug, etc., always abides in the earth we say that the jug, +etc., are also abiding in the earth; when the power is in the potential +state, we say that the jug is in the potential state, and when it is +actualised, we say that the jug has been actualised. Looked at from the +tanmātric side, the earth and all the other gross elements must be said +to be mere modifications, and as such identical with the power which the +tanmātras have of changing themselves into them. The potentiality or +actuality of any state is the mere potentiality or actuality of the +power which its antecedent cause has of transforming itself into it. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES + + +Prakṛti, though a substantive entity is yet a potential power, being +actualised as its various modifications, the aviśeshas and the viśeshas. +Being of the nature of power, the movement by which it actualises itself +is immanent within itself and not caused from without. The operation of +the concomitant conditions is only manifested in the removal of the +negative barriers by which the power was stopped or prevented from +actualising itself. Being of the nature of power, its potentiality means +that it is kept in equilibrium by virtue of the opposing tendencies +inherent within it, which serve to obstruct one another and are +therefore called the āvaraṇa śakti. Of course it is evident that there +is no real or absolute distinction between the opposing force (_āvaraṇa +śakti_) and the energising force (_kāryyakarī śakti_); they may be +called so only relatively, for the same tendency which may appear as the +_āvaraṇa śakti_ of some tendencies may appear as the _kāryyakarī śakti_ +elsewhere. The example chosen to explain the nature of prakṛti and its +modifications conceived as power tending towards actuality from +potentiality in the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ is that of a sheet of water enclosed +by temporary walls within a field, but always tending to run out of it. +As soon as the temporary wall is broken in some direction, the water +rushes out of itself, and what one has to do is to break the wall at a +particular place. Prakṛti is also the potential for all the infinite +diversity of things in the phenomenal world, but the potential tendency +of all these mutually opposed and diverse things cannot be actualised +together. Owing to the concomitant conditions when the barrier of a +certain tendency is removed, it at once actualises itself in its effect +and so on. + +We can only expect to get any effect from any cause if the necessary +barriers can be removed, for everything is everything potentially and it +is only necessary to remove the particular barrier which is obstructing +the power from actualising itself in that particular effect towards +which it is always potentially tending. Thus Nandī who was a man is at +once turned into a god for his particular merit, which served to break +all the barriers of the potential tendency of his body towards becoming +divine, so that the barriers being removed the potential power of the +prakṛti of his body at once actualises itself in the divine body. + +The _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ (III. 14) mentions four sorts of concomitant +conditions which can serve to break the barrier in a particular way and +thus determine the mode or form of the actualisations of the potential. +These are (1) ākāra, form and constitution of a thing; deśa, place, (3) +kāla, time; thus from a piece of stone, the shoot of a plant cannot +proceed, for the arrangement of the particles in stone is such that it +will oppose and stand as a bar to its potential tendencies to develop +into the shoot of a plant; of course if these barriers could be removed, +say by the will of God, as Vijñāna Bhikshu says, then it is not +impossible that the shoot of a plant might grow from a stone. By the +will of God poison may be turned into nectar and nectar into poison, and +there is no absolute certainty of the course of the evolutionary +process, for God’s will can make any change in the direction of its +process (_avyavasthitākhilapariṇāmo bhavatyeva_, III. 14). + +According to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala theory dharma, merit, can only be +said to accrue from those actions which lead to a man’s salvation, and +adharma from just the opposite course of conduct. When it is said that +these can remove the barriers of the prakṛti and thus determine its +modifications, it amounts almost to saying that the modifications of the +prakṛti are being regulated by the moral conditions of man. According to +the different stages of man’s moral evolution, different kinds of merit, +dharma or adharma, accrue, and these again regulate the various physical +and mental phenomena according to which a man may be affected either +pleasurably or painfully. It must, however, be always remembered that +the dharma and adharma are also the productions of prakṛti, and as such +cannot affect it except by behaving as the cause for the removal of the +opposite obstructions—the dharma for removing the obstructions of +adharma and adharma for those of dharma. Vijñāna Bhikshu and Nāgeśa +agree here in saying that the modifications due to dharma and adharma +are those which affect the bodies and senses. What they mean is possibly +this, that it is dharma or adharma alone which guides the +transformations of the bodies and senses of all living beings in general +and the Yogins. + +The body of a person and his senses are continually decaying and being +reconstructed by refilling from the gross elements and from ahaṃkāra +respectively. These refillings proceed automatically and naturally; but +they follow the teleological purpose as chalked out by the law of karma +in accordance with the virtues or vices of a man. Thus the gross insult +to which the sages were subjected by Nahusha[36] was so effective a sin +that by its influence the refilling of Nahusha’s body and the senses was +stopped and the body and senses of a snake were directly produced by a +process of refilling from the gross elements and ahaṃkāra, for providing +him with a body in which he could undergo the sufferings which were his +due owing to the enormity of his vice. Thus by his vicious action the +whole machinery of prakṛti was set in operation so that he at once died +and was immediately reborn as a snake. In another place Vācaspati “the +virtuous enjoys happiness” as an illustration of the cause of dharma and +adharma as controlling the course of the development of prakṛti. We +therefore see that the sphere of merit and demerit lies in the helping +of the formation of the particular bodies and senses (from the gross +elements and ahaṃkāra respectively) suited to all living beings +according to their stages of evolution and their growth, decay, or other +sorts of their modifications as pleasure, pain, and also as illness or +health. Thus it is by his particular merit that the Yogin can get his +special body or men or animals can get their new bodies after leaving +the old ones at death. Thus _Yoga-vārttika_ says: “Merit by removing the +obstructions of demerit causes the development of the body and the +senses.” + +As for Īśvara I do not remember that the _Bhāshya_ or the sūtras ever +mention Him as having anything to do with the controlling of the +modifications of the prakṛti by removing the barriers, but all the later +commentators agree in holding him responsible for the removal of all +barriers in the way of prakṛtis development. So that Īśvara is the root +cause of all the removal of barriers, including those that are affected +by merit and demerit. Thus Vācaspati says (IV. 3): _Īśvarasyāpi +dharmādhishṭhānārthaṃ pratibandhāpanaya eva vyāpāro_, i.e. God stands as +the cause of the removal of such obstacles in the prakṛti as may lead to +the fruition of merit or demerit. + +_Yoga-vārttika_ and Nāgeśa agree in holding Īśvara responsible for the +removal of all obstacles in the way of the evolution of prakṛti. Thus +Bhikshu says that God rouses prakṛti by breaking the opposing forces of +the state of equilibrium and also of the course of evolution (IV. 3). + +It is on account of God that we can do good or bad actions and thus +acquire merit or demerit. Of course God is not active and cannot cause +any motion in prakṛti. But He by His very presence causes the obstacles, +as the barriers in the way of prakṛti’s development, to be removed, in +such a way that He stands ultimately responsible for the removal of all +obstacles in the way of prakṛti’s development and thus also of all +obstacles in the way of men’s performance of good or bad deeds. Man’s +good or bad deeds “puṇyakarma,” apuṇyakarma, dharma or adharma serve to +remove the obstacles of prakṛti in such a way as to result in +pleasurable or painful effects; but it is by God’s help that the +barriers of prakṛti are removed and it yields itself in such a way that +a man may perform good or bad deeds according to his desire. Nīlakaṇṭha, +however, by his quotations in explanation of 300/2, _Śāntiparva_, leads +us to suppose that he regards God’s will as wholly responsible for the +performance of our good or bad actions. For if we lay stress on his +quotation “He makes him do good deeds whom He wants to raise, and He +makes him commit bad deeds whom He wants to throw down,” it appears that +he whom God wants to raise is made to perform good actions and he whom +God wants to throw downwards is made to commit bad actions. But this +seems to be a very bold idea, as it will altogether nullify the least +vestige of freedom in and responsibility for our actions and is +unsupported by the evidence of other commentators. Vijñāna Bhikshu also +says with reference to this śruti in his _Vijñānamṛta-bhāshya_, III. 33: +“As there is an infinite _regressus_ between the causal connection of +seed and shoot, so one karma is being determined by the previous karma +and so on; there is no beginning to this chain.” So we take the +superintendence of merits and demerits (_dharmādhispṭhānatā_) by Īśvara +to mean only in a general way the help that is offered by Him in +removing the obstructions of the external world in such a manner that it +may be possible for a man to perform practically meritorious acts in the +external world. + +Nīlakaṇṭha commenting on the Yoga view says that “like a piece of +magnet, God though inactive, may by His very presence stir up prakṛti +and help His devotees. So the Yoga holds that for the granting of +emancipation God has to be admitted” (_Śāntiparva_, 300/2). + +In support of our view we also find that it is by God’s influence that +the unalterable nature of the external world is held fast and a limit +imposed on the powers of man in producing changes in the external world. +Thus Vācaspati in explaining the Bhāshya (III. 45) says: “Though capable +of doing it, yet he does not change the order of things, because another +earlier omnipotent being had wished the things to be such as they were. +They would not disobey the orders of the omnipotent God.” + +Men may indeed acquire unlimited powers of producing any changes they +like, for the powers of objects as they change according to the +difference of class, space, time and condition, are not permanent, and +so it is proper that they should act in accordance with the desire of +the Yogin; but there is a limit to men’s will by the command of God—thus +far and no further. + +Another point in our favour is that the Yoga philosophy differs from the +Sāṃkhya mainly in this that the purushārtha or serviceability to the +purusha is only the aim or end of the evolution of prakṛti and not +actually the agent which removes the obstacles of the prakṛti in such a +way as to determine its course as this cosmical process of evolution. +Purushārtha is indeed the aim for which the process of evolution exists; +for this manifold evolution in its entirety affects the interests of the +purusha alone; but that does not prove that its teleology can really +guide the evolution on its particular lines so as to ensure the best +possible mode of serving all the interests of the purusha, for this +teleology being immanent in the prakṛti is essentially non-intelligent. +Thus Vācaspati says: “The fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha is +not also the prime mover. God has the fulfilment of the purpose of the +purusha as His own purpose, for which He behaves as the prime mover. The +fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha may be regarded as cause only +in the sense that it is the object in view of God, the prime mover.”[37] + +The Sāṃkhya, however, hopes that this immanent purpose in prakṛti acts +like a blind instinct and is able to guide the course of its evolution +in all its manifold lines in accordance with the best possible service +of the purusha. + +The Pātañjala view, as we have seen, maintains that Īśvara removes all +obstacles of prakṛti in such a way that this purpose may find scope for +its realisation. Thus _Sūtrārthabodhinī_, IV. 3, of Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha +says: “According to atheistic Sāṃkhya the future serviceability of +purusha alone is the mover of prakṛti. But with us theists the +serviceability of purusha is the object for which prakṛti moves. It is +merely as an object that the serviceability of the purusha may be said +to be the mover of the prakṛti.” + +As regards the connection of prakṛti and purusha, however, both Sāṃkhya +and Pātañjala agree according to Vijñāna Bhikshu in denying the +interference of Īśvara; it is the movement of prakṛti by virtue of +immanent purpose that connects itself naturally with the purusha. +Vijñāna Bhikshu’s own view, however, is that this union is brought about +by God (_Vijñānāmṛta-bhāshya_, p. 34). + +To recapitulate, we see that there is an immanent purpose in prakṛti +which connects it with the purushas. This purpose is, however, blind and +cannot choose the suitable lines of development and cause the movement +of Prakṛti along them for its fullest realisation. Prakṛti itself, +though a substantial entity, is also essentially of the nature of +conserved energy existing in the potential form but always ready to flow +out and actualise itself, if only its own immanent obstructions are +removed. Its teleological purpose is powerless to remove its own +obstruction. God by His very presence removes the obstacles, by which, +prakṛti of itself moves in the evolutionary process, and thus the +purpose is realised; for the removal of obstacles by the influence of +God takes place in such a way that the purpose may realise its fullest +scope. Realisation of the teleology means that the interests of purusha +are seemingly affected and purusha appears to see and feel in a manifold +way, and after a long series of such experiences it comes to understand +itself in its own nature, and this being the last and final realisation +of the purpose of prakṛti with reference to that purusha all connections +of prakṛti with such a purusha at once cease; the purusha is then said +to be liberated and the world ceases for him to exist, though it exists +for the other unliberated purushas, the purpose of the prakṛti with +reference to whom has not been realised. So the world is both eternal +and non-eternal, i.e. its eternality is only relative and not absolute. +Thus the _Bhāshya_ says the question “whether the world will have an end +or not cannot be directly answered. The world-process gradually ceases +for the wise and not for others, so no one-sided decision can be true” +(IV. 33). + + + + + BOOK II. ETHICS AND PRACTICE + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + MIND AND MORAL STATES + + +The Yoga philosophy has essentially a practical tone and its object +consists mainly in demonstrating the means of attaining salvation, +oneness, the liberation of the purusha. The metaphysical theory which we +have discussed at some length, though it is the basis which justifies +its ethical goal, is not itself the principal subject of Yoga +discussion, and is only dealt with to the extent that it can aid in +demonstrating the ethical view. We must now direct our attention to +these ethical theories. Citta or mind always exists in the form of its +states which are called vṛttis.[38] These comprehend all the manifold +states of consciousness of our phenomenal existence. We cannot +distinguish states of consciousness from consciousness itself, for the +consciousness is not something separate from its states; it exists in +them, passes away with their passing and submerges when they are +submerged. It differs from the senses in this, that they represent the +functions and faculties, whereas citta stands as the entity containing +the conscious states with which we are directly concerned. But the citta +which we have thus described as existing only in its states is called +the kāryyacitta or citta as effect as distinguished from the kāraṇacitta +or citta as cause. These kāraṇacittas or cittas as cause are +all-pervading like the ākāśa and are infinite in number, each being +connected with each of the numberless purushas or souls (_Chāyāvyākhyā_, +IV. 10). The reason assigned for acknowledging such a kāraṇacitta which +must be all-pervading, as is evident from the quotation, is that the +Yogin may have knowledge of all things at once. + +Vācaspati says that this citta being essentially of the nature of +ahaṃkāra is as all-pervading as the ego itself (IV. 10). + +This kāraṇacitta contracts or expands and appears as our individual +cittas in our various bodies at successive rebirths. The kāraṇacitta is +always connected with the purusha and appears contracted when the +purusha presides over animal bodies, and as relatively expanded when he +presides over human bodies, and more expanded when he presides over the +bodies of gods, etc. This contracted or expanded citta appears as our +kāryyacitta which always manifests itself as our states of +consciousness. After death the kāraṇacitta, which is always connected +with the purusha, manifests itself in the new body which is formed by +the āpūra (filling in of prakṛti on account of effective merit or +demerit that the purusha had apparently acquired). The formation of the +body as well as the contraction or expansion of the kāraṇacitta as the +corresponding kāryyacitta to suit it is due to this āpūra. The Yoga does +not hold that the citta has got a separate fine astral body within which +it may remain encased and be transferred along with it to another body +on rebirth. The citta being all-pervading, it appears both to contract +or expand to suit the particular body destined for it owing to its merit +or demerit, but there is no separate astral body (_Tattvavaiśāradī_, IV. +10). In reality the karaṇacitta as such always remains vibhu or +all-pervading; it is only its kāryyacitta or vṛtti that appears in a +contracted or expanded form, according to the particular body which it +may be said to occupy. + +The Sāṃkhya view, however, does not regard the citta to be essentially +all-pervading, but small or great according as the body it has to +occupy. Thus Bhikshu and Nāgeśa in explaining the _Bhāshya_, “others +think that the citta expands or contracts according as it is in a bigger +or smaller body, just as light rays do according as they are placed in +the jug or in a room,” attributes this view to the Sāṃkhya +(_Vyāsabhāshya_, IV. 10, and the commentaries by Bhikshu and Nāgeśa on +it).[39] + +It is this citta which appears as the particular states of consciousness +in which both the knower and the known are reflected, and it comprehends +them both in one state of consciousness. It must, however, be remembered +that this citta is essentially a modification of prakṛti, and as such is +non-intelligent; but by the seeming reflection of the purusha it appears +as the knower knowing a certain object, and we therefore see that in the +states themselves are comprehended both the knower and the known. This +citta is not, however, a separate tattva, but is the sum or unity of the +eleven senses and the ego and also of the five prāṇas or biomotor forces +(_Nāgeśa_, IV. 10). It thus stands for all that is psychical in man: his +states of consciousness including the living principle in man +represented by the activity of the five prāṇas. + +It is the object of Yoga gradually to restrain the citta from its +various states and thus cause it to turn back to its original cause, the +kāraṇacitta, which is all-pervading. The modifications of the +kāraṇacitta into such states as the kāryyacitta is due to its being +overcome by its inherent tamas and rajas; so when the transformations of +the citta into the passing states are arrested by concentration, there +takes place a backward movement and the all-pervading state of the citta +being restored to itself and all tamas being overcome, the Yogin +acquires omniscience, and finally when this citta becomes as pure as the +form of purusha itself, the purusha becomes conscious of himself and is +liberated from the bonds of prakṛti. + +The Yoga philosophy in the first chapter describes the Yoga for him +whose mind is inclined towards trance-cognition. In the second chapter +is described the means by which one with an ordinary worldly mind +(_vyutthāna citta_) may also acquire Yoga. In the third chapter are +described those phenomena which strengthen the faith of the Yogin on the +means of attaining Yoga described in the second chapter. In the fourth +chapter is described kaivalya, absolute independence or oneness, which +is the end of all the Yoga practices. + +The _Bhāshya_ describes the five classes of cittas and comments upon +their fitness for the Yoga leading to kaivalya. Those are I. _kshipta_ +(wandering), II. _mūḍha_ (forgetful), III. _vikshipta_ (occasionally +steady), IV. _ekāgra_ (one-pointed), _niruddha_ (restrained). + +I. The _kshiptacitta_ is characterised as wandering, because it is being +always moved by the rajas. This is that citta which is always moved to +and fro by the rise of passions, the excess of which may indeed for the +time overpower the mind and thus generate a temporary concentration, but +it has nothing to do with the contemplative concentration required for +attaining absolute independence. The man moved by rajas, far from +attaining any mastery of himself, is rather a slave to his own passions +and is always being moved to and fro and shaken by them (see +_Siddhānta-candrikā_, I. 2, _Bhojavṛtti_, I. 2). + +II. The mūḍhacitta is that which is overpowered by tamas, or passions, +like that of anger, etc., by which it loses its senses and always +chooses the wrong course. Svāmin Hariharāraṇya suggests a beautiful +example of such concentration as similar to that of certain snakes which +become completely absorbed in the prey upon which they are about to +pounce. + +III. The vikshiptacitta, or distracted or occasionally steady citta, is +that mind which rationally avoids the painful actions and chooses the +pleasurable ones. Now none of these three kinds of mind can hope to +attain that contemplative concentration called Yoga. This last type of +mind represents ordinary people, who sometimes tend towards good but +relapse back to evil. + +IV. The one-pointed (ekāgra) is that kind of mind in which true +knowledge of the nature of reality is present and the afflictions due to +nescience or false knowledge are thus attenuated and the mind better +adapted to attain the nirodha or restrained state. All these come under +the saṃprajñāta (concentration on an object of knowledge) type. + +V. The nirodha or restrained mind is that in which all mental states are +arrested. This leads to kaivalya. + +Ordinarily our minds are engaged only in perception, inference, +etc.—those mental states which we all naturally possess. These ordinary +mental states are full of rajas and tamas. When these are arrested, the +mind flows with an abundance of sattva in the saṃprajñāta samādhi; +lastly when even the saṃprajñāta state is arrested, all possible states +become arrested. + +Another important fact which must be noted is the relation of the actual +states of mind called the vṛttis with the latent states called the +saṃskāras—the potency. When a particular mental state passes away into +another, it is not altogether lost, but is preserved in the mind in a +latent form as a saṃskāra, which is always trying to manifest itself in +actuality. The vṛttis or actual states are thus both generating the +saṃskāras and are also always tending to manifest themselves and +actually generating similar vṛttis or actual states. There is a +circulation from vṛttis to saṃskāras and from them again to vṛttis +(_saṃskārāḥ vṛttibhiḥ kriyante, saṃskāraiśca vṛttayaḥ evaṃ +vṛttisaṃskāracakramaniśamāvarttate_). So the formation of saṃskāras and +their conservation are gradually being strengthened by the habit of +similar vṛttis or actual states, and their continuity is again +guaranteed by the strength and continuity of these saṃskāras. The +saṃskāras are like roots striking deep into the soil and growing with +the growth of the plant above, but even when the plant above the soil is +destroyed, the roots remain undisturbed and may again shoot forth as +plants whenever they obtain a favourable season. Thus it is not enough +for a Yogin to arrest any particular class of mental states; he must +attain such a habit of restraint that the saṃskāra thus generated is +able to overcome, weaken and destroy the saṃskāra of those actual states +which he has arrested by his contemplation. Unless restrained by such a +habit, the saṃskāra of cessation (_nirodhaja saṃskāra_) which is opposed +to the previously acquired mental states become powerful and destroy the +latter, these are sure to shoot forth again in favourable season into +their corresponding actual states. + +The conception of avidyā or nescience is here not negative but has a +definite positive aspect. It means that kind of knowledge which is +opposed to true knowledge (_vidyāviparītaṃ jñānāntaramavidyā_). This is +of four kinds: (1) The thinking of the non-eternal world, which is +merely an effect, as eternal. (2) The thinking of the impure as the +pure, as for example the attraction that a woman’s body may have for a +man leading him to think the impure body pure. (3) The thinking of vice +as virtue, of the undesirable as the desirable, of pain as pleasure. We +know that for a Yogin every phenomenal state of existence is painful +(II. 15). A Yogin knows that attachment (_rāga_) to sensual and other +objects can only give temporary pleasure, for it is sure to be soon +turned into pain. Enjoyment can never bring satisfaction, but only +involves a man further and further in sorrows. (4) Considering the +non-self, e.g. the body as the self. This causes a feeling of being +injured on the injury of the body. + +At the moment of enjoyment there is always present suffering from pain +in the form of aversion to pain; for the tendency to aversion from pain +can only result from the incipient memory of previous sufferings. Of +course this is also a case of pleasure turned into pain +(_pariṇāmaduḥkhatā_), but it differs from it in this that in the case of +pariṇāmaduḥkha pleasure is turned into pain as a result of change or +pariṇāma in the future, whereas in this case the anxiety as to pain is a +thing of the present, happening at one and the same time that a man is +enjoying pleasure. + +Enjoyment of pleasure or suffering from pain causes those impressions +called saṃskāra or potencies, and these again when aided by association +naturally create their memory and thence comes attachment or aversion, +then again action, and again pleasure and pain and hence impressions, +memory, attachment or aversion, and again action and so forth. + +All states are modifications of the three guṇas; in each one of them the +functions of all the three guṇas are seen, contrary to one another. +These contraries are observable in their developed forms, for the guṇas +are seen to abide in various proportions and compose all our mental +states. Thus a Yogin who wishes to be released from pain once for all is +very sensitive and anxious to avoid even our so-called pleasures. The +wise are like the eye-ball. As a thread of wool thrown into the eye +pains by merely touching it, but not when it comes into contact with any +other organ, so the Yogin is as tender as the eye-ball, when others are +insensible of pain. Ordinary persons, however, who have again and again +suffered pains as the consequence of their own karma, and who again seek +them after having given them up, are all round pierced through as it +were by nescience, their minds become full of afflictions, variegated by +the eternal residua of the passions. They follow in the wake of the “I” +and the “Mine” in relation to things that should be left apart, pursuing +threefold pain in repeated births, due to external and internal causes. +The Yogin seeing himself and the world of living beings surrounded by +the eternal flow of pain, turns for refuge to right knowledge, cause of +the destruction of all pains (_Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 15). + +Thinking of the mind and body and the objects of the external world as +the true self and feeling affected by their change is avidyā (false +knowledge). + +The modifications that this avidyā suffers may be summarised under four +heads. + +I. The ego, which, as described above, springs from the identification +of the buddhi with the purusha. + +II. From this ego springs attachment (_rāga_) which is the inclination +towards pleasure and consequently towards the means necessary for +attaining it in a person who has previously experienced pleasures and +remembers them. + +II. Repulsion from pain also springs from the ego and is of the nature +of anxiety for its removal; anger at pain and the means which produces +pain, remains in the mind in consequence of the feeling of pain, in the +case of him who has felt and remembers pain. + +IV. Love of life also springs from the ego. This feeling exists in all +persons and appears in a positive aspect in the form “would that I were +never to cease.” This is due to the painful experience of death in some +previous existence, which abides in us as a residual potency (_vāsanā_) +and causes the instincts of self-preservation, fear of death and love of +life. These modifications including avidyā are called the five kleśas or +afflictions. + +We are now in a position to see the far-reaching effects of the +identification of the purusha with the buddhi. We have already seen how +it has generated the macrocosm or external world on the one hand, and +manas and the senses on the other. Now we see that from it also spring +attachment to pleasure, aversion from pain and love of life, motives +observable in most of our states of consciousness, which are therefore +called the _klishṭa vṛtti_ or afflicted states. The five afflictions +(false knowledge and its four modifications spoken above) just mentioned +are all comprehended in avidyā, since avidyā or false knowledge is at +the root of all worldly experiences. The sphere of avidyā is all false +knowledge generally, and that of asmitā is also inseparably connected +with all our experiences which consist in the identification of the +intelligent self with the sensual objects of the world, the attainment +of which seems to please us and the loss of which is so painful to us. +It must, however, be remembered that these five afflictions are only +different aspects of avidyā and cannot be conceived separately from +avidyā. These always lead us into the meshes of the world, far from our +final goal—the realisation of our own self—emancipation of the purusha. + +Opposed to it are the vṛttis or states which are called unafflicted, +aklishṭa, the habit of steadiness (_abhyāsa_) and non-attachment to +pleasures (_vairāgya_) which being antagonistic to the afflicted states, +are helpful towards achieving true knowledge. These represent such +thoughts as tend towards emancipation and are produced from our attempts +to conceive rationally our final state of emancipation, or to adopt +suitable means for this. They must not, however, be confused with +puṇyakarma (virtuous action), for both puṇya and pāpa karma are said to +have sprung from the kleśas. There is no hard and fast rule with regard +to the appearance of these klishṭa and aklishṭa states, so that in the +stream of the klishṭa states or in the intervals thereof, aklishṭa +states may also appear—as practice and desirelessness born from the +study of the Veda-reasoning and precepts—and remain quite distinct in +itself, unmixed with the klishṭa states. A Brahman being in a village +which is full of the Kirātas, does not himself become a Kirāta (a forest +tribe) for that reason. + +Each aklishṭa state produces its own potency or saṃskāra, and with the +frequency of the states their saṃskāra is strengthened which in due +course suppresses the aklishṭa states. + +These klishṭa and aklishṭa modifications are of five descriptions: +pramāṇa (real cognition), viparyyaya (unreal cognition), vikalpa +(logical abstraction and imagination), nidrā (sleep), smṛti (memory). +These vṛttis or states, however, must be distinguished from the six +kinds of mental activity mentioned in _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 18: grahaṇa +(reception or presentative ideation), dhāraṇa (retention), ūha +(assimilation), apoha (differentiation), tattvajñāna (right knowledge), +abhiniveśa (decision and determination), of which these states are the +products. + +We have seen that from avidyā spring all the kleśas or afflictions, +which are therefore seen to be the source of the klishṭa vṛttis as well. +Abhyāsa and vairāgya—the aklishṭa vṛttis, which spring from precepts, +etc., lead to right knowledge, and as such are antagonistic to the +modification of the guṇas on the avidyā side. + +We know also that both these sets of vṛttis—the klishṭa and the +aklishṭa—produce their own kinds of saṃskāras, the klishṭa saṃskāra and +the aklishṭa or prajñā saṃskāra. All these modifications of citta as +vṛtti and saṃskāra are the dharmas of citta, considered as the dharmin +or substance. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + THE THEORY OF KARMA + + +The vṛttis are called the mānasa karmas (mental work) as different from +the bāhya karmas (external work) achieved in the exterior world by the +five motor or active senses. These may be divided into four classes: (1) +kṛshṇa (black), (2) śukla (white), (3) śuklakṛshṇa (white and black), +(4) aśuklākṛshṇa (neither white nor black). (1) The kṛshṇa karmas are +those committed by the wicked and, as such, are wicked actions called +also adharma (demerit). These are of two kinds, viz. bāhya and mānasa, +the former being of the nature of speaking ill of others, stealing +others’ property, etc., and the latter of the nature of such states as +are opposed to śraddhā, vīrya, etc., which are called the śukla karma. +(2) The śukla karmas are virtuous or meritorious deeds. These can only +occur in the form of mental states, and as such can take place only in +the mānasa karma. These are śraddhā (faith), vīrya (strength), smṛti +(meditation), samādhi (absorption), and prajñā (wisdom), which are +infinitely superior to actions achieved in the external world by the +motor or active senses. The śukla karma belongs to those who resort to +study and meditation. (3) The śuklakṛshṇa karma are the actions achieved +in the external world by the motor or active senses. These are called +white and black, because actions achieved in the external world, however +good (śukla) they might be, cannot be altogether devoid of wickedness +(kṛshṇa), since all external actions entail some harm to other living +beings. + +Even the Vedic duties, though meritorious, are associated with sins, for +they entail the sacrificing of animals.[40] + +The white side of these actions, viz.: that of helping others and doing +good is therefore called dharma, as it is the cause of the enjoyment of +pleasure and happiness for the doer. The kṛshṇa or black side of these +actions, viz. that of doing injury to others is called adharma, as it is +the cause of the suffering of pain to the doer. In all our ordinary +states of existence we are always under the influence of dharma and +adharma, which are therefore called vehicles of actions (_āśerate +sāṃsārikā purushā asmin niti āśayaḥ_). That in which some thing lives is +its vehicle. Here the purushas in evolution are to be understood as +living in the sheath of actions (which is for that reason called a +vehicle or āśaya). Merit or virtue, and sin or demerit are the vehicles +of actions. All śukla karma, therefore, either mental or external, is +called merit or virtue and is productive of happiness; all kṛshṇa karma, +either mental or external, is called demerit, sin or vice and is +productive of pain. + +(4) The karma called aśuklakṛshṇa (neither black nor white) is of those +who have renounced everything, whose afflictions have been destroyed and +whose present body is the last one they will have. Those who have +renounced actions, the karma-sannyāsis (and not those who belong to the +sannyāsāśrama merely), are nowhere found performing actions which depend +upon external means. They have not got the black vehicle of actions, +because they do not perform such actions. Nor do they possess the white +vehicle of actions, because they dedicate to Īśvara the fruits of all +vehicles of action, brought about by the practice of Yoga. + +Returning to the question of karmāśaya again for review, we see that +being produced from desire (_kāma_), avarice (_lobha_), ignorance +(_moha_), and anger (_krodha_) it has really got at its root the kleśas +(afflictions) such as avidyā (ignorance), asmitā (egoism), rāga +(attachment), dvesha (antipathy), abhiniveśa (love of life). It will be +easily seen that the passions named above, desire, lust, etc., are not +in any way different from the kleśas or afflictions previously +mentioned; and as all actions, virtuous or sinful, have their springs in +the said sentiments of desire, anger, covetousness, and infatuation, it +is quite enough that all these virtuous or sinful actions spring from +the kleśas. + +Now this karmāśaya ripens into life-state, life-experience and +life-time, if the roots—the afflictions—exist. Not only is it true that +when the afflictions are rooted out, no karmāśaya can accumulate, but +even when many karmāśayas of many lives are accumulated, they are rooted +out when the afflictions are destroyed. Otherwise, it is difficult to +conceive that the karmāśaya accumulated for an infinite number of years, +whose time of ripeness is uncertain, will be rooted out! So even if +there be no fresh karmāśaya after the rise of true knowledge, the +purusha cannot be liberated but will be required to suffer an endless +cycle of births and rebirths to exhaust the already accumulated +karmāśayas of endless lives. For this reason, the mental plane becomes a +field for the production of the fruits of action only, when it is +watered by the stream of afflictions. Hence the afflictions help the +vehicle of actions (karmāśaya) in the production of their fruits also. +It is for this reason that when the afflictions are destroyed the power +which helps to bring about the manifestation also disappears; and on +that account the vehicles of actions although existing in innumerable +quantities have no time for their fruition and do not possess the power +of producing fruit, because their seed-powers are destroyed by +intellection. + +Karmāśaya is of two kinds. (1) Ripening in the same life +_dṛshṭajanmavedanīya_. (2) Ripening in another unknown life. That puṇya +karmāśaya, which is generated by intense purificatory action, trance and +repetition of mantras, and that pāpa karmāśaya, which is generated by +repeated evil done either to men who are suffering the extreme misery of +fear, disease and helplessness, or to those who place confidence in them +or to those who are high-minded and perform tapas, ripen into fruit in +the very same life, whereas other kinds of karmāśayas ripen in some +unknown life. + +Living beings in hell have no dṛshṭajanma karmāśaya, for this life is +intended for suffering only and their bodies are called the +bhoga-śarīras intended for suffering alone and not for the accumulation +of any karmāśaya which could take effect in that very life. + +There are others whose afflictions have been spent and exhausted and +thus they have no such karmāśaya, the effect of which they will have +to reap in some other life. They are thus said to have no +adṛshṭa-janmavedanīya karma. + +The karmāśaya of both kinds described above ripens into life-state, +life-time and life-experience. These are called the three ripenings or +vipākas of the karmāśaya; and they are conducive to pleasure or pain, +according as they are products of puṇyakarmāśaya (virtue) or pāpa +karmāśaya (vice or demerit). Many karmāśayas combine to produce one +life-state; for it is not possible that each karma should produce one or +many life-states, for then there would be no possibility of experiencing +the effects of the karmas, because if for each one of the karmas we had +one or more lives, karmas, being endless, space for obtaining lives in +which to experience effects would not be available, for it would take +endless time to exhaust the karmas already accumulated. It is therefore +held that many karmas unite to produce one life-state or birth (jāti) +and to determine also its particular duration (āyush) and experience +(bhoga). The virtuous and sinful karmāśayas accumulated in one life, in +order to produce their effects, cause the death of the individual and +manifest themselves in producing his rebirth, his duration of life and +particular experiences, pleasurable or painful. The order of undergoing +the experiences is the order in which the karmas manifest themselves as +effects, the principal ones being manifested earlier in life. The +principal karmas here refer to those which are quite ready to generate +their effects. Thus it is said that those karmas which produce their +effects immediately are called primary, whereas those which produce +effects after some delay are called secondary. Thus we see that there is +continuity of existence throughout; when the karmas of this life ripen +jointly they tend to fructify by causing another birth as a means to +which death is caused, and along with it life is manifested in another +body (according to the dharma and adharma of the karmāśaya) formed by +the prakṛtyāpūra (cf. the citta theory described above); and the same +karmāśaya regulates the life-period and experiences of that life, the +karmāśayas of which again take a similar course and manifest themselves +in the production of another life and so on. + +We have seen that the karmāśaya has three fructifications, viz. jāti, +āyush and bhoga. Now generally the karmāśaya is regarded as ekabhavika +or unigenital, i.e. it accumulates in one life. Ekabhava means one life +and ekabhavika means the product of one life, or accumulated in one +life. Regarded from this point of view, it may be contrasted with the +vāsanās which remain accumulated from thousands of previous lives since +eternity, the mind, being pervaded all over with them, as a fishing-net +is covered all over with knots. This vāsanā results from memory of the +experiences of a life generated by the fructification of the karmāśaya +and kept in the citta in the form of potency or impressions (saṃskāra). +Now we have previously seen that the citta remains constant in all the +births and rebirths that an individual has undergone from eternity; it +therefore keeps the memory of those various experiences of thousands of +lives in the form of saṃskāra or potency and is therefore compared with +a fishing-net pervaded all over with knots. The vāsanās therefore are +not the results of the accumulation of experiences or their memory in +one life but in many lives, and are therefore called anekabhavika as +contrasted with the karmāśaya representing virtuous and vicious actions +which are accumulated in one life and which produce another life, its +experiences and its life-duration as a result of fructification +(vipāka). This vāsanā is the cause of the instinctive tendencies, or +habits of deriving pleasures and pains peculiar to different animal +lives. + +Thus the habits of a dog-life and its peculiar modes of taking its +experiences and of deriving pleasures and pains are very different in +nature from those of a man-life; they must therefore be explained on the +basis of an incipient memory in the form of potency, or impressions +(saṃskāra) of the experiences that an individual must have undergone in +a previous dog-life. + +Now when by the fructification of the karmāśaya a dog-life is settled +for a person, his corresponding vāsanās of a previous dog-life are at +once revived and he begins to take interest in his dog-life in the +manner of a dog; the same principle applies to the virtue of individuals +as men or as gods (IV. 8). + +If there was not this law of vāsanās, then any vāsanā would be revived +in any life, and with the manifestation of the vāsanā of animal life a +man would take interest in eating grass and derive pleasure from it. +Thus Nāgeśa says: “Now if those karmas which produce a man-life should +manifest the vāsanās of animal lives, then one might be inclined to eat +grass as a man, and it is therefore said that only the vāsanās +corresponding to the karmas are revived.” + +Now as the vāsanās are of the nature of saṃskāras or impressions, they +lie ingrained in the citta and nothing can prevent their being revived. +The intervention of other births has no effect. For this reason, the +vāsanās of a dog-life are at once revived in another dog-life, though +between the first dog-life and the second dog-life, the individual may +have passed through many other lives, as a man, a bull, etc., though the +second dog-life may take place many hundreds of years after the first +dog-life and in quite different countries. The difference between +saṃskāras, impressions, and smṛti or memory is simply this that the +former is the latent state whereas the latter is the manifested state; +so we see that the memory and the impressions are identical in nature, +so that whenever a saṃskāra is revived, it means nothing but the +manifestation of the memory of the same experiences conserved in the +saṃskāra in a latent state. Experiences, when they take place, keep +their impressions in the mind, though thousands of other experiences, +lapse of time, etc., may intervene. They are revived in one moment with +the proper cause of their revival, and the other intervening experiences +can in no way hinder this revival. So it is with the vāsanās, which are +revived at once according to the particular fructification of the +karmāśaya, in the form of a particular life, as a man, a dog, or +anything else. + +It is now clear that the karmāśaya tending towards fructification is the +cause of the manifestation of the vāsanās already existing in the mind +in a latent form. Thus the Sūtra says:—“When two similar lives are +separated by many births, long lapses of time and remoteness of space, +even then for the purpose of the revival of the vāsanās, they may be +regarded as immediately following each other, for the memories and +impressions are the same” (_Yoga-sūtra_, IV. 9). The _Bhāshya_ says: +“the vāsanā is like the memory (smṛti), and so there can be memory from +the impressions of past lives separated by many lives and by remote +tracts of country. From these memories the impressions (saṃskāras) are +derived, and the memories are revived by manifestation of the +karmāśayas, and though memories from past impressions may have many +lives intervening, these interventions do not destroy the causal +antecedence of those past lives” (IV. 9). + +These vāsanās are, however, beginningless, for a baby just after birth +is seen to feel the fear of death instinctively, and it could not have +derived it from its experience in this life. Again, if a small baby is +thrown upwards, it is seen to shake and cry like a grown-up man, and +from this it may be inferred that it is afraid of falling down on the +ground and is therefore shaking through fear. Now this baby has never +learnt in this life from experience that a fall on the ground will cause +pain, for it has never fallen on the ground and suffered pain therefrom; +so the cause of this fear cannot be sought in the experiences of this +life, but in the memory of past experiences of fall and pain arising +therefrom, which is innate in this life as vāsanā and causes this +instinctive fear. So this innate memory which causes instinctive fear of +death from the very time of birth, has not its origin in this life but +is the memory of the experience of some previous life, and in that life, +too, it existed as innate memory of some other previous life, and in +that again as the innate memory of some other life and so on to +beginningless time. This goes to show that the vāsanās are without +beginning. + +We come now to the question of unigenitality—ekabhavikatva—of the +karmāśaya and its exceptions. We find that great confusion has occurred +among the commentators about the following passage in the _Bhāshya_ +which refers to this subject: The _Bhāshya_ according to Vācaspati in +II. 13 reads: _tatra dṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya_, etc. Here +Bhikshu and Nāgeśa read _tatrādṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya_, +etc. There is thus a divergence of meaning on this point between +_Yoga-vārttika_ and his follower Nāgeśa, on one side, and Vācaspati on +the other. + +Vācaspati says that the dṛshṭajanmavedanīya (to be fructified in the +same visible life) karma is the only true karma where the karmāśaya is +ekabhavika, unigenital, for here these effects are positively not due to +the karma of any other previous lives, but to the karma of that very +life. Thus these are the only true causes of ekabhavika karmāśaya. + +Thus according to Vācaspati we see that the adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma +(to be fructified in another life) of unappointed fruition is never an +ideal of ekabhavikatva or unigenital character; for it may have three +different courses: (1) It may be destroyed without fruition. (2) It may +become merged in the ruling action. (3) It may exist for a long time +overpowered by the ruling action whose fruition has been appointed. + +Vijñāna Bhikshu and his follower Nāgeśa, however, say that the +dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (to be fructified in the same visible life) +can never be ekabhavika or unigenital for there is no bhava, or previous +birth there, whose product is being fructified in that life, for this +karma is of that same visible life and not of some other previous bhava +or life; and they agree in holding that it is for that reason that the +_Bhāshya_ makes no mention of this dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma; it is +clear that the karmāśaya in no other bhava is being fructified here. +Thus we see that about dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma, Vācaspati holds that +it is the typical case of ekabhavika karma (karma of the same birth), +whereas Vijñāna Bhikshu holds just the opposite view, viz. that the +dṛhṭajanmavedanīya karma should by no means be considered as ekabhavika +since there is here no bhava or birth, it being fructified in the same +life. + +The adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (works to be fructified in another life) +of unfixed fruition has three different courses: (I) As we have observed +before, by the rise of _aśuklākṛshṇa_ (neither black nor white) karma, +the other karmas—_śukla_ (black), _kṛshṇa_ (white) and _śuklakṛshṇa_ +(both black and white)—are rooted out. The śukla karmāśaya again arising +from study and asceticism destroys the kṛshṇa karmas without their being +able to generate their effects. These therefore can never be styled +ekabhavika, since they are destroyed without producing any effect. (II) +When the effects of minor actions are merged in the effects of the major +and ruling action. The sins originating from the sacrifice of animals at +a holy sacrifice are sure to produce bad effects, though they may be +minor and small in comparison with the good effects arising from the +performance of the sacrifice in which they are merged. Thus it is said +that the experts being immersed in floods of happiness brought about by +their sacrifices bear gladly particles of the fire of sorrow brought +about by the sin of killing animals at sacrifice. So we see that here +also the minor actions having been performed with the major do not +produce their effects independently, and so all their effects are not +fully manifested, and hence these secondary karmāśayas cannot be +regarded as ekabhavika. (III) Again the adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (to +be fructified in another life) of unfixed fruition (_aniyata vipāka_) +remains overcome for a long time by another adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma +of fixed fruition. A man may for example do some good actions and some +extremely vicious ones, so that at the time of death, the karmāśaya of +those vicious actions becoming ripe and fit for appointed fruition, +generates an animal life. His good action, whose benefits are such as +may be reaped only in a man-life, will remain overcome until the man is +born again as a man: so this also cannot be said to be ekabhavika (to be +reaped in one life). We may summarise the classification of karmas +according to Vācaspati in a table as follows:— + + Karmāśaya + | + +-------------------+--------------------+ + | | + Ekabhavika Anekabhavika + | | + Niyata Vipāka Aniyatavipāka + (of fixed fruition). | + | Adṛshṭajanmavedanīya + +------+--------------------+ | + | | | + Dṛshṭajanmavedanīya Adṛshṭajanmavedanīya | + | + +----------------+----------+-----+ + | | | + (Destruction) (Merged in the (To remain + effect of the overcome by + major action.) the influence + of some other + action.) + +Thus the karmāśaya may be viewed from two sides, one being that of fixed +fruition and the other unfixed fruition, and the other that of +dṛshṭajanmavedanīya and adṛshṭajanmavedanīya. Now the theory is that the +niyatavipāka (of fixed fruition) karmāśaya is always ekabhavika, i.e. it +does not remain separated by other lives, but directly produces its +effects in the succeeding life. + +Ekabhavika means that which is produced from the accumulation of karmas +in one life in the life which succeeds it. Vācaspati, however, takes it +also to mean that action which attains fruition in the same life in +which it is performed, whereas what Vijñāna Bhikshu understands by +ekabhavika is that action alone which is produced in the life +immediately succeeding the life in which it was accumulated. So +according to Vijñāna Bhikshu, the niyata vipāka (of fixed fruition) +dṛshṭajanmavedanīya (to be fructified in the same life) action is not +ekabhavika, since it has no bhava, i.e. it is not the production of a +preceding life. Neither can it be anekabhavika; thus this +niyatavipākadṛshṭajanmavedanīya action is neither ekabhavika nor +anekbhavika. Whereas Vācaspati is inclined to call this also ekabhavika. +About the niyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya action being called +ekabhavika (unigenital) there seems to be no dispute. The +aniyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya action cannot be called ekabhavika as +it undergoes three different courses described above. + + + + + CHAPTER X + THE ETHICAL PROBLEM + + +We have described avidyā and its special forms as the kleśas, from which +also proceed the actions virtuous and vicious, which in their turn again +produce as a result of their fruition, birth, life and experiences of +pleasure and pain and the vāsanās or residues of the memory of these +experiences. Again every new life or birth is produced from the +fructification of actions of a previous life; a man is made to perform +actions good or bad by the kleśas which are rooted in him, and these +actions, as a result of their fructification, produce another life and +its experiences, in which life again new actions are earned by virtue of +the kleśas, and thus the cycle is continued. When there is pralaya or +involution of the cosmical world-process the individual cittas of the +separate purushas return back to the prakṛti and lie within it, together +with their own avidyās, and at the time of each new creation or +evolution these are created anew with such changes as are due according +to their individual avidyās, with which they had to return back to their +original cause, the prakṛti, and spend an indivisible inseparable +existence with it. The avidyās of some other creation, being merged in +the prakṛti along with the cittas, remain in the prakṛti as vāsanās, and +prakṛti being under the influence of these avidyās as vāsanās creates as +modifications of itself the corresponding minds for the individual +purushas, connected with them before the last pralaya dissolution. So we +see that though the cittas had returned to their original causes with +their individual nescience (_avidyā_), the avidyā was not lost but was +revived at the time of the new creation and created such minds as should +be suitable receptacles for it. These minds (buddhi) are found to be +modified further into their specific cittas or mental planes by the same +avidyā which is manifested in them as the kleśas, and these again in the +karmāśaya, jāti, āyush and bhoga, and so on; the individual, however, is +just in the same position as he was or would have been before the +involution of pralaya. The avidyās of the cittas which had returned to +the prakṛti at the time of the creation being revived, create their own +buddhis of the previous creation, and by their connection with the +individual purushas are the causes of the saṃsāra or cosmic +evolution—the evolution of the microcosm, the cittas, and the macrocosm +or the exterior world. + +In this new creation, the creative agencies of God and avidyā are thus +distinguished in that the latter represents the end or purpose of the +prakṛti—the ever-evolving energy transforming itself into its +modifications as the mental and the material world; whereas the former +represents that intelligent power which abides outside the pale of +prakṛti, but removes obstructions offered by the prakṛti. Though +unintelligent and not knowing how and where to yield so as to form the +actual modifications necessary for the realisation of the particular and +specific objects of the numberless purushas, these avidyās hold within +themselves the serviceability of the purushas, and are the cause of the +connection of the purusha and the prakṛti, so that when these avidyās +are rooted out it is said that the purushārthatā or serviceability of +the purusha is at an end and the purusha becomes liberated from the +bonds of prakṛti, and this is called the final goal of the purusha. + +The ethical problem of the Pātañjala philosophy is the uprooting of this +avidyā by the attainment of true knowledge of the nature of the purusha, +which will be succeeded by the liberation of the purusha and his +absolute freedom or independence—kaivalya—the last realisation of the +purusha—the ultimate goal of all the movements of the prakṛti. + +This final uprooting of the avidyā with its vāsanās directly follows the +attainment of true knowledge called prajñā, in which state the seed of +false knowledge is altogether burnt and cannot be revived again. Before +this state, the discriminative knowledge which arises as the recognition +of the distinct natures of purusha and buddhi remains shaky; but when by +continual practice this discriminative knowledge becomes strengthened in +the mind, its potency gradually grows stronger and stronger, and roots +out the potency of the ordinary states of mental activity, and thus the +seed of false knowledge becomes burnt up and incapable of fruition, and +the impurity of the energy of rajas being removed, the sattva as the +manifesting entity becomes of the highest purity, and in that state +flows on the stream of the notion of discrimination—the recognition of +the distinct natures of purusha and buddhi—free from impurity. Thus when +the state of buddhi becomes almost as pure as the purusha itself, all +self-enquiry subsides, the vision of the real form of the purusha +arises, and false knowledge, together with the kleśas and the consequent +fruition of actions, ceases once for all. This is that state of citta +which, far from tending towards the objective world, tends towards the +kaivalya of the purusha. + +In the first stages, when the mind attains discriminative knowledge, the +prajñā is not deeply seated, and occasionally phenomenal states of +consciousness are seen to intervene in the form of “I am,” “Mine,” “I +know,” “I do not know,” because the old potencies, though becoming +weaker and weaker are not finally destroyed, and consequently +occasionally produce their corresponding conscious manifestation as +states which impede the flow of discriminative knowledge. But constant +practice in rooting out the potency of this state destroys the potencies +of the outgoing activity, and finally no intervention occurs in the flow +of the stream of prajñā through the destructive influence of phenomenal +states of consciousness. In this higher state when the mind is in its +natural, passive, and objectless stream of flowing prajñā, it is called +the dharmamegha-saṁādhi. When nothing is desired even from dhyāna arises +the true knowledge which distinguishes prakṛti from purusha and is +called the dharmamegha-samādhi (_Yoga-sūtra_, IV. 29). The potency, +however, of this state of consciousness lasts until the purusha is +finally liberated from the bonds of prakṛti and is absolutely free +(kevalī). Now this is the state when the citta becomes infinite, and all +its tamas being finally overcome, it shines forth like the sun, which +can reflect all, and in comparison to which the crippled insignificant +light of objective knowledge shrinks altogether, and thus an infinitude +is acquired, which has absorbed within itself all finitude, which cannot +have any separate existence or manifestation through this infinite +knowledge. All finite states of knowledge are only a limitation of true +infinite knowledge, in which there is no limitation of this and that. It +absorbs within itself all these limitations. + +The purusha in this state may be called the emancipated being, +jīvanmukta. Nāgeśa in explaining _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 31, describing the +emancipated life says: “In this jīvanmukta stage, being freed from all +impure afflictions and karmas, the consciousness shines in its +infirmity. The infiniteness of consciousness is different from the +infiniteness of materiality veiled by tamas. In those stages there could +be consciousness only with reference to certain things with reference to +which the veil of tamas was raised by rajas. When all veils and +impurities are removed, then little is left which is not known. If there +were other categories besides the 25 categories, these also would then +have been known” (_Chāyāvyākhyā_, IV. 31). + +Now with the rise of such dharmamegha the succession of the changes of +the qualities is over, inasmuch as they have fulfilled their object by +having achieved experience and emancipation, and their succession having +ended, they cannot stay even for a moment. And now comes absolute +freedom, when the guṇas return back to the pradhāna their primal cause, +after performing their service for the purusha by providing his +experience and his salvation, so that they lose all their hold on +purusha and purusha remains as he is in himself, and never again has any +connection with the buddhi. The purusha remains always in himself in +absolute freedom. + +The order of the return of the guṇas for a kevalī purusha is described +below in the words of Vācaspati: The guṇas as cause and effect involving +ordinary experiences samādhi and nirodha, become submerged in the manas; +the manas becomes submerged in the asmitā, the asmitā in the liṅga, and +the liṅga in the aliṅga. + +This state of kaivalya must be distinguished from the state of +mahāpralaya in which also the guṇas return back to prakṛti, for that +state is again succeeded by later connections of prakṛti with purushas +through the buddhis, but the state of kaivalya is an eternal state which +is never again disturbed by any connection with prakṛti, for now the +separation of prakṛti from purusha is eternal, whereas that in the +mahāpralaya state was only temporary. + +We shall conclude this section by noting two kinds of eternity of +purusha and of prakṛti, and by offering a criticism of the prajñā state. +The former is said to be perfectly and unchangeably eternal (_kūṭastha +nitya_), and the latter is only eternal in an evolutionary form. The +permanent or eternal reality is that which remains unchanged amid its +changing appearances; and from this point of view both purusha and +prakṛti are eternal. It is indeed true, as we have seen just now, that +the succession of changes of qualities with regard to buddhi, etc., +comes to an end when kaivalya is attained, but this is with reference to +purusha, for the changes of qualities in the guṇas themselves never come +to an end. So the guṇas in themselves are eternal in their changing or +evolutionary character, and are therefore said to possess evolutionary +eternity (_pariṇāminityatā_). Our phenomenal conception cannot be free +from change, and therefore it is that in our conception of the released +purushas we affirm their existence, as for example when we say that the +released purushas exist eternally. But it must be carefully noted that +this is due to the limited character of our thoughts and expressions, +not to the real nature of the released purushas, which remain for ever +unqualified by any changes or modifications, pure and colourless as the +very self of shining intelligence (see _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, IV. 33). + +We shall conclude this section by giving a short analysis of the prajñā +state from its first appearance to the final release of purusha from the +bondage of prakṛti. Patañjali says that this prajñā state being final in +each stage is sevenfold. Of these the first four stages are due to our +conscious endeavour, and when these conscious states of prajñā +(supernatural wisdom) flow in a stream and are not hindered or +interfered with in any way by other phenomenal conscious states of +pratyayas the purusha becomes finally liberated through the natural +backward movement of the citta to its own primal cause, and this +backward movement is represented by the other three stages. + +The seven prajñā stages may be thus enumerated:— + +I. The pain to be removed is known. Nothing further remains to be known +of it. + +This is the first aspect of the prajñā, in which the person willing to +be released knows that he has exhausted all that is knowable of the +pains. + +II. The cause of the pains has been removed and nothing further remains +to be removed of it. This is the second stage or aspect of the rise of +prajñā. + +III. The nature of the extinction of pain has already been perceived by +me in the state of samādhi, so that I have come to learn that the final +extinction of my pain will be something like it. + +IV. The final discrimination of prakṛti and purusha, the true and +immediate means of the extinction of pain, has been realised. + +After this stage, nothing remains to be done by the purusha himself. For +this is the attainment of final true knowledge. It is also called the +para vairāgya. It is the highest consummation, in which the purusha has +no further duties to perform. This is therefore called the kārya vimukti +(or salvation depending on the endeavour of the purusha) or jīvanmukti. + +After this follows the citta vimukti or the process of release of the +purusha from the citta, in three stages. + +V. The aspect of the buddhi, which has finally finished its services to +purusha by providing scope for purusha’s experiences and release; so +that it has nothing else to perform for purusha. This is the first stage +of the retirement of the citta. + +VI. As soon as this state is attained, like the falling of stones thrown +from the summit of a hill, the guṇas cannot remain even for a moment to +bind the purusha, but at once return back to their primal cause, the +prakṛti; for the avidyā being rooted out, there is no tie or bond which +can keep it connected with purusha and make it suffer changes for the +service of purusha. All the purushārthatā being ended, the guṇas +disappear of themselves. + +VII. The seventh and last aspect of the guṇas is that they never return +back to bind purusha again, their teleological purpose being fulfilled +or realised. It is of course easy to see that, in these last three +stages, purusha has nothing to do; but the guṇas of their own nature +suffer these backward modifications and return back to their own primal +cause and leave the purusha kevalī (for ever solitary). _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, +II. 15. + +Vyāsa says that as the science of medicine has four divisions: (1) +disease, (2) the cause of disease, (3) recovery, (4) medicines; so this +Yoga philosophy has also four divisions, viz.: (I) Saṃsāra (the +evolution of the prakṛti in connection with the purusha). (II) The cause +of saṃsāra. (III) Release. (IV) The means of release. + +Of these the first three have been described at some length above. We +now direct our attention to the fourth. We have shown above that the +ethical goal, the ideal to be realised, is absolute freedom or kaivalya, +and we shall now consider the line of action that must be adopted to +attain this goal—the _summum bonum_. All actions which tend towards the +approximate realisation of this goal for man are called kuśala, and the +man who achieves this goal is called kuśalī. It is in the inherent +purpose of prakṛti that man should undergo pains which include all +phenomenal experiences of pleasures as well, and ultimately adopt such a +course of conduct as to avoid them altogether and finally achieve the +true goal, the realisation of which will extinguish all pains for him +for ever. The motive therefore which prompts a person towards this +ethico-metaphysical goal is the avoidance of pain. An ordinary man feels +pain only in actual pain, but a Yogin who is as highly sensitive as the +eye-ball, feels pain in pleasure as well, and therefore is determined to +avoid all experiences, painful or so-called pleasurable. The +extinguishing of all experiences, however, is not the true ethical goal, +being only a means to the realisation of kaivalya or the true self and +nature of the purusha. But this means represents the highest end of a +person, the goal beyond which all his duties cease; for after this comes +kaivalya which naturally manifests itself on the necessary retirement of +the prakṛti. Purusha has nothing to do in effectuating this state, which +comes of itself. The duties of the purusha cease with the thorough +extinguishing of all his experiences. This therefore is the means of +extinguishing all his pains, which are the highest end of all his +duties; but the complete extinguishing of all pains is identical with +the extinguishing of all experiences, the states or vṛttis of +consciousness, and this again is identical with the rise of prajñā or +true discriminative knowledge of the difference in nature of prakṛti and +its effects from the purusha—the unchangeable. These three sides are +only the three aspects of the same state which immediately precede +kaivalya. The prajñā aspect is the aspect of the highest knowledge, the +suppression of the states of consciousness or experiences, and it is the +aspect of the cessation of all conscious activity and of painlessness or +the extinguishing of all pains as the feeling aspect of the same +nirvīja—samādhi state. But when the student directs his attention to +this goal in his ordinary states of experience, he looks at it from the +side of the feeling aspect, viz. that of acquiring a state of +painlessness, and as a means thereto he tries to purify the mind and be +moral in all his actions, and begins to restrain and suppress his mental +states, in order to acquire this nirvīja or seedless state. This is the +sphere of conduct which is called Yogāṅga. + +Of course there is a division of duties according to the advancement of +the individual, as we shall have occasion to show hereafter. This +suppression of mental states which has been described as the means of +attaining final release, the ultimate ethical goal of life, is called +Yoga. We have said before that of the five kinds of mind—kshipta, mūḍha, +vikshipta, ekāgra, niruddha—only the last two are fit for the process of +Yoga and ultimately acquire absolute freedom. In the other three, though +concentration may occasionally happen, yet there is no extrication of +the mind from the afflictions of avidyā and consequently there is no +final release. + + + + + CHAPTER XI + YOGA PRACTICE + + +The Yoga which, after weakening the hold of the afflictions and causing +the real truth to dawn upon our mental vision, gradually leads us +towards the attainment of our final goal, is only possible for the last +two kinds of minds and is of two kinds: (1) samprajñāta (cognitive) and +(2) asamprajñāta (ultra-cognitive). The samprajñāta Yoga is that in +which the mind is concentrated upon some object, external or internal, +in such a way that it does not oscillate or move from one object to +another, but remains fixed and settled in the object that it holds +before itself. At first, the Yogin holds a gross material object before +his view, but when he can make himself steady in doing this, he tries +with the subtle tanmātras, the five causes of the grosser elements, and +when he is successful in this he takes his internal senses as his object +and last of all, when he has fully succeeded in these attempts, he takes +the great egohood as his object, in which stage his object gradually +loses all its determinate character and he is said to be in a state of +suppression in himself, although devoid of any object. This state, like +the other previous states of the samprajñāta type, is a positive state +of the mind and not a mere state of vacuity of objects or negativity. In +this state, all determinate character of the states disappears and their +potencies only remain alive. In the first stages of a Yogin practising +samādhi conscious states of the lower stages often intervene, but +gradually, as the mind becomes fixed, the potencies of the lower stages +are overcome by the potencies of this stage, so that the mind flows in a +calm current and at last the higher prajñā dawns, whereupon the +potencies of this state also are burnt and extinguished, the citta +returns back to its own primal cause, prakṛti, and purusha attains +absolute freedom. + +The first four stages of the samprajñāta state are called _madhumatī_, +_madhupratīka_, _viśoka_ and the _saṃskāraśesha_ and also +_vitarkānugata_, _vicārānugata_, _ānandānugata_ and _asmitānugata_. True +knowledge begins to dawn from the first stage of this samprajñāta state, +and when the Yogin reaches the last stage the knowledge reaches its +culminating point, but still so long as the potencies of the lower +stages of relative knowledge remain, the knowledge cannot obtain +absolute certainty and permanency, as it will always be threatened with +a possible encroachment by the other states of the past phenomenal +activity now existing as the subconscious. But the last stage of +asamprajñāta samādhi represents the stage in which the ordinary +consciousness has been altogether surpassed and the mind is in its own +true infinite aspect, and the potencies of the stages in which the mind +was full of finite knowledge are also burnt, so that with the return of +the citta to its primal cause, final emancipation is effected. The last +state of samprajñāta samādhi is called saṃskāraśesha, only because here +the residua of the potencies of subconscious thought only remain and the +actual states of consciousness become all extinct. It is now easy to see +that no mind which is not in the ekāgra or one-pointed state can be fit +for the asamprajñāta samādhi in which it has to settle itself on one +object and that alone. So also no mind which has not risen to the state +of highest suppression is fit for the asamprajñāta or nirvīja state. + +It is now necessary to come down to a lower level and examine the +obstructions, on account of which a mind cannot easily become +one-pointed or ekāgra. These, nine in number, are the following:— + +Disease, languor, indecision, want of the mental requirements necessary +for samādhi, idleness of body and mind, attachment to objects of sense, +false and illusory knowledge, non-attainment of the state of +concentrated contemplation, unsteadiness and unstability of the mind in +a samādhi state even if it can somehow attain it. These are again seen +to be accompanied with pain and despair owing to the non-fulfilment of +desire, physical shakiness or unsteadiness of the limbs, taking in of +breath and giving out of it, which are seen to follow the nine +distractions of a distracted mind described above. + +To prevent these distractions and their accompaniments it is necessary +that we should practise concentration on one truth. Vācaspati says that +this one truth on which the mind should be settled and fixed is Īśvara, +and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī and Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha agree with him. Vijñāna +Bhikshu, however, says that one truth means any object, gross or fine, +and Bhoja supports Vijñāna Bhikshu, staying that here “one truth” might +mean any desirable object. + +Abhyāsa means the steadiness of the mind in one state and not complete +absence of any state; for the Bhāshyakāra himself has said in the +samāpattisūtra, that samprajñāta trance comes after this steadiness. As +we shall see later, it means nothing but the application of the five +means, śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi and prajñā; it is an endeavour to +settle the mind on one state, and as such does not differ from the +application of the five means of Yoga with a view to settle and steady +the mind (_Yoga-vārttika_, I. 13). This effort becomes firmly rooted, +being well attended to for a long time without interruption and with +devotion. + +Now it does not matter very much whether this one truth is Īśvara or any +other object; for the true principle of Yoga is the setting of the mind +on one truth, principle or object. But for an ordinary man this is no +easy matter; for in order to be successful the mind must be equipped +with śraddhā or faith—the firm conviction of the Yogin in the course +that he adopts. This keeps the mind steady, pleased, calm and free from +doubts of any kind, so that the Yogin may proceed to the realisation of +his object without any vacillation. Unless a man has a firm hold on the +course that he pursues, all the steadiness that he may acquire will +constantly be threatened with the danger of a sudden collapse. It will +be seen that vairāgya or desirelessness is only the negative aspect of +this śraddhā. For by it the mind is restrained from the objects of +sense, with an aversion or dislike towards the objects of sensual +pleasure and worldly desires; this aversion towards worldly joys is only +the other aspect of the faith of the mind and the calmness of its +currents (_cittaprasāda_) towards right knowledge and absolute freedom. +So it is said that the vairāgya is the effect of śraddhā and its product +(_Yoga-vārttika_, I. 20). In order to make a person suitable for Yoga, +vairāgya represents the cessation of the mind from the objects of sense +and their so-called pleasures, and śraddhā means the positive faith of +the mind in the path of Yoga that one adopts, and the right aspiration +towards attaining the highest goal of absolute freedom. + +In its negative aspect, vairāgya is of two kinds, apara and para. The +apara is that of a mind free from attachment to worldly enjoyments, such +as women, food, drinks and power, as also from thirst for heavenly +pleasures attainable by practising the vedic rituals and sacrifices. +Those who are actuated by apara vairāgya do not desire to remain in a +bodiless state (_videha_) merged in the senses or merged in the prakṛti +(_prakṛtilīna_). It is a state in which the mind is indifferent to all +kinds of pleasures and pains. This vairāgya may be said to have four +stages: (1) Yatamāna—in which sensual objects are discovered to be +defective and the mind recoils from them. (2) Vyatireka—in which the +senses to be conquered are noted. (3) Ekendriya—in which attachment +towards internal pleasures and aversion towards external pains, being +removed, the mind sets before it the task of removing attachment and +aversion towards mental passions for obtaining honour or avoiding +dishonour, etc. (4) The fourth and last stage of vairāgya called +vaśīkāra is that in which the mind has perceived the futility of all +attractions towards external objects of sense and towards the pleasures +of heaven, and having suppressed them altogether feels no attachment, +even should it come into connection with them. + +With the consummation of this last stage of apara vairāgya, comes the +para vairāgya which is identical with the rise of the final prajñā +leading to absolute independence. This vairāgya, śraddhā and the abhyāsa +represent the unafflicted states (aklishṭavṛtti) which suppress +gradually the klishṭa or afflicted mental states. These lead the Yogin +from one stage to another, and thus he proceeds higher and higher until +the final state is attained. + +As vairāgya advances, śraddhā also advances; from śraddhā comes vīrya, +energy, or power of concentration (_dhāraṇā_); and from it again springs +smṛti—or continuity of one object of thought; and from it comes samādhi +or cognitive and ultra-cognitive trance; after which follows prajñā, +cognitive and ultra-cognitive trance; after which follows prajñā and +final release. Thus by the inclusion of śraddhā within vairāgya, its +effect, and the other products of śraddhā with abhyāsa, we see that the +abhyāsa and vairāgya are the two internal means for achieving the final +goal of the Yogin, the supreme suppression and extinction of all states +of consciousness, of all afflictions and the avidyā—the last state of +supreme knowledge or prajñā. + +As śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi which are not different from vairāgya +and abhyāsa (they being only their other aspects or simultaneous +products), are the means of attaining Yoga, it is possible to make a +classification of the Yogins according to the strength of these with +each, and the strength of the quickness (_saṃvega_) with which they may +be applied towards attaining the goal of the Yogin. Thus Yogins are of +nine kinds:— + +(1) mildly energetic, (2) of medium energy, (3) of intense energy. + +Each of these may vary in a threefold way according to the mildness, +medium state, or intensity of quickness or readiness with which the +Yogin may apply the means of attaining Yoga. There are nine kinds of +Yogins. Of these the best is he whose mind is most intensely engaged and +whose practice is also the strongest. + +There is a difference of opinion here about the meaning of the word +saṃvega, between Vācaspati and Vijñāna Bhikshu. The former says that +saṃvega means vairāgya here, but the latter holds that saṃvega cannot +mean vairāgya, and vairāgya being the effect of śraddhā cannot be taken +separately from it. “Saṃvega” means quickness in the performance of the +means of attaining Yoga; some say that it means “vairāgya.” But that is +not true, for if vairāgya is an effect of the due performance of the +means of Yoga, there cannot be the separate ninefold classification of +Yoga apart from the various degrees of intensity of the means of Yoga +practice. Further, the word “saṃvega” does not mean “vairāgya” +etymologically (_Yoga-vārttika_, I. 20). + +We have just seen that śraddhā, etc., are the means of attaining Yoga, +but we have not discussed what purificatory actions an ordinary man must +perform in order to attain śraddhā, from which the other requisites are +derived. Of course these purificatory actions are not the same for all, +since they must necessarily depend upon the conditions of purity or +impurity of each mind; thus a person already in an advanced state, may +not need to perform those purificatory actions necessary for a man in a +lower state. We have just said that Yogins are of nine kinds, according +to the strength of their mental acquirements—śraddhā, etc.—the requisite +means of Yoga and the degree of rapidity with which they may be applied. +Neglecting division by strength or quickness of application along with +these mental requirements, we may again divide Yogins again into three +kinds: (1) Those who have the best mental equipment. (2) Those who are +mediocres. (3) Those who have low mental equipment. + +In the first chapter of Yoga aphorisms, it has been stated that abhyāsa, +the application of the mental acquirements of śraddhā, etc., and +vairāgya, the consequent cessation of the mind from objects of +distraction, lead to the extinction of all our mental states and to +final release. When a man is well developed, he may rest content with +his mental actions alone, in his abhyāsa and vairāgya, in his dhāraṇā +(concentration), dhyāna (meditation), and samādhi (trance), which may be +called the jñānayoga. But it is easy to see that this jñānayoga requires +very high mental powers and thus is not within easy reach of ordinary +persons. Ordinary persons whose minds are full of impurities, must pass +through a certain course of purificatory actions before they can hope to +obtain those mental acquirements by which they can hope to follow the +course of jñānayoga with facility. + +These actions, which remove the impurities of the mind, and thus +gradually increase the lustre of knowledge, until the final state of +supreme knowledge is acquired, are called kriyāyoga. They are also +called yogāṅgas, as they help the maturity of the Yoga process by +gradually increasing the lustre of knowledge. They represent the means +by which even an ordinary mind (_vikshiptacitta_) may gradually purify +itself and become fit for the highest ideals of Yoga. Thus the _Bhāshya_ +says: “By the sustained practice of these yogāṅgas or accessories of +Yoga is destroyed the fivefold unreal cognition (_avidyā_), which is of +the nature of impurity.” Destruction means here disappearance; thus when +that is destroyed, real knowledge is manifested. As the means of +achievement are practised more and more, so is the impurity more and +more attenuated. And as more and more of it is destroyed, so does the +light of wisdom go on increasing more and more. This process reaches its +culmination in discriminative knowledge, which is knowledge of the +nature of purusha and the guṇas. + + + + + CHAPTER XII + THE YOGĀṄGAS + + +Now the assertion that these actions are the causes of the attainment of +salvation brings up the question of the exact natures of their operation +with regard to this supreme attainment. Bhāshyakara says with respect to +this that they are the causes of the separation of the impurities of the +mind just as an axe is the cause of the splitting of a piece of wood; +and again they are the causes of the attainment of the supreme knowledge +just as dhaṛma is the cause of happiness. It must be remembered that +according to the Yoga theory causation is viewed as mere transformation +of energy; the operation of concomitant causes only removes obstacles +impeding the progress of these transformations in a particular +direction; no cause can of itself produce any effect, and the only way +in which it can help the production of an effect into which the causal +state passes out of its own immanent energy by the principles of +conservation and transformation of energy, is by removing the +intervening obstacles. Thus just as the passage of citta into a happy +state is helped by dharma removing the intervening obstacles, so also +the passage of the citta into the state of attainment of true knowledge +is helped by the removal of obstructions due to the performance of the +yogāṅgas; the necessary obstructions being removed, the citta passes +naturally of itself into this infinite state of attainment of true +knowledge, in which all finitude is merged. + +In connection with this, Vyāsa mentions nine kinds of operation of +causes: (1) cause of birth; (2) of preservation; (3) of manifestation; +(4) of modification; (5) knowledge of a premise leading to a deduction; +(6) of otherness; (7) of separation; (8) of attainment; (9) of upholding +(_Vyāsabhāshya_, II. 28.) + +The principle of conservation of energy and transformation of energy +being the root idea of causation in this system, these different aspects +represent the different points of view in which the word causation is +generally used. + +Thus, the first aspect as the cause of birth or production is seen when +knowledge springs from manas which renders indefinite cognition definite +so that mind is called the cause of the birth of knowledge. Here mind is +the material cause (_upādāna kāraṇa_) of the production of knowledge, +for knowledge is nothing but manas with its particular modifications as +states (_Yoga-vārttika_, II. 18). The difference of these positive cause +from _āptikāraṇa_, which operates only in a negative way and helps +production, in an indirect way by the removal of obstacles, is quite +manifest. The _sthitikāraṇa_ or cause through which things are preserved +as they are, is the end they serve; thus the serviceability of purusha +is the cause of the existence and preservation of the mind as it is, and +not only of mind but of all our phenomenal experiences. + +The third cause of the _abhivyaktikāraṇa_ or manifestation which is +compared to a lamp which manifests things before our view is an +epistemological cause, and as such includes all sense activity in +connection with material objects which produce cognition. + +Then come the fourth and the fifth causes, vikāra (change) and pratyaya +(inseparable connection); thus the cause of change (_vikāra_) is +exemplified as that which causes a change; thus the manas suffers a +change by the objects presented to it, just as bile changes and digests +the food that is eaten; the cause of pratyaya[41] is that in which from +inseparable connection, with the knowledge of the premise (e.g. there is +smoke in the hill) we can also have inferential knowledge of the other +(e.g. there is fire in the hill). The sixth cause as otherness +(_anyatva_) is that which effects changes of form as that brought about +by a goldsmith in gold when he makes a bangle from it, and then again a +necklace, is regarded as differing from the change spoken of as vikāra. +Now the difference between the gold being turned into bangles or +necklaces and the raw rice being turned into soft rice is this, that in +the former case when bangles are made out of gold, the gold remains the +same in each case, whereas in the case of the production of cooked rice +from raw by fire, the case is different, for heat changes paddy in a far +more definite way; goldsmith and heat are both indeed efficient causes, +but the former only effects mechanical changes of shape and form, +whereas the latter is the cause of structural and chemical changes. Of +course these are only examples from the physical world, their causal +operations in the mental sphere varying in a corresponding manner; thus +the change produced in the mind by the presentation of different +objects, follows a law which is the same as is found in the physical +world, when the same object causes different kinds of feelings in +different persons; when ignorance causes forgetfulness in a thing, anger +makes it painful and desire makes it pleasurable, but knowledge of its +true reality produces indifference; there is thus the same kind of +causal change as is found in the external world. Next for consideration +is the cause of separation (_viyoga_) which is only a negative aspect of +the positive side of the causes of transformations, as in the gradual +extinction of impurities, consequent upon the transformation of the +citta towards the attainment of the supreme state of absolute +independence through discriminative knowledge. The last cause for +consideration is that of upholding (_dhṛti_); thus the body upholds the +senses and supports them for the actualisation of their activities in +the body, just as the five gross elements are the upholding causes of +organic bodies; the bodies of animals, men, etc., also employ one +another for mutual support. Thus the human body lives by eating the +bodies of many animals; the bodies of tigers, etc., live on the bodies +of men and other animals; many animals live on the bodies of plants, +etc. (_Tattvavaiśāradī_, II. 28). The four kinds of causes mentioned in +Śaṅkara’s works and grammatical commentaries like that of Susheṇa, viz.: +utpādya, vikāryya, āpya and saṃskāryya, are all included within the nine +causes contained mentioned by Vyāsa. + +The yogāṅgas not only remove the impurities of the mind but help it +further by removing obstacles in the way of attaining the highest +perfection of discriminative knowledge. Thus they are the causes in a +double sense (1) of the dissociation of impurities (_viyogakāraṇa_); (2) +of removing obstacles which impede the course of the mind in attaining +the highest development (_āptikāraṇa_). + +Coming now to the yogāṅgas, we enumerate them thus:—restraint, +observance, posture, regulation of breath, abstraction, concentration, +meditation and trance: these are the eight accessories of Yoga. + +It must be remembered that abhyāsa and vairāgya and also the five means +of attaining Yoga, viz.: śraddhā, vīryya, etc., which are not different +from abhyāsa and vairāgya, are by their very nature included within the +yogāṅgas mentioned above, and are not to be considered as independent +means different from them. The parikarmas or embellishments of the mind +spoken of in the first chapter, with which we shall deal later on, are +also included under the three yogāṅgas dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi. The +five means śraddhā, vīryya, smṛti, samādhi and prajñā are said to be +included under asceticism (_tapaḥ_) studies (_svādhyāya_) and devotion +to God of the niyamas and vairāgya in contentment. + +In order to understand these better, we will first give the definitions +of the yogāṅgas and then discuss them and ascertain their relative +values for a man striving to attain the highest perfection of Yoga. + +I. Yama (restraint). These yama restraints are: abstinence from injury +(ahiṃsā); veracity; abstinence from theft; continence; abstinence from +avarice. + +II. Niyama (observances). These observances are cleanliness, +contentment, purificatory action, study and the making of God the motive +of all action. + +III. Āsanas (posture). Steady posture and easy position are regarded as +an aid to breath control. + +IV. Regulation of breath (prāṇāyāma) is the stoppage of the inspiratory +and expiratory movements (of breath) which may be practised when +steadiness of posture has been secured. + +V. Pratyāhāra (abstraction). With the control of the mind all the senses +become controlled and the senses imitate as it were the vacant state of +the mind. Abstraction is that by which the senses do not come in contact +with their objects and follow as it were the nature of the mind. + +VI. Dhāraṇā (concentration). Concentration is the steadfastness of the +mind applied to a particular object. + +VII. Dhyāna (mediation). The continuation there of the mental effort by +continually repeating the object is meditation (dhyāna). + +VIII. Samādhi (trance contemplation). The same as above when shining +with the light of the object alone, and devoid as it were of itself, is +trance. In this state the mind becomes one with its object and there is +no difference between the knower and the known. + +These are the eight yogāṅgas which a Yogin must adopt for his higher +realisation. Of these again we see that some have the mental side more +predominant, while others are mostly to be actualised in exterior +action. Dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi, which are purely of the samprajñāta +type, and also the prāṇāyāma and pratyāhāra, which are accessories to +them, serve to cleanse the mind of impurities and make it steady, and +can therefore be assimilated with the parikarmas mentioned in Book I. +Sūtras 34–39. These samādhis of the samprajñāta type, of course, only +serve to steady the mind and to assist attaining discriminative +knowledge. + +In this connection, it will be well to mention the remaining aids for +cleansing the mind as mentioned in _Yoga-sūtra_ I., viz. the cultivation +of the habits of friendliness, compassion, complacency and indifference +towards happiness, misery, virtue and vice. + +This means that we are to cultivate the habit of friendliness towards +those who are happy, which will remove all jealous feelings and purify +the mind. We must cultivate the habit of compassion towards those who +are suffering pain; when the mind shows compassion (which means that it +wishes to remove the miseries of others as if they were his own) it +becomes cleansed of the stain of desire to do injury to others, for +compassion is only another name for sympathy which naturally identifies +the compassionate one with the objects of his sympathy. Next comes the +habit of complacency, which one should diligently cultivate, for it +leads to pleasure in virtuous deeds. This removes the stain of envy from +the mind. Next comes the habit of indifference, which we should acquire +towards vice in vicious persons. We should acquire the habit of +remaining indifferent where we cannot sympathise; we should not on any +account get angry with the wicked or with those with whom sympathy is +not possible. This will remove the stain of anger. It will be clearly +seen here that maītrī, karuṇā, muditā and upekshā are only different +aspects of universal sympathy, which should remove all perversities in +our nature and unite us with our fellow-beings. This is the positive +aspect of the mind with reference to abstinence from injuring ahiṃsā +(mentioned under yamas), which will cleanse the mind and make it fit for +the application of means of śraddhā, etc. For unless the mind is pure, +there is no scope for the application of the means of making it steady. +These are the mental endeavours to cleanse the mind and to make it fit +for the proper manifestation of śraddhā, etc., and for steadying it with +a view to attaining true discriminative knowledge. + +Again of the parikarmas by dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and saṃprajñāta samādhi and +the habit of sympathy as manifested in maitrī, karuṇā, etc., the former +is a more advanced state of the extinction of impurities than the +latter. + +But it is easy to see that ordinary minds can never commence with these +practices. They are naturally so impure that the positive universal +sympathy as manifested in maitrī, etc., by which turbidity of mind is +removed, is too difficult. It is also difficult for them to keep the +mind steady on an object as in dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and samādhi, for only +those in advanced stages can succeed in this. For ordinary people, +therefore, some course of conduct must be discovered by which they can +purify their minds and elevate them to such an extent that they may be +in a position to avail themselves of the mental parikarmas or +purifications just mentioned. Our minds become steady in proportion as +their impurities are cleansed. The cleansing of impurities only +represents the negative aspect of the positive side of making the mind +steady. The grosser impurities being removed, finer ones remain, and +these are removed by the mental parikarmas, supplemented by abhyāsa or +by śraddhā, etc. As the impurities are gradually more and more +attenuated, the last germs of impurity are destroyed by the force of +dhyāna or the habit of nirodha samādhi, and kaivalya is attained. + +We now deal with yamas, by which the gross impurities of ordinary minds +are removed. They are, as we have said before, non-injury, truthfulness, +non-stealing, continence, and non-covetousness; of these non-injury is +given such a high place that it is regarded as the root of the other +yamas; truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, non-covetousness and the +other niyamas mentioned previously only serve to make the non-injury +perfect. We have seen before that maitrī, karuṇa, muditā and upekshā +serve to strengthen the non-injury since they are only its positive +aspects, but we see now that not only they but other yamas and also the +other niyamas, purity, contentment, asceticism, studies and devotion to +God, only serve to make non-injury more and more perfect. This +non-injury when it is performed without being limited or restricted in +any way by caste, country, time and circumstances, and is always adhered +to, is called mahāvrata or the great duty of abstinence from injury. It +is sometimes limited to castes, as for example injury inflicted by a +fisherman, and in this case it is called anuvrata or restricted ahiṃsā +of ordinary men as opposed to universal ahiṃsā of the Yogins called +mahāvrata; the same non-injury is limited by locality, as in the case of +a man who says to himself, “I shall not cause injury at a sacred place”; +or by time, when a person says to himself, “I shall not cause injury on +the sacred day of Caturdaśī”; or by circumstances, as when a man says to +himself, “I shall cause injury for the sake of gods and Brahmans only”; +or when injury is caused by warriors in the battle-field alone and +nowhere else. This restricted ahiṃsā is only for ordinary men who cannot +follow the Yogin’s universal law of ahiṃsā. + +Ahiṃsā is a great universal duty which a man should impose on himself in +all conditions of life, everywhere, and at all times without restricting +or qualifying it with any limitation whatsoever. In _Mahābhārata +Mokshadharmādhyāya_ it is said that the Sāṃkhya lays stress upon +non-injury, whereas the Yoga lays stress upon samādhi; but here we see +that Yoga also holds that ahiṃsā should be the greatest ethical motive +for all our conduct. It is by ahiṃsā alone that we can make ourselves +fit for the higher type of samādhi. All other virtues of truthfulness, +non-stealing only serve to make non-injury more and more perfect. It is +not, however, easy to say whether the Sāṃkhyists attached so much +importance to non-injury that they believed it to lead to samādhi +directly without the intermediate stages of samādhi. We see, however, +that the Yoga also attaches great importance to it and holds that a man +should refrain from all external acts; for however good they may be they +cannot be such as not to lead to some kind of injury or hiṃsā towards +beings, for external actions can never be performed without doing some +harm to others. We have seen that from this point of view Yoga holds +that the only pure works (śuklakarma) are those mental works of good +thoughts in which perfection of ahiṃsā is attained. With the growth of +good works (śuklakarma) and the perfect realisation of non-injury the +mind naturally passes into the state in which its actions are neither +good (śukla) nor bad (aśukla); and this state is immediately followed by +that of kaivalya. + +Veracity consists in word and thought being in accordance with facts. +Speech and mind correspond to what has been seen, heard and inferred. +Speech is for the purpose of transferring knowledge to another. It is +always to be employed for the good of others and not for their injury; +for it should not be defective as in the case of Yudhishṭhira, where his +motive was bad.[42] If it prove to be injurious to living beings, even +though uttered as truth, it is not truth; it is sin only. Though +outwardly such a truthful course may be considered virtuous, yet since +by his truth he has caused injury to another person, he has in reality +violated the true standard of non-injury (_ahiṃsā_). Therefore let +everyone first examine well and then utter truth for the benefit of all +living beings. All truths should be tested by the canon of non-injury +(_ahiṃsā_). + +Asteya is the virtue of abstaining from stealing. Theft is making one’s +own unlawfully things that belong to others. Abstinence from theft +consists in the absence of the desire thereof. + +Brahmacaryya (continence) is the restraint of the generative organ and +the thorough control of sexual tendencies. + +Aparigraha is want of avariciousness, the non-appropriation of things +not one’s own; this is attained on seeing the defects of attachment and +of the injury caused by the obtaining, preservation and destruction of +objects of sense. + +If, in performing the great duty of non-injury and the other virtues +auxiliary to it, a man be troubled by thoughts of sin, he should try to +remove sinful ideas by habituating himself to those which are contrary +to them. Thus if the old habit of sins opposed to virtues tend to drive +him along the wrong path, he should in order to banish them entertain +ideas such as the following:—“Being burnt up as I am in the fires of the +world, I have taken refuge in the practice of Yoga which gives +protection to all living beings. Were I to resume the sins which I have +abandoned, I should certainly be behaving like a dog, which eats its own +vomit. As the dog takes up his own vomit, so should I be acting if I +were to take up again what I have once given up.” This is called the +practice of _pratipaksha bhāvān_, meditating on the opposites of the +temptations. + +A classification of sins of non-injury, etc., may be made according as +they are actually done, or caused to be done, or permitted to be done; +and these again may be further divided according as they are preceded by +desire, anger or ignorance; these are again mild, middling or intense. +Thus we see that there may be twenty-seven kinds of such sins. Mild, +middling and intense are each again threefold, mild-mild, mild-middling +and mild-intense; middling-mild, middling-middling and middling-intense; +also intense-mild, intense-middling and intense-intense. Thus there are +eighty-one kinds of sins. But they become infinite on account of rules +of restriction, option and conjunction. + +The contrary tendency consists in the notion that these immoral +tendencies cause an infinity of pains and untrue knowledge. Pain and +unwisdom are the unending fruits of these immoral tendencies, and in +this idea lies the power which produces the habit of giving a contrary +trend to our thoughts. + +These yamas, together with the niyamas about to be described, are called +kriyāyoga, by the performance of which men become fit to rise gradually +to the state of jñānayoga by samādhi and to attain kaivalya. This course +thus represents the first stage with which ordinary people should begin +their Yoga work. + +Those more advanced, who naturally possess the virtues mentioned in +Yama, have no need of beginning here. + +Thus it is said that some may begin with the niyamas, asceticism, +svādhyāya and devotion to God; it is for this reason that, though +mentioned under the niyamas, they are also specially selected and spoken +of as the kriyāyoga in the very first rule of the second Book. +Asceticism means the strength of remaining unchanged in changes like +that of heat and cold, hunger and thirst, standing and sitting, absence +of speech and absence of all indications by gesture, etc. + +Svādhyāya means the study of philosophy and repetition of the syllable +“Aum.” + +This Īśvarapraṇidhāna (devotion to God) is different from the +Īśvarapraṇidhāna mentioned in _Yoga-sūtra_, I. 23, where it meant love, +homage and adoration of God, by virtue of which God by His grace makes +samādhi easy for the Yogin. + +Here it is a kind of kriyāyoga, and hence it means the bestowal of all +our actions upon the Great Teacher, God, i.e. to work, not for one’s own +self but for God, so that a man desists from all desires for fruit +therefrom. + +When these are duly performed, the afflictions become gradually +attenuated and trance is brought about. The afflictions thus attenuated +become characterised by unproductiveness, and when their seed-power has, +as it were, been burnt up by the fire of high intellection and the mind +untouched by afflictions realises the distinct natures of purusha and +sattva, it naturally returns to its own primal cause prakṛti and +kaivalya is attained. + +Those who are already far advanced do not require even this kriyāyoga, +as their afflictions are already in an attenuated state and their minds +in a fit condition to adapt themselves to samādhi; they can therefore +begin at once with jñānayoga. So in the first chapter it is with respect +to these advanced men that it is said that kaivalya can be attained by +abhyāsa and vairāgya, without adopting the kriyāyoga (_Yoga-vārttika_, +II. 2) kriyāyogas. Only śauca and santosha now remain to be spoken of. +Śauca means cleanliness of body and mind. Cleanliness of body is brought +about by water, cleanliness of mind by removal of the mental impurities +of pride, jealousy and vanity. + +Santosha (contentment) is the absence of desire to possess more than is +necessary for the preservation of one’s life. It should be added that +this is the natural result of ceasing to desire to appropriate the +property of others. + +At the close of this section on the yamas and niyamas, it is best to +note their difference, which lies principally in this that the former +are the negative virtues, whereas the latter are positive. The former +can, and therefore must, be practised at all stages of Yoga, whereas the +latter being positive are attainable only by distinct growth of mind +through Yoga. The virtues of non-injury, truthfulness, sex restraint, +etc., should be adhered to at all stages of the Yoga practice. They are +indispensable for steadying the mind. + +It is said that in the presence of a person who has acquired steadiness +in ahiṃsā all animals give up their habits of enmity; when a person +becomes steady in truthfulness, whatever he says becomes fulfilled. When +a person becomes steady in asteya (absence of theft) all jewels from all +quarters approach him. + +Continence being confirmed, vigour is obtained. Non-covetousness being +confirmed, knowledge of the causes of births is attained. By steadiness +of cleanliness, disinclination to this body and cessation of desire for +other bodies is obtained. + +When the mind attains internal śauca, or cleanliness of mind, his sattva +becomes pure, and he acquires highmindedness, one-pointedness, control +of the senses and fitness for the knowledge of self. By the steadiness +of contentment comes the acquisition of extreme happiness. By steadiness +of asceticism the impurities of this body are removed, and from that +come miraculous powers of endurance of the body and also miraculous +powers of the sense, viz. clairaudience and thought-reading from a +distance. By steadiness of studies the gods, the ṛshis and the siddhas +become visible. When Īśvara is made the motive of all actions, trance is +attained. By this the Yogin knows all that he wants to know, just as it +is in reality, whether in another place, another body or another time. +His intellect knows everything as it is. + +It should not, however, be said, says Vācaspati, that inasmuch as the +saṃprajñāta is attained by making Īśvara the motive of all actions, the +remaining seven yogāṅgas are useless. For the yogāṅgas are useful in the +attainment of that mental mood which devotes all actions to the purposes +of Īśvara. They are also useful in the attainment of saṃprajñāta samādhi +by separate kinds of collocations, and samādhi also leads to the +fruition of saṃprajñāta, but though this meditation on Īśvara is itself +a species of Īśvarapraṇidhāna, saṃprajñāta Yoga is a yet more direct +means. As to the relation of Īśvarapraṇidhāna with the other aṅgas of +Yoga, Bhikshu writes:—It cannot be asked what is the use of the other +disciplinary practices of the Yoga since Yoga can be attained by +meditation on Īśvara, for meditation on Īśvara only removes ignorance. +The other accessories bring about samādhi by their own specific modes of +operation. Moreover, it is by help of meditation on Īśvara that one +succeeds in bringing about samādhi, through the performance of all the +accessories of Yoga; so the accessories of Yoga cannot be regarded as +unnecessary; for it is the accessories which produce dhāraṇa, dhyāna and +samādhi, through meditation on God, and thereby salvation; devotion to +God brings in His grace and through it the yogāṅgas can be duly +performed. So though devotion to God may be considered as the direct +cause, it cannot be denied that the due performance of the yogāṅgas is +to be considered as the indirect cause. + +Āsanas are secured when the natural involuntary movements cease, and +this may be effected by concentrating the mind on the mythological snake +which quietly bears the burden of the earth on its head. Thus posture +becomes perfect and effort to that end ceases, so that there is no +movement of the body; or the mind is transformed into the infinite, +which makes the idea of infinity its own and then brings about the +perfection of posture. When posture has once been mastered there is no +disturbance through the contraries of heat and cold, etc. + +After having secured stability in the Āsanas the prāṇāyāmas should be +attempted. The pause that comes after a deep inhalation and that after a +deep exhalation are each called a prāṇāyāma; the first is external, the +second internal. There is, however, a third mode, by means of which, +since the lungs are neither too much dilated nor too much contracted, +total restraint is obtained; cessation of both these motions takes place +by a single effort, just as water thrown on a heated stone shrivels up +on all sides. + +These can be regulated by calculating the strength of inhalation and +exhalation through space, time or number. Thus as the breathing becomes +slower, the space that it occupies also becomes smaller and smaller. +Space again is of two kinds, internal and external. At the time of +inhalation, the breath occupies internal space, which can be felt even +in the soles of hand and feet, like the slight touch of an ant. To try +to feel this touch along with deep inhalation serves to lengthen the +period of cessation of breathing. External space is the distance from +the tip of the nose to the remotest point at which breath when inhaled +can be felt, by the palm of the hand, or by the movement of any light +substance like cotton, etc., placed there. Just as the breathing becomes +slower and slower, the distances traversed by it also becomes smaller +and smaller. Regulations by time is seen when the attention is fixed +upon the time taken up in breathing by moments, a moment (_kshaṇa_) is +the fourth part of the twinkling of the eye. Regulation by time thus +means the fact of our calculating the strength of the prāṇāyāma the +moments or kshaṇas spent in the acts of inspiration, pause and +respiration. These prāṇāyāmas can also be measured by the number of +moments in the normal duration of breaths. The time taken by the +respiration and expiration of a healthy man is the same as that measured +by snapping the fingers after turning the hand thrice over the knee and +is the measure of duration of normal breath; the first attempt or +udghāta called mild is measured by thirty-six such mātrās or measures; +when doubled it is the second udghāta called middling; when trebled it +is the third udghāta called intense. Gradually the Yogin acquires the +practice of prāṇāyāma of long duration, by daily practice increasing in +succession from a day, a fortnight, a month, etc. Of course he proceeds +first by mastering the first udghāta, then the second, and so on until +the duration increases up to a day, a fortnight, a month as stated. +There is also a fourth kind of prāṇāyāma transcending all these stages +of unsteady practice, when the Yogin is steady in his cessation of +breath. It must be remembered, however, that while the prāṇāyāmas are +being practised, the mind must be fixed by dhyāna and dhāraṇā to some +object external or internal, without which these will be of no avail for +the true object of Yoga. By the practice of prāṇāyāma, mind becomes fit +for concentration as described in the _sūtra_ I. 34, where it is said +that steadiness is acquired by prāṇāyāma in the same way as +concentration, as we also find in the _sūtra_ II. 53. + +When the senses are restrained from their external objects by pratyāhāra +we have what is called pratyāhāra, by which the mind remains as if in +its own nature, being altogether identified with the object of inner +concentration or contemplation; and thus when the citta is again +suppressed, the senses, which have already ceased coming into contact +with other objects and become submerged in the citta, also cease along +with it. Dharaṇa is the concentration of citta on a particular place, +which is so very necessary at the time of prāṇāyāmas mentioned before. +The mind may thus be held steadfast in such places as the sphere of the +navel, the lotus of the heart, the light in the brain, the forepart of +the nose, the forepart of the tongue, and such like parts of the body. + +Dhyāna is the continuance or changing flow of the mental effort in the +object of dharaṇa unmediated by any other break of conscious states. + +Samādhi, or trance contemplation, results when by deep concentration +mind becomes transformed into the shape of the object of contemplation. +By pratyāhāra or power of abstraction, mind desists from all other +objects, except the one on which it is intended that it should be +centred; the Yogin, as he thus abstracts his mind, should also try to +fix it upon some internal or external object, which is called dhāraṇā; +it must also be noticed that to acquire the habit of dhāraṇā and in +order to inhibit the abstraction arising from shakiness and unsteadiness +of the body, it is necessary to practise steadfast posture and to +cultivate the prāṇāyāma. So too for the purpose of inhibiting +distractions arising from breathing. Again, before a man can hope to +attain steadfastness in these, he must desist from any conduct opposed +to the yamas, and also acquire the mental virtues stated in the niyamas, +and thus secure himself against any intrusion of distractions arising +from his mental passions. These are the indirect and remote conditions +which qualify a person for attaining dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and samādhi. A man +who through his good deeds or by the grace of God is already so much +advanced that he is naturally above all such distractions, for the +removal of which it is necessary to practise the yamas, the niyamas, the +āsanas, the prāṇāyāma and pratyāhara, may at once begin with dhāraṇā; +dhāraṇā we have seen means concentration, with the advancement of which +the mind becomes steady in repeating the object of its concentration, +i.e. thinking of that thing alone and no other thing; thus we see that +with the practice of this state called dhyāna, or meditation, in which +the mind flows steadily in that one state without any interruption, +gradually even the conscious flow of this activity ceases and the mind, +transformed into the shape of the object under concentration, becomes +steady therein. We see therefore that samādhi is the consummation of +that process which begins in dhāraṇā or concentration. These three, +dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi, represent the three stages of the same +process of which the last one is the perfection; and these three are +together technically called saṃyama, which directly leads to and is +immediately followed by the samprajñāta state, whereas the other five +yogāṅgas are only its indirect or remote causes. These three are, +however, not essential for the asamprajñāta state, for a person who is +very far advanced, or one who is the special object of God’s grace, may +pass at once by intense vairāgya and abhyāsa into the nirodha state or +state of suppression. + +As the knowledge of samādhi gradually dawns through the possession of +saṃyama, so is the saṃyama gradually strengthened. For this saṃyama also +rises higher and higher with the dawning of prajñāloka or light of +samādhi knowledge. This is the beginning, for here the mind can hold +saṃyama or concentrate and become one with a gross object together with +its name, etc., which is called the savitarka state; the next plane or +stage of saṃyama is that where the mind becomes one with the object of +its meditation, without any consciousness of its name, etc. Next come +the other two stages called savicāra and nirvicāra when the mind is +fixed on subtle substances, as we shall see later on. + + + + + CHAPTER XIII + STAGES OF SAMĀDHI + + +Saṃprajñāta samādhi (absorptive concentration in an object) may be +divided into four classes, savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra and +nirvicāra. + +To comprehend its scope we must first of all understand the relation +between a thing, its concept, and the particular name with which the +concept or thing is associated. It is easy to see that the thing +(_artha_), the concept (_jñāna_), and the name (_śabda_) are quite +distinct. But still, by force of association, the word or name stands +both for the thing and its concept; the function of mind, by virtue of +which despite this unreality or want of their having any real identity +of connection they seem to be so much associated that the name cannot be +differentiated from the thing or its idea, is called vikalpa. + +Now that state of samādhi in which the mind seems to become one with the +thing, together with its name and concept, is the lowest stage of +samādhi called savitarka; it is the lowest stage, because here the gross +object does not appear to the mind in its true reality, but only in the +false illusory way in which it appears associated with the concept and +the name in ordinary life. This state does not differ from ordinary +conceptual states, in which the particular thing is not only associated +with the concepts and their names, but also with other concepts and +their various relations; thus a cow will not only appear before the mind +with its concept and name, but also along with other relations and +thoughts associated with cows, as for example—“This is a cow, it belongs +to so and so, it has so many hairs on its body, and so forth.” This +state is therefore the first stage of samādhi, in which the mind has not +become steady and is not as yet beyond the range of our ordinary +consciousness. + +The nirvitarka stage arises from this when the mind by its steadiness +can become one with its object, divested of all other associations of +name and concept, so that it is in direct touch with the reality of the +thing, uncontaminated by associations. The thing in this state does not +appear to be an object of my consciousness, but my consciousness +becoming divested of all “I” or “mine,” becomes one with the object +itself; so that there is no such notion here as “I know this,” but the +mind becomes one with the thing, so that the notion of subject and +object drops off and the result is the one steady transformation of the +mind into the object of its contemplation. This state brings home to us +real knowledge of the thing, divested from other false and illusory +associations, which far from explaining the real nature of the object, +serves only to hide it. This samādhi knowledge or prajñā is called +nirvitarka. The objects of this state may be the gross material objects +and the senses. + +Now this state is followed by the state of savicārā prajñā, which dawns +when the mind neglecting the grossness of the object sinks deeper and +deeper into its finer constituents; the appearance of the thing in its +grosser aspects drops off and the mind having sunk deep, centres in and +identifies itself with the subtle tanmātras, which are the constituents +of the atoms, as a conglomeration of which the object appeared before +our eyes in the nirvitarka state. Thus when the mind, after identifying +itself with the sun in its true aspect as pure light, tends to settle on +a still finer state of it, either by making the senses so steady that +the outward appearance vanishes, or by seeking finer and finer stages +than the grosser manifestation of light as such, it apprehends the +tanmātric state of the light and knows it as such, and we have what is +called the savicāra stage. It has great similarities with the savitarka +stage, while its differences from that stage spring from the fact that +here the object is the tanmātra and not the gross bhūta. The mind in +this stage holding communion with the rūpa tanmātra, for example, is not +coloured variously as red, blue, etc., as in the savitarka communion +with gross light, for the tanmātric light or light potential has no such +varieties as different kinds of colour, etc., so that there are also no +such different kinds of feeling of pleasure or pain as arise from the +manifold varieties of ordinary light. This is a state of feelingless +representation of one uniform tanmātric state, when the object appears +as a conglomeration of tanmātras of rūpa, rasa or gandha, as the case +might be. This state, however, is not indeterminate, as the nirvitarka +stage, for this tanmātric conception is associated with the notions of +time, space and causality, for the mind here feels that it sees those +tanmātras which are in such a subtle state that they are not associated +with pleasures and pains. They are also endowed with causality in such a +way that from them and their particular collocations originate the +atoms. + +It must be noted here that the subtle objects of concentration in this +stage are not the tanmātras alone, but also other subtle substances +including the ego, the buddhi and the prakṛti. + +But when the mind acquires the complete habit of this state in which it +becomes identified with these fine objects—the tanmātras—etc., then all +conceptual notions of the associations of time, space, causality, etc., +spoken of in the savicāra and the savitarka state vanish away and it +becomes one with the fine object of its communion. These two kinds of +prajñā, savicāra and nirvicāra, arising from communion with the fine +tanmātras, have been collocated under one name as vicārānugata. But when +the object of communion is the senses, the samādhi is called +ānandānugata, and when the object of communion is the subtle cause the +ego (_asmitā_), the samādhi is known as asmitānugata. + +There is a difference of opinion regarding the object of the last two +varieties of samādhi, viz. ānandānugata and asmitānugata, and also about +the general scheme of division of the samādhis. Vācaspati thinks that +_Yoga-sūtra_ I. 41 suggests the interpretation that the saṃprajñāta +samādhis may be divided into three different classes according as their +objects of concentration belong to one or other of the three different +planes of grāhya (external objects), grahaṇa (the senses) and grahītṛ +(the ego). So he refers vitarka and vicāra to the plane of grāhya +(physical objects and tanmātras), ānandānugata to the plane of grahaṇa +(the senses) and asmitānugata to the plane of grahītṛ. Bhikshu, however, +disapproves of such an interpretation. He holds that in ānandānugata the +object of concentration is bliss (ānanda) and not the senses. When the +Yogin rises to the vicārānugata stage there is a great flow of sattva +which produces bliss, and at this the mind becomes one with this ānanda +or bliss, and this samādhi is therefore called ānandānugata. Bhikshu +does not think that in asmitānugata samādhi the object of concentration +is the ego. He thinks that in this stage the object of concentration is +the concept of self (_kevalapurushākārā saṃvit_) which has only the form +of ego or “I” (_asmītyetāvanmātrākāratvādasmitā_). + +Again according to Vācaspati in addition to the four varieties of +savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra and nirvicāra there are two varieties of +ānandanugata as sānanda and nirānanda and two varieties of asmitānugata +as sāsmita and nirasmita. This gives us eight different kinds of +samādhi. With Bhikshu there are only six kinds of samādhi, for he admits +only one variety as ānandānugata and one variety as asmitānugata. +Bhikshu’s classification of samādhis is given below in a tabular form +(see Vācaspati’s _Tattvavaiśāradī_ and _Yoga-vārttika_, I. 17, 41, 42, +43, 44). + + samprajñāta samādhi + | + +---------------------+----------------------+ + | | + sthūlavishayaka sūkshma vishayaka + (vitarkānugata) | + samādhi +--------+-----+--------------+ + +-------------------+ | | | + | | | ānanda asmitā + 1. savitarka 2. nirvitarka | or purusha + (with associations (without association | + of name and concept of name) | 5. (ānandānugata) 6. (asmitānugata) + of the object) | + | + tanmātra + vicārānugata + samādhi + | + +---------------+--------------+ + | | + 3. savicāra 4. nirvicāra + (with association of (without association + name and concept of name, etc. ) + of the tanmātras) + +Through the nirvicāra state our minds become altogether purified and +there springs the prajñā or knowledge called ṛtambharā or true; this +true knowledge is altogether different from the knowledge which is +derived from the Vedas or from inferences or from ordinary perceptions; +for the knowledge that it can give of Reality can never be had by any +other means, by perception, inference or testimony, for their +communication is only by the conceptual process of generalisations and +abstractions and these can never help us to affirm anything about things +as they are in themselves, which are altogether different from their +illusory demonstrations in conceptual terms which only prevent us from +knowing the true reality. The potency of this prajñā arrests the potency +of ordinary states of consciousness and thus attains stability. When, +however, this prajñā is also suppressed, we have what is called the +state of nirvīja samādhi, at the end of which comes final prajñā leading +to the dissolution of the citta and the absolute freedom of the purusha. + +Samādhi we have seen is the mind’s becoming one with an object by a +process of acute concentration upon it and a continuous repetition of it +with the exclusion of all other thoughts of all kinds. We have indeed +described the principal stages of the advancement of samprajñāta Yoga, +but it is impossible to give an exact picture of it with the symbolical +expressions of our concepts; for the stages only become clear to the +mental vision of the Yogin as he gradually acquires firmness in his +practice. The Yogin who is practising at once comes to know them as the +higher stages gradually dawn in his mind and he distinguishes them from +each other; it is thus a matter of personal experience, so that no +teacher can tell him whether a certain stage which follows is higher or +lower, for Yoga itself is its own teacher. + +Even when the mind is in the samprajñāta state it is said to be in +vyutthāna (phenomenal) in comparison with the nirodha state, just as the +ordinary conscious states are called vyutthāna in comparison with the +samprajñāta state; the potencies of the samprajñāta state become weaker +and weaker, while the potencies of the nirodha state become stronger and +stronger until finally the mind comes to the nirodha state and becomes +stable therein; of course this contains within itself a long mental +history, for the potency of the nirodha state can become stronger only +when the mind practises it and remains in this suppressed condition for +long intervals of time. This shows that the mind, being made up of the +three guṇas, is always suffering transformations and changes. Thus from +the ordinary state of phenomenal consciousness it gradually becomes +one-pointed and then gradually becomes transformed into the state of an +object (internal or external), when it is said to be undergoing the +samādhi pariṇāma or samādhi change of the samprajñāta type; next comes +the change, when the mind passes from the samprajñāta stage to the state +of suppression (_nirodha_). Here also, therefore, we see that the same +dharma, lakshṇa, avasthāpariṇāma which we have already described at some +length with regard to sensible objects apply also to the mental states. +Thus the change from the vyutthāna (ordinary experience) to the nirodha +state is the dharmapariṇāma, the change as manifested in time, so that +we can say that the change of vyutthāna into nirodha has not yet come, +or has just come, or that the vyutthāna state (ordinary experience) +exists no longer, the mind having transformed itself into the nirodha +state. There is also here the third change of condition, when we see +that the potencies of the samprajñāta state become weaker and weaker, +while that of the nirodha state becomes stronger and stronger. These are +the three kinds of change which the mind undergoes called the dharma, +lakshaṇa and avasthā change. But there is one difference between this +change thus described from the changes observed in sensible objects that +here the changes are not visible but are only to be inferred by the +passage of the mind from one state to another. + +It has been said that there are two different kinds of qualities of the +mind, visible and invisible. The visible qualities whose changes can be +noticed are conscious states, or thought-products, or percepts, etc. The +invisible ones are seven in number and cannot be directly seen, but +their existence and changes or modifications may be established by +inference. These are suppression, characterisation, subconscious +maintenance of experience, constant change, life, movement and power or +energy. + +In connection with samprajñāta samādhi some miraculous attainments are +described, which are said to strengthen the faith or belief of the Yogin +in the processes of Yoga as the path of salvation. These are like the +products or the mental experiments in the Yoga method, by which people +may become convinced of the method of Yoga as being the true one. No +reasons are offered as to the reason for these attainments, but they are +said to happen as a result of mental union with different objects. It is +best to note them here in a tabular form. + + ─────────────────────────────────┬────────┬──────────────────────────── + Object of Saṃyama. │Saṃyama.│ Attainment. + ─────────────────────────────────┼────────┼──────────────────────────── + (1) Threefold change of things │Saṃyama.│ + as dharma, lakshaṇa and │ │ + avasthāpariṇāma. │ │ + (2) The distinctions of name, │ „ │Knowledge of the sounds of + external object and the │ │ all living beings. + concept which ordinarily │ │ + appears united as one. │ │ + (3) Residual potencies saṃskāra │ „ │Knowledge of previous life. + of the nature of dharma │ │ + and adharma. │ │ + (4) Concepts alone (separated │ „ │Knowledge of other minds. + from the objects). │ │ + (5) Over the form of body. │ „ │Disappearance (by virtue of + │ │ perceptibility being + │ │ checked). + (6) Karma of fast or slow │ „ │Knowledge of death. + fruition. │ │ + (7) Friendliness, sympathy, and │ „ │Power. + compassion. │ │ + (8) Powers of elephant. │ „ │Power of elephant. + (9) Sun. │ „ │Knowledge of the world (the + │ │ geographical position of + │ │ countries, etc.). + (10) Heavens. │ „ │Knowledge of the heavenly + │ │ systems. + (11) Pole star. │ „ │Knowledge of its movements. + (12) Plenus of the navel. │ „ │Knowledge of the system of + │ │ the body. + (13) Base of the throat. │ „ │Subdual of hunger and + │ │ thirst. + (14) Tortoise tube. │Saṃyama.│Steadiness. + (15) Coronal light. │ „ │Vision of the perfected + │ │ ones—the knowledge of the + │ │ seer, or all knowledge by + │ │ prescience. + (16) Heat. │ „ │Knowledge of the mind. + (17) Purusha. │ „ │Knowledge of purusha. + (18) Gross nature subtle │ „ │Control over the element + pervasiveness and │ │ from which follows + purposefulness. │ │ attenuation, perfection of + │ │ the body and + │ │ non-resistance by their + │ │ characteristics. + (19) Act, substantive appearance,│ „ │Mastery over the senses; + egoism, pervasiveness and │ │ thence quickness of mind, + purposefulness of │ │ unaided mental perception + sensation. │ │ and mastery over the + │ │ pradhāna. + ─────────────────────────────────┴────────┴──────────────────────────── + +These vibhūtis, as they rise with the performance of the processes of +Yoga, gradually deepen the faith _śraddha_ of the Yogin in the +performance of his deeds and thus help towards his main goal or ideal by +always pushing or drawing him forward towards it by the greater and +greater strengthening of his faith. Divested from the ideal, they have +no value. + + + + + CHAPTER XIV + GOD IN YOGA + + +After describing the nature of karmayoga, and the way in which it leads +to jñānayoga, we must now describe the third and easiest means of +attaining salvation, the bhaktiyoga and the position of Īśvara in the +Yoga system, with reference to a person who seeks deliverance from the +bonds and shackles of avidyā. + +Īśvara in the Yoga system is that purusha who is distinguished from all +others by the fact of his being untouched by the afflictions or the +fruits of karma. Other purushas are also in reality untouched by the +afflictions, but they, seemingly at least, have to undergo the +afflictions and consequently birth and rebirth, etc., until they are +again finally released; but Īśvara, though he is a purusha, yet does not +suffer in any way any sort of bondage. He is always free and ever the +Lord. He never had nor will have any relation to these bonds. He is also +the teacher of the ancient teachers beyond the range of conditioning +time. + +This nature of Īśvara has been affirmed in the scriptures and is +therefore taken as true on their authority. The authority of the +scriptures is again acknowledged only because they have proceeded from +God or Īśvara. The objection that this is an argument in a circle has no +place here, since the connection of the scriptures with Īśvara is +beginningless. + +There is no other divinity equal to Īśvara, because in the case of such +equality there might be opposition between rival Īśvaras, which might +result in the lowering in degree of any of them. He is omniscient in the +highest degree, for in him is the furthest limit of omniscience, beyond +which there is nothing. + +This Īśvara is all-merciful, and though he has no desires to satisfy, +yet for the sake of his devotees he dictates the Vedas at each evolution +of the world after dissolution. But he does not release all persons, +because he helps only so far as each deserves; he does not nullify the +law of karma, just as a king, though quite free to act in any way he +likes, punishes or rewards people as they deserve. + +At the end of each kalpa, he adopts pure body from his sattva, which is +devoid of any karmāśaya, and thus communicates through it to all his +devotees and dictates the Vedas. Again at the time of dissolution this +body of pure sattva becomes submerged in prakṛti; and at the time of its +submersion, Īśvara wishes that it might come forth again at the +beginning of the new creation; thus for ever at each new creation the +pure sattva body springs forth and is submerged again into prakṛti at +the time of the dissolution of the universe. + +In accepting this body he has no personal desires to satisfy, as we have +said before. He adopts it only for the purpose of saving mankind by +instructing them as to knowledge and piety, which is not possible +without a pure sattvamaya body; so he adopts it, but is not affected in +any way by it. One who is under the control of nescience cannot +distinguish his real nature from nescience, and thus is always led by +it, but such is not the case with Īśvara, for he is not in any way under +its control, but only adopts it as a means of communicating knowledge to +mankind. + +A Yogin also who has attained absolute independence may similarly accept +one or more pure sattvamaya nirmāṇa cittas from asmitāmātra and may +produce one citta as the superintendent of all these. Such a citta +adopted by a true Yogin by the force of his meditation is not under the +control of the vehicles of action as is the case with the other four +kinds of citta from birth, oshadhi, mantra and tapas. + +The praṇava or oṃkāra is his name; though at the time of dissolution, +the word of praṇava together with its denotative power becomes submerged +in the prakṛti, to reappear with the new creation, just as roots shoot +forth from the ground in the rainy season. This praṇava is also called +svādhyāya. By concentration of this svādhyāya or praṇava, the mind +becomes one-pointed and fit for Yoga. + +Now one of the means of attaining Yoga is Īśvarapraṇidhāna, or worship +of God. This word, according to the commentators, is used in two senses +in the first and the second books of the Pātañjala Yoga aphorisms. In +the first book it means love or devotion to God as the one centre of +meditation, in the second it is used to mean the abnegation of all +desires of the fruits of action to Īśvara, and thus Īśvarapraṇidhāna in +this sense is included under kriyāyoga. This dedication of all fruits of +action to Īśvara, purifies the mind and makes it fit for Yoga and is +distinguished from the Īśvarapraṇidhāna of the first book as the bhāvanā +of praṇava and Īśvara in this that it is connected with actions and the +abnegation of their fruits, whereas the latter consists only in keeping +the mind in a worshipful state towards Īśvara and his word or name +praṇava. + +By devotion (bhakti) Īśvara is drawn towards the devotee through his +nirmāṇa citta of pure sattva and by his grace he removes all +obstructions of illness, etc., described in I. 30, 31, and at once +prepares his mind for the highest realisation of his own absolute +independence. So for a person who can love and adore Īśvara, this is the +easiest course of attaining samādhi. We can make our minds pure most +easily by abandoning all our actions to Īśvara and attaining salvation +by firm and steady devotion to Him. This is the sphere of bhaktiyoga by +which the tedious complexity of the Yoga process may be avoided and +salvation speedily acquired by the supreme grace of Īśvara. + +This means is not, however, distinct from the general means of Yoga, +viz. abhyāsa and vairāgya, which applies to all stages. For here also +abhyāsa applies to the devotion of Īśvara as one supreme truth and +vairāgya is necessarily associated with all true devotion and adoration +of Īśvara. + +This conception of Īśvara differs from the conception of Īśvara in the +Rāmānuja system in this that there prakṛti and purusha, acit and cit, +form the body of Īśvara, whereas here Īśvara is considered as being only +a special purusha with the aforesaid powers. + +In this system Īśvara is not the superintendent of prakṛti in the sense +of the latter’s remaining in him in an undifferentiated way, but is +regarded as the superintendent of dharma and adharma, and his agency is +active only in the removal of obstacles, thereby helping the +evolutionary process of prakṛti. + +Thus Īśvara is distinguished from the Īśvara of Saṅkara Vedānta in this +that there true existence is ascribed only to Īśvara, whereas all other +forms and modes of Being are only regarded as illusory. + +From what we have seen above it is clear that the main stress of the +Yoga philosophy is on the method of samādhi. The knowledge that can be +acquired by it differs from all other kinds of knowledge, ordinary +perception, inference, etc., in this that it alone can bring objects +before our mental eye with the clearest and most unerring light of +comprehensibility in which the true nature of the thing is at once +observed. Inferences and the words of scriptures are based on concepts +or general notions of things. For the teaching of the Vedas is +manifested in words; and words are but names, terms or concepts formed +by noting the general similarities of certain things and binding them +down by a symbol. All deductive inferences are also based upon major +propositions arrived at by inductive generalisations; so it is easy to +see that all knowledge that can be acquired by them is only generalised +conceptions. Their process only represents the method by which the mind +can pass from one generalised conception to another; so the mind can in +no way attain the knowledge of real things, absolute species, which are +not the genus of any other thing; so inference and scripture can only +communicate to us the nature of the agreement or similarity of things +and not the real things as they are. Ordinary perception also is not of +much avail here, since it cannot bring within its scope subtle and fine +things and things that are obstructed from the view of the senses. But +samādhi has no such limitations and the knowledge that can be attained +by it is absolutely unobstructed, true and real in the strictest sense +of the terms. + +Of all the points of difference between Yoga and Sāṃkhya the admission +of Īśvara by the former and the emphasis given by it to the Yoga +practice are the most important in distinguishing it from the latter. It +seems probable that Īśvara was traditionally believed in the Yoga school +to be a protector of the Yogins proceeding in their arduous course of +complete self-control and absorptive concentration. The chances of a +person adopting the course of Yoga practice for the attainment of +success in this field does not depend only on the exertions of the +Yogin, but upon the concurrence of many convenient circumstances such as +physical fitness, freedom from illnesses and other obstacles. Faith in +the patronage of God in favour of honest workers and believers served to +pacify their minds and fill them with the cheerful hope and confidence +which were so necessary for the success of Yoga practice. The +metaphysical functions which are ascribed to Īśvara seem to be later +additions for the sake of rendering his position more in harmony with +the system. Mere faith in Īśvara for the practical benefit of the Yogins +is thus interpreted by a reference to his superintendence of the +development of cosmic evolution. Sāṃkhya relied largely on philosophical +thinking leading to proper discrimination as to the difference between +prakrti and purusha which is the stage immediately antecedent to +emancipation. There being thus no practical need for the admission of +Īśvara, the theoretical need was also ignored and it was held that the +inherent teleological purpose (_purushārthatā_) of prakṛti was +sufficient to explain all the stages of cosmic evolution as well as its +final separation from the purushas. + +We have just seen that Sāṃkhya does not admit the existence of God, and +considers that salvation can be obtained only by a steady perseverance +in philosophical thinking, and does not put emphasis on the practical +exercises which are regarded as essential by the Yoga. One other point +of difference ought to be noted with regard to the conception of avidyā. +According to Yoga, avidyā, as we have already explained it, means +positive untrue beliefs such as believing the impure, uneternal, sorrow, +and non-self to be the pure eternal, pleasure and the self respectively. +With Sāṃkhya, however, avidyā is only the non-distinction of the +difference between prakṛti and purusha. Both Sāṃkhya and Yoga admit that +our bondage to prakṛti is due to an illusion or ignorance (avidyā), but +Sāṃkhya holds the akhyāti theory which regards non-distinction of the +difference as the cause of illusion whereas the Yoga holds the +anyathākhyāti theory which regards positive misapprehension of the one +as the other to be the cause of illusion. We have already referred to +the difference in the course of the evolution of the categories as held +by Sāṃkhya and Yoga. This also accounts for the difference between the +technical terms of prakṛti, vikṛti and prakṛti-vikṛti of Sāṃkhya and the +viśesha and aviśesha of the Yoga. The doctrine of dharma, lakshaṇa and +avasthāpariṇāma, though not in any way antagonistic to Sāṃkhya, is not +so definitely described as in the Yoga. Some scholars think that Sāṃkhya +did not believe in atoms as Yoga did. But though the word paramāṇu has +not been mentioned in the _Kārikā_, it does not seem that Sāṃkhya did +not believe in atoms; and we have already noticed that Bhikshu considers +the word sūkshma in _Kārikā_ 39 as referring to the atoms. There are +also slight differences with regard to the process involved in +perception and this has been dealt with in my _Yoga philosophy in +relation to other Indian systems of thought_.[43] On almost all other +fundamental points Sāṃkhya and Yoga are in complete agreement. + + + + + CHAPTER XV + MATTER AND MIND + + +In conclusion it may be worth while saying a few words as to theories of +the physical world supplementary to the views that have already been +stated above. + +Gross matter, as the possibility of sensation, has been divided into +five classes, according to their relative grossness, corresponding to +the relative grossness of the senses. Some modern investigators have +tried to understand the five bhūtas, viz. ākāśa, marut, tejas, ap and +kshiti as ether, gaseous heat and light, liquids and solids. But I +cannot venture to agree when I reflect that solidity, liquidity and +gaseousness represent only an impermanent aspect of matter. The division +of matter from the standpoint of the possibility of our sensations, has +a firm root in our nature as cognising beings and has therefore a better +rational footing than the modern chemical division into elements and +compounds, which are being daily threatened by the gradual advance of +scientific culture. This carries with it no fixed and consistent +rational conception as do the definitions of the ancients, but is a mere +makeshift for understanding or representing certain chemical changes of +matter and has therefore a merely relative value. + +There are five aspects from which gross matter can be viewed. These are +(1) sthūla (gross), (2) svarūpa (substantive), (3) sūkshma (subtle), (4) +anvaya (conjunction), (5) arthavattva (purpose for use). The sthūla or +gross physical characteristics of the bhūtas are described as follows:— + +Qualities of Earth—Form, heaviness, roughness, obstruction, stability, +manifestation (vṛtti), difference, support, turbidity, hardness and +enjoyability. + +Ap—Smoothness, subtlety, clearness, whiteness, softness, heaviness, +coolness, conservation, purity, cementation. + +Tejas—Going upwards, cooking, burning, light, shining, dissipating, +energising. + +Vāyu—Transverse motion, purity, throwing, pushing, strength, movability, +want of shadow. + +Ākāśa—Motion in all directions, non-agglomeration, non-obstruction. + +These physical characteristics are distinguished from the aspects by +which they appeal to the senses, which are called their svarūpas. Earth +is characterised by gandha or smell, ap by rasa or taste, tejas by rūpa, +etc. Looked at from this point of view, we see that smell arises by the +contact of the nasal organ with the hard particles of matter; so this +hardness or solidity which can so generate the sensibility of gandha, is +said to be the svarūpa of kshiti. Taste can originate only in connection +with liquidity, so this liquidity or sneha is the svarūpa or nature of +ap. Light—the quality of visibility—manifests itself in connection with +heat, so heat is the svarūpa of fire. The sensibility of touch is +generated in connection with the vibration of air on the epidermal +surface; so this vibratory nature is the svarūpa of air. + +The sensibility to sound proceeds from the nature of +obstructionlessness, which belongs to ākāśa, so this obstructionlessness +is the svarūpa of ākāśa. + +The third aspect is the aspect of tanmātras, which are the causes of the +atoms or paramāṇus. Their fourth aspect is their aspect of guṇas or +qualities of illumination, action, inertia. Their fifth aspect is that +by which they are serviceable to purusha, by causing his pleasurable or +painful experiences and finally his liberation. + +Speaking of aggregation with regard to the structure of matter, we see +that this is of two kinds (1) when the parts are in intimate union and +fusion, e.g. any vegetable or animal body, the parts of which can never +be considered separately. (2) When there are such mechanical aggregates +or collocations of distinct and independent parts _yutasiddhāvayava_ as +the trees in a forest. + +A dravya or substance is an aggregate of the former type, and is the +grouping of generic or specific qualities and is not a separate +entity—the abode of generic and specific qualities like the dravya of +the Vaiśeshika conception. The aspect of an unification of generic and +specific qualities seen in parts united in intimate union and fusion is +called the dravya aspect. The aggregation of parts is the structural +aspect of which the side of appearance is the unification of generic and +specific qualities called the dravya. + +The other aggregation of yutasiddhāvayava, i.e. the collocation of the +distinct and independent parts, is again of two kinds, (1) in which +stress may be laid on the distinction of parts, and (2) that in which +stress is laid on their unity rather than on their distinctness. Thus in +the expression mango-grove, we see that many mangoes make a grove, but +the mangoes are not different from the grove. Here stress is laid on the +aspect that mangoes are the same as the grove, which, however, is not +the case when we say that here is a grove of mangoes, for the expression +“grove of mangoes” clearly brings home to our minds the side of the +distinct mango-trees which form a grove. + +Of the gross elements, ākāśa seems especially to require a word of +explanation. There are according to Vijñāna Bhikshu and Nāgeśa two kinds +of ākāśa—kāraṇa (or primal) and kārya (atomic). The first or original is +the undifferentiated formless tamas, for in that stage it has not the +quality of manifesting itself in sounds. This kāraṇa later on develops +into the atomic ākāśa, which has the property of sound. According to the +conception of the purāṇas, this karyākāśa evolves from the ego as the +first envelope of vāyu or air. The kāraṇakāśa or non-atomic ākāśa should +not be considered as a mere vacuum, but must be conceived as a positive, +all-pervasive entity, something like the ether of modern physicists. + +From this ākāśa springs the atomic ākāśa or kāryākāśa, which is the +cause of the manifestation of sound. All powers of hearing, even though +they have their origin in the principle of egoism, reside in the ākāśa +placed in the hollow of the ear. When soundness or defect is noticed +therein, soundness or defect is also noticed in the power of hearing. +Further, when of the sounds working in unison with the power of hearing, +the sounds of solids, etc., are to be apprehended, then the power of +hearing located in the hollow of the ear requires the capacity of +resonance residing in the substratum of the ākāśa of the ear. This sense +of hearing, then, operates when it is attracted by the sound originated +and located in the mouth of the speaker, which acts as a loadstone. It +is this ākāśa which gives penetrability to all bodies; in the absence of +this, all bodies would be so compact that it would be difficult to +pierce them even with a needle. In the _Sāṃkhya-sūtra_ II. 12, it is +said that eternal time and space are of the nature of ākāśa. So this +so-called eternal time and space do not differ from the one +undifferentiated formless tamas of which we have just spoken. Relative +and infinite time arise from the motion of atoms in space—the cause of +all change and transformation; and space as relative position cannot be +better expressed than in the words of Dr. B. N. Seal, as “totality of +positions as an order of co-existent points, and as such it is wholly +relative to the understanding like order in time, being constructed on +the basis of relations of position intuited by our empirical or relative +consciousness. But there is this difference between space order and time +order:—there is no unit of space as position (_dik_) though we may +conceive time, as the moment (_kshaṇa_) regarded as the unit of change +in the causal series. Spatial position (_dik_) results only from the +different relations in which the all-pervasive ākāśa stands to the +various finite objects. On the other hand, space as extension or locus +of a finite body, or deśa, has an ultimate unit, being analysable into +the infinitesimal extension quality inherent in the guṇas of +prakṛti.”[44] + +Citta or mind has two degrees: (1) the form of states such as real +cognition, including perception, inference, competent evidence, unreal +cognition, imagination, sleep and memory. (2) In the form in which all +those states are suppressed. Between the stage of complete outgoing +activity of ordinary experience (_vyutthāna_) and complete suppression +of all states, there are thousands of states of infinite variety, +through which a man’s experiences have to pass, from the vyutthāna state +to the nirodha. In addition to the five states spoken of above, there is +another kind of real knowledge and intuition, called prajñā, which dawns +when by concentration the citta is fixed upon any one state and that +alone. This prajñā is superior to all other means of knowledge, whether +perception, inference or competent evidence of the Vedas, in this, that +it is altogether unerring, unrestricted and unlimited in its scope. + +Pramāṇa, we have seen, includes perception, inference and competent +evidence. Perception originates when the mind or citta, through the +senses (ear, skin, eye, taste and nose) is modified by external objects +and passes to them, generating a kind of knowledge about them in which +their specific characters become more predominant. + +Mind is all-pervasive and can come in touch with the external world, by +which we have the perception of the thing. Like light, which emits rays +and pervades all, though it remains in one place, the citta by its +vṛttis comes in contact with the external world, is changed into the +form of the object of perception and thus becomes the cause of +perception; as the citta has to pass through the senses, it becomes +coloured by them, which explains the fact that perception is impossible +without the help of the senses. As it has to pass through the senses, it +undergoes the limitations of the senses, which it can avoid, if it can +directly concentrate itself upon any object without the help of the +senses; from this originates the prajñā, through which dawns absolute +real knowledge of the thing; unhampered by the limitations of the senses +which can act only within a certain area or distance and cannot cognize +subtler objects. + +We see that in ordinary perception our minds are drawn towards the +object, as iron is attracted by magnets. Thus Bhikshu says in explaining +_Vyāsa-bhāshya_ IV. 17:— + +“The objects of knowledge, though inactive in themselves, may yet draw +the everchanging cittas towards them like a magnet and change them in +accordance with their own forms, just as a piece of cloth is turned red +by coming into contact with red lac.” So it is that the cittas attain +the form of anything with which they come in touch and there is then the +perception that that thing is known. Perception (_pratyaksha_) is +distinguished from inference, etc., in this, that here the knowledge +arrived at is predominantly of the specific and special characters +(_viśesha_) of the thing and not of its generic qualities us in +inference, etc. + +Inference proceeds from inference, and depends upon the fact that +certain common qualities are found in all the members of a class, as +distinguished from the members of a different class. Thus the qualities +affirmed of a class will be found to exist in all the individual members +of that class; this attribution of the generic characters of a class to +the individual members that come under it is the essence of inference. + +An object perceived or inferred by a competent man is described by him +in words with the intention of transferring his knowledge to another; +and the mental modification, which has for its sphere the meaning of +such words, is the verbal cognition of the hearer. When the speaker has +neither perceived nor inferred the object, and speaks of things which +cannot be believed, the authority of verbal cognition fails. But it does +not fail in the original speaker, God or Īśvara, and his dictates the +Śāstras with reference either to the object of perception or of +inference. + +Viparyyaya or unreal cognition is the knowledge of the unreal as in +doubt—a knowledge which possesses a form that does not tally with the +real nature of the thing either as doubt or as false knowledge. Doubt +may be illustrated by taking the case of a man who sees something in dim +light and doubts its nature. “Is it a wooden post or a man?” In nature +there is either the wooden post or the man, but there is no such fact or +entity which corresponds with doubt: “Is it a wooden post or a man?” +Knowledge as doubt is not cognition of a fact or entity. The illusion of +seeing all things yellow through a defect of the eye (as in jaundice) +can only be corrected when the objects are seen in their true colours. +In doubt, however, their defective nature is at once manifest. Thus when +we cannot be sure whether a certain thing is a post or a man, we know +that our knowledge is not definite. So we have not to wait till the +illusoriness of the previous knowledge is demonstrated by the advent of +right knowledge. The evil nature of viparyyaya is exemplified in avidyā +nescience, asmitā, rāga, etc.[45] + +Viparyyaya is distinguished from vikalpa—imagination—in this, that +though the latter is also unreal knowledge its nature as such is not +demonstrated by any knowledge that follows, but is on the contrary +admitted on all sides by the common consent of mankind. But it is only +the learned who can demonstrate by arguments the illusoriness of vikalpa +or imagination. + +All class notions and concepts are formed by taking note only of the +general characters of things and associating them with a symbol called +“name.” Things themselves, however, do not exist in the nature of these +symbols or names or concepts; it is only an aspect of them that is +diagrammatically represented by the intellect in the form of concepts. +When concepts are united or separated in our thought and language, they +consequently represent only an imaginary plane of knowledge, for the +things are not as the concepts represent them. Thus when we say +“Caitra’s cow,” it is only an imaginary relation for, strictly speaking, +no such thing exists as the cow of Caitra. Caitra has no connection in +reality with the cow. When we say purusha is of the nature of +consciousness, there is the same illusory relation. Now what is here +predicated of what? Purusha is consciousness itself, but in predication +there must always be a statement of the relation of one to another. Thus +it sometimes breaks a concept into two parts and predicates the one of +the other, and sometimes predicates the unity of two concepts which are +different. Thus its sphere has a wide latitude in all thought-process +conducted through language and involves an element of abstraction and +construction which is called vikalpa. This represents the faculty by +which our concepts are arranged in an analytical or synthetical +proposition. It is said to be _śabdajñānānupāti vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ_, +i.e. the knowledge that springs from relating concepts or names, which +relating does not actually exist in the objective world as it is +represented in propositional forms. + +Sleep is that mental state which has for its objective substratum the +feeling of emptiness. It is called a state or notion of mind, for it is +called back on awakening; when we feel that we have slept well our minds +are clear, when we have slept badly our minds are listless, wandering +and unsteady. For a person who seeks to attain communion or samādhi, +these desires of sleep are to be suppressed, like all other desires. +Memory is the retaining in the mind of objects perceived when perception +occurs by the union of the cittas with external objects, according to +the forms of which the cittas are transformed; it retains these +perceptions, as impressions or saṃskāras by means of its inherent tamas. +These saṃskāras generate memory, when such events occur as can manifest +them by virtue of associations. + +Thus memory comes when the percepts already known and acquired are kept +in the mind in the form of impressions and are manifested by the +udbodhakas or associative manifestors. It differs from perceptions in +this that the latter are of the nature of perceiving the unknown and +unperceived, whereas the former serves to bring before the mind percepts +that have already been acquired. Memory is therefore of percepts already +acquired by real cognition, unreal cognition, imagination, sleep and +memory. It manifests itself in dreams as well as in waking states. + +The relation between these states of mind and the saṃskāras is this that +their frequency and repetition strengthens the saṃskāras and thus +ensures the revival of these states. + +They are all endowed with sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain) and moha +(ignorance). These feelings cannot be treated separately from the states +themselves, for their manifestations are not different from the +manifestation of the states themselves. Knowledge and feeling are but +two different aspects of the modifications of cittas derived from +prakṛti; hence neither can be thought separately from the other. The +fusion of feeling with knowledge is therefore here more fundamental than +in the modern tripartite division of mind. + +In connection with this we are to consider the senses whose action on +the external world is known as “perceiving,” “grahaṇa,” which is +distinguished from “pratyaksha,” which means the effect of “perceiving,” +viz. perception. Each sense has got its special sphere of work, e.g. +sight is of the eye, and this is called their second aspect, viz. +svarūpa. Their third aspect is of “asmitā” or ego, which manifests +itself through the senses. Their fourth aspect is their characteristic +of guṇas, viz. that of manifestation (_prakāśa_), action (_kriyā_) and +retention (_sthiti_). Their fifth aspect is that they are set in motion +for purusha, his experiences and liberation. + +It is indeed difficult to find the relation of manas with the senses and +the cittas. In more than one place manas is identified with cittas, and, +on the other hand, it is described as a sense organ. There is another +aspect in which manas is said to be the king of the cognitive and motor +senses. Looked at in this aspect, manas is possibly the directive side +of the ego by which it guides the cognitive and conative senses in the +external world and is the cause of their harmonious activity for the +experience of purusha. As a necessary attribute of this directive +character of manas, the power of concentration, which is developed by +prāṇāyāma, is said to belong to manas. This is the rajas side of manas. + +There is another aspect of manas which is called the anuvyavasāya or +reflection, by which the sensations (ālocana) are associated, +differentiated, integrated, assimilated into percepts and concepts. This +is possibly the sāttvika side of manas. + +There is another aspect by which the percepts and concepts are retained +(_dhāraṇa_) in the mind as saṃskāras, to be repeated or revealed again +in the mind as actual states. This is the tamas side of manas. + +In connection with this we may mention ūha (positive argumentation), +apoha (negative argumentation) and tattvajñāna (logical conclusion) +which are the modes of different anuvyavasāyas of the manas. Will, etc., +are to be included with these (_Yoga-varttikā_, II. 18). Looked at from +the point of view of cittas, these may equally be regarded as the +modifications of cittas. + +The motives which sustain this process of outgoing activity are false +knowledge, and such other emotional elements as egoism, attachment, +aversion, and love of life. These emotional elements remain in the mind +in the germinal state as power alone; or they exist in a fully operative +state when a man is under the influence of any one of them; or they +alternate with others, such as attachment or aversion; or they may +become attenuated by meditation upon opposites. Accordingly they are +called respectively prasupta, udāra, vicchinna or tanu. Man’s minds or +cittas may follow these outgoing states or experiences, or gradually +remove those emotions which are commonly called afflictions, thus +narrowing their sphere and proceeding towards final release. + +All the psychic states described above, viz. pramāṇa, viparyyaya, etc., +are called either afflicted or unafflicted according as they are moved +towards outgoing activity or are actuated by the higher motive of +emancipation by narrowing the field of experiences gradually to a +smaller and smaller sphere and afterwards to suppress them altogether. +These two kinds of motives, one of afflictions that lead towards +external objects of attachment and aversion or love of life, and the +other which leads to striving for kaivalya, are the sole motives which +guide all human actions and psychic states. + +They influence us whenever suitable opportunities occur, so that by the +study of the Vedas, self-criticism or right argumentation, or from the +instruction of good men, abhyāsa and vairāgya may be roused by vidyā. +Right knowledge and a tendency towards kaivalya may appear in the mind +even when a man is immersed in the afflicted states of outgoing +activity. So also afflicted states may appear when a man is bent upon or +far advanced in those actions which are roused by vidyā or the tendency +towards kaivalya. + +It seems that the Yoga view of actions, or karma, does not deprive man +of his freedom of will. The habit of performing particular types of +action only strengthens the corresponding subconscious impressions or +saṃskāras of those actual states, and thus makes it more and more +difficult to overcome their propensity to generate their corresponding +actual states, and thus obstructs the adoption of an unhampered and free +course of action. The other limitation to the scope of the activity of +his free will is the vāsanā aspect of the saṃskāras by which he +naturally feels himself attached by pleasurable ties to certain +experiences and by painful ones to others. But these only represent the +difficulties and impediments which come to a man, when he has to adopt +the Yoga course of life, the contrary of which he might have been +practising for a very long period, extending over many life-states. + +The free will is not curbed in any way, for it follows directly from the +teleological purpose of prakṛti, which moves for the experience and +liberation of purusha. So this motive of liberation, which is the basis +of all good conduct, can never be subordinated to the other impulse, +which goads man towards outgoing experiences. But, on the other hand, +this original impulse which attracts man towards these ordinary +experiences, as it is due to the false knowledge which identifies +prakṛti with purusha, becomes itself subordinate and loses its influence +and power, when such events occur, which nullify false knowledge by +tending to produce a vision of the true knowledge of the relation of +prakṛti with purusha. Thus, for example, if by the grace of God false +knowledge (avidyā) is removed, true knowledge at once dawns upon the +mind and all the afflictions lose their power. + +Free will and responsibility for action cease in those life-states which +are intended for suffering from actions only, e.g. life-states of +insects, etc. + + + + + APPENDIX + SPHOṬAVĀDA + + +Another point to be noted in connection with the main metaphysical +theories of Patañjali is the Sphoṭa theory which considers the relation +of words with their ideas and the things which they signify. Generally +these three are not differentiated one from the other, and we are not +accustomed to distinguish them from one another. Though distinct yet +they are often identified or taken in one act of thought, by a sort of +illusion. The nature of this illusory process comes to our view when we +consider the process of auditory perception of words. Thus if we follow +the _Bhāshya_ as explained by Vijñāna Bhikshu we find that by an effect +of our organs of speech, the letters are pronounced. This vocal sound is +produced in the mouth of the speaker from which place the sound moves in +aerial waves until it reaches the ear drum of the hearer, by coming in +contact with which it produces the audible sound called dhvani +(_Yoga-vārttika_, III. 17). The special modifications of this dhvani are +seen to be generated in the form of letters (_varṇa_) and the general +name for these modifications is nāda. This sound as it exists in the +stage of varṇas or letters is also called varṇa. If we apply the word +śabda or sound in the most general sense, then we can say that this is +the second stage of sound moving towards word-cognition, the first stage +being that of its utterance in the mouth of the speaker. The third stage +of śabda is that in which the letters, for example, g, au, and ḥ, of the +word “gauḥ” are taken together and the complete word-form “gauḥ” comes +before our view. The comprehension of this complete word-form is an +attribute of the mind and not of the sense of hearing. For the sense of +hearing senses the letter-forms of the sound one by one as the +particular letters are pronounced by the speaker and as they approach +the ear one by one in air-waves. But each letter-form sound vanishes as +it is generated, for the sense of hearing has no power to hold them +together and comprehend the letter-forms as forming a complete +word-form. The ideation of this complete word-form in the mind is called +sphoṭa. It differs from the letter-form in this that it is a complete, +inseparable, and unified whole, devoid of any past, and thus is quite +unlike the letter-forms which die the next moment after they originate. +According to the system of Patañjali as explained by the commentators, +all significance belongs to this sphoṭa-form and never to the letters +pronounced or heard. Letters when they are pronounced and heard in a +particular order serve to give rise to such complete ideational +word-images which possess some denotation and connotation of meaning and +are thus called “sphoṭas,” or that which illuminates. These are +essentially different in nature from the sounds in letter-forms +generated in the senses of hearing which are momentary and evanescent +and can never be brought together to form one whole, have no meaning, +and have the sense of hearing as their seat. + +_The Vaiśeshika view._—Saṅkara Miśra, however, holds that this “sphoṭa” +theory is absolutely unnecessary, for even the supporters of sphoṭa +agree that the sphoṭa stands conventionally for the thing that it +signifies; now if that be the case what is the good of admitting sphoṭa +at all? It is better to say that the conventionality of names belongs to +the letters themselves, which by virtue of that can conjointly signify a +thing; and it is when you look at the letters from this aspect—their +unity with reference to their denotation of one thing—that you call them +a pada or name (_Upaskāra_, II. 2, 21). So according to this view we +find that there is no existence of a different entity called “name” or +“sphoṭa” which can be distinguished from the letters coming in a +definite order within the range of the sense of hearing. The letters +pronounced and heard in a definite order are jointly called a name when +they denote a particular meaning or object. + +_Kumārila’s view_:—Kumārila, the celebrated scholar of the Mīmāṃsa +school, also denies the sphoṭa theory and asserts like the Vaiśeshika +that the significance belongs to the letters themselves and not to any +special sphoṭa or name. To prove this he first proves that the +letter-forms are stable and eternal and suffer no change on account of +the differences in their modes of accent and pronunciation. He then goes +on to show that the sphoṭa view only serves to increase the complexity +without any attendant advantage. Thus the objection that applies to the +so-called defect of the letter-denotation theory that the letters cannot +together denote a thing since they do not do it individually, applies to +the name-denotation of the sphoṭa theory, since there also it is said +that though there is no sphoṭa or name corresponding to each letter yet +the letters conjointly give rise to a sphoṭa or complete name +(_Ślokavārttika_, Sphoṭavāda, śl. 91–93). + +The letters, however, are helped by their potencies (saṃskāras) in +denoting the object, or the meaning. The sphoṭa theory has, according to +Kumārila and Pārthasārathi, also to admit this saṃskāra of the letters +in the manifestation of the name or the śabda-sphoṭa, whereas they only +admit it as the operating power of the letters in denoting the object or +the thing signified. Saṃskāras according to Kumārila are thus admitted +both by the sphoṭa theorists and the Kumārila school of Mīmāṃsa, only +with this difference that the latter with its help can directly denote +the object of the signified, whereas the former have only to go a step +backwards in thinking their saṃskāra to give rise to the name or the +śabda-sphoṭa alone (_Nyāyaratnākara_, Sphoṭavāda, śl. 104). + +Kumārila says that he takes great pains to prove the nullity of the +sphoṭa theory only because if the sphoṭa view be accepted then it comes +to the same thing as saying that words and letters have no validity, so +that all actions depending on them also come to lose their validity +(_Ślokavārttika_, Sphoṭavāda, śl. 137). + +_Prabhākara._—Prabhākara also holds the same view; for according to him +also the letters are pronounced in a definite order; though when +individually considered they are momentary and evanescent, yet they +maintain themselves by their potency in the form of a pāda or name, and +thus signify an object. Thus Śāliknātha Miśra says in his _Prakaraṇa +Pañcikā_, p. 89: “It is reasonable to suppose that since the later +letters in a word are dependent upon the perception of a preceding one +some special change is wrought in the letters themselves which leads to +the comprehension of the meaning of a word.... It cannot be proved +either by perception or by inference that there is any word apart from +the letters; the word has thus for its constituents the letters.” + +_Śabara._—The views of Kamārila and Prahhākara thus explicated are but +elaborate explanations of the view of Śabara who states the whole theory +in a single line—_pūrvavarṇajanitasaṃskārasahito’ntyo varṇaḥ +pratyāyakaḥ_. + +“The last letter together with the potency generated by the preceding +letters is the cause of significance.” + +_Mahābhāshya and Kaiyaṭa._—After describing the view of those who are +antagonistic to the sphoṭa theory it is necessary to mention the +Vaiākaraṇa school which is in favour of it; thus we find that in +explaining the following passage of Mahābhāshya, + +“What is then a word? It is that which being pronounced one can +understand specific objects such as those (cows) which have tail, hoofs, +horns, etc.” + +Kaiyata says: “The grammarians think that denotation belongs to words, +as distinct from letters which are pronounced, for if each of the +letters should denote the object, there would be no need of pronouncing +the succeeding letters....” + +The vaiyakaraṇas admit the significant force of names as distinguished +from letters. For if the significant force be attributed to letters +individually, then the first letter being quite sufficient to signify +the object, the utterance of other letters becomes unnecessary; and +according to this view if it is held that each letter has the generating +power, then also they cannot do it simultaneously, since they are +uttered one after another. On the view of manifestation, also, since the +letters are manifested one after another, they cannot be collected +together in due order; if their existence in memory is sufficient, then +we should expect no difference of signification or meaning by the change +of order in the utterance of the letters; that is “_sara_” ought to have +the same meaning as “_rasa_.” So it must be admitted that the power of +signification belongs to the sphoṭa as manifested by the nādas as has +been described in detail in _Vākyapadīya_. + +As the relation between the perceiving capacity and the object of +perception is a constant one so also is the relation between the sphoṭa +and the nāda as the manifested and the manifestor (_Vākyapadīya_ 98). +Just as the image varies corresponding to the variation of the +reflector, as oil, water, etc., so also the reflected or manifested +image differs according to the difference of the manifestor (_Vāk._ +100). Though the manifestation of letters, propositions and names occurs +at one and the same time yet there seems to be a “before and after” +according to the “before and after” of the nāda utterances (_Vāk._ 102). +That which is produced through the union and disunion (of nādas or +dhvanis) is called sphoṭa, whereas other sound-perceptions arising from +sounds are called dhvanis (_Vāk._ 103). As by the movement of water the +image of a thing situated elsewhere also appears to adopt the movement +of the water and thus seems to move, so also the sphoṭa, though +unchanging in itself, yet appears to suffer change in accordance with +the change of nāda which manifests it (_Vāk._ 49). As there are no parts +of the letters themselves so the letters also do not exist as parts of +the name. There is again no ultimate or real difference between names +and propositions (_Vāk._ 73). It is only in popular usage that they are +regarded as different. That which others regard as the most important +thing is regarded as false here, for propositions only are here regarded +as valid (_Vāk._ 74). Though the letters which manifest names and +propositions are altogether different from them, yet their powers often +appear as quite undifferentiated from them (_Vāk._ 89). Thus when +propositions are manifested by the cause of the manifestation of +propositions they appear to consist of parts when they first appear +before the mind. Thus, though the pada-sphoṭa or the vākya-sphoṭa does +not really consist of parts, yet, as the powers of letters cannot often +be differentiated from them, they also appear frequently to be made up +of parts (_Vāk._ 91). + +_The Yoga View._—As to the relation of the letters to the sphoṭa, +Vācaspati says, in explaining the _Bhāshya_, that each of the letters +has the potentiality of manifesting endless meanings, but none of them +can do so individually; it is only when the letter-form sounds are +pronounced in succession by one effort of speech that the individual +letters by their own particular contiguity or distance from one another +can manifest a complete word called the sphoṭa. Thus owing to the +variation of contiguity of distance by intervention from other +letter-form sounds any letter-form sound may manifest any meaning or +word; for the particular order and the association of letter-form sounds +depend upon the particular output of energy required in uttering them. +The sphoṭa is thus a particular modification of buddhi, whereas the +letter-form sounds have their origin in the organ of speech when they +are uttered, and the sense of hearing when they are heard. It is well to +note here that the theory that the letters themselves have endless +potentiality and can manifest any word-sphoṭas, according to their +particular combinations and recombinations, is quite in keeping with the +main metaphysical doctrine of the Pātañjala theory. + +_Vākya-sphoṭa._—What is said here of the letter-form sounds and the +śabda-sphoṭas also applies to the relation that the śabda-sphoṭas bear +to propositions or sentences. A word or name does not stand alone; it +always exists as combined with other words in the form of a proposition. +Thus the word “tree” whenever it is pronounced carries with it the +notion of a verb “asti” or “exists,” and thereby demonstrates its +meaning. The single word “tree” without any reference to any other word +which can give it a propositional form has no meaning. Knowledge of +words always comes in propositional forms; just as different letter-form +sounds demonstrate by their mutual collocation a single word or +śabda-sphoṭa, so the words also by their mutual combination or +collocation demonstrate judgmental or propositional significance or +meaning. As the letters themselves have no meaning so the words +themselves have also no meaning; it is only by placing them side by side +in a particular order that a meaning dawns in the mind. When single +words are pronounced they associate other words with themselves and thus +appear to signify a meaning. But though a single word is sufficient by +association with other words to carry a meaning, yet sentences or +propositions should not be deemed unnecessary for they serve to +specialise that meaning (_niyamārthe anuvādaḥ_). Thus “cooks” means that +any subject makes something the object of his cooking. The mention of +the subject “Devadatta” and the object “rice” only specialises the +subject and the object. Though the analysis of a sentence into the words +of which it is constituted is as imaginary as the analysis of a word +into the letter-form sounds, it is generally done in order to get an +analytical view of the meaning of a sentence—an imaginary division of it +as into cases, verbs, etc. + +_Abhihitānvayavada and Anvitābhidhānavāda._—This reminds us of the two +very famous theories about the relation of sentences to words, viz. the +“Abhihitānvayavāda” and the “Anvitābhidhānavāda.” The former means that +words themselves can express their separate meanings by the function +abhidhā or denotation; these are subsequently combined into a sentence +expressing one connected idea. The latter means that words only express +a meaning as parts of a sentence, and as grammatically connected with +each other; they only express an action or something connected with +action; in “sāmānaya”, “bring the cow”—“gām” does not properly mean +“gotva” but “ānayanānvitagotva,” that is, the bovine genus as connected +with bringing. We cannot have a case of a noun without some governing +verb and vice versa—(Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha, Cowell). + +_The Yoga point of view._—It will be seen that strictly speaking the +Yoga view does not agree with any one of these views though it +approaches nearer to the Anvitābhidhāna view than to the Abhihitānvaya +view. For according to the Yoga view the idea of the sentence is the +only true thing; words only serve to manifest this idea but have +themselves no meaning. The division of a sentence into the component +word-conceptions is only an imaginary analysis—an afterthought. + +_Confusion the cause of verbal cognition._—According to Patañjali’s view +verbal cognition proceeds only from a confusion of the letter-form +sounds (which are perceived in the sense of hearing), the śabda-sphoṭa +which is manifested in the buddhi, and the object which exists in the +external world. These three though altogether distinct from one another +yet appear to be unified on account of the saṅketa or sign, so that the +letter-form sounds, the śabda-sphoṭa, and the thing, can never be +distinguished from one another. Of course knowledge can arise even in +those cases where there is no actual external object, simply by virtue +of the manifesting power of the letter-form sounds. This saṅketa is +again defined as the confusion of words and their meanings through +memory, so that it appears that what a word is, so is its denoted +object, and what a denoted word is, so is its object. Convention is a +manifestation of memory of the nature of mutual confusion of words and +their meanings. This object is the same as this word, and this word is +the same as this object. Thus there is no actual unity of words and +their objects: such unity is imaginary and due to beginningless +tradition. This view may well be contrasted with Nyāya, according to +which the convention of works as signifying objects is due to the will +of God. + + + + + INDEX + + + _abhihitānvayavāda_, 186 + + abhiniveśa, 101, 104 + + _abhivyaktikāraṇa_, 133 + + abhyāsa, 100, 101, 126, 128, 129, 130, 138, 143, 149, 162, 177 + + Absorption, 102 + + Abstraction, 135, 136, 148, 154, 174 + + Accessories, 135, 137, 145 + + Accidental variation, 77 + + _acit_, 162 + + Actual, 73 + + Actuality, 83 + + adharma, 85, 86, 88, 102, 106, 162 + + adhikārin, 123 + + adṛshṭajanmavedanīya, 112 + + _adṛshṭa-janmavedanīya karma_, 105, 110, 111 + + advaita, 14 + + _Advaita-Brahmasiddhi_, 14 + + Afflictions, 100, 103, 104, 105, 123, 124, 128, 143, 173 n., 176, 177, + 178 + + Agent, 4 + + Aggregation, 168 + + Agreement, 33 + + ahaṃkāra, 38, 40, 41, 53, 56, 58, 61, 82, 86, 87, 93 + + ahaṃkāra-sāttvika, rājasa, tāmasa, 55 + + ahiṃsā, 136, 138, 139, 144 + + _Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā_, 10 + + akhyāti, 164 + + aklishṭa, 101 + + aklishṭavṛtti, 128 + + _aliṇga_, 7, 41, 42, 62, 118 + + _anādisaṃyoga_, 28 + + _anāśrita_, 29 n. + + anekabhavika, 107, 112, 113 + + Anger, 141 + + _anirvācyā_, 28 + + aniyatavipāka, 112 + + aniyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya, 113 + + antaḥkaraṇa, 43 n. + + _anukāreṇa paśyati_, 21 + + anupaśya, 21 + + anuvrata, 139 + + anuvyavasāya, 176 + + anvaya, 166, 167 + + anvayikāraṇa, 61 + + _anvitābhidhānavāda_, 186 + + anvitābhidhānavāda, Yoga view, near to, 186 + + _anyābhyāṃ ahaṃkārābhyām svakāryyopajanane rājasāhaṃkāraḥ + sahakārībhavati_, 55 + + anyathākhyāti, 164, 173 n. + + _anyatvakāraṇa_, 134 + + _anyonyamithunāḥ sarvve naishāmādisamprayogo viprayogo vā úpalabhyate_, + 7 + + aṅga, 145 + + aṇu, 43 n., 65 + + ap, 74, 75, 166, 167 + + ap atom, 65, 66 + + apara vairāgya, 127, 128 + + aparigraha, 141 + + _apavarga_, 29 + + apoha, 101, 176 + + Appearance, 36 + + apuṇya karma, 88 + + Aristotle, 1, 13 + + _artha_, 150 + + arthavattva, 166, 167 + + _arthena svakīyayā grāhyaśaktyā vijñānamajani_, 33 + + asamprajñāta, 124, 149 + + asamprajñāta samādhi, 125 + + Asceticism, 136, 139, 142, 144 + + asmitā, 51, 59, 100, 104, 118, 153, 154, 172, 175 + + asmitā-ego, 51 + + _asmitāmātra_, 50, 51, 59, 160 + + _asmitānugata_, 125, 153, 154 + + _asmītyetāvanmātrākāratvādasmitā_, 153 + + Assimilation, 101 + + Association of ideas, 37 + + asteya, 141, 144 + + Astral body, 93 + + aśukla, 140 + + aśuklākṛshṇa, 102, 103, 111 + + Atheistic, 90 + + Atomic change as unit of time, 43 + + Atoms, 4, 38, 39, 43, 65, 72, 74, 77, 81, 152, 167; + continual change, 71 + + Attachment, 99, 100, 176, 177 + + Avariciousness, 136, 141 + + avasthā, 76 + + avasthāpariṇāma, 71, 73, 82, 156, 165 + + Aversion, 98, 176, 177 + + _avibhāgaprāptāviva_, 17 + + avidyā, 2, 11, 12, 97, 99, 100, 101, 104, 114, 115, 116, 120, 123, 128, + 131, 159, 172, 173 n., 178; + its definition, 11; + uprooting of, 115, 116 + + avidyā of yoga and Sāṃkhya, 164 + + aviśesha, 7, 7 n., 40, 41, 60, 61, 62, 81, 82, 84, 165 + + _aviśesheṇopashṭambhakasvabhāvāḥ_, 6 + + aviveka, 173 n. + + _avyapadeśyatva_, 77 + + _avyavasthitākhilapariṇamo bhavatyeva_, 85 + + _ayutasiddhāvayava_, 69 + + _ādisamprayoga_, 7 + + ākāra, 85 + + ākāśa, 14, 43 n., 56, 57, 58, 68, 80, 93, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170 + + ākāśa, two kinds of, 168 + + ākāśa atom, 65, 66; + Bhikshu and Vācaspati on, 65 + + ākāśa tanmātra, 66 + + ālocana, 176 + + āmalaka, 77, 78, 79 + + ānanda, 153,154 + + ānandānugata, 125, 153, 154 + + _āptikāraṇa_, 133, 135 + + āpūra, 93 + + _āpyakāraṇa_, 135 + + āsana, 136, 145 + + āśaya, 103 + + _āśerate sāṃsārikā purushā asminniti āśayaḥ_, 103 + + āvaraṇa śakti, 84 + + āyush, 105, 106, 115 + + + Barabara muni, 64 + + bāhya karma, 102 + + Beginningless, 28 + + Behaviour, 6 + + Bel, 77 + + Benares, 11 n. + + bhakti, 161 + + bhaktiyoga, 159, 161 + + bhava, 110 + + _bhavishyadvyaktikamanāgataṃanudbhūtavyaktikamatītam svavyāpāropārūḍhaṃ + varttamānaṃ trayaṃ caitadvastu jñānasya jñeyam yadi caitat svarūpato + nābhavishyannedaṃ nirvishayaṃ jñānamudapatsyata tasmādatītamanāgataṃ + svarūpato’stīti_, 31 n. + + _Bhāshya_, 16, 17, 18, 19, 33, 61, 62, 67, 71, 76, 78, 80, 91, 95, 99, + 109, 110, 131 + + bhāvanā, 161 + + Bhikshu, 6, 9, 12 n., 43 n., 45 n., 46 n., 50, 65, 67, 85, 86, 88, 90, + 94, 109, 110, 112, 126, 129, 145, 153, 168 + + _bhoga_, 29, 105, 106, 115 + + bhoga-śarīra, 105 + + Bhoja, 126 + + Bhojavṛtti, 95 + + bhrama, 173 n. + + bhūta, 60, 69, 166 + + bhūtādi, 54, 56, 58, 63, 64; + accretion from, 65, 66 + + Biological, 2 + + Birth, 133, 161 + + Body, sattvamaya, 160 + + Bondage, 19 + + Brahmacaryya, 141 + + Brahman, 27, 28, 139 + + Breath, 146, 147 + + Breath regulation, 135, 136 + + _buddheḥ pratisaṃvedi purushaḥ_, 19 + + _buddhi_, 16, 18, 21, 27, 28, 40, 51, 52, 61, 115, 116, 118, 152, 173 + n. + + Buddhist, 33, 45 n. + + Buddhists, their theory of _sahopalambhaniyama_ refuted, 33 + + + Caitra, 173 + + Caraka, 11 + + Caste, 139 + + Categories of existence, 41 + + Category, 6, 117 + + Caturdaśī, 139 + + Causal activity, 4 + + Causal operation, 4 + + Causal transformation, 4 + + Causality, 152 + + Causation, 132, 133; + Sāṃkhya view of, 81 + + Cause, 79, 81, 85, 133, 134; + nine kinds of, 133 + + Cessation, 19 + + Change, 43, 44; + Buddhist and Yoga idea contrasted, 45 n.; + units of, 45, 46 + + Changeful, 18 + + Characterised, 37 + + Characteristic, 37 + + _Chāyā-vyākhyā_, 63, 93 + + Chemical, 2 + + Chowkhamba, 11 n. + + Circumstance, 139 + + cit, 15, 162 + + citta, 36, 81, 92, 93, 94, 96, 101, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 125, 132, + 147, 154, 161, 175; + different forms of, 92, 93; + different states of, 170; + its nature, 94 + + _cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṃ sannidhimātropakāri dṛśyatvena svaṃ bhavati + purushasya svāminaḥ_, 22 + + _cittaprasāda_, 127 + + Clairaudience, 144 + + Class-characteristics, 4 n. + + Cleanliness, 136, 143, 144 + + Coco-nut, 77 + + Co-existence, 34 + + Cognitive states, 48 + + Coherent, 7, 37 + + Collocation, 37 + + Commentary, 4 + + Compassion, 137 + + Complacency, 137 + + Compounds, 3, 166 + + Conceived, 3 + + Conceiver, 3 + + Concentration, 17, 94, 95, 96, 123, 126, 128, 135, 136, 147, 148, 150, + 152, 153, 155, 163, 170 + + Concept, 150, 162, 173 + + Conceptual, 23, 25 + + Concomitant causes, 85 + + Condensation, 10 + + Conscious-like, 19 + + Consciousness, 17, 18, 20, 21, 25, 45, 92, 93, 122, 149, 151, 154, 173 + + Consciousness contentless, 50 + + Conscious states, 17 + + Conservation, 132, 133 + + Contact, 27, 29 n. + + Contemplation, 97 + + Contentment, 136, 139, 144 + + Continence, 136, 139, 141, 144 + + Contrary, 141 + + Co-operation, 5 + + Cosmic evolution, 47 + + Cosmic matter, 74 + + Country, 139 + + Creation, 114, 115, 160, 161 + + _Critique of Judgment_, 14 + + _Critique of Practical Reason_, 14 + + _Critique of Pure Reason_, 14 + + + Davies, 25 + + Decision, 53 + + Demerit, 86, 87, 88, 93, 102, 103 + + Denotation, 7 n. + + deśa, 85, 170 + + Descartes, 13 + + Desire, 141 + + Determinate, 7 + + Determined, 3, 37 + + Determiner, 3 + + Devotion, 139, 142, 145, 161 + + dhāraṇā, 101, 128, 130, 135, 136, 137, 138, 145, 147, 148, 176 + + dharma, 42, 71, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 101, 103, 106, 162 + + dharmamegha-samādhi, 117 + + _dharmapariṇāma_, 69, 71, 74, 80, 81, 156, 165 + + dharmin, 71, 73, 74, 76 + + _dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ, dharmivikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā + propañcyate_, 37, 71 + + dharmī, 42 + + _dhātu_, 11 + + _dhṛtikāraṇa_, 135 + + dhyāna, 117, 130, 135, 136, 138, 139, 145, 147, 148 + + Difference, 33 + + Differentiated, 7, 37, 62 + + Differentiation, 53, 66, 101 + + dik, 170 + + Discrimination, 8, 116, 120, 164 + + Distractions, 126, 148 + + Doubt, 172 + + _drashṭā dṛśiṃātraḥ śuddho’pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ_, 16 + + dravya, 4 n., 29 n., 168 + + Droṇa, 140 n. + + _dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā_, 16, 51 + + dṛk, 17 + + _dṛkśakti_, 20 + + dṛshṭajanma karmāśaya, 105 + + _dṛshṭajanmavedanīya_, 105, 110, 112 + + duḥkha, 175 + + dvesha, 104 + + + Earth, 167 + + Effect, 81, 82, 85, 132 + + Efficient cause, 82 + + Ego, 3, 4, 27, 28, 38, 42, 51, 52, 53, 60, 61, 99, 152, 153, 175; + a modification of buddhi, 53; + evolution in three lines from, 54; + three kinds of, 55 + + Egohood, 50, 124 + + Ego-universal, 50 + + ekabhavika, 105, 110, 111, 112 + + ekabhavikatva, 109 + + _ekāgra_, 95, 96, 123, 126 + + ekātmatā, 17 + + _ekātmikā saṃvidasmitā_, 51 + + ekendriya, 128 + + Elements, 3, 166 + + Emancipation, 164 + + Energy, 3, 5, 8, 132 + + Enjoyment, 28, 29 + + Equilibrium, 6, 7, 8, 9, 42, 43, 87 + + Error, 173 n. + + Eternal, 8, 91 + + Eternity, two kinds of, 118 + + Ethics, 92 + + European, 10 + + Evolutes, 11 + + Evolution, 7, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 62, 65, 69, 72, 76, 81, 84, + 87, 89, 114; + as change, 43; + as change of qualities and as derivation of categories, 69; + definite law of, 82; + its limitations by time and space, 79; + measured by units of spatial motion, 44; + of manas, 55; + of the senses, 54; + of categories, difference between Sāṃkhya and Yoga view, 58–62; + of similars, 10 + + Evolutionary process, 77, 85, 91 + + Exhalation, 146 + + Existence as capacity of effecting, 8 + + Expiratory, 136 + + Extension, 34 + + Externality, 34 + + External reality, 34; + Buddhist objection to, 32; + has more than a momentary existence, 36; + its ground, 36; + not due to imagination, 35; + not identical with our ideas, 35 + + External world, 31; + refutation of Buddhist objections, 33 + + + Faith, 102 + + Fichte, 50 + + Fisherman, 139 + + Force, 82 + + Freedom, 123, 125, 127; + of will, 177 + + Friendliness, 137 + + Future, 31, 32, 46, 72 + + + Gaṇḍa, 15 + + gandha, 38, 152, 167 + + gandha-tanmātra, 58, 64 + + Gauḍapāda, 24 + + Generalisation, 154 + + Generic, 168 + + _ghaṭāvacchinna ākāśa_, 14 + + _Gītā_, 12 + + _Gītābhāshya_, 4 n. + + Goal, 115, 121, 124, 127, 129 + + God, 2, 85, 87, 88, 90, 91, 115, 136, 139, 142, 143, 145, 148, 149, + 161, 163, 164, 172, 178, 187 + + Gold, 134 + + grahaṇa, 101, 153, 175 + + _grahaṇadhāraṇohāpohatattvajñānābhiniveśā buddhau varttamānā purushe + adhyāropitasadbhāvāḥ_, 53 + + grahītṛ, 153 + + grāhya, 54, 153 + + Gross elements, derivation of, 65 _et seq._ + + Grossness, 34 + + _guṇā eva prakṛtiśabdavācyā na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti_, 10 + + _guṇānāṃ hi dvairūpyaṃ vyavasāyātmkatvam vyavaseyātmakatvaṃca_, 53 + + _guṇānāṃ paramaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati, yattu drshṭipathaṃ + prāptam tanmāyeva sutucchakaṃ_, 12, 37 + + guṇas, 3, 4 n., 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 24, 26, 37, 38, 39, 42, 53, 76, 78, + 81, 82, 98, 101, 118, 120, 121, 131, 155, 167, 170 + + guṇas, three classes, 5; + as causal effect, 6; + evolution of the cognitive and conative senses and tanmātras, 38; + identity of qualities and substances, 5; + relative preponderance of, 7; + special affinity of each class, 6; + special behaviour of each class of, 6; + their atomic qualities consistent with their all-pervasiveness, 43 + n.; + their common purpose, 7; + their co-operation, 38; + their mode of combination, 6; + their mode of mutual operation, 5; + their mode of evolution, 7; + their nature as feelings, 68; + their twofold nature, 53; + their threefold course of development, 38; + their want of purpose in the state of equilibrium, 7; + two classes of their evolution, _aviśesha_ and _viśesha_, 40 + + + Hariharāraṇya, 96 + + Heaven, 86 n. + + _hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekāśritaṃ liṅgaṃ sāvayavamparatantraṃ + vyaktaṃ viparītamavyaktaṃ_, 42 + + Hibiscus, 15 n. + + hiṃsā, 140, 141 + + _History of Hindu Chemistry_, 7 n., 63 n., 170 n. + + Horn of a hare, 8 + + Hume, 37 + + + Idealistic Buddhists, 31 + + Ignorance, 141, 145 + + Illumination, 5 + + Illusion, 173 n.; + of Yoga and Sāṃkhya, 164 + + Illusive, 28 + + Imagination, 34 + + Immanent purpose, 90 + + Independence, 95, 128, 134 + + Indeterminate, 8 + + India, 14 + + Indra, 86 n. + + Inertia, 3, 5, 8, 37, 167 + + Inference, 1, 2, 81, 96, 154, 156, 162, 163, 170, 171 + + Infra-atomic, 3 + + Infra-atoms, 4 + + Inhalation, 146 + + Injury, 139 + + Inorganic, 74 + + Inspiratory, 136 + + Intellection, 6 + + Intelligence, 2, 48 + + Intelligence-stuff, 3, 8, 49 + + Iron, 6 + + Īśvara, 14, 79, 87, 88, 90, 103, 126, 144, 145, 159, 160, 161, 162, + 164, 172; + removal of barriers, 87 + + Īśvarakṛshṇa, 7 n. + + Īśvarapraṇidhāna, 142, 145, 161 + + _Īśvarasyāpi dharmādhisṭhānārthaṃ pratibandhāpanaya eva vyāpāro_, 87 + + + _janmamaraṇakaraṇānāṃ pratiniyamādayugapat pravṛtteśca purushabahutvam + siddhaṃ traiguṇyaviparyyayācca_, 26 + + _japāsphaṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ_, 15 + + _jāti_, 105, 106, 115 + + Jealousy, 143 + + jīva, 14 + + jīvanmukta, 117 + + jīvanmukti, 120 + + jñāna, 150 + + jñānayoga, 130, 142, 143, 159 + + Judgmental, 23 + + + kaivalya, 22, 23, 27, 31, 95, 96, 116, 118, 121, 122, 139, 140, 142, + 143, 177 + + kalpa, 160 + + Kant, 14, 37 + + Kapila, 25 + + karma, 86, 98, 117, 159, 160, 177; + its classification and divergence of views, 109–113 + + karma-sannyāsin, 103 + + karmāśaya, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 160 + + karmayoga, 159 + + karuṇā, 137, 138, 139 + + Kaumudī, 64 + + kāla, 85 + + kāma, 104 + + kāraṇa, 168 + + kāraṇacitta, 93 + + _kārikā_, 7 n., 11, 24, 26, 42, 64, 165 + + Kārya, 168 + + kārya vimukti, 120 + + kāryya citta, 92 + + kāryyakarī śakti, 84 + + Kāśmīra, 79 + + _kevalapurushākārā saṃvit_, 153 + + kevalī, 117, 118 + + kirātā, 101 + + kleśa, 99, 100, 104, 114 + + klishṭa, 128 + + klishṭavṛtti, 100 + + Knowable, 5, 27, 32, 38 + + Knower, 27, 50 + + Knowledge, different kinds of, differentiated, 163 + + Known, 27 + + _kriyā_, 37, 175 + + kriyāyoga, 129, 130, 142, 143, 161 + + krodha, 104 + + kṛshṇa, 102, 103, 111 + + kṛshṇa karma, 103, 111 + + _kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt_, 26 + + _kshaṇa_, 43, 44, 45, 46 n., 146, 170 + + _kshaṇabhaṅguram_, 12 n. + + _kshaṇapracayāśraya_, 46 n. + + _kshaṇapratiyogi_, 46 n. + + _kshaṇatatkramayornāsti vastusamāhāraḥ iti buddhisamāhāraḥ + muhūrttāhorātrātrādayaḥ. sa tvayaṃ kālaḥ vastuśūnyo’pi + buddhinirmāṇah_, 44 + + _kshipta_, 95, 122 + + kshiti, 74, 75, 166 + + kshiti atom, 66 + + kuntī, 14, 15 n. + + kuśala, 121 + + kuśalī, 121 + + kūṭastha nitya, 118 + + + lakshaṇa, 76, 82 + + lakshaṇa-pariṇāma, 71, 72, 73, 74, 156, 165 + + Latent, 46, 73, 81, 96, 108 + + _laukikamāyeva_, 12 n. + + liberation, 7, 25, 167, 175, 177 + + Light, 167 + + Limitation theory, 14, 15 + + liṅga, 7, 41, 42, 51, 62, 118 + + _liṅgamātram mahattatvaṃ sattāmātre mahati ātmani_, 50 + + _lobha_, 104 + + Locke, 37 + + Lokācāryya, 11, 55, 58 + + Lotus, 9 + + + _madhumatī_, 125 + + _madhupratīka_, 125 + + Magnet, 6, 89, 171 + + mahat, 9, 11, 40, 41, 42, 51, 56, 58, 59, 61, 82; + its potential existence in prakṛti, 9 + + _Mahābhārata_, 15 n., 80, 140 + + mahāpralaya, 118 + + mahāvrata, 139 + + maitrī, 137, 138, 139 + + manas, 40, 51, 55, 60, 81, 100, 118, 133, 175, 176 + + Manifested, 72 + + mantra, 161 + + Many, 27, 28 + + _Maṇiprabhā_, 65 + + marut, 75, 166 + + Mass, 3 + + Material cause, 61, 81 + + Matter, 2, 3, 166 + + mānasa karma, 102 + + mātrā, 146 + + māyā, 2, 11, 12, 14, 27, 28 + + _māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ vidyāt māyinaṃ tu maheśvaraṃ_, 11 + + _māyeva_, 12 n. + + Mechanical, 2 + + Meditation, 102, 135, 136, 145, 148, 149, 161, 176 + + Memory, 53, 98 + + Mental, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 37, 48 + + Mental states, analysis of, 48 + + Merit, 85, 86, 87, 88, 93, 103 + + Metaphysics, 30 + + Method of agreement, 33, 35; + of difference, 33 + + Mind, 2, 3, 18, 19, 81; + its seven qualities, 156 + + Mind-modification, 20, 22; + -transformations, 18 + + _moha_, 104, 175 + + _Mokshadharmādhyāya_, 140 + + Moment, 44, 45 + + Momentary, 12, 35 + + Moral, 2 + + Moral ideal, 26 + + Movement, 48 + + muditā, 137, 139 + + _mūḍha_, 95, 122 + + + Nahusha, 86 + + Naiyāyika, 58 + + Name, 150, 173; + and thing, 173 + + Nandī, 85 + + _na tu kshaṇātiriktaḥ kshaṇikaḥ padārthaḥ kaścidishyate taistu + kshaṇamātrasthāyyeva padārthaḥ ishyate_, 45 n. + + _Naturalism and agnosticism_, 2 n. + + Natural selection, 76 + + Nāgeśa, 61, 63, 66, 86, 87, 94, 107, 109, 117, 168 + + Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha, 90, 126 + + _nāsadāsīt na sadāsīt tadānīm_, 12 + + _nāstyasataḥ saṃbhavaḥ na cāsti sato vināśāḥ_, 31 + + Nectar, 85 + + Nescience, 14, 15, 97, 99; + its different forms, 172 n. + + nidrā, 101 + + Nihilists, 2 + + _niḥsaṅge’pi uparāgo vivekāt_, 15 + + _niḥsattāsattam niḥsadasat nirasat avyaktam aliṅgam pradhānam_, 8 + + niḥsattāsattaṃ, 12 + + nirasmitā, 153 + + nirmāṇa citta, 160, 161 + + nirānanda, 153 + + nirodha, 19, 96, 118, 149, 155, 156, 170 + + _nirodhaja saṃskāra_, 97 + + nirodha samādhi, 139 + + _niruddha_, 95, 123 + + nirvicāra, 149, 153, 154 + + nirvīja, 122, 125 + + nirvīja samādhi, 154 + + nirvitarka, 150, 151, 153, 154 + + niścaya, 50 + + niyama, 136, 139, 142, 143, 148 + + niyata vipāka, 112 + + niyatavipākadṛshṭajanmavedanīya, 113 + + Nīlakaṇṭha, 80, 88, 89 + + Non-being, 2 + + Non-covetousness, 139, 144 + + Non-discrimination, 15 + + Non-distinction, 173 n. + + Non-existence, 8, 12 + + Non-injury, 139, 140, 144; + its classification, 141 + + Non-stealing, 139 + + Noumenon, 8, 14 + + + Observance, 135, 136 + + oṃkāra, 161 + + Omniscience, 95 + + oshadhi, 161 + + + Pain, 98, 121, 122, 126, 137, 142 + + Palm, 77 + + Pantheism, 13 + + Pañcaśikha, 17, 52, 103 n. + + parama mahat, 68 + + paramāṇu in Sāṃkhya and Yoga, 43 n., 66, 67, 165, 167 + + para vairāgya, 120, 127, 128 + + parikarma, 129, 130, 135, 137 + + pariṇāma, 98 + + _pariṇāmaduḥkhatā_, 98 + + _pariṇāmakramaniyama_, 62, 82 + + pariṇāmi, 19 + + pariṇāminityatā, 119 + + Past, 31, 32, 46, 72 + + Patañjali, 1, 2, 5 n., 16, 26, 30, 35, 51, 119 + + Patent, 81 + + pāda, 54 + + Pāñcāla, 79 + + pāṇi, 54 + + pāpa karma, 100 + + pāpakarmāśaya, 105 + + Pātañjala, 1, 12, 90, 115 + + pāyu, 54, 58 + + Perceived, 3 + + Perceiver, 3 + + Percept, 19 + + Perception, 3, 53, 96, 154, 162, 170, 171, 175 + + Permanent, 21 + + Phenomena, 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 14, 17, 18, 19, 95 + + Phenomenal, 29, 84, 125, 155 + + Philosopher, 2 + + Philosophical, 2 + + Physical, 2, 3, 4, 5, 37, 166 + + _Physical, Chemical and Mechanical Theories of the Ancient Hindus_, 63 + n. + + Plant: its possession of life and senses, 80 + + Plato, 13 + + Pleasure, 98 + + Plurality, 26–29, 30 + + Poison, 85 + + Posture, 135, 136, 145 + + Potency, 19, 82, 96, 98, 101, 106, 116, 124, 125, 154, 155; + destroying other potencies, 117 + + Potential, 9, 32, 73, 77, 83, 84, 85 + + Potentiality, 5, 83, 84 + + Potentials, 3 + + Power, 82 + + pradhāna, 118 + + prajñā, 102, 116, 117, 120, 122, 125, 126, 128, 136, 151, 154, 170, + 171; + its seven stages, 119–120 + + prajñāsaṃskāra, 101 + + prajñāloka, 149 + + prakāśa, 37, 175 + + prakṛti, 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 16, 17, 22, 25, 27, 28, 29, 40, 41, + 42, 54, 59, 62, 77, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 114, + 115, 117, 118, 120, 122, 125, 143, 152, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, + 170, 173 n., 175, 177, 178; + as undifferentiated cosmic matter, 12; + as equilibrium of dharma and dharmī, 42; + avidyā and vāsanā lie merged in it, 114; + different views of, 10, 11; + different from avidyā, 12; + evolution of the second category of asmitā, 51; + its difference from māyā, 12; + its difference from purusha, 20; + its first evolutionary product, mahat, 50, 51; + its goal, 116; + its identity with guṇa reals, 9; + its relation with guṇas, 6; + its similarity with purusha, 20; + Lokācāryya’s view of, 11; + nature in the state of equilibrium, 8; + refilling from, 86; + roused by God, 87; + Venkaṭa’s view of, 10 + + prakṛtilīna, 127 + + _prakṛtivikṛti_, 7 n. + + _prakṛtiṛityucyate vikārotpādakatvāt avidyā jñānavirodhitvāt māyā + vicitrasṛshṭikaratvāt_, 11 + + prakṛtyāpūra, 106 + + pralaya, 114 + + pramāṇa, 101, 170, 176 + + praṇava, 161 + + prāṇāyāma, 136, 137, 145, 146, 147, 148, 175 + + prasupta, 176 + + _pratipaksha bhāvanā_, 141 + + _pratisambandhī_, 46 n. + + pratiyogī, 46 n. + + pratyāhāra, 136, 137, 147, 148 + + pratyaksha, 171, 175 + + pratyaya, 119, 134 + + _pratyayakāraṇa_, 133 + + _pratyayaṃ bauddhamanupaśyati tamanupaśyannatadātmāpi tadātmaka iva + pratibhāti_, 17 + + _pratyayānupaśya_, 17, 18 + + _Pravacana-bhāshya_, 64 + + _prāmāṇyaniścaya_, 134 n. + + Pre-established harmony, 2 + + Present, 31, 32, 46, 72 + + Presentative ideation, 101 + + Presentative power, 33 + + Pride, 143 + + Primal, 3 + + Primal cause, 3, 6 + + pṛthivī, 57 + + Psychological, 2 + + Psychology, 81 + + Psychosis, 3, 16 + + puṇya, 100 + + puṇya karma, 88, 100 + + puṇya karmāśaya, 105 + + Purāṇa, 64 + + Purification, 138 + + Purificatory, 129, 130, 136 + + Purity, 139 + + purusha, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 16, 17, 19, 23, 28, 29, 42, 48, 53, 61, 76, + 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 100, 104, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 125, + 131, 133, 143, 154, 159, 162, 164, 173, 173 n., 175, 177, 178; + arguments in favour of its separate existence, 24; + contrast with vedantic Brahman, 26; + different from the mental states, 17; + fulfilment of its objects, 7, 8; + its connection with prakṛti real, 28; + its final separation from prakṛti, 118; + its permanence, 21; + its plurality, 26–30; + its reflection in the mind, 18; + its relation with concepts and ideas, 49; + its similarity with sattva, 49; + meaning determined from the sūtras, 16, 17; + nature of its reflection in buddhi, 21, 22 + + purushārtha, 89 + + purushārthatā, 120, 164; + its relation with avidyā, 115 + + pūrvadeśa, 43 n. + + + rajas, 3, 4, 5, 6, 24, 37, 40, 43, 47, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 62, 95, 96, + 116, 175 + + Rarefaction, 10 + + rasa, 38, 152 + + rasa-tanmātra, 58, 64 + + Ray, P. C., 7 n., 63 n., 170 n. + + Rādhā, 14, 15 n. + + rāga, 97, 99, 104, 172 + + _Rājamārtaṇda_, 65 + + _rājaputtravattattvopadeśāt_, 15 + + rājasa, 38 + + Rāmānuja, 64, 162 + + Realisation, 137 + + Reality, 2, 4, 30, 118, 154 + + Reals, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 28 + + Reason, 50 + + Reasoning, 53 + + Rebirth, 93, 107 + + Reflection, 18, 28 + + Reflection theory, 14, 15 + + Release, 28, 29, 123, 128 + + Religious, 2 + + Reperception, 18 + + Restraint, 135, 136 + + Retention, 101 + + Right knowledge, 53 + + rūpa, 38, 65, 152, 167 + + rūpa tanmātra, 57, 64 + + Ṛgveda, 11 + + ṛshi, 144 + + ṛtambharā, 154 + + + _sadṛśapariṇāmā_, 10 + + sahakāri, 55 + + _sahopalambhaniyama_, 33 + + _sahopalambhaniyamaś ca vedyatvañca hetū + sandigdhavyatirekatayānaikāntikau_, 34 + + _sahopalambhaniyamādabhedo nilataddhiyoḥ_, 32 + + Salvation, 145, 159, 162 + + samādhi, 81, 96, 102, 118, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 135, 136, 137, 140, + 142, 143, 145, 147, 148, 149, 151, 153, 155, 161, 162; + classification of, 153, 154 + + samādhipariṇāma, 155 + + samāna tantra, 67 + + samprajñāta, 96, 124, 125, 126, 137, 144, 149, 153, 155, 156 + + samprajñāta samādhi, 138, 145, 150, 154 + + _sampratyaya_, 134 n. + + _saṃghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyyayādadhishṭhānāt purusho’sti + bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṃ pravṛtteśca_, 24 + + saṃsāra, 115, 121 + + saṃskāra, 19, 81, 96, 98, 101, 108, 109, 125, 174, 176, 177 + + _saṃskārāḥ vṛttibhiḥ kriyante saṃskāraiśca vṛttayaḥ evaṃ + vṛttisaṃskāracakram aniśamāvarttate_, 97 + + saṃskāraśesha, 125 + + _saṃskāryyakāraṇa_, 135 + + _saṃsṛshṭā vivicyante_, 62 + + _saṃvega_, 129 + + saṃyama, 149, 157 + + _saṃyoga_, 27, 29 n. + + sannyāsāśrama, 103 + + santosha, 143 + + saṅketa, 187 + + Sarasvatī Rāmānanda, 126 + + _sarvaṃ sarvātmakaṃ_, 77 + + satkāraṇavāda, 81 + + satkāryyavāda, 81 + + sattva, 3, 4, 5, 6, 22, 24, 37, 38, 40, 43, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, + 56, 96, 116, 143, 144, 153, 160, 161 + + _sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ_, 16, 22 + + _sattvapurushayoratyantāsaṅkīrṇayoḥ pratyayāviśesho bhogaḥ parārthatvāt + svārthasamyamāt purushajñā, nam_, 16 + + savicāra, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154; + prajñā, 151 + + savitarka, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154 + + _sā ca ātmanā grahītrā saha buddhirekātmikā saṃvid_, 51 + + _sāmānya guṇa_, 29 n. + + Sāṃkhya, 4, 7 n., 10, 11, 18, 26, 27, 28, 29, 29 n., 30, 58, 62, 67, + 89, 90, 94, 140, 164, 165; + Jaina influence on, 94 n. + + _Sāṃkhya-kārikā_, 55, 56 n., 67 + + Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala, 24, 76, 77, 80, 81, 82, 85 + + Sāṃkhya philosophy, 4 n. + + _Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāshya_, 4 n. + + _Sāṃkhya-sūtra_, 11, 15, 169 + + _Sāṃkhya-Yoga_, 4, 26, 27, 50 n., 57 + + Sāṃkhyists, 12 + + sānanda, 153 + + sāttvika, 38, 56 + + sāttvikaahaṃkāra, 63 + + _Science of Ethics_, 50 + + Seal, Dr. B. N., 7, 37, 63 n., 66–169 + + Seeming reflection, 22, 23 + + Seer, 17, 19, 23, 24, 28, 47, 51 + + Self, 8, 18, 21, 26, 49, 51, 54 + + Self-consciousness, 52, 54 + + Self-control, 24 + + Self-intelligent, 3 + + Self-subsistent, 36 + + Sensation, 166 + + Sense, 141 + + Sense faculties, 56 + + Sense organs, 56 + + Senses, 3, 40, 41, 47, 54, 60, 86, 87, 100, 102, 135, 147, 167, 171; + divergent views about their evolution, 57 + + Separation, 29 n. + + Sex restraint, 144 + + _Shashṭitantraśāstra_, 10, 12 + + siddha, 144 + + _Siddhānta-candrikā_, 65, 95 + + _Siddhāntaleśa_, 14 + + Sign, 7, 41 + + Simultaneous revelation, 33 + + Sins, 103 + + Sleep, 174 + + smṛti, 19, 64, 101, 102, 108, 126, 128, 136 + + Social, 2 + + Soul, 13, 14, 24, 25 + + Sound, 169 + + Space, 79, 146, 152; + as relative position, 169 + + Space order, 170 + + sparśa, 38, 65 + + sparśâtanmātra, 57, 64 + + Specialised, 7, 8 + + Specific, 168 + + sphoṭavāda, 178–187; + _Kumāril’s view_, 181; + Mahābhāshya and Kaiyaṭa, 182; + Prabhākara, 182; + Śabara’s view, 182; + _Vaiśeshika view_, 180; + Vākya-sphoṭa, 185; + _Yoga view_, 184 + + Spinoza, 13 + + Spirits, 7, 13 + + Spiritual principle, 24, 28 + + _sthiti_, 37, 175 + + _sthitikāraṇa_, 133 + + sthūla, 166 + + sthūlavishayaka, 154 + + Strength, 102 + + Studies, 136, 139 + + Subconscious, 81 + + Sub-latent, 46, 73 + + Substance, 4 n., 29 n., 40, 47, 73, 74, 76, 81, 168; + its nature, 37 + + Substantive entities, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 82, 84 + + Substratum, 36, 37, 49 + + Succession, 44, 45 + + _summum bonum_, 121 + + Susheṇa, 135 + + _sutucchaka_, 12 + + _sūkshma_, 61, 67, 166, 167 + + sūkshmavishayaka, 154 + + _sūkshmavṛttimantaḥ_, 6 + + Sūtra, 15, 17, 22, 26, 31, 62, 64, 108, 137, 147 + + _Sūtrārthabodhinī_, 65, 90 + + svarūpa, 166, 167, 175 + + svādhyāya, 136, 142, 161 + + _Svetāśvatara_, 11 + + Sympathy, 137, 138 + + śabda, 38, 65, 150 + + _śabdajñānānupātī vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ_, 174 + + śabda-tanmātra, 57, 64 + + _śabdādīnām mūrttisamānajātīyānām_, 66 n. + + śakti, 17, 82, 83 + + śaktimān, 82, 83 + + Śaṅkara, 4 n., 135, 162 + + śānta, 73 + + _Sānti-parva_, 80, 88, 89 + + śāstra, 172 + + śauca, 143, 144 + + śīla, 6 + + śraddhā, 102, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 135, 138, 158 + + śruti, 57 + + śukla, 102, 111, 140, 175 + + śukla karma, 103, 140 + + śukla karmāśaya, 111 + + śuklakṛshṇa, 102, 111 + + Śūnyavādi Buddhists, 2 + + _svalpasaṅkaraḥ saparihāraḥ sapratyavamarshaḥ_, 103 n. + + _svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṃyogaḥ_, 16 + + + _tadartha eva drśyasya ātmā_, 16 + + _tadabhāvāt saṃyogābhāvo hānaṃ taddṛśeḥ kaivalyaṃ_, 16 + + taijasa, 56 + + tamas, 3, 4, 5, 6, 37, 39, 40, 43, 47, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 94, 95, + 117, 169, 176 + + tanmātra, 38, 40, 42, 54, 59, 61, 65, 66, 67, 70, 82, 83, 124, 151, 167 + + tanmātras, evolution of grosser elements from, 65; + their difference from paramānus, 68; + their evolution, _et seq._, 64; + their relation to ahaṃkāra, 40, 41 + + tanmātrāvayava, 66 + + _tanmātrāṇāmapi parasparavyārvṛttasvabhāvatvamastyeva tacca + yogimātragamyam_, 68 + + tanu, 176 + + _tapaḥ_, 136 + + tapas, 161 + + _tasmāt svatantro’rthaḥ sarvapurushasādhāraṇaḥ svatantrāṇi ca cittāni + pratipurushaṃ, pravarttante_, 36 + + Taste, 167 + + _tatradṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya_, 109 + + tattva, 40, 94 + + tattvajñāna, 101, 176 + + _Tattva-kaumudī_, 25, 56 n., 103 n. + + _Tattva-nirūpaṇa_, 66 + + _Tattvatraya_, 11 n., 55, 58, 64, 66 + + _Tattvavaiśāradī_, 3 n., 5 n., 9 n., 33 n., 46, 53, 56 n., 64, 75, 78, + 79, 93, 135, 154 + + tattvāntara, 68 + + _tattvāntara-pariṇāma_, 40, 41, 69 + + tāmasa, 38, 56 + + tāmasa ahaṃkāra, 60, 62 + + _te vyaktasūkshmā guṇātmānaḥ ... sarvamidaṃ guṇānāṃ + Sanniveśaviśeshamātramiti paramārthato guṇātmānaḥ_, 38 + + tejas, 65, 75, 166, 167 + + tejas atom, 66 + + Teleological, 86, 121 + + Teleology, 24, 76, 77, 89 + + Temptation, 141 + + Theft, 136, 141 + + Theists, 90 + + Theories, 2 + + Thing, 150 + + Thing-in-itself, 2, 37 + + Thought, 2 + + Time, 79, 139, 152, 169; + as discrete moments, 44; + as unit of change, 43; + element of imagination in, 44; + unit of, 46; + order, 170 + + Tinduka, 77 + + Trance, 135, 136, 143; + Trance-cognition, 95 + + Transcendent, 18 + + Transformations, 20, 24 + + trasareṇu, 66 + + _triguṇamaviveki vishayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṃ prasavadharmi vyaktaṃ tathā + pradhānaṃ, tadviparītastathā pumān_, 42 + + Truth, 141 + + Truthfulness, 139, 140, 144 + + _Tulyajātīyātulyajātīyaśaktibhedānupātinaḥ_, 6 + + + udāra, 176 + + udbodhaka, 174 + + udghāta, 146, 147 + + udita, 73 + + Ultimate state, 7 + + Unafflicted, 176 + + Understanding, 19 + + Undetermined, 8 + + Undifferentiated, 12, 162 + + Unindividuated, 12 + + Universe, 1, 13; + a product of guṇa combinations, 37 + + Unknowable, 2, 37 + + Unmanifested, 4, 8, 72 + + Unmediated, 8 + + Unpredicable, 73 + + Unreal, 28 + + Unspecialised, 7 + + Unwisdom, 142 + + Upanishads, 11 + + upastha, 54, 58 + + upādāna, 61 + + upādāna kāraṇa, 61, 133 + + upekshā, 137, 139 + + _utpādyakāraṇa_, 135 + + uttaradeśa, 43 n. + + ūha, 101, 176 + + + vaikārika, 56 + + vairāgya, 100, 101, 127, 129, 130, 135, 136, 143, 149, 162, 177 + + Vaiśeshika, 43 n., 71, 168 + + Vaiśeshika atoms, 70 + + vaishṇava, 10 + + Vanity, 143 + + vaśīkāra, 128 + + _vastupatitaḥ_, 44 + + _vastusāmye cittabhedāt tayor vibhaktaḥ panthāḥ_, 35 n. + + Vācaspati, 3, 5 n., 8, 12, 32, 33, 35, 44, 46 n., 51, 55, 62, 65, 66, + 67, 75, 78, 87, 89, 93, 109, 110, 112, 118, 126, 129, 144, 153, 154 + + vāk, 54 + + _Vākyapadīya_, 183 + + vāsanā, 99, 106, 108, 114, 116, 177; + contrasted with karmāśaya, 107 + + Vāyu, 167 + + Vāyu atom, 65 + + Vedas, 154, 160, 162, 170, 177 + + Vedānta, 11, 14, 24, 27, 28, 29, 162 + + Vedāntism, 14 + + Vedāntists, 12, 26, 66, 81 + + Vedic, 103 + + Vehicles of actions, 103 + + Venkaṭa, 10 + + Veracity, 136, 140 + + Verbal cognition, cause of, 186; + view of Nyāya, 187 + + vibhu, 43 n. + + _vibhu parimāṇa_, 29 n. + + vibhūti, 158 + + Vibhūtipāda, 22 + + vicāra, 153 + + vicārānugata, 125, 153 + + vicchinna, 176 + + Vice, 86, 87 + + _videha_, 127 + + vidyā, 177 + + _vidyāviparītam jñānāntaraṃ avidyā_, 11, 97 + + _Vijñanāmṛta-bhāshya_, 88, 90 + + Vijñāna Bhikshu, 4, 15 + + vikalpa, 101, 150, 173, 174 + + _vikārakāraṇa_, 133 + + _vikāryyakāraṇa_, 135 + + _vikṛti_, 7 n., 165 + + _vikshipta_, 95, 123 + + vikshiptacitta, 96, 130 + + vipāka, 105, 107 + + viparyyaya, 101, 172, 173, 176 + + _viprayoga_, 7 + + Virtue, 86 + + _Vishṇu Purāṇa_, 66 + + viśesha, 7, 7 n., 40, 59, 81, 84, 165, 171 + + _viśeshapariṇāma_, 60 + + _viśeshāviśeshaliṅgamātrāliṅgāniguṇaparvāṇi_, 59 + + visokā, 125 + + vitarka, 153 + + vitarkānugata, 125, 154 + + _viyoga_, 29 n. + + _viyogakāraṇa_, 134, 135 + + vīryya, 102, 126, 128, 135, 136 + + Vomit, 141 + + _Vṛtti_, 56, 92, 96, 97, 101, 102, 122, 171 + + vyaṇgya, 57 + + vyaṅjaka, 57 + + vyatireka, 128 + + _vyavasāyātmakatva_, 3 + + _vyavaseyātmakatva_, 3 + + Vyāsa, 5, 7, 8, 8 n., 22, 53, 121, 133, 135 + + _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, 3 n., 5 n., 7 n., 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 33, 36, 37, + 43 n., 50, 56, 58, 59, 60, 66 n., 68 n., 70, 71 n., 79, 84, 85, 94, + 99, 101, 117, 119, 121, 133, 171 + + vyoman, 75 + + vyutthāna, 155, 156, 170 + + _vyutthāna citta_, 95 + + + Ward, 2 n. + + Wicked, 102 + + World-phenomena, 16 + + World-process, 91 + + + _yadyaliṅgāvasthā śabdādyupabhogaṃ vā sattvapurushānyatākhyātim vā + purushārtham nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na sāmyāvasthā syāt_, 8 + + Yama, 136, 138, 139, 142, 143, 148 + + Yatamāna, 127 + + _yathā rathādi yantradibhiḥ_, 25 + + _yathāyaskāntamaṇiḥ svasminneva ayaḥsannidhīkaraṇamātrāt + śalyanishkarshaṇākhyam upakāram kurvat purushasya svāminaḥ svam + bhavati bhogasādhanatvāt_, 22 + + _ye cāsyānupasthitā bhāgaste cāsya na syurevaṃ nāsti pṛshṭhamiti + udaramapi na gṛhyeta_, 36 + + Yoga, 14, 29, 48, 62, 89, 96, 122, 123, 124, 129, 130, 131, 140, 144, + 147, 155, 162, 177; + its points of difference with Sāṃkhya, 163–165 + + Yoga metaphysics, 1 + + _Yoga philosophy in relation to other Indian systems of thought_, 165 + + Yoga system, 2 + + Yoga theory, 5 + + yogāṅga, 122, 130, 131, 132, 135, 136, 144, 145, 149 + + _Yoga-sūtra_, 5 n., 11, 17, 35 n., 43 n., 45, 47, 108, 117, 142, 153 + + _Yoga-vārttika_, 4 n., 6 n., 9, 10, 12 n., 22, 29 n., 43 n., 45 n., 60, + 61, 65, 66, 67, 87, 110, 126, 127, 129, 134 n., 143, 154, 176 + + Yogins, 79, 87, 95, 97, 98, 121, 125, 127, 128, 129, 136, 139, 143, + 147, 153, 155, 156, 158, 160; + nine kinds of, 129 + + _yogyatāvacchinnā dharmiṇaḥ śaktireva dharmaḥ_, 82 + + Yudhishṭhira, 140 + + _yutasiddhāvayaba_, 168 + +----- + +Footnote 1: + + See Ward’s _Naturalism and Agnosticism_. + +Footnote 2: + + Vācaspati’s _Tattvavaiśāradī_ on the _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 47. + +Footnote 3: + + _Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāshya_, I. 120. + +Footnote 4: + + It is indeed difficult to say what was the earliest conception of the + guṇas. But there is reason to believe, as I have said elsewhere, that + guṇa in its earliest acceptance meant qualities. It is very probable + that as the Sāṃkhya philosophy became more and more systematised it + was realised that there was no ultimate distinction between substance + and qualities. In consequence of such a view the guṇas which were + originally regarded as qualities began to be regarded as substantive + entities and no contradiction was felt. Bhikshu in many places + describes the guṇas as substantive entities (_dravya_) and their + division into three classes as being due to the presence of three + kinds of class-characteristics. This would naturally mean that within + the same class there were many other differences which have not been + taken into account (_Yoga-vārttika_, II. 18). But it cannot be said + that the view that the guṇas are substantive entities and that there + is no difference between qualities and substances is regarded as a + genuine Sāṃkhya view even as early as Śaṅkara. See _Ghābhāshya_, XIV. + 5. + +Footnote 5: + + See _Vyāsa-bhāshya_ on Patañjali’s _Yoga-sūtras_, II. 18, and + Vācaspati’s _Tattvavaiśāradī_ on it. + +Footnote 6: + + See Bhikshu’s _Yoga-vārttika_, II. 18. + +Footnote 7: + + _History of Hindu Chemistry_, Vol. II, by P. C. Ray, p. 66. + +Footnote 8: + + The usual Sāṃkhya terms as found in Iśvarakṛshṇa’s _Kārikā_, having + the same denotation as aviśesha and viśesha, are _prakṛtivikṛti_ and + _vikṛti_. + +Footnote 9: + + _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 19. + +Footnote 10: + + _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 19. + +Footnote 11: + + _Tattvavaiśāradī_, II. 19. + +Footnote 12: + + _Tattvatraya_, p. 48 (Chowkhamba edition), Benares. + +Footnote 13: + + Bhikshu in his _Yoga-vārttika_ explains “_māyeva_” as “_laukikamāyeva + kshaṇabhaṇguram_” evanescent like the illusions of worldly experience. + +Footnote 14: + + _Siddhāntalleśa_ (Jīveśvara nirūpaiṇa). + +Footnote 15: + + Princess Kuntī of the Mahābhārata had a son born to her by means of a + charm when she was still a virgin. Being afraid of a public scandal + she floated the child in a stream; the child was picked up by the wife + of a carpenter (Rādhā). The boy grew up to be the great hero Karṇa and + he thought that he was the son of a carpenter until the fact of his + royal lineage was disclosed to him later in life. + +Footnote 16: + + _Kārikā_ 17. + +Footnote 17: + + Gauḍapāda’s commentary on _Kārikā_ 17. + +Footnote 18: + + Purusha is a substance (_dravya_) because it has independent existence + (_anāśrita_) and has a measure (_vibhu parimāṇa_) of its own. So it + always possesses the common characteristics (_sāmānya guṇa_) of + substances, contact (_saṃyoga_), separation (_viyoga_) and number + (_saṃkhyā_). Purusha cannot be considered to be suffering change or + impure on account of the possession of the above common + characteristics of all substances. _Yoga-vārttika_, II. 17. + +Footnote 19: + + Thus the _Bhāshya_ says: + _bhavishyadvyaktikamanāgataṃanudbhūtavyaktikamatītaṃ + svavyāpāropārūḍhaṃ varttamānaṃ trayaṃ, caitadvastu jñānasya jñeyaṃ + yadi caitat svarūpato nābhavishyannedaṃ nirvishayaṃ jñānamudapatsyata + tasmādatītamanāgataṃ svarūpato’ stīti_. + +Footnote 20: + + _Tattvavaiśāradī_, IV. 14. + +Footnote 21: + + _Vastusāmye cittabhedāt tayor vibhaktaḥ panthāḥ._ _Yoga-sūtra_, IV. + 15. + +Footnote 22: + + “_Tattvāntara-pariṇāma_” means the evolution of a wholly new category + of existence. Thus the tanmātras are wholly different from the ego + from which they are produced. So the atoms are wholly different from + the tanmātras from which they are produced, for the latter, unlike the + former, have no sense-properties. In all combinations of atoms, there + would arise thousands of new qualities, but none of the products of + the combination of atoms can be called a tattvāntara, or a new + category of existence since all these qualities are the direct + manifestations of the specific properties of the atoms. + +Footnote 23: + + _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 52, says that the smallest indivisible part of a + thing is called a paramāṇu. Vijñāna Bhikshu in explaining it says that + paramāṇu here means guṇa, for if a thing say a stone is divided, then + the furthest limit of division is reached when we come to the + indivisible guṇas. But if the prakṛti is all-pervading (_vibhu_) how + can the guṇas be atomic? Bhikshu says (_Yoga-vārttika_, III. 52) in + reply that there are some classes of guṇas (e.g. those which produce + mind _antaḥkaraṇa_ and _ākāśa_) which are all-pervading, while the + others are all atomic. In Bhikshu’s interpretation a moment is to be + defined as the time which a guṇa entity takes to change its own unit + of space. Guṇas are thus equivalent to the Vaiśeshika paramāṇus. + Bhikshu, however, does not deny that there are no atoms of earth, + water, etc., but he says that where reference is not made to these + atoms but to guṇa atoms for the partless units of time can only be + compared with the partless guṇas. But Vācaspati does not make any + comment here to indicate that the smallest indivisible unit of matter + should mean guṇas. Moreover, _Yoga-sūtra_, I. 40, and _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, + I. 45, speak of _paramāṇu_ and _aṇu_ in the sense of earth-atoms, etc. + Even Bhikshu does not maintain that paramāṇu is used there in the + sense of atomic guṇa entities. I could not therefore accept Bhikshu’s + interpretation that paramāṇu here refers to guṇa. Paramāṇu may here be + taken in the sense of material atoms of earth, water, etc. The atoms + (paramāṇu) here cannot be absolutely partless, for it has two sides, + prior (_pūrvadeśa_) and posterior (_uttaradeśa_). + +Footnote 24: + + Bhikshu regards the movement of a guṇa of its own unit of space as the + ultimate unit of time (_kshaṇa_). The whole world is nothing else but + a series of _kshaṇas_. This view differs from the Buddhist view that + everything is momentary in this that it does not admit of any other + thing but the _kshaṇas_ (_na tu kskaṇātiriktaḥ kshaṇikaḥ padārthaḥ + kaścidishyate taistu kskaṇamātrasthāyyeva padārthaḥ ishyate_. + _Yoga-vārttika_, III. 52). + +Footnote 25: + + There is a difference of opinion as regards the meaning of the word + “_kshaṇapratiyogi_” in IV. 33. Vācaspati says that it means the + growth associated with a particular _kshaṇa_ or moment + (_kshaṇapracayāśraya_). The word _pratiyogī_ is interpreted by + Vācaspati as related (_pratisambandhī_). Bhikshu, however, gives a + quite different meaning. He interprets _kshaṇa_ as “interval” and + pratiyogī as “opposite of” (_virodhī_). So “_kshaṇapratiyogī_” means + with him “without any interval” or “continuous.” He holds that the + sūtra means that all change is continuous and not in succession. + There is according to his interpretation no interval between the + cessation of a previous character and the rise of a new one. + +Footnote 26: + + Nothing more than a superficial comparison with Fichte is here + intended. A large majority of the texts and the commentary literature + would oppose the attempts of all those who would like to interpret + Sāṃkhya-yoga on Fichtean lines. + +Footnote 27: + + _Tattvakaumudī_ on _Sāṃkhya-kārikā_, 25. + +Footnote 28: + + _Tattvavaiśāradī_, III. 41. + +Footnote 29: + + This was first pointed out by Dr. B. N. Seal in his _Physical, + Chemical and Mechanical Theories of the Ancient Hindus_ in Dr. P. C. + Ray’s _Hindu Chemistry_, Vol. II. + +Footnote 30: + + _Yoga-vārttika_, I. 45. + +Footnote 31: + + I have already said before that Bhikshu thinks that the guṇas (except + the all-pervading ones) may be compared to the Vaiśeshika atoms. See + _Yoga-vārttika_, III. 52. + +Footnote 32: + + Cf. _Vyāsa-bhāshya_—“_sabdādīnāṃ mūrttisamānajátīyānāṃ_,” IV. 14. + +Footnote 33: + + _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, II. 19. + +Footnote 34: + + _Vyāsa-bhāshya_, III. 13. + +Footnote 35: + + _Ibid._ + +Footnote 36: + + Nahusha an earthly king became Indra the king of the gods by the + fruition of his virtues, but on account of gross misdeeds fell from + Heaven and was turned into a snake. + +Footnote 37: + + _Tattravaiśāradī_, IV, 3. + +Footnote 38: + + I have translated both citta and buddhi as mind. The word buddhi is + used when emphasis is laid on the intellective and cosmical functions + of the mind. The word citta is used when emphasis is laid on the + conservative side of mind as the repository of all experiences, + memory, etc. + +Footnote 39: + + If this is a Sāṃkhya doctrine, it seems clearly to be a case of Jaina + influence. + +Footnote 40: + + Compare Pañcaśikha, _svalpasaṇkaraḥ saparihāraḥ sapratyavamarshaḥ_, + _Tattvakaumudī_, 2. + +Footnote 41: + + Pratyaya is explained in _Yoga-vārttika_, II. 28, as _sampratyaya_ or + _prāmāṇyaniścaya_. + +Footnote 42: + + Yudhishṭhira led falsely Droṇa to believe that the latter’s son was + dead by inaudibly muttering that it was only an elephant having the + same name as that of his son that had died. + +Footnote 43: + + This book has, however, not yet been published. + +Footnote 44: + + Dr. Ray’s _Hindu Chemistry_, Vol. II, p. 81. + +Footnote 45: + + Avidyā manifests itself in different forms: (1) as the afflictions + (_kleśa_) of asmitā (egoism), rāga (attachment), dvesha (antipathy) + and abhiniveśa (self-love); (2) as doubt and intellectual error; (3) + as error of sense. All these manifestations of avidyā are also the + different forms of viparyyaya or bhrama (error, illusion, mistake). + This bhrama in Yoga is the thinking of something as that which it is + not (_anyathākhyāti_). Thus we think the miserable worldly existence + as pleasurable and attribute the characteristics of prakṛti to purusha + and vice versa. All afflictions are due to this confusion and + misjudgment, the roots of which stay in the buddhis in all their + transmigrations from one life to another. Sāṃkhya, however, differs + from Yoga and thinks that all error (_avidyā_ or _bhrama_) is due only + to non-distinction between the true and the untrue. Thus + non-distinction (_aviveka_) between prakṛti and purusha is the cause + of all our miserable mundane existence. Avidyā and aviveka are thus + synonymous with Sāṃkhya. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES + + + ● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + ● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last + chapter. + ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74250 *** diff --git a/74250-h/74250-h.htm b/74250-h/74250-h.htm index 1a895ce..2f9d2f0 100644 --- a/74250-h/74250-h.htm +++ b/74250-h/74250-h.htm @@ -1,8334 +1,8334 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html>
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-<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74250 ***</div>
-
-<div class='tnotes covernote'>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p>
-
-<p class='c000'>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='titlepage'>
-
-<div>
- <h1 class='c001'>YOGA<br> <span class='xlarge'>AS PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGIONS</span></h1>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c002'>
- <div>BY</div>
- <div class='c002'><span class='large'>SURENDRANATH DASGUPTA</span></div>
- <div class='c002'>M.A., <span class='sc'>Ph.D.(Cal.), Ph.D.(Cantab.)</span></div>
- <div class='c002'><span class='small'>AUTHOR OF “A HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY”, ETC.</span></div>
- <div class='c002'><span class='xsmall'><i>Professor of Philosophy, Presidency College, Calcutta</i></span></div>
- <div><span class='xsmall'><i>Late Professor of Sanskrit, Chittagong College</i></span></div>
- <div><span class='xsmall'><i>Late Lecturer in the University of Cambridge</i></span></div>
- <div class='c003'>LONDON:</div>
- <div class='c002'>KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD</div>
- <div>NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.</div>
- <div class='c002'>1924</div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter ph1'>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c004'>
- <div>YOGA AS PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION</div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c004'>
- <div><span class='small'>Printed in Great Britain at</span></div>
- <div><span class='small'><i>The Mayflower Press, Plymouth</i>, William Brendon & Son, Ltd.</span></div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c004'>
- <div>AS A HUMBLE TOKEN</div>
- <div class='c002'>OF DEEPEST REGARD AND GRATEFULNESS</div>
- <div class='c002'>TO THE</div>
- <div class='c002'><span class='large'>MAHARAJA SIR MANINDRACHANDRA NUNDY</span></div>
- <div class='c002'>K.C.I.E</div>
- <div class='c002'>WHOSE NOBLE CHARACTER AND SELF-DENYING CHARITIES</div>
- <div class='c002'>HAVE ENDEARED HIM TO THE PEOPLE OF BENGAL</div>
- <div class='c002'>AND</div>
- <div class='c002'>WHO SO KINDLY OFFERED ME HIS WHOLE-HEARTED</div>
- <div class='c002'>PATRONAGE IN</div>
- <div class='c002'>ENCOURAGING MY ZEAL FOR LEARNING AT A TIME</div>
- <div class='c002'>WHEN I WAS IN SO GREAT A NEED OF IT</div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>
- <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>This little volume is an attempt at a brief exposition of the
-philosophical and religious doctrines found in Patañjali’s
-<cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite> as explained by its successive commentaries of
-Vyāsa, Vācaspati, Vijñāna Bhikshu, and others. The exact
-date of Patañjali cannot be definitely ascertained, but if his
-identity with the other Patañjali, the author of the Great
-Commentary (<cite>Mahābhāshya</cite>) on Pāṇini’s grammar, could be
-conclusively established, there would be some evidence in
-our hands that he lived in 150 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> I have already discussed
-this subject in the first volume of my <cite>A History of Indian
-Philosophy</cite>, where the conclusion to which I arrived was that,
-while there was some evidence in favour of their identity,
-there was nothing which could be considered as being conclusively
-against it. The term Yoga, according to Patañjali’s
-definition, means the final annihilation (<i>nirodha</i>) of all the
-mental states (<i>cittavṛtti</i>) involving the preparatory stages in
-which the mind has to be habituated to being steadied into
-particular types of graduated mental states. This was actually
-practised in India for a long time before Patañjali lived; and
-it is very probable that certain philosophical, psychological,
-and practical doctrines associated with it were also current
-long before Patañjali. Patañjali’s work is, however, the
-earliest systematic compilation on the subject that is known
-to us. It is impossible, at this distance of time, to determine
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>the extent to which Patañjali may claim originality. Had it
-not been for the labours of the later commentators, much of
-what is found in Patañjali’s aphorisms would have remained
-extremely obscure and doubtful, at least to all those who were
-not associated with such ascetics as practised them, and who
-derived the theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject
-from their preceptors in an upward succession of generations
-leading up to the age of Patañjali, or even before him. It is
-well to bear in mind that Yoga is even now practised in India,
-and the continuity of traditional instruction handed down
-from teacher to pupil is not yet completely broken.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If anyone wishes methodically to pursue a course which
-may lead him ultimately to the goal aimed at by Yoga, he
-must devote his entire life to it under the strict practical
-guidance of an advanced teacher. The present work can in
-no sense be considered as a practical guide for such purposes.
-But it is also erroneous to think—as many uninformed people
-do—that the only interest of Yoga lies in its practical side.
-The philosophical, psychological, cosmological, ethical, and
-religious doctrines, as well as its doctrines regarding matter
-and change, are extremely interesting in themselves, and have
-a definitely assured place in the history of the progress of
-human thought; and, for a right understanding of the
-essential features of the higher thoughts of India, as well
-as of the practical side of Yoga, their knowledge is indispensable.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The Yoga doctrines taught by Patañjali are regarded as
-the highest of all Yogas (<i>Rājayoga</i>), as distinguished from
-other types of Yoga practices, such as <i>Haṭhayoga</i> or <i>Mantrayoga</i>.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>Of these <i>Haṭhayoga</i> consists largely of a system of
-bodily exercises for warding off diseases, and making the body
-fit for calmly bearing all sorts of physical privations and physical
-strains. <i>Mantrayoga</i> is a course of meditation on certain
-mystical syllables which leads to the audition of certain
-mystical sounds. This book does not deal with any of these
-mystical practices nor does it lay any stress on the performance
-of any of those miracles described by Patañjali. The scope of
-this work is limited to a brief exposition of the intellectual
-foundation—or the theoretical side—of the Yoga practices,
-consisting of the philosophical, psychological, cosmological,
-ethical, religious, and other doctrines which underlie these
-practices. The affinity of the system of Sāṃkhya thought,
-generally ascribed to a mythical sage, Kapila, to that of
-Yoga of Patañjali is so great on most important points of
-theoretical interest that they may both be regarded as two
-different modifications of one common system of ideas. I
-have, therefore, often taken the liberty of explaining Yoga
-ideas by a reference to kindred ideas in Sāṃkhya. But the
-doctrines of Yoga could very well have been compared or
-contrasted with great profit with the doctrines of other
-systems of Indian thought. This has purposely been omitted
-here as it has already been done by me in my <cite>Yoga Philosophy
-in relation to other Systems of Indian Thought</cite>, the publication
-of which has for long been unavoidably delayed. All that may
-be expected from the present volume is that it will convey to
-the reader the essential features of the Yoga system of
-thought. How far this expectation will be realized from this
-book it will be for my readers to judge. It is hoped that the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>chapter on “Kapila and Pātañjala School of Sāṃkhya” in my
-<cite>A History of Indian Philosophy</cite> (Vol. I. Cambridge University
-Press, 1922) will also prove helpful for the purpose.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I am deeply indebted to my friend Mr. Douglas Ainslie
-for the numerous corrections and suggestions regarding the
-English style that he was pleased to make throughout the
-body of the manuscript and the very warm encouragement
-that he gave me for the publication of this work. In this
-connection I also beg to offer my best thanks for the valuable
-suggestions which I received from the reviser of the press.
-Had it not been for these, the imperfections of the book would
-have been still greater. The quaintness and inelegance of
-some of my expressions would, however, be explained if it
-were borne in mind that here, as well as in my <cite>A History of
-Indian Philosophy</cite>, I have tried to resist the temptation of
-making the English happy at the risk of sacrificing the
-approach to exactness of the philosophical sense; and many
-ideas of Indian philosophy are such that an exact English
-rendering of them often becomes hopelessly difficult.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I am grateful to my friend and colleague, Mr. D. K. Sen, <span class='fss'>M.A.</span>,
-for the kind assistance that he rendered in helping me to
-prepare the index.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Last of all, I must express my deep sense of gratefulness
-to Sir Ashutosh Mookerjee, Kt., C.S.I., etc. etc., and the
-University of Calcutta, for kindly permitting me to utilize
-my <cite>A Study of Patañjāli</cite>, which is a Calcutta University
-publication, for the present work.</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-r'>
- <div class='linegroup'>
- <div class='group'>
- <div class='line'><span class='sc'>S. N. Dasgupta.</span></div>
- </div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
- <div class='linegroup'>
- <div class='group'>
- <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Presidency College, Calcutta</span>,</div>
- <div class='line in12'><i>April, 1924</i>.</div>
- </div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span>
- <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0'>
- <tr><td class='c008' colspan='3'>BOOK I. YOGA METAPHYSICS:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'> </td>
- <td class='c010'> </td>
- <td class='c011'> </td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <th class='c009'>CHAPTER</th>
- <th class='c010'> </th>
- <th class='c011'>PAGE</th>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>I.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Prakṛti</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>II.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Purusha</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>III.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Reality of the External World</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>IV.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Process of Evolution</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>V.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Evolution of the Categories</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>VI.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Evolution and Change of Qualities</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>VII.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Evolution and God</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'> </td>
- <td class='c010'> </td>
- <td class='c011'> </td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'> </td>
- <td class='c010'> </td>
- <td class='c011'> </td>
- </tr>
- <tr><td class='c008' colspan='3'>BOOK II. YOGA ETHICS AND PRACTICE:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'> </td>
- <td class='c010'> </td>
- <td class='c011'> </td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>VIII.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Mind and Moral States</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>IX.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Theory of Karma</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>X.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Ethical Problem</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>XI.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Yoga Practice</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>XII.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Yogāṅgas</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>XIII.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Stages of Samadhi</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>XIV.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>God in Yoga</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'>XV.</td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Matter and Mind</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'> </td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Appendix</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c009'> </td>
- <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Index</span></td>
- <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td>
- </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='chapter ph1'>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c004'>
- <div>YOGA AS PHILOSOPHY</div>
- <div>AND RELIGION</div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>
- <h2 class='c005'>BOOK I. YOGA METAPHYSICS</h2>
-</div>
-<h3 class='c012'>CHAPTER I<br> <span class='c013'>PRAKRTI</span></h3>
-
-<p class='c006'>However dogmatic a system of philosophical enquiry may
-appear to us, it must have been preceded by a criticism of
-the observed facts of experience. The details of the criticism
-and the processes of self-argumentation by which the thinker
-arrived at his theory of the Universe might indeed be suppressed,
-as being relatively unimportant, but a thoughtful
-reader would detect them as lying in the background behind
-the shadow of the general speculations, but at the same time
-setting them off before our view. An Aristotle or a Patañjali
-may not make any direct mention of the arguments which led
-him to a dogmatic assertion of his theories, but for a reader
-who intends to understand them thoroughly it is absolutely
-necessary that he should read them in the light as far as possible
-of the inferred presuppositions and inner arguments of
-their minds; it is in this way alone that he can put himself
-in the same line of thinking with the thinker whom he is
-willing to follow, and can grasp him to the fullest extent.
-In offering this short study of the Pātañjala metaphysics,
-I shall therefore try to supplement it with such of my inferences
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>of the presuppositions of Patañjali’s mind, which
-I think will add to the clearness of the exposition of his views,
-though I am fully alive to the difficulties of making such
-inferences about a philosopher whose psychological, social,
-religious and moral environments differed so widely from ours.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>An enquiry into the relations of the mental phenomena
-to the physical has sometimes given the first start to philosophy.
-The relation of mind to matter is such an important
-problem of philosophy that the existing philosophical systems
-may roughly be classified according to the relative importance
-that has been attached to mind or to matter. There have
-been chemical, mechanical and biological conceptions which
-have ignored mind as a separate entity and have dogmatically
-affirmed it to be the product of matter only.<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c014'><sup>[1]</sup></a> There have
-been theories of the other extreme, which have dispensed
-with matter altogether and have boldly affirmed that matter
-as such has no reality at all, and that thought is the only
-thing which can be called Real in the highest sense. All
-matter as such is non-Being or Māyā or Avidyā. There have
-been Nihilists like the Śūnyavādi Buddhists who have gone
-so far as to assert that neither matter nor mind exists. Some
-have asserted that matter is only thought externalized, some
-have regarded the principle of matter as the unknowable
-Thing-in-itself, some have regarded them as separate
-independent entities held within a higher reality called God,
-or as two of his attributes only, and some have regarded
-their difference as being only one of grades of intelligence,
-one merging slowly and imperceptibly into the other and
-held together in concord with each other by pre-established
-harmony.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Underlying the metaphysics of the Yoga system of thought
-as taught by Patañjali and as elaborated by his commentators
-we find an acute analysis of matter and thought. Matter
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>on the one hand, mind, the senses, and the ego on the other
-are regarded as nothing more than two different kinds of
-modifications of one primal cause, the Prakṛti. But the self-intelligent
-principle called Purusha (spirit) is distinguished
-from them. Matter consists only of three primal qualities
-or rather substantive entities, which he calls the Sattva or
-intelligence-stuff, Rajas or energy, and Tamas—the factor of
-obstruction or mass or inertia. It is extremely difficult
-truly to conceive of the nature of these three kinds of entities
-or Guṇas, as he calls them, when we consider that these
-three elements alone are regarded as composing all phenomena,
-mental and physical. In order to comprehend them rightly
-it will be necessary to grasp thoroughly the exact relation
-between the mental and the physical. What are the real
-points of agreement between the two? How can the same
-elements be said to behave in one case as the conceiver and
-in the other case as the conceived? Thus Vācaspati says:—</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>“The reals (guṇas) have two forms, viz. the determiner or
-the perceiver, and the perceived or the determined. In the
-aspect of the determined or the perceived, the guṇas evolve
-themselves as the five infra-atomic potentials, the five gross
-elements and their compounds. In the aspect of perceiver or
-determiner, they form the modifications of the ego together
-with the senses.”<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c014'><sup>[2]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is interesting to notice here the two words used by
-Vācaspati in characterising the twofold aspect of the guṇa
-viz. <i>vyavasāyātmakatva</i>, their nature as the determiner or
-perceiver, and <i>vyavaseyātmakatva</i>, their nature as determined
-or perceived. The elements which compose the phenomena
-of the objects of perception are the same as those which form
-the phenomena of the perceiving; their only distinction is
-that one is the determined and the other is the determiner.
-What we call the psychosis involving intellection, sensing and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>the ego, and what may be called the infra-atoms, atoms and
-their combinations, are but two different types of modifications
-of the same stuff of reals. There is no intrinsic difference
-in nature between the mental and the physical.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The mode of causal transformation is explained by Vijñāna
-Bhikshu in his commentary on the system of Sāṃkhya as if
-its functions consisted only in making manifest what was
-already there in an unmanifested form. Thus he says,
-“just as the image already existing in the stone is only
-manifested by the activity of the statuary, so the causal
-activity also generates only that activity by which an effect
-is manifested as if it happened or came into being at the
-present moment.”<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c014'><sup>[3]</sup></a> The effects are all always existent, but
-some of them are sometimes in an unmanifested state. What
-the causal operation, viz. the energy of the agent and the
-suitable collocating instruments and conditions, does is to set
-up an activity by which the effect may be manifested at
-the present moment.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>With Sāṃkhya-Yoga, sattva, rajas and tamas are substantive
-entities which compose the reality of the mental and the
-physical.<a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c014'><sup>[4]</sup></a> The mental and the physical represent two
-different orders of modifications, and one is not in any way
-superior to the other. As the guṇas conjointly form the manifold
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>without, by their varying combinations, as well as all the
-diverse internal functions, faculties and phenomena, they are
-in themselves the absolute potentiality of all things, mental
-and physical. Thus Vyāsa in describing the nature of the
-knowable, writes: “The nature of the knowable is now
-described:—The knowable, consisting of the objects of enjoyment
-and liberation, as the gross elements and the perceptive
-senses, is characterised by three essential traits—illumination,
-energy and inertia. The sattva is of the nature
-of illumination. Rajas is of the nature of energy. Inertia
-(tamas) is of the nature of inactivity. The guṇa entities
-with the above characteristics are capable of being modified
-by mutual influence on one another, by their proximity.
-They are evolving. They have the characteristics of conjunction
-and separation. They manifest forms by one lending
-support to the others by proximity. None of these loses its
-distinct power into those of the others, even though any one
-of them may exist as the principal factor of a phenomenon with
-the others as subsidiary thereto. The guṇas forming the
-three classes of substantive entities manifest themselves
-as such by their similar kinds of power. When any one of
-them plays the rôle of the principal factor of any phenomenon,
-the others also show their presence in close contact. Their
-existence as subsidiary energies of the principal factor is
-inferred by their distinct and independent functioning, even
-though it be as subsidiary qualities.”<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c014'><sup>[5]</sup></a> The Yoga theory does
-not acknowledge qualities as being different from substances.
-The ultimate substantive entities are called guṇas, which
-as we have seen are of three kinds. The guṇa entities are
-infinite in number; each has an individual existence, but
-is always acting in co-operation with others. They may be
-divided into three classes in accordance with their similarities
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>of behaviour (śīla). Those which behave in the way of
-intellection are called <i>sattva</i>, those which behave in the way
-of producing effort of movement are called <i>rajas</i>, and those
-which behave differently from these and obstruct their
-process are called <i>tamas</i>. We have spoken above of a primal
-cause <i>prakṛti</i>. But that is not a separate category independent
-of the guṇas. Prakṛti is but a name for the guṇa entities
-when they exist in a state of equilibrium. All that exists
-excepting the purushas are but the guṇa entities in different
-kinds of combination amongst themselves. The effects they
-produce are not different from them but it is they themselves
-which are regarded as causes in one state and effects in another.
-The difference of combination consists in this, that in some
-combinations there are more of sattva entities than rajas or
-tamas, and in others more of rajas or more of tamas. These
-entities are continually uniting and separating. But though
-they are thus continually dividing and uniting in new combinations
-the special behaviour or feature of each class of
-entities remains ever the same. Whatever may be the nature
-of any particular combination the sattva entities participating
-in it will retain their intellective functions, rajas their energy
-functions, and tamas the obstructing ones. But though
-they retain their special features in spite of their mutual
-difference they hold fast to one another in any particular
-combination (<i>tulyajātīyātulyajātīyaśaktibhedānupātinaḥ</i>, which
-Bhikshu explains as <i>aviśesheṇopashṭambhakasvabhāvāḥ</i>). In
-any particular combination it is the special features of those
-entities which predominate that manifest themselves, while
-the other two classes lend their force in drawing the minds of
-perceivers to it as an object as a magnet draws a piece of iron.
-Their functionings at this time are undoubtedly feeble
-(<i>sūkshmavṛttimantaḥ</i>) but still they do exist.<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c014'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In the three guṇas, none of them can be held as the goal
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>of the others. All of them are equally important, and the very
-varied nature of the manifold represents only the different
-combinations of these guṇas as substantive entities. In any
-combination one of the guṇas may be more predominant
-than the others, but the other guṇas are also present there
-and perform their functions in their own way. No one of
-them is more important than the other, but they serve conjointly
-one common purpose, viz. the experiences and the
-liberation of the purusha, or spirit. They are always uniting,
-separating and re-uniting again and there is neither beginning
-nor end of this (<i>anyonyamithunāḥ sarvve naishāmādisamprayogo
-viprayogo vā upalabhyate</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>They have no purpose of their own to serve, but they all are
-always evolving, as Dr. Seal says, “ever from a relatively less
-differentiated, less determinate, less coherent whole, to a
-relatively more differentiated, more determinate, more coherent
-whole”<a id='r7'></a><a href='#f7' class='c014'><sup>[7]</sup></a> for the experiences and liberation of purusha,
-or spirit. When in a state of equilibrium they cannot serve
-the purpose of the purusha, so that state of the guṇas is not
-for the sake of the purusha; it is its own independent eternal
-state. All the other three stages of evolution, viz. the liṅga
-(sign), aviśesha (unspecialised) and viśesha (specialised) have
-been caused for the sake of the purusha.<a id='r8'></a><a href='#f8' class='c014'><sup>[8]</sup></a> Thus Vyāsa
-writes:—<a id='r9'></a><a href='#f9' class='c014'><sup>[9]</sup></a> “The objects of the purusha are no cause of the
-original state (<i>aliṅga</i>). That is to say, the fulfilment of the
-objects of the purusha is not the cause which brings about the
-manifestation of the original state of prakṛti in the beginning.
-The fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not therefore the
-reason of the existence of that ultimate state. Since it is not
-brought into existence by the need of the fulfilment of the
-purusha’s objects it is said to be eternal. As to the three
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>specialised states, the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha
-becomes the cause of their manifestation in the beginning.
-The fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not therefore
-the reason for the existence of the cause. Since it is not
-brought into existence by the purusha’s objects it is said to be
-eternal. As to the three specialised states, the fulfilment of
-the objects of the purusha being the cause of their manifestation
-in the beginning, they are said to be non-eternal.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vācaspati again says:—“The fulfilment of the objects
-of the purusha could be said to be the cause of the original
-state, if that state could bring about the fulfilment of the
-objects of the purusha, such as the enjoyment of sound, etc.,
-or manifest the discrimination of the distinction between
-true self and other phenomena. If however it did that, it
-could not be a state of equilibrium,” (<i>yadyaliṅgāvasthā
-śabdādyupabhogam vā sattvapurushānyatākhyātim vā purushārtham
-nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na sāmyavasthā syāt</i>).
-This state is called the prakṛti. It is the beginning, indeterminate,
-unmediated and undetermined. It neither exists
-nor does it not exist, but is the principium of almost all
-existence. Thus Vyāsa describes it as “the state which neither
-is nor is not; that which exists and yet does not; that in
-which there is no non-existence; the unmanifested, the
-noumenon (lit. without any manifested indication), the
-background of all” (<i>niḥsattāsattam niḥsadasat nirasat
-avyaktam aliṅgam pradhānam</i>).<a id='r10'></a><a href='#f10' class='c014'><sup>[10]</sup></a> Vācaspati explains it as
-follows:—“Existence consists in possessing the capacity
-of effecting the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha.
-Non-existence means a mere imaginary trifle (e.g. the horn of
-a hare).” It is described as being beyond both these states
-of existence and non-existence. The state of the equipoise
-of the three guṇas of intelligence-stuff, inertia and energy, is
-nowhere of use in fulfilling the objects of the purusha. It
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>therefore does not exist as such. On the other hand, it does
-not admit of being rejected as non-existent like an imaginary
-lotus of the sky. It is therefore not non-existent. But even
-allowing the force of the above arguments about the want
-of phenomenal existence of prakṛti on the ground that it
-cannot serve the objects of the purusha, the difficulty arises
-that the principles of Mahat, etc., exist in the state of the
-unmanifested also, because nothing that exists can be destroyed;
-and if it is destroyed, it cannot be born again,
-because nothing that does not exist can be born; it follows
-therefore that since the principles of mahat, etc., exist in the
-state of the unmanifested, that state can also affect the fulfilment
-of the objects of the purusha. How then can it be
-said that the unmanifested is not possessed of existence? For
-this reason, he describes it as that in which it exists and does
-not exist. This means that the cause exists in that state in a
-potential form but not in the form of the effect. Although
-the effect exists in the cause as mere potential power, yet it is
-incapable of performing the function of fulfilling the objects
-of the purusha; it is therefore said to be non-existent as such.
-Further he says that this cause is not such, that its effect is of
-the nature of hare’s horn. It is beyond the state of non-existence,
-that is, of the existence of the effect as mere nothing.
-If it were like that, then it would be like the lotus of the sky
-and no effect would follow.<a id='r11'></a><a href='#f11' class='c014'><sup>[11]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But as Bhikshu points out (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 18) this
-prakṛti is not simple substance, for it is but the guṇa reals.
-It is simple only in the sense that no complex qualities are
-manifested in it. It is the name of the totality of the guṇa
-reals existing in a state of equilibrium through their mutual
-counter opposition. It is a hypothetical state of the guṇas
-preceding the states in which they work in mutual co-operation
-for the creation of the cosmos for giving the purushas
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>a chance for ultimate release attained through a full enjoyment
-of experiences. Some European scholars have
-often asked me whether the prakṛti were real or whether the
-guṇas were real. This question, in my opinion, can only arise
-as a result of confusion and misapprehension, for it is the
-guṇas in a state of equilibrium that are called prakṛti. Apart
-from guṇas there is no prakṛti (<i>guṇā eva prakṛtiśabdavācyā
-na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti. Yoga-vārttika</i>, II. 18). In this
-state, the different guṇas only annul themselves and no
-change takes place, though it must be acknowledged that the
-state of equipoise is also one of tension and action, which,
-however, being perfectly balanced does not produce any
-change. This is what is meant by evolution of similars
-(<i>adṛśapariṇāma</i>). Prakṛti as the equilibrium of the three
-guṇas is the absolute ground of all the mental and phenomenal
-modifications—pure potentiality.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Veṅkaṭa, a later Vaishṇava writer, describes prakṛti as one
-ubiquitous, homogeneous matter which evolves itself into all
-material productions by condensation and rarefaction. In
-this view the guṇas would have to be translated as three
-different classes of qualities or characters, which are found
-in the evolutionary products of the prakṛti. This will of
-course be an altogether different view of the prakṛti from that
-which is described in the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, and the guṇas could
-not be considered as reals or as substantive entities in such an
-interpretation. A question arises, then, as to which of these
-two prakṛtis is the earlier conception. I confess that it is
-difficult to answer it. For though the Vaishṇava view is
-elaborated in later times, it can by no means be asserted that
-it had not quite as early a beginning as 2nd or 3rd century B.C.
-If <cite>Ahirbudhnyasamhitā</cite> is to be trusted then the <cite>Shashṭitantraśāstra</cite>
-which is regarded as an authoritative Sāṃkhya work
-is really a Vaishṇava work. Nothing can be definitely
-stated about the nature of prakṛti in Sāṃkhya from the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>meagre statement of the <cite>Kārikā</cite>. The statement in the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>
-is, however, definitely in favour of the interpretation
-that we have adopted, and so also the <cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite>, which
-is most probably a later work. Caraka’s account of prakṛti
-does not seem to be the prakṛti of <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> for here the
-guṇas are not regarded as reals or substantive entities, but
-as characters, and prakṛti is regarded as containing its evolutes,
-mahat, etc., as its elements (<i>dhātu</i>). If Caraka’s treatment
-is the earliest view of Sāṃkhya that is available to us, then
-it has to be admitted that the earliest Sāṃkhya view did not
-accept prakṛti as a state of the guṇas, or guṇas as substantive
-entities. But the <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, II. 19, and the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>
-support the interpretation that I have adopted here, and it
-is very curious that if the Sāṃkhya view was known at the
-time to be so different from it, no reference to it should have
-been made. But whatever may be the original Sāṃkhya view,
-both the Yoga view and the later Sāṃkhya view are quite
-in consonance with my interpretation.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In later Indian thinkers there had been a tendency to make
-a compromise between the Vedānta and Sāṃkhya doctrines
-and to identify prakṛti with the avidyā of the Vedāntists.
-Thus Lokācāryya writes:—“It is called prakṛti since it is the
-source of all change, it is called avidyā since it is opposed to
-knowledge, it is called māyā since it is the cause of diversion
-creation (<i>prakṛtirityucyate vikārotpādakatvāt avidyā jñānavirodhitvāt
-māyā vicitrasṛshṭikaratvāt</i>).”<a id='r12'></a><a href='#f12' class='c014'><sup>[12]</sup></a> But this is distinctly
-opposed to the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> which defines avidyā as
-<i>vidyāviparītaṃ jñānāntaraṃ avidyā</i>, i.e. avidyā is that other
-knowledge which is opposed to right knowledge. In some of
-the Upanishads, <cite>Svetāśvatara</cite> for example, we find that māyā
-and prakṛti are identified and the great god is said to preside
-over them (<i>māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ vidyāt māyinaṃ tumaheśvaraṃ</i>).
-There is a description also in the Ṛgveda, X. 92, where it is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>said that (<i>nāsadāsīt na sadāsīt tadānīṃ</i>), in the beginning
-there was neither the “Is” nor the “Is not,” which reminds
-one of the description of prakṛti (<i>niḥsattāsattaṃ</i> as that in
-which there is no existence or non-existence). In this way
-it may be shown from <cite>Gītā</cite> and other Sanskrit texts that an
-undifferentiated, unindividuated cosmic matter as the first
-principle, was often thought of and discussed from the earliest
-times. Later on this idea was utilised with modifications by
-the different schools of Vedāntists, the Sāṃkhyists and those
-who sought to make a reconciliation between them under the
-different names of prakṛti, avidyā and māyā. What avidyā
-really means according to the Pātañjala system we shall see
-later on; but here we see that whatever it might mean it
-does not mean prakṛti according to the Pātañjala system.
-<cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 13, makes mention of māyā also in a
-couplet from <cite>Shashṭitantraśāstra</cite>;</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c015'>
- <div class='linegroup'>
- <div class='group'>
- <div class='line'><i>guṇānāṃ paramaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati</i></div>
- <div class='line in2'><i>yattu dṛshṭipathaṃ prāptaṃ tanmāyeva sutucch akaṃ.</i></div>
- </div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The real appearance of the guṇas does not come within
-the line of our vision. That, however, which comes within the
-line of vision is but paltry delusion and Vācaspati Miśra
-explains it as follows:—Prakṛti is like the māyā but it is not
-māyā. It is trifling (<i>sutucchaka</i>) in the sense that it is changing.
-Just as māyā constantly changes, so the transformations
-of prakṛti are every moment appearing and vanishing and
-thus suffering momentary changes. Prakṛti being eternal is
-real and thus different from māyā.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This explanation of Vācaspati’s makes it clear that the
-word māyā is used here only in the sense of illusion, and
-without reference to the celebrated māyā of the Vedāntists;
-and Vācaspati clearly says that prakṛti can in no sense be
-called māyā, since it is real.<a id='r13'></a><a href='#f13' class='c014'><sup>[13]</sup></a></p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER II<br> <span class='c013'>PURUSHA</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>We shall get a more definite notion of prakṛti as we advance
-further into the details of the later transformations of the
-prakṛti in connection with the purushas. The most difficult
-point is to understand the nature of its connection with the
-purushas. Prakṛti is a material, non-intelligent, independent
-principle, and the souls or spirits are isolated, neutral, intelligent
-and inactive. Then how can the one come into connection
-with the other?</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In most systems of philosophy the same trouble has arisen
-and has caused the same difficulty in comprehending it rightly.
-Plato fights the difficulty of solving the unification of the idea
-and the non-being and offers his participation theory; even in
-Aristotle’s attempt to avoid the difficulty by his theory of
-form and matter, we are not fully satisfied, though he has
-shown much ingenuity and subtlety of thought in devising
-the “expedient in the single conception of development.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The universe is but a gradation between the two extremes
-of potentiality and actuality, matter and form. But all
-students of Aristotle know that it is very difficult to understand
-the true relation between form and matter, and the
-particular nature of their interaction with each other, and
-this has created a great divergence of opinion among his
-commentators. It was probably to avoid this difficulty that
-the dualistic appearance of the philosophy of Descartes had
-to be reconstructed in the pantheism of Spinoza. Again we
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>find also how Kant failed to bring about the relation between
-noumenon and phenomenon, and created two worlds absolutely
-unrelated to each other. He tried to reconcile the schism
-that he effected in his <cite>Critique of Pure Reason</cite> by his
-<cite>Critique of Practical Reason</cite>, and again supplemented it
-with his <cite>Critique of Judgment</cite>, but met only with dubious
-success.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In India also this question has always been a little puzzling,
-and before trying to explain the Yoga point of view, I shall
-first give some of the other expedients devised for the purpose,
-by the different schools of Advaita (monistic) Vedāntism.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I. The reflection theory of the Vedānta holds that the
-māyā is without beginning, unspeakable, mother of gross
-matter, which comes in connection with intelligence, so that
-by its reflection in the former we have Īśvara. The illustrations
-that are given to explain it both in <cite>Siddhāntaleśa</cite><a id='r14'></a><a href='#f14' class='c014'><sup>[14]</sup></a> and in
-<cite>Advaita-Brahmasiddhi</cite> are only cases of physical reflection,
-viz. the reflection of the sun in water, or of the sky in water.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>II. The limitation theory of the Vedānta holds that the
-all-pervading intelligence must necessarily be limited by mind,
-etc., so of necessity it follows that “the soul” is its limitation.
-This theory is illustrated by giving those common examples
-in which the Ākāśa (space) though unbounded in itself is
-often spoken of as belonging to a jug or limited by the jug
-and as such appears to fit itself to the shape and form of the
-jug and is thus called <i>ghaṭāvacchinna ākāśa</i>, i.e. space as
-within the jug.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Then we have a third school of Vedāntists, which seeks to
-explain it in another way:—The soul is neither a reflection nor
-a limitation, but just as the son of Kuntī was known as the
-son of Rādhā, so the pure Brahman by his nescience is known
-as the jīva, and like the prince who was brought up in the
-family of a low caste, it is the pure Brahman who by his own
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>nescience undergoes birth and death, and by his own nescience
-is again released.<a id='r15'></a><a href='#f15' class='c014'><sup>[15]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The <cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite> also avails itself of the same story in
-IV. 1, “<i>rājaputtravattattvopadeśāt</i>,” which Vijñāna Bhikshu
-explains as follows:—A certain king’s son in consequence of
-his being born under the star Gaṇḍa having been expelled
-from his city and reared by a certain forester remains under
-the idea: “I am a forester.” Having learnt that he is alive,
-a certain minister informs him. “Thou art not a forester,
-thou art a king’s son.” As he, immediately having abandoned
-the idea of being an outcast, betakes himself to his true royal
-state, saying, “I am a king,” so too the soul realises its purity
-in consequence of instruction by some good tutor, to the effect—“Thou,
-who didst originate from the first soul, which
-manifests itself merely as pure thought, art a portion thereof.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In another place there are two sūtras:—(1) <i>niḥsaṅge’pi
-uparāgo vivekāt</i>. (2) <i>japāsphaṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ</i>.
-(1) Though it be associated still there is a tingeing
-through non-discrimination. (2) As in the case of the hibiscus
-and the crystal, there is not a tinge, but a fancy. Now it will
-be seen that all these theories only show that the transcendent
-nature of the union of the principle of pure intelligence is very
-difficult to comprehend. Neither the reflection nor the
-limitation theory can clear the situation from vagueness and
-incomprehensibility, which is rather increased by their
-physical illustrations, for the cit or pure intelligence cannot
-undergo reflection like a physical thing, nor can it be obstructed
-or limited by it. The reflection theory adduced by the <cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite>,
-“<i>japāsphiṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ</i>,”
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>is not an adequate explanation. For here the reflection
-produces only a seeming redness of the colourless crystal,
-which was not what was meant by the Vedāntists of the
-reflection school. But here, though the metaphor is more
-suitable to express the relation of purusha with the prakṛti,
-the exact nature of the relation is more lost sight of than comprehended.
-Let us now see how Patañjali and Vyāsa seek to
-explain it.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Let me quote a few sūtras of Patañjali and some of the
-most important extracts from the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> and try, as far as
-possible, to get the correct view:—</p>
-
- <dl class='dl_1'>
- <dt>(1)</dt>
- <dd><i>dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā</i> II. 6.
- </dd>
- <dt>(2)</dt>
- <dd><i>drashṭā dṛśimātraḥ śuddho’pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ</i> II. 20.
- </dd>
- <dt>(3)</dt>
- <dd><i>tadartha eva drśyasya ātmā</i> II. 21.
- </dd>
- <dt>(4)</dt>
- <dd><i>kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt</i> II. 22.
- </dd>
- <dt>(5)</dt>
- <dd><i>Svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṃyogah</i> II. 22.
- </dd>
- <dt>(6)</dt>
- <dd><i>tadabhāvāt saṃyogābhāvo hānaṃ taddṛśeḥ kaivalyaṃ</i> II. 25.
- </dd>
- <dt>(7)</dt>
- <dd><i>sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ</i> III. 25.
- </dd>
- <dt>(8)</dt>
- <dd><i>citerapratisaṃkramāyāstadākārāpattau svabuddhisaṃvedanaṃ</i> IV. 22.
- </dd>
- <dt>(9)</dt>
- <dd><i>sattvapurushayoratyantāsaṅkīrṇayoḥ pratyayāvśesho bhogaḥ parārthatvāt svārthasaṃyamāt
- purushajñānam</i> III. 35.
- </dd>
- </dl>
-
-<p class='c007'>(1) The Ego-sense is the illusory appearance of the identity
-of the power as perceiver and the power as perceived.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(2) The seer though pure as mere “seeing” yet perceives
-the forms assumed by the psychosis (<i>buddhi</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(3) It is for the sake of the purusha that the being of the
-knowable exists.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(4) For the emancipated person the world-phenomena
-cease to exist, yet they are not annihilated since they form
-a common field of experience for other individuals.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>(5) The cause of the realisation of the natures of the knowable
-and purusha in consciousness is their mutual contact.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(6) Cessation is the want of mutual contact arising from the
-destruction of ignorance and this is called the state of oneness.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(7) This state of oneness arises out of the equality in purity
-of the purusha and buddhi or sattva.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(8) Personal consciousness arises when the purusha,
-though in its nature unchangeable, is cast into the mould of
-the psychosis.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(9) Since the mind-objects exist only for the purusha, experience
-consists in the non-differentiation of these two which
-in their natures are absolutely distinct; the knowledge of
-self arises out of concentration on its nature.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus in <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, II. 6, dṛik or purusha the seer is spoken
-of as śakti or power as much as the prakṛti itself, and we
-see that their identity is only apparent. Vyāsa in his <cite>Bhāshya</cite>
-explains <i>ekātmatā</i> (unity of nature or identity) as <i>avibhāgaprāptāviva</i>,
-“as if there is no difference.” And Pañcaśikha,
-as quoted in <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, writes: “not knowing the
-purusha beyond the mind to be different therefrom, in nature,
-character and knowledge, etc., a man has the notion of self,
-in the mind through delusion.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus we see that when the mind and purusha are known to
-be separated, the real nature of purusha is realised. This
-seeming identity is again described as that which perceives
-the particular form of the mind and thereby appears, as
-identical with it though it is not so (<i>pratyayānupaśya—pratyayāni
-bauddhamanupaśyati tamanupaśyannatadātmāpi
-tadātmaka iva pratibhāti</i>, <cite>Vāysa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 20).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The purusha thus we see, cognises the phenomena of consciousness
-after they have been formed, and though its nature
-is different from conscious states yet it appears to be the same.
-Vyāsa in explaining this sūtra says that purusha is neither
-quite similar to the mind nor altogether different from it.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>For the mind (<i>buddhi</i>) is always changeful, according to the
-change of the objects that are offered to it; so that it may be
-said to be changeful according as it knows or does not know
-objects; but the purusha is not such, for it always appears
-as the self, being reflected through the mind by which it is
-thus connected with the phenomenal form of knowledge. The
-notion of self that appears connected with all our mental
-phenomena and which always illumines them is only duo to
-this reflection of purusha in the mind. All phenomenal
-knowledge which has the form of the object can only be
-transformed into conscious knowledge as “I know this,”
-when it becomes connected with the self or purusha. So the
-purusha may in a way be said to see again what was perceived
-by the mind and thus to impart consciousness by transferring
-its illumination into the mind. The mind suffers changes
-according to the form of the object of cognition, and thus
-results a state of conscious cognition in the shape of “I know
-it,” when the mind, having assumed the shape of an object,
-becomes connected with the constant factor purusha, through
-the transcendent reflection or identification of purusha in the
-mind. This is what is meant by <i>pratyayānupaśya</i> reperception
-of the mind-transformations by purusha, whereby the
-mind which has assumed the shape of any object of consciousness
-becomes intelligent. Even when the mind is without
-any objective form, it is always being seen by purusha.
-The exact nature of this reflection is indeed very hard to comprehend;
-no physical illustrations can really serve to make it
-clear. And we see that neither the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> nor the
-sūtras offer any such illustrations as Sāṃkhya did. But the
-<cite>Bhāshya</cite> proceeds to show the points in which the mind may
-be said to differ from purusha, as well as those in which it
-agrees with it. So that though we cannot express it anyhow,
-we may at least make some advance towards conceiving the
-situation.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says that the main difference between
-the mind and purusha is that the mind is constantly undergoing
-modifications, as it grasps its objects one by one; for
-the grasping of an object, the act of having a percept is
-nothing but its own undergoing of different modifications,
-and thus, since an object sometimes comes within the grasp
-of the mind and again disappears in the subconscious as a
-saṃskāra (potency) and again comes into the field of the
-understanding as smṛti (memory), we see that it is pariṇāmi
-or changing. But purusha is the constant seer of the mind
-when it has an object, as in ordinary forms of phenomenal
-knowledge, or when it has no object as in the state of nirodha
-or cessation. Purusha is unchanging. It is the light which
-remains unchanged amidst all the changing modifications of
-the mind, so that we cannot distinguish purusha separately
-from the mind. This is what is meant by saying <i>buddheḥ
-pratisaṃvedī purushaḥ</i>, i.e. purusha reflects or turns into its
-own light the concepts of mind and thus is said to know it.
-Its knowing is manifested in our consciousness as the ever-persistent
-notion of the self, which is always a constant
-factor in all the phenomena of consciousness. Thus purusha
-always appears in our consciousness as the knowing agent.
-Truly speaking, however, purusha only sees himself; he is
-not in any way in touch with the mind. He is absolutely free
-from all bondage, absolutely unconnected with prakṛti.
-From the side of appearance he seems only to be the intelligent
-seer imparting consciousness to our conscious-like conception,
-though in reality he remains the seer of himself all
-the while. The difference between purusha and prakṛti will
-be clear when we see that purusha is altogether independent,
-existing in and for himself, free from any bondage whatsoever;
-but buddhi exists on the other hand for the enjoyment
-and release of purusha. That which exists in and for itself,
-must ever be the selfsame, unchangeable entity, suffering
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>no transformations or modifications, for it has no other end
-owing to which it will be liable to change. It is the self-centred,
-self-satisfied light, which never seeks any other end
-and never leaves itself. But prakṛti is not such; it is always
-undergoing endless, complex modifications and as such does
-not exist for itself but for purusha, and is dependent upon
-him. The mind is unconscious, while purusha is the pure
-light of intelligence, for the three guṇas are all non-intelligent,
-and the mind is nothing but a modification of these three
-guṇas which are all non-intelligent.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But looked at from another point of view, prakṛti is not
-altogether different from purusha; for had it been so how
-could purusha, which is absolutely pure, reperceive the mind-modifications?
-Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> (II. 20) writes:—</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>“Well then let him be dissimilar. To meet this he says:
-He is not quite dissimilar. Why? Although pure, he sees
-the ideas after they have come into the mind. Inasmuch as
-purusha cognises the ideas in the form of mind-modification,
-he appears to be, by the act of cognition, the very self of the
-mind although in reality he is not.” As has been said, the
-power of the enjoyer, purusha (<i>dṛkśakti</i>), is certainly unchangeable
-and it does not run after every object. In connection
-with a changeful object it appears forever as if it
-were being transferred to every object and as if it were
-assimilating its modifications. And when the modifications
-of the mind assume the form of the consciousness by which
-it is coloured, they imitate it and look as if they were manifestations
-of purusha’s consciousness unqualified by the
-modifications of the non-intelligent mind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>All our states of consciousness are analysed into two parts—a
-permanent and a changing part. The changing part is
-the form of our consciousness, which is constantly varying
-according to the constant change of its contents. The permanent
-part is that pure light of intelligence, by virtue of which
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>we have the notion of self reflected in our consciousness.
-Now, as this self persists through all the varying changes of
-the objects of consciousness, it is inferred that the light
-which thus shines in our consciousness is unchangeable.
-Our mind is constantly suffering a thousand modifications,
-but the notion of self is the only thing permanent amidst all
-this change. It is this self that imports consciousness to the
-material parts of our knowledge. All our concepts originated
-from our perception of external material objects. Therefore
-the forms of our concepts which could exactly and clearly
-represent these material objects in their own terms, must
-be made of a stuff which in essence is not different from them.
-But with the reflection of purusha, the soul, the notion of
-self comes within the content of our consciousness, spiritualising,
-as it were, all our concepts and making them conscious
-and intelligent. Thus this seeming identity of purusha and
-the mind, by which purusha may be spoken of as the seer of
-the concept, appears to the self, which is manifested in consciousness
-by virtue of the seeming reflection. For this is
-that self, or personality, which remains unchanged all through
-our consciousness. Thus our phenomenal intelligent self
-is partially a material reality arising out of the seeming
-interaction of the spirit and the mind. This interaction is
-the only way by which matter releases spirit from its seeming
-bondage.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But the question arises, how is it that there can even be
-a seeming reflection of purusha in the mind which is altogether
-non-intelligent? How is it possible for the mind to catch a
-glimpse of purusha, which illuminates all the concepts of
-consciousness, the expression “<i>anupaśya</i>” meaning that he
-perceives by imitation (<i>anukāreṇa paśyati</i>)? How can
-purusha, which is altogether formless, allow any reflection
-of itself to imitate the form of buddhi, by virtue of which it
-appears as the self—the supreme possessor and knower of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>all our mental conceptions? There must be at least some
-resemblance between the mind and the purusha, to justify
-in some sense this seeming reflection. And we find that the
-last sūtra of the Vibhūtipāda says: <i>sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye
-kaivalyaṃ</i>—which means that when the sattva or
-the preponderating mind-stuff becomes as pure as purusha,
-kaivalya or oneness is attained. This shows that the pure
-nature of sattva has a great resemblance to the pure nature
-of purusha. So much so, that the last stage preceding the state
-of kaivalya, is almost the same as kaivalya itself, when purusha
-is in himself and there are no thoughts to reflect. In this
-state, we see that the mind can be so pure as to reflect exactly
-the nature of purusha, as he is in himself. This state in which
-the mind becomes as pure as purusha and reflects him in his
-purity, does not materially differ from the state of kaivalya,
-in which purusha is in himself—the only difference being that
-the mind, when it becomes so pure as this, becomes gradually
-lost in prakṛti and cannot again serve to bind purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I cannot refrain here from the temptation of referring to
-a beautiful illustration from Vyāsa, to explain the way in
-which the mind serves the purposes of purusha. <i>Cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṃ
-sannidhimātropakāri dṛśyatvena svaṃ bhavati
-purushasya svāminaḥ</i> (I. 4), which is explained in
-<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> as follows: <i>Tathāyaskāntamaṇiḥ svasminneva
-ayaḥsannidhīkaraṇamātrāt śalyarishkarshaṇākhyam upakāram
-kurvat purushasya svāminaḥ svam bhvati bhogasādhanatvāt</i>, i.e.
-just as a magnet draws iron towards it, though it remains unmoved
-itself, so the mind-modifications become drawn
-towards purusha, and thereby become visible to purusha and
-serve his purpose.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To summarise: We have seen that something like a union
-takes place between the mind and purusha, i.e. there is a
-seeming reflection of purusha in the mind, simultaneously
-with its being determined conceptually, as a result whereof
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>this reflection of purusha in the mind, which is known as the
-self, becomes united with these conceptual determinations
-of the mind and the former is said to be the perceiver of all
-these determinations. Our conscious personality or self
-is thus the seeming unity of the knowable as the mind in the
-shape of conceptual or judgmental representations with the
-reflections of purusha in the mind. Thus, in the single act
-of cognition, we have the notion of our own personality and
-the particular conceptual or perceptual representation with
-which this ego identifies itself. The true seer, the pure
-intelligence, the free, the eternal, remains all the while beyond
-any touch of impurity from the mind, though it must be
-remembered that it is its own seeming reflection in the mind
-that appears as the ego, the cogniser of all our states, pleasures
-and sorrows of the mind and one who is the apperceiver of
-this unity of the seeming reflection—of purusha and the
-determinations of the mind. In all our conscious states, there
-is such a synthetic unity between the determinations of our
-mind and the self, that they cannot be distinguished one from
-the other—a fact which is exemplified in all our cognitions,
-which are the union of the knower and the known. The
-nature of this reflection is a transcendent one and can never
-be explained by any physical illustration. Purusha is altogether
-different from the mind, inasmuch as he is the pure
-intelligence and is absolutely free, while the latter is non-intelligent
-and dependent on purusha’s enjoyment and
-release, which are the sole causes of its movement. But there
-is some similarity between the two, for how could the mind
-otherwise catch a seeming glimpse of him? It is also said
-that the pure mind can adapt itself to the pure form of
-purusha; this is followed by the state of kaivalya.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We have discussed the nature of purusha and its general
-relations with the mind. We must now give a few more
-illustrations. The chief point in which purusha of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>differs from the similar spiritual principle of
-Vedānta is, that it regards its soul, not as one, but as many.
-Let us try to discuss this point, in connection with the arguments
-of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine in favour of a
-separate principle of purusha. Thus the <cite>Kārikā</cite> says:
-<i>saṃghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyyayādadhishthānāt purusho’sti
-bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṃ pravṛtteśca</i>,<a id='r16'></a><a href='#f16' class='c014'><sup>[16]</sup></a> “Because an
-assemblage of things is for the sake of another; because there
-must be an entity different from the three guṇas and the rest
-(their modifications); because there must be a superintending
-power; because there must be someone who enjoys; and
-because of (the existence of) active exertion for the sake of
-abstraction or isolation (from the contact with prakṛti)
-therefore the soul exists.” The first argument is from design
-or teleology by which it is inferred that there must be some
-other simple entity for which these complex collocations of
-things are intended. Thus Gauḍapāda says: “In such
-manner as a bed, which is an assemblage of bedding, props,
-cotton, coverlet and pillows, is for another’s use, not for its
-own, and its several component parts render no mutual
-service, and it is concluded that there is a man who sleeps
-upon the bed and for whose sake it was made; so this world,
-which is an assemblage of the five elements, is for
-use and there is a soul, for whose enjoyment this body,
-another’s consisting of intellect and the rest, has been
-produced.”<a id='r17'></a><a href='#f17' class='c014'><sup>[17]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The <i>second argument</i> is that all the knowable is composed
-of just three elements: first, the element of sattva, or intelligence-stuff,
-causing all manifestations; second, the
-element of rajas or energy, which is ever causing transformations;
-and third, tamas, or the mass, which enables rajas
-to actualise. Now such a prakṛti, composed of these three
-elements, cannot itself be a seer. For the seer must be always
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>the same unchangeable, actionless entity, the ever present,
-ever constant factor in all stages of our consciousness.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><i>Third argument</i>: There must be a supreme background
-of pure consciousness, all our co-ordinated basis of experience.
-This background is the pure actionless purusha, reflected
-in which all our mental states become conscious. Davies
-explains this a little differently, in accordance with a simile
-in the <cite>Tattva-Kaumudī</cite>, <i>yathā rathādi yantrādibhiḥ</i>, thus:
-“This idea of Kapila seems to be that the power of self-control
-cannot be predicted of matter, which must be directed
-or controlled for the accomplishment of any purpose, and
-this controlling power must be something external to matter
-and diverse from it. The soul, however, never acts. It only
-seems to act; and it is difficult to reconcile this part of the
-system with that which gives to the soul a controlling force.
-If the soul is a charioteer, it must be an active force.” But
-Davies here commits the mistake of carrying the simile too
-far. The comparison of the charioteer and the chariot holds
-good, to the extent that the chariot can take a particular
-course only when there is a particular purpose for the charioteer
-to perform. The motion of the chariot is fulfilled only
-when it is connected with the living person of the charioteer,
-whose purpose it must fulfil.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><i>Fourth argument</i>: Since prakṛti is non-intelligent, there
-must be one who enjoys its pains and pleasures. The emotional
-and conceptual determinations of such feelings are
-aroused in consciousness by the seeming reflection of the light
-of purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><i>Fifth argument</i>: There is a tendency in all persons to move
-towards the oneness of purusha, to be achieved by liberation;
-there must be one for whose sake the modifications of buddhi
-are gradually withheld, and a reverse process set up, by which
-they return to their original cause prakṛti and thus liberate
-purusha. It is on account of this reverse tendency of prakṛti
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>to release purusha that a man feels prompted to achieve his
-liberation as the highest consummation of his moral ideal.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus having proved the existence of purusha, the <cite>Kārikā</cite>
-proceeds to prove his plurality: “<i>janmamaraṇakaraṇānāṃ
-pratiniyamādayugapat pravṛtteśca purushabahutvaṃ siddhaṃ
-traiguṇyaviparyyayācca</i>.” “From the individual allotment
-of birth, death and the organs; from diversity of occupations
-and from the different conditions of the three guṇas, it is
-proved that there is a plurality of souls.” In other words,
-since with the birth of one individual, all are not born; since
-with the death of one, all do not die; and since each individual
-has separate sense organs for himself; and since all beings
-do not work at the same time in the same manner; and since
-the qualities of the different guṇas are possessed differently
-by different individuals, purushas are many. Patañjali,
-though he does not infer the plurality of purushas in this way,
-yet holds the view of the sūtra, <i>kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ
-tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt</i>. “Although destroyed in
-relation to him whose objects have been achieved, it is not
-destroyed, being common to others.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Davies, in explaining the former <cite>Kārikā</cite>, says: “There is,
-however, the difficulty that the soul is not affected by the
-three guṇas. How can their various modifications prove the
-individuality of souls in opposition to the Vedāntist doctrine,
-that all souls are only portions of the one, an infinitely extended
-monad?”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This question is the most puzzling in the Sāṃkhya doctrine.
-But careful penetration of the principles of Sāṃkhya-Yoga
-would make clear to us that this is a necessary and consistent
-outcome of the Sāṃkhya view of a dualistic universe.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>For if it is said that purusha is one and we have the notion
-of different selves by his reflection into different minds, it
-follows that such notions as self, or personality, are false.
-For the only true being is the one, purusha. So the knower
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>being false, the known also becomes false; the knower and
-the known having vanished, everything is reduced to that
-which we can in no way conceive. It may be argued that
-according to the Sāṃkhya philosophy also, the knower is
-false, for the pure purusha as such is not in any way connected
-with prakṛti. But even then it must be observed that the
-Sāṃkhya-Yoga view does not hold that the knower is false
-but analyses the nature of the ego and says that it is due to
-the seeming unity of the mind and purusha, both of which
-are reals in the strictest sense of the term. Purusha is there
-justly called the knower. He sees and simultaneously with
-this, there is a modification of buddhi (mind); this seeing
-becomes joined with this modification of buddhi and thus
-arises the ego, who perceives that particular form of the
-modification of buddhi. Purusha always remains the knower.
-Buddhi suffers modifications and at the same time catches
-a glimpse of the light of purusha, so that contact (<i>saṃyoga</i>) of
-purusha and prakṛti occurs at one and the same point
-of time, in which there is unity of the reflection of purusha
-and the particular transformation of buddhi.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The knower, the ego and the knowable, are none of them
-false in the Sāṃkhya-Yoga system at the stage preceding
-kaivalya, when buddhi becomes as pure as purusha; its
-modification resembles the exact form of purusha and then
-purusha knows himself in his true nature in buddhi; after
-which buddhi vanishes. The Vedānta has to admit the
-modifications of māyā, but must at the same time hold it
-to be unreal. The Vedānta says that māyā is as beginningless
-as prakṛti yet has an ending with reference to the released
-person as the buddhi of the Sāṃkhyists.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But according to the Vedānta philosophy, knowledge of
-ego is only false knowledge—an illusion as many imposed
-upon the formless Brahman. Māyā, according to the
-Vedāntist, can neither be said to exist nor to non-exist. It
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>is <i>anirvācyā</i>, i.e. can never be described or defined. Such an
-unknown and unknowable māyā causes the Many of the
-world by reflection upon the Brahman. But according to the
-Sāṃkhya doctrine, prakṛti is as real as purusha himself.
-Prakṛti and purusha are two irreducible metaphysical remainders
-whose connection is beginningless (<i>anādisaṃyoga</i>).
-But this connection is not unreal in the Vedānta sense of the
-term. We see that according to the Vedānta system, all
-notions of ego or personality are false and are originated by the
-illusive action of the māyā, so that when they ultimately
-vanish there are no other remainders. But this is not the
-case with Sāṃkhya, for as purusha is the real seer, his cognitions
-cannot be dismissed as unreal, and so purushas or
-knowers as they appear to us to be, must be held real. As
-prakṛti is not the māyā of the Vedāntist (the nature of whose
-influence over the spiritual principle cannot be determined)
-we cannot account for the plurality of purushas by supposing
-that one purusha is being reflected into many minds and
-generating the many egos. For in that case it will be difficult
-to explain the plurality of their appearances in the minds
-(buddhis). For if there be one spiritual principle, how should
-we account for the supposed plurality of the buddhis? For
-we should rather expect to find one buddhi and not many
-to serve the supposed one purusha, and this will only mean
-that there can be only one ego, his enjoyment and release.
-Supposing for argument’s sake that there are many buddhis
-and one purusha, which reflected in them, is the cause of the
-plurality of selves, then we cannot see how prakṛti is moving
-for the enjoyment and release of one purusha; it would
-rather appear to be moved for the sake of the enjoyment
-and release of the reflected or unreal self. For purusha is
-not finally released with the release of any number of particular
-individual selves. For it may be released with reference
-to one individual but remain bound to others. So prakṛti
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>would not really be moved in this hypothetical case for the
-sake of purusha, but for the sake of the reflected selves only.
-If we wish to avoid the said difficulties, then with the release
-of one purusha, all purushas will have to be released. For
-in the supposed theory there would not really be many
-different purushas, but the one purusha appearing as many,
-so that with his release all the other so-called purushas must
-be released. We see that if it is the enjoyment (<i>bhoga</i>) and
-salvation (<i>apavarga</i>) of one purusha which appear as so many
-different series of enjoyments and emancipations, then with
-his experiences all should have the same experiences. With
-his birth and death, all should be born or all should die at
-once. For, indeed, it is the experiences of one purusha which
-appear in all the seeming different purushas. And in the
-other suppositions there is neither emancipation nor enjoyment
-by purusha at all. For there, it is only the illusory self
-that enjoys or releases himself. By his release no purusha
-is really released at all. So the fundamental conception of
-prakṛti as moving for the sake of the enjoyment and release
-of purusha has to be abandoned.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>So we see that from the position in which Sāṃkhya and
-Yoga stood, this plurality of the purushas was the most
-consistent thing that they could think of. Any compromise
-with the Vedānta doctrine here would have greatly changed
-the philosophical aspect and value of the Sāṃkhya philosophy.
-As the purushas are nothing but pure intelligences they can
-as well be all-pervading though many. But there is another
-objection that, since number is a conception of the phenomenal
-mind, how then can it be applied to the purushas which are
-said to be many?<a id='r18'></a><a href='#f18' class='c014'><sup>[18]</sup></a> But that difficulty remains unaltered
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>even if we regard the purusha as one. When we go into the
-domain of metaphysics and try to represent Reality with the
-symbols of our phenomenal conceptions we have really to
-commit almost a violence towards it. But we must perforce
-do this in all our attempts to express in our own terms that
-pure, inexpressible, free illumination which exists in and for
-itself beyond the range of any mediation by the concepts
-or images of our mind. So we see that Sāṃkhya was not
-inconsistent in holding the doctrine of the plurality of the
-purushas. Patañjali does not say anything about it, since
-he is more anxious to discuss other things connected with
-the presupposition of the plurality of purusha. Thus he
-speaks of it only in one place as quoted above and says that
-though for a released person this world disappears altogether,
-still it remains unchanged in respect to all the other purushas.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER III<br> <span class='c013'>THE REALITY OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>We may now come to the attempt of Yoga to prove the
-reality of an external world as against the idealistic Buddhists.
-In sūtra 12 of the chapter on kaivalya we find: “The past
-and the future exist in reality, since all qualities of things
-manifest themselves in these three different ways. The
-future is the manifestation which is to be. The past is the
-appearance which has been experienced. The present is
-that which is in active operation. It is this threefold substance
-which is the object of knowledge. If it did not exist
-in reality, there would not exist a knowledge thereof. How
-could there be knowledge in the absence of anything knowable?
-For this reason the past and present in reality exist.”<a id='r19'></a><a href='#f19' class='c014'><sup>[19]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>So we see that the present holding within itself the past
-and the future exists in reality. For the past though it has
-been negated has really been preserved and kept in the
-present, and the future also though it has not made its appearance
-yet exists potentially in the present. So, as we know
-the past and the future worlds in the present, they both exist
-and subsist in the present. That which once existed cannot
-die, and that which never existed cannot come to be (<i>nāstyasataḥ
-saṃbhavaḥ na cāsti sato vināsāḥ</i>, <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, V. 12).
-So the past has not been destroyed but has rather shifted its
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>position and hidden itself in the body of the present, and the
-future that has not made its appearance exists in the present
-only in a potential form. It cannot be argued, as Vācaspati
-says, that because the past and the future are not present
-therefore they do not exist, for if the past and future do not
-exist how can there be a present also, since its existence
-also is only relative? So all the three exist as truly as any
-one of them, and the only difference among them is the
-different way or mode of their existence.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>He next proceeds to refute the arguments of those idealists
-who hold that since the external knowables never exist
-independently of our knowledge of them, their separate
-external existence as such may be denied. Since it is by
-knowledge alone that the external knowables can present
-themselves to us we may infer that there is really no knowable
-external reality apart from knowledge of it, just as we see
-that in dream-states knowledge can exist apart from the
-reality of any external world.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>So it may be argued that there is, indeed, no external
-reality as it appears to us. The Buddhists, for example, hold
-that a blue thing and knowledge of it as blue are identical
-owing to the maxim that things which are invariably perceived
-together are one (<i>sahopalambhaniyamādabhedo nīlataddhiyoḥ</i>).
-So they say that external reality is not different
-from our idea of it. To this it may be replied that if, as you
-say, external reality is identical with my ideas and there is
-no other external reality existing as such outside my ideas,
-why then does it appear as existing apart, outside and independent
-of my ideas? The idealists have no basis for the
-denial of external reality, and for their assertion that it is
-only the creation of our imagination like experiences in dreams.
-Even our ideas carry with them the notion that reality exists
-outside our mental experiences. If all our percepts and
-notions as this and that arise only by virtue of the influence
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>of the external world, how can they deny the existence of the
-external world as such? The objective world is present by
-its own power. How then can this objective world be given
-up on the strength of mere logical or speculative abstraction?</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 14, says: “There is no
-object without the knowledge of it, but there is knowledge
-as imagined in dreams without any corresponding object;
-thus the reality of external things is like that of dream-objects,
-mere imagination of the subject and unreal. How
-can they who say so be believed? Since they first suppose
-that the things which present themselves to us by their own
-force do so only on account of the invalid and delusive imagination
-of the intellect, and then deny the reality of the external
-world on the strength of such an imaginary supposition of
-their own.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The external world has generated knowledge of itself
-by its own presentative power (<i>arthena svakīyayāgrāhyaśaktyā
-vijñānamajani</i>), and has thus caused itself to be represented
-in our ideas, and we have no right to deny it.<a id='r20'></a><a href='#f20' class='c014'><sup>[20]</sup></a> Commenting
-on the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> IV. 14, Vācaspati says that the method
-of agreement applied by the Buddhists by their <i>sahopalambhaniyama</i>
-(maxim of simultaneous revelation) may possibly
-be confuted by an application of the method of difference.
-The method of agreement applied by the idealists when put
-in proper form reads thus: “Wherever there is knowledge
-there is external reality, or rather every case of knowledge
-agrees with or is the same as every case of the presence of
-external reality, so knowledge is the cause of the presence of
-the external reality, i.e. the external world depends for its
-reality on our knowledge or ideas and owes its origin or
-appearance as such to them.” But Vācaspati says that this
-application of the method of agreement is not certain, for it
-cannot be corroborated by the method of difference. For
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>the statement that every case of absence of knowledge is also
-a case of absence of external reality cannot be proved, i.e.
-we cannot prove that the external reality does not exist
-when we have no knowledge of it (<i>sahopalambhaniyamaśca
-vedyatvañca hetū sandigdhavyatirekatayānaikāntikau</i>) IV. 14.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Describing the nature of grossness and externality, the
-attributes of the external world, he says that grossness means
-the pervading of more portions of space than one, i.e. grossness
-means extension, and externality means being related to
-separate space, i.e. co-existence in space. Thus we see that
-extension and co-existence in space are the two fundamental
-qualities of the gross external world. Now an idea can never
-be said to possess them, for it cannot be said that an idea has
-extended into more spaces than one and yet co-existed
-separately in separate places. An idea cannot be said to
-exist with other ideas in space and to extend in many points
-of space at one and the same time. To avoid this it cannot
-be said that there may be plurality of ideas so that some may
-co-exist and others may extend in space. For co-existence
-and extension can never be asserted of our ideas, since +hey
-are very fine and subtle, and can be known only at the time of
-their individual operation, at which time, however, other ideas
-may be quite latent and unknown. Imagination has no power
-to negate their reality, for the sphere of imagination is quite
-distinct from the sphere of external reality, and it can never
-be applied to an external reality to negate it. Imagination is
-a mental function, and as such has no touch with the reality
-outside, which it can by no means negate.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Further it cannot be said that, because grossness and
-externality can abide neither in the external world nor in
-our ideas, they are therefore false. For this falsity cannot be
-thought as separable from our ideas, for in that case our ideas
-would be as false as the false itself. The notion of externality
-and grossness pervades all our ideas, and if they are held to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>be false, no true thing can be known by our ideas and they
-therefore become equally false.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Again, knowledge and the external world can never be said
-to be identical because they happen to be presented together.
-For the method of agreement cannot by itself prove identity.
-Knowledge and the knowable external world may be independently
-co-existing things like the notions of existence and
-non-existence. Both co-exist independently of one another.
-It is therefore clear enough, says Vācaspati, that the certainty
-arrived at by perception, which gives us a direct knowledge
-of things, can never be rejected on the strength of mere
-logical abstraction or hair-splitting discussion.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We further see, says Patañjali, that the thing remains
-the same though the ideas and feelings of different men may
-change differently about it.<a id='r21'></a><a href='#f21' class='c014'><sup>[21]</sup></a> Thus A, B, C may perceive
-the same identical woman and may feel pleasure, pain or
-hatred. We see that the same common thing generates
-different feelings and ideas in different persons; external
-reality cannot be said to owe its origin to the idea or imagination
-of any one man, but exists independently of any person’s
-imagination in and for itself. For if it be due to the imagination
-of any particular man, it is his own idea which as such
-cannot generate the same ideas in another man. So it must be
-said that the external reality is what we perceive it outside.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are, again, others who say that just as pleasure
-and pain arise along with our ideas and must be said to be due
-to them so the objective world also must be said to have come
-into existence along with our ideas. The objective world
-therefore according to these philosophers has no external
-existence either in the past or in the future, but has only
-a momentary existence in the present due to our ideas about
-it. That much existence only are they ready to attribute
-to external objects which can be measured by the idea of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>moment. The moment I have an idea of a thing, the thing
-rises into existence and may be said to exist only for that
-moment and as soon as the idea disappears the object also
-vanishes, for when it cannot be presented to me in the form
-of ideas it can be said to exist in no sense. But this argument
-cannot hold good, for if the objective reality should really
-depend upon the idea of any individual man, then the objective
-reality corresponding to an idea of his ought to cease to exist
-either with the change of his idea, or when he directs attention
-to some other thing, or when he restrains his mind from all
-objects of thought. Now, then, if it thus ceases to exist, how
-can it again spring into existence when the attention of the
-individual is again directed towards it? Again, all parts of
-an object can never be seen all at once. Thus supposing that
-the front side of a thing is visible, then the back side which
-cannot be seen at the time must not be said to exist at all.
-So if the back side does not exist, the front side also can as
-well be said not to exist (<i>ye cāsyānupasthitā bhāgaste cāsya
-na syurevaṃ nāsti pṛshṭhamiti udaramapi na gṛhyeta.</i> <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>,
-IV. 16). Therefore it must be said that there is an
-independent external reality which is the common field of
-observation for all souls in general; and there are also
-separate “Cittas” for separate individual souls (<i>tasmāt
-svatantro’rthaḥ sarvapurusasādhdāraṇaḥ svatantrāṇi ca cittāni
-pratipurushaṃ, pravarttante</i>, <i>ibid.</i>). And all the experiences
-of the purusha result from the connection of this “Citta”
-(mind) with the external world.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now from this view of the reality of the external world we
-are confronted with another question—what is the ground
-which underlies the manifold appearance of this external
-world which has been proved to be real? What is that something
-which is thought as the vehicle of such qualities as produce
-in us the ideas? What is that self-subsistent substratum
-which is the basis of so many changes, actions and reactions
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>that we always meet in the external world? Locke called
-this substratum substance and regarded it as unknown, but
-said that though it did not follow that it was a product of
-our own subjective thought yet it did not at the same time
-exist without us. Hume, however, tried to explain everything
-from the standpoint of association of ideas and denied all
-notions of substantiality. We know that Kant, who was much
-influenced by Hume, agreed to the existence of some such
-unknown reality which he called the Thing-in-itself, the nature
-of which, however, was absolutely unknowable, but whose
-influence was a great factor in all our experiences.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> tries to penetrate deeper into the nature
-of this substratum or substance and says: <i>dharmisvarūpamātro
-hi dharmaḥ, dharmivikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā prapañcyate</i>,
-<cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, III. 13. The characteristic qualities form the
-very being itself of the characterised, and it is the change of
-the characterised alone that is detailed by means of the
-characteristic. To understand thoroughly the exact significance
-of this statement it will be necessary to take a more
-detailed review of what has already been said about the guṇas.
-We know that all things mental or physical are formed by the
-different collocations of sattva of the nature of illumination
-(<i>prakāśa</i>), rajas—the energy or mutative principle of the
-nature of action (<i>kriyā</i>)—and tamas—the obstructive principle
-of the nature of inertia (<i>sthiti</i>) which in their original and
-primordial state are too fine to be apprehended (<i>gunānāṃparamaṃ
-rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati</i>, <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 13).
-These different guṇas combine in various proportions to form
-the manifold universe of the knowable, and thus are made the
-objects of our cognition. Through combining in different
-proportions they become, in the words of Dr. B. N. Seal, “more
-and more differentiated, determinate and coherent,” and thus
-make themselves cognisable, yet they never forsake their own
-true nature as the guṇas. So we see that they have thus got
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>two natures, one in which they remain quite unchanged as
-guṇas, and another in which they collocate and combine
-themselves in various ways and thus appear under the veil
-of a multitude of qualities and states of the manifold knowable
-(<i>te vyaktasūkshmā guṇātmānaḥ</i> [IV. 13] ... <i>sarvamidaṃ
-guṇānāṃ sanniveśaviśeshamātramiti paramārthato guṇātmānaḥ</i>,
-<cite>Bhāshya</cite>, <i>ibid.</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now these guṇas take three different courses of development
-from the ego or ahaṃkāra according to which the ego or
-ahaṃkāra may be said to be sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa.
-Thus from the sāttvika side of the ego by a preponderance of
-sattva the five knowledge-giving senses, e.g. hearing, sight,
-touch, taste and smell are derived. From the rajas side of
-ego by a preponderance of rajas the five active senses of speech,
-etc., are derived. From the tamas side of ego or ahaṃkāra
-by a preponderance of tamas are derived the five tanmātras.
-From which again by a preponderance of tamas the atoms of
-the five gross elements—earth, water, fire, air and ether are
-derived.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In the derivation of these it must be remembered that
-all the three guṇas are conjointly responsible. In the derivation
-of a particular product one of the guṇas may indeed be
-predominant, and thus may bestow the prominent characteristic
-of that product, but the other two guṇas are also present
-there and perform their functions equally well. Their
-opposition does not withhold the progress of evolution but
-rather helps it. All the three combine together in varying
-degrees of mutual preponderance and thus together help the
-process of evolution to produce a single product. Thus we
-see that though the guṇas are three, they combine to produce
-on the side of perception, the senses, such as those of hearing,
-sight, etc.; and on the side of the knowable, the individual
-tanmātras of gandha, rasa, rūpa, sparśa and śabda. The
-guṇas composing each tanmātra again harmoniously combine
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>with each other with a preponderance of tamas to produce
-the atoms of each gross element. Thus in each combination
-one class of guṇas remains prominent, while the others
-remain dependent upon it but help it indirectly in the evolution
-of that particular product.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IV<br> <span class='c013'>THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>The evolution which we have spoken of above may be
-characterised in two ways: (1) That arising from modifications
-or products of some other cause which are themselves
-capable of originating other products like themselves; (2)
-That arising from causes which, though themselves derived,
-yet cannot themselves be the cause of the origination of other
-existences like themselves. The former may be said to be
-slightly specialised (<i>aviśesha</i>) and the latter thoroughly
-specialised (<i>viśesha</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus we see that from prakṛti comes mahat, from mahat
-comes ahaṃkāra, and from ahaṃkāra, as we have seen above,
-the evolution takes three different courses according to the
-preponderance of sattva, rajas and tamas originating the
-cognitive and conative senses and manas, the superintendent
-of them both on one side and the tanmātras on the other.
-These tanmātras again produce the five gross elements.
-Now when ahaṃkāra produces the tanmātras or the senses,
-or when the tanmātras produce the five gross elements, or
-when ahaṃkāra itself is produced from buddhi or mahat,
-it is called <i>tattvāntara-pariṇāma</i>, i.e. the production of a
-different tattva or substance.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus in the case of <i>tattvāntara-pariṇāma</i> (as for example
-when the tanmātras are produced from ahaṃkāra), it must
-be carefully noticed that the state of being involved in the
-tanmātras is altogether different from the state of being of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>ahaṃkāra; it is not a mere change of quality but a change
-of existence or state of being.<a id='r22'></a><a href='#f22' class='c014'><sup>[22]</sup></a> Thus though the tanmātras
-are derived from ahaṃkāra the traces of ahaṃkāra cannot
-be easily followed in them. This derivation is not such that
-the ahaṃkāra remains principally unchanged and there is
-only a change of quality in it, but it is a different existence
-altogether, having properties which differ widely from those
-of ahaṃkāra. So it is called tattvāntara-pariṇāma, i.e.
-evolution of different categories of existence.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now the evolution that the senses and the five gross elements
-can undergo can never be of this nature, for they are viśeshas,
-or substances which have been too much specialised to allow
-the evolution of any other substance of a different grade of
-existence from themselves. With them there is an end of all
-emanation. So we see that the aviśeshas or slightly specialised
-emanations are those which being themselves but emanations
-can yet yield other emanations from themselves. Thus we
-see that mahat, ahaṃkāra and the five tanmātras are themselves
-emanations, as well as the source of other emanations.
-Mahat, however, though it is undoubtedly an aviśesha or
-slightly specialised emanation, is called by another technical
-name liṅga or sign, for from the state of mahat, the prakṛti
-from which it must have emanated may be inferred. Prakṛti,
-however, from which no other primal state is inferable, is called
-the aliṅga or that which is not a sign for the existence of any
-other primal and more unspecialised state. In one sense all
-the emanations can be with justice called the liṅgas or states
-of existence standing as the sign by which the causes from
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>which they have emanated can be directly inferred. Thus in
-this sense the five gross elements maybe called the liṅga of the
-tanmātras, and they again of the ego, and that again of the
-mahat, for the unspecialised ones are inferred from their
-specialised modifications or emanations. But this technical
-name liṅga is reserved for the mahat from which the aliṅga
-or prakṛti can be inferred. This prakṛti, however, is the
-eternal state which is not an emanation itself but the basis
-and source of all other emanations.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The liṅga and the aliṅga have thus been compared in the
-<cite>Kārikā</cite>:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c015'>
- <div class='linegroup'>
- <div class='group'>
- <div class='line'>“<i>hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekāśritaṃ liṅgaṃ</i></div>
- <div class='line'><i>sāvayavam paratantraṃ vyaktaṃ viparītamavyaktaṃ</i>.”</div>
- </div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The liṅga has a cause, it is neither eternal nor universal,
-but mobile, multiform, dependent, determinate, and possesses
-parts, whereas the aliṅga is the reverse. The aliṅga or
-prakṛti, however, being the cause has some characteristics in
-common with its liṅgas as distinguished from the purushas,
-which are altogether different from it.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus the <cite>Kārikā</cite> says:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c015'>
- <div class='linegroup'>
- <div class='group'>
- <div class='line'>“<i>triguṇamaviveki vishayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṃ prasavadharmi</i></div>
- <div class='line'><i>vyaktaṃ tathā pradhānaṃ tadviparītastathā pumān</i>.”</div>
- </div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The manifested and the unmanifested <i>pradhāna</i> or <i>prakṛti</i>
-are both composed of the three guṇas, non-intelligent, objective,
-universal, unconscious and productive. Soul in these
-respects is the reverse. We have seen above that prakṛti
-is the state of equilibrium of the guṇas, which can in no way
-be of any use to the purushas, and is thus held to be eternal,
-though all other states are held to be non-eternal as they
-are produced for the sake of the purushas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The state of prakṛti is that in which the guṇas completely
-overpower each other and the characteristics (<i>dharma</i>)
-and the characterised (<i>dharmī</i>) are one and the same.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>Evolution is thus nothing but the manifestation of change,
-mutation, by the energy of rajas. The rajas is the one
-mediating activity that breaks up all compounds, builds up
-new ones and initiates original modifications. Whenever in
-any particular combination the proportion of sattva, rajas
-or tamas alters, as a condition of this alteration, there is the
-dominating activity of rajas by which the old equilibrium is
-destroyed and another equilibrium established; this in its
-turn is again disturbed and again another equilibrium is
-restored. Now the manifestation of this latent activity of
-rajas is what is called change or evolution. In the external
-world the time that is taken by a paramāṇu or atom to move
-from its place is identical with a unit of change.<a id='r23'></a><a href='#f23' class='c014'><sup>[23]</sup></a> Now an
-atom will be that quantum which is smaller or finer than
-that point or limit at which it can in any way be perceived
-by the senses. Atoms are therefore mere points without
-magnitude or dimension, and the unit of time or moment
-(<i>kshaṇa</i>) that is taken up in changing the position of these
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>atoms is identical with one unit of change or evolution.
-The change or evolution in the external world must therefore
-be measured by these units of spatial motion of the atoms;
-i.e. an atom changing its own unit of space is the measure of
-all physical change or evolution.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Each unit of time (<i>kshaṇa</i>) corresponding to this change of
-an atom of its own unit of space is the unit-measure of change.
-This instantaneous succession of time as discrete moments one
-following the other is the notion of the series of moments or
-pure and simple succession. Now the notion of these discrete
-moments is the notion of time. Even the notion of succession
-is one that does not really exist but is imagined, for a moment
-comes into being just when the moment just before had passed
-so that they have never taken place together. Thus Vyāsa
-in III. 52, says: “<i>kshaṇatatkramayornāsti vastusamāhāraḥ iti
-buddhisamāhāraḥ muhūrttāhorātrātrādayaḥ</i>.” <i>Sa tvayaṃ kālaḥ
-vastuśūnyo’pi buddhinirmāṇaḥ.</i> The moments and their
-succession do not belong to the category of actual things;
-the hour, the day and night, are all aggregates of mental
-conceptions. This time which is not a substantive reality in
-itself, but is only a mental concept, represented to us through
-linguistic usage, appears to ordinary minds as if it were an
-objective reality.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>So the conception of time as discrete moments is the real
-one, whereas the conception of time as successive or as continuous
-is unreal, being only due to the imagination of our
-empirical and relative consciousness. Thus Vācaspati further
-explains it. A moment is real (<i>vastupatitaḥ</i>) and is the essential
-element of the notion of succession. Succession involves the
-notion of change of moments, and the moment is called time
-by those sages who know what time is. Two moments cannot
-happen together. There cannot be any succession of two
-simultaneous things. Succession means the notion of change
-involving a preceding and a succeeding moment. Thus there
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>is only the present moment and there are no preceding and
-later moments. Therefore there cannot be any union of these
-moments. The past and the future moments may be said to
-exist only if we speak of past and future as identical with
-the changes that have become latent and others that exist
-potentially but are not manifested. Thus in one moment,
-the whole world suffers changes. All these characteristics
-are associated with the thing as connected with one particular
-moment.<a id='r24'></a><a href='#f24' class='c014'><sup>[24]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>So we find here that time is essentially discrete, being only
-the moments of our cognitive life. As two moments never
-co-exist, there is no succession or continuous time. They
-exist therefore only in our empirical consciousness which
-cannot take the real moments in their discrete nature but
-connects the one with the other and thereby imagines either
-succession or continuous time.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now we have said before, that each unit of change or
-evolution is measured by this unit of time <i>kshaṇa</i> or moment;
-or rather the units of change are expressed in terms of these
-moments or <i>kshaṇas</i>. Of course in our ordinary consciousness
-these moments of change cannot be grasped, but they
-can be reasonably inferred. For at the end of a certain period
-we observe a change in a thing; now this change, though
-it becomes appreciable to us after a long while, was still going
-on every moment, so, in this way, the succession of evolution
-or change cannot be distinguished from the moments coming
-one after another. Thus the <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite> says in IV. 33:
-“Succession involving a course of changes is associated with
-the moments.” Succession as change of moments is grasped
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>only by a course of changes. A cloth which has not passed
-through a course of changes through a series of moments
-cannot be found old all at once at any time. Even a new
-cloth kept with good care becomes old after a time. This
-is what is called the termination of a course of changes and
-by it the succession of a course of changes can be grasped.
-Even before a thing is old there can be inferred a sequence
-of the subtlest, subtler, subtle, grossest, grosser and gross
-changes (<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, IV. 33).<a id='r25'></a><a href='#f25' class='c014'><sup>[25]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now as we have seen that the unit of time is indistinguishable
-from the unit of change or evolution, and as these moments
-are not co-existing but one follows the other, we see that there
-is no past or future existing as a continuous before or past,
-and after or future. It is the present that really exists as
-the manifested moment; the past has been conserved as
-sublatent and the future as the latent. So the past and
-future exist in the present, the former as one which has already
-had its manifestation and is thus conserved in the fact of the
-manifestation of the present. For the manifestation of the
-present as such could not have taken place until the past
-had already been manifested; so the manifestation of the
-present is a concrete product involving within itself the manifestation
-of the past; in a similar way it may be said that
-the manifestation of the present contains within itself the seed
-or the unmanifested state of the future, for if this had not
-been the case, the future never could have happened. So we
-see that the whole world undergoes a change at one unit
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>point of time, and not only that but it conserves within itself
-all the past and future history of cosmic evolution.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We have pointed out before that the manifestation of the
-rajas or energy as action is what is called change. Now this
-manifestation of action can only take place when equilibrium
-of a particular collocation of guṇas is disturbed and the rajas
-arranges or collocates with itself the sattva and tamas, the
-whole group being made intelligible by the inherent sattva.
-So the cosmic history is only the history of the different
-collocations of the guṇas. Now, therefore, if it is possible
-for a seer to see in one vision the possible number of combinations
-that the rajas will have with sattva and tamas, he can
-in one moment perceive the past, present or future of this
-cosmic evolutionary process; for with such minds all past
-and future are concentrated at one point of vision which to
-a person of ordinary empirical consciousness appears only
-in the series. For the empirical consciousness, impure as it is,
-it is impossible that all the powers and potencies of sattva
-and rajas should become manifested at one point of time;
-it has to take things only through its senses and can thus
-take the changes only as the senses are affected by them;
-whereas, on the other hand, if its power of knowing was not
-restricted to the limited scope of the senses, it could have
-grasped all the possible collocations or changes all at once.
-Such a perceiving mind whose power of knowing is not
-narrowed by the senses can perceive all the finest modifications
-or changes that are going on in the body of a substance
-(see <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, III. 53).</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER V<br> <span class='c013'>THE EVOLUTION OF THE CATEGORIES</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>The Yoga analysis points to the fact that all our cognitive
-states are distinguished from their objects by the fact of their
-being intelligent. This intelligence is the constant factor
-which persists amidst all changes of our cognitive states.
-We are passing continually from one state to another without
-any rest, but in this varying change of these states we are
-never divested of intelligence. This fact of intelligence is
-therefore neither the particular possession of any one of these
-states nor that of the sum of these states; for if it is not the
-possession of any one of these states it cannot be the possession
-of the sum of these states. In the case of the released person
-again there is no mental state, but the self-shining intelligence.
-So Yoga regarded this intelligence as quite distinct
-from the so-called mental states which became intelligent
-by coming in connection with this intelligence. The actionless,
-absolutely pure and simple intelligence it called the
-purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Yoga tacitly assumed a certain kind of analysis of the
-nature of these mental states which sought to find out, if
-possible, the nature of their constituent elements or moments
-of existence. Now in analysing the different states of our
-mind we find that a particular content of thought is illuminated
-and then passed over. The ideas rise, are illuminated
-and pass away. Thus they found that “movement” was
-one of the principal elements that constituted the substance
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>of our thoughts. Thought as such is always moving. This
-principle of movement, mutation or change, this energy, they
-called rajas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now apart from this rajas, thought when seen as divested
-of its sensuous contents seems to exhibit one universal mould
-or form of knowledge which assumes the form of all the
-sensuous contents that are presented to it. It is the one
-universal of all our particular concepts or ideas—the basis
-or substratum of all the different shapes imposed upon itself,
-the pure and simple. Sattva in which there is no particularity
-is that element of our thought which, resembling purusha
-most, can attain its reflection within itself and thus makes
-the unconscious mental states intelligible. All the contents
-of our thought are but modes and limitations of this universal
-form and are thus made intelligible. It is the one principle
-of intelligibility of all our conscious states.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now our intellectual life consists in a series of shining
-ideas or concepts; concepts after concepts shine forth in the
-light of the pure intelligence and pass away. But each
-concept is but a limitation of the pure shining universal of
-our knowledge which underlies all its changing modes or
-modifications of concepts or judgments. This is what is called
-pure knowledge in which there is neither the knower nor the
-known. This pure object—subjectless knowledge differs
-from the pure intelligence or purusha only in this that later
-on it is liable to suffer various modifications, as the ego,
-the senses, and the infinite percepts and concepts, etc., connected
-therewith, whereas the pure intelligence remains ever
-pure and changeless and is never the substratum of any
-change. At this stage sattva, the intelligence-stuff, is
-prominent and rajas and tamas are altogether suppressed.
-It is for this reason that the buddhi or mind is often spoken
-of as the sattva. Being an absolute preponderance of sattva
-it has nothing else to manifest, but it is its pure-shining self.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>Both tamas and rajas being mostly suppressed they cannot
-in any way affect the effulgent nature of this pure shining
-of contentless knowledge in which there is neither the knower
-nor the known.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But it must be remembered that it is holding suspended
-as it were within itself the elements of rajas and tamas which
-cannot manifest themselves owing to the preponderance of
-the sattva.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This notion of pure contentless consciousness is immediate
-and abstract and as such is at once mediated by other necessary
-phases. Thus we see that this pure contentless universal
-consciousness is the same as the ego-universal (<i>asmitāmātra</i>).
-For this contentless universal consciousness is only another
-name for the contentless unlimited, infinite of the ego-universal.
-A quotation from Fichte may here be useful as a comparison.
-Thus he says in the introduction to his <cite>Science
-of Ethics</cite>: “How an object can ever become a subject, or
-how a being can ever become an object of representation:
-this curious change will never be explained by anyone who
-does not find a point where the objective and subjective
-are not distinguished at all, but are altogether one. Now
-such a point is established by, and made the starting point
-of our system. This point is the Egohood, the Intelligence,
-Reason, or whatever it may be named.”<a id='r26'></a><a href='#f26' class='c014'><sup>[26]</sup></a> The <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>,
-II. 19, describes it as <i>liṅgamātram mahattatvaṃ sattāmātre
-mahati ātmani</i>, and again in I. 36 we find it described as the
-waveless ocean, peaceful infinite pure egohood. This obscure
-egohood is known merely as being. This mahat has also
-been spoken of by Vijñāna Bhikshu as the manas, or mind,
-as it has the function of assimilation (<i>niścaya</i>). Now what
-we have already said about mahat will, we hope, make it
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>clear that this mahat is the last limit at which the subject
-and the object can be considered as one indistinguishable
-point which is neither the one nor the other, but the source
-of both.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This buddhi is thus variously called <i>mahat</i>, <i>asmitāmātra</i>,
-<i>manas</i>, <i>sattva</i>, <i>buddhi</i> and <i>liṅga</i>, according to the aspects
-from which this state is observed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This state is called mahat as it is the most universal thing
-conceivable and the one common source from which all other
-things originate.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now this phase of sattva or pure shining naturally passes
-into the other phase, that of the Ego as knower or Ego as
-subject. The first phase as mahat or asmitāmātra was the
-state in which the sattva was predominant and the rajas and
-tamas were in a suppressed condition. The next moment
-is that in which the rajas comes uppermost, and thus the
-ego as the subject of all cognition—the subject I—the
-knower of all the mental states—is derived. The contentless
-subject-objectless “I” is the passive sattva aspect
-of the buddhi catching the reflection of the spirit of
-purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In its active aspect, however, it feels itself one with the
-spirit and appears as the ego or subject which knows, feels
-and wills. Thus Patañjali says, in II. 6: <i>dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva
-asmitā</i>, i.e. the seeming identity of the seer
-and the perceiving capacity is called asmitā-ego. Again in
-<cite>Bhāshya</cite>, I. 17, we have <i>ekātmikā saṃvidasmitā</i> (knowledge as
-one identical is asmitā) which Vācaspati explains as <i>sā ca
-ātmanā grahītrā saha buddhirekātmikā saṃvid</i>, i.e. it is the
-feeling of identity of the buddhi (mind) with the self, the
-perceiver. Thus we find that the mind is affected by its own
-rajas or activity and posits itself as the ego or subject as
-activity. By reason of this position of the “I” as active
-it perceives itself in the objective, in all its conative and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>cognitive senses in its thoughts and feelings and also in the
-external world of extension and co-existence; in the words
-of Pañcaśikha (II. 5) thinking the animate and inanimate
-beings to be the self, man regards their prosperity as his own
-and becomes glad, and regards their adversity as his own
-and is sorry. Here the “I” is posited as the active entity
-which becomes conscious of itself, or in other words the
-“I” becomes self-conscious. In analysing this notion of
-self-consciousness we find that here the rajas or element of
-activity or mobility has become predominant and this predominance
-of rajas has been manifested by the inherent
-sattva. Thus we find that the rajas side or “I as active”
-has become manifested or known as such, i.e. “I” becomes
-conscious of itself as active. And this is just what is meant
-by self-consciousness.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This ego or self-consciousness then appears as the modification
-of the contentless pure consciousness of the mind (<i>buddhi</i>);
-it is for this reason that we see that this self-consciousness is but
-a modification of the universal mind. The absolute identity
-of subject and object as the egohood is not A part of our
-natural consciousness, for in all stages of our actual consciousness,
-even in that of self-consciousness, there is an element
-of the preponderance of rajas or activity which directs this
-unity as the knower and the known and then unites them as
-it were. Only so far as I distinguish myself as the conscious,
-from myself as the object of consciousness, am I at all conscious
-of myself.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When we see that the buddhi transforms itself into the ego,
-the subject, or the knower, at this its first phase there is no
-other content which it can know, it therefore knows itself
-in a very abstract way as the “I,” or in other words, the ego
-becomes self-conscious; but at this moment the ego has no
-content; the tamas being quite under suppression, it is
-evolved by a preponderance of the rajas; and thus its nature
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>as rajas is manifested by the sattva and thus the ego now
-essentially knows itself to be active, and holds itself as the
-permanent energising activity which connects with itself all
-the phenomena of our life.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But now when the ego first directs itself towards itself and
-becomes conscious of itself, one question which naturally
-comes to our mind is, “Can the ego direct itself towards
-itself and thus divide itself into a part that sees and one that
-is seen?” To meet this question it is assumed that the
-guṇas contain within themselves the germs of both subjectivity
-and objectivity (<i>guṇānāṃ hi dvairūpyaṃ vyavasāyātmkatvam
-vyavaseyātmakatvaṃ ca. Tattvavaiśāradī</i>, III. 47);
-the guṇas have two forms, the perceiver and the perceived.
-Thus we find that in the ego the quality of the guṇas as the
-perceiver comes to be first manifested and the ego turns
-back upon itself and makes itself its own object. It is at this
-stage that we are reminded of the twofold nature of the
-guṇas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is by virtue of this twofold nature that the subject can
-make itself its own object; but as these two sides have not
-yet developed they are still only abstract and exist but in an
-implicit way in this state of the ego (<i>ahaṃkāra</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Enquiring further into the nature of the relation of this ego
-and the buddhi, we find that the ego is only another phase
-or modification of the buddhi; however different it might
-appear from buddhi it is only an appearance or phase of it;
-its reality is the reality of the buddhi. Thus we see that when
-the knower is affected in his different modes of concepts and
-judgments, this too is to be ascribed to the buddhi. Thus
-Vyāsa writes (II. 18) that perception, memory, differentiation,
-reasoning, right knowledge, decision belong properly to mind
-(buddhi) and are only illusorily imposed on the purusha
-(<i>grahaṇadhāraṇohāpohatattvajñānābhiniveśā buddhau varttamānā
-purushe adhyāropitasadbhāvāḥ</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>Now from this ego we find that three developments take
-place in three distinct directions according to the preponderance
-of sattva, rajas or tamas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>By the preponderance of rajas, the ego develops itself
-into the five conative senses, vāk (speech), pāṇi (hands),
-pāda (feet), pāyu (organ of passing the excreta) and upastha
-(generative organ). By the preponderance of sattva, the
-ego develops itself into the five cognitive senses—hearing,
-touch, sight, taste and smell; and by a preponderance of
-tamas it stands as the bhūtādi and produces the five tanmātras,
-and these again by further preponderance of tamas
-develops into the particles of the five gross elements of earth,
-water, light, heat, air and ether.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now it is clear that when the self becomes conscious of
-itself as object we see that there are three phases in it: (i)
-that in which the self becomes an object to itself; (ii) when
-it directs itself or turns as the subject upon itself as the object,
-this moment of activity which can effect an aspect of change
-in itself; (iii) the aspect of the consciousness of the self,
-the moment in which it perceives itself in its object, the
-moment of the union of itself as the subject and itself as the
-object in one luminosity of self-consciousness. Now that
-phase of self in which it is merely an object to itself is the phase
-of its union with prakṛti which further develops the prakṛti in
-moments of materiality by a preponderance of the inert
-tamas of the bhūtādi into tanmātras and these again into the
-five grosser elements which are then called the <i>grāhya</i> or
-perceptible.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The sattva side of this ego or self-consciousness which was
-hitherto undifferentiated becomes further differentiated,
-specialised and modified into the five cognitive senses with their
-respective functions of hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell,
-synchronising with the evolution of the prakṛti on the tanmātric
-side of evolution. These again individually suffer
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>infinite modifications themselves and thus cause an infinite
-variety of sensations in their respective spheres in our conscious
-life. The rajas side of the ego becomes specialised as the active
-faculties of the five different conative organs.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is another specialisation of the ego as the manas
-which is its direct instrument for connecting itself with the five
-cognitive and conative senses. What is perceived as mere
-sensations by the senses is connected and generalised and
-formed into concepts by the manas; it is therefore spoken
-of as partaking of both the conative and the cognitive aspects
-in the <cite>Sāṃkhya-kārikā</cite>, 27.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now though the modifications of the ego are formed
-successively by the preponderance of sattva, rajas and tamas,
-yet the rajas is always the accessory cause (<i>sahakāri</i>) of all
-these varied collocations of the guṇas; it is the supreme
-principle of energy and supplies even intelligence with the
-energy which it requires for its own conscious activity. Thus
-Lokācāryya says in his <cite>Tattvatraya</cite>: “the tāmasa ego
-developing into the material world and the sāttvika ego
-developing into the eleven senses, both require the help of the
-rājasa ego for the production of this development” (<i>anyābhyāṃ
-ahaṃkārābhyām svakāryyopajanane rājasāhaṃkūraḥ sahakārī
-bhavati</i>); and Barabara in his <cite>Bhāshya</cite> writes: “just as a
-seed-sprout requires for its growth the help of water as
-instrumental cause, so the rājasa ahaṃkāra (ego) works as the
-accessory cause (<i>sahakāri</i>) for the transformations of sāttvika
-and tāmasa ahaṃkāra into their evolutionary products.”
-The mode of working of this instrumental cause is described as
-“rajas is the mover.” The rājasa ego thus moves the sattva
-part to generate the senses; the tamas part generating the
-gross and subtle matter is also moved by the rajas, agent of
-movement. The rājasa ego is thus called the common cause
-of the movement of the sāttvika and the tāmasa ego. Vācaspati
-also says: “though rajas has no separate work by itself
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>yet since sattva and tamas (which though capable of undergoing
-modification, do not do their work) are actionless in
-themselves, the agency of rajas lies in this that it moves them
-both for the production of the effect.”<a id='r27'></a><a href='#f27' class='c014'><sup>[27]</sup></a> And according as the
-modifications are sāttvika, tāmasa or rājasika, the ego which
-is the cause of these different modifications is also called
-vaikārika, bhūtādi and taijasa. The mahat also as the source
-of the vaikārika, taijasa and bhūtādi ego may be said to have
-three aspects.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now speaking of the relation of the sense faculties with
-the sense organs, we see that the latter, which are made up of
-the grosser elements are the vehicle of the former, for if the
-latter are injured in any way, the former are also necessarily
-affected.<a id='r28'></a><a href='#f28' class='c014'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To take for example the specific case of the faculty of hearing
-and its organ, we see that the faculty of hearing is seated in
-the ether (<i>ākāśa</i>) within our ear-hole. It is here that the power
-of hearing is located. When soundness or defect is noticed
-therein, soundness or defect is noticed in the power of hearing
-also. When the sounds of solids, etc., are heard, then the
-power of hearing located in the hollow of the ear stands in need
-of the resonance produced in the ākāśa of the ear.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This sense of hearing, then, having its origin in the principle
-of ahaṃkāra, behaves like iron, and is drawn by the sounds
-originated and located in the mouth of the speaker acting
-as loadstone, and transforms them into its own successive
-modifications (<i>vṛtti</i>) and thus senses the sounds of the
-speaker. And it is for this reason that for every living
-creature, the perception of sound in external space
-in the absence of defects is never void of authority.
-Thus Pancasikha also says, as quoted in <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>,
-III. 41:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>“To all those whose organs of hearing are situated in the
-same place (at different times) the ākāśa sustaining the sense
-of hearing is the same.” The ākāśa, again, in which the power
-of hearing is seated, is born out of the soniferous tanmātra, and
-has therefore the quality of sound inherent in itself. It is by
-this sound acting in unison that it takes the sounds of external
-solids, etc. This then proves that the ākāśa is the substratum
-of the power of hearing, and also possesses the quality of
-sound. And this sameness of the situation of sound is an
-indication of the existence of ākāśa as that which is the substratum
-of the auditory power (<i>śruti</i>) which manifests the
-sounds of the same class in ākāśa. Such a manifestation of
-sound cannot be without such an auditory sense-power.
-Nor is such an auditory power a quality of pṛthivī (earth),
-etc., because it cannot be in its own self both the manifestor
-and the manifested (<i>vyahṅgya</i> and <i>vyañjaka</i>), <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>,
-III. 41. It is the auditory power which manifests all sounds
-with the help of the ākāśa of the sense organ.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The theory of the guṇas was accepted by many others
-outside the Sāṃkhya-Yoga circle and they also offered their
-opinions on the nature of the categories.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are thus other views prevalent about the genesis of
-the senses, to which it may be worth our while to pay some
-attention as we pass by.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The sāttvika ego in generating the cognitive senses with
-limited powers for certain specified objects of sense only accounted
-for their developments from itself in accompaniment
-with the specific tanmātras. Thus</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>sāttvika ego + sound potential (śabda-tanmātra) = sense
-of hearing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>sāttvika ego + touch potential (śparś-tanmātra) = sense of
-touch.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>sāttvika ego + sight potential (śrūpa-tanmātra) = sense of
-vision.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>sāttvika ego + taste potential (vasa-tanmātra) = sense of
-taste.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>sāttvika ego + smell potential (gandha-tanmātra) = sense of
-smell.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The conative sense of speech is developed in association
-with the sense of hearing; that of hand in association with the
-sense of touch; that of feet in association with the sense of
-vision; that of upastha in association with the sense of taste;
-that of pāyu in association with the sense of smell.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Last of all, the manas is developed from the ego without
-any co-operating or accompanying cause.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The Naiyāyikas, however, think that the senses are generated
-by the gross elements, the ear for example by ākāśa, the touch
-by air and so forth. But Lokācāryya in his <cite>Tattvatraya</cite> holds
-that the senses are not generated by gross matter but are
-rather sustained and strengthened by it.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are others who think that the ego is the instrumental
-and that the gross elements are the material causes in the
-production of the senses.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The view of the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> is, I believe, now quite clear
-since we see that the mahat through the asmitā generates from
-the latter (as differentiations from it, though it itself exists
-as integrated in the mahat), the senses, and their corresponding
-gross elements.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Before proceeding further to trace the development of
-the bhūtādi on the tanmātric side, I think it is best to refer
-to the views about the supposed difference between the Yoga
-and the views of the Sāṃkhya works about the evolution of
-the categories. Now according to the Yoga view two parallel
-lines of evolution start from mahat, one of which develops
-into the ego, manas, the five cognitive and the five conative
-senses, while on the other side it develops into the five grosser
-elements through the five tanmātras which are directly
-produced from mahat through the medium ahaṃkāra.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>Thus the view as found in the Yoga works may be tabulated
-thus:—</p>
-
-<div class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_059a.jpg' alt='Prakṛti Mahat or Asmitāmātra Asmitā Tanmātras--5 11 senses 5 gross elements' class='ig001'>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The view of the Śaṃkhya works may be tabulated thus:--</p>
-
-<div class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_059b.jpg' alt='Prakṛti Mahat Ego 11 senses 5 Tanmātras 5 gross elements' class='ig001'>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The place in the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> which refers to this genesis
-is that under <i>viśeshāviśeshaliṅgamātrāliṅgāni guṇaparvāṇi</i>, II.
-19. There it says that the four bhūtas are ether, air, fire,
-water and earth. These are the viśeshas (specialised modifications)
-of the unspecialised modifications the tanmātras of
-sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. So also are the cognitive
-senses of hearing, touch, eye, tongue, and nose and the conative
-senses of speech, hand, feet, anus and the generative organ.
-The eleventh one manas (the co-ordinating organ) has for its
-object the objects of all the above ten senses. So these are
-the specialised modifications (<i>viśeshas</i>) of the unspecialised
-(aviśesha) asmitā. The guṇas have these sixteen kinds of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>specialised modifications (<i>viśeshapariṇāma</i>). The six unspecialised
-modifications are the sound tanmātra, touch
-tanmātra, colour tanmātra, taste tanmātra and smell tanmātra.
-These tanmātras respectively contain one, two,
-three, four, and five special characteristics. The sixth
-unspecialised modification is asmitāmātra. These are the
-six aviśesha evolutions of the pure being, the mahat. The
-category of mahat is merely a sign beyond the aviśeshas and
-it is there that these exist and develop.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In this <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> the fully specialised ones, viśeshas,
-the grosser elements are said to have been derived from the
-tanmātras and the senses and manas, the faculty of reflection
-are said to have been specialised from the ego or
-asmitā. The tanmātras, however, have not been derived from
-the ego or asmitā here. But they together with asmitā are
-spoken of as the six slightly specialised ones, the five being the
-five tanmātras and the sixth one being the ego. These six
-aviśeshas are the specialisations of the mahat, the great
-egohood of pure Be-ness. It therefore appears that the six
-aviśeshas are directly derived from the mahat, after which the
-ego develops into the eleven senses and the tanmātras into the
-five gross elements in three different lines.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But let us see how <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> explains the point here:—</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>“But like the senses the tanmātras are also special
-modifications of the ahaṃkāra having specially modified
-characteristics such as sound, touch, etc., why, therefore, are
-they not mentioned as special modifications (<i>viśeshas</i>)? The
-answer is that those only are mentioned as special modification
-which are ultimate special modifications. The tanmātras are
-indeed the special modifications of the ego, but they themselves
-produce further special modifications, the bhūtas. The
-aviśeshas are explained as the six aviśeshas. The tanmātras
-are generated from the tāmasa ahaṃkāra gradually through
-sound, etc. The category of mahat which is the ground of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>all modifications, called also the buddhi, has six evolutionary
-products called the aviśeshas. Though the mahat and the
-prakṛti may also be regarded as the root-causes out of which
-the tanmātras have evolved, yet the word aviśesha is used
-as a technical term having a special application to the six
-aviśeshas only.” The modifications of these are from the
-buddhi through the intermediate stage of the ahaṃkāra, as
-has been explained in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, I. 45.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus we see that the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> says that the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>
-is here describing the modifications of buddhi in two distinct
-classes, the aviśeshas and the viśeshas; and that the mahat
-has been spoken of as the source of all the aviśeshas, the five
-tanmātras and the ego; strictly speaking, however, the
-genesis of the tanmātras from mahat takes place through the
-ego and in association with the ego, for it has been so described
-in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, I. 45.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Nāgeśa in explaining this <cite>Bhāshya</cite> only repeats the view
-of <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now let us refer to the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> of I. 45, alluded to by
-the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>: “The gradual series of subtler causes
-proceeds up to the aliṅga or the prakṛti. The earth atom
-has the smell tanmātra as its subtle cause; the water atom
-has the taste tanmātra; the air atom the touch tanmātra;
-the ākāśa atom the sound tanmātra; and of these ahaṃkāra
-is the subtle cause; and of this the mahat is the subtle
-cause.” Here by subtle cause (<i>sūkshma</i>) it is upādānakāraṇa
-or material cause which is meant; so the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> further
-says: “It is true that purusha is the subtlest of all. But
-yet as prakṛti is subtler than the mahat, it is not in that sense
-that purusha is subtler than prakṛti for purusha is only an
-instrumental cause of the evolution of mahat, but not its
-material cause.” I believe it is quite clear that ahaṃkāra
-is spoken of here as the <i>sūkshma anvayikārana</i> of the tanmātras.
-This anvayikāraṇa is the same as upādāna (material
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>cause) as Vācaspati calls it. Now again in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> of
-the same <i>sūtra</i> II. 19 later on we see the liṅga or the mahat is
-the stage next to prakṛti, it is differentiated from it though
-still remaining integrated in the regular order of evolution.
-The six aviśeshas are again differentiated while still remaining
-integrated in the mahat in the order of evolution (<i>pariṇāmakramaniyama</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The mahat tattva (liṅga) is associated with the prakṛti
-(aliṅga). Its development is thus to be considered as the
-production of a differentiation as integrated within the
-prakṛti. The six aviśeshas are also to be considered as the
-production of successive differentiations as integrated within
-the mahat.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The words <i>saṃsṛshṭa vivicyante</i> are the most important
-here for they show us the real nature of the transformations.
-“<cite>Saṃsṛshtā</cite>” means integrated and “<i>vivicyante</i>” means
-differentiated. This shows that the order of evolution as
-found in the Sāṃkhya works (viz. mahat from prakṛti, ahaṃkāra
-from mahat and the eleven senses and the tanmātras
-from ahaṃkāra) is true only in this sense that these modifications
-of ahaṃkāra take place directly as differentiations of
-characters in the body of mahat. As these differentiations
-take place through ahaṃkāra as the first moment in the
-series of transformations it is said that the transformations
-take place directly from ahaṃkāra; whereas when stress
-is laid on the other aspect it appears that the transformations
-are but differentiations as integrated in the body of the
-mahat, and thus it is also said that from mahat the six aviśeshas—namely,
-ahaṃkāra and the five tanmātras—come out.
-This conception of evolution as differentiation within integration
-bridges the gulf between the views of Yoga and the
-Saṃkhya works. We know that the tanmātras are produced
-from the tāmasa ahaṃkāra. This ahaṃkāra is nothing but the
-tāmasa side of mahat roused into creative activity by rajas.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>The sāttvika ahaṃkāra is given as a separate category producing
-the senses, whereas the tamas as bhūtādi produces the
-tanmātras from its disturbance while held up within the
-mahat.<a id='r29'></a><a href='#f29' class='c014'><sup>[29]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Nāgeśa in the <cite>Chāyā-vyākhyā</cite> of II. 19, however, follows
-the Sāṃkhya explanation. He says: “The five tanmātras
-having in order one, two, three, four and five characteristics
-are such that the preceding ones are the causes of the succeeding
-ones. The śabdatanmātra has only the characteristic of
-sound, the sparśatanmātra of sound and touch and so on....
-All these tanmātras are produced from the tāmasa ahaṃkāra
-in the order of śabda, sparśa, etc.” This ignores the interpretation
-of the <cite>Vyāsā-bhāshya</cite> that the tanmātras are differentiations
-within the integrated whole of mahat through the
-intermediary stage of the tāmasa ahaṃkāra.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VI<br> <span class='c013'>EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>The order of the evolution of the tanmātras as here referred
-to is as follows:—</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
- <div class='linegroup'>
- <div class='group'>
- <div class='line in2'>Bhūtādi (tāmasa ahaṃkāra)</div>
- <div class='line in6'>|</div>
- <div class='line in4'>Śabdatanmātra</div>
- <div class='line in8'>|</div>
- <div class='line in6'>Sparśatanmātra</div>
- <div class='line in10'>|</div>
- <div class='line in8'>Rūpatanmātra</div>
- <div class='line in12'>|</div>
- <div class='line in10'>Rasatanmātra</div>
- <div class='line in14'>|</div>
- <div class='line in12'>Gandhatanmātra</div>
- </div>
- </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The evolution of the tanmātras has been variously described
-in the Purāṇas and the Smṛti literature. These divergent
-views can briefly be brought under two headings: those which
-derive the tanmātras from the bhûtas and those which derive
-them from the ahaṃkāra and the bhûtas from them. Some
-of these schools have been spoken of in the Barabara Muni’s
-commentary on the <cite>Tattvatraya</cite>—a treatise on the Rāmānuja
-Philosophy—and have been already explained in a systematic
-way by Dr. B. N. Seal. I therefore refrain from repeating
-them needlessly. About the derivation of the tanmātras all
-the other Sāṃkhya treatises, the <cite>Kārikā</cite>, the <cite>Kaumudī</cite>, the
-<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, the <cite>Sūtra</cite> and <cite>Pravacana-bhāshya</cite>, the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span><cite>Siddhāntacandrikā</cite>, <cite>Sūtrārthabodhinī</cite>, the <cite>Rajamārtaṇḍa</cite> and
-the <cite>Maṇiprabhā</cite> seem to be silent. Further speaking of the
-tanmātras, Vijñāna Bhikshu says that the tanmātras exist
-only in unspecialised forms; they therefore can be neither
-felt nor perceived in any way by the senses of ordinary men.
-This is that indeterminate state of matter in which they can
-never be distinguished one from the other, and they cannot
-be perceived to be possessed of different qualities or specialised
-in any way. It is for this that they are called tanmātras, i.e.
-their only specialization is a mere thatness. The Yogins
-alone perceive them.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now turning towards the further evolution of the grosser
-elements from the tanmātras, we see that there are great
-divergences of view here also, some of which are shown
-below. Thus Vācaspati says: “The earth atom is produced
-from the five tanmātras with a predominance of the smell
-tanmātra, the water atom from the four tanmātras excepting
-the smell tanmātra with a preponderance of the taste tanmātra,
-and so on” (I. 44).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus here we find that the ākāśa atom (aṇu) has been
-generated simply by the ākāśa tanmātra; the vāyu atom
-has been generated by two tanmātras, śabda and sparśa,
-of which the sparśa appears there as the chief. The tejas
-atom has been developed from the śabda, sparśa and rûpa
-tanmātras, though the rûpa is predominant in the group.
-The ap atom has been developed from the four tanmātras,
-śabda, sparśa, rûpa and rasa, though rasa is predominant
-in the group, and the earth or kshiti atom has been developed
-from the five tanmātras, though the gandha tanmātra is
-predominant in the group.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> agrees with Vācaspati in all these
-details, but differs from him only in maintaining that the
-ākāśa atom has been generated from the śabda tanmātra
-with an accretion from bhūtādi, whereas Vācaspati says
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>that the ākāśa atom is generated simply by the ākāśa
-tanmātra.<a id='r30'></a><a href='#f30' class='c014'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Nāgeśa, however, takes a slightly different view and says
-that to produce the gross atoms from the tanmātras, an
-accretion of bhūtādi as an accompanying agent is necessary
-at every step; so that we see that the vāyu atom is produced
-from these three: śabda + sparśa + accretion from bhūtādi.
-Tejas atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + accretion from bhūtādi.
-Ap atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + rasa + accretion from
-bhūtādi. Kshiti atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + rasa +
-gandha + accretion from bhūtādi.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I refrain from giving the <cite>Vishṇu Purāṇa</cite> view which has
-also been quoted in the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, and the view of a certain
-school of Vedāntists mentioned in the <cite>Tattva-nirūpaṇa</cite> and
-referred to and described in the <cite>Tattvatraya</cite>, as Dr. B. N.
-Seal has already described them in his article.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We see thus that from bhūtādi come the five tanmātras
-which can be compared to the Vaiśeshika atoms as they
-have no parts and neither grossness nor visible differentiation.<a id='r31'></a><a href='#f31' class='c014'><sup>[31]</sup></a>
-Some differentiation has of course already begun in the
-tanmātras, as they are called śabda, śparśa, rūpa, rasa and
-gandha, which therefore may be said to belong to a class akin
-to the grosser elements of ākāśa, vāyu, tejas, ap and
-kshiti.<a id='r32'></a><a href='#f32' class='c014'><sup>[32]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The next one, the paramāṇu (atom), which is gross in its
-nature and is generated from the tanmātras which exist in
-it as parts (<i>tanmātrāvayava</i>) may be compared with the
-trasareṇu of the Vaiśeshikas. Thus the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> says:
-“this is called paramāṇu by the Vaiśeshikas. We however
-call the subtlest part of the visible earth, earth atoms”
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>(IV. 14). The doctrine of atoms is recognised both in the
-<cite>Yoga-sūtrās</cite> (I. 46) and the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> (III. 52, IV. 14, etc.).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Whether Sāṃkhya admitted the paramāṇus (atoms) or not
-cannot be definitely settled. The <cite>Sāṃkhya-kārikā</cite> does not
-mention the paramāṇus, but Vijñāna Bhikshu thinks that
-the word “<i>sūkshma</i>” in <cite>Kārikā</cite>, 39, means paramāṇus
-(<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, IV. 14). Though the word paramāṇu is not
-mentioned in the <cite>Kārikā</cite>, I can hardly suppose that Sāṃkhya
-did not admit it in the sense in which Yoga did. For it does
-not seem probable that Sāṃkhya should think that by the
-combination of the subtle tanmātras we could all at once
-have the bigger lumps of bhūta without there being any
-particles. Moreover, since the Yoga paramāṇus are the
-finest visible particles of matter it could not have been
-denied by Sāṃkhya. The supposition of some German
-scholars that Sāṃkhya did not admit the paramāṇus does
-not seem very plausible. Bhikshu in <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 52,
-says that the guṇas are in reality Vaiśeshika atoms.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The third form is gross air, fire, water, etc., which is said
-to belong to the mahat (gross) class. I cannot express it
-better than by quoting a passage from <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, IV. 4:
-“The <cite>Bhāshya</cite> holds that in the tanmātras there exists the
-specific differentiation that constitutes the five tanmātras,
-the kshiti atom is generated and by the conglomeration of
-these gross atoms gross earth is formed. So again by the combination
-of the four tanmātras the water atom is formed and
-the conglomeration of these water atoms makes gross water.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>“It should be noted here: since the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> holds that the
-tanmātras of sound, etc., are of the same class as the corresponding
-gross elements it may be assumed that the combining
-tanmātras possess the class characteristics which are made
-manifest in gross elements by hardness, smoothness, etc.”
-Bhikshu holds that since Sāṃkhya and Yoga are similar (<i>samānatantra</i>)
-this is to be regarded as being also the Sāṃkhya view.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>There is, however, another measure which is called the
-measure of parama mahat, which belongs to ākāśa for example.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now these paramāṇus or atoms are not merely atoms of
-matter but they contain within themselves those particular
-qualities by virtue of which they appear, as pleasant, unpleasant
-or passive to us. If we have expressed ourselves
-clearly, I believe it has been shown that when the inner and
-the outer proceed from one source, the ego and the external
-world do not altogether differ in nature from the inner; both
-have been formed by the collocation of the guṇas (<i>sarvamidaṃ
-guṇānāṃ sanniveśaviseshamātram</i>). The same book which in
-the inner microcosm is written in the language of ideas has
-been in the external world written in the language of matter.
-So in the external world we have all the grounds of our inner
-experience, cognitive as well as emotional, pleasurable as well
-as painful. The modifications of the external world are only
-translated into ideas and feelings; therefore these paramāṇus
-are spoken of as endowed with feelings.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is another difference between the tanmātras and the
-paramāṇus. The former cannot be perceived to be endowed
-with the feeling elements as the latter. Some say, however,
-that it is not true that the tanmātras are not endowed with
-the feeling elements, but they cannot be perceived by any save
-the Yogins; thus it is said: <i>tanmātrāṇāmapi parasparavyāvṛttasvabhāvatvamastyeva
-tacca yogimātragamyam</i>. The tanmātras
-also possess differentiated characters, but they can be perceived
-only by the Yogins; but this is not universally admitted.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now these paramāṇus cannot further be evolved into any
-other different kind of existence or tattvāntara.<a id='r33'></a><a href='#f33' class='c014'><sup>[33]</sup></a> We see
-that the paramāṇus though they have been formed from
-the tanmātras resemble them only in a very remote way and
-are therefore placed in a separate stage of evolution.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>With the bhūtas we have the last stage of evolution of the
-guṇas. The course of evolution, however, does not cease here,
-but continues ceaselessly, though by its process no new stage
-of existence is generated, but the product of the evolution
-is such that in it the properties of the gross elements which
-compose its constitution can be found directly. This is what
-is called <i>dharmapariṇāma</i>, as distinguished from the <i>tattvāntara-pariṇāma</i>
-spoken above. The evolution of the
-viśeshas from the aviśeshas is always styled tattvāntara-pariṇāma,
-as opposed to the evolution that takes place among
-the viśeshas themselves, which is called <i>dharmapariṇāma</i> or
-evolution by change of qualities. Now these atoms or
-paramāṇus of kshiti, ap, tejas, marut or ākāśa conglomerate
-together and form all sentient or non-sentient bodies in the
-world. The different atoms of earth, air, fire, water, etc.,
-conglomerate together and form the different animate bodies
-such as cow, etc., or inanimate bodies such as jug, etc., and
-vegetables like the tree, etc. These bodies are built up by
-the conglomerated units of the atoms in such a way that they
-are almost in a state of combination which has been styled
-<i>ayutasiddhāvayava</i>. In such a combination the parts do not
-stand independently, but only hide themselves as it were in
-order to manifest the whole body, so that by the conglomeration
-of the particles we have what may be called a body,
-which is regarded as quite a different thing from the atoms
-of which it is composed. These bodies change with the different
-sorts of change or arrangement of the particles, according
-to which the body may be spoken of as “one,” “large,”
-“small,” “tangible” or “possessing” the quality of action.
-Some philosophers hold the view that a body is really nothing
-but the conglomeration of the atoms; but they must be
-altogether wrong here since they have no right to ignore the
-“body,” which appears before them with all its specific
-qualities and attributes; moreover, if they ignore the body
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>they have to ignore almost everything, for the atoms themselves
-are not visible.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Again, these atoms, though so much unlike the Vaiśeshika
-atoms since they contain tanmātras of a different nature as
-their constituents and thus differ from the simpler atoms of
-the Vaiśeshikas, compose the constituents of all inorganic,
-organic or animal bodies in such a way that there is no break
-of harmony—no opposition between them;—but, on the
-contrary, when any one of the guṇas existing in the atoms
-and their conglomerations becomes prominent, the other
-guṇas though their functions are different from it, yet do not
-run counter to the prominent guṇas, but conjointly with them,
-help to form the specific modification for the experiences of
-the purusha. In the production of a thing, the different
-guṇas do not choose different independent courses for their
-evolution, but join together and effectuate themselves in the
-evolution of a single product. Thus we see also that when
-the atoms of different gross elements possessing different
-properties and attributes coalesce, their difference of attributes
-does not produce confusion, but they unite in the
-production of the particular substances by a common
-teleological purpose (see <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 14).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We thus see that the bodies or things composed by the
-collocation of the atoms in one sense differ from the atoms
-themselves and in another are identical with the atoms
-themselves. We see therefore that the appearance of the
-atoms as bodies or things differs with the change of position
-of the atoms amongst themselves. So we can say that the
-change of the appearance of things and bodies only shows
-the change of the collocation of the atoms, there being always
-a change of appearance in the bodies consequent on every
-change in the position of the atoms. The former therefore
-is only an explicit appearance of the change that takes place
-in the substance itself; for the appearance of a thing is only
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>an explicit aspect of the very selfsame thing—the atoms;
-thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: <i>dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ,
-dharmivrikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā prapañcyate</i>, i.e. a
-dharma (quality) is merely the nature of the dharmin
-(substance), and it is the changes of the dharmin that are
-made explicit by the dharmas.<a id='r34'></a><a href='#f34' class='c014'><sup>[34]</sup></a> Often it happens that
-the change of appearance of a thing or a body, a tree or a
-piece of cloth, for example, can be marked only after a long
-interval. This, however, only shows that the atoms of the
-body had been continually changing and consequently the
-appearance of the body or the thing also had been continually
-changing; for otherwise we can in no way account for the
-sudden change of appearance. All bodies are continually
-changing the constituent collocation of atoms and their
-appearances. In the smallest particle of time or kshaṇa the
-whole universe undergoes a change. Each moment or the
-smallest particle of time is only the manifestation of that
-particular change. Time therefore has not a separate existence
-in this philosophy as in the Vaiśeshika, but it is only
-identical with the smallest amount of change—viz. that of
-an atom of its own amount of space. Now here the appearance
-is called the dharma, and that particular arrangement of
-atoms or guṇas which is the basis of the particular appearance
-is called the dharmin. The change of appearance is therefore
-called the dharma-pariṇāma.<a id='r35'></a><a href='#f35' class='c014'><sup>[35]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Again this change of appearance can be looked at from
-two other aspects which though not intrinsically different
-from the change of appearance have their own special points
-of view which make them remarkable. These are <i>lakshaṇa-pariṇāma</i>
-and <i>avasthā-pariṇāma</i>. Taking the particular collocation
-of atoms in a body for review, we see that all the subsequent
-changes that take place in it exist in it only in a latent
-way in it which will be manifested in future. All the previous
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>changes of the collocating atoms are not also lost but exist
-only in a sublatent way in the particular collocation of atoms
-present before us. For the past changes are by no means
-destroyed but are preserved in the peculiar and particular
-collocation of atoms of the present moment. For had not the
-past changes taken place, the present could not appear. The
-present had held itself hidden in the past just as the future
-is hidden within the present. It therefore only comes into
-being with the unfolding of the past, which therefore exists
-only in a sublatent form in it.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is on account of this that we see that a body comes into
-being and dies away. Though this birth or death is really
-subsumed the change of appearance yet it has its own special
-aspect, on account of which it has been given a separate name
-as lakshaṇa-pariṇāma. It considers the three stages of an
-appearance—the unmanifested when it exists in the future,
-the manifested moment of the present, and the past when it
-has been manifested—lost to view but preserved and retained
-in all the onward stages of the evolution. Thus when we say
-that a thing has not yet come into being, that it has just come
-into being, and that it is no longer, we refer to this lakshaṇa-pariṇāma
-which records the history of the thing in future,
-present and past, which are only the three different moments
-of the same thing according to its different characters, as
-unmanifested, manifested and manifested in the past but
-conserved.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now it often happens that though the appearance of a
-thing is constantly changing owing to the continual change
-of the atoms that compose it, yet the changes are so fine and
-infinitesimal that they cannot be marked by anyone except
-the Yogins; for though structural changes may be going on
-tending towards the final passing away of that structure and
-body into another structure and body, which greatly differs
-from it, yet they may not be noticed by us, who can take note
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>of the bigger changes alone. Taking therefore two remarkable
-stages of things, the difference between which may
-be so notable as to justify us in calling the later the dissolution
-or destruction of the former, we assert that the thing has
-suffered growth and decay in the interval, during which the
-actual was passing into the sublatent and the potential was
-tending towards actualization. This is what is called the
-avasthā-pariṇāma, or change of condition, which, however,
-does not materially differ from the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma and can
-thus be held to be a mode of it. It is on account of this that
-a substance is called new or old, grown or decayed. Thus
-in explaining the illustration given in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, III. 13:
-“there is avasthā-pariṇāma. At the moments of cessation
-the potencies of cessation become stronger and those of
-ordinary experience weaker.” The <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> says:
-“The strength and weakness of the two potencies is like the
-newness or oldness of a jug; growth and decay being the
-same as origination and decease, there is no difference here
-from <i>lakshaṇa-pariṇāma</i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is now time for us to examine once more the relation of
-dharmin, substance, and dharma, its quality or appearance.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Dharmin, or substance, is that which remains common
-to the latent (as having passed over or <i>śānta</i>), the rising
-(the present or <i>udita</i>) and the unpredicable (future or <i>avyapadeśya</i>)
-characteristic qualities of the substance.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Substance (take for example, earth) has the power of
-existing in the form of particles of dust, a lump or a jug by
-which water may be carried. Now taking the stage of lump
-for examination we may think of its previous stage, that of
-particles of dust, as being latent, and its future stage as jug
-as the unpredicable. The earth we see here to be common
-to all these three stages which have come into being by its
-own activity and consequent changes. Earth here is the
-common quality which remains unchanged in all these stages,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>and so relatively constant among its changes as particles,
-lump and jug. This earth therefore is regarded as the
-dharmin, characterised one, the substance; and its stages
-as its dharma or qualities. When this dharmin, or substance,
-undergoes a change from a stage of lump to a stage
-of jug, it undergoes what is called <i>dharma-pariṇāma</i> or change
-of quality.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But its dharma, as the shape of the jug may be thought
-to have itself undergone a change—inasmuch as it has now
-come into being, from a state of relative non-being, latency
-or unpredicability. This is called the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma of
-the dharma or qualities as constituting a jug. This jug is
-again suffering another change as new or old according as
-it is just produced or is gradually running towards its dissolution,
-and this is called the avasthā-pariṇāma or change of
-condition. These three, however, are not separate from the
-dharma-pariṇāma, but are only aspects of it; so it may
-be said that the dharmin or substance directly suffers the
-dharma-pariṇāma and indirectly the lakshaṇa and the avasthā-pariṇāma.
-The dharma, however, changes and the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma
-can be looked at from another point of view,
-that of change of state, viz. growth and decay. Thus we see
-that though the atoms of kshiti, ap, etc., remain unchanged,
-they are constantly suffering changes from the inorganic to
-plants and animals, and from thence again back to the inorganic.
-There is thus a constant circulation of changes in
-which the different atoms of kshiti, ap, tejas, vāyu and
-ākāśa remaining themselves unchanged are suffering dharma-pariṇāma
-as they are changed from the inorganic to plants
-and animals and back again to the inorganic. These different
-states or dharmas (as inorganic, etc.), again, according as they
-are not yet, now, or no longer or passed over, are suffering
-the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma. There is also the avasthā-pariṇāma
-of these states according as any one of them (the plant state
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>for example) is growing or suffering decay towards its dissolution.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This circulation of cosmic matter in general applies also to
-all particular things, such as the jug, the cloth, etc.; the order
-of evolution here will be that of powdered particles of earth,
-lump of earth, the earthen jug, the broken halves of the jug,
-and again the powdered earth. As the whole substance has
-only one identical evolution, these different states only happen
-in order of succession, the occurrence of one characteristic
-being displaced by another characteristic which comes after it
-immediately. We thus see that one substance may undergo
-endless changes of characteristic in order of succession; and
-along with the change of characteristic or dharma we have the
-lakshaṇa-pariṇāma and the avasthā-pariṇāma as old or new,
-which is evidently one of infinitesimal changes of growth and
-decay. Thus Vācaspati gives the following beautiful example:
-“Even the most carefully preserved rice in the granary
-becomes after long years so brittle that it crumbles into atoms.
-This change cannot happen to new rice all on a sudden. Therefore
-we have to admit an order of successive changes” (<cite>Tattvavaivśāradī</cite>,
-III. 15).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We now see that substance has neither past nor future;
-appearances or qualities only are manifested in time, by virtue
-of which substance is also spoken of as varying and changing
-temporally, just as a line remains unchanged in itself but
-acquires different significances according as one or two zeros
-are placed on its right side. Substance—the atoms of kshiti,
-ap, tejas, marut, vyoman, etc., by various changes of quality
-appear as the manifold varieties of cosmical existence. There
-is no intrinsic difference between one thing and another, but
-only changes of character of one and the same thing; thus the
-gross elemental atoms like water and earth particles acquire
-various qualities and appear as the various juices of all fruits
-and herbs. Now in analogy with the arguments stated above,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>it will seem that even a qualified thing or appearance may be
-relatively regarded as substance, when it is seen to remain
-common to various other modifications of that appearance
-itself. Thus a jug, which may remain common in all its
-modifications of colour, may be regarded relatively as the
-dharmin or substance of all these special appearances or
-modifications of the same appearance.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We remember that the guṇas, which are the final substratum
-of all the grosser particles, are always in a state of
-commotion and always evolving in the manner previously
-stated, for the sake of the experience and final realisation of
-the parusha, the only object or end of the prakṛti. Thus the
-<cite>Bhāshya</cite>, III. 13, says: “So it is the nature of the guṇas that
-there cannot remain even a moment without the evolutionary
-changes of dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthā; movement is the
-characteristic of the guṇas. The nature of the guṇas is the
-cause of their constant movement.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Although the pioneers of modern scientific evolution have
-tried to observe scientifically some of the stages of the growth
-of the inorganic and of the animal worlds into the man, yet
-they do not give any reason for it. Theirs is more an experimental
-assertion of facts than a metaphysical account of
-evolution. According to Darwin the general form of the
-evolutionary process is that which is accomplished by “very
-slight variations which are accumulated by the effect of natural
-selection.” And according to a later theory, we see that a new
-species is constituted all at once by the simultaneous appearance
-of several new characteristics very different from the old.
-But why this accidental variation, this seeming departure from
-the causal chain, comes into being, the evolutionists cannot
-explain. But the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine explains it
-from the standpoint of teleology or the final goal inherent in all
-matter, so that it may be serviceable to the purusha. To be
-serviceable to the purusha is the one moral purpose in all
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>prakṛti and its manifestations in the whole material world,
-which guide the course and direction of the smallest particle
-of matter. From the scientific point of view, the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala
-doctrine is very much in the same position as
-modern science, for it does not explain the cause of the
-accidental variation noticed in all the stages of evolutionary
-process from any physical point of view based on the observation
-of facts.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But it does much credit to the Pātañjala doctrines that they
-explain this accidental variation, this <i>avyapadeśyatva</i> or
-unpredicability of the onward course of evolution from a
-moral point of view, that of teleology, the serviceability of the
-purusha. They found, however, that this teleology should not
-be used to usurp the whole nature and function of matter.
-We find that the atoms are always moving by virtue of the
-rajas or energy, and it is to this movement of the atoms in space
-that all the products of evolution are due. We have found
-that the difference between the juices of Coco-nut, Palm, Bel,
-Tinduka (Diospyros Embryopteries), Āmalaka (Emblic Myrobalan)
-can be accounted for by the particular and peculiar
-arrangement of the atoms of earth and water alone, by their
-stress and strain; and we see also that the evolution of the
-organic from the inorganic is due to this change of position of
-the atoms themselves; for the unit of change is the change
-in an atom of its own dimension of spatial position. There is
-always the transformation of energy from the inorganic to the
-organic and back again from the organic. Thus the differences
-among things are solely due to the different stages which they
-occupy in the scale of evolution, as different expressions of the
-transformation of energy; but virtually there is no intrinsic
-difference among things <i>sarvaṃ sarvātmakaṃ</i>; the change of
-the collocation of atoms only changes potentiality into
-actuality, for there is potentiality of everything for
-every thing everywhere throughout this changing world.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>Thus Vācaspati writes: “The water possessing taste,
-colour, touch and sound and the earth possessing smell,
-taste, colour, touch, and sound suffer an infinite variety
-of changes as roots, flowers, fruits, leaves and their
-specific tastes and other qualities. The water and the
-earth which do not possess these qualities cannot have
-them, for we have proved that what is non-existent cannot
-come into being. The trees and plants produce the varied
-tastes and colours in animals, for it is by eating these that they
-acquire such richness of colour, etc. Animal products can again
-produce changes in plant bodies. By sprinkling blood on it a
-pomegranate may be made as big as a palm” (<cite>Tattvavaiśaradī</cite>,
-III. 14).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Looked at from the point of view of the guṇas, there is no
-intrinsic difference between things, though there are a thousand
-manifestations of differences, according to time, place, form
-and causality. The expressions of the guṇas, and the manifestations
-of the transformations of energy differ according to
-time, place, shape, or causality—these are the determining
-circumstances and environments which determine the modes
-of the evolutionary process; surrounding environments are
-also involved in determining this change, and it is said that
-two Āmalaka fruits placed in two different places undergo two
-different sorts of changes in connection with the particular
-spots in which they are placed, and that if anybody interchanges
-them a Yogin can recognise and distinguish the one
-from the other by seeing the changes that the fruits have
-undergone in connection with their particular points of space.
-Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: “Two Āmalaka fruits having the
-same characteristic genus and species, their situation in two
-different points of space contributes to their specific distinction
-of development, so that they may be identified as this and
-that. When an Āmalaka is brought from a distance to a man
-previously inattentive to it, he naturally cannot distinguish
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>this Āmalaka as being the distant one which has been
-brought before him without his knowledge. But right knowledge
-should be competent to discern the distinction;
-and the sūtra says that the place associated with one
-Āmalaka fruit is different from the place associated with
-another Āmalaka at another point of space; and the Yogin
-can perceive the difference of their specific evolution in
-association with their points of space; similarly the atoms also
-suffer different modifications at different points of space which
-can be perceived by Īśvara and the Yogins” (<cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>,
-III. 53).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vācaspati again says: “Though all cause is essentially all
-effects yet a particular cause takes effect in a particular place,
-thus though the cause is the same, yet saffron grows in
-Kāśmīra and not in Pāñcāla. So, the rains do not come in
-summer, the vicious do not enjoy happiness. Thus in accordance
-with the obstructions of place, time, animal form, and
-instrumental accessories, the same cause does not produce the
-same effect. Though as cause everything is essentially everything
-else, yet there is a particular country for a particular
-effect, such as Kāśmīra is for saffron. Even though the
-causes may be in other countries such as Pāñcāla, yet the effect
-will not happen there, and for this reason saffron does not
-manifest itself in Pāñcāla. So in summer there are no rains and
-so no paddy grows then” (<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, III. 14).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We see therefore that time, space, etc., are the limitations
-which regulate, modify and determine to a certain extent the
-varying transformations and changes and the seeming differences
-of things, though in reality they are all ultimately
-reducible to the three guṇas; thus Kāśmīra being the
-country of saffron, it will not grow in the Pāñcāla country,
-even though the other causes of its growth should all be
-present there;—here the operation of cause is limited by
-space.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>After considering the inorganic, vegetable and animal
-kingdoms as three stages in the evolutionary process, our
-attention is at once drawn to their conception of the nature of
-relation of plant life to animal life. Though I do not find any
-special reference in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> to this point, yet I am
-reminded of a few passages in the <cite>Mahābhārata</cite>, which I think
-may be added as a supplement to the general doctrine of
-evolution according to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala philosophy as
-stated here. Thus the <cite>Mahābhārata</cite> says: “Even the solid
-trees have ether (ākāśa) in them which justifies the regular
-appearance of flowers and fruits. By heat the leaves, the
-bark, flowers and fruits become withered, and since there is
-withering and decay in them, there is in them the sensation of
-touch. Since by the sound of air, fire and thunder the fruits
-and flowers fall away, there must be the sense of hearing in
-them. The creepers encircle the trees and they go in all directions,
-and since without sight there could not be any choice
-of direction, the trees have the power of vision. By various
-holy and unholy smells and incenses of various kinds the trees
-are cured of their diseases and blossom forth, therefore the
-trees can smell. Since they drink by their roots, and since they
-get diseases, and since their diseases can be cured, there is the
-sense of taste in the trees. Since they enjoy pleasure and
-suffer pain, and since their parts which are cut grow, I see life
-everywhere in trees and not want of life” (<cite>Sāntiparva</cite>, 184).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Nīlakaṇṭha in his commentary goes still further and says
-that a hard substance called vajramaṇi also may be called
-living. Here we see that the ancients had to a certain extent
-forestalled the discovery of Sir J. C. Bose that the life functions
-differed only in degree between the three classes, the
-inorganic, plants and animals.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These are all, however, only illustrations of dharma-pariṇāma,
-for here there is no radical change in the elements
-themselves, the appearance of qualities being due only to the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>different arrangement of the atoms of the five gross elements.
-This change applies to the viśeshas only—the five gross
-elements externally and the eleven senses internally. How
-the inner microcosm, the manas and the senses are affected by
-dharma-pariṇāma we shall see hereafter, when we deal with
-the psychology of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine. For the
-present it will suffice to say that the citta or mind also suffers
-this change and is modified in a twofold mode; the patent in
-the form of the ideas and the latent, as the substance itself, in
-the form of saṃskāras of subconscious impressions. Thus the
-<cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: “The mind has two kinds of characteristics,
-perceived and unperceived. Those of the nature of ideas are
-perceived and those inherent in the integral nature of it are
-unperceived. The latter are of seven kinds and may be
-ascertained by inference. These are cessation of mental states
-by samādhi, virtue and vice, subconscious impressions,
-change, life-functioning, power of movement, and energy”
-(III. 15).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This dharma-pariṇāma as we have shown it, is essentially
-different from the satkāraṇavāda of the aviśeshas described
-above. We cannot close this discussion about evolution
-without noticing the Sāṃkhya view of causation.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We have seen that the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala view holds that
-the effect is already existent in the cause, but only in a
-potential form. “The grouping or collocation alone changes,
-and this brings out the manifestation of the latent powers of
-the guṇas, but without creation of anything absolutely new or
-non-existent.” This is the true satkāryyavāda theory as
-distinguished from the so-called satkāryyavāda theory of the
-Vedāntists, which ought more properly to be called the
-satkāraṇavāda theory, for with them the cause alone is true,
-and all effects are illusory, being only impositions on the cause.
-For with them the material cause alone is true, whilst all its
-forms and shapes are merely illusory, whereas according to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine all the appearances or effects
-are true and are due to the power which the substance has of
-transforming itself into those various appearances and effects
-<i>yogyatāvacchinnā dharmiṇaḥ śaktireva dharmaḥ</i> (III. 14).
-The operation of the concomitant condition or efficient cause
-serves only to effect the passage of a thing from potency to
-actualisation.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Everything in the phenomenal world is but a special
-collocation of the guṇas; so that the change of collocation
-explains the diversity of things. Considered from the point of
-view of the guṇas, things are all the same, so excluding that,
-the cause of the diversity in things is the power which the
-guṇas have of changing their particular collocations and thus
-assuming various shapes. We have seen that the prakṛti
-unfolds itself through various stages—the mahat called the
-great being—the ahaṃkāra, the tanmātras called the
-aviśeshas. Now the liṅga at once resolves itself into the
-ahaṃkāra and through it again into the tanmātras. The
-ahaṃkāra and the tanmātras again resolve themselves into the
-senses and the gross elements, and these again are constantly
-suffering thousands of modifications called the dharma,
-lakshaṇa, and avasthā-pariṇāma according to the definite law
-of evolution (<i>pariṇāmakramaniyama</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now according to the Saṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine, the
-śakti—power, force—and the śaktimān—the possessor of
-power or force—are not different but identical. So the prakṛti
-and all its emanations and modifications are of the nature of
-substantive entities as well as power or force. Their appearances
-as substantive entities and as power or force are but
-two aspects, and so it will be erroneous to make any such
-distinction as the substantive entity and its power or force.
-That which is the substantive entity is the force, and that
-which is the force is the substantive entity. Of course for all
-practical purposes we can indeed make some distinction, but
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>that distinction is only relatively true. Thus when we say
-that earth is the substantive entity and the power which it has
-of transforming itself into the produced form, lump, or jug
-as its attribute, we see on the one hand that no distinction is
-really made between the appearance of the earth as jug and
-its power of transforming itself into the jug. As this power of
-transforming itself into lump or jug, etc., always abides in the
-earth we say that the jug, etc., are also abiding in the earth;
-when the power is in the potential state, we say that the jug
-is in the potential state, and when it is actualised, we say that
-the jug has been actualised. Looked at from the tanmātric
-side, the earth and all the other gross elements must be said
-to be mere modifications, and as such identical with the
-power which the tanmātras have of changing themselves into
-them. The potentiality or actuality of any state is the mere
-potentiality or actuality of the power which its antecedent
-cause has of transforming itself into it.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VII<br> <span class='c013'>EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>Prakṛti, though a substantive entity is yet a potential power,
-being actualised as its various modifications, the aviśeshas and
-the viśeshas. Being of the nature of power, the movement by
-which it actualises itself is immanent within itself and not
-caused from without. The operation of the concomitant
-conditions is only manifested in the removal of the negative
-barriers by which the power was stopped or prevented from
-actualising itself. Being of the nature of power, its potentiality
-means that it is kept in equilibrium by virtue of the opposing
-tendencies inherent within it, which serve to obstruct one
-another and are therefore called the āvaraṇa śakti. Of course
-it is evident that there is no real or absolute distinction between
-the opposing force (<i>āvaraṇa śakti</i>) and the energising force
-(<i>kāryyakarī śakti</i>); they may be called so only relatively, for
-the same tendency which may appear as the <i>āvaraṇa śakti</i> of
-some tendencies may appear as the <i>kāryyakarī śakti</i> elsewhere.
-The example chosen to explain the nature of prakṛti and its
-modifications conceived as power tending towards actuality
-from potentiality in the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> is that of a sheet of
-water enclosed by temporary walls within a field, but always
-tending to run out of it. As soon as the temporary wall is
-broken in some direction, the water rushes out of itself, and
-what one has to do is to break the wall at a particular place.
-Prakṛti is also the potential for all the infinite diversity of
-things in the phenomenal world, but the potential tendency of
-all these mutually opposed and diverse things cannot be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>actualised together. Owing to the concomitant conditions
-when the barrier of a certain tendency is removed, it at once
-actualises itself in its effect and so on.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We can only expect to get any effect from any cause if the
-necessary barriers can be removed, for everything is everything
-potentially and it is only necessary to remove the particular
-barrier which is obstructing the power from actualising itself
-in that particular effect towards which it is always potentially
-tending. Thus Nandī who was a man is at once turned into a
-god for his particular merit, which served to break all the
-barriers of the potential tendency of his body towards becoming
-divine, so that the barriers being removed the potential
-power of the prakṛti of his body at once actualises itself in the
-divine body.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> (III. 14) mentions four sorts of concomitant
-conditions which can serve to break the barrier in a
-particular way and thus determine the mode or form of the
-actualisations of the potential. These are (1) ākāra, form
-and constitution of a thing; deśa, place, (3) kāla, time; thus
-from a piece of stone, the shoot of a plant cannot proceed, for
-the arrangement of the particles in stone is such that it will
-oppose and stand as a bar to its potential tendencies to
-develop into the shoot of a plant; of course if these barriers
-could be removed, say by the will of God, as Vijñāna Bhikshu
-says, then it is not impossible that the shoot of a plant might
-grow from a stone. By the will of God poison may be turned
-into nectar and nectar into poison, and there is no absolute
-certainty of the course of the evolutionary process, for God’s
-will can make any change in the direction of its process
-(<i>avyavasthitākhilapariṇāmo bhavatyeva</i>, III. 14).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>According to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala theory dharma, merit,
-can only be said to accrue from those actions which lead to a
-man’s salvation, and adharma from just the opposite course
-of conduct. When it is said that these can remove the barriers
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>of the prakṛti and thus determine its modifications, it amounts
-almost to saying that the modifications of the prakṛti are
-being regulated by the moral conditions of man. According
-to the different stages of man’s moral evolution, different kinds
-of merit, dharma or adharma, accrue, and these again
-regulate the various physical and mental phenomena according
-to which a man may be affected either pleasurably or
-painfully. It must, however, be always remembered that the
-dharma and adharma are also the productions of prakṛti,
-and as such cannot affect it except by behaving as the cause for
-the removal of the opposite obstructions—the dharma for
-removing the obstructions of adharma and adharma for those
-of dharma. Vijñāna Bhikshu and Nāgeśa agree here in
-saying that the modifications due to dharma and adharma
-are those which affect the bodies and senses. What they mean
-is possibly this, that it is dharma or adharma alone which
-guides the transformations of the bodies and senses of all
-living beings in general and the Yogins.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The body of a person and his senses are continually decaying
-and being reconstructed by refilling from the gross elements
-and from ahaṃkāra respectively. These refillings proceed
-automatically and naturally; but they follow the teleological
-purpose as chalked out by the law of karma in accordance with
-the virtues or vices of a man. Thus the gross insult to which
-the sages were subjected by Nahusha<a id='r36'></a><a href='#f36' class='c014'><sup>[36]</sup></a> was so effective a
-sin that by its influence the refilling of Nahusha’s body and
-the senses was stopped and the body and senses of a snake
-were directly produced by a process of refilling from the gross
-elements and ahaṃkāra, for providing him with a body in
-which he could undergo the sufferings which were his due
-owing to the enormity of his vice. Thus by his vicious action
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>the whole machinery of prakṛti was set in operation so that he
-at once died and was immediately reborn as a snake. In
-another place Vācaspati “the virtuous enjoys happiness” as
-an illustration of the cause of dharma and adharma as
-controlling the course of the development of prakṛti. We
-therefore see that the sphere of merit and demerit lies in the
-helping of the formation of the particular bodies and senses
-(from the gross elements and ahaṃkāra respectively) suited to
-all living beings according to their stages of evolution and
-their growth, decay, or other sorts of their modifications as
-pleasure, pain, and also as illness or health. Thus it is by his
-particular merit that the Yogin can get his special body or men
-or animals can get their new bodies after leaving the old ones
-at death. Thus <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> says: “Merit by removing the
-obstructions of demerit causes the development of the body
-and the senses.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>As for Īśvara I do not remember that the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> or the
-sūtras ever mention Him as having anything to do with the
-controlling of the modifications of the prakṛti by removing the
-barriers, but all the later commentators agree in holding him
-responsible for the removal of all barriers in the way of prakṛtis
-development. So that Īśvara is the root cause of all the
-removal of barriers, including those that are affected by merit
-and demerit. Thus Vācaspati says (IV. 3): <i>Īśvarasyāpi
-dharmādhishṭhānārthaṃ pratibandhāpanaya eva vyāpāro</i>, i.e.
-God stands as the cause of the removal of such obstacles in the
-prakṛti as may lead to the fruition of merit or demerit.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> and Nāgeśa agree in holding Īśvara responsible
-for the removal of all obstacles in the way of the evolution of
-prakṛti. Thus Bhikshu says that God rouses prakṛti by
-breaking the opposing forces of the state of equilibrium and
-also of the course of evolution (IV. 3).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is on account of God that we can do good or bad actions
-and thus acquire merit or demerit. Of course God is not
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>active and cannot cause any motion in prakṛti. But He by His
-very presence causes the obstacles, as the barriers in the way of
-prakṛti’s development, to be removed, in such a way that He
-stands ultimately responsible for the removal of all obstacles
-in the way of prakṛti’s development and thus also of all
-obstacles in the way of men’s performance of good or bad
-deeds. Man’s good or bad deeds “puṇyakarma,” apuṇyakarma,
-dharma or adharma serve to remove the obstacles
-of prakṛti in such a way as to result in pleasurable or painful
-effects; but it is by God’s help that the barriers of prakṛti are
-removed and it yields itself in such a way that a man may
-perform good or bad deeds according to his desire. Nīlakaṇṭha,
-however, by his quotations in explanation of 300/2, <cite>Śāntiparva</cite>,
-leads us to suppose that he regards God’s will as wholly
-responsible for the performance of our good or bad actions.
-For if we lay stress on his quotation “He makes him do good
-deeds whom He wants to raise, and He makes him commit bad
-deeds whom He wants to throw down,” it appears that he
-whom God wants to raise is made to perform good actions and
-he whom God wants to throw downwards is made to commit
-bad actions. But this seems to be a very bold idea, as it
-will altogether nullify the least vestige of freedom in and
-responsibility for our actions and is unsupported by the
-evidence of other commentators. Vijñāna Bhikshu also says
-with reference to this śruti in his <cite>Vijñānamṛta-bhāshya</cite>, III. 33:
-“As there is an infinite <i>regressus</i> between the causal connection
-of seed and shoot, so one karma is being determined by the
-previous karma and so on; there is no beginning to this chain.”
-So we take the superintendence of merits and demerits (<i>dharmādhispṭhānatā</i>)
-by Īśvara to mean only in a general way the
-help that is offered by Him in removing the obstructions of the
-external world in such a manner that it may be possible for a
-man to perform practically meritorious acts in the external
-world.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>Nīlakaṇṭha commenting on the Yoga view says that “like
-a piece of magnet, God though inactive, may by His very
-presence stir up prakṛti and help His devotees. So the Yoga
-holds that for the granting of emancipation God has to be
-admitted” (<cite>Śāntiparva</cite>, 300/2).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In support of our view we also find that it is by God’s
-influence that the unalterable nature of the external world
-is held fast and a limit imposed on the powers of man in
-producing changes in the external world. Thus Vācaspati in
-explaining the Bhāshya (III. 45) says: “Though capable of
-doing it, yet he does not change the order of things, because
-another earlier omnipotent being had wished the things to be
-such as they were. They would not disobey the orders of the
-omnipotent God.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Men may indeed acquire unlimited powers of producing
-any changes they like, for the powers of objects as they
-change according to the difference of class, space, time and
-condition, are not permanent, and so it is proper that they
-should act in accordance with the desire of the Yogin; but
-there is a limit to men’s will by the command of God—thus
-far and no further.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Another point in our favour is that the Yoga philosophy
-differs from the Sāṃkhya mainly in this that the purushārtha
-or serviceability to the purusha is only the aim or end of the
-evolution of prakṛti and not actually the agent which removes
-the obstacles of the prakṛti in such a way as to determine its
-course as this cosmical process of evolution. Purushārtha is
-indeed the aim for which the process of evolution exists; for
-this manifold evolution in its entirety affects the interests of
-the purusha alone; but that does not prove that its teleology
-can really guide the evolution on its particular lines so as to
-ensure the best possible mode of serving all the interests of the
-purusha, for this teleology being immanent in the prakṛti is
-essentially non-intelligent. Thus Vācaspati says: “The
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha is not also the prime
-mover. God has the fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha as
-His own purpose, for which He behaves as the prime mover.
-The fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha may be regarded
-as cause only in the sense that it is the object in view of God,
-the prime mover.”<a id='r37'></a><a href='#f37' class='c014'><sup>[37]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The Sāṃkhya, however, hopes that this immanent purpose
-in prakṛti acts like a blind instinct and is able to guide the
-course of its evolution in all its manifold lines in accordance
-with the best possible service of the purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The Pātañjala view, as we have seen, maintains that
-Īśvara removes all obstacles of prakṛti in such a way that this
-purpose may find scope for its realisation. Thus <cite>Sūtrārthabodhinī</cite>,
-IV. 3, of Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha says: “According to
-atheistic Sāṃkhya the future serviceability of purusha alone
-is the mover of prakṛti. But with us theists the serviceability
-of purusha is the object for which prakṛti moves. It is merely
-as an object that the serviceability of the purusha may be said
-to be the mover of the prakṛti.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>As regards the connection of prakṛti and purusha, however,
-both Sāṃkhya and Pātañjala agree according to Vijñāna
-Bhikshu in denying the interference of Īśvara; it is the
-movement of prakṛti by virtue of immanent purpose that
-connects itself naturally with the purusha. Vijñāna Bhikshu’s
-own view, however, is that this union is brought about by God
-(<cite>Vijñānāmṛta-bhāshya</cite>, p. 34).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To recapitulate, we see that there is an immanent purpose
-in prakṛti which connects it with the purushas. This purpose
-is, however, blind and cannot choose the suitable lines of
-development and cause the movement of Prakṛti along them
-for its fullest realisation. Prakṛti itself, though a substantial
-entity, is also essentially of the nature of conserved energy
-existing in the potential form but always ready to flow out
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>and actualise itself, if only its own immanent obstructions are
-removed. Its teleological purpose is powerless to remove its
-own obstruction. God by His very presence removes the
-obstacles, by which, prakṛti of itself moves in the evolutionary
-process, and thus the purpose is realised; for the removal of
-obstacles by the influence of God takes place in such a way
-that the purpose may realise its fullest scope. Realisation of
-the teleology means that the interests of purusha are seemingly
-affected and purusha appears to see and feel in a manifold way,
-and after a long series of such experiences it comes to understand
-itself in its own nature, and this being the last and final
-realisation of the purpose of prakṛti with reference to that
-purusha all connections of prakṛti with such a purusha at once
-cease; the purusha is then said to be liberated and the world
-ceases for him to exist, though it exists for the other unliberated
-purushas, the purpose of the prakṛti with reference to
-whom has not been realised. So the world is both eternal and
-non-eternal, i.e. its eternality is only relative and not absolute.
-Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says the question “whether the world will
-have an end or not cannot be directly answered. The world-process
-gradually ceases for the wise and not for others, so no
-one-sided decision can be true” (IV. 33).</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>
- <h2 class='c005'>BOOK II. ETHICS AND PRACTICE</h2>
-</div>
-<h3 class='c012'>CHAPTER VIII<br> <span class='c013'>MIND AND MORAL STATES</span></h3>
-
-<p class='c006'>The Yoga philosophy has essentially a practical tone and its
-object consists mainly in demonstrating the means of attaining
-salvation, oneness, the liberation of the purusha. The
-metaphysical theory which we have discussed at some length,
-though it is the basis which justifies its ethical goal, is not
-itself the principal subject of Yoga discussion, and is only
-dealt with to the extent that it can aid in demonstrating
-the ethical view. We must now direct our attention to these
-ethical theories. Citta or mind always exists in the form of
-its states which are called vṛttis.<a id='r38'></a><a href='#f38' class='c014'><sup>[38]</sup></a> These comprehend all the
-manifold states of consciousness of our phenomenal existence.
-We cannot distinguish states of consciousness from consciousness
-itself, for the consciousness is not something separate
-from its states; it exists in them, passes away with their
-passing and submerges when they are submerged. It differs
-from the senses in this, that they represent the functions and
-faculties, whereas citta stands as the entity containing the
-conscious states with which we are directly concerned. But
-the citta which we have thus described as existing only in its
-states is called the kāryyacitta or citta as effect as distinguished
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>from the kāraṇacitta or citta as cause. These
-kāraṇacittas or cittas as cause are all-pervading like the
-ākāśa and are infinite in number, each being connected with
-each of the numberless purushas or souls (<cite>Chāyāvyākhyā</cite>,
-IV. 10). The reason assigned for acknowledging such a
-kāraṇacitta which must be all-pervading, as is evident from
-the quotation, is that the Yogin may have knowledge of all
-things at once.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vācaspati says that this citta being essentially of the
-nature of ahaṃkāra is as all-pervading as the ego itself
-(IV. 10).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This kāraṇacitta contracts or expands and appears as our
-individual cittas in our various bodies at successive rebirths.
-The kāraṇacitta is always connected with the purusha and
-appears contracted when the purusha presides over animal
-bodies, and as relatively expanded when he presides over
-human bodies, and more expanded when he presides over the
-bodies of gods, etc. This contracted or expanded citta appears
-as our kāryyacitta which always manifests itself as our states
-of consciousness. After death the kāraṇacitta, which is always
-connected with the purusha, manifests itself in the new body
-which is formed by the āpūra (filling in of prakṛti on account
-of effective merit or demerit that the purusha had apparently
-acquired). The formation of the body as well as the contraction
-or expansion of the kāraṇacitta as the corresponding
-kāryyacitta to suit it is due to this āpūra. The Yoga does
-not hold that the citta has got a separate fine astral body
-within which it may remain encased and be transferred along
-with it to another body on rebirth. The citta being all-pervading,
-it appears both to contract or expand to suit
-the particular body destined for it owing to its merit or demerit,
-but there is no separate astral body (<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>,
-IV. 10). In reality the karaṇacitta as such always remains
-vibhu or all-pervading; it is only its kāryyacitta or vṛtti
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>that appears in a contracted or expanded form, according
-to the particular body which it may be said to occupy.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The Sāṃkhya view, however, does not regard the citta
-to be essentially all-pervading, but small or great according
-as the body it has to occupy. Thus Bhikshu and Nāgeśa in
-explaining the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, “others think that the citta expands
-or contracts according as it is in a bigger or smaller body,
-just as light rays do according as they are placed in the jug
-or in a room,” attributes this view to the Sāṃkhya (<cite>Vyāsabhāshya</cite>,
-IV. 10, and the commentaries by Bhikshu and Nāgeśa
-on it).<a id='r39'></a><a href='#f39' class='c014'><sup>[39]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is this citta which appears as the particular states of
-consciousness in which both the knower and the known are
-reflected, and it comprehends them both in one state of consciousness.
-It must, however, be remembered that this citta
-is essentially a modification of prakṛti, and as such is non-intelligent;
-but by the seeming reflection of the purusha it
-appears as the knower knowing a certain object, and we
-therefore see that in the states themselves are comprehended
-both the knower and the known. This citta is not, however,
-a separate tattva, but is the sum or unity of the eleven senses
-and the ego and also of the five prāṇas or biomotor forces
-(<cite>Nāgeśa</cite>, IV. 10). It thus stands for all that is psychical in
-man: his states of consciousness including the living principle
-in man represented by the activity of the five prāṇas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is the object of Yoga gradually to restrain the citta
-from its various states and thus cause it to turn back to its
-original cause, the kāraṇacitta, which is all-pervading. The
-modifications of the kāraṇacitta into such states as the kāryyacitta
-is due to its being overcome by its inherent tamas
-and rajas; so when the transformations of the citta into the
-passing states are arrested by concentration, there takes
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>place a backward movement and the all-pervading state of
-the citta being restored to itself and all tamas being overcome,
-the Yogin acquires omniscience, and finally when this citta
-becomes as pure as the form of purusha itself, the purusha
-becomes conscious of himself and is liberated from the bonds
-of prakṛti.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The Yoga philosophy in the first chapter describes the Yoga
-for him whose mind is inclined towards trance-cognition. In
-the second chapter is described the means by which one with
-an ordinary worldly mind (<i>vyutthāna citta</i>) may also acquire
-Yoga. In the third chapter are described those phenomena
-which strengthen the faith of the Yogin on the means of
-attaining Yoga described in the second chapter. In the fourth
-chapter is described kaivalya, absolute independence or
-oneness, which is the end of all the Yoga practices.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The <cite>Bhāshya</cite> describes the five classes of cittas and comments
-upon their fitness for the Yoga leading to kaivalya.
-Those are I. <i>kshipta</i> (wandering), II. <i>mūḍha</i> (forgetful), III.
-<i>vikshipta</i> (occasionally steady), IV. <i>ekāgra</i> (one-pointed),
-<i>niruddha</i> (restrained).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I. The <i>kshiptacitta</i> is characterised as wandering, because
-it is being always moved by the rajas. This is that citta
-which is always moved to and fro by the rise of passions,
-the excess of which may indeed for the time overpower the
-mind and thus generate a temporary concentration, but it
-has nothing to do with the contemplative concentration
-required for attaining absolute independence. The man
-moved by rajas, far from attaining any mastery of himself,
-is rather a slave to his own passions and is always being
-moved to and fro and shaken by them (see <cite>Siddhānta-candrikā</cite>,
-I. 2, <cite>Bhojavṛtti</cite>, I. 2).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>II. The mūḍhacitta is that which is overpowered by
-tamas, or passions, like that of anger, etc., by which it loses
-its senses and always chooses the wrong course. Svāmin
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>Hariharāraṇya suggests a beautiful example of such concentration
-as similar to that of certain snakes which become
-completely absorbed in the prey upon which they are about
-to pounce.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>III. The vikshiptacitta, or distracted or occasionally
-steady citta, is that mind which rationally avoids the painful
-actions and chooses the pleasurable ones. Now none of these
-three kinds of mind can hope to attain that contemplative
-concentration called Yoga. This last type of mind represents
-ordinary people, who sometimes tend towards good but
-relapse back to evil.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>IV. The one-pointed (ekāgra) is that kind of mind in which
-true knowledge of the nature of reality is present and the
-afflictions due to nescience or false knowledge are thus attenuated
-and the mind better adapted to attain the nirodha
-or restrained state. All these come under the saṃprajñāta
-(concentration on an object of knowledge) type.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>V. The nirodha or restrained mind is that in which all
-mental states are arrested. This leads to kaivalya.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Ordinarily our minds are engaged only in perception,
-inference, etc.—those mental states which we all naturally
-possess. These ordinary mental states are full of rajas and
-tamas. When these are arrested, the mind flows with an
-abundance of sattva in the saṃprajñāta samādhi; lastly
-when even the saṃprajñāta state is arrested, all possible
-states become arrested.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Another important fact which must be noted is the relation
-of the actual states of mind called the vṛttis with the latent
-states called the saṃskāras—the potency. When a particular
-mental state passes away into another, it is not altogether
-lost, but is preserved in the mind in a latent form as a saṃskāra,
-which is always trying to manifest itself in actuality.
-The vṛttis or actual states are thus both generating the
-saṃskāras and are also always tending to manifest themselves
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>and actually generating similar vṛttis or actual states.
-There is a circulation from vṛttis to saṃskāras and from them
-again to vṛttis (<i>saṃskārāḥ vṛttibhiḥ kriyante, saṃskāraiśca
-vṛttayaḥ evaṃ vṛttisaṃskāracakramaniśamāvarttate</i>). So the
-formation of saṃskāras and their conservation are gradually
-being strengthened by the habit of similar vṛttis or actual
-states, and their continuity is again guaranteed by the strength
-and continuity of these saṃskāras. The saṃskāras are like
-roots striking deep into the soil and growing with the growth
-of the plant above, but even when the plant above the soil
-is destroyed, the roots remain undisturbed and may again
-shoot forth as plants whenever they obtain a favourable
-season. Thus it is not enough for a Yogin to arrest any
-particular class of mental states; he must attain such a habit
-of restraint that the saṃskāra thus generated is able to overcome,
-weaken and destroy the saṃskāra of those actual states
-which he has arrested by his contemplation. Unless restrained
-by such a habit, the saṃskāra of cessation (<i>nirodhaja saṃskāra</i>)
-which is opposed to the previously acquired mental
-states become powerful and destroy the latter, these are
-sure to shoot forth again in favourable season into their
-corresponding actual states.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The conception of avidyā or nescience is here not negative
-but has a definite positive aspect. It means that kind of
-knowledge which is opposed to true knowledge (<i>vidyāviparītaṃ
-jñānāntaramavidyā</i>). This is of four kinds: (1) The thinking
-of the non-eternal world, which is merely an effect, as eternal.
-(2) The thinking of the impure as the pure, as for example
-the attraction that a woman’s body may have for a man
-leading him to think the impure body pure. (3) The thinking
-of vice as virtue, of the undesirable as the desirable, of pain
-as pleasure. We know that for a Yogin every phenomenal
-state of existence is painful (II. 15). A Yogin knows that
-attachment (<i>rāga</i>) to sensual and other objects can only give
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>temporary pleasure, for it is sure to be soon turned into pain.
-Enjoyment can never bring satisfaction, but only involves a
-man further and further in sorrows. (4) Considering the non-self,
-e.g. the body as the self. This causes a feeling of being
-injured on the injury of the body.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>At the moment of enjoyment there is always present
-suffering from pain in the form of aversion to pain; for the
-tendency to aversion from pain can only result from the
-incipient memory of previous sufferings. Of course this is
-also a case of pleasure turned into pain (<i>pariṇāmaduḥkhatā</i>),
-but it differs from it in this that in the case of pariṇāmaduḥkha
-pleasure is turned into pain as a result of change or pariṇāma
-in the future, whereas in this case the anxiety as to pain is
-a thing of the present, happening at one and the same time
-that a man is enjoying pleasure.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Enjoyment of pleasure or suffering from pain causes those
-impressions called saṃskāra or potencies, and these again
-when aided by association naturally create their memory and
-thence comes attachment or aversion, then again action, and
-again pleasure and pain and hence impressions, memory,
-attachment or aversion, and again action and so forth.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>All states are modifications of the three guṇas; in each one
-of them the functions of all the three guṇas are seen, contrary
-to one another. These contraries are observable in their
-developed forms, for the guṇas are seen to abide in various
-proportions and compose all our mental states. Thus a Yogin
-who wishes to be released from pain once for all is very sensitive
-and anxious to avoid even our so-called pleasures. The
-wise are like the eye-ball. As a thread of wool thrown into
-the eye pains by merely touching it, but not when it comes
-into contact with any other organ, so the Yogin is as
-tender as the eye-ball, when others are insensible of pain.
-Ordinary persons, however, who have again and again suffered
-pains as the consequence of their own karma, and who again
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>seek them after having given them up, are all round
-pierced through as it were by nescience, their minds become
-full of afflictions, variegated by the eternal residua of the
-passions. They follow in the wake of the “I” and the
-“Mine” in relation to things that should be left apart,
-pursuing threefold pain in repeated births, due to external
-and internal causes. The Yogin seeing himself and
-the world of living beings surrounded by the eternal flow
-of pain, turns for refuge to right knowledge, cause of the
-destruction of all pains (<cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 15).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thinking of the mind and body and the objects of the
-external world as the true self and feeling affected by their
-change is avidyā (false knowledge).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The modifications that this avidyā suffers may be summarised
-under four heads.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I. The ego, which, as described above, springs from the
-identification of the buddhi with the purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>II. From this ego springs attachment (<i>rāga</i>) which is
-the inclination towards pleasure and consequently towards
-the means necessary for attaining it in a person who has
-previously experienced pleasures and remembers them.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>II. Repulsion from pain also springs from the ego and is
-of the nature of anxiety for its removal; anger at pain and
-the means which produces pain, remains in the mind in consequence
-of the feeling of pain, in the case of him who has felt
-and remembers pain.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>IV. Love of life also springs from the ego. This feeling
-exists in all persons and appears in a positive aspect in the
-form “would that I were never to cease.” This is due to the
-painful experience of death in some previous existence, which
-abides in us as a residual potency (<i>vāsanā</i>) and causes the
-instincts of self-preservation, fear of death and love of life.
-These modifications including avidyā are called the five
-kleśas or afflictions.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>We are now in a position to see the far-reaching effects of
-the identification of the purusha with the buddhi. We have
-already seen how it has generated the macrocosm or external
-world on the one hand, and manas and the senses on the other.
-Now we see that from it also spring attachment to pleasure,
-aversion from pain and love of life, motives observable in
-most of our states of consciousness, which are therefore called
-the <i>klishṭa vṛtti</i> or afflicted states. The five afflictions (false
-knowledge and its four modifications spoken above) just
-mentioned are all comprehended in avidyā, since avidyā or
-false knowledge is at the root of all worldly experiences. The
-sphere of avidyā is all false knowledge generally, and that of
-asmitā is also inseparably connected with all our experiences
-which consist in the identification of the intelligent self with
-the sensual objects of the world, the attainment of which seems
-to please us and the loss of which is so painful to us. It must,
-however, be remembered that these five afflictions are only
-different aspects of avidyā and cannot be conceived separately
-from avidyā. These always lead us into the meshes of the
-world, far from our final goal—the realisation of our own
-self—emancipation of the purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Opposed to it are the vṛttis or states which are called
-unafflicted, aklishṭa, the habit of steadiness (<i>abhyāsa</i>) and
-non-attachment to pleasures (<i>vairāgya</i>) which being antagonistic
-to the afflicted states, are helpful towards achieving true
-knowledge. These represent such thoughts as tend towards
-emancipation and are produced from our attempts to conceive
-rationally our final state of emancipation, or to adopt suitable
-means for this. They must not, however, be confused with
-puṇyakarma (virtuous action), for both puṇya and pāpa
-karma are said to have sprung from the kleśas. There is no
-hard and fast rule with regard to the appearance of these
-klishṭa and aklishṭa states, so that in the stream of the klishṭa
-states or in the intervals thereof, aklishṭa states may also
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>appear—as practice and desirelessness born from the study
-of the Veda-reasoning and precepts—and remain quite distinct
-in itself, unmixed with the klishṭa states. A Brahman being
-in a village which is full of the Kirātas, does not himself
-become a Kirāta (a forest tribe) for that reason.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Each aklishṭa state produces its own potency or saṃskāra,
-and with the frequency of the states their saṃskāra is
-strengthened which in due course suppresses the aklishṭa
-states.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These klishṭa and aklishṭa modifications are of five descriptions:
-pramāṇa (real cognition), viparyyaya (unreal cognition),
-vikalpa (logical abstraction and imagination), nidrā
-(sleep), smṛti (memory). These vṛttis or states, however, must
-be distinguished from the six kinds of mental activity mentioned
-in <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 18: grahaṇa (reception or
-presentative ideation), dhāraṇa (retention), ūha (assimilation),
-apoha (differentiation), tattvajñāna (right knowledge), abhiniveśa
-(decision and determination), of which these states
-are the products.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We have seen that from avidyā spring all the kleśas or
-afflictions, which are therefore seen to be the source of the
-klishṭa vṛttis as well. Abhyāsa and vairāgya—the aklishṭa
-vṛttis, which spring from precepts, etc., lead to right knowledge,
-and as such are antagonistic to the modification of the
-guṇas on the avidyā side.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We know also that both these sets of vṛttis—the klishṭa
-and the aklishṭa—produce their own kinds of saṃskāras, the
-klishṭa saṃskāra and the aklishṭa or prajñā saṃskāra. All
-these modifications of citta as vṛtti and saṃskāra are the
-dharmas of citta, considered as the dharmin or substance.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IX<br> <span class='c013'>THE THEORY OF KARMA</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>The vṛttis are called the mānasa karmas (mental work) as
-different from the bāhya karmas (external work) achieved in
-the exterior world by the five motor or active senses. These
-may be divided into four classes: (1) kṛshṇa (black), (2)
-śukla (white), (3) śuklakṛshṇa (white and black), (4) aśuklākṛshṇa
-(neither white nor black). (1) The kṛshṇa karmas
-are those committed by the wicked and, as such, are wicked
-actions called also adharma (demerit). These are of two
-kinds, viz. bāhya and mānasa, the former being of the nature
-of speaking ill of others, stealing others’ property, etc., and the
-latter of the nature of such states as are opposed to śraddhā,
-vīrya, etc., which are called the śukla karma. (2) The śukla
-karmas are virtuous or meritorious deeds. These can only
-occur in the form of mental states, and as such can take place
-only in the mānasa karma. These are śraddhā (faith), vīrya
-(strength), smṛti (meditation), samādhi (absorption), and
-prajñā (wisdom), which are infinitely superior to actions
-achieved in the external world by the motor or active senses.
-The śukla karma belongs to those who resort to study and
-meditation. (3) The śuklakṛshṇa karma are the actions
-achieved in the external world by the motor or active senses.
-These are called white and black, because actions achieved in
-the external world, however good (śukla) they might be,
-cannot be altogether devoid of wickedness (kṛshṇa), since
-all external actions entail some harm to other living beings.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>Even the Vedic duties, though meritorious, are associated
-with sins, for they entail the sacrificing of animals.<a id='r40'></a><a href='#f40' class='c014'><sup>[40]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The white side of these actions, viz.: that of helping others
-and doing good is therefore called dharma, as it is the cause
-of the enjoyment of pleasure and happiness for the doer. The
-kṛshṇa or black side of these actions, viz. that of doing
-injury to others is called adharma, as it is the cause of the
-suffering of pain to the doer. In all our ordinary states
-of existence we are always under the influence of dharma
-and adharma, which are therefore called vehicles of actions
-(<i>āśerate sāṃsārikā purushā asmin niti āśayaḥ</i>). That in which
-some thing lives is its vehicle. Here the purushas in evolution
-are to be understood as living in the sheath of actions (which
-is for that reason called a vehicle or āśaya). Merit or virtue, and
-sin or demerit are the vehicles of actions. All śukla karma,
-therefore, either mental or external, is called merit or virtue
-and is productive of happiness; all kṛshṇa karma, either
-mental or external, is called demerit, sin or vice and is
-productive of pain.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(4) The karma called aśuklakṛshṇa (neither black nor
-white) is of those who have renounced everything, whose
-afflictions have been destroyed and whose present body is the
-last one they will have. Those who have renounced actions,
-the karma-sannyāsis (and not those who belong to the
-sannyāsāśrama merely), are nowhere found performing
-actions which depend upon external means. They have
-not got the black vehicle of actions, because they do not
-perform such actions. Nor do they possess the white
-vehicle of actions, because they dedicate to Īśvara the fruits
-of all vehicles of action, brought about by the practice of
-Yoga.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Returning to the question of karmāśaya again for review,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>we see that being produced from desire (<i>kāma</i>), avarice (<i>lobha</i>),
-ignorance (<i>moha</i>), and anger (<i>krodha</i>) it has really got at its root
-the kleśas (afflictions) such as avidyā (ignorance), asmitā
-(egoism), rāga (attachment), dvesha (antipathy), abhiniveśa
-(love of life). It will be easily seen that the passions named
-above, desire, lust, etc., are not in any way different from the
-kleśas or afflictions previously mentioned; and as all actions,
-virtuous or sinful, have their springs in the said sentiments of
-desire, anger, covetousness, and infatuation, it is quite enough
-that all these virtuous or sinful actions spring from
-the kleśas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now this karmāśaya ripens into life-state, life-experience
-and life-time, if the roots—the afflictions—exist. Not only is
-it true that when the afflictions are rooted out, no karmāśaya
-can accumulate, but even when many karmāśayas of many
-lives are accumulated, they are rooted out when the afflictions
-are destroyed. Otherwise, it is difficult to conceive that the
-karmāśaya accumulated for an infinite number of years,
-whose time of ripeness is uncertain, will be rooted out! So
-even if there be no fresh karmāśaya after the rise of true
-knowledge, the purusha cannot be liberated but will be
-required to suffer an endless cycle of births and rebirths to
-exhaust the already accumulated karmāśayas of endless lives.
-For this reason, the mental plane becomes a field for the
-production of the fruits of action only, when it is watered by
-the stream of afflictions. Hence the afflictions help the
-vehicle of actions (karmāśaya) in the production of their
-fruits also. It is for this reason that when the afflictions are
-destroyed the power which helps to bring about the manifestation
-also disappears; and on that account the vehicles of
-actions although existing in innumerable quantities have no
-time for their fruition and do not possess the power of producing
-fruit, because their seed-powers are destroyed by intellection.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>Karmāśaya is of two kinds. (1) Ripening in the same life
-<i>dṛshṭajanmavedanīya</i>. (2) Ripening in another unknown
-life. That puṇya karmāśaya, which is generated by intense
-purificatory action, trance and repetition of mantras, and
-that pāpa karmāśaya, which is generated by repeated evil done
-either to men who are suffering the extreme misery of fear,
-disease and helplessness, or to those who place confidence in
-them or to those who are high-minded and perform tapas,
-ripen into fruit in the very same life, whereas other kinds of
-karmāśayas ripen in some unknown life.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Living beings in hell have no dṛshṭajanma karmāśaya, for
-this life is intended for suffering only and their bodies are
-called the bhoga-śarīras intended for suffering alone and not
-for the accumulation of any karmāśaya which could take effect
-in that very life.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are others whose afflictions have been spent and
-exhausted and thus they have no such karmāśaya, the effect of
-which they will have to reap in some other life. They are thus
-said to have no adṛshṭa-janmavedanīya karma.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The karmāśaya of both kinds described above ripens into
-life-state, life-time and life-experience. These are called the
-three ripenings or vipākas of the karmāśaya; and they are
-conducive to pleasure or pain, according as they are products of
-puṇyakarmāśaya (virtue) or pāpa karmāśaya (vice or demerit).
-Many karmāśayas combine to produce one life-state; for
-it is not possible that each karma should produce one or
-many life-states, for then there would be no possibility of
-experiencing the effects of the karmas, because if for each one
-of the karmas we had one or more lives, karmas, being endless,
-space for obtaining lives in which to experience effects would
-not be available, for it would take endless time to exhaust the
-karmas already accumulated. It is therefore held that many
-karmas unite to produce one life-state or birth (jāti) and to
-determine also its particular duration (āyush) and experience
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>(bhoga). The virtuous and sinful karmāśayas accumulated in
-one life, in order to produce their effects, cause the death of the
-individual and manifest themselves in producing his rebirth,
-his duration of life and particular experiences, pleasurable or
-painful. The order of undergoing the experiences is the order
-in which the karmas manifest themselves as effects, the
-principal ones being manifested earlier in life. The principal
-karmas here refer to those which are quite ready to generate
-their effects. Thus it is said that those karmas which produce
-their effects immediately are called primary, whereas those
-which produce effects after some delay are called secondary.
-Thus we see that there is continuity of existence throughout;
-when the karmas of this life ripen jointly they tend to fructify
-by causing another birth as a means to which death is caused,
-and along with it life is manifested in another body (according
-to the dharma and adharma of the karmāśaya) formed by
-the prakṛtyāpūra (cf. the citta theory described above); and
-the same karmāśaya regulates the life-period and experiences
-of that life, the karmāśayas of which again take a similar course
-and manifest themselves in the production of another life and
-so on.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We have seen that the karmāśaya has three fructifications,
-viz. jāti, āyush and bhoga. Now generally the karmāśaya
-is regarded as ekabhavika or unigenital, i.e. it accumulates in
-one life. Ekabhava means one life and ekabhavika means the
-product of one life, or accumulated in one life. Regarded
-from this point of view, it may be contrasted with the vāsanās
-which remain accumulated from thousands of previous lives
-since eternity, the mind, being pervaded all over with them,
-as a fishing-net is covered all over with knots. This vāsanā
-results from memory of the experiences of a life generated by
-the fructification of the karmāśaya and kept in the citta in the
-form of potency or impressions (saṃskāra). Now we have
-previously seen that the citta remains constant in all the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>births and rebirths that an individual has undergone from
-eternity; it therefore keeps the memory of those various
-experiences of thousands of lives in the form of saṃskāra or
-potency and is therefore compared with a fishing-net pervaded
-all over with knots. The vāsanās therefore are not the results
-of the accumulation of experiences or their memory in one life
-but in many lives, and are therefore called anekabhavika as
-contrasted with the karmāśaya representing virtuous and
-vicious actions which are accumulated in one life and which
-produce another life, its experiences and its life-duration as a
-result of fructification (vipāka). This vāsanā is the cause of
-the instinctive tendencies, or habits of deriving pleasures and
-pains peculiar to different animal lives.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus the habits of a dog-life and its peculiar modes of
-taking its experiences and of deriving pleasures and pains are
-very different in nature from those of a man-life; they must
-therefore be explained on the basis of an incipient memory in
-the form of potency, or impressions (saṃskāra) of the experiences
-that an individual must have undergone in a previous
-dog-life.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now when by the fructification of the karmāśaya a dog-life
-is settled for a person, his corresponding vāsanās of a
-previous dog-life are at once revived and he begins to take
-interest in his dog-life in the manner of a dog; the same
-principle applies to the virtue of individuals as men or as
-gods (IV. 8).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If there was not this law of vāsanās, then any vāsanā would
-be revived in any life, and with the manifestation of the
-vāsanā of animal life a man would take interest in eating
-grass and derive pleasure from it. Thus Nāgeśa says: “Now
-if those karmas which produce a man-life should manifest the
-vāsanās of animal lives, then one might be inclined to eat
-grass as a man, and it is therefore said that only the vāsanās
-corresponding to the karmas are revived.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>Now as the vāsanās are of the nature of saṃskāras or
-impressions, they lie ingrained in the citta and nothing can
-prevent their being revived. The intervention of other births
-has no effect. For this reason, the vāsanās of a dog-life are at
-once revived in another dog-life, though between the first dog-life
-and the second dog-life, the individual may have passed
-through many other lives, as a man, a bull, etc., though
-the second dog-life may take place many hundreds of years
-after the first dog-life and in quite different countries. The
-difference between saṃskāras, impressions, and smṛti or
-memory is simply this that the former is the latent state
-whereas the latter is the manifested state; so we see that the
-memory and the impressions are identical in nature, so that
-whenever a saṃskāra is revived, it means nothing but the
-manifestation of the memory of the same experiences conserved
-in the saṃskāra in a latent state. Experiences, when
-they take place, keep their impressions in the mind, though
-thousands of other experiences, lapse of time, etc., may
-intervene. They are revived in one moment with the proper
-cause of their revival, and the other intervening experiences can
-in no way hinder this revival. So it is with the vāsanās,
-which are revived at once according to the particular fructification
-of the karmāśaya, in the form of a particular life, as a man,
-a dog, or anything else.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is now clear that the karmāśaya tending towards fructification
-is the cause of the manifestation of the vāsanās already
-existing in the mind in a latent form. Thus the Sūtra says:—“When
-two similar lives are separated by many births, long
-lapses of time and remoteness of space, even then for the
-purpose of the revival of the vāsanās, they may be regarded as
-immediately following each other, for the memories and
-impressions are the same” (<cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, IV. 9). The <cite>Bhāshya</cite>
-says: “the vāsanā is like the memory (smṛti), and so there
-can be memory from the impressions of past lives separated by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>many lives and by remote tracts of country. From these
-memories the impressions (saṃskāras) are derived, and the
-memories are revived by manifestation of the karmāśayas, and
-though memories from past impressions may have many lives
-intervening, these interventions do not destroy the causal
-antecedence of those past lives” (IV. 9).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These vāsanās are, however, beginningless, for a baby just
-after birth is seen to feel the fear of death instinctively, and
-it could not have derived it from its experience in this
-life. Again, if a small baby is thrown upwards, it is seen
-to shake and cry like a grown-up man, and from this it may
-be inferred that it is afraid of falling down on the ground and
-is therefore shaking through fear. Now this baby has never
-learnt in this life from experience that a fall on the ground will
-cause pain, for it has never fallen on the ground and suffered
-pain therefrom; so the cause of this fear cannot be sought
-in the experiences of this life, but in the memory of past
-experiences of fall and pain arising therefrom, which is
-innate in this life as vāsanā and causes this instinctive
-fear. So this innate memory which causes instinctive fear
-of death from the very time of birth, has not its origin in
-this life but is the memory of the experience of some
-previous life, and in that life, too, it existed as innate
-memory of some other previous life, and in that again as
-the innate memory of some other life and so on to beginningless
-time. This goes to show that the vāsanās are without
-beginning.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We come now to the question of unigenitality—ekabhavikatva—of
-the karmāśaya and its exceptions. We find that
-great confusion has occurred among the commentators about
-the following passage in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> which refers to this
-subject: The <cite>Bhāshya</cite> according to Vācaspati in II. 13 reads:
-<i>tatra dṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya</i>, etc. Here
-Bhikshu and Nāgeśa read <i>tatrādṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>niyatavipākasya</i>, etc. There is thus a divergence of meaning
-on this point between <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> and his follower Nāgeśa,
-on one side, and Vācaspati on the other.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vācaspati says that the dṛshṭajanmavedanīya (to be
-fructified in the same visible life) karma is the only true karma
-where the karmāśaya is ekabhavika, unigenital, for here these
-effects are positively not due to the karma of any other
-previous lives, but to the karma of that very life. Thus these
-are the only true causes of ekabhavika karmāśaya.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus according to Vācaspati we see that the adṛshṭajanmavedanīya
-karma (to be fructified in another life) of unappointed
-fruition is never an ideal of ekabhavikatva or unigenital
-character; for it may have three different courses: (1) It may
-be destroyed without fruition. (2) It may become merged in
-the ruling action. (3) It may exist for a long time overpowered
-by the ruling action whose fruition has been
-appointed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vijñāna Bhikshu and his follower Nāgeśa, however, say that
-the dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (to be fructified in the same
-visible life) can never be ekabhavika or unigenital for there
-is no bhava, or previous birth there, whose product is being
-fructified in that life, for this karma is of that same visible life
-and not of some other previous bhava or life; and they agree
-in holding that it is for that reason that the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> makes no
-mention of this dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma; it is clear that
-the karmāśaya in no other bhava is being fructified here.
-Thus we see that about dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma,
-Vācaspati holds that it is the typical case of ekabhavika karma
-(karma of the same birth), whereas Vijñāna Bhikshu holds
-just the opposite view, viz. that the dṛhṭajanmavedanīya
-karma should by no means be considered as ekabhavika since
-there is here no bhava or birth, it being fructified in the same
-life.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (works to be fructified
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>in another life) of unfixed fruition has three different courses:
-(I) As we have observed before, by the rise of <i>aśuklākṛshṇa</i>
-(neither black nor white) karma, the other karmas—<i>śukla</i>
-(black), <i>kṛshṇa</i> (white) and <i>śuklakṛshṇa</i> (both black and
-white)—are rooted out. The śukla karmāśaya again arising
-from study and asceticism destroys the kṛshṇa karmas without
-their being able to generate their effects. These therefore can
-never be styled ekabhavika, since they are destroyed without
-producing any effect. (II) When the effects of minor actions
-are merged in the effects of the major and ruling action. The
-sins originating from the sacrifice of animals at a holy sacrifice
-are sure to produce bad effects, though they may be minor and
-small in comparison with the good effects arising from the
-performance of the sacrifice in which they are merged. Thus
-it is said that the experts being immersed in floods of happiness
-brought about by their sacrifices bear gladly particles of the
-fire of sorrow brought about by the sin of killing animals at
-sacrifice. So we see that here also the minor actions having
-been performed with the major do not produce their effects
-independently, and so all their effects are not fully manifested,
-and hence these secondary karmāśayas cannot be regarded as
-ekabhavika. (III) Again the adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (to
-be fructified in another life) of unfixed fruition (<i>aniyata vipāka</i>)
-remains overcome for a long time by another adṛshṭajanmavedanīya
-karma of fixed fruition. A man may for example
-do some good actions and some extremely vicious ones, so that
-at the time of death, the karmāśaya of those vicious actions
-becoming ripe and fit for appointed fruition, generates an
-animal life. His good action, whose benefits are such as may
-be reaped only in a man-life, will remain overcome until the
-man is born again as a man: so this also cannot be said to be
-ekabhavika (to be reaped in one life). We may summarise the
-classification of karmas according to Vācaspati in a table as
-follows:—</p>
-
-<div class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>
-<img src='images/i_112.jpg' alt='Karmāśaya Ekabhavika Anekabhavika Niyata Vipāka Aniyatavipāka Adṛshṭajanmavedanīya Dṛshṭajanmavedanīya Adṛshṭajanmavedanīya (Destruction) (Merged in the effect of the major action.) (To remain overcome by the influence of some other action.)' class='ig001'>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus the karmāśaya may be viewed from two sides, one
-being that of fixed fruition and the other unfixed fruition, and
-the other that of dṛshṭajanmavedanīya and adṛshṭajanmavedanīya.
-Now the theory is that the niyatavipāka (of fixed
-fruition) karmāśaya is always ekabhavika, i.e. it does not
-remain separated by other lives, but directly produces its
-effects in the succeeding life.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Ekabhavika means that which is produced from the
-accumulation of karmas in one life in the life which succeeds
-it. Vācaspati, however, takes it also to mean that action
-which attains fruition in the same life in which it is performed,
-whereas what Vijñāna Bhikshu understands by ekabhavika
-is that action alone which is produced in the life immediately
-succeeding the life in which it was accumulated. So according
-to Vijñāna Bhikshu, the niyata vipāka (of fixed fruition)
-dṛshṭajanmavedanīya (to be fructified in the same life) action
-is not ekabhavika, since it has no bhava, i.e. it is not the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>production of a preceding life. Neither can it be anekabhavika;
-thus this niyatavipākadṛshṭajanmavedanīya action is neither
-ekabhavika nor anekbhavika. Whereas Vācaspati is inclined
-to call this also ekabhavika. About the niyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya
-action being called ekabhavika (unigenital)
-there seems to be no dispute. The aniyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya
-action cannot be called ekabhavika
-as it undergoes three different courses described above.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER X<br> <span class='c013'>THE ETHICAL PROBLEM</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>We have described avidyā and its special forms as the kleśas,
-from which also proceed the actions virtuous and vicious,
-which in their turn again produce as a result of their fruition,
-birth, life and experiences of pleasure and pain and the
-vāsanās or residues of the memory of these experiences.
-Again every new life or birth is produced from the fructification
-of actions of a previous life; a man is made to perform
-actions good or bad by the kleśas which are rooted in him,
-and these actions, as a result of their fructification, produce
-another life and its experiences, in which life again new
-actions are earned by virtue of the kleśas, and thus the cycle
-is continued. When there is pralaya or involution of the
-cosmical world-process the individual cittas of the separate
-purushas return back to the prakṛti and lie within it, together
-with their own avidyās, and at the time of each new creation
-or evolution these are created anew with such changes as are
-due according to their individual avidyās, with which they
-had to return back to their original cause, the prakṛti, and
-spend an indivisible inseparable existence with it. The
-avidyās of some other creation, being merged in the prakṛti
-along with the cittas, remain in the prakṛti as vāsanās, and
-prakṛti being under the influence of these avidyās as vāsanās
-creates as modifications of itself the corresponding minds for
-the individual purushas, connected with them before the last
-pralaya dissolution. So we see that though the cittas had
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>returned to their original causes with their individual nescience
-(<i>avidyā</i>), the avidyā was not lost but was revived at the
-time of the new creation and created such minds as should
-be suitable receptacles for it. These minds (buddhi) are
-found to be modified further into their specific cittas or mental
-planes by the same avidyā which is manifested in them as
-the kleśas, and these again in the karmāśaya, jāti, āyush and
-bhoga, and so on; the individual, however, is just in the same
-position as he was or would have been before the involution
-of pralaya. The avidyās of the cittas which had returned to
-the prakṛti at the time of the creation being revived, create
-their own buddhis of the previous creation, and by their
-connection with the individual purushas are the causes of the
-saṃsāra or cosmic evolution—the evolution of the microcosm,
-the cittas, and the macrocosm or the exterior world.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In this new creation, the creative agencies of God and
-avidyā are thus distinguished in that the latter represents
-the end or purpose of the prakṛti—the ever-evolving energy
-transforming itself into its modifications as the mental and
-the material world; whereas the former represents that
-intelligent power which abides outside the pale of prakṛti,
-but removes obstructions offered by the prakṛti. Though
-unintelligent and not knowing how and where to yield so
-as to form the actual modifications necessary for the realisation
-of the particular and specific objects of the numberless
-purushas, these avidyās hold within themselves the serviceability
-of the purushas, and are the cause of the connection
-of the purusha and the prakṛti, so that when these avidyās are
-rooted out it is said that the purushārthatā or serviceability
-of the purusha is at an end and the purusha becomes liberated
-from the bonds of prakṛti, and this is called the final goal of
-the purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The ethical problem of the Pātañjala philosophy is the
-uprooting of this avidyā by the attainment of true knowledge
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>of the nature of the purusha, which will be succeeded by the
-liberation of the purusha and his absolute freedom or independence—kaivalya—the
-last realisation of the purusha—the
-ultimate goal of all the movements of the prakṛti.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This final uprooting of the avidyā with its vāsanās directly
-follows the attainment of true knowledge called prajñā, in
-which state the seed of false knowledge is altogether burnt
-and cannot be revived again. Before this state, the discriminative
-knowledge which arises as the recognition of the distinct
-natures of purusha and buddhi remains shaky; but when by
-continual practice this discriminative knowledge becomes
-strengthened in the mind, its potency gradually grows stronger
-and stronger, and roots out the potency of the ordinary states
-of mental activity, and thus the seed of false knowledge
-becomes burnt up and incapable of fruition, and the impurity
-of the energy of rajas being removed, the sattva as the manifesting
-entity becomes of the highest purity, and in that state
-flows on the stream of the notion of discrimination—the
-recognition of the distinct natures of purusha and buddhi—free
-from impurity. Thus when the state of buddhi becomes
-almost as pure as the purusha itself, all self-enquiry subsides,
-the vision of the real form of the purusha arises, and false
-knowledge, together with the kleśas and the consequent
-fruition of actions, ceases once for all. This is that state of
-citta which, far from tending towards the objective world,
-tends towards the kaivalya of the purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In the first stages, when the mind attains discriminative
-knowledge, the prajñā is not deeply seated, and occasionally
-phenomenal states of consciousness are seen to intervene in
-the form of “I am,” “Mine,” “I know,” “I do not know,”
-because the old potencies, though becoming weaker and
-weaker are not finally destroyed, and consequently occasionally
-produce their corresponding conscious manifestation
-as states which impede the flow of discriminative knowledge.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>But constant practice in rooting out the potency of
-this state destroys the potencies of the outgoing activity,
-and finally no intervention occurs in the flow of the
-stream of prajñā through the destructive influence of
-phenomenal states of consciousness. In this higher state
-when the mind is in its natural, passive, and objectless
-stream of flowing prajñā, it is called the dharmamegha-saṁādhi.
-When nothing is desired even from dhyāna arises
-the true knowledge which distinguishes prakṛti from purusha
-and is called the dharmamegha-samādhi (<cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>,
-IV. 29). The potency, however, of this state of consciousness
-lasts until the purusha is finally liberated from the bonds
-of prakṛti and is absolutely free (kevalī). Now this is the
-state when the citta becomes infinite, and all its tamas being
-finally overcome, it shines forth like the sun, which can reflect
-all, and in comparison to which the crippled insignificant light
-of objective knowledge shrinks altogether, and thus an
-infinitude is acquired, which has absorbed within itself all
-finitude, which cannot have any separate existence or manifestation
-through this infinite knowledge. All finite states
-of knowledge are only a limitation of true infinite knowledge,
-in which there is no limitation of this and that. It absorbs
-within itself all these limitations.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The purusha in this state may be called the emancipated
-being, jīvanmukta. Nāgeśa in explaining <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>,
-IV. 31, describing the emancipated life says: “In this
-jīvanmukta stage, being freed from all impure afflictions and
-karmas, the consciousness shines in its infirmity. The
-infiniteness of consciousness is different from the infiniteness
-of materiality veiled by tamas. In those stages there could
-be consciousness only with reference to certain things with
-reference to which the veil of tamas was raised by rajas.
-When all veils and impurities are removed, then little is left
-which is not known. If there were other categories besides
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>the 25 categories, these also would then have been known”
-(<cite>Chāyāvyākhyā</cite>, IV. 31).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now with the rise of such dharmamegha the succession
-of the changes of the qualities is over, inasmuch as they have
-fulfilled their object by having achieved experience and
-emancipation, and their succession having ended, they cannot
-stay even for a moment. And now comes absolute freedom,
-when the guṇas return back to the pradhāna their primal
-cause, after performing their service for the purusha by
-providing his experience and his salvation, so that they
-lose all their hold on purusha and purusha remains as he is
-in himself, and never again has any connection with the
-buddhi. The purusha remains always in himself in absolute
-freedom.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The order of the return of the guṇas for a kevalī purusha is
-described below in the words of Vācaspati: The guṇas as
-cause and effect involving ordinary experiences samādhi and
-nirodha, become submerged in the manas; the manas
-becomes submerged in the asmitā, the asmitā in the liṅga,
-and the liṅga in the aliṅga.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This state of kaivalya must be distinguished from the state
-of mahāpralaya in which also the guṇas return back to
-prakṛti, for that state is again succeeded by later connections
-of prakṛti with purushas through the buddhis, but the state
-of kaivalya is an eternal state which is never again disturbed
-by any connection with prakṛti, for now the separation of
-prakṛti from purusha is eternal, whereas that in the mahāpralaya
-state was only temporary.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We shall conclude this section by noting two kinds of eternity
-of purusha and of prakṛti, and by offering a criticism of the
-prajñā state. The former is said to be perfectly and unchangeably
-eternal (<i>kūṭastha nitya</i>), and the latter is only
-eternal in an evolutionary form. The permanent or eternal
-reality is that which remains unchanged amid its changing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>appearances; and from this point of view both purusha
-and prakṛti are eternal. It is indeed true, as we have seen
-just now, that the succession of changes of qualities with
-regard to buddhi, etc., comes to an end when kaivalya is
-attained, but this is with reference to purusha, for the changes
-of qualities in the guṇas themselves never come to an end.
-So the guṇas in themselves are eternal in their changing or
-evolutionary character, and are therefore said to possess
-evolutionary eternity (<i>pariṇāminityatā</i>). Our phenomenal
-conception cannot be free from change, and therefore it is
-that in our conception of the released purushas we affirm
-their existence, as for example when we say that the released
-purushas exist eternally. But it must be carefully noted
-that this is due to the limited character of our thoughts and
-expressions, not to the real nature of the released purushas,
-which remain for ever unqualified by any changes or modifications,
-pure and colourless as the very self of shining intelligence
-(see <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 33).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We shall conclude this section by giving a short analysis
-of the prajñā state from its first appearance to the final release
-of purusha from the bondage of prakṛti. Patañjali says that
-this prajñā state being final in each stage is sevenfold. Of
-these the first four stages are due to our conscious endeavour,
-and when these conscious states of prajñā (supernatural
-wisdom) flow in a stream and are not hindered or interfered
-with in any way by other phenomenal conscious states of
-pratyayas the purusha becomes finally liberated through the
-natural backward movement of the citta to its own primal
-cause, and this backward movement is represented by the
-other three stages.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The seven prajñā stages may be thus enumerated:—</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I. The pain to be removed is known. Nothing further
-remains to be known of it.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This is the first aspect of the prajñā, in which the person
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>willing to be released knows that he has exhausted all that
-is knowable of the pains.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>II. The cause of the pains has been removed and nothing
-further remains to be removed of it. This is the second stage
-or aspect of the rise of prajñā.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>III. The nature of the extinction of pain has already
-been perceived by me in the state of samādhi, so that I have
-come to learn that the final extinction of my pain will be
-something like it.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>IV. The final discrimination of prakṛti and purusha, the
-true and immediate means of the extinction of pain, has been
-realised.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After this stage, nothing remains to be done by the purusha
-himself. For this is the attainment of final true knowledge.
-It is also called the para vairāgya. It is the highest consummation,
-in which the purusha has no further duties to
-perform. This is therefore called the kārya vimukti (or
-salvation depending on the endeavour of the purusha) or
-jīvanmukti.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After this follows the citta vimukti or the process of release
-of the purusha from the citta, in three stages.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>V. The aspect of the buddhi, which has finally finished its
-services to purusha by providing scope for purusha’s experiences
-and release; so that it has nothing else to perform
-for purusha. This is the first stage of the retirement of the
-citta.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>VI. As soon as this state is attained, like the falling of
-stones thrown from the summit of a hill, the guṇas cannot
-remain even for a moment to bind the purusha, but at once
-return back to their primal cause, the prakṛti; for the
-avidyā being rooted out, there is no tie or bond which can
-keep it connected with purusha and make it suffer changes
-for the service of purusha. All the purushārthatā being
-ended, the guṇas disappear of themselves.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>VII. The seventh and last aspect of the guṇas is that they
-never return back to bind purusha again, their teleological
-purpose being fulfilled or realised. It is of course easy to
-see that, in these last three stages, purusha has nothing to
-do; but the guṇas of their own nature suffer these backward
-modifications and return back to their own primal cause and
-leave the purusha kevalī (for ever solitary). <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>,
-II. 15.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vyāsa says that as the science of medicine has four divisions:
-(1) disease, (2) the cause of disease, (3) recovery, (4) medicines;
-so this Yoga philosophy has also four divisions, viz.: (I)
-Saṃsāra (the evolution of the prakṛti in connection with the
-purusha). (II) The cause of saṃsāra. (III) Release. (IV)
-The means of release.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Of these the first three have been described at some length
-above. We now direct our attention to the fourth. We have
-shown above that the ethical goal, the ideal to be realised,
-is absolute freedom or kaivalya, and we shall now consider
-the line of action that must be adopted to attain this goal—the
-<i>summum bonum</i>. All actions which tend towards the
-approximate realisation of this goal for man are called kuśala,
-and the man who achieves this goal is called kuśalī. It is
-in the inherent purpose of prakṛti that man should undergo
-pains which include all phenomenal experiences of pleasures
-as well, and ultimately adopt such a course of conduct as to
-avoid them altogether and finally achieve the true goal, the
-realisation of which will extinguish all pains for him for
-ever. The motive therefore which prompts a person towards
-this ethico-metaphysical goal is the avoidance of pain. An
-ordinary man feels pain only in actual pain, but a Yogin who
-is as highly sensitive as the eye-ball, feels pain in pleasure
-as well, and therefore is determined to avoid all experiences,
-painful or so-called pleasurable. The extinguishing of all
-experiences, however, is not the true ethical goal, being only
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>a means to the realisation of kaivalya or the true self and
-nature of the purusha. But this means represents the highest
-end of a person, the goal beyond which all his duties cease;
-for after this comes kaivalya which naturally manifests itself
-on the necessary retirement of the prakṛti. Purusha has
-nothing to do in effectuating this state, which comes of itself.
-The duties of the purusha cease with the thorough extinguishing
-of all his experiences. This therefore is the means of
-extinguishing all his pains, which are the highest end of all
-his duties; but the complete extinguishing of all pains is
-identical with the extinguishing of all experiences, the states
-or vṛttis of consciousness, and this again is identical with the
-rise of prajñā or true discriminative knowledge of the difference
-in nature of prakṛti and its effects from the purusha—the
-unchangeable. These three sides are only the three aspects
-of the same state which immediately precede kaivalya. The
-prajñā aspect is the aspect of the highest knowledge, the
-suppression of the states of consciousness or experiences,
-and it is the aspect of the cessation of all conscious activity
-and of painlessness or the extinguishing of all pains as the
-feeling aspect of the same nirvīja—samādhi state. But when
-the student directs his attention to this goal in his ordinary
-states of experience, he looks at it from the side of the feeling
-aspect, viz. that of acquiring a state of painlessness, and as
-a means thereto he tries to purify the mind and be moral
-in all his actions, and begins to restrain and suppress his
-mental states, in order to acquire this nirvīja or seedless state.
-This is the sphere of conduct which is called Yogāṅga.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Of course there is a division of duties according to the
-advancement of the individual, as we shall have occasion to
-show hereafter. This suppression of mental states which
-has been described as the means of attaining final release,
-the ultimate ethical goal of life, is called Yoga. We have
-said before that of the five kinds of mind—kshipta, mūḍha,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>vikshipta, ekāgra, niruddha—only the last two are fit for the
-process of Yoga and ultimately acquire absolute freedom.
-In the other three, though concentration may occasionally
-happen, yet there is no extrication of the mind from the
-afflictions of avidyā and consequently there is no final release.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XI<br> <span class='c013'>YOGA PRACTICE</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>The Yoga which, after weakening the hold of the afflictions
-and causing the real truth to dawn upon our mental vision,
-gradually leads us towards the attainment of our final goal,
-is only possible for the last two kinds of minds and is of two
-kinds: (1) samprajñāta (cognitive) and (2) asamprajñāta
-(ultra-cognitive). The samprajñāta Yoga is that in which
-the mind is concentrated upon some object, external or internal,
-in such a way that it does not oscillate or move from
-one object to another, but remains fixed and settled in the
-object that it holds before itself. At first, the Yogin holds
-a gross material object before his view, but when he can make
-himself steady in doing this, he tries with the subtle tanmātras,
-the five causes of the grosser elements, and when he is successful
-in this he takes his internal senses as his object and last
-of all, when he has fully succeeded in these attempts, he
-takes the great egohood as his object, in which stage his object
-gradually loses all its determinate character and he is said
-to be in a state of suppression in himself, although devoid of
-any object. This state, like the other previous states of the
-samprajñāta type, is a positive state of the mind and not a
-mere state of vacuity of objects or negativity. In this state,
-all determinate character of the states disappears and their
-potencies only remain alive. In the first stages of a Yogin
-practising samādhi conscious states of the lower stages often
-intervene, but gradually, as the mind becomes fixed, the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>potencies of the lower stages are overcome by the potencies of
-this stage, so that the mind flows in a calm current and at
-last the higher prajñā dawns, whereupon the potencies of
-this state also are burnt and extinguished, the citta returns
-back to its own primal cause, prakṛti, and purusha attains
-absolute freedom.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The first four stages of the samprajñāta state are called
-<i>madhumatī</i>, <i>madhupratīka</i>, <i>viśoka</i> and the <i>saṃskāraśesha</i>
-and also <i>vitarkānugata</i>, <i>vicārānugata</i>, <i>ānandānugata</i> and
-<i>asmitānugata</i>. True knowledge begins to dawn from the first
-stage of this samprajñāta state, and when the Yogin reaches
-the last stage the knowledge reaches its culminating point,
-but still so long as the potencies of the lower stages of relative
-knowledge remain, the knowledge cannot obtain absolute
-certainty and permanency, as it will always be threatened
-with a possible encroachment by the other states of the past
-phenomenal activity now existing as the subconscious.
-But the last stage of asamprajñāta samādhi represents the
-stage in which the ordinary consciousness has been altogether
-surpassed and the mind is in its own true infinite aspect,
-and the potencies of the stages in which the mind was full of
-finite knowledge are also burnt, so that with the return of
-the citta to its primal cause, final emancipation is effected.
-The last state of samprajñāta samādhi is called saṃskāraśesha,
-only because here the residua of the potencies of subconscious
-thought only remain and the actual states of consciousness
-become all extinct. It is now easy to see that no mind which
-is not in the ekāgra or one-pointed state can be fit for the
-asamprajñāta samādhi in which it has to settle itself on one
-object and that alone. So also no mind which has not risen
-to the state of highest suppression is fit for the asamprajñāta
-or nirvīja state.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is now necessary to come down to a lower level and
-examine the obstructions, on account of which a mind cannot
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>easily become one-pointed or ekāgra. These, nine in number,
-are the following:—</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Disease, languor, indecision, want of the mental requirements
-necessary for samādhi, idleness of body and mind,
-attachment to objects of sense, false and illusory knowledge,
-non-attainment of the state of concentrated contemplation,
-unsteadiness and unstability of the mind in a samādhi state
-even if it can somehow attain it. These are again seen to be
-accompanied with pain and despair owing to the non-fulfilment
-of desire, physical shakiness or unsteadiness of the limbs,
-taking in of breath and giving out of it, which are seen to
-follow the nine distractions of a distracted mind described
-above.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To prevent these distractions and their accompaniments it
-is necessary that we should practise concentration on one
-truth. Vācaspati says that this one truth on which the mind
-should be settled and fixed is Īśvara, and Rāmānanda
-Sarasvatī and Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha agree with him. Vijñāna
-Bhikshu, however, says that one truth means any object,
-gross or fine, and Bhoja supports Vijñāna Bhikshu, staying
-that here “one truth” might mean any desirable object.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Abhyāsa means the steadiness of the mind in one state
-and not complete absence of any state; for the Bhāshyakāra
-himself has said in the samāpattisūtra, that samprajñāta
-trance comes after this steadiness. As we shall see
-later, it means nothing but the application of the five means,
-śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi and prajñā; it is an endeavour
-to settle the mind on one state, and as such does not differ
-from the application of the five means of Yoga with a view to
-settle and steady the mind (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 13). This effort
-becomes firmly rooted, being well attended to for a long time
-without interruption and with devotion.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now it does not matter very much whether this one truth is
-Īśvara or any other object; for the true principle of Yoga is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>the setting of the mind on one truth, principle or object. But
-for an ordinary man this is no easy matter; for in order to be
-successful the mind must be equipped with śraddhā or faith—the
-firm conviction of the Yogin in the course that he adopts.
-This keeps the mind steady, pleased, calm and free from
-doubts of any kind, so that the Yogin may proceed to the
-realisation of his object without any vacillation. Unless a
-man has a firm hold on the course that he pursues, all the
-steadiness that he may acquire will constantly be threatened
-with the danger of a sudden collapse. It will be seen that
-vairāgya or desirelessness is only the negative aspect of this
-śraddhā. For by it the mind is restrained from the objects of
-sense, with an aversion or dislike towards the objects of sensual
-pleasure and worldly desires; this aversion towards worldly
-joys is only the other aspect of the faith of the mind and the
-calmness of its currents (<i>cittaprasāda</i>) towards right knowledge
-and absolute freedom. So it is said that the vairāgya
-is the effect of śraddhā and its product (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 20).
-In order to make a person suitable for Yoga, vairāgya
-represents the cessation of the mind from the objects of sense
-and their so-called pleasures, and śraddhā means the positive
-faith of the mind in the path of Yoga that one adopts, and the
-right aspiration towards attaining the highest goal of absolute
-freedom.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In its negative aspect, vairāgya is of two kinds, apara and
-para. The apara is that of a mind free from attachment to
-worldly enjoyments, such as women, food, drinks and power,
-as also from thirst for heavenly pleasures attainable by
-practising the vedic rituals and sacrifices. Those who are
-actuated by apara vairāgya do not desire to remain in a
-bodiless state (<i>videha</i>) merged in the senses or merged in the
-prakṛti (<i>prakṛtilīna</i>). It is a state in which the mind is indifferent
-to all kinds of pleasures and pains. This vairāgya
-may be said to have four stages: (1) Yatamāna—in which
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>sensual objects are discovered to be defective and the mind
-recoils from them. (2) Vyatireka—in which the senses to be
-conquered are noted. (3) Ekendriya—in which attachment
-towards internal pleasures and aversion towards external
-pains, being removed, the mind sets before it the task of
-removing attachment and aversion towards mental passions
-for obtaining honour or avoiding dishonour, etc. (4) The
-fourth and last stage of vairāgya called vaśīkāra is that in
-which the mind has perceived the futility of all attractions
-towards external objects of sense and towards the pleasures
-of heaven, and having suppressed them altogether feels no
-attachment, even should it come into connection with them.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>With the consummation of this last stage of apara vairāgya,
-comes the para vairāgya which is identical with the rise of
-the final prajñā leading to absolute independence. This
-vairāgya, śraddhā and the abhyāsa represent the unafflicted
-states (aklishṭavṛtti) which suppress gradually the klishṭa or
-afflicted mental states. These lead the Yogin from one stage
-to another, and thus he proceeds higher and higher until the
-final state is attained.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>As vairāgya advances, śraddhā also advances; from
-śraddhā comes vīrya, energy, or power of concentration
-(<i>dhāraṇā</i>); and from it again springs smṛti—or continuity of
-one object of thought; and from it comes samādhi or cognitive
-and ultra-cognitive trance; after which follows prajñā,
-cognitive and ultra-cognitive trance; after which follows
-prajñā and final release. Thus by the inclusion of śraddhā
-within vairāgya, its effect, and the other products of śraddhā
-with abhyāsa, we see that the abhyāsa and vairāgya are the
-two internal means for achieving the final goal of the Yogin,
-the supreme suppression and extinction of all states of
-consciousness, of all afflictions and the avidyā—the last state
-of supreme knowledge or prajñā.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>As śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi which are not different
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>from vairāgya and abhyāsa (they being only their other
-aspects or simultaneous products), are the means of attaining
-Yoga, it is possible to make a classification of the Yogins
-according to the strength of these with each, and the strength
-of the quickness (<i>saṃvega</i>) with which they may be applied
-towards attaining the goal of the Yogin. Thus Yogins are of
-nine kinds:—</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(1) mildly energetic, (2) of medium energy, (3) of intense
-energy.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Each of these may vary in a threefold way according to the
-mildness, medium state, or intensity of quickness or readiness
-with which the Yogin may apply the means of attaining Yoga.
-There are nine kinds of Yogins. Of these the best is he whose
-mind is most intensely engaged and whose practice is also the
-strongest.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is a difference of opinion here about the meaning of
-the word saṃvega, between Vācaspati and Vijñāna Bhikshu.
-The former says that saṃvega means vairāgya here, but the
-latter holds that saṃvega cannot mean vairāgya, and
-vairāgya being the effect of śraddhā cannot be taken separately
-from it. “Saṃvega” means quickness in the performance
-of the means of attaining Yoga; some say that it means
-“vairāgya.” But that is not true, for if vairāgya is an effect
-of the due performance of the means of Yoga, there cannot be
-the separate ninefold classification of Yoga apart from the
-various degrees of intensity of the means of Yoga practice.
-Further, the word “saṃvega” does not mean “vairāgya”
-etymologically (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 20).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We have just seen that śraddhā, etc., are the means of
-attaining Yoga, but we have not discussed what purificatory
-actions an ordinary man must perform in order to attain śraddhā,
-from which the other requisites are derived. Of course
-these purificatory actions are not the same for all, since they
-must necessarily depend upon the conditions of purity or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>impurity of each mind; thus a person already in an advanced
-state, may not need to perform those purificatory actions necessary
-for a man in a lower state. We have just said that Yogins
-are of nine kinds, according to the strength of their mental
-acquirements—śraddhā, etc.—the requisite means of Yoga
-and the degree of rapidity with which they may be applied.
-Neglecting division by strength or quickness of application
-along with these mental requirements, we may again divide
-Yogins again into three kinds: (1) Those who have the best
-mental equipment. (2) Those who are mediocres. (3) Those
-who have low mental equipment.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In the first chapter of Yoga aphorisms, it has been stated
-that abhyāsa, the application of the mental acquirements of
-śraddhā, etc., and vairāgya, the consequent cessation of the
-mind from objects of distraction, lead to the extinction of all
-our mental states and to final release. When a man is well
-developed, he may rest content with his mental actions alone,
-in his abhyāsa and vairāgya, in his dhāraṇā (concentration),
-dhyāna (meditation), and samādhi (trance), which may be
-called the jñānayoga. But it is easy to see that this jñānayoga
-requires very high mental powers and thus is not within easy
-reach of ordinary persons. Ordinary persons whose minds are
-full of impurities, must pass through a certain course of
-purificatory actions before they can hope to obtain those
-mental acquirements by which they can hope to follow the
-course of jñānayoga with facility.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These actions, which remove the impurities of the mind,
-and thus gradually increase the lustre of knowledge, until the
-final state of supreme knowledge is acquired, are called
-kriyāyoga. They are also called yogāṅgas, as they help the
-maturity of the Yoga process by gradually increasing the
-lustre of knowledge. They represent the means by which
-even an ordinary mind (<i>vikshiptacitta</i>) may gradually purify
-itself and become fit for the highest ideals of Yoga. Thus the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span><cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: “By the sustained practice of these yogāṅgas
-or accessories of Yoga is destroyed the fivefold unreal
-cognition (<i>avidyā</i>), which is of the nature of impurity.” Destruction
-means here disappearance; thus when that is destroyed,
-real knowledge is manifested. As the means of achievement
-are practised more and more, so is the impurity more and more
-attenuated. And as more and more of it is destroyed, so does
-the light of wisdom go on increasing more and more. This
-process reaches its culmination in discriminative knowledge,
-which is knowledge of the nature of purusha and the guṇas.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XII<br> <span class='c013'>THE YOGĀṄGAS</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>Now the assertion that these actions are the causes of the
-attainment of salvation brings up the question of the exact
-natures of their operation with regard to this supreme attainment.
-Bhāshyakara says with respect to this that they are the
-causes of the separation of the impurities of the mind just as an
-axe is the cause of the splitting of a piece of wood; and again
-they are the causes of the attainment of the supreme knowledge
-just as dhaṛma is the cause of happiness. It must be
-remembered that according to the Yoga theory causation is
-viewed as mere transformation of energy; the operation of
-concomitant causes only removes obstacles impeding the
-progress of these transformations in a particular direction; no
-cause can of itself produce any effect, and the only way in
-which it can help the production of an effect into which the
-causal state passes out of its own immanent energy by the
-principles of conservation and transformation of energy, is by
-removing the intervening obstacles. Thus just as the passage
-of citta into a happy state is helped by dharma removing
-the intervening obstacles, so also the passage of the citta into
-the state of attainment of true knowledge is helped by the
-removal of obstructions due to the performance of the
-yogāṅgas; the necessary obstructions being removed, the
-citta passes naturally of itself into this infinite state of
-attainment of true knowledge, in which all finitude is
-merged.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>In connection with this, Vyāsa mentions nine kinds of
-operation of causes: (1) cause of birth; (2) of preservation;
-(3) of manifestation; (4) of modification; (5) knowledge of a
-premise leading to a deduction; (6) of otherness; (7) of
-separation; (8) of attainment; (9) of upholding (<cite>Vyāsabhāshya</cite>,
-II. 28.)</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The principle of conservation of energy and transformation
-of energy being the root idea of causation in this system,
-these different aspects represent the different points of view
-in which the word causation is generally used.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus, the first aspect as the cause of birth or production
-is seen when knowledge springs from manas which renders
-indefinite cognition definite so that mind is called the cause of
-the birth of knowledge. Here mind is the material cause
-(<i>upādāna kāraṇa</i>) of the production of knowledge, for knowledge
-is nothing but manas with its particular modifications as
-states (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 18). The difference of these positive
-cause from <i>āptikāraṇa</i>, which operates only in a negative way
-and helps production, in an indirect way by the removal of
-obstacles, is quite manifest. The <i>sthitikāraṇa</i> or cause
-through which things are preserved as they are, is the end
-they serve; thus the serviceability of purusha is the cause of
-the existence and preservation of the mind as it is, and not
-only of mind but of all our phenomenal experiences.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The third cause of the <i>abhivyaktikāraṇa</i> or manifestation
-which is compared to a lamp which manifests things before
-our view is an epistemological cause, and as such includes all
-sense activity in connection with material objects which
-produce cognition.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Then come the fourth and the fifth causes, vikāra (change)
-and pratyaya (inseparable connection); thus the cause of
-change (<i>vikāra</i>) is exemplified as that which causes a change;
-thus the manas suffers a change by the objects presented to it,
-just as bile changes and digests the food that is eaten; the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>cause of pratyaya<a id='r41'></a><a href='#f41' class='c014'><sup>[41]</sup></a> is that in which from inseparable connection,
-with the knowledge of the premise (e.g. there is smoke in the
-hill) we can also have inferential knowledge of the other (e.g.
-there is fire in the hill). The sixth cause as otherness (<i>anyatva</i>)
-is that which effects changes of form as that brought about by
-a goldsmith in gold when he makes a bangle from it, and then
-again a necklace, is regarded as differing from the change
-spoken of as vikāra. Now the difference between the gold
-being turned into bangles or necklaces and the raw rice being
-turned into soft rice is this, that in the former case when
-bangles are made out of gold, the gold remains the same in
-each case, whereas in the case of the production of cooked
-rice from raw by fire, the case is different, for heat changes
-paddy in a far more definite way; goldsmith and heat
-are both indeed efficient causes, but the former only effects
-mechanical changes of shape and form, whereas the latter
-is the cause of structural and chemical changes. Of course
-these are only examples from the physical world, their causal
-operations in the mental sphere varying in a corresponding
-manner; thus the change produced in the mind by the
-presentation of different objects, follows a law which is the
-same as is found in the physical world, when the same object
-causes different kinds of feelings in different persons; when
-ignorance causes forgetfulness in a thing, anger makes it
-painful and desire makes it pleasurable, but knowledge of its
-true reality produces indifference; there is thus the same kind
-of causal change as is found in the external world. Next
-for consideration is the cause of separation (<i>viyoga</i>) which is
-only a negative aspect of the positive side of the causes of
-transformations, as in the gradual extinction of impurities,
-consequent upon the transformation of the citta towards the
-attainment of the supreme state of absolute independence
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>through discriminative knowledge. The last cause for consideration
-is that of upholding (<i>dhṛti</i>); thus the body upholds
-the senses and supports them for the actualisation of their
-activities in the body, just as the five gross elements are the
-upholding causes of organic bodies; the bodies of animals,
-men, etc., also employ one another for mutual support. Thus
-the human body lives by eating the bodies of many animals;
-the bodies of tigers, etc., live on the bodies of men and other
-animals; many animals live on the bodies of plants, etc.
-(<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, II. 28). The four kinds of causes mentioned
-in Śaṅkara’s works and grammatical commentaries like that
-of Susheṇa, viz.: utpādya, vikāryya, āpya and saṃskāryya,
-are all included within the nine causes contained mentioned by
-Vyāsa.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The yogāṅgas not only remove the impurities of the mind
-but help it further by removing obstacles in the way of attaining
-the highest perfection of discriminative knowledge. Thus
-they are the causes in a double sense (1) of the dissociation of
-impurities (<i>viyogakāraṇa</i>); (2) of removing obstacles which
-impede the course of the mind in attaining the highest development
-(<i>āptikāraṇa</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Coming now to the yogāṅgas, we enumerate them thus:—restraint,
-observance, posture, regulation of breath, abstraction,
-concentration, meditation and trance: these are the
-eight accessories of Yoga.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It must be remembered that abhyāsa and vairāgya and
-also the five means of attaining Yoga, viz.: śraddhā, vīryya,
-etc., which are not different from abhyāsa and vairāgya, are
-by their very nature included within the yogāṅgas mentioned
-above, and are not to be considered as independent means
-different from them. The parikarmas or embellishments of
-the mind spoken of in the first chapter, with which we shall
-deal later on, are also included under the three yogāṅgas
-dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi. The five means śraddhā,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>vīryya, smṛti, samādhi and prajñā are said to be included
-under asceticism (<i>tapaḥ</i>) studies (<i>svādhyāya</i>) and devotion to
-God of the niyamas and vairāgya in contentment.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In order to understand these better, we will first give the
-definitions of the yogāṅgas and then discuss them and
-ascertain their relative values for a man striving to attain the
-highest perfection of Yoga.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I. Yama (restraint). These yama restraints are: abstinence
-from injury (ahiṃsā); veracity; abstinence from theft;
-continence; abstinence from avarice.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>II. Niyama (observances). These observances are cleanliness,
-contentment, purificatory action, study and the making
-of God the motive of all action.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>III. Āsanas (posture). Steady posture and easy position
-are regarded as an aid to breath control.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>IV. Regulation of breath (prāṇāyāma) is the stoppage of
-the inspiratory and expiratory movements (of breath) which
-may be practised when steadiness of posture has been secured.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>V. Pratyāhāra (abstraction). With the control of the mind
-all the senses become controlled and the senses imitate as it
-were the vacant state of the mind. Abstraction is that by
-which the senses do not come in contact with their objects
-and follow as it were the nature of the mind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>VI. Dhāraṇā (concentration). Concentration is the steadfastness
-of the mind applied to a particular object.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>VII. Dhyāna (mediation). The continuation there of the
-mental effort by continually repeating the object is meditation
-(dhyāna).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>VIII. Samādhi (trance contemplation). The same as above
-when shining with the light of the object alone, and devoid as
-it were of itself, is trance. In this state the mind becomes one
-with its object and there is no difference between the knower
-and the known.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These are the eight yogāṅgas which a Yogin must adopt for
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>his higher realisation. Of these again we see that some have
-the mental side more predominant, while others are mostly
-to be actualised in exterior action. Dhāraṇā, dhyāna and
-samādhi, which are purely of the samprajñāta type, and also
-the prāṇāyāma and pratyāhāra, which are accessories to them,
-serve to cleanse the mind of impurities and make it steady, and
-can therefore be assimilated with the parikarmas mentioned
-in Book I. Sūtras 34–39. These samādhis of the samprajñāta
-type, of course, only serve to steady the mind and to assist
-attaining discriminative knowledge.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In this connection, it will be well to mention the remaining
-aids for cleansing the mind as mentioned in <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite> I.,
-viz. the cultivation of the habits of friendliness, compassion,
-complacency and indifference towards happiness, misery,
-virtue and vice.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This means that we are to cultivate the habit of friendliness
-towards those who are happy, which will remove all jealous
-feelings and purify the mind. We must cultivate the habit
-of compassion towards those who are suffering pain; when
-the mind shows compassion (which means that it wishes to
-remove the miseries of others as if they were his own) it
-becomes cleansed of the stain of desire to do injury to
-others, for compassion is only another name for sympathy
-which naturally identifies the compassionate one with the
-objects of his sympathy. Next comes the habit of complacency,
-which one should diligently cultivate, for it leads
-to pleasure in virtuous deeds. This removes the stain of envy
-from the mind. Next comes the habit of indifference, which
-we should acquire towards vice in vicious persons. We should
-acquire the habit of remaining indifferent where we cannot
-sympathise; we should not on any account get angry with
-the wicked or with those with whom sympathy is not possible.
-This will remove the stain of anger. It will be clearly seen
-here that maītrī, karuṇā, muditā and upekshā are only
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>different aspects of universal sympathy, which should remove
-all perversities in our nature and unite us with our fellow-beings.
-This is the positive aspect of the mind with reference
-to abstinence from injuring ahiṃsā (mentioned under yamas),
-which will cleanse the mind and make it fit for the application
-of means of śraddhā, etc. For unless the mind is pure,
-there is no scope for the application of the means of making
-it steady. These are the mental endeavours to cleanse the
-mind and to make it fit for the proper manifestation of
-śraddhā, etc., and for steadying it with a view to attaining
-true discriminative knowledge.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Again of the parikarmas by dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and saṃprajñāta
-samādhi and the habit of sympathy as manifested
-in maitrī, karuṇā, etc., the former is a more advanced
-state of the extinction of impurities than the latter.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But it is easy to see that ordinary minds can never commence
-with these practices. They are naturally so impure
-that the positive universal sympathy as manifested
-in maitrī, etc., by which turbidity of mind is removed,
-is too difficult. It is also difficult for them to keep the
-mind steady on an object as in dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and
-samādhi, for only those in advanced stages can succeed
-in this. For ordinary people, therefore, some course of
-conduct must be discovered by which they can purify their
-minds and elevate them to such an extent that they may be
-in a position to avail themselves of the mental parikarmas or
-purifications just mentioned. Our minds become steady in
-proportion as their impurities are cleansed. The cleansing
-of impurities only represents the negative aspect of the
-positive side of making the mind steady. The grosser impurities
-being removed, finer ones remain, and these are removed
-by the mental parikarmas, supplemented by abhyāsa or by
-śraddhā, etc. As the impurities are gradually more and more
-attenuated, the last germs of impurity are destroyed by the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>force of dhyāna or the habit of nirodha samādhi, and kaivalya
-is attained.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We now deal with yamas, by which the gross impurities
-of ordinary minds are removed. They are, as we have said
-before, non-injury, truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, and
-non-covetousness; of these non-injury is given such a high
-place that it is regarded as the root of the other yamas;
-truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, non-covetousness and
-the other niyamas mentioned previously only serve to make
-the non-injury perfect. We have seen before that maitrī,
-karuṇa, muditā and upekshā serve to strengthen the non-injury
-since they are only its positive aspects, but we see now
-that not only they but other yamas and also the other niyamas,
-purity, contentment, asceticism, studies and devotion to
-God, only serve to make non-injury more and more perfect.
-This non-injury when it is performed without being limited
-or restricted in any way by caste, country, time and circumstances,
-and is always adhered to, is called mahāvrata or
-the great duty of abstinence from injury. It is sometimes
-limited to castes, as for example injury inflicted by a fisherman,
-and in this case it is called anuvrata or restricted ahiṃsā
-of ordinary men as opposed to universal ahiṃsā of the Yogins
-called mahāvrata; the same non-injury is limited by locality,
-as in the case of a man who says to himself, “I shall not
-cause injury at a sacred place”; or by time, when a person
-says to himself, “I shall not cause injury on the sacred day of
-Caturdaśī”; or by circumstances, as when a man says to
-himself, “I shall cause injury for the sake of gods and Brahmans
-only”; or when injury is caused by warriors in the
-battle-field alone and nowhere else. This restricted ahiṃsā
-is only for ordinary men who cannot follow the Yogin’s
-universal law of ahiṃsā.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Ahiṃsā is a great universal duty which a man should
-impose on himself in all conditions of life, everywhere, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>at all times without restricting or qualifying it with any
-limitation whatsoever. In <cite>Mahābhārata Mokshadharmādhyāya</cite>
-it is said that the Sāṃkhya lays stress upon non-injury,
-whereas the Yoga lays stress upon samādhi; but
-here we see that Yoga also holds that ahiṃsā should be the
-greatest ethical motive for all our conduct. It is by ahiṃsā
-alone that we can make ourselves fit for the higher type of
-samādhi. All other virtues of truthfulness, non-stealing only
-serve to make non-injury more and more perfect. It is not,
-however, easy to say whether the Sāṃkhyists attached so
-much importance to non-injury that they believed it to lead
-to samādhi directly without the intermediate stages of
-samādhi. We see, however, that the Yoga also attaches great
-importance to it and holds that a man should refrain from all
-external acts; for however good they may be they cannot
-be such as not to lead to some kind of injury or
-hiṃsā towards beings, for external actions can never be
-performed without doing some harm to others. We have seen
-that from this point of view Yoga holds that the only pure
-works (śuklakarma) are those mental works of good thoughts
-in which perfection of ahiṃsā is attained. With the growth
-of good works (śuklakarma) and the perfect realisation of
-non-injury the mind naturally passes into the state in which
-its actions are neither good (śukla) nor bad (aśukla); and
-this state is immediately followed by that of kaivalya.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Veracity consists in word and thought being in accordance
-with facts. Speech and mind correspond to what has been
-seen, heard and inferred. Speech is for the purpose of transferring
-knowledge to another. It is always to be employed
-for the good of others and not for their injury; for it should
-not be defective as in the case of Yudhishṭhira, where his
-motive was bad.<a id='r42'></a><a href='#f42' class='c014'><sup>[42]</sup></a> If it prove to be injurious to living beings,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>even though uttered as truth, it is not truth; it is sin only.
-Though outwardly such a truthful course may be considered
-virtuous, yet since by his truth he has caused injury to another
-person, he has in reality violated the true standard of non-injury
-(<i>ahiṃsā</i>). Therefore let everyone first examine well and
-then utter truth for the benefit of all living beings. All truths
-should be tested by the canon of non-injury (<i>ahiṃsā</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Asteya is the virtue of abstaining from stealing. Theft is
-making one’s own unlawfully things that belong to others.
-Abstinence from theft consists in the absence of the desire
-thereof.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Brahmacaryya (continence) is the restraint of the generative
-organ and the thorough control of sexual tendencies.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Aparigraha is want of avariciousness, the non-appropriation
-of things not one’s own; this is attained on seeing the defects
-of attachment and of the injury caused by the obtaining,
-preservation and destruction of objects of sense.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If, in performing the great duty of non-injury and the other
-virtues auxiliary to it, a man be troubled by thoughts of sin,
-he should try to remove sinful ideas by habituating himself to
-those which are contrary to them. Thus if the old habit of
-sins opposed to virtues tend to drive him along the wrong
-path, he should in order to banish them entertain ideas such as
-the following:—“Being burnt up as I am in the fires of the
-world, I have taken refuge in the practice of Yoga which gives
-protection to all living beings. Were I to resume the sins
-which I have abandoned, I should certainly be behaving like
-a dog, which eats its own vomit. As the dog takes up his own
-vomit, so should I be acting if I were to take up again what I
-have once given up.” This is called the practice of <i>pratipaksha
-bhāvān</i>, meditating on the opposites of the temptations.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A classification of sins of non-injury, etc., may be made
-according as they are actually done, or caused to be done, or
-permitted to be done; and these again may be further divided
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>according as they are preceded by desire, anger or ignorance;
-these are again mild, middling or intense. Thus we see that
-there may be twenty-seven kinds of such sins. Mild, middling
-and intense are each again threefold, mild-mild, mild-middling
-and mild-intense; middling-mild, middling-middling and
-middling-intense; also intense-mild, intense-middling and
-intense-intense. Thus there are eighty-one kinds of sins. But
-they become infinite on account of rules of restriction, option
-and conjunction.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The contrary tendency consists in the notion that these
-immoral tendencies cause an infinity of pains and untrue
-knowledge. Pain and unwisdom are the unending fruits of
-these immoral tendencies, and in this idea lies the power which
-produces the habit of giving a contrary trend to our thoughts.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These yamas, together with the niyamas about to be
-described, are called kriyāyoga, by the performance of which
-men become fit to rise gradually to the state of jñānayoga by
-samādhi and to attain kaivalya. This course thus represents
-the first stage with which ordinary people should begin their
-Yoga work.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Those more advanced, who naturally possess the virtues
-mentioned in Yama, have no need of beginning here.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus it is said that some may begin with the niyamas,
-asceticism, svādhyāya and devotion to God; it is for this
-reason that, though mentioned under the niyamas, they are
-also specially selected and spoken of as the kriyāyoga in the
-very first rule of the second Book. Asceticism means the
-strength of remaining unchanged in changes like that of heat
-and cold, hunger and thirst, standing and sitting, absence of
-speech and absence of all indications by gesture, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Svādhyāya means the study of philosophy and repetition of
-the syllable “Aum.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This Īśvarapraṇidhāna (devotion to God) is different from
-the Īśvarapraṇidhāna mentioned in <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, I. 23, where it
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>meant love, homage and adoration of God, by virtue of which
-God by His grace makes samādhi easy for the Yogin.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Here it is a kind of kriyāyoga, and hence it means the
-bestowal of all our actions upon the Great Teacher, God, i.e.
-to work, not for one’s own self but for God, so that a man
-desists from all desires for fruit therefrom.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When these are duly performed, the afflictions become
-gradually attenuated and trance is brought about. The
-afflictions thus attenuated become characterised by unproductiveness,
-and when their seed-power has, as it were, been
-burnt up by the fire of high intellection and the mind
-untouched by afflictions realises the distinct natures of
-purusha and sattva, it naturally returns to its own primal
-cause prakṛti and kaivalya is attained.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Those who are already far advanced do not require even
-this kriyāyoga, as their afflictions are already in an attenuated
-state and their minds in a fit condition to adapt themselves
-to samādhi; they can therefore begin at once with jñānayoga.
-So in the first chapter it is with respect to these advanced men
-that it is said that kaivalya can be attained by abhyāsa and
-vairāgya, without adopting the kriyāyoga (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 2)
-kriyāyogas. Only śauca and santosha now remain to be
-spoken of. Śauca means cleanliness of body and mind.
-Cleanliness of body is brought about by water, cleanliness of
-mind by removal of the mental impurities of pride, jealousy
-and vanity.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Santosha (contentment) is the absence of desire to possess
-more than is necessary for the preservation of one’s life. It
-should be added that this is the natural result of ceasing to
-desire to appropriate the property of others.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>At the close of this section on the yamas and niyamas, it
-is best to note their difference, which lies principally in this
-that the former are the negative virtues, whereas the latter are
-positive. The former can, and therefore must, be practised at
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>all stages of Yoga, whereas the latter being positive are attainable
-only by distinct growth of mind through Yoga. The
-virtues of non-injury, truthfulness, sex restraint, etc., should
-be adhered to at all stages of the Yoga practice. They are
-indispensable for steadying the mind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is said that in the presence of a person who has acquired
-steadiness in ahiṃsā all animals give up their habits of enmity;
-when a person becomes steady in truthfulness, whatever he says
-becomes fulfilled. When a person becomes steady in asteya
-(absence of theft) all jewels from all quarters approach him.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Continence being confirmed, vigour is obtained. Non-covetousness
-being confirmed, knowledge of the causes of
-births is attained. By steadiness of cleanliness, disinclination
-to this body and cessation of desire for other bodies is
-obtained.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When the mind attains internal śauca, or cleanliness of
-mind, his sattva becomes pure, and he acquires highmindedness,
-one-pointedness, control of the senses and fitness for the
-knowledge of self. By the steadiness of contentment comes
-the acquisition of extreme happiness. By steadiness of
-asceticism the impurities of this body are removed, and
-from that come miraculous powers of endurance of the body
-and also miraculous powers of the sense, viz. clairaudience
-and thought-reading from a distance. By steadiness of
-studies the gods, the ṛshis and the siddhas become visible.
-When Īśvara is made the motive of all actions, trance is
-attained. By this the Yogin knows all that he wants to know,
-just as it is in reality, whether in another place, another body
-or another time. His intellect knows everything as it is.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It should not, however, be said, says Vācaspati, that
-inasmuch as the saṃprajñāta is attained by making Īśvara
-the motive of all actions, the remaining seven yogāṅgas are
-useless. For the yogāṅgas are useful in the attainment of that
-mental mood which devotes all actions to the purposes of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>Īśvara. They are also useful in the attainment of saṃprajñāta
-samādhi by separate kinds of collocations, and samādhi
-also leads to the fruition of saṃprajñāta, but though this
-meditation on Īśvara is itself a species of Īśvarapraṇidhāna,
-saṃprajñāta Yoga is a yet more direct means. As to the
-relation of Īśvarapraṇidhāna with the other aṅgas of Yoga,
-Bhikshu writes:—It cannot be asked what is the use of the
-other disciplinary practices of the Yoga since Yoga can be
-attained by meditation on Īśvara, for meditation on Īśvara
-only removes ignorance. The other accessories bring about
-samādhi by their own specific modes of operation. Moreover,
-it is by help of meditation on Īśvara that one succeeds in
-bringing about samādhi, through the performance of all the
-accessories of Yoga; so the accessories of Yoga cannot be
-regarded as unnecessary; for it is the accessories which
-produce dhāraṇa, dhyāna and samādhi, through meditation
-on God, and thereby salvation; devotion to God brings in His
-grace and through it the yogāṅgas can be duly performed. So
-though devotion to God may be considered as the direct cause,
-it cannot be denied that the due performance of the yogāṅgas
-is to be considered as the indirect cause.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Āsanas are secured when the natural involuntary movements
-cease, and this may be effected by concentrating
-the mind on the mythological snake which quietly bears the
-burden of the earth on its head. Thus posture becomes
-perfect and effort to that end ceases, so that there is no movement
-of the body; or the mind is transformed into the infinite,
-which makes the idea of infinity its own and then brings about
-the perfection of posture. When posture has once been
-mastered there is no disturbance through the contraries of
-heat and cold, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After having secured stability in the Āsanas the prāṇāyāmas
-should be attempted. The pause that comes after a deep
-inhalation and that after a deep exhalation are each called a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>prāṇāyāma; the first is external, the second internal. There
-is, however, a third mode, by means of which, since the lungs
-are neither too much dilated nor too much contracted, total
-restraint is obtained; cessation of both these motions takes
-place by a single effort, just as water thrown on a heated stone
-shrivels up on all sides.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These can be regulated by calculating the strength of
-inhalation and exhalation through space, time or number.
-Thus as the breathing becomes slower, the space that it
-occupies also becomes smaller and smaller. Space again is of
-two kinds, internal and external. At the time of inhalation,
-the breath occupies internal space, which can be felt even in the
-soles of hand and feet, like the slight touch of an ant. To try
-to feel this touch along with deep inhalation serves to lengthen
-the period of cessation of breathing. External space is the
-distance from the tip of the nose to the remotest point at
-which breath when inhaled can be felt, by the palm of the
-hand, or by the movement of any light substance like cotton,
-etc., placed there. Just as the breathing becomes slower and
-slower, the distances traversed by it also becomes smaller
-and smaller. Regulations by time is seen when the
-attention is fixed upon the time taken up in breathing by
-moments, a moment (<i>kshaṇa</i>) is the fourth part of the
-twinkling of the eye. Regulation by time thus means the fact
-of our calculating the strength of the prāṇāyāma the moments
-or kshaṇas spent in the acts of inspiration, pause and respiration.
-These prāṇāyāmas can also be measured by the number
-of moments in the normal duration of breaths. The time
-taken by the respiration and expiration of a healthy man is the
-same as that measured by snapping the fingers after turning
-the hand thrice over the knee and is the measure of duration of
-normal breath; the first attempt or udghāta called mild is
-measured by thirty-six such mātrās or measures; when doubled
-it is the second udghāta called middling; when trebled it is the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>third udghāta called intense. Gradually the Yogin acquires
-the practice of prāṇāyāma of long duration, by daily practice
-increasing in succession from a day, a fortnight, a month, etc.
-Of course he proceeds first by mastering the first udghāta, then
-the second, and so on until the duration increases up to a day,
-a fortnight, a month as stated. There is also a fourth kind of
-prāṇāyāma transcending all these stages of unsteady practice,
-when the Yogin is steady in his cessation of breath. It must
-be remembered, however, that while the prāṇāyāmas are being
-practised, the mind must be fixed by dhyāna and dhāraṇā to
-some object external or internal, without which these will be of
-no avail for the true object of Yoga. By the practice of prāṇāyāma,
-mind becomes fit for concentration as described in the
-<i>sūtra</i> I. 34, where it is said that steadiness is acquired by
-prāṇāyāma in the same way as concentration, as we also find
-in the <i>sūtra</i> II. 53.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When the senses are restrained from their external objects
-by pratyāhāra we have what is called pratyāhāra, by which
-the mind remains as if in its own nature, being altogether
-identified with the object of inner concentration or contemplation;
-and thus when the citta is again suppressed, the senses,
-which have already ceased coming into contact with other
-objects and become submerged in the citta, also cease along
-with it. Dharaṇa is the concentration of citta on a particular
-place, which is so very necessary at the time of prāṇāyāmas
-mentioned before. The mind may thus be held steadfast in
-such places as the sphere of the navel, the lotus of the heart,
-the light in the brain, the forepart of the nose, the forepart of
-the tongue, and such like parts of the body.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Dhyāna is the continuance or changing flow of the mental
-effort in the object of dharaṇa unmediated by any other break
-of conscious states.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Samādhi, or trance contemplation, results when by deep
-concentration mind becomes transformed into the shape of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>object of contemplation. By pratyāhāra or power of abstraction,
-mind desists from all other objects, except the one on
-which it is intended that it should be centred; the Yogin, as
-he thus abstracts his mind, should also try to fix it upon some
-internal or external object, which is called dhāraṇā; it must
-also be noticed that to acquire the habit of dhāraṇā and in
-order to inhibit the abstraction arising from shakiness and
-unsteadiness of the body, it is necessary to practise steadfast
-posture and to cultivate the prāṇāyāma. So too for the
-purpose of inhibiting distractions arising from breathing.
-Again, before a man can hope to attain steadfastness in these,
-he must desist from any conduct opposed to the yamas, and
-also acquire the mental virtues stated in the niyamas, and
-thus secure himself against any intrusion of distractions arising
-from his mental passions. These are the indirect and remote
-conditions which qualify a person for attaining dhāraṇā,
-dhyāna, and samādhi. A man who through his good deeds or
-by the grace of God is already so much advanced that he is
-naturally above all such distractions, for the removal of which
-it is necessary to practise the yamas, the niyamas, the āsanas,
-the prāṇāyāma and pratyāhara, may at once begin with
-dhāraṇā; dhāraṇā we have seen means concentration, with
-the advancement of which the mind becomes steady in
-repeating the object of its concentration, i.e. thinking of that
-thing alone and no other thing; thus we see that with the
-practice of this state called dhyāna, or meditation, in which
-the mind flows steadily in that one state without any interruption,
-gradually even the conscious flow of this activity
-ceases and the mind, transformed into the shape of the object
-under concentration, becomes steady therein. We see therefore
-that samādhi is the consummation of that process which
-begins in dhāraṇā or concentration. These three, dhāraṇā,
-dhyāna and samādhi, represent the three stages of the same
-process of which the last one is the perfection; and these three
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>are together technically called saṃyama, which directly leads
-to and is immediately followed by the samprajñāta state,
-whereas the other five yogāṅgas are only its indirect or remote
-causes. These three are, however, not essential for the asamprajñāta
-state, for a person who is very far advanced, or one
-who is the special object of God’s grace, may pass at once by
-intense vairāgya and abhyāsa into the nirodha state or state of
-suppression.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>As the knowledge of samādhi gradually dawns through
-the possession of saṃyama, so is the saṃyama gradually
-strengthened. For this saṃyama also rises higher and higher
-with the dawning of prajñāloka or light of samādhi knowledge.
-This is the beginning, for here the mind can hold saṃyama or
-concentrate and become one with a gross object together with
-its name, etc., which is called the savitarka state; the next
-plane or stage of saṃyama is that where the mind becomes one
-with the object of its meditation, without any consciousness
-of its name, etc. Next come the other two stages called
-savicāra and nirvicāra when the mind is fixed on subtle
-substances, as we shall see later on.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XIII<br> <span class='c013'>STAGES OF SAMĀDHI</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>Saṃprajñāta samādhi (absorptive concentration in an object)
-may be divided into four classes, savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra
-and nirvicāra.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To comprehend its scope we must first of all understand the
-relation between a thing, its concept, and the particular name
-with which the concept or thing is associated. It is easy to
-see that the thing (<i>artha</i>), the concept (<i>jñāna</i>), and the name
-(<i>śabda</i>) are quite distinct. But still, by force of association,
-the word or name stands both for the thing and its concept;
-the function of mind, by virtue of which despite this unreality
-or want of their having any real identity of connection they
-seem to be so much associated that the name cannot be
-differentiated from the thing or its idea, is called vikalpa.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now that state of samādhi in which the mind seems to
-become one with the thing, together with its name and
-concept, is the lowest stage of samādhi called savitarka; it is
-the lowest stage, because here the gross object does not appear
-to the mind in its true reality, but only in the false illusory way
-in which it appears associated with the concept and the name
-in ordinary life. This state does not differ from ordinary
-conceptual states, in which the particular thing is not only
-associated with the concepts and their names, but also with
-other concepts and their various relations; thus a cow will
-not only appear before the mind with its concept and name,
-but also along with other relations and thoughts associated
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>with cows, as for example—“This is a cow, it belongs to so
-and so, it has so many hairs on its body, and so forth.” This
-state is therefore the first stage of samādhi, in which the mind
-has not become steady and is not as yet beyond the range of
-our ordinary consciousness.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The nirvitarka stage arises from this when the mind by its
-steadiness can become one with its object, divested of all other
-associations of name and concept, so that it is in direct touch
-with the reality of the thing, uncontaminated by associations.
-The thing in this state does not appear to be an object of my
-consciousness, but my consciousness becoming divested of all
-“I” or “mine,” becomes one with the object itself; so that
-there is no such notion here as “I know this,” but the mind
-becomes one with the thing, so that the notion of subject and
-object drops off and the result is the one steady transformation
-of the mind into the object of its contemplation. This state
-brings home to us real knowledge of the thing, divested from
-other false and illusory associations, which far from explaining
-the real nature of the object, serves only to hide it. This
-samādhi knowledge or prajñā is called nirvitarka. The objects
-of this state may be the gross material objects and the
-senses.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now this state is followed by the state of savicārā prajñā,
-which dawns when the mind neglecting the grossness of the
-object sinks deeper and deeper into its finer constituents;
-the appearance of the thing in its grosser aspects drops off
-and the mind having sunk deep, centres in and identifies itself
-with the subtle tanmātras, which are the constituents of the
-atoms, as a conglomeration of which the object appeared before
-our eyes in the nirvitarka state. Thus when the mind, after
-identifying itself with the sun in its true aspect as pure light,
-tends to settle on a still finer state of it, either by making the
-senses so steady that the outward appearance vanishes, or by
-seeking finer and finer stages than the grosser manifestation of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>light as such, it apprehends the tanmātric state of the light
-and knows it as such, and we have what is called the savicāra
-stage. It has great similarities with the savitarka stage, while
-its differences from that stage spring from the fact that here
-the object is the tanmātra and not the gross bhūta. The mind
-in this stage holding communion with the rūpa tanmātra, for
-example, is not coloured variously as red, blue, etc., as in the
-savitarka communion with gross light, for the tanmātric light
-or light potential has no such varieties as different kinds of
-colour, etc., so that there are also no such different kinds of
-feeling of pleasure or pain as arise from the manifold varieties
-of ordinary light. This is a state of feelingless representation
-of one uniform tanmātric state, when the object appears
-as a conglomeration of tanmātras of rūpa, rasa or gandha, as
-the case might be. This state, however, is not indeterminate, as
-the nirvitarka stage, for this tanmātric conception is associated
-with the notions of time, space and causality, for the mind
-here feels that it sees those tanmātras which are in such a
-subtle state that they are not associated with pleasures and
-pains. They are also endowed with causality in such a way
-that from them and their particular collocations originate the
-atoms.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It must be noted here that the subtle objects of concentration
-in this stage are not the tanmātras alone, but also other
-subtle substances including the ego, the buddhi and the
-prakṛti.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But when the mind acquires the complete habit of this
-state in which it becomes identified with these fine objects—the
-tanmātras—etc., then all conceptual notions of the
-associations of time, space, causality, etc., spoken of in the
-savicāra and the savitarka state vanish away and it becomes
-one with the fine object of its communion. These two kinds
-of prajñā, savicāra and nirvicāra, arising from communion with
-the fine tanmātras, have been collocated under one name as
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>vicārānugata. But when the object of communion is the
-senses, the samādhi is called ānandānugata, and when the
-object of communion is the subtle cause the ego (<i>asmitā</i>), the
-samādhi is known as asmitānugata.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is a difference of opinion regarding the object of the
-last two varieties of samādhi, viz. ānandānugata and asmitānugata,
-and also about the general scheme of division of the
-samādhis. Vācaspati thinks that <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite> I. 41 suggests the
-interpretation that the saṃprajñāta samādhis may be divided
-into three different classes according as their objects of
-concentration belong to one or other of the three different
-planes of grāhya (external objects), grahaṇa (the senses) and
-grahītṛ (the ego). So he refers vitarka and vicāra to the plane
-of grāhya (physical objects and tanmātras), ānandānugata to
-the plane of grahaṇa (the senses) and asmitānugata to the plane
-of grahītṛ. Bhikshu, however, disapproves of such an interpretation.
-He holds that in ānandānugata the object of
-concentration is bliss (ānanda) and not the senses. When the
-Yogin rises to the vicārānugata stage there is a great flow of
-sattva which produces bliss, and at this the mind becomes one
-with this ānanda or bliss, and this samādhi is therefore called
-ānandānugata. Bhikshu does not think that in asmitānugata
-samādhi the object of concentration is the ego. He thinks
-that in this stage the object of concentration is the concept of
-self (<i>kevalapurushākārā saṃvit</i>) which has only the form of ego
-or “I” (<i>asmītyetāvanmātrākāratvādasmitā</i>).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Again according to Vācaspati in addition to the four varieties
-of savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra and nirvicāra there are two
-varieties of ānandanugata as sānanda and nirānanda and two
-varieties of asmitānugata as sāsmita and nirasmita. This
-gives us eight different kinds of samādhi. With Bhikshu there
-are only six kinds of samādhi, for he admits only one variety
-as ānandānugata and one variety as asmitānugata. Bhikshu’s
-classification of samādhis is given below in a tabular form (see
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>Vācaspati’s <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite> and <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 17, 41, 42,
-43, 44).</p>
-
-<div class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_154.jpg' alt=''samprajñāta' class='ig001'>
-</div>
-<p class='c007'> (with association of
- name and concept
- of the tanmātras) 4. nirvicāra (without association of name, etc.)'</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Through the nirvicāra state our minds become altogether
-purified and there springs the prajñā or knowledge called
-ṛtambharā or true; this true knowledge is altogether different
-from the knowledge which is derived from the Vedas or from
-inferences or from ordinary perceptions; for the knowledge
-that it can give of Reality can never be had by any other
-means, by perception, inference or testimony, for their communication
-is only by the conceptual process of generalisations
-and abstractions and these can never help us to affirm
-anything about things as they are in themselves, which are
-altogether different from their illusory demonstrations in
-conceptual terms which only prevent us from knowing the true
-reality. The potency of this prajñā arrests the potency of
-ordinary states of consciousness and thus attains stability.
-When, however, this prajñā is also suppressed, we have what is
-called the state of nirvīja samādhi, at the end of which comes
-final prajñā leading to the dissolution of the citta and the
-absolute freedom of the purusha.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>Samādhi we have seen is the mind’s becoming one with an
-object by a process of acute concentration upon it and a continuous
-repetition of it with the exclusion of all other thoughts
-of all kinds. We have indeed described the principal stages
-of the advancement of samprajñāta Yoga, but it is impossible
-to give an exact picture of it with the symbolical expressions of
-our concepts; for the stages only become clear to the mental
-vision of the Yogin as he gradually acquires firmness in his
-practice. The Yogin who is practising at once comes to know
-them as the higher stages gradually dawn in his mind and
-he distinguishes them from each other; it is thus a matter
-of personal experience, so that no teacher can tell him
-whether a certain stage which follows is higher or lower, for
-Yoga itself is its own teacher.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Even when the mind is in the samprajñāta state it is said
-to be in vyutthāna (phenomenal) in comparison with the
-nirodha state, just as the ordinary conscious states are called
-vyutthāna in comparison with the samprajñāta state; the
-potencies of the samprajñāta state become weaker and weaker,
-while the potencies of the nirodha state become stronger and
-stronger until finally the mind comes to the nirodha state and
-becomes stable therein; of course this contains within itself a
-long mental history, for the potency of the nirodha state can
-become stronger only when the mind practises it and remains
-in this suppressed condition for long intervals of time. This
-shows that the mind, being made up of the three guṇas, is
-always suffering transformations and changes. Thus from the
-ordinary state of phenomenal consciousness it gradually
-becomes one-pointed and then gradually becomes transformed
-into the state of an object (internal or external), when it is
-said to be undergoing the samādhi pariṇāma or samādhi
-change of the samprajñāta type; next comes the change,
-when the mind passes from the samprajñāta stage to the state
-of suppression (<i>nirodha</i>). Here also, therefore, we see that the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>same dharma, lakshṇa, avasthāpariṇāma which we have
-already described at some length with regard to sensible objects
-apply also to the mental states. Thus the change from the
-vyutthāna (ordinary experience) to the nirodha state is the
-dharmapariṇāma, the change as manifested in time, so that
-we can say that the change of vyutthāna into nirodha has not
-yet come, or has just come, or that the vyutthāna state
-(ordinary experience) exists no longer, the mind having transformed
-itself into the nirodha state. There is also here the
-third change of condition, when we see that the potencies of
-the samprajñāta state become weaker and weaker, while that
-of the nirodha state becomes stronger and stronger. These are
-the three kinds of change which the mind undergoes called the
-dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthā change. But there is one
-difference between this change thus described from the
-changes observed in sensible objects that here the changes are
-not visible but are only to be inferred by the passage of the
-mind from one state to another.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It has been said that there are two different kinds of qualities
-of the mind, visible and invisible. The visible qualities whose
-changes can be noticed are conscious states, or thought-products,
-or percepts, etc. The invisible ones are seven in
-number and cannot be directly seen, but their existence and
-changes or modifications may be established by inference.
-These are suppression, characterisation, subconscious maintenance
-of experience, constant change, life, movement and
-power or energy.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In connection with samprajñāta samādhi some miraculous
-attainments are described, which are said to strengthen the
-faith or belief of the Yogin in the processes of Yoga as the
-path of salvation. These are like the products or the mental
-experiments in the Yoga method, by which people may
-become convinced of the method of Yoga as being the true one.
-No reasons are offered as to the reason for these attainments,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>but they are said to happen as a result of mental union
-with different objects. It is best to note them here in a
-tabular form.</p>
-
-<table class='table1'>
- <tr>
- <th class='btt bbt c016' colspan='2'>Object of Saṃyama.</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Saṃyama.</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Attainment.</th>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(1)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Threefold change of things as dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthāpariṇāma.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>Saṃyama.</td>
- <td class='blt c019'> </td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(2)</td>
- <td class='c018'>The distinctions of name, external object and the concept which ordinarily appears united as one.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the sounds of all living beings.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(3)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Residual potencies saṃskāra of the nature of dharma and adharma.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of previous life.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(4)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Concepts alone (separated from the objects).</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of other minds.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(5)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Over the form of body.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Disappearance (by virtue of perceptibility being checked).</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(6)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Karma of fast or slow fruition.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of death.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(7)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Friendliness, sympathy, and compassion.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Power.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(8)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Powers of elephant.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Power of elephant.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(9)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Sun.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the world (the geographical position of countries, etc.).</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(10)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Heavens.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the heavenly systems.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(11)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Pole star.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of its movements.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(12)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Plenus of the navel.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the system of the body.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(13)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Base of the throat.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Subdual of hunger and thirst.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>(14)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Tortoise tube.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>Saṃyama.</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Steadiness.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(15)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Coronal light.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Vision of the perfected ones—the knowledge of the seer, or all knowledge by prescience.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(16)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Heat.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the mind.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(17)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Purusha.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of purusha.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='c017'>(18)</td>
- <td class='c018'>Gross nature subtle pervasiveness and purposefulness.</td>
- <td class='blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='blt c019'>Control over the element from which follows attenuation, perfection of the body and non-resistance by their characteristics.</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td class='bbt c017'>(19)</td>
- <td class='bbt c018'>Act, substantive appearance, egoism, pervasiveness and purposefulness of sensation.</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c016'>„</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c019'>Mastery over the senses; thence quickness of mind, unaided mental perception and mastery over the pradhāna.</td>
- </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c007'>These vibhūtis, as they rise with the performance of the
-processes of Yoga, gradually deepen the faith <i>śraddha</i> of the
-Yogin in the performance of his deeds and thus help towards
-his main goal or ideal by always pushing or drawing him
-forward towards it by the greater and greater strengthening
-of his faith. Divested from the ideal, they have no value.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XIV<br> <span class='c013'>GOD IN YOGA</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>After describing the nature of karmayoga, and the way in
-which it leads to jñānayoga, we must now describe the third
-and easiest means of attaining salvation, the bhaktiyoga and
-the position of Īśvara in the Yoga system, with reference to a
-person who seeks deliverance from the bonds and shackles of
-avidyā.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Īśvara in the Yoga system is that purusha who is distinguished
-from all others by the fact of his being untouched by the
-afflictions or the fruits of karma. Other purushas are also in
-reality untouched by the afflictions, but they, seemingly at
-least, have to undergo the afflictions and consequently birth
-and rebirth, etc., until they are again finally released; but
-Īśvara, though he is a purusha, yet does not suffer in any way
-any sort of bondage. He is always free and ever the Lord.
-He never had nor will have any relation to these bonds. He is
-also the teacher of the ancient teachers beyond the range of
-conditioning time.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This nature of Īśvara has been affirmed in the scriptures
-and is therefore taken as true on their authority. The
-authority of the scriptures is again acknowledged only because
-they have proceeded from God or Īśvara. The objection that
-this is an argument in a circle has no place here, since the
-connection of the scriptures with Īśvara is beginningless.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is no other divinity equal to Īśvara, because in the
-case of such equality there might be opposition between rival
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>Īśvaras, which might result in the lowering in degree of any
-of them. He is omniscient in the highest degree, for in him is
-the furthest limit of omniscience, beyond which there is nothing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This Īśvara is all-merciful, and though he has no desires to
-satisfy, yet for the sake of his devotees he dictates the Vedas
-at each evolution of the world after dissolution. But he does
-not release all persons, because he helps only so far as each
-deserves; he does not nullify the law of karma, just as a king,
-though quite free to act in any way he likes, punishes or
-rewards people as they deserve.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>At the end of each kalpa, he adopts pure body from his
-sattva, which is devoid of any karmāśaya, and thus communicates
-through it to all his devotees and dictates
-the Vedas. Again at the time of dissolution this body
-of pure sattva becomes submerged in prakṛti; and at the
-time of its submersion, Īśvara wishes that it might come forth
-again at the beginning of the new creation; thus for ever at
-each new creation the pure sattva body springs forth and is
-submerged again into prakṛti at the time of the dissolution
-of the universe.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In accepting this body he has no personal desires to satisfy,
-as we have said before. He adopts it only for the purpose of
-saving mankind by instructing them as to knowledge and
-piety, which is not possible without a pure sattvamaya body;
-so he adopts it, but is not affected in any way by it. One who
-is under the control of nescience cannot distinguish his real
-nature from nescience, and thus is always led by it, but such is
-not the case with Īśvara, for he is not in any way under its
-control, but only adopts it as a means of communicating
-knowledge to mankind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A Yogin also who has attained absolute independence may
-similarly accept one or more pure sattvamaya nirmāṇa cittas
-from asmitāmātra and may produce one citta as the superintendent
-of all these. Such a citta adopted by a true Yogin by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>the force of his meditation is not under the control of the
-vehicles of action as is the case with the other four kinds of
-citta from birth, oshadhi, mantra and tapas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The praṇava or oṃkāra is his name; though at the time of
-dissolution, the word of praṇava together with its denotative
-power becomes submerged in the prakṛti, to reappear with
-the new creation, just as roots shoot forth from the ground in
-the rainy season. This praṇava is also called svādhyāya. By
-concentration of this svādhyāya or praṇava, the mind becomes
-one-pointed and fit for Yoga.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now one of the means of attaining Yoga is Īśvarapraṇidhāna,
-or worship of God. This word, according to the commentators,
-is used in two senses in the first and the second
-books of the Pātañjala Yoga aphorisms. In the first book it
-means love or devotion to God as the one centre of meditation,
-in the second it is used to mean the abnegation of all desires
-of the fruits of action to Īśvara, and thus Īśvarapraṇidhāna
-in this sense is included under kriyāyoga. This dedication of
-all fruits of action to Īśvara, purifies the mind and makes it
-fit for Yoga and is distinguished from the Īśvarapraṇidhāna
-of the first book as the bhāvanā of praṇava and Īśvara in this
-that it is connected with actions and the abnegation of their
-fruits, whereas the latter consists only in keeping the mind in
-a worshipful state towards Īśvara and his word or name
-praṇava.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>By devotion (bhakti) Īśvara is drawn towards the devotee
-through his nirmāṇa citta of pure sattva and by his grace he
-removes all obstructions of illness, etc., described in I. 30, 31,
-and at once prepares his mind for the highest realisation of his
-own absolute independence. So for a person who can love and
-adore Īśvara, this is the easiest course of attaining samādhi.
-We can make our minds pure most easily by abandoning
-all our actions to Īśvara and attaining salvation by firm and
-steady devotion to Him. This is the sphere of bhaktiyoga by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>which the tedious complexity of the Yoga process may be
-avoided and salvation speedily acquired by the supreme grace
-of Īśvara.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This means is not, however, distinct from the general means
-of Yoga, viz. abhyāsa and vairāgya, which applies to all stages.
-For here also abhyāsa applies to the devotion of Īśvara as one
-supreme truth and vairāgya is necessarily associated with all
-true devotion and adoration of Īśvara.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This conception of Īśvara differs from the conception of
-Īśvara in the Rāmānuja system in this that there prakṛti and
-purusha, acit and cit, form the body of Īśvara, whereas here
-Īśvara is considered as being only a special purusha with the
-aforesaid powers.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In this system Īśvara is not the superintendent of
-prakṛti in the sense of the latter’s remaining in him in an
-undifferentiated way, but is regarded as the superintendent
-of dharma and adharma, and his agency is active only in the
-removal of obstacles, thereby helping the evolutionary
-process of prakṛti.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus Īśvara is distinguished from the Īśvara of Saṅkara
-Vedānta in this that there true existence is ascribed only to
-Īśvara, whereas all other forms and modes of Being are only
-regarded as illusory.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>From what we have seen above it is clear that the main
-stress of the Yoga philosophy is on the method of samādhi.
-The knowledge that can be acquired by it differs from all
-other kinds of knowledge, ordinary perception, inference,
-etc., in this that it alone can bring objects before our
-mental eye with the clearest and most unerring light of
-comprehensibility in which the true nature of the thing is at
-once observed. Inferences and the words of scriptures are
-based on concepts or general notions of things. For the
-teaching of the Vedas is manifested in words; and words are
-but names, terms or concepts formed by noting the general
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>similarities of certain things and binding them down by a
-symbol. All deductive inferences are also based upon major
-propositions arrived at by inductive generalisations; so it is
-easy to see that all knowledge that can be acquired by them is
-only generalised conceptions. Their process only represents
-the method by which the mind can pass from one generalised
-conception to another; so the mind can in no way attain the
-knowledge of real things, absolute species, which are not the
-genus of any other thing; so inference and scripture can only
-communicate to us the nature of the agreement or similarity
-of things and not the real things as they are. Ordinary
-perception also is not of much avail here, since it cannot bring
-within its scope subtle and fine things and things that are
-obstructed from the view of the senses. But samādhi has
-no such limitations and the knowledge that can be attained
-by it is absolutely unobstructed, true and real in the strictest
-sense of the terms.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Of all the points of difference between Yoga and Sāṃkhya
-the admission of Īśvara by the former and the emphasis given
-by it to the Yoga practice are the most important in
-distinguishing it from the latter. It seems probable that
-Īśvara was traditionally believed in the Yoga school to be a
-protector of the Yogins proceeding in their arduous course of
-complete self-control and absorptive concentration. The
-chances of a person adopting the course of Yoga practice for
-the attainment of success in this field does not depend only on
-the exertions of the Yogin, but upon the concurrence of many
-convenient circumstances such as physical fitness, freedom from
-illnesses and other obstacles. Faith in the patronage of God in
-favour of honest workers and believers served to pacify their
-minds and fill them with the cheerful hope and confidence
-which were so necessary for the success of Yoga practice.
-The metaphysical functions which are ascribed to Īśvara
-seem to be later additions for the sake of rendering his position
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>more in harmony with the system. Mere faith in Īśvara
-for the practical benefit of the Yogins is thus interpreted by a
-reference to his superintendence of the development of
-cosmic evolution. Sāṃkhya relied largely on philosophical
-thinking leading to proper discrimination as to the difference
-between prakrti and purusha which is the stage immediately
-antecedent to emancipation. There being thus no practical
-need for the admission of Īśvara, the theoretical need was also
-ignored and it was held that the inherent teleological purpose
-(<i>purushārthatā</i>) of prakṛti was sufficient to explain all the
-stages of cosmic evolution as well as its final separation from
-the purushas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We have just seen that Sāṃkhya does not admit the existence
-of God, and considers that salvation can be obtained only
-by a steady perseverance in philosophical thinking, and does
-not put emphasis on the practical exercises which are
-regarded as essential by the Yoga. One other point of
-difference ought to be noted with regard to the conception of
-avidyā. According to Yoga, avidyā, as we have already
-explained it, means positive untrue beliefs such as believing the
-impure, uneternal, sorrow, and non-self to be the pure eternal,
-pleasure and the self respectively. With Sāṃkhya, however,
-avidyā is only the non-distinction of the difference between
-prakṛti and purusha. Both Sāṃkhya and Yoga admit that
-our bondage to prakṛti is due to an illusion or ignorance
-(avidyā), but Sāṃkhya holds the akhyāti theory which
-regards non-distinction of the difference as the cause of
-illusion whereas the Yoga holds the anyathākhyāti theory
-which regards positive misapprehension of the one as the
-other to be the cause of illusion. We have already referred to
-the difference in the course of the evolution of the categories
-as held by Sāṃkhya and Yoga. This also accounts for the
-difference between the technical terms of prakṛti, vikṛti and
-prakṛti-vikṛti of Sāṃkhya and the viśesha and aviśesha of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>the Yoga. The doctrine of dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthāpariṇāma,
-though not in any way antagonistic to Sāṃkhya, is
-not so definitely described as in the Yoga. Some scholars
-think that Sāṃkhya did not believe in atoms as Yoga did.
-But though the word paramāṇu has not been mentioned in the
-<cite>Kārikā</cite>, it does not seem that Sāṃkhya did not believe in
-atoms; and we have already noticed that Bhikshu considers
-the word sūkshma in <cite>Kārikā</cite> 39 as referring to the atoms.
-There are also slight differences with regard to the process
-involved in perception and this has been dealt with in my
-<cite>Yoga philosophy in relation to other Indian systems of
-thought</cite>.<a id='r43'></a><a href='#f43' class='c014'><sup>[43]</sup></a> On almost all other fundamental points Sāṃkhya
-and Yoga are in complete agreement.</p>
-
-<div>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>
- <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XV<br> <span class='c013'>MATTER AND MIND</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>In conclusion it may be worth while saying a few words as to
-theories of the physical world supplementary to the views
-that have already been stated above.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Gross matter, as the possibility of sensation, has been
-divided into five classes, according to their relative grossness,
-corresponding to the relative grossness of the senses. Some
-modern investigators have tried to understand the five bhūtas,
-viz. ākāśa, marut, tejas, ap and kshiti as ether, gaseous heat and
-light, liquids and solids. But I cannot venture to agree when
-I reflect that solidity, liquidity and gaseousness represent only
-an impermanent aspect of matter. The division of matter
-from the standpoint of the possibility of our sensations, has a
-firm root in our nature as cognising beings and has therefore a
-better rational footing than the modern chemical division
-into elements and compounds, which are being daily threatened
-by the gradual advance of scientific culture. This carries with
-it no fixed and consistent rational conception as do the
-definitions of the ancients, but is a mere makeshift for understanding
-or representing certain chemical changes of matter
-and has therefore a merely relative value.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are five aspects from which gross matter can be
-viewed. These are (1) sthūla (gross), (2) svarūpa (substantive),
-(3) sūkshma (subtle), (4) anvaya (conjunction), (5) arthavattva
-(purpose for use). The sthūla or gross physical characteristics
-of the bhūtas are described as follows:—</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>Qualities of Earth—Form, heaviness, roughness, obstruction,
-stability, manifestation (vṛtti), difference, support,
-turbidity, hardness and enjoyability.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Ap—Smoothness, subtlety, clearness, whiteness, softness,
-heaviness, coolness, conservation, purity, cementation.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Tejas—Going upwards, cooking, burning, light, shining,
-dissipating, energising.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vāyu—Transverse motion, purity, throwing, pushing,
-strength, movability, want of shadow.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Ākāśa—Motion in all directions, non-agglomeration, non-obstruction.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These physical characteristics are distinguished from the
-aspects by which they appeal to the senses, which are called
-their svarūpas. Earth is characterised by gandha or smell,
-ap by rasa or taste, tejas by rūpa, etc. Looked at from this
-point of view, we see that smell arises by the contact of the
-nasal organ with the hard particles of matter; so this hardness
-or solidity which can so generate the sensibility of gandha, is
-said to be the svarūpa of kshiti. Taste can originate only in
-connection with liquidity, so this liquidity or sneha is the
-svarūpa or nature of ap. Light—the quality of visibility—manifests
-itself in connection with heat, so heat is the svarūpa
-of fire. The sensibility of touch is generated in connection
-with the vibration of air on the epidermal surface; so this
-vibratory nature is the svarūpa of air.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The sensibility to sound proceeds from the nature of
-obstructionlessness, which belongs to ākāśa, so this obstructionlessness
-is the svarūpa of ākāśa.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The third aspect is the aspect of tanmātras, which are the
-causes of the atoms or paramāṇus. Their fourth aspect is
-their aspect of guṇas or qualities of illumination, action,
-inertia. Their fifth aspect is that by which they are serviceable
-to purusha, by causing his pleasurable or painful experiences
-and finally his liberation.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>Speaking of aggregation with regard to the structure of
-matter, we see that this is of two kinds (1) when the parts are
-in intimate union and fusion, e.g. any vegetable or animal
-body, the parts of which can never be considered separately.
-(2) When there are such mechanical aggregates or collocations
-of distinct and independent parts <i>yutasiddhāvayava</i> as the
-trees in a forest.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A dravya or substance is an aggregate of the former type,
-and is the grouping of generic or specific qualities and is not a
-separate entity—the abode of generic and specific qualities
-like the dravya of the Vaiśeshika conception. The aspect of an
-unification of generic and specific qualities seen in parts united
-in intimate union and fusion is called the dravya aspect. The
-aggregation of parts is the structural aspect of which the side
-of appearance is the unification of generic and specific qualities
-called the dravya.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The other aggregation of yutasiddhāvayava, i.e. the
-collocation of the distinct and independent parts, is again of
-two kinds, (1) in which stress may be laid on the distinction of
-parts, and (2) that in which stress is laid on their unity rather
-than on their distinctness. Thus in the expression mango-grove,
-we see that many mangoes make a grove, but the
-mangoes are not different from the grove. Here stress is laid
-on the aspect that mangoes are the same as the grove, which,
-however, is not the case when we say that here is a grove of
-mangoes, for the expression “grove of mangoes” clearly
-brings home to our minds the side of the distinct mango-trees
-which form a grove.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Of the gross elements, ākāśa seems especially to require a
-word of explanation. There are according to Vijñāna
-Bhikshu and Nāgeśa two kinds of ākāśa—kāraṇa (or primal)
-and kārya (atomic). The first or original is the undifferentiated
-formless tamas, for in that stage it has not the quality of
-manifesting itself in sounds. This kāraṇa later on develops
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>into the atomic ākāśa, which has the property of sound.
-According to the conception of the purāṇas, this karyākāśa
-evolves from the ego as the first envelope of vāyu or air. The
-kāraṇakāśa or non-atomic ākāśa should not be considered
-as a mere vacuum, but must be conceived as a positive,
-all-pervasive entity, something like the ether of modern
-physicists.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>From this ākāśa springs the atomic ākāśa or kāryākāśa,
-which is the cause of the manifestation of sound. All powers
-of hearing, even though they have their origin in the principle
-of egoism, reside in the ākāśa placed in the hollow of the ear.
-When soundness or defect is noticed therein, soundness or
-defect is also noticed in the power of hearing. Further, when
-of the sounds working in unison with the power of hearing, the
-sounds of solids, etc., are to be apprehended, then the power of
-hearing located in the hollow of the ear requires the capacity of
-resonance residing in the substratum of the ākāśa of the ear.
-This sense of hearing, then, operates when it is attracted by
-the sound originated and located in the mouth of the speaker,
-which acts as a loadstone. It is this ākāśa which gives penetrability
-to all bodies; in the absence of this, all bodies would be
-so compact that it would be difficult to pierce them even with
-a needle. In the <cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite> II. 12, it is said that eternal
-time and space are of the nature of ākāśa. So this so-called
-eternal time and space do not differ from the one undifferentiated
-formless tamas of which we have just spoken.
-Relative and infinite time arise from the motion of atoms in
-space—the cause of all change and transformation; and space
-as relative position cannot be better expressed than in the
-words of Dr. B. N. Seal, as “totality of positions as an order of
-co-existent points, and as such it is wholly relative to the
-understanding like order in time, being constructed on the
-basis of relations of position intuited by our empirical or
-relative consciousness. But there is this difference between
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>space order and time order:—there is no unit of space as
-position (<i>dik</i>) though we may conceive time, as the moment
-(<i>kshaṇa</i>) regarded as the unit of change in the causal series.
-Spatial position (<i>dik</i>) results only from the different relations
-in which the all-pervasive ākāśa stands to the various finite
-objects. On the other hand, space as extension or locus of a
-finite body, or deśa, has an ultimate unit, being analysable
-into the infinitesimal extension quality inherent in the guṇas
-of prakṛti.”<a id='r44'></a><a href='#f44' class='c014'><sup>[44]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Citta or mind has two degrees: (1) the form of states such
-as real cognition, including perception, inference, competent
-evidence, unreal cognition, imagination, sleep and memory.
-(2) In the form in which all those states are suppressed.
-Between the stage of complete outgoing activity of ordinary
-experience (<i>vyutthāna</i>) and complete suppression of all states,
-there are thousands of states of infinite variety, through which
-a man’s experiences have to pass, from the vyutthāna state to
-the nirodha. In addition to the five states spoken of above,
-there is another kind of real knowledge and intuition, called
-prajñā, which dawns when by concentration the citta is
-fixed upon any one state and that alone. This prajñā is
-superior to all other means of knowledge, whether perception,
-inference or competent evidence of the Vedas, in this, that
-it is altogether unerring, unrestricted and unlimited in its
-scope.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Pramāṇa, we have seen, includes perception, inference and
-competent evidence. Perception originates when the mind or
-citta, through the senses (ear, skin, eye, taste and nose) is
-modified by external objects and passes to them, generating a
-kind of knowledge about them in which their specific characters
-become more predominant.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Mind is all-pervasive and can come in touch with the
-external world, by which we have the perception of the thing.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>Like light, which emits rays and pervades all, though it remains
-in one place, the citta by its vṛttis comes in contact with the
-external world, is changed into the form of the object of
-perception and thus becomes the cause of perception; as the
-citta has to pass through the senses, it becomes coloured by
-them, which explains the fact that perception is impossible
-without the help of the senses. As it has to pass through the
-senses, it undergoes the limitations of the senses, which it
-can avoid, if it can directly concentrate itself upon any object
-without the help of the senses; from this originates the
-prajñā, through which dawns absolute real knowledge of the
-thing; unhampered by the limitations of the senses which
-can act only within a certain area or distance and cannot
-cognize subtler objects.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We see that in ordinary perception our minds are drawn
-towards the object, as iron is attracted by magnets. Thus
-Bhikshu says in explaining <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> IV. 17:—</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>“The objects of knowledge, though inactive in themselves,
-may yet draw the everchanging cittas towards them like a
-magnet and change them in accordance with their own forms,
-just as a piece of cloth is turned red by coming into contact
-with red lac.” So it is that the cittas attain the form of anything
-with which they come in touch and there is then the
-perception that that thing is known. Perception (<i>pratyaksha</i>)
-is distinguished from inference, etc., in this, that here the
-knowledge arrived at is predominantly of the specific and
-special characters (<i>viśesha</i>) of the thing and not of its generic
-qualities us in inference, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Inference proceeds from inference, and depends upon the
-fact that certain common qualities are found in all the members
-of a class, as distinguished from the members of a different
-class. Thus the qualities affirmed of a class will be found to
-exist in all the individual members of that class; this
-attribution of the generic characters of a class to the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>individual members that come under it is the essence of
-inference.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>An object perceived or inferred by a competent man is
-described by him in words with the intention of transferring
-his knowledge to another; and the mental modification, which
-has for its sphere the meaning of such words, is the verbal
-cognition of the hearer. When the speaker has neither
-perceived nor inferred the object, and speaks of things which
-cannot be believed, the authority of verbal cognition fails. But
-it does not fail in the original speaker, God or Īśvara, and his
-dictates the Śāstras with reference either to the object of
-perception or of inference.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Viparyyaya or unreal cognition is the knowledge of the unreal
-as in doubt—a knowledge which possesses a form that does
-not tally with the real nature of the thing either as doubt or as
-false knowledge. Doubt may be illustrated by taking the case
-of a man who sees something in dim light and doubts its nature.
-“Is it a wooden post or a man?” In nature there is either
-the wooden post or the man, but there is no such fact or entity
-which corresponds with doubt: “Is it a wooden post or a
-man?” Knowledge as doubt is not cognition of a fact or
-entity. The illusion of seeing all things yellow through a
-defect of the eye (as in jaundice) can only be corrected when
-the objects are seen in their true colours. In doubt, however,
-their defective nature is at once manifest. Thus when we
-cannot be sure whether a certain thing is a post or a man, we
-know that our knowledge is not definite. So we have not to
-wait till the illusoriness of the previous knowledge is demonstrated
-by the advent of right knowledge. The evil nature of
-viparyyaya is exemplified in avidyā nescience, asmitā,
-rāga, etc.<a id='r45'></a><a href='#f45' class='c014'><sup>[45]</sup></a></p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>Viparyyaya is distinguished from vikalpa—imagination—in
-this, that though the latter is also unreal knowledge its nature
-as such is not demonstrated by any knowledge that follows,
-but is on the contrary admitted on all sides by the common
-consent of mankind. But it is only the learned who can
-demonstrate by arguments the illusoriness of vikalpa or
-imagination.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>All class notions and concepts are formed by taking note
-only of the general characters of things and associating them
-with a symbol called “name.” Things themselves, however,
-do not exist in the nature of these symbols or names or
-concepts; it is only an aspect of them that is diagrammatically
-represented by the intellect in the form of concepts.
-When concepts are united or separated in our thought and
-language, they consequently represent only an imaginary plane
-of knowledge, for the things are not as the concepts represent
-them. Thus when we say “Caitra’s cow,” it is only an
-imaginary relation for, strictly speaking, no such thing exists
-as the cow of Caitra. Caitra has no connection in reality with
-the cow. When we say purusha is of the nature of consciousness,
-there is the same illusory relation. Now what is here
-predicated of what? Purusha is consciousness itself, but in
-predication there must always be a statement of the relation of
-one to another. Thus it sometimes breaks a concept into two
-parts and predicates the one of the other, and sometimes
-predicates the unity of two concepts which are different. Thus
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>its sphere has a wide latitude in all thought-process conducted
-through language and involves an element of abstraction and
-construction which is called vikalpa. This represents the
-faculty by which our concepts are arranged in an analytical or
-synthetical proposition. It is said to be <i>śabdajñānānupāti
-vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ</i>, i.e. the knowledge that springs from
-relating concepts or names, which relating does not actually
-exist in the objective world as it is represented in propositional
-forms.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sleep is that mental state which has for its objective
-substratum the feeling of emptiness. It is called a state or
-notion of mind, for it is called back on awakening; when
-we feel that we have slept well our minds are clear, when we
-have slept badly our minds are listless, wandering and
-unsteady. For a person who seeks to attain communion or
-samādhi, these desires of sleep are to be suppressed, like all
-other desires. Memory is the retaining in the mind of objects
-perceived when perception occurs by the union of the cittas
-with external objects, according to the forms of which the
-cittas are transformed; it retains these perceptions, as
-impressions or saṃskāras by means of its inherent tamas.
-These saṃskāras generate memory, when such events occur as
-can manifest them by virtue of associations.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus memory comes when the percepts already known and
-acquired are kept in the mind in the form of impressions and
-are manifested by the udbodhakas or associative manifestors.
-It differs from perceptions in this that the latter are of the
-nature of perceiving the unknown and unperceived, whereas
-the former serves to bring before the mind percepts that have
-already been acquired. Memory is therefore of percepts
-already acquired by real cognition, unreal cognition,
-imagination, sleep and memory. It manifests itself in dreams
-as well as in waking states.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The relation between these states of mind and the saṃskāras
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>is this that their frequency and repetition strengthens the
-saṃskāras and thus ensures the revival of these states.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>They are all endowed with sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain)
-and moha (ignorance). These feelings cannot be treated
-separately from the states themselves, for their manifestations
-are not different from the manifestation of the states themselves.
-Knowledge and feeling are but two different aspects
-of the modifications of cittas derived from prakṛti; hence
-neither can be thought separately from the other. The fusion
-of feeling with knowledge is therefore here more fundamental
-than in the modern tripartite division of mind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In connection with this we are to consider the senses whose
-action on the external world is known as “perceiving,”
-“grahaṇa,” which is distinguished from “pratyaksha,” which
-means the effect of “perceiving,” viz. perception. Each sense
-has got its special sphere of work, e.g. sight is of the eye, and
-this is called their second aspect, viz. svarūpa. Their third
-aspect is of “asmitā” or ego, which manifests itself through
-the senses. Their fourth aspect is their characteristic of guṇas,
-viz. that of manifestation (<i>prakāśa</i>), action (<i>kriyā</i>) and retention
-(<i>sthiti</i>). Their fifth aspect is that they are set in motion
-for purusha, his experiences and liberation.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is indeed difficult to find the relation of manas with the
-senses and the cittas. In more than one place manas is
-identified with cittas, and, on the other hand, it is described
-as a sense organ. There is another aspect in which manas is
-said to be the king of the cognitive and motor senses. Looked
-at in this aspect, manas is possibly the directive side of the ego
-by which it guides the cognitive and conative senses in the
-external world and is the cause of their harmonious activity for
-the experience of purusha. As a necessary attribute of this
-directive character of manas, the power of concentration,
-which is developed by prāṇāyāma, is said to belong to manas.
-This is the rajas side of manas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>There is another aspect of manas which is called the anuvyavasāya
-or reflection, by which the sensations (ālocana) are
-associated, differentiated, integrated, assimilated into percepts
-and concepts. This is possibly the sāttvika side of manas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is another aspect by which the percepts and concepts
-are retained (<i>dhāraṇa</i>) in the mind as saṃskāras, to be
-repeated or revealed again in the mind as actual states. This
-is the tamas side of manas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In connection with this we may mention ūha (positive
-argumentation), apoha (negative argumentation) and tattvajñāna
-(logical conclusion) which are the modes of different
-anuvyavasāyas of the manas. Will, etc., are to be included
-with these (<cite>Yoga-varttikā</cite>, II. 18). Looked at from the
-point of view of cittas, these may equally be regarded as the
-modifications of cittas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The motives which sustain this process of outgoing activity
-are false knowledge, and such other emotional elements as
-egoism, attachment, aversion, and love of life. These
-emotional elements remain in the mind in the germinal state
-as power alone; or they exist in a fully operative state when a
-man is under the influence of any one of them; or they
-alternate with others, such as attachment or aversion; or they
-may become attenuated by meditation upon opposites.
-Accordingly they are called respectively prasupta, udāra,
-vicchinna or tanu. Man’s minds or cittas may follow these
-outgoing states or experiences, or gradually remove those
-emotions which are commonly called afflictions, thus narrowing
-their sphere and proceeding towards final release.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>All the psychic states described above, viz. pramāṇa,
-viparyyaya, etc., are called either afflicted or unafflicted
-according as they are moved towards outgoing activity or
-are actuated by the higher motive of emancipation by
-narrowing the field of experiences gradually to a smaller and
-smaller sphere and afterwards to suppress them altogether.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>These two kinds of motives, one of afflictions that lead towards
-external objects of attachment and aversion or love of life, and
-the other which leads to striving for kaivalya, are the sole
-motives which guide all human actions and psychic states.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>They influence us whenever suitable opportunities occur,
-so that by the study of the Vedas, self-criticism or right argumentation,
-or from the instruction of good men, abhyāsa and
-vairāgya may be roused by vidyā. Right knowledge and a
-tendency towards kaivalya may appear in the mind even
-when a man is immersed in the afflicted states of outgoing
-activity. So also afflicted states may appear when a man is
-bent upon or far advanced in those actions which are roused
-by vidyā or the tendency towards kaivalya.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It seems that the Yoga view of actions, or karma, does not
-deprive man of his freedom of will. The habit of performing
-particular types of action only strengthens the corresponding
-subconscious impressions or saṃskāras of those actual states,
-and thus makes it more and more difficult to overcome their
-propensity to generate their corresponding actual states, and
-thus obstructs the adoption of an unhampered and free course
-of action. The other limitation to the scope of the activity of
-his free will is the vāsanā aspect of the saṃskāras by which he
-naturally feels himself attached by pleasurable ties to certain
-experiences and by painful ones to others. But these only
-represent the difficulties and impediments which come to
-a man, when he has to adopt the Yoga course of life, the contrary
-of which he might have been practising for a very long
-period, extending over many life-states.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The free will is not curbed in any way, for it follows directly
-from the teleological purpose of prakṛti, which moves for the
-experience and liberation of purusha. So this motive of
-liberation, which is the basis of all good conduct, can never be
-subordinated to the other impulse, which goads man towards
-outgoing experiences. But, on the other hand, this original
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>impulse which attracts man towards these ordinary experiences,
-as it is due to the false knowledge which identifies
-prakṛti with purusha, becomes itself subordinate and loses its
-influence and power, when such events occur, which nullify
-false knowledge by tending to produce a vision of the true
-knowledge of the relation of prakṛti with purusha. Thus,
-for example, if by the grace of God false knowledge (avidyā)
-is removed, true knowledge at once dawns upon the mind and
-all the afflictions lose their power.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Free will and responsibility for action cease in those life-states
-which are intended for suffering from actions only,
-e.g. life-states of insects, etc.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>
- <h2 class='c005'>APPENDIX<br> <span class='c013'>SPHOṬAVĀDA</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c006'>Another point to be noted in connection with the main
-metaphysical theories of Patañjali is the Sphoṭa theory which
-considers the relation of words with their ideas and the things
-which they signify. Generally these three are not differentiated
-one from the other, and we are not accustomed to
-distinguish them from one another. Though distinct yet they
-are often identified or taken in one act of thought, by a sort of
-illusion. The nature of this illusory process comes to our view
-when we consider the process of auditory perception of words.
-Thus if we follow the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> as explained by Vijñāna
-Bhikshu we find that by an effect of our organs of speech, the
-letters are pronounced. This vocal sound is produced in the
-mouth of the speaker from which place the sound moves in
-aerial waves until it reaches the ear drum of the hearer, by
-coming in contact with which it produces the audible sound
-called dhvani (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 17). The special modifications
-of this dhvani are seen to be generated in the form of letters
-(<i>varṇa</i>) and the general name for these modifications is nāda.
-This sound as it exists in the stage of varṇas or letters is also
-called varṇa. If we apply the word śabda or sound in the
-most general sense, then we can say that this is the second
-stage of sound moving towards word-cognition, the first stage
-being that of its utterance in the mouth of the speaker.
-The third stage of śabda is that in which the letters, for
-example, g, au, and ḥ, of the word “gauḥ” are taken together
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>and the complete word-form “gauḥ” comes before our view.
-The comprehension of this complete word-form is an attribute
-of the mind and not of the sense of hearing. For the sense
-of hearing senses the letter-forms of the sound one by one as
-the particular letters are pronounced by the speaker and as
-they approach the ear one by one in air-waves. But each
-letter-form sound vanishes as it is generated, for the sense
-of hearing has no power to hold them together and comprehend
-the letter-forms as forming a complete word-form. The
-ideation of this complete word-form in the mind is called
-sphoṭa. It differs from the letter-form in this that it is a
-complete, inseparable, and unified whole, devoid of any past,
-and thus is quite unlike the letter-forms which die the next
-moment after they originate. According to the system of
-Patañjali as explained by the commentators, all significance
-belongs to this sphoṭa-form and never to the letters pronounced
-or heard. Letters when they are pronounced and
-heard in a particular order serve to give rise to such complete
-ideational word-images which possess some denotation and
-connotation of meaning and are thus called “sphoṭas,” or that
-which illuminates. These are essentially different in nature
-from the sounds in letter-forms generated in the senses of
-hearing which are momentary and evanescent and can never
-be brought together to form one whole, have no meaning, and
-have the sense of hearing as their seat.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>The Vaiśeshika view.</cite>—Saṅkara Miśra, however, holds that
-this “sphoṭa” theory is absolutely unnecessary, for even the
-supporters of sphoṭa agree that the sphoṭa stands conventionally
-for the thing that it signifies; now if that be the
-case what is the good of admitting sphoṭa at all? It is better
-to say that the conventionality of names belongs to the letters
-themselves, which by virtue of that can conjointly signify a
-thing; and it is when you look at the letters from this aspect—their
-unity with reference to their denotation of one thing—that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>you call them a pada or name (<cite>Upaskāra</cite>, II. 2, 21). So
-according to this view we find that there is no existence of a
-different entity called “name” or “sphoṭa” which can be
-distinguished from the letters coming in a definite order within
-the range of the sense of hearing. The letters pronounced and
-heard in a definite order are jointly called a name when they
-denote a particular meaning or object.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>Kumārila’s view</cite>:—Kumārila, the celebrated scholar of the
-Mīmāṃsa school, also denies the sphoṭa theory and asserts
-like the Vaiśeshika that the significance belongs to the letters
-themselves and not to any special sphoṭa or name. To prove
-this he first proves that the letter-forms are stable and eternal
-and suffer no change on account of the differences in their modes
-of accent and pronunciation. He then goes on to show that the
-sphoṭa view only serves to increase the complexity without
-any attendant advantage. Thus the objection that applies to
-the so-called defect of the letter-denotation theory that the
-letters cannot together denote a thing since they do not do it
-individually, applies to the name-denotation of the sphoṭa
-theory, since there also it is said that though there is no sphoṭa
-or name corresponding to each letter yet the letters conjointly
-give rise to a sphoṭa or complete name (<cite>Ślokavārttika</cite>, Sphoṭavāda,
-śl. 91–93).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The letters, however, are helped by their potencies (saṃskāras)
-in denoting the object, or the meaning. The sphoṭa
-theory has, according to Kumārila and Pārthasārathi, also to
-admit this saṃskāra of the letters in the manifestation of the
-name or the śabda-sphoṭa, whereas they only admit it as the
-operating power of the letters in denoting the object or the
-thing signified. Saṃskāras according to Kumārila are thus
-admitted both by the sphoṭa theorists and the Kumārila
-school of Mīmāṃsa, only with this difference that the
-latter with its help can directly denote the object of the
-signified, whereas the former have only to go a step
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>backwards in thinking their saṃskāra to give rise to the
-name or the śabda-sphoṭa alone (<cite>Nyāyaratnākara</cite>, Sphoṭavāda,
-śl. 104).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Kumārila says that he takes great pains to prove the nullity
-of the sphoṭa theory only because if the sphoṭa view be
-accepted then it comes to the same thing as saying that words
-and letters have no validity, so that all actions depending on
-them also come to lose their validity (<cite>Ślokavārttika</cite>, Sphoṭavāda,
-śl. 137).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>Prabhākara.</cite>—Prabhākara also holds the same view; for
-according to him also the letters are pronounced in a definite
-order; though when individually considered they are
-momentary and evanescent, yet they maintain themselves
-by their potency in the form of a pāda or name, and thus
-signify an object. Thus Śāliknātha Miśra says in his <cite>Prakaraṇa
-Pañcikā</cite>, p. 89: “It is reasonable to suppose that since
-the later letters in a word are dependent upon the perception
-of a preceding one some special change is wrought in the letters
-themselves which leads to the comprehension of the meaning
-of a word.... It cannot be proved either by perception or by
-inference that there is any word apart from the letters; the
-word has thus for its constituents the letters.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>Śabara.</cite>—The views of Kamārila and Prahhākara thus
-explicated are but elaborate explanations of the view of Śabara
-who states the whole theory in a single line—<i>pūrvavarṇajanitasaṃskārasahito’ntyo
-varṇaḥ pratyāyakaḥ</i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>“The last letter together with the potency generated by
-the preceding letters is the cause of significance.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>Mahābhāshya and Kaiyaṭa.</cite>—After describing the view of
-those who are antagonistic to the sphoṭa theory it is necessary
-to mention the Vaiākaraṇa school which is in favour of it;
-thus we find that in explaining the following passage of
-Mahābhāshya,</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>“What is then a word? It is that which being pronounced
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>one can understand specific objects such as those (cows) which
-have tail, hoofs, horns, etc.”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Kaiyata says: “The grammarians think that denotation
-belongs to words, as distinct from letters which are pronounced,
-for if each of the letters should denote the object, there
-would be no need of pronouncing the succeeding letters....”</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The vaiyakaraṇas admit the significant force of names as
-distinguished from letters. For if the significant force be attributed
-to letters individually, then the first letter being quite
-sufficient to signify the object, the utterance of other letters
-becomes unnecessary; and according to this view if it is held
-that each letter has the generating power, then also they
-cannot do it simultaneously, since they are uttered one after
-another. On the view of manifestation, also, since the letters
-are manifested one after another, they cannot be collected
-together in due order; if their existence in memory is sufficient,
-then we should expect no difference of signification or meaning
-by the change of order in the utterance of the letters; that is
-“<i>sara</i>” ought to have the same meaning as “<i>rasa</i>.” So it
-must be admitted that the power of signification belongs to
-the sphoṭa as manifested by the nādas as has been described
-in detail in <cite>Vākyapadīya</cite>.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>As the relation between the perceiving capacity and the
-object of perception is a constant one so also is the relation
-between the sphoṭa and the nāda as the manifested and the
-manifestor (<cite>Vākyapadīya</cite> 98). Just as the image varies
-corresponding to the variation of the reflector, as oil, water,
-etc., so also the reflected or manifested image differs according
-to the difference of the manifestor (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 100). Though
-the manifestation of letters, propositions and names occurs at
-one and the same time yet there seems to be a “before and
-after” according to the “before and after” of the nāda
-utterances (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 102). That which is produced through the
-union and disunion (of nādas or dhvanis) is called sphoṭa,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>whereas other sound-perceptions arising from sounds are
-called dhvanis (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 103). As by the movement of water
-the image of a thing situated elsewhere also appears to adopt
-the movement of the water and thus seems to move, so also
-the sphoṭa, though unchanging in itself, yet appears to suffer
-change in accordance with the change of nāda which manifests
-it (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 49). As there are no parts of the letters themselves so
-the letters also do not exist as parts of the name. There is
-again no ultimate or real difference between names and
-propositions (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 73). It is only in popular usage that they
-are regarded as different. That which others regard as the
-most important thing is regarded as false here, for propositions
-only are here regarded as valid (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 74). Though the letters
-which manifest names and propositions are altogether different
-from them, yet their powers often appear as quite undifferentiated
-from them (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 89). Thus when propositions are
-manifested by the cause of the manifestation of propositions
-they appear to consist of parts when they first appear before
-the mind. Thus, though the pada-sphoṭa or the vākya-sphoṭa
-does not really consist of parts, yet, as the powers of letters
-cannot often be differentiated from them, they also appear
-frequently to be made up of parts (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 91).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>The Yoga View.</cite>—As to the relation of the letters to the
-sphoṭa, Vācaspati says, in explaining the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, that each
-of the letters has the potentiality of manifesting endless
-meanings, but none of them can do so individually; it is only
-when the letter-form sounds are pronounced in succession by
-one effort of speech that the individual letters by their own
-particular contiguity or distance from one another can
-manifest a complete word called the sphoṭa. Thus owing to
-the variation of contiguity of distance by intervention from
-other letter-form sounds any letter-form sound may manifest
-any meaning or word; for the particular order and the
-association of letter-form sounds depend upon the particular
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>output of energy required in uttering them. The sphoṭa is
-thus a particular modification of buddhi, whereas the letter-form
-sounds have their origin in the organ of speech when they
-are uttered, and the sense of hearing when they are heard. It
-is well to note here that the theory that the letters themselves
-have endless potentiality and can manifest any word-sphoṭas,
-according to their particular combinations and recombinations,
-is quite in keeping with the main metaphysical
-doctrine of the Pātañjala theory.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>Vākya-sphoṭa.</cite>—What is said here of the letter-form sounds
-and the śabda-sphoṭas also applies to the relation that the
-śabda-sphoṭas bear to propositions or sentences. A word or
-name does not stand alone; it always exists as combined with
-other words in the form of a proposition. Thus the word
-“tree” whenever it is pronounced carries with it the notion
-of a verb “asti” or “exists,” and thereby demonstrates its
-meaning. The single word “tree” without any reference to
-any other word which can give it a propositional form has no
-meaning. Knowledge of words always comes in propositional
-forms; just as different letter-form sounds demonstrate by
-their mutual collocation a single word or śabda-sphoṭa, so the
-words also by their mutual combination or collocation demonstrate
-judgmental or propositional significance or meaning.
-As the letters themselves have no meaning so the words themselves
-have also no meaning; it is only by placing them
-side by side in a particular order that a meaning dawns in
-the mind. When single words are pronounced they associate
-other words with themselves and thus appear to signify a
-meaning. But though a single word is sufficient by association
-with other words to carry a meaning, yet sentences or
-propositions should not be deemed unnecessary for they serve
-to specialise that meaning (<i>niyamārthe anuvādaḥ</i>). Thus
-“cooks” means that any subject makes something the object
-of his cooking. The mention of the subject “Devadatta” and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>the object “rice” only specialises the subject and the object.
-Though the analysis of a sentence into the words of which it is
-constituted is as imaginary as the analysis of a word into the
-letter-form sounds, it is generally done in order to get an
-analytical view of the meaning of a sentence—an imaginary
-division of it as into cases, verbs, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><i>Abhihitānvayavada and Anvitābhidhānavāda.</i>—This reminds
-us of the two very famous theories about the relation
-of sentences to words, viz. the “Abhihitānvayavāda” and the
-“Anvitābhidhānavāda.” The former means that words
-themselves can express their separate meanings by the function
-abhidhā or denotation; these are subsequently combined into
-a sentence expressing one connected idea. The latter means
-that words only express a meaning as parts of a sentence, and
-as grammatically connected with each other; they only
-express an action or something connected with action; in
-“sāmānaya”, “bring the cow”—“gām” does not properly
-mean “gotva” but “ānayanānvitagotva,” that is, the bovine
-genus as connected with bringing. We cannot have a case of a
-noun without some governing verb and vice versa—(Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha,
-Cowell).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>The Yoga point of view.</cite>—It will be seen that strictly
-speaking the Yoga view does not agree with any one of these
-views though it approaches nearer to the Anvitābhidhāna
-view than to the Abhihitānvaya view. For according to the
-Yoga view the idea of the sentence is the only true thing;
-words only serve to manifest this idea but have themselves no
-meaning. The division of a sentence into the component word-conceptions
-is only an imaginary analysis—an afterthought.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><cite>Confusion the cause of verbal cognition.</cite>—According to
-Patañjali’s view verbal cognition proceeds only from a
-confusion of the letter-form sounds (which are perceived in
-the sense of hearing), the śabda-sphoṭa which is manifested
-in the buddhi, and the object which exists in the external
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>world. These three though altogether distinct from one another
-yet appear to be unified on account of the saṅketa or sign, so
-that the letter-form sounds, the śabda-sphoṭa, and the thing,
-can never be distinguished from one another. Of course
-knowledge can arise even in those cases where there is no
-actual external object, simply by virtue of the manifesting
-power of the letter-form sounds. This saṅketa is again defined
-as the confusion of words and their meanings through memory,
-so that it appears that what a word is, so is its denoted
-object, and what a denoted word is, so is its object.
-Convention is a manifestation of memory of the nature of
-mutual confusion of words and their meanings. This object
-is the same as this word, and this word is the same as this
-object. Thus there is no actual unity of words and their
-objects: such unity is imaginary and due to beginningless
-tradition. This view may well be contrasted with Nyāya,
-according to which the convention of works as signifying
-objects is due to the will of God.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
- <span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>
- <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul class='index c003'>
- <li class='c020'><i>abhihitānvayavāda</i>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>abhiniveśa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>abhivyaktikāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>abhyāsa, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Absorption, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Abstraction, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Accessories, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Accidental variation, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>acit</i>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Actual, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Actuality, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>adharma, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>adhikārin, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>adṛshṭajanmavedanīya, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>adṛshṭa-janmavedanīya karma</i>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>advaita, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Advaita-Brahmasiddhi</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Afflictions, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n., <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Agent, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Aggregation, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Agreement, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ahaṃkāra, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ahaṃkāra-sāttvika, rājasa, tāmasa, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ahiṃsā, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā</cite>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>akhyāti, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aklishṭa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aklishṭavṛtti, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>aliṇga</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>anādisaṃyoga</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>anāśrita</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>anekabhavika, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Anger, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>anirvācyā</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aniyatavipāka, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aniyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>antaḥkaraṇa, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>anukāreṇa paśyati</i>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>anupaśya, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>anuvrata, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>anuvyavasāya, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>anvaya, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>anvayikāraṇa, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>anvitābhidhānavāda</i>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>anvitābhidhānavāda, Yoga view, near to, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>anyābhyāṃ ahaṃkārābhyām svakāryyopajanane rājasāhaṃkāraḥ sahakārībhavati</i>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>anyathākhyāti, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>anyatvakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>anyonyamithunāḥ sarvve naishāmādisamprayogo viprayogo vā úpalabhyate</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aṅga, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aṇu, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ap, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ap atom, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>apara vairāgya, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aparigraha, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>apavarga</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>apoha, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Appearance, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>apuṇya karma, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Aristotle, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>artha</i>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>arthavattva, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>arthena svakīyayā grāhyaśaktyā vijñānamajani</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>asamprajñāta, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>asamprajñāta samādhi, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Asceticism, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>asmitā, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>asmitā-ego, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>asmitāmātra</i>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>asmitānugata</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>asmītyetāvanmātrākāratvādasmitā</i>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Assimilation, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Association of ideas, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>asteya, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Astral body, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aśukla, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aśuklākṛshṇa, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Atheistic, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Atomic change as unit of time, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Atoms, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>continual change, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Attachment, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Avariciousness, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>avasthā, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>avasthāpariṇāma, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Aversion, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>avibhāgaprāptāviva</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>avidyā, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its definition, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li>
- <li>uprooting of, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>avidyā of yoga and Sāṃkhya, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aviśesha, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>aviśesheṇopashṭambhakasvabhāvāḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>aviveka, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>avyapadeśyatva</i>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>avyavasthitākhilapariṇamo bhavatyeva</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>ayutasiddhāvayava</i>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>ādisamprayoga</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ākāra, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ākāśa, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ākāśa, two kinds of, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ākāśa atom, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>Bhikshu and Vācaspati on, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>ākāśa tanmātra, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ālocana, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>āmalaka, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ānanda, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>,154</li>
- <li class='c020'>ānandānugata, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>āptikāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>āpūra, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>āpyakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>āsana, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>āśaya, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>āśerate sāṃsārikā purushā asminniti āśayaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>āvaraṇa śakti, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>āyush, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Barabara muni, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>bāhya karma, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Beginningless, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Behaviour, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Bel, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Benares, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>bhakti, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>bhaktiyoga, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>bhava, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>bhavishyadvyaktikamanāgataṃanudbhūtavyaktikamatītam svavyāpāropārūḍhaṃ varttamānaṃ trayaṃ caitadvastu jñānasya jñeyam yadi caitat svarūpato nābhavishyannedaṃ nirvishayaṃ jñānamudapatsyata tasmādatītamanāgataṃ svarūpato’stīti</i>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Bhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>bhāvanā, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Bhikshu, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n., <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n., <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>bhoga</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>bhoga-śarīra, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Bhoja, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Bhojavṛtti, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>bhrama, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>bhūta, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>bhūtādi, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>accretion from, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Biological, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Birth, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Body, sattvamaya, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Bondage, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Brahmacaryya, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Brahman, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Breath, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Breath regulation, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>buddheḥ pratisaṃvedi purushaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span><i>buddhi</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Buddhist, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Buddhists, their theory of <i>sahopalambhaniyama</i> refuted, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Caitra, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Caraka, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Caste, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Categories of existence, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Category, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Caturdaśī, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Causal activity, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Causal operation, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Causal transformation, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Causality, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Causation, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>Sāṃkhya view of, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Cause, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>nine kinds of, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Cessation, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Change, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>Buddhist and Yoga idea contrasted, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n.;</li>
- <li>units of, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Changeful, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Characterised, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Characteristic, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Chāyā-vyākhyā</cite>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Chemical, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Chowkhamba, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Circumstance, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>cit, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>citta, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>different forms of, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</li>
- <li>different states of, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</li>
- <li>its nature, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'><i>cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṃ sannidhimātropakāri dṛśyatvena svaṃ bhavati purushasya svāminaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>cittaprasāda</i>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Clairaudience, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Class-characteristics, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Cleanliness, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Coco-nut, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Co-existence, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Cognitive states, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Coherent, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Collocation, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Commentary, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Compassion, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Complacency, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Compounds, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Conceived, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Conceiver, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Concentration, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Concept, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Conceptual, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Concomitant causes, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Condensation, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Conscious-like, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Consciousness, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Consciousness contentless, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Conscious states, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Conservation, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Contact, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Contemplation, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Contentment, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Continence, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Contrary, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Co-operation, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Cosmic evolution, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Cosmic matter, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Country, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Creation, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Critique of Judgment</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Critique of Practical Reason</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Critique of Pure Reason</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Davies, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Decision, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Demerit, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Denotation, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>deśa, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Descartes, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Desire, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Determinate, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Determined, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Determiner, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Devotion, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dhāraṇā, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dharma, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dharmamegha-samādhi, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>dharmapariṇāma</i>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dharmin, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span><i>dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ, dharmivikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā propañcyate</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dharmī, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>dhātu</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>dhṛtikāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dhyāna, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Difference, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Differentiated, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Differentiation, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dik, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Discrimination, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Distractions, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Doubt, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>drashṭā dṛśiṃātraḥ śuddho’pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dravya, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n., <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Droṇa, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dṛk, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>dṛkśakti</i>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dṛshṭajanma karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>dṛshṭajanmavedanīya</i>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>duḥkha, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>dvesha, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Earth, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Effect, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Efficient cause, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Ego, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>a modification of buddhi, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li>
- <li>evolution in three lines from, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li>
- <li>three kinds of, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Egohood, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Ego-universal, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ekabhavika, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ekabhavikatva, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>ekāgra</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ekātmatā, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>ekātmikā saṃvidasmitā</i>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ekendriya, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Elements, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Emancipation, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Energy, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Enjoyment, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Equilibrium, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Error, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Eternal, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Eternity, two kinds of, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Ethics, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>European, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Evolutes, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Evolution, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>as change, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</li>
- <li>as change of qualities and as derivation of categories, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>;</li>
- <li>definite law of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</li>
- <li>its limitations by time and space, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li>
- <li>measured by units of spatial motion, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li>
- <li>of manas, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li>
- <li>of the senses, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li>
- <li>of categories, difference between Sāṃkhya and Yoga view, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>–62;</li>
- <li>of similars, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Evolutionary process, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Exhalation, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Existence as capacity of effecting, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Expiratory, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Extension, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Externality, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>External reality, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>Buddhist objection to, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li>
- <li>has more than a momentary existence, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li>
- <li>its ground, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li>
- <li>not due to imagination, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>;</li>
- <li>not identical with our ideas, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>External world, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>refutation of Buddhist objections, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c003'>Faith, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Fichte, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Fisherman, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Force, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Freedom, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>of will, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Friendliness, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Future, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Gaṇḍa, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>gandha, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>gandha-tanmātra, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Gauḍapāda, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Generalisation, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Generic, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>ghaṭāvacchinna ākāśa</i>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Gītā</cite>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Gītābhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Goal, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>God, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Gold, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>grahaṇa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>grahaṇadhāraṇohāpohatattvajñānābhiniveśā buddhau varttamānā purushe adhyāropitasadbhāvāḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>grahītṛ, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>grāhya, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Gross elements, derivation of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
- <li class='c020'>Grossness, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>guṇā eva prakṛtiśabdavācyā na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>guṇānāṃ hi dvairūpyaṃ vyavasāyātmkatvam vyavaseyātmakatvaṃca</i>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>guṇānāṃ paramaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati, yattu drshṭipathaṃ prāptam tanmāyeva sutucchakaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>guṇas, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>guṇas, three classes, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>as causal effect, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li>
- <li>evolution of the cognitive and conative senses and tanmātras, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li>
- <li>identity of qualities and substances, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</li>
- <li>relative preponderance of, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li>
- <li>special affinity of each class, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li>
- <li>special behaviour of each class of, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li>
- <li>their atomic qualities consistent with their all-pervasiveness, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.;</li>
- <li>their common purpose, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li>
- <li>their co-operation, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li>
- <li>their mode of combination, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li>
- <li>their mode of mutual operation, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</li>
- <li>their mode of evolution, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li>
- <li>their nature as feelings, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li>
- <li>their twofold nature, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li>
- <li>their threefold course of development, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li>
- <li>their want of purpose in the state of equilibrium, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li>
- <li>two classes of their evolution, <i>aviśesha</i> and <i>viśesha</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c003'>Hariharāraṇya, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Heaven, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekāśritaṃ liṅgaṃ sāvayavamparatantraṃ vyaktaṃ viparītamavyaktaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Hibiscus, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>hiṃsā, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>History of Hindu Chemistry</cite>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> n., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Horn of a hare, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Hume, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Idealistic Buddhists, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Ignorance, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Illumination, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Illusion, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.;
- <ul>
- <li>of Yoga and Sāṃkhya, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Illusive, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Imagination, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Immanent purpose, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Independence, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Indeterminate, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>India, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Indra, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Inertia, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Inference, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Infra-atomic, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Infra-atoms, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Inhalation, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Injury, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Inorganic, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Inspiratory, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Intellection, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Intelligence, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Intelligence-stuff, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Iron, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Īśvara, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>removal of barriers, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Īśvarakṛshṇa, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Īśvarapraṇidhāna, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>Īśvarasyāpi dharmādhisṭhānārthaṃ pratibandhāpanaya eva vyāpāro</i>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
- <li class='c003'><i>janmamaraṇakaraṇānāṃ pratiniyamādayugapat pravṛtteśca purushabahutvam siddhaṃ traiguṇyaviparyyayācca</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span><i>japāsphaṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>jāti</i>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Jealousy, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>jīva, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>jīvanmukta, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>jīvanmukti, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>jñāna, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>jñānayoga, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Judgmental, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>kaivalya, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kalpa, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Kant, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Kapila, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>karma, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its classification and divergence of views, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>–113</li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>karma-sannyāsin, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>karmayoga, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>karuṇā, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Kaumudī, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kāla, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kāma, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kāraṇa, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kāraṇacitta, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kārikā</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Kārya, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kārya vimukti, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kāryya citta, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kāryyakarī śakti, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Kāśmīra, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kevalapurushākārā saṃvit</i>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kevalī, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kirātā, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kleśa, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>klishṭa, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>klishṭavṛtti, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Knowable, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Knower, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Knowledge, different kinds of, differentiated, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Known, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kriyā</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kriyāyoga, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>krodha, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kṛshṇa, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kṛshṇa karma, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n., <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇabhaṅguram</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇapracayāśraya</i>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇapratiyogi</i>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇatatkramayornāsti vastusamāhāraḥ iti buddhisamāhāraḥ muhūrttāhorātrātrādayaḥ. sa tvayaṃ kālaḥ vastuśūnyo’pi buddhinirmāṇah</i>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>kshipta</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kshiti, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kshiti atom, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kuntī, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>kuśala, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kuśalī, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>kūṭastha nitya, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>lakshaṇa, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>lakshaṇa-pariṇāma, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Latent, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>laukikamāyeva</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>liberation, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Light, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Limitation theory, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>liṅga, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>liṅgamātram mahattatvaṃ sattāmātre mahati ātmani</i>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>lobha</i>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Locke, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Lokācāryya, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Lotus, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
- <li class='c003'><i>madhumatī</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>madhupratīka</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Magnet, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>mahat, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its potential existence in prakṛti, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Mahābhārata</cite>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> n., <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>mahāpralaya, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>mahāvrata, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>maitrī, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>manas, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Manifested, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>mantra, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Many, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span><cite>Maṇiprabhā</cite>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>marut, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Mass, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Material cause, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Matter, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>mānasa karma, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>mātrā, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>māyā, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ vidyāt māyinaṃ tu maheśvaraṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>māyeva</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Mechanical, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Meditation, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Memory, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Mental, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Mental states, analysis of, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Merit, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Metaphysics, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Method of agreement, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>of difference, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Mind, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its seven qualities, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Mind-modification, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>-transformations, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'><i>moha</i>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Mokshadharmādhyāya</cite>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Moment, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Momentary, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Moral, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Moral ideal, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Movement, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>muditā, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>mūḍha</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Nahusha, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Naiyāyika, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Name, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>and thing, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Nandī, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>na tu kshaṇātiriktaḥ kshaṇikaḥ padārthaḥ kaścidishyate taistu kshaṇamātrasthāyyeva padārthaḥ ishyate</i>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Naturalism and agnosticism</cite>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Natural selection, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Nāgeśa, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>nāsadāsīt na sadāsīt tadānīm</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>nāstyasataḥ saṃbhavaḥ na cāsti sato vināśāḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Nectar, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Nescience, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its different forms, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> n.</li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>nidrā, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Nihilists, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>niḥsaṅge’pi uparāgo vivekāt</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>niḥsattāsattam niḥsadasat nirasat avyaktam aliṅgam pradhānam</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>niḥsattāsattaṃ, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirasmitā, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirmāṇa citta, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirānanda, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirodha, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>nirodhaja saṃskāra</i>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirodha samādhi, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>niruddha</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirvicāra, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirvīja, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirvīja samādhi, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>nirvitarka, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>niścaya, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>niyama, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>niyata vipāka, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>niyatavipākadṛshṭajanmavedanīya, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Nīlakaṇṭha, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Non-being, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Non-covetousness, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Non-discrimination, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Non-distinction, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Non-existence, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Non-injury, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its classification, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Non-stealing, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Noumenon, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Observance, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>oṃkāra, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Omniscience, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>oshadhi, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Pain, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Palm, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Pantheism, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Pañcaśikha, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>parama mahat, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>paramāṇu in Sāṃkhya and Yoga, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>para vairāgya, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>parikarma, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pariṇāma, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>pariṇāmaduḥkhatā</i>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>pariṇāmakramaniyama</i>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pariṇāmi, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pariṇāminityatā, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Past, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Patañjali, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Patent, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pāda, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Pāñcāla, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pāṇi, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pāpa karma, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pāpakarmāśaya, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Pātañjala, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pāyu, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Perceived, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Perceiver, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Percept, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Perception, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Permanent, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Phenomena, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Phenomenal, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Philosopher, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Philosophical, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Physical, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Physical, Chemical and Mechanical Theories of the Ancient Hindus</cite>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Plant: its possession of life and senses, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Plato, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Pleasure, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Plurality, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>–29, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Poison, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Posture, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Potency, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>destroying other potencies, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Potential, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Potentiality, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Potentials, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Power, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pradhāna, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>prajñā, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its seven stages, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>–120</li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>prajñāsaṃskāra, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>prajñāloka, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>prakāśa, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>prakṛti, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n., <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>as undifferentiated cosmic matter, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li>
- <li>as equilibrium of dharma and dharmī, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>;</li>
- <li>avidyā and vāsanā lie merged in it, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;</li>
- <li>different views of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li>
- <li>different from avidyā, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li>
- <li>evolution of the second category of asmitā, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li>
- <li>its difference from māyā, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li>
- <li>its difference from purusha, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</li>
- <li>its first evolutionary product, mahat, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li>
- <li>its goal, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li>
- <li>its identity with guṇa reals, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li>
- <li>its relation with guṇas, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li>
- <li>its similarity with purusha, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</li>
- <li>Lokācāryya’s view of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li>
- <li>nature in the state of equilibrium, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li>
- <li>refilling from, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li>
- <li>roused by God, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</li>
- <li>Venkaṭa’s view of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>prakṛtilīna, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>prakṛtivikṛti</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>prakṛtiṛityucyate vikārotpādakatvāt avidyā jñānavirodhitvāt māyā vicitrasṛshṭikaratvāt</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>prakṛtyāpūra, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pralaya, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pramāṇa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>praṇava, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>prāṇāyāma, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>prasupta, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>pratipaksha bhāvanā</i>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>pratisambandhī</i>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>pratiyogī, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>pratyāhāra, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pratyaksha, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pratyaya, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>pratyayakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>pratyayaṃ bauddhamanupaśyati tamanupaśyannatadātmāpi tadātmaka iva pratibhāti</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>pratyayānupaśya</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Pravacana-bhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span><i>prāmāṇyaniścaya</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Pre-established harmony, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Present, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Presentative ideation, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Presentative power, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Pride, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Primal, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Primal cause, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>pṛthivī, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Psychological, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Psychology, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Psychosis, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>puṇya, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>puṇya karma, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>puṇya karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Purāṇa, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Purification, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Purificatory, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Purity, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>purusha, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n., <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>arguments in favour of its separate existence, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li>
- <li>contrast with vedantic Brahman, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</li>
- <li>different from the mental states, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</li>
- <li>fulfilment of its objects, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li>
- <li>its connection with prakṛti real, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li>
- <li>its final separation from prakṛti, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li>
- <li>its permanence, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li>
- <li>its plurality, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>–30;</li>
- <li>its reflection in the mind, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li>
- <li>its relation with concepts and ideas, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li>
- <li>its similarity with sattva, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li>
- <li>meaning determined from the sūtras, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</li>
- <li>nature of its reflection in buddhi, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>purushārtha, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>purushārthatā, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its relation with avidyā, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>pūrvadeśa, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c003'>rajas, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Rarefaction, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>rasa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>rasa-tanmātra, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Ray, P. C., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> n., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Rādhā, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>rāga, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Rājamārtaṇda</cite>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>rājaputtravattattvopadeśāt</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>rājasa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Rāmānuja, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Realisation, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Reality, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Reals, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Reason, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Reasoning, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Rebirth, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Reflection, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Reflection theory, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Release, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Religious, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Reperception, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Restraint, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Retention, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Right knowledge, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>rūpa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>rūpa tanmātra, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Ṛgveda, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ṛshi, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>ṛtambharā, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c003'><i>sadṛśapariṇāmā</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sahakāri, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sahopalambhaniyama</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sahopalambhaniyamaś ca vedyatvañca hetū sandigdhavyatirekatayānaikāntikau</i>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sahopalambhaniyamādabhedo nilataddhiyoḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Salvation, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>samādhi, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>classification of, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>samādhipariṇāma, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>samāna tantra, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>samprajñāta, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>samprajñāta samādhi, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sampratyaya</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>saṃghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyyayādadhishṭhānāt purusho’sti bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṃ pravṛtteśca</i>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>saṃsāra, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>saṃskāra, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>saṃskārāḥ vṛttibhiḥ kriyante saṃskāraiśca vṛttayaḥ evaṃ vṛttisaṃskāracakram aniśamāvarttate</i>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>saṃskāraśesha, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>saṃskāryyakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>saṃsṛshṭā vivicyante</i>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>saṃvega</i>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>saṃyama, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>saṃyoga</i>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>sannyāsāśrama, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>santosha, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>saṅketa, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sarasvatī Rāmānanda, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sarvaṃ sarvātmakaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>satkāraṇavāda, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>satkāryyavāda, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sattva, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sattvapurushayoratyantāsaṅkīrṇayoḥ pratyayāviśesho bhogaḥ parārthatvāt svārthasamyamāt purushajñā, nam</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>savicāra, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>prajñā, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>savitarka, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sā ca ātmanā grahītrā saha buddhirekātmikā saṃvid</i>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sāmānya guṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Sāṃkhya, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n., <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>Jaina influence on, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> n.</li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Sāṃkhya-kārikā</cite>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> n., <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sāṃkhya philosophy, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Sāṃkhya-Yoga</cite>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a> n., <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sāṃkhyists, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sānanda, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sāttvika, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sāttvikaahaṃkāra, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Science of Ethics</cite>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Seal, Dr. B. N., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> n., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>–169</li>
- <li class='c020'>Seeming reflection, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Seer, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Self, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Self-consciousness, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Self-control, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Self-intelligent, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Self-subsistent, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sensation, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sense, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sense faculties, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sense organs, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Senses, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>divergent views about their evolution, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Separation, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Sex restraint, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Shashṭitantraśāstra</cite>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>siddha, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Siddhānta-candrikā</cite>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Siddhāntaleśa</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sign, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Simultaneous revelation, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sins, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sleep, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>smṛti, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Social, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Soul, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sound, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Space, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>as relative position, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Space order, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sparśa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sparśâtanmātra, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Specialised, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Specific, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sphoṭavāda, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>–187;
- <ul>
- <li><cite>Kumāril’s view</cite>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>;</li>
- <li>Mahābhāshya and Kaiyaṭa, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li>
- <li>Prabhākara, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li>
- <li>Śabara’s view, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li>
- <li><cite>Vaiśeshika view</cite>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li>
- <li>Vākya-sphoṭa, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li>
- <li><cite>Yoga view</cite>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Spinoza, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Spirits, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Spiritual principle, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sthiti</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sthitikāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sthūla, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>sthūlavishayaka, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Strength, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Studies, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Subconscious, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sub-latent, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Substance, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its nature, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Substantive entities, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Substratum, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Succession, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>summum bonum</i>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Susheṇa, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sutucchaka</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sūkshma</i>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>sūkshmavishayaka, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>sūkshmavṛttimantaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sūtra, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Sūtrārthabodhinī</cite>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>svarūpa, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>svādhyāya, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Svetāśvatara</cite>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Sympathy, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śabda, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>śabdajñānānupātī vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śabda-tanmātra, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>śabdādīnām mūrttisamānajātīyānām</i>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>śakti, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śaktimān, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Śaṅkara, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śānta, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Sānti-parva</cite>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śāstra, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śauca, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śīla, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śraddhā, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śruti, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śukla, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śukla karma, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śukla karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>śuklakṛshṇa, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Śūnyavādi Buddhists, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>svalpasaṅkaraḥ saparihāraḥ sapratyavamarshaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṃyogaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
- <li class='c003'><i>tadartha eva drśyasya ātmā</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>tadabhāvāt saṃyogābhāvo hānaṃ taddṛśeḥ kaivalyaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>taijasa, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tamas, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tanmātra, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tanmātras, evolution of grosser elements from, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>their difference from paramānus, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li>
- <li>their evolution, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</li>
- <li>their relation to ahaṃkāra, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>tanmātrāvayava, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>tanmātrāṇāmapi parasparavyārvṛttasvabhāvatvamastyeva tacca yogimātragamyam</i>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tanu, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>tapaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tapas, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>tasmāt svatantro’rthaḥ sarvapurushasādhāraṇaḥ svatantrāṇi ca cittāni pratipurushaṃ, pravarttante</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Taste, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>tatradṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya</i>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tattva, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tattvajñāna, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Tattva-kaumudī</cite>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> n., <a href='#Page_103'>103</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Tattva-nirūpaṇa</cite>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Tattvatraya</cite>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a> n., <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> n., <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_9'>9</a> n., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a> n., <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> n., <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tattvāntara, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>tattvāntara-pariṇāma</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tāmasa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tāmasa ahaṃkāra, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>te vyaktasūkshmā guṇātmānaḥ ... sarvamidaṃ guṇānāṃ Sanniveśaviśeshamātramiti paramārthato guṇātmānaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tejas, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>tejas atom, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Teleological, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Teleology, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Temptation, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Theft, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Theists, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>Theories, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Thing, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Thing-in-itself, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Thought, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Time, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>as discrete moments, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li>
- <li>as unit of change, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</li>
- <li>element of imagination in, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li>
- <li>unit of, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li>
- <li>order, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Tinduka, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Trance, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>Trance-cognition, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Transcendent, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Transformations, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>trasareṇu, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>triguṇamaviveki vishayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṃ prasavadharmi vyaktaṃ tathā pradhānaṃ, tadviparītastathā pumān</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Truth, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Truthfulness, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>Tulyajātīyātulyajātīyaśaktibhedānupātinaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>udāra, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>udbodhaka, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>udghāta, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>udita, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Ultimate state, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Unafflicted, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Understanding, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Undetermined, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Undifferentiated, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Unindividuated, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Universe, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>a product of guṇa combinations, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Unknowable, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Unmanifested, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Unmediated, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Unpredicable, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Unreal, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Unspecialised, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Unwisdom, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Upanishads, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>upastha, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>upādāna, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>upādāna kāraṇa, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>upekshā, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>utpādyakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>uttaradeśa, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>ūha, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>vaikārika, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vairāgya, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vaiśeshika, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vaiśeshika atoms, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vaishṇava, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vanity, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vaśīkāra, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vastupatitaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vastusāmye cittabhedāt tayor vibhaktaḥ panthāḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Vācaspati, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n., <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vāk, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Vākyapadīya</cite>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vāsanā, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>contrasted with karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Vāyu, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vāyu atom, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vedas, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vedānta, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vedāntism, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vedāntists, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vedic, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vehicles of actions, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Venkaṭa, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Veracity, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Verbal cognition, cause of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>view of Nyāya, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>vibhu, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vibhu parimāṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>vibhūti, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vibhūtipāda, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vicāra, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vicārānugata, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vicchinna, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vice, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>videha</i>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vidyā, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vidyāviparītam jñānāntaraṃ avidyā</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Vijñanāmṛta-bhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vijñāna Bhikshu, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vikalpa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vikārakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vikāryyakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vikṛti</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span><i>vikshipta</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vikshiptacitta, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vipāka, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>viparyyaya, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>viprayoga</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Virtue, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Vishṇu Purāṇa</cite>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>viśesha, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>viśeshapariṇāma</i>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>viśeshāviśeshaliṅgamātrāliṅgāniguṇaparvāṇi</i>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>visokā, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vitarka, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vitarkānugata, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>viyoga</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'><i>viyogakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vīryya, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vomit, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Vṛtti</cite>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vyaṇgya, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vyaṅjaka, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vyatireka, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vyavasāyātmakatva</i>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vyavaseyātmakatva</i>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Vyāsa, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a> n., <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> n., <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a> n., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a> n., <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a> n., <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vyoman, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>vyutthāna, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>vyutthāna citta</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li>
- <li class='c003'>Ward, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a> n.</li>
- <li class='c020'>Wicked, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>World-phenomena, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>World-process, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li>
- <li class='c003'><i>yadyaliṅgāvasthā śabdādyupabhogaṃ vā sattvapurushānyatākhyātim vā purushārtham nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na sāmyāvasthā syāt</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Yama, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Yatamāna, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>yathā rathādi yantradibhiḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>yathāyaskāntamaṇiḥ svasminneva ayaḥsannidhīkaraṇamātrāt śalyanishkarshaṇākhyam upakāram kurvat purushasya svāminaḥ svam bhavati bhogasādhanatvāt</i>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>ye cāsyānupasthitā bhāgaste cāsya na syurevaṃ nāsti pṛshṭhamiti udaramapi na gṛhyeta</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Yoga, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>its points of difference with Sāṃkhya, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>–165</li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'>Yoga metaphysics, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Yoga philosophy in relation to other Indian systems of thought</cite>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Yoga system, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Yoga theory, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>yogāṅga, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a> n., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_6'>6</a> n., <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n., <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n., <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a> n., <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Yogins, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>;
- <ul>
- <li>nine kinds of, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li class='c020'><i>yogyatāvacchinnā dharmiṇaḥ śaktireva dharmaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li>
- <li class='c020'>Yudhishṭhira, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
- <li class='c020'><i>yutasiddhāvayaba</i>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class='c021'>
-<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. See Ward’s <cite>Naturalism and Agnosticism</cite>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Vācaspati’s <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite> on the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, III. 47.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. <cite>Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāshya</cite>, I. 120.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. It is indeed difficult to say what was the earliest conception of the
-guṇas. But there is reason to believe, as I have said elsewhere, that guṇa
-in its earliest acceptance meant qualities. It is very probable that as the
-Sāṃkhya philosophy became more and more systematised it was realised
-that there was no ultimate distinction between substance and qualities.
-In consequence of such a view the guṇas which were originally regarded
-as qualities began to be regarded as substantive entities and no contradiction
-was felt. Bhikshu in many places describes the guṇas as substantive
-entities (<i>dravya</i>) and their division into three classes as being due to the
-presence of three kinds of class-characteristics. This would naturally mean
-that within the same class there were many other differences which have not
-been taken into account (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 18). But it cannot be said that
-the view that the guṇas are substantive entities and that there is no difference
-between qualities and substances is regarded as a genuine Sāṃkhya view
-even as early as Śaṅkara. See <cite>Ghābhāshya</cite>, XIV. 5.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. See <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> on Patañjali’s <cite>Yoga-sūtras</cite>, II. 18, and Vācaspati’s
-<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite> on it.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. See Bhikshu’s <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 18.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. <cite>History of Hindu Chemistry</cite>, Vol. II, by P. C. Ray, p. 66.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. The usual Sāṃkhya terms as found in Iśvarakṛshṇa’s <cite>Kārikā</cite>, having
-the same denotation as aviśesha and viśesha, are <i>prakṛtivikṛti</i> and <i>vikṛti</i>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 19.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f10'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 19.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f11'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, II. 19.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f12'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. <cite>Tattvatraya</cite>, p. 48 (Chowkhamba edition), Benares.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f13'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Bhikshu in his <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> explains “<i>māyeva</i>” as “<i>laukikamāyeva
-kshaṇabhaṇguram</i>” evanescent like the illusions of worldly experience.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f14'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. <cite>Siddhāntalleśa</cite> (Jīveśvara nirūpaiṇa).</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f15'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. Princess Kuntī of the Mahābhārata had a son born to her by means of
-a charm when she was still a virgin. Being afraid of a public scandal she
-floated the child in a stream; the child was picked up by the wife of a
-carpenter (Rādhā). The boy grew up to be the great hero Karṇa and he
-thought that he was the son of a carpenter until the fact of his royal lineage
-was disclosed to him later in life.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f16'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. <cite>Kārikā</cite> 17.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f17'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. Gauḍapāda’s commentary on <cite>Kārikā</cite> 17.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f18'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. Purusha is a substance (<i>dravya</i>) because it has independent existence
-(<i>anāśrita</i>) and has a measure (<i>vibhu parimāṇa</i>) of its own. So it always
-possesses the common characteristics (<i>sāmānya guṇa</i>) of substances, contact
-(<i>saṃyoga</i>), separation (<i>viyoga</i>) and number (<i>saṃkhyā</i>). Purusha cannot be
-considered to be suffering change or impure on account of the possession of
-the above common characteristics of all substances. <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 17.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f19'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: <i>bhavishyadvyaktikamanāgataṃanudbhūtavyaktikamatītaṃ
-svavyāpāropārūḍhaṃ varttamānaṃ trayaṃ, caitadvastu
-jñānasya jñeyaṃ yadi caitat svarūpato nābhavishyannedaṃ nirvishayaṃ
-jñānamudapatsyata tasmādatītamanāgataṃ svarūpato’ stīti</i>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f20'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, IV. 14.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f21'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. <i>Vastusāmye cittabhedāt tayor vibhaktaḥ panthāḥ.</i> <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, IV. 15.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f22'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. “<cite>Tattvāntara-pariṇāma</cite>” means the evolution of a wholly new category
-of existence. Thus the tanmātras are wholly different from the ego from
-which they are produced. So the atoms are wholly different from the tanmātras
-from which they are produced, for the latter, unlike the former, have
-no sense-properties. In all combinations of atoms, there would arise thousands
-of new qualities, but none of the products of the combination of atoms
-can be called a tattvāntara, or a new category of existence since all these
-qualities are the direct manifestations of the specific properties of the atoms.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f23'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, III. 52, says that the smallest indivisible part of a
-thing is called a paramāṇu. Vijñāna Bhikshu in explaining it says that
-paramāṇu here means guṇa, for if a thing say a stone is divided, then the
-furthest limit of division is reached when we come to the indivisible guṇas.
-But if the prakṛti is all-pervading (<i>vibhu</i>) how can the guṇas be atomic?
-Bhikshu says (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 52) in reply that there are some classes
-of guṇas (e.g. those which produce mind <i>antaḥkaraṇa</i> and <i>ākāśa</i>) which
-are all-pervading, while the others are all atomic. In Bhikshu’s interpretation
-a moment is to be defined as the time which a guṇa entity takes to
-change its own unit of space. Guṇas are thus equivalent to the Vaiśeshika
-paramāṇus. Bhikshu, however, does not deny that there are no atoms of
-earth, water, etc., but he says that where reference is not made to these atoms
-but to guṇa atoms for the partless units of time can only be compared with
-the partless guṇas. But Vācaspati does not make any comment here to
-indicate that the smallest indivisible unit of matter should mean guṇas.
-Moreover, <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, I. 40, and <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, I. 45, speak of <i>paramāṇu</i>
-and <i>aṇu</i> in the sense of earth-atoms, etc. Even Bhikshu does not maintain
-that paramāṇu is used there in the sense of atomic guṇa entities. I
-could not therefore accept Bhikshu’s interpretation that paramāṇu here
-refers to guṇa. Paramāṇu may here be taken in the sense of material
-atoms of earth, water, etc. The atoms (paramāṇu) here cannot be
-absolutely partless, for it has two sides, prior (<i>pūrvadeśa</i>) and posterior
-(<i>uttaradeśa</i>).</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f24'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. Bhikshu regards the movement of a guṇa of its own unit of space as
-the ultimate unit of time (<i>kshaṇa</i>). The whole world is nothing else but a
-series of <i>kshaṇas</i>. This view differs from the Buddhist view that everything
-is momentary in this that it does not admit of any other thing but the
-<i>kshaṇas</i> (<i>na tu kskaṇātiriktaḥ kshaṇikaḥ padārthaḥ kaścidishyate taistu
-kskaṇamātrasthāyyeva padārthaḥ ishyate</i>. <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 52).</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f25'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. There is a difference of opinion as regards the meaning of the word
-“<i>kshaṇapratiyogi</i>” in IV. 33. Vācaspati says that it means the growth
-associated with a particular <i>kshaṇa</i> or moment (<i>kshaṇapracayāśraya</i>).
-The word <i>pratiyogī</i> is interpreted by Vācaspati as related (<i>pratisambandhī</i>).
-Bhikshu, however, gives a quite different meaning. He interprets <i>kshaṇa</i> as
-“interval” and pratiyogī as “opposite of” (<i>virodhī</i>). So “<i>kshaṇapratiyogī</i>”
-means with him “without any interval” or “continuous.” He holds
-that the sūtra means that all change is continuous and not in succession.
-There is according to his interpretation no interval between the cessation
-of a previous character and the rise of a new one.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f26'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. Nothing more than a superficial comparison with Fichte is here intended.
-A large majority of the texts and the commentary literature would
-oppose the attempts of all those who would like to interpret Sāṃkhya-yoga
-on Fichtean lines.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f27'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. <cite>Tattvakaumudī</cite> on <cite>Sāṃkhya-kārikā</cite>, 25.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f28'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, III. 41.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f29'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. This was first pointed out by Dr. B. N. Seal in his <cite>Physical, Chemical
-and Mechanical Theories of the Ancient Hindus</cite> in Dr. P. C. Ray’s <cite>Hindu
-Chemistry</cite>, Vol. II.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f30'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 45.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f31'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. I have already said before that Bhikshu thinks that the guṇas (except
-the all-pervading ones) may be compared to the Vaiśeshika atoms. See
-<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 52.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f32'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. Cf. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>—“<i>sabdādīnāṃ mūrttisamānajátīyānāṃ</i>,” IV. 14.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f33'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 19.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f34'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, III. 13.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f35'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. <i>Ibid.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f36'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. Nahusha an earthly king became Indra the king of the gods by the
-fruition of his virtues, but on account of gross misdeeds fell from Heaven
-and was turned into a snake.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f37'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. <cite>Tattravaiśāradī</cite>, IV, 3.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f38'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. I have translated both citta and buddhi as mind. The word buddhi
-is used when emphasis is laid on the intellective and cosmical functions of
-the mind. The word citta is used when emphasis is laid on the conservative
-side of mind as the repository of all experiences, memory, etc.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f39'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. If this is a Sāṃkhya doctrine, it seems clearly to be a case of Jaina
-influence.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f40'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. Compare Pañcaśikha, <i>svalpasaṇkaraḥ saparihāraḥ sapratyavamarshaḥ</i>,
-<cite>Tattvakaumudī</cite>, 2.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f41'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. Pratyaya is explained in <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 28, as <i>sampratyaya</i> or
-<i>prāmāṇyaniścaya</i>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f42'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. Yudhishṭhira led falsely Droṇa to believe that the latter’s son was
-dead by inaudibly muttering that it was only an elephant having the
-same name as that of his son that had died.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f43'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. This book has, however, not yet been published.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f44'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. Dr. Ray’s <cite>Hindu Chemistry</cite>, Vol. II, p. 81.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f45'>
-<p class='c007'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. Avidyā manifests itself in different forms: (1) as the afflictions
-(<i>kleśa</i>) of asmitā (egoism), rāga (attachment), dvesha (antipathy) and
-abhiniveśa (self-love); (2) as doubt and intellectual error; (3) as error of
-sense. All these manifestations of avidyā are also the different forms of
-viparyyaya or bhrama (error, illusion, mistake). This bhrama in Yoga is
-the thinking of something as that which it is not (<i>anyathākhyāti</i>). Thus we
-think the miserable worldly existence as pleasurable and attribute the
-characteristics of prakṛti to purusha and vice versa. All afflictions are due
-to this confusion and misjudgment, the roots of which stay in the buddhis
-in all their transmigrations from one life to another. Sāṃkhya, however,
-differs from Yoga and thinks that all error (<i>avidyā</i> or <i>bhrama</i>) is due only to
-non-distinction between the true and the untrue. Thus non-distinction
-(<i>aviveka</i>) between prakṛti and purusha is the cause of all our miserable
-mundane existence. Avidyā and aviveka are thus synonymous with
-Sāṃkhya.</p>
-</div>
-
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- </div>
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- <li>Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained.
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font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; + page-break-before: always; } + .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74250 ***</div> + +<div class='tnotes covernote'> + +<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> + +<p class='c000'>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +</div> + +<div class='titlepage'> + +<div> + <h1 class='c001'>YOGA<br> <span class='xlarge'>AS PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGIONS</span></h1> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div>BY</div> + <div class='c002'><span class='large'>SURENDRANATH DASGUPTA</span></div> + <div class='c002'>M.A., <span class='sc'>Ph.D.(Cal.), Ph.D.(Cantab.)</span></div> + <div class='c002'><span class='small'>AUTHOR OF “A HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY”, ETC.</span></div> + <div class='c002'><span class='xsmall'><i>Professor of Philosophy, Presidency College, Calcutta</i></span></div> + <div><span class='xsmall'><i>Late Professor of Sanskrit, Chittagong College</i></span></div> + <div><span class='xsmall'><i>Late Lecturer in the University of Cambridge</i></span></div> + <div class='c003'>LONDON:</div> + <div class='c002'>KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD</div> + <div>NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.</div> + <div class='c002'>1924</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='chapter ph1'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div>YOGA AS PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div><span class='small'>Printed in Great Britain at</span></div> + <div><span class='small'><i>The Mayflower Press, Plymouth</i>, William Brendon & Son, Ltd.</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div>AS A HUMBLE TOKEN</div> + <div class='c002'>OF DEEPEST REGARD AND GRATEFULNESS</div> + <div class='c002'>TO THE</div> + <div class='c002'><span class='large'>MAHARAJA SIR MANINDRACHANDRA NUNDY</span></div> + <div class='c002'>K.C.I.E</div> + <div class='c002'>WHOSE NOBLE CHARACTER AND SELF-DENYING CHARITIES</div> + <div class='c002'>HAVE ENDEARED HIM TO THE PEOPLE OF BENGAL</div> + <div class='c002'>AND</div> + <div class='c002'>WHO SO KINDLY OFFERED ME HIS WHOLE-HEARTED</div> + <div class='c002'>PATRONAGE IN</div> + <div class='c002'>ENCOURAGING MY ZEAL FOR LEARNING AT A TIME</div> + <div class='c002'>WHEN I WAS IN SO GREAT A NEED OF IT</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span> + <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>This little volume is an attempt at a brief exposition of the +philosophical and religious doctrines found in Patañjali’s +<cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite> as explained by its successive commentaries of +Vyāsa, Vācaspati, Vijñāna Bhikshu, and others. The exact +date of Patañjali cannot be definitely ascertained, but if his +identity with the other Patañjali, the author of the Great +Commentary (<cite>Mahābhāshya</cite>) on Pāṇini’s grammar, could be +conclusively established, there would be some evidence in +our hands that he lived in 150 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> I have already discussed +this subject in the first volume of my <cite>A History of Indian +Philosophy</cite>, where the conclusion to which I arrived was that, +while there was some evidence in favour of their identity, +there was nothing which could be considered as being conclusively +against it. The term Yoga, according to Patañjali’s +definition, means the final annihilation (<i>nirodha</i>) of all the +mental states (<i>cittavṛtti</i>) involving the preparatory stages in +which the mind has to be habituated to being steadied into +particular types of graduated mental states. This was actually +practised in India for a long time before Patañjali lived; and +it is very probable that certain philosophical, psychological, +and practical doctrines associated with it were also current +long before Patañjali. Patañjali’s work is, however, the +earliest systematic compilation on the subject that is known +to us. It is impossible, at this distance of time, to determine +<span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>the extent to which Patañjali may claim originality. Had it +not been for the labours of the later commentators, much of +what is found in Patañjali’s aphorisms would have remained +extremely obscure and doubtful, at least to all those who were +not associated with such ascetics as practised them, and who +derived the theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject +from their preceptors in an upward succession of generations +leading up to the age of Patañjali, or even before him. It is +well to bear in mind that Yoga is even now practised in India, +and the continuity of traditional instruction handed down +from teacher to pupil is not yet completely broken.</p> + +<p class='c007'>If anyone wishes methodically to pursue a course which +may lead him ultimately to the goal aimed at by Yoga, he +must devote his entire life to it under the strict practical +guidance of an advanced teacher. The present work can in +no sense be considered as a practical guide for such purposes. +But it is also erroneous to think—as many uninformed people +do—that the only interest of Yoga lies in its practical side. +The philosophical, psychological, cosmological, ethical, and +religious doctrines, as well as its doctrines regarding matter +and change, are extremely interesting in themselves, and have +a definitely assured place in the history of the progress of +human thought; and, for a right understanding of the +essential features of the higher thoughts of India, as well +as of the practical side of Yoga, their knowledge is indispensable.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Yoga doctrines taught by Patañjali are regarded as +the highest of all Yogas (<i>Rājayoga</i>), as distinguished from +other types of Yoga practices, such as <i>Haṭhayoga</i> or <i>Mantrayoga</i>. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>Of these <i>Haṭhayoga</i> consists largely of a system of +bodily exercises for warding off diseases, and making the body +fit for calmly bearing all sorts of physical privations and physical +strains. <i>Mantrayoga</i> is a course of meditation on certain +mystical syllables which leads to the audition of certain +mystical sounds. This book does not deal with any of these +mystical practices nor does it lay any stress on the performance +of any of those miracles described by Patañjali. The scope of +this work is limited to a brief exposition of the intellectual +foundation—or the theoretical side—of the Yoga practices, +consisting of the philosophical, psychological, cosmological, +ethical, religious, and other doctrines which underlie these +practices. The affinity of the system of Sāṃkhya thought, +generally ascribed to a mythical sage, Kapila, to that of +Yoga of Patañjali is so great on most important points of +theoretical interest that they may both be regarded as two +different modifications of one common system of ideas. I +have, therefore, often taken the liberty of explaining Yoga +ideas by a reference to kindred ideas in Sāṃkhya. But the +doctrines of Yoga could very well have been compared or +contrasted with great profit with the doctrines of other +systems of Indian thought. This has purposely been omitted +here as it has already been done by me in my <cite>Yoga Philosophy +in relation to other Systems of Indian Thought</cite>, the publication +of which has for long been unavoidably delayed. All that may +be expected from the present volume is that it will convey to +the reader the essential features of the Yoga system of +thought. How far this expectation will be realized from this +book it will be for my readers to judge. It is hoped that the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>chapter on “Kapila and Pātañjala School of Sāṃkhya” in my +<cite>A History of Indian Philosophy</cite> (Vol. I. Cambridge University +Press, 1922) will also prove helpful for the purpose.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I am deeply indebted to my friend Mr. Douglas Ainslie +for the numerous corrections and suggestions regarding the +English style that he was pleased to make throughout the +body of the manuscript and the very warm encouragement +that he gave me for the publication of this work. In this +connection I also beg to offer my best thanks for the valuable +suggestions which I received from the reviser of the press. +Had it not been for these, the imperfections of the book would +have been still greater. The quaintness and inelegance of +some of my expressions would, however, be explained if it +were borne in mind that here, as well as in my <cite>A History of +Indian Philosophy</cite>, I have tried to resist the temptation of +making the English happy at the risk of sacrificing the +approach to exactness of the philosophical sense; and many +ideas of Indian philosophy are such that an exact English +rendering of them often becomes hopelessly difficult.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I am grateful to my friend and colleague, Mr. D. K. Sen, <span class='fss'>M.A.</span>, +for the kind assistance that he rendered in helping me to +prepare the index.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Last of all, I must express my deep sense of gratefulness +to Sir Ashutosh Mookerjee, Kt., C.S.I., etc. etc., and the +University of Calcutta, for kindly permitting me to utilize +my <cite>A Study of Patañjāli</cite>, which is a Calcutta University +publication, for the present work.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-r'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>S. N. Dasgupta.</span></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-l'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Presidency College, Calcutta</span>,</div> + <div class='line in12'><i>April, 1924</i>.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span> + <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr><td class='c008' colspan='3'>BOOK I. YOGA METAPHYSICS:</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'> </td> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='c009'>CHAPTER</th> + <th class='c010'> </th> + <th class='c011'>PAGE</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>I.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Prakṛti</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>II.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Purusha</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>III.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Reality of the External World</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>IV.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Process of Evolution</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>V.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Evolution of the Categories</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>VI.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Evolution and Change of Qualities</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>VII.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Evolution and God</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'> </td> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'> </td> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c008' colspan='3'>BOOK II. YOGA ETHICS AND PRACTICE:</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'> </td> + <td class='c010'> </td> + <td class='c011'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>VIII.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Mind and Moral States</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>IX.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Theory of Karma</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>X.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Ethical Problem</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>XI.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Yoga Practice</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>XII.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Yogāṅgas</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>XIII.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Stages of Samadhi</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>XIV.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>God in Yoga</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'>XV.</td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Matter and Mind</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'> </td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Appendix</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c009'> </td> + <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Index</span></td> + <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='chapter ph1'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div>YOGA AS PHILOSOPHY</div> + <div>AND RELIGION</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> + <h2 class='c005'>BOOK I. YOGA METAPHYSICS</h2> +</div> +<h3 class='c012'>CHAPTER I<br> <span class='c013'>PRAKRTI</span></h3> + +<p class='c006'>However dogmatic a system of philosophical enquiry may +appear to us, it must have been preceded by a criticism of +the observed facts of experience. The details of the criticism +and the processes of self-argumentation by which the thinker +arrived at his theory of the Universe might indeed be suppressed, +as being relatively unimportant, but a thoughtful +reader would detect them as lying in the background behind +the shadow of the general speculations, but at the same time +setting them off before our view. An Aristotle or a Patañjali +may not make any direct mention of the arguments which led +him to a dogmatic assertion of his theories, but for a reader +who intends to understand them thoroughly it is absolutely +necessary that he should read them in the light as far as possible +of the inferred presuppositions and inner arguments of +their minds; it is in this way alone that he can put himself +in the same line of thinking with the thinker whom he is +willing to follow, and can grasp him to the fullest extent. +In offering this short study of the Pātañjala metaphysics, +I shall therefore try to supplement it with such of my inferences +<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>of the presuppositions of Patañjali’s mind, which +I think will add to the clearness of the exposition of his views, +though I am fully alive to the difficulties of making such +inferences about a philosopher whose psychological, social, +religious and moral environments differed so widely from ours.</p> + +<p class='c007'>An enquiry into the relations of the mental phenomena +to the physical has sometimes given the first start to philosophy. +The relation of mind to matter is such an important +problem of philosophy that the existing philosophical systems +may roughly be classified according to the relative importance +that has been attached to mind or to matter. There have +been chemical, mechanical and biological conceptions which +have ignored mind as a separate entity and have dogmatically +affirmed it to be the product of matter only.<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c014'><sup>[1]</sup></a> There have +been theories of the other extreme, which have dispensed +with matter altogether and have boldly affirmed that matter +as such has no reality at all, and that thought is the only +thing which can be called Real in the highest sense. All +matter as such is non-Being or Māyā or Avidyā. There have +been Nihilists like the Śūnyavādi Buddhists who have gone +so far as to assert that neither matter nor mind exists. Some +have asserted that matter is only thought externalized, some +have regarded the principle of matter as the unknowable +Thing-in-itself, some have regarded them as separate +independent entities held within a higher reality called God, +or as two of his attributes only, and some have regarded +their difference as being only one of grades of intelligence, +one merging slowly and imperceptibly into the other and +held together in concord with each other by pre-established +harmony.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Underlying the metaphysics of the Yoga system of thought +as taught by Patañjali and as elaborated by his commentators +we find an acute analysis of matter and thought. Matter +<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>on the one hand, mind, the senses, and the ego on the other +are regarded as nothing more than two different kinds of +modifications of one primal cause, the Prakṛti. But the self-intelligent +principle called Purusha (spirit) is distinguished +from them. Matter consists only of three primal qualities +or rather substantive entities, which he calls the Sattva or +intelligence-stuff, Rajas or energy, and Tamas—the factor of +obstruction or mass or inertia. It is extremely difficult +truly to conceive of the nature of these three kinds of entities +or Guṇas, as he calls them, when we consider that these +three elements alone are regarded as composing all phenomena, +mental and physical. In order to comprehend them rightly +it will be necessary to grasp thoroughly the exact relation +between the mental and the physical. What are the real +points of agreement between the two? How can the same +elements be said to behave in one case as the conceiver and +in the other case as the conceived? Thus Vācaspati says:—</p> + +<p class='c007'>“The reals (guṇas) have two forms, viz. the determiner or +the perceiver, and the perceived or the determined. In the +aspect of the determined or the perceived, the guṇas evolve +themselves as the five infra-atomic potentials, the five gross +elements and their compounds. In the aspect of perceiver or +determiner, they form the modifications of the ego together +with the senses.”<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c014'><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>It is interesting to notice here the two words used by +Vācaspati in characterising the twofold aspect of the guṇa +viz. <i>vyavasāyātmakatva</i>, their nature as the determiner or +perceiver, and <i>vyavaseyātmakatva</i>, their nature as determined +or perceived. The elements which compose the phenomena +of the objects of perception are the same as those which form +the phenomena of the perceiving; their only distinction is +that one is the determined and the other is the determiner. +What we call the psychosis involving intellection, sensing and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>the ego, and what may be called the infra-atoms, atoms and +their combinations, are but two different types of modifications +of the same stuff of reals. There is no intrinsic difference +in nature between the mental and the physical.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The mode of causal transformation is explained by Vijñāna +Bhikshu in his commentary on the system of Sāṃkhya as if +its functions consisted only in making manifest what was +already there in an unmanifested form. Thus he says, +“just as the image already existing in the stone is only +manifested by the activity of the statuary, so the causal +activity also generates only that activity by which an effect +is manifested as if it happened or came into being at the +present moment.”<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c014'><sup>[3]</sup></a> The effects are all always existent, but +some of them are sometimes in an unmanifested state. What +the causal operation, viz. the energy of the agent and the +suitable collocating instruments and conditions, does is to set +up an activity by which the effect may be manifested at +the present moment.</p> + +<p class='c007'>With Sāṃkhya-Yoga, sattva, rajas and tamas are substantive +entities which compose the reality of the mental and the +physical.<a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c014'><sup>[4]</sup></a> The mental and the physical represent two +different orders of modifications, and one is not in any way +superior to the other. As the guṇas conjointly form the manifold +<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>without, by their varying combinations, as well as all the +diverse internal functions, faculties and phenomena, they are +in themselves the absolute potentiality of all things, mental +and physical. Thus Vyāsa in describing the nature of the +knowable, writes: “The nature of the knowable is now +described:—The knowable, consisting of the objects of enjoyment +and liberation, as the gross elements and the perceptive +senses, is characterised by three essential traits—illumination, +energy and inertia. The sattva is of the nature +of illumination. Rajas is of the nature of energy. Inertia +(tamas) is of the nature of inactivity. The guṇa entities +with the above characteristics are capable of being modified +by mutual influence on one another, by their proximity. +They are evolving. They have the characteristics of conjunction +and separation. They manifest forms by one lending +support to the others by proximity. None of these loses its +distinct power into those of the others, even though any one +of them may exist as the principal factor of a phenomenon with +the others as subsidiary thereto. The guṇas forming the +three classes of substantive entities manifest themselves +as such by their similar kinds of power. When any one of +them plays the rôle of the principal factor of any phenomenon, +the others also show their presence in close contact. Their +existence as subsidiary energies of the principal factor is +inferred by their distinct and independent functioning, even +though it be as subsidiary qualities.”<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c014'><sup>[5]</sup></a> The Yoga theory does +not acknowledge qualities as being different from substances. +The ultimate substantive entities are called guṇas, which +as we have seen are of three kinds. The guṇa entities are +infinite in number; each has an individual existence, but +is always acting in co-operation with others. They may be +divided into three classes in accordance with their similarities +<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>of behaviour (śīla). Those which behave in the way of +intellection are called <i>sattva</i>, those which behave in the way +of producing effort of movement are called <i>rajas</i>, and those +which behave differently from these and obstruct their +process are called <i>tamas</i>. We have spoken above of a primal +cause <i>prakṛti</i>. But that is not a separate category independent +of the guṇas. Prakṛti is but a name for the guṇa entities +when they exist in a state of equilibrium. All that exists +excepting the purushas are but the guṇa entities in different +kinds of combination amongst themselves. The effects they +produce are not different from them but it is they themselves +which are regarded as causes in one state and effects in another. +The difference of combination consists in this, that in some +combinations there are more of sattva entities than rajas or +tamas, and in others more of rajas or more of tamas. These +entities are continually uniting and separating. But though +they are thus continually dividing and uniting in new combinations +the special behaviour or feature of each class of +entities remains ever the same. Whatever may be the nature +of any particular combination the sattva entities participating +in it will retain their intellective functions, rajas their energy +functions, and tamas the obstructing ones. But though +they retain their special features in spite of their mutual +difference they hold fast to one another in any particular +combination (<i>tulyajātīyātulyajātīyaśaktibhedānupātinaḥ</i>, which +Bhikshu explains as <i>aviśesheṇopashṭambhakasvabhāvāḥ</i>). In +any particular combination it is the special features of those +entities which predominate that manifest themselves, while +the other two classes lend their force in drawing the minds of +perceivers to it as an object as a magnet draws a piece of iron. +Their functionings at this time are undoubtedly feeble +(<i>sūkshmavṛttimantaḥ</i>) but still they do exist.<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c014'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>In the three guṇas, none of them can be held as the goal +<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>of the others. All of them are equally important, and the very +varied nature of the manifold represents only the different +combinations of these guṇas as substantive entities. In any +combination one of the guṇas may be more predominant +than the others, but the other guṇas are also present there +and perform their functions in their own way. No one of +them is more important than the other, but they serve conjointly +one common purpose, viz. the experiences and the +liberation of the purusha, or spirit. They are always uniting, +separating and re-uniting again and there is neither beginning +nor end of this (<i>anyonyamithunāḥ sarvve naishāmādisamprayogo +viprayogo vā upalabhyate</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>They have no purpose of their own to serve, but they all are +always evolving, as Dr. Seal says, “ever from a relatively less +differentiated, less determinate, less coherent whole, to a +relatively more differentiated, more determinate, more coherent +whole”<a id='r7'></a><a href='#f7' class='c014'><sup>[7]</sup></a> for the experiences and liberation of purusha, +or spirit. When in a state of equilibrium they cannot serve +the purpose of the purusha, so that state of the guṇas is not +for the sake of the purusha; it is its own independent eternal +state. All the other three stages of evolution, viz. the liṅga +(sign), aviśesha (unspecialised) and viśesha (specialised) have +been caused for the sake of the purusha.<a id='r8'></a><a href='#f8' class='c014'><sup>[8]</sup></a> Thus Vyāsa +writes:—<a id='r9'></a><a href='#f9' class='c014'><sup>[9]</sup></a> “The objects of the purusha are no cause of the +original state (<i>aliṅga</i>). That is to say, the fulfilment of the +objects of the purusha is not the cause which brings about the +manifestation of the original state of prakṛti in the beginning. +The fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not therefore the +reason of the existence of that ultimate state. Since it is not +brought into existence by the need of the fulfilment of the +purusha’s objects it is said to be eternal. As to the three +<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>specialised states, the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha +becomes the cause of their manifestation in the beginning. +The fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not therefore +the reason for the existence of the cause. Since it is not +brought into existence by the purusha’s objects it is said to be +eternal. As to the three specialised states, the fulfilment of +the objects of the purusha being the cause of their manifestation +in the beginning, they are said to be non-eternal.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Vācaspati again says:—“The fulfilment of the objects +of the purusha could be said to be the cause of the original +state, if that state could bring about the fulfilment of the +objects of the purusha, such as the enjoyment of sound, etc., +or manifest the discrimination of the distinction between +true self and other phenomena. If however it did that, it +could not be a state of equilibrium,” (<i>yadyaliṅgāvasthā +śabdādyupabhogam vā sattvapurushānyatākhyātim vā purushārtham +nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na sāmyavasthā syāt</i>). +This state is called the prakṛti. It is the beginning, indeterminate, +unmediated and undetermined. It neither exists +nor does it not exist, but is the principium of almost all +existence. Thus Vyāsa describes it as “the state which neither +is nor is not; that which exists and yet does not; that in +which there is no non-existence; the unmanifested, the +noumenon (lit. without any manifested indication), the +background of all” (<i>niḥsattāsattam niḥsadasat nirasat +avyaktam aliṅgam pradhānam</i>).<a id='r10'></a><a href='#f10' class='c014'><sup>[10]</sup></a> Vācaspati explains it as +follows:—“Existence consists in possessing the capacity +of effecting the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha. +Non-existence means a mere imaginary trifle (e.g. the horn of +a hare).” It is described as being beyond both these states +of existence and non-existence. The state of the equipoise +of the three guṇas of intelligence-stuff, inertia and energy, is +nowhere of use in fulfilling the objects of the purusha. It +<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>therefore does not exist as such. On the other hand, it does +not admit of being rejected as non-existent like an imaginary +lotus of the sky. It is therefore not non-existent. But even +allowing the force of the above arguments about the want +of phenomenal existence of prakṛti on the ground that it +cannot serve the objects of the purusha, the difficulty arises +that the principles of Mahat, etc., exist in the state of the +unmanifested also, because nothing that exists can be destroyed; +and if it is destroyed, it cannot be born again, +because nothing that does not exist can be born; it follows +therefore that since the principles of mahat, etc., exist in the +state of the unmanifested, that state can also affect the fulfilment +of the objects of the purusha. How then can it be +said that the unmanifested is not possessed of existence? For +this reason, he describes it as that in which it exists and does +not exist. This means that the cause exists in that state in a +potential form but not in the form of the effect. Although +the effect exists in the cause as mere potential power, yet it is +incapable of performing the function of fulfilling the objects +of the purusha; it is therefore said to be non-existent as such. +Further he says that this cause is not such, that its effect is of +the nature of hare’s horn. It is beyond the state of non-existence, +that is, of the existence of the effect as mere nothing. +If it were like that, then it would be like the lotus of the sky +and no effect would follow.<a id='r11'></a><a href='#f11' class='c014'><sup>[11]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>But as Bhikshu points out (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 18) this +prakṛti is not simple substance, for it is but the guṇa reals. +It is simple only in the sense that no complex qualities are +manifested in it. It is the name of the totality of the guṇa +reals existing in a state of equilibrium through their mutual +counter opposition. It is a hypothetical state of the guṇas +preceding the states in which they work in mutual co-operation +for the creation of the cosmos for giving the purushas +<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>a chance for ultimate release attained through a full enjoyment +of experiences. Some European scholars have +often asked me whether the prakṛti were real or whether the +guṇas were real. This question, in my opinion, can only arise +as a result of confusion and misapprehension, for it is the +guṇas in a state of equilibrium that are called prakṛti. Apart +from guṇas there is no prakṛti (<i>guṇā eva prakṛtiśabdavācyā +na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti. Yoga-vārttika</i>, II. 18). In this +state, the different guṇas only annul themselves and no +change takes place, though it must be acknowledged that the +state of equipoise is also one of tension and action, which, +however, being perfectly balanced does not produce any +change. This is what is meant by evolution of similars +(<i>adṛśapariṇāma</i>). Prakṛti as the equilibrium of the three +guṇas is the absolute ground of all the mental and phenomenal +modifications—pure potentiality.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Veṅkaṭa, a later Vaishṇava writer, describes prakṛti as one +ubiquitous, homogeneous matter which evolves itself into all +material productions by condensation and rarefaction. In +this view the guṇas would have to be translated as three +different classes of qualities or characters, which are found +in the evolutionary products of the prakṛti. This will of +course be an altogether different view of the prakṛti from that +which is described in the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, and the guṇas could +not be considered as reals or as substantive entities in such an +interpretation. A question arises, then, as to which of these +two prakṛtis is the earlier conception. I confess that it is +difficult to answer it. For though the Vaishṇava view is +elaborated in later times, it can by no means be asserted that +it had not quite as early a beginning as 2nd or 3rd century B.C. +If <cite>Ahirbudhnyasamhitā</cite> is to be trusted then the <cite>Shashṭitantraśāstra</cite> +which is regarded as an authoritative Sāṃkhya work +is really a Vaishṇava work. Nothing can be definitely +stated about the nature of prakṛti in Sāṃkhya from the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>meagre statement of the <cite>Kārikā</cite>. The statement in the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> +is, however, definitely in favour of the interpretation +that we have adopted, and so also the <cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite>, which +is most probably a later work. Caraka’s account of prakṛti +does not seem to be the prakṛti of <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> for here the +guṇas are not regarded as reals or substantive entities, but +as characters, and prakṛti is regarded as containing its evolutes, +mahat, etc., as its elements (<i>dhātu</i>). If Caraka’s treatment +is the earliest view of Sāṃkhya that is available to us, then +it has to be admitted that the earliest Sāṃkhya view did not +accept prakṛti as a state of the guṇas, or guṇas as substantive +entities. But the <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, II. 19, and the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> +support the interpretation that I have adopted here, and it +is very curious that if the Sāṃkhya view was known at the +time to be so different from it, no reference to it should have +been made. But whatever may be the original Sāṃkhya view, +both the Yoga view and the later Sāṃkhya view are quite +in consonance with my interpretation.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In later Indian thinkers there had been a tendency to make +a compromise between the Vedānta and Sāṃkhya doctrines +and to identify prakṛti with the avidyā of the Vedāntists. +Thus Lokācāryya writes:—“It is called prakṛti since it is the +source of all change, it is called avidyā since it is opposed to +knowledge, it is called māyā since it is the cause of diversion +creation (<i>prakṛtirityucyate vikārotpādakatvāt avidyā jñānavirodhitvāt +māyā vicitrasṛshṭikaratvāt</i>).”<a id='r12'></a><a href='#f12' class='c014'><sup>[12]</sup></a> But this is distinctly +opposed to the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> which defines avidyā as +<i>vidyāviparītaṃ jñānāntaraṃ avidyā</i>, i.e. avidyā is that other +knowledge which is opposed to right knowledge. In some of +the Upanishads, <cite>Svetāśvatara</cite> for example, we find that māyā +and prakṛti are identified and the great god is said to preside +over them (<i>māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ vidyāt māyinaṃ tumaheśvaraṃ</i>). +There is a description also in the Ṛgveda, X. 92, where it is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>said that (<i>nāsadāsīt na sadāsīt tadānīṃ</i>), in the beginning +there was neither the “Is” nor the “Is not,” which reminds +one of the description of prakṛti (<i>niḥsattāsattaṃ</i> as that in +which there is no existence or non-existence). In this way +it may be shown from <cite>Gītā</cite> and other Sanskrit texts that an +undifferentiated, unindividuated cosmic matter as the first +principle, was often thought of and discussed from the earliest +times. Later on this idea was utilised with modifications by +the different schools of Vedāntists, the Sāṃkhyists and those +who sought to make a reconciliation between them under the +different names of prakṛti, avidyā and māyā. What avidyā +really means according to the Pātañjala system we shall see +later on; but here we see that whatever it might mean it +does not mean prakṛti according to the Pātañjala system. +<cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 13, makes mention of māyā also in a +couplet from <cite>Shashṭitantraśāstra</cite>;</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c015'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><i>guṇānāṃ paramaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati</i></div> + <div class='line in2'><i>yattu dṛshṭipathaṃ prāptaṃ tanmāyeva sutucch akaṃ.</i></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The real appearance of the guṇas does not come within +the line of our vision. That, however, which comes within the +line of vision is but paltry delusion and Vācaspati Miśra +explains it as follows:—Prakṛti is like the māyā but it is not +māyā. It is trifling (<i>sutucchaka</i>) in the sense that it is changing. +Just as māyā constantly changes, so the transformations +of prakṛti are every moment appearing and vanishing and +thus suffering momentary changes. Prakṛti being eternal is +real and thus different from māyā.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This explanation of Vācaspati’s makes it clear that the +word māyā is used here only in the sense of illusion, and +without reference to the celebrated māyā of the Vedāntists; +and Vācaspati clearly says that prakṛti can in no sense be +called māyā, since it is real.<a id='r13'></a><a href='#f13' class='c014'><sup>[13]</sup></a></p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER II<br> <span class='c013'>PURUSHA</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>We shall get a more definite notion of prakṛti as we advance +further into the details of the later transformations of the +prakṛti in connection with the purushas. The most difficult +point is to understand the nature of its connection with the +purushas. Prakṛti is a material, non-intelligent, independent +principle, and the souls or spirits are isolated, neutral, intelligent +and inactive. Then how can the one come into connection +with the other?</p> + +<p class='c007'>In most systems of philosophy the same trouble has arisen +and has caused the same difficulty in comprehending it rightly. +Plato fights the difficulty of solving the unification of the idea +and the non-being and offers his participation theory; even in +Aristotle’s attempt to avoid the difficulty by his theory of +form and matter, we are not fully satisfied, though he has +shown much ingenuity and subtlety of thought in devising +the “expedient in the single conception of development.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The universe is but a gradation between the two extremes +of potentiality and actuality, matter and form. But all +students of Aristotle know that it is very difficult to understand +the true relation between form and matter, and the +particular nature of their interaction with each other, and +this has created a great divergence of opinion among his +commentators. It was probably to avoid this difficulty that +the dualistic appearance of the philosophy of Descartes had +to be reconstructed in the pantheism of Spinoza. Again we +<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>find also how Kant failed to bring about the relation between +noumenon and phenomenon, and created two worlds absolutely +unrelated to each other. He tried to reconcile the schism +that he effected in his <cite>Critique of Pure Reason</cite> by his +<cite>Critique of Practical Reason</cite>, and again supplemented it +with his <cite>Critique of Judgment</cite>, but met only with dubious +success.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In India also this question has always been a little puzzling, +and before trying to explain the Yoga point of view, I shall +first give some of the other expedients devised for the purpose, +by the different schools of Advaita (monistic) Vedāntism.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I. The reflection theory of the Vedānta holds that the +māyā is without beginning, unspeakable, mother of gross +matter, which comes in connection with intelligence, so that +by its reflection in the former we have Īśvara. The illustrations +that are given to explain it both in <cite>Siddhāntaleśa</cite><a id='r14'></a><a href='#f14' class='c014'><sup>[14]</sup></a> and in +<cite>Advaita-Brahmasiddhi</cite> are only cases of physical reflection, +viz. the reflection of the sun in water, or of the sky in water.</p> + +<p class='c007'>II. The limitation theory of the Vedānta holds that the +all-pervading intelligence must necessarily be limited by mind, +etc., so of necessity it follows that “the soul” is its limitation. +This theory is illustrated by giving those common examples +in which the Ākāśa (space) though unbounded in itself is +often spoken of as belonging to a jug or limited by the jug +and as such appears to fit itself to the shape and form of the +jug and is thus called <i>ghaṭāvacchinna ākāśa</i>, i.e. space as +within the jug.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Then we have a third school of Vedāntists, which seeks to +explain it in another way:—The soul is neither a reflection nor +a limitation, but just as the son of Kuntī was known as the +son of Rādhā, so the pure Brahman by his nescience is known +as the jīva, and like the prince who was brought up in the +family of a low caste, it is the pure Brahman who by his own +<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>nescience undergoes birth and death, and by his own nescience +is again released.<a id='r15'></a><a href='#f15' class='c014'><sup>[15]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>The <cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite> also avails itself of the same story in +IV. 1, “<i>rājaputtravattattvopadeśāt</i>,” which Vijñāna Bhikshu +explains as follows:—A certain king’s son in consequence of +his being born under the star Gaṇḍa having been expelled +from his city and reared by a certain forester remains under +the idea: “I am a forester.” Having learnt that he is alive, +a certain minister informs him. “Thou art not a forester, +thou art a king’s son.” As he, immediately having abandoned +the idea of being an outcast, betakes himself to his true royal +state, saying, “I am a king,” so too the soul realises its purity +in consequence of instruction by some good tutor, to the effect—“Thou, +who didst originate from the first soul, which +manifests itself merely as pure thought, art a portion thereof.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In another place there are two sūtras:—(1) <i>niḥsaṅge’pi +uparāgo vivekāt</i>. (2) <i>japāsphaṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ</i>. +(1) Though it be associated still there is a tingeing +through non-discrimination. (2) As in the case of the hibiscus +and the crystal, there is not a tinge, but a fancy. Now it will +be seen that all these theories only show that the transcendent +nature of the union of the principle of pure intelligence is very +difficult to comprehend. Neither the reflection nor the +limitation theory can clear the situation from vagueness and +incomprehensibility, which is rather increased by their +physical illustrations, for the cit or pure intelligence cannot +undergo reflection like a physical thing, nor can it be obstructed +or limited by it. The reflection theory adduced by the <cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite>, +“<i>japāsphiṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ</i>,” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>is not an adequate explanation. For here the reflection +produces only a seeming redness of the colourless crystal, +which was not what was meant by the Vedāntists of the +reflection school. But here, though the metaphor is more +suitable to express the relation of purusha with the prakṛti, +the exact nature of the relation is more lost sight of than comprehended. +Let us now see how Patañjali and Vyāsa seek to +explain it.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Let me quote a few sūtras of Patañjali and some of the +most important extracts from the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> and try, as far as +possible, to get the correct view:—</p> + + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt>(1)</dt> + <dd><i>dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā</i> II. 6. + </dd> + <dt>(2)</dt> + <dd><i>drashṭā dṛśimātraḥ śuddho’pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ</i> II. 20. + </dd> + <dt>(3)</dt> + <dd><i>tadartha eva drśyasya ātmā</i> II. 21. + </dd> + <dt>(4)</dt> + <dd><i>kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt</i> II. 22. + </dd> + <dt>(5)</dt> + <dd><i>Svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṃyogah</i> II. 22. + </dd> + <dt>(6)</dt> + <dd><i>tadabhāvāt saṃyogābhāvo hānaṃ taddṛśeḥ kaivalyaṃ</i> II. 25. + </dd> + <dt>(7)</dt> + <dd><i>sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ</i> III. 25. + </dd> + <dt>(8)</dt> + <dd><i>citerapratisaṃkramāyāstadākārāpattau svabuddhisaṃvedanaṃ</i> IV. 22. + </dd> + <dt>(9)</dt> + <dd><i>sattvapurushayoratyantāsaṅkīrṇayoḥ pratyayāvśesho bhogaḥ parārthatvāt svārthasaṃyamāt + purushajñānam</i> III. 35. + </dd> + </dl> + +<p class='c007'>(1) The Ego-sense is the illusory appearance of the identity +of the power as perceiver and the power as perceived.</p> + +<p class='c007'>(2) The seer though pure as mere “seeing” yet perceives +the forms assumed by the psychosis (<i>buddhi</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>(3) It is for the sake of the purusha that the being of the +knowable exists.</p> + +<p class='c007'>(4) For the emancipated person the world-phenomena +cease to exist, yet they are not annihilated since they form +a common field of experience for other individuals.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>(5) The cause of the realisation of the natures of the knowable +and purusha in consciousness is their mutual contact.</p> + +<p class='c007'>(6) Cessation is the want of mutual contact arising from the +destruction of ignorance and this is called the state of oneness.</p> + +<p class='c007'>(7) This state of oneness arises out of the equality in purity +of the purusha and buddhi or sattva.</p> + +<p class='c007'>(8) Personal consciousness arises when the purusha, +though in its nature unchangeable, is cast into the mould of +the psychosis.</p> + +<p class='c007'>(9) Since the mind-objects exist only for the purusha, experience +consists in the non-differentiation of these two which +in their natures are absolutely distinct; the knowledge of +self arises out of concentration on its nature.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus in <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, II. 6, dṛik or purusha the seer is spoken +of as śakti or power as much as the prakṛti itself, and we +see that their identity is only apparent. Vyāsa in his <cite>Bhāshya</cite> +explains <i>ekātmatā</i> (unity of nature or identity) as <i>avibhāgaprāptāviva</i>, +“as if there is no difference.” And Pañcaśikha, +as quoted in <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, writes: “not knowing the +purusha beyond the mind to be different therefrom, in nature, +character and knowledge, etc., a man has the notion of self, +in the mind through delusion.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus we see that when the mind and purusha are known to +be separated, the real nature of purusha is realised. This +seeming identity is again described as that which perceives +the particular form of the mind and thereby appears, as +identical with it though it is not so (<i>pratyayānupaśya—pratyayāni +bauddhamanupaśyati tamanupaśyannatadātmāpi +tadātmaka iva pratibhāti</i>, <cite>Vāysa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 20).</p> + +<p class='c007'>The purusha thus we see, cognises the phenomena of consciousness +after they have been formed, and though its nature +is different from conscious states yet it appears to be the same. +Vyāsa in explaining this sūtra says that purusha is neither +quite similar to the mind nor altogether different from it. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>For the mind (<i>buddhi</i>) is always changeful, according to the +change of the objects that are offered to it; so that it may be +said to be changeful according as it knows or does not know +objects; but the purusha is not such, for it always appears +as the self, being reflected through the mind by which it is +thus connected with the phenomenal form of knowledge. The +notion of self that appears connected with all our mental +phenomena and which always illumines them is only duo to +this reflection of purusha in the mind. All phenomenal +knowledge which has the form of the object can only be +transformed into conscious knowledge as “I know this,” +when it becomes connected with the self or purusha. So the +purusha may in a way be said to see again what was perceived +by the mind and thus to impart consciousness by transferring +its illumination into the mind. The mind suffers changes +according to the form of the object of cognition, and thus +results a state of conscious cognition in the shape of “I know +it,” when the mind, having assumed the shape of an object, +becomes connected with the constant factor purusha, through +the transcendent reflection or identification of purusha in the +mind. This is what is meant by <i>pratyayānupaśya</i> reperception +of the mind-transformations by purusha, whereby the +mind which has assumed the shape of any object of consciousness +becomes intelligent. Even when the mind is without +any objective form, it is always being seen by purusha. +The exact nature of this reflection is indeed very hard to comprehend; +no physical illustrations can really serve to make it +clear. And we see that neither the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> nor the +sūtras offer any such illustrations as Sāṃkhya did. But the +<cite>Bhāshya</cite> proceeds to show the points in which the mind may +be said to differ from purusha, as well as those in which it +agrees with it. So that though we cannot express it anyhow, +we may at least make some advance towards conceiving the +situation.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says that the main difference between +the mind and purusha is that the mind is constantly undergoing +modifications, as it grasps its objects one by one; for +the grasping of an object, the act of having a percept is +nothing but its own undergoing of different modifications, +and thus, since an object sometimes comes within the grasp +of the mind and again disappears in the subconscious as a +saṃskāra (potency) and again comes into the field of the +understanding as smṛti (memory), we see that it is pariṇāmi +or changing. But purusha is the constant seer of the mind +when it has an object, as in ordinary forms of phenomenal +knowledge, or when it has no object as in the state of nirodha +or cessation. Purusha is unchanging. It is the light which +remains unchanged amidst all the changing modifications of +the mind, so that we cannot distinguish purusha separately +from the mind. This is what is meant by saying <i>buddheḥ +pratisaṃvedī purushaḥ</i>, i.e. purusha reflects or turns into its +own light the concepts of mind and thus is said to know it. +Its knowing is manifested in our consciousness as the ever-persistent +notion of the self, which is always a constant +factor in all the phenomena of consciousness. Thus purusha +always appears in our consciousness as the knowing agent. +Truly speaking, however, purusha only sees himself; he is +not in any way in touch with the mind. He is absolutely free +from all bondage, absolutely unconnected with prakṛti. +From the side of appearance he seems only to be the intelligent +seer imparting consciousness to our conscious-like conception, +though in reality he remains the seer of himself all +the while. The difference between purusha and prakṛti will +be clear when we see that purusha is altogether independent, +existing in and for himself, free from any bondage whatsoever; +but buddhi exists on the other hand for the enjoyment +and release of purusha. That which exists in and for itself, +must ever be the selfsame, unchangeable entity, suffering +<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>no transformations or modifications, for it has no other end +owing to which it will be liable to change. It is the self-centred, +self-satisfied light, which never seeks any other end +and never leaves itself. But prakṛti is not such; it is always +undergoing endless, complex modifications and as such does +not exist for itself but for purusha, and is dependent upon +him. The mind is unconscious, while purusha is the pure +light of intelligence, for the three guṇas are all non-intelligent, +and the mind is nothing but a modification of these three +guṇas which are all non-intelligent.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But looked at from another point of view, prakṛti is not +altogether different from purusha; for had it been so how +could purusha, which is absolutely pure, reperceive the mind-modifications? +Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> (II. 20) writes:—</p> + +<p class='c007'>“Well then let him be dissimilar. To meet this he says: +He is not quite dissimilar. Why? Although pure, he sees +the ideas after they have come into the mind. Inasmuch as +purusha cognises the ideas in the form of mind-modification, +he appears to be, by the act of cognition, the very self of the +mind although in reality he is not.” As has been said, the +power of the enjoyer, purusha (<i>dṛkśakti</i>), is certainly unchangeable +and it does not run after every object. In connection +with a changeful object it appears forever as if it +were being transferred to every object and as if it were +assimilating its modifications. And when the modifications +of the mind assume the form of the consciousness by which +it is coloured, they imitate it and look as if they were manifestations +of purusha’s consciousness unqualified by the +modifications of the non-intelligent mind.</p> + +<p class='c007'>All our states of consciousness are analysed into two parts—a +permanent and a changing part. The changing part is +the form of our consciousness, which is constantly varying +according to the constant change of its contents. The permanent +part is that pure light of intelligence, by virtue of which +<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>we have the notion of self reflected in our consciousness. +Now, as this self persists through all the varying changes of +the objects of consciousness, it is inferred that the light +which thus shines in our consciousness is unchangeable. +Our mind is constantly suffering a thousand modifications, +but the notion of self is the only thing permanent amidst all +this change. It is this self that imports consciousness to the +material parts of our knowledge. All our concepts originated +from our perception of external material objects. Therefore +the forms of our concepts which could exactly and clearly +represent these material objects in their own terms, must +be made of a stuff which in essence is not different from them. +But with the reflection of purusha, the soul, the notion of +self comes within the content of our consciousness, spiritualising, +as it were, all our concepts and making them conscious +and intelligent. Thus this seeming identity of purusha and +the mind, by which purusha may be spoken of as the seer of +the concept, appears to the self, which is manifested in consciousness +by virtue of the seeming reflection. For this is +that self, or personality, which remains unchanged all through +our consciousness. Thus our phenomenal intelligent self +is partially a material reality arising out of the seeming +interaction of the spirit and the mind. This interaction is +the only way by which matter releases spirit from its seeming +bondage.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But the question arises, how is it that there can even be +a seeming reflection of purusha in the mind which is altogether +non-intelligent? How is it possible for the mind to catch a +glimpse of purusha, which illuminates all the concepts of +consciousness, the expression “<i>anupaśya</i>” meaning that he +perceives by imitation (<i>anukāreṇa paśyati</i>)? How can +purusha, which is altogether formless, allow any reflection +of itself to imitate the form of buddhi, by virtue of which it +appears as the self—the supreme possessor and knower of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>all our mental conceptions? There must be at least some +resemblance between the mind and the purusha, to justify +in some sense this seeming reflection. And we find that the +last sūtra of the Vibhūtipāda says: <i>sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye +kaivalyaṃ</i>—which means that when the sattva or +the preponderating mind-stuff becomes as pure as purusha, +kaivalya or oneness is attained. This shows that the pure +nature of sattva has a great resemblance to the pure nature +of purusha. So much so, that the last stage preceding the state +of kaivalya, is almost the same as kaivalya itself, when purusha +is in himself and there are no thoughts to reflect. In this +state, we see that the mind can be so pure as to reflect exactly +the nature of purusha, as he is in himself. This state in which +the mind becomes as pure as purusha and reflects him in his +purity, does not materially differ from the state of kaivalya, +in which purusha is in himself—the only difference being that +the mind, when it becomes so pure as this, becomes gradually +lost in prakṛti and cannot again serve to bind purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I cannot refrain here from the temptation of referring to +a beautiful illustration from Vyāsa, to explain the way in +which the mind serves the purposes of purusha. <i>Cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṃ +sannidhimātropakāri dṛśyatvena svaṃ bhavati +purushasya svāminaḥ</i> (I. 4), which is explained in +<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> as follows: <i>Tathāyaskāntamaṇiḥ svasminneva +ayaḥsannidhīkaraṇamātrāt śalyarishkarshaṇākhyam upakāram +kurvat purushasya svāminaḥ svam bhvati bhogasādhanatvāt</i>, i.e. +just as a magnet draws iron towards it, though it remains unmoved +itself, so the mind-modifications become drawn +towards purusha, and thereby become visible to purusha and +serve his purpose.</p> + +<p class='c007'>To summarise: We have seen that something like a union +takes place between the mind and purusha, i.e. there is a +seeming reflection of purusha in the mind, simultaneously +with its being determined conceptually, as a result whereof +<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>this reflection of purusha in the mind, which is known as the +self, becomes united with these conceptual determinations +of the mind and the former is said to be the perceiver of all +these determinations. Our conscious personality or self +is thus the seeming unity of the knowable as the mind in the +shape of conceptual or judgmental representations with the +reflections of purusha in the mind. Thus, in the single act +of cognition, we have the notion of our own personality and +the particular conceptual or perceptual representation with +which this ego identifies itself. The true seer, the pure +intelligence, the free, the eternal, remains all the while beyond +any touch of impurity from the mind, though it must be +remembered that it is its own seeming reflection in the mind +that appears as the ego, the cogniser of all our states, pleasures +and sorrows of the mind and one who is the apperceiver of +this unity of the seeming reflection—of purusha and the +determinations of the mind. In all our conscious states, there +is such a synthetic unity between the determinations of our +mind and the self, that they cannot be distinguished one from +the other—a fact which is exemplified in all our cognitions, +which are the union of the knower and the known. The +nature of this reflection is a transcendent one and can never +be explained by any physical illustration. Purusha is altogether +different from the mind, inasmuch as he is the pure +intelligence and is absolutely free, while the latter is non-intelligent +and dependent on purusha’s enjoyment and +release, which are the sole causes of its movement. But there +is some similarity between the two, for how could the mind +otherwise catch a seeming glimpse of him? It is also said +that the pure mind can adapt itself to the pure form of +purusha; this is followed by the state of kaivalya.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have discussed the nature of purusha and its general +relations with the mind. We must now give a few more +illustrations. The chief point in which purusha of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala +<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>differs from the similar spiritual principle of +Vedānta is, that it regards its soul, not as one, but as many. +Let us try to discuss this point, in connection with the arguments +of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine in favour of a +separate principle of purusha. Thus the <cite>Kārikā</cite> says: +<i>saṃghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyyayādadhishthānāt purusho’sti +bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṃ pravṛtteśca</i>,<a id='r16'></a><a href='#f16' class='c014'><sup>[16]</sup></a> “Because an +assemblage of things is for the sake of another; because there +must be an entity different from the three guṇas and the rest +(their modifications); because there must be a superintending +power; because there must be someone who enjoys; and +because of (the existence of) active exertion for the sake of +abstraction or isolation (from the contact with prakṛti) +therefore the soul exists.” The first argument is from design +or teleology by which it is inferred that there must be some +other simple entity for which these complex collocations of +things are intended. Thus Gauḍapāda says: “In such +manner as a bed, which is an assemblage of bedding, props, +cotton, coverlet and pillows, is for another’s use, not for its +own, and its several component parts render no mutual +service, and it is concluded that there is a man who sleeps +upon the bed and for whose sake it was made; so this world, +which is an assemblage of the five elements, is for +use and there is a soul, for whose enjoyment this body, +another’s consisting of intellect and the rest, has been +produced.”<a id='r17'></a><a href='#f17' class='c014'><sup>[17]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>The <i>second argument</i> is that all the knowable is composed +of just three elements: first, the element of sattva, or intelligence-stuff, +causing all manifestations; second, the +element of rajas or energy, which is ever causing transformations; +and third, tamas, or the mass, which enables rajas +to actualise. Now such a prakṛti, composed of these three +elements, cannot itself be a seer. For the seer must be always +<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>the same unchangeable, actionless entity, the ever present, +ever constant factor in all stages of our consciousness.</p> + +<p class='c007'><i>Third argument</i>: There must be a supreme background +of pure consciousness, all our co-ordinated basis of experience. +This background is the pure actionless purusha, reflected +in which all our mental states become conscious. Davies +explains this a little differently, in accordance with a simile +in the <cite>Tattva-Kaumudī</cite>, <i>yathā rathādi yantrādibhiḥ</i>, thus: +“This idea of Kapila seems to be that the power of self-control +cannot be predicted of matter, which must be directed +or controlled for the accomplishment of any purpose, and +this controlling power must be something external to matter +and diverse from it. The soul, however, never acts. It only +seems to act; and it is difficult to reconcile this part of the +system with that which gives to the soul a controlling force. +If the soul is a charioteer, it must be an active force.” But +Davies here commits the mistake of carrying the simile too +far. The comparison of the charioteer and the chariot holds +good, to the extent that the chariot can take a particular +course only when there is a particular purpose for the charioteer +to perform. The motion of the chariot is fulfilled only +when it is connected with the living person of the charioteer, +whose purpose it must fulfil.</p> + +<p class='c007'><i>Fourth argument</i>: Since prakṛti is non-intelligent, there +must be one who enjoys its pains and pleasures. The emotional +and conceptual determinations of such feelings are +aroused in consciousness by the seeming reflection of the light +of purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'><i>Fifth argument</i>: There is a tendency in all persons to move +towards the oneness of purusha, to be achieved by liberation; +there must be one for whose sake the modifications of buddhi +are gradually withheld, and a reverse process set up, by which +they return to their original cause prakṛti and thus liberate +purusha. It is on account of this reverse tendency of prakṛti +<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>to release purusha that a man feels prompted to achieve his +liberation as the highest consummation of his moral ideal.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus having proved the existence of purusha, the <cite>Kārikā</cite> +proceeds to prove his plurality: “<i>janmamaraṇakaraṇānāṃ +pratiniyamādayugapat pravṛtteśca purushabahutvaṃ siddhaṃ +traiguṇyaviparyyayācca</i>.” “From the individual allotment +of birth, death and the organs; from diversity of occupations +and from the different conditions of the three guṇas, it is +proved that there is a plurality of souls.” In other words, +since with the birth of one individual, all are not born; since +with the death of one, all do not die; and since each individual +has separate sense organs for himself; and since all beings +do not work at the same time in the same manner; and since +the qualities of the different guṇas are possessed differently +by different individuals, purushas are many. Patañjali, +though he does not infer the plurality of purushas in this way, +yet holds the view of the sūtra, <i>kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ +tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt</i>. “Although destroyed in +relation to him whose objects have been achieved, it is not +destroyed, being common to others.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Davies, in explaining the former <cite>Kārikā</cite>, says: “There is, +however, the difficulty that the soul is not affected by the +three guṇas. How can their various modifications prove the +individuality of souls in opposition to the Vedāntist doctrine, +that all souls are only portions of the one, an infinitely extended +monad?”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This question is the most puzzling in the Sāṃkhya doctrine. +But careful penetration of the principles of Sāṃkhya-Yoga +would make clear to us that this is a necessary and consistent +outcome of the Sāṃkhya view of a dualistic universe.</p> + +<p class='c007'>For if it is said that purusha is one and we have the notion +of different selves by his reflection into different minds, it +follows that such notions as self, or personality, are false. +For the only true being is the one, purusha. So the knower +<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>being false, the known also becomes false; the knower and +the known having vanished, everything is reduced to that +which we can in no way conceive. It may be argued that +according to the Sāṃkhya philosophy also, the knower is +false, for the pure purusha as such is not in any way connected +with prakṛti. But even then it must be observed that the +Sāṃkhya-Yoga view does not hold that the knower is false +but analyses the nature of the ego and says that it is due to +the seeming unity of the mind and purusha, both of which +are reals in the strictest sense of the term. Purusha is there +justly called the knower. He sees and simultaneously with +this, there is a modification of buddhi (mind); this seeing +becomes joined with this modification of buddhi and thus +arises the ego, who perceives that particular form of the +modification of buddhi. Purusha always remains the knower. +Buddhi suffers modifications and at the same time catches +a glimpse of the light of purusha, so that contact (<i>saṃyoga</i>) of +purusha and prakṛti occurs at one and the same point +of time, in which there is unity of the reflection of purusha +and the particular transformation of buddhi.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The knower, the ego and the knowable, are none of them +false in the Sāṃkhya-Yoga system at the stage preceding +kaivalya, when buddhi becomes as pure as purusha; its +modification resembles the exact form of purusha and then +purusha knows himself in his true nature in buddhi; after +which buddhi vanishes. The Vedānta has to admit the +modifications of māyā, but must at the same time hold it +to be unreal. The Vedānta says that māyā is as beginningless +as prakṛti yet has an ending with reference to the released +person as the buddhi of the Sāṃkhyists.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But according to the Vedānta philosophy, knowledge of +ego is only false knowledge—an illusion as many imposed +upon the formless Brahman. Māyā, according to the +Vedāntist, can neither be said to exist nor to non-exist. It +<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>is <i>anirvācyā</i>, i.e. can never be described or defined. Such an +unknown and unknowable māyā causes the Many of the +world by reflection upon the Brahman. But according to the +Sāṃkhya doctrine, prakṛti is as real as purusha himself. +Prakṛti and purusha are two irreducible metaphysical remainders +whose connection is beginningless (<i>anādisaṃyoga</i>). +But this connection is not unreal in the Vedānta sense of the +term. We see that according to the Vedānta system, all +notions of ego or personality are false and are originated by the +illusive action of the māyā, so that when they ultimately +vanish there are no other remainders. But this is not the +case with Sāṃkhya, for as purusha is the real seer, his cognitions +cannot be dismissed as unreal, and so purushas or +knowers as they appear to us to be, must be held real. As +prakṛti is not the māyā of the Vedāntist (the nature of whose +influence over the spiritual principle cannot be determined) +we cannot account for the plurality of purushas by supposing +that one purusha is being reflected into many minds and +generating the many egos. For in that case it will be difficult +to explain the plurality of their appearances in the minds +(buddhis). For if there be one spiritual principle, how should +we account for the supposed plurality of the buddhis? For +we should rather expect to find one buddhi and not many +to serve the supposed one purusha, and this will only mean +that there can be only one ego, his enjoyment and release. +Supposing for argument’s sake that there are many buddhis +and one purusha, which reflected in them, is the cause of the +plurality of selves, then we cannot see how prakṛti is moving +for the enjoyment and release of one purusha; it would +rather appear to be moved for the sake of the enjoyment +and release of the reflected or unreal self. For purusha is +not finally released with the release of any number of particular +individual selves. For it may be released with reference +to one individual but remain bound to others. So prakṛti +<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>would not really be moved in this hypothetical case for the +sake of purusha, but for the sake of the reflected selves only. +If we wish to avoid the said difficulties, then with the release +of one purusha, all purushas will have to be released. For +in the supposed theory there would not really be many +different purushas, but the one purusha appearing as many, +so that with his release all the other so-called purushas must +be released. We see that if it is the enjoyment (<i>bhoga</i>) and +salvation (<i>apavarga</i>) of one purusha which appear as so many +different series of enjoyments and emancipations, then with +his experiences all should have the same experiences. With +his birth and death, all should be born or all should die at +once. For, indeed, it is the experiences of one purusha which +appear in all the seeming different purushas. And in the +other suppositions there is neither emancipation nor enjoyment +by purusha at all. For there, it is only the illusory self +that enjoys or releases himself. By his release no purusha +is really released at all. So the fundamental conception of +prakṛti as moving for the sake of the enjoyment and release +of purusha has to be abandoned.</p> + +<p class='c007'>So we see that from the position in which Sāṃkhya and +Yoga stood, this plurality of the purushas was the most +consistent thing that they could think of. Any compromise +with the Vedānta doctrine here would have greatly changed +the philosophical aspect and value of the Sāṃkhya philosophy. +As the purushas are nothing but pure intelligences they can +as well be all-pervading though many. But there is another +objection that, since number is a conception of the phenomenal +mind, how then can it be applied to the purushas which are +said to be many?<a id='r18'></a><a href='#f18' class='c014'><sup>[18]</sup></a> But that difficulty remains unaltered +<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>even if we regard the purusha as one. When we go into the +domain of metaphysics and try to represent Reality with the +symbols of our phenomenal conceptions we have really to +commit almost a violence towards it. But we must perforce +do this in all our attempts to express in our own terms that +pure, inexpressible, free illumination which exists in and for +itself beyond the range of any mediation by the concepts +or images of our mind. So we see that Sāṃkhya was not +inconsistent in holding the doctrine of the plurality of the +purushas. Patañjali does not say anything about it, since +he is more anxious to discuss other things connected with +the presupposition of the plurality of purusha. Thus he +speaks of it only in one place as quoted above and says that +though for a released person this world disappears altogether, +still it remains unchanged in respect to all the other purushas.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER III<br> <span class='c013'>THE REALITY OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>We may now come to the attempt of Yoga to prove the +reality of an external world as against the idealistic Buddhists. +In sūtra 12 of the chapter on kaivalya we find: “The past +and the future exist in reality, since all qualities of things +manifest themselves in these three different ways. The +future is the manifestation which is to be. The past is the +appearance which has been experienced. The present is +that which is in active operation. It is this threefold substance +which is the object of knowledge. If it did not exist +in reality, there would not exist a knowledge thereof. How +could there be knowledge in the absence of anything knowable? +For this reason the past and present in reality exist.”<a id='r19'></a><a href='#f19' class='c014'><sup>[19]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>So we see that the present holding within itself the past +and the future exists in reality. For the past though it has +been negated has really been preserved and kept in the +present, and the future also though it has not made its appearance +yet exists potentially in the present. So, as we know +the past and the future worlds in the present, they both exist +and subsist in the present. That which once existed cannot +die, and that which never existed cannot come to be (<i>nāstyasataḥ +saṃbhavaḥ na cāsti sato vināsāḥ</i>, <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, V. 12). +So the past has not been destroyed but has rather shifted its +<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>position and hidden itself in the body of the present, and the +future that has not made its appearance exists in the present +only in a potential form. It cannot be argued, as Vācaspati +says, that because the past and the future are not present +therefore they do not exist, for if the past and future do not +exist how can there be a present also, since its existence +also is only relative? So all the three exist as truly as any +one of them, and the only difference among them is the +different way or mode of their existence.</p> + +<p class='c007'>He next proceeds to refute the arguments of those idealists +who hold that since the external knowables never exist +independently of our knowledge of them, their separate +external existence as such may be denied. Since it is by +knowledge alone that the external knowables can present +themselves to us we may infer that there is really no knowable +external reality apart from knowledge of it, just as we see +that in dream-states knowledge can exist apart from the +reality of any external world.</p> + +<p class='c007'>So it may be argued that there is, indeed, no external +reality as it appears to us. The Buddhists, for example, hold +that a blue thing and knowledge of it as blue are identical +owing to the maxim that things which are invariably perceived +together are one (<i>sahopalambhaniyamādabhedo nīlataddhiyoḥ</i>). +So they say that external reality is not different +from our idea of it. To this it may be replied that if, as you +say, external reality is identical with my ideas and there is +no other external reality existing as such outside my ideas, +why then does it appear as existing apart, outside and independent +of my ideas? The idealists have no basis for the +denial of external reality, and for their assertion that it is +only the creation of our imagination like experiences in dreams. +Even our ideas carry with them the notion that reality exists +outside our mental experiences. If all our percepts and +notions as this and that arise only by virtue of the influence +<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>of the external world, how can they deny the existence of the +external world as such? The objective world is present by +its own power. How then can this objective world be given +up on the strength of mere logical or speculative abstraction?</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 14, says: “There is no +object without the knowledge of it, but there is knowledge +as imagined in dreams without any corresponding object; +thus the reality of external things is like that of dream-objects, +mere imagination of the subject and unreal. How +can they who say so be believed? Since they first suppose +that the things which present themselves to us by their own +force do so only on account of the invalid and delusive imagination +of the intellect, and then deny the reality of the external +world on the strength of such an imaginary supposition of +their own.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The external world has generated knowledge of itself +by its own presentative power (<i>arthena svakīyayāgrāhyaśaktyā +vijñānamajani</i>), and has thus caused itself to be represented +in our ideas, and we have no right to deny it.<a id='r20'></a><a href='#f20' class='c014'><sup>[20]</sup></a> Commenting +on the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> IV. 14, Vācaspati says that the method +of agreement applied by the Buddhists by their <i>sahopalambhaniyama</i> +(maxim of simultaneous revelation) may possibly +be confuted by an application of the method of difference. +The method of agreement applied by the idealists when put +in proper form reads thus: “Wherever there is knowledge +there is external reality, or rather every case of knowledge +agrees with or is the same as every case of the presence of +external reality, so knowledge is the cause of the presence of +the external reality, i.e. the external world depends for its +reality on our knowledge or ideas and owes its origin or +appearance as such to them.” But Vācaspati says that this +application of the method of agreement is not certain, for it +cannot be corroborated by the method of difference. For +<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>the statement that every case of absence of knowledge is also +a case of absence of external reality cannot be proved, i.e. +we cannot prove that the external reality does not exist +when we have no knowledge of it (<i>sahopalambhaniyamaśca +vedyatvañca hetū sandigdhavyatirekatayānaikāntikau</i>) IV. 14.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Describing the nature of grossness and externality, the +attributes of the external world, he says that grossness means +the pervading of more portions of space than one, i.e. grossness +means extension, and externality means being related to +separate space, i.e. co-existence in space. Thus we see that +extension and co-existence in space are the two fundamental +qualities of the gross external world. Now an idea can never +be said to possess them, for it cannot be said that an idea has +extended into more spaces than one and yet co-existed +separately in separate places. An idea cannot be said to +exist with other ideas in space and to extend in many points +of space at one and the same time. To avoid this it cannot +be said that there may be plurality of ideas so that some may +co-exist and others may extend in space. For co-existence +and extension can never be asserted of our ideas, since +hey +are very fine and subtle, and can be known only at the time of +their individual operation, at which time, however, other ideas +may be quite latent and unknown. Imagination has no power +to negate their reality, for the sphere of imagination is quite +distinct from the sphere of external reality, and it can never +be applied to an external reality to negate it. Imagination is +a mental function, and as such has no touch with the reality +outside, which it can by no means negate.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Further it cannot be said that, because grossness and +externality can abide neither in the external world nor in +our ideas, they are therefore false. For this falsity cannot be +thought as separable from our ideas, for in that case our ideas +would be as false as the false itself. The notion of externality +and grossness pervades all our ideas, and if they are held to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>be false, no true thing can be known by our ideas and they +therefore become equally false.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Again, knowledge and the external world can never be said +to be identical because they happen to be presented together. +For the method of agreement cannot by itself prove identity. +Knowledge and the knowable external world may be independently +co-existing things like the notions of existence and +non-existence. Both co-exist independently of one another. +It is therefore clear enough, says Vācaspati, that the certainty +arrived at by perception, which gives us a direct knowledge +of things, can never be rejected on the strength of mere +logical abstraction or hair-splitting discussion.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We further see, says Patañjali, that the thing remains +the same though the ideas and feelings of different men may +change differently about it.<a id='r21'></a><a href='#f21' class='c014'><sup>[21]</sup></a> Thus A, B, C may perceive +the same identical woman and may feel pleasure, pain or +hatred. We see that the same common thing generates +different feelings and ideas in different persons; external +reality cannot be said to owe its origin to the idea or imagination +of any one man, but exists independently of any person’s +imagination in and for itself. For if it be due to the imagination +of any particular man, it is his own idea which as such +cannot generate the same ideas in another man. So it must be +said that the external reality is what we perceive it outside.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There are, again, others who say that just as pleasure +and pain arise along with our ideas and must be said to be due +to them so the objective world also must be said to have come +into existence along with our ideas. The objective world +therefore according to these philosophers has no external +existence either in the past or in the future, but has only +a momentary existence in the present due to our ideas about +it. That much existence only are they ready to attribute +to external objects which can be measured by the idea of the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>moment. The moment I have an idea of a thing, the thing +rises into existence and may be said to exist only for that +moment and as soon as the idea disappears the object also +vanishes, for when it cannot be presented to me in the form +of ideas it can be said to exist in no sense. But this argument +cannot hold good, for if the objective reality should really +depend upon the idea of any individual man, then the objective +reality corresponding to an idea of his ought to cease to exist +either with the change of his idea, or when he directs attention +to some other thing, or when he restrains his mind from all +objects of thought. Now, then, if it thus ceases to exist, how +can it again spring into existence when the attention of the +individual is again directed towards it? Again, all parts of +an object can never be seen all at once. Thus supposing that +the front side of a thing is visible, then the back side which +cannot be seen at the time must not be said to exist at all. +So if the back side does not exist, the front side also can as +well be said not to exist (<i>ye cāsyānupasthitā bhāgaste cāsya +na syurevaṃ nāsti pṛshṭhamiti udaramapi na gṛhyeta.</i> <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, +IV. 16). Therefore it must be said that there is an +independent external reality which is the common field of +observation for all souls in general; and there are also +separate “Cittas” for separate individual souls (<i>tasmāt +svatantro’rthaḥ sarvapurusasādhdāraṇaḥ svatantrāṇi ca cittāni +pratipurushaṃ, pravarttante</i>, <i>ibid.</i>). And all the experiences +of the purusha result from the connection of this “Citta” +(mind) with the external world.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now from this view of the reality of the external world we +are confronted with another question—what is the ground +which underlies the manifold appearance of this external +world which has been proved to be real? What is that something +which is thought as the vehicle of such qualities as produce +in us the ideas? What is that self-subsistent substratum +which is the basis of so many changes, actions and reactions +<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>that we always meet in the external world? Locke called +this substratum substance and regarded it as unknown, but +said that though it did not follow that it was a product of +our own subjective thought yet it did not at the same time +exist without us. Hume, however, tried to explain everything +from the standpoint of association of ideas and denied all +notions of substantiality. We know that Kant, who was much +influenced by Hume, agreed to the existence of some such +unknown reality which he called the Thing-in-itself, the nature +of which, however, was absolutely unknowable, but whose +influence was a great factor in all our experiences.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> tries to penetrate deeper into the nature +of this substratum or substance and says: <i>dharmisvarūpamātro +hi dharmaḥ, dharmivikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā prapañcyate</i>, +<cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, III. 13. The characteristic qualities form the +very being itself of the characterised, and it is the change of +the characterised alone that is detailed by means of the +characteristic. To understand thoroughly the exact significance +of this statement it will be necessary to take a more +detailed review of what has already been said about the guṇas. +We know that all things mental or physical are formed by the +different collocations of sattva of the nature of illumination +(<i>prakāśa</i>), rajas—the energy or mutative principle of the +nature of action (<i>kriyā</i>)—and tamas—the obstructive principle +of the nature of inertia (<i>sthiti</i>) which in their original and +primordial state are too fine to be apprehended (<i>gunānāṃparamaṃ +rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati</i>, <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 13). +These different guṇas combine in various proportions to form +the manifold universe of the knowable, and thus are made the +objects of our cognition. Through combining in different +proportions they become, in the words of Dr. B. N. Seal, “more +and more differentiated, determinate and coherent,” and thus +make themselves cognisable, yet they never forsake their own +true nature as the guṇas. So we see that they have thus got +<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>two natures, one in which they remain quite unchanged as +guṇas, and another in which they collocate and combine +themselves in various ways and thus appear under the veil +of a multitude of qualities and states of the manifold knowable +(<i>te vyaktasūkshmā guṇātmānaḥ</i> [IV. 13] ... <i>sarvamidaṃ +guṇānāṃ sanniveśaviśeshamātramiti paramārthato guṇātmānaḥ</i>, +<cite>Bhāshya</cite>, <i>ibid.</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now these guṇas take three different courses of development +from the ego or ahaṃkāra according to which the ego or +ahaṃkāra may be said to be sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa. +Thus from the sāttvika side of the ego by a preponderance of +sattva the five knowledge-giving senses, e.g. hearing, sight, +touch, taste and smell are derived. From the rajas side of +ego by a preponderance of rajas the five active senses of speech, +etc., are derived. From the tamas side of ego or ahaṃkāra +by a preponderance of tamas are derived the five tanmātras. +From which again by a preponderance of tamas the atoms of +the five gross elements—earth, water, fire, air and ether are +derived.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the derivation of these it must be remembered that +all the three guṇas are conjointly responsible. In the derivation +of a particular product one of the guṇas may indeed be +predominant, and thus may bestow the prominent characteristic +of that product, but the other two guṇas are also present +there and perform their functions equally well. Their +opposition does not withhold the progress of evolution but +rather helps it. All the three combine together in varying +degrees of mutual preponderance and thus together help the +process of evolution to produce a single product. Thus we +see that though the guṇas are three, they combine to produce +on the side of perception, the senses, such as those of hearing, +sight, etc.; and on the side of the knowable, the individual +tanmātras of gandha, rasa, rūpa, sparśa and śabda. The +guṇas composing each tanmātra again harmoniously combine +<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>with each other with a preponderance of tamas to produce +the atoms of each gross element. Thus in each combination +one class of guṇas remains prominent, while the others +remain dependent upon it but help it indirectly in the evolution +of that particular product.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IV<br> <span class='c013'>THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>The evolution which we have spoken of above may be +characterised in two ways: (1) That arising from modifications +or products of some other cause which are themselves +capable of originating other products like themselves; (2) +That arising from causes which, though themselves derived, +yet cannot themselves be the cause of the origination of other +existences like themselves. The former may be said to be +slightly specialised (<i>aviśesha</i>) and the latter thoroughly +specialised (<i>viśesha</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus we see that from prakṛti comes mahat, from mahat +comes ahaṃkāra, and from ahaṃkāra, as we have seen above, +the evolution takes three different courses according to the +preponderance of sattva, rajas and tamas originating the +cognitive and conative senses and manas, the superintendent +of them both on one side and the tanmātras on the other. +These tanmātras again produce the five gross elements. +Now when ahaṃkāra produces the tanmātras or the senses, +or when the tanmātras produce the five gross elements, or +when ahaṃkāra itself is produced from buddhi or mahat, +it is called <i>tattvāntara-pariṇāma</i>, i.e. the production of a +different tattva or substance.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus in the case of <i>tattvāntara-pariṇāma</i> (as for example +when the tanmātras are produced from ahaṃkāra), it must +be carefully noticed that the state of being involved in the +tanmātras is altogether different from the state of being of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>ahaṃkāra; it is not a mere change of quality but a change +of existence or state of being.<a id='r22'></a><a href='#f22' class='c014'><sup>[22]</sup></a> Thus though the tanmātras +are derived from ahaṃkāra the traces of ahaṃkāra cannot +be easily followed in them. This derivation is not such that +the ahaṃkāra remains principally unchanged and there is +only a change of quality in it, but it is a different existence +altogether, having properties which differ widely from those +of ahaṃkāra. So it is called tattvāntara-pariṇāma, i.e. +evolution of different categories of existence.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now the evolution that the senses and the five gross elements +can undergo can never be of this nature, for they are viśeshas, +or substances which have been too much specialised to allow +the evolution of any other substance of a different grade of +existence from themselves. With them there is an end of all +emanation. So we see that the aviśeshas or slightly specialised +emanations are those which being themselves but emanations +can yet yield other emanations from themselves. Thus we +see that mahat, ahaṃkāra and the five tanmātras are themselves +emanations, as well as the source of other emanations. +Mahat, however, though it is undoubtedly an aviśesha or +slightly specialised emanation, is called by another technical +name liṅga or sign, for from the state of mahat, the prakṛti +from which it must have emanated may be inferred. Prakṛti, +however, from which no other primal state is inferable, is called +the aliṅga or that which is not a sign for the existence of any +other primal and more unspecialised state. In one sense all +the emanations can be with justice called the liṅgas or states +of existence standing as the sign by which the causes from +<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>which they have emanated can be directly inferred. Thus in +this sense the five gross elements maybe called the liṅga of the +tanmātras, and they again of the ego, and that again of the +mahat, for the unspecialised ones are inferred from their +specialised modifications or emanations. But this technical +name liṅga is reserved for the mahat from which the aliṅga +or prakṛti can be inferred. This prakṛti, however, is the +eternal state which is not an emanation itself but the basis +and source of all other emanations.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The liṅga and the aliṅga have thus been compared in the +<cite>Kārikā</cite>:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c015'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“<i>hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekāśritaṃ liṅgaṃ</i></div> + <div class='line'><i>sāvayavam paratantraṃ vyaktaṃ viparītamavyaktaṃ</i>.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The liṅga has a cause, it is neither eternal nor universal, +but mobile, multiform, dependent, determinate, and possesses +parts, whereas the aliṅga is the reverse. The aliṅga or +prakṛti, however, being the cause has some characteristics in +common with its liṅgas as distinguished from the purushas, +which are altogether different from it.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus the <cite>Kārikā</cite> says:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c015'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“<i>triguṇamaviveki vishayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṃ prasavadharmi</i></div> + <div class='line'><i>vyaktaṃ tathā pradhānaṃ tadviparītastathā pumān</i>.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The manifested and the unmanifested <i>pradhāna</i> or <i>prakṛti</i> +are both composed of the three guṇas, non-intelligent, objective, +universal, unconscious and productive. Soul in these +respects is the reverse. We have seen above that prakṛti +is the state of equilibrium of the guṇas, which can in no way +be of any use to the purushas, and is thus held to be eternal, +though all other states are held to be non-eternal as they +are produced for the sake of the purushas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The state of prakṛti is that in which the guṇas completely +overpower each other and the characteristics (<i>dharma</i>) +and the characterised (<i>dharmī</i>) are one and the same.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>Evolution is thus nothing but the manifestation of change, +mutation, by the energy of rajas. The rajas is the one +mediating activity that breaks up all compounds, builds up +new ones and initiates original modifications. Whenever in +any particular combination the proportion of sattva, rajas +or tamas alters, as a condition of this alteration, there is the +dominating activity of rajas by which the old equilibrium is +destroyed and another equilibrium established; this in its +turn is again disturbed and again another equilibrium is +restored. Now the manifestation of this latent activity of +rajas is what is called change or evolution. In the external +world the time that is taken by a paramāṇu or atom to move +from its place is identical with a unit of change.<a id='r23'></a><a href='#f23' class='c014'><sup>[23]</sup></a> Now an +atom will be that quantum which is smaller or finer than +that point or limit at which it can in any way be perceived +by the senses. Atoms are therefore mere points without +magnitude or dimension, and the unit of time or moment +(<i>kshaṇa</i>) that is taken up in changing the position of these +<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>atoms is identical with one unit of change or evolution. +The change or evolution in the external world must therefore +be measured by these units of spatial motion of the atoms; +i.e. an atom changing its own unit of space is the measure of +all physical change or evolution.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Each unit of time (<i>kshaṇa</i>) corresponding to this change of +an atom of its own unit of space is the unit-measure of change. +This instantaneous succession of time as discrete moments one +following the other is the notion of the series of moments or +pure and simple succession. Now the notion of these discrete +moments is the notion of time. Even the notion of succession +is one that does not really exist but is imagined, for a moment +comes into being just when the moment just before had passed +so that they have never taken place together. Thus Vyāsa +in III. 52, says: “<i>kshaṇatatkramayornāsti vastusamāhāraḥ iti +buddhisamāhāraḥ muhūrttāhorātrātrādayaḥ</i>.” <i>Sa tvayaṃ kālaḥ +vastuśūnyo’pi buddhinirmāṇaḥ.</i> The moments and their +succession do not belong to the category of actual things; +the hour, the day and night, are all aggregates of mental +conceptions. This time which is not a substantive reality in +itself, but is only a mental concept, represented to us through +linguistic usage, appears to ordinary minds as if it were an +objective reality.</p> + +<p class='c007'>So the conception of time as discrete moments is the real +one, whereas the conception of time as successive or as continuous +is unreal, being only due to the imagination of our +empirical and relative consciousness. Thus Vācaspati further +explains it. A moment is real (<i>vastupatitaḥ</i>) and is the essential +element of the notion of succession. Succession involves the +notion of change of moments, and the moment is called time +by those sages who know what time is. Two moments cannot +happen together. There cannot be any succession of two +simultaneous things. Succession means the notion of change +involving a preceding and a succeeding moment. Thus there +<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>is only the present moment and there are no preceding and +later moments. Therefore there cannot be any union of these +moments. The past and the future moments may be said to +exist only if we speak of past and future as identical with +the changes that have become latent and others that exist +potentially but are not manifested. Thus in one moment, +the whole world suffers changes. All these characteristics +are associated with the thing as connected with one particular +moment.<a id='r24'></a><a href='#f24' class='c014'><sup>[24]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>So we find here that time is essentially discrete, being only +the moments of our cognitive life. As two moments never +co-exist, there is no succession or continuous time. They +exist therefore only in our empirical consciousness which +cannot take the real moments in their discrete nature but +connects the one with the other and thereby imagines either +succession or continuous time.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now we have said before, that each unit of change or +evolution is measured by this unit of time <i>kshaṇa</i> or moment; +or rather the units of change are expressed in terms of these +moments or <i>kshaṇas</i>. Of course in our ordinary consciousness +these moments of change cannot be grasped, but they +can be reasonably inferred. For at the end of a certain period +we observe a change in a thing; now this change, though +it becomes appreciable to us after a long while, was still going +on every moment, so, in this way, the succession of evolution +or change cannot be distinguished from the moments coming +one after another. Thus the <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite> says in IV. 33: +“Succession involving a course of changes is associated with +the moments.” Succession as change of moments is grasped +<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>only by a course of changes. A cloth which has not passed +through a course of changes through a series of moments +cannot be found old all at once at any time. Even a new +cloth kept with good care becomes old after a time. This +is what is called the termination of a course of changes and +by it the succession of a course of changes can be grasped. +Even before a thing is old there can be inferred a sequence +of the subtlest, subtler, subtle, grossest, grosser and gross +changes (<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, IV. 33).<a id='r25'></a><a href='#f25' class='c014'><sup>[25]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Now as we have seen that the unit of time is indistinguishable +from the unit of change or evolution, and as these moments +are not co-existing but one follows the other, we see that there +is no past or future existing as a continuous before or past, +and after or future. It is the present that really exists as +the manifested moment; the past has been conserved as +sublatent and the future as the latent. So the past and +future exist in the present, the former as one which has already +had its manifestation and is thus conserved in the fact of the +manifestation of the present. For the manifestation of the +present as such could not have taken place until the past +had already been manifested; so the manifestation of the +present is a concrete product involving within itself the manifestation +of the past; in a similar way it may be said that +the manifestation of the present contains within itself the seed +or the unmanifested state of the future, for if this had not +been the case, the future never could have happened. So we +see that the whole world undergoes a change at one unit +<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>point of time, and not only that but it conserves within itself +all the past and future history of cosmic evolution.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have pointed out before that the manifestation of the +rajas or energy as action is what is called change. Now this +manifestation of action can only take place when equilibrium +of a particular collocation of guṇas is disturbed and the rajas +arranges or collocates with itself the sattva and tamas, the +whole group being made intelligible by the inherent sattva. +So the cosmic history is only the history of the different +collocations of the guṇas. Now, therefore, if it is possible +for a seer to see in one vision the possible number of combinations +that the rajas will have with sattva and tamas, he can +in one moment perceive the past, present or future of this +cosmic evolutionary process; for with such minds all past +and future are concentrated at one point of vision which to +a person of ordinary empirical consciousness appears only +in the series. For the empirical consciousness, impure as it is, +it is impossible that all the powers and potencies of sattva +and rajas should become manifested at one point of time; +it has to take things only through its senses and can thus +take the changes only as the senses are affected by them; +whereas, on the other hand, if its power of knowing was not +restricted to the limited scope of the senses, it could have +grasped all the possible collocations or changes all at once. +Such a perceiving mind whose power of knowing is not +narrowed by the senses can perceive all the finest modifications +or changes that are going on in the body of a substance +(see <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, III. 53).</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER V<br> <span class='c013'>THE EVOLUTION OF THE CATEGORIES</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>The Yoga analysis points to the fact that all our cognitive +states are distinguished from their objects by the fact of their +being intelligent. This intelligence is the constant factor +which persists amidst all changes of our cognitive states. +We are passing continually from one state to another without +any rest, but in this varying change of these states we are +never divested of intelligence. This fact of intelligence is +therefore neither the particular possession of any one of these +states nor that of the sum of these states; for if it is not the +possession of any one of these states it cannot be the possession +of the sum of these states. In the case of the released person +again there is no mental state, but the self-shining intelligence. +So Yoga regarded this intelligence as quite distinct +from the so-called mental states which became intelligent +by coming in connection with this intelligence. The actionless, +absolutely pure and simple intelligence it called the +purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Yoga tacitly assumed a certain kind of analysis of the +nature of these mental states which sought to find out, if +possible, the nature of their constituent elements or moments +of existence. Now in analysing the different states of our +mind we find that a particular content of thought is illuminated +and then passed over. The ideas rise, are illuminated +and pass away. Thus they found that “movement” was +one of the principal elements that constituted the substance +<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>of our thoughts. Thought as such is always moving. This +principle of movement, mutation or change, this energy, they +called rajas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now apart from this rajas, thought when seen as divested +of its sensuous contents seems to exhibit one universal mould +or form of knowledge which assumes the form of all the +sensuous contents that are presented to it. It is the one +universal of all our particular concepts or ideas—the basis +or substratum of all the different shapes imposed upon itself, +the pure and simple. Sattva in which there is no particularity +is that element of our thought which, resembling purusha +most, can attain its reflection within itself and thus makes +the unconscious mental states intelligible. All the contents +of our thought are but modes and limitations of this universal +form and are thus made intelligible. It is the one principle +of intelligibility of all our conscious states.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now our intellectual life consists in a series of shining +ideas or concepts; concepts after concepts shine forth in the +light of the pure intelligence and pass away. But each +concept is but a limitation of the pure shining universal of +our knowledge which underlies all its changing modes or +modifications of concepts or judgments. This is what is called +pure knowledge in which there is neither the knower nor the +known. This pure object—subjectless knowledge differs +from the pure intelligence or purusha only in this that later +on it is liable to suffer various modifications, as the ego, +the senses, and the infinite percepts and concepts, etc., connected +therewith, whereas the pure intelligence remains ever +pure and changeless and is never the substratum of any +change. At this stage sattva, the intelligence-stuff, is +prominent and rajas and tamas are altogether suppressed. +It is for this reason that the buddhi or mind is often spoken +of as the sattva. Being an absolute preponderance of sattva +it has nothing else to manifest, but it is its pure-shining self. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>Both tamas and rajas being mostly suppressed they cannot +in any way affect the effulgent nature of this pure shining +of contentless knowledge in which there is neither the knower +nor the known.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But it must be remembered that it is holding suspended +as it were within itself the elements of rajas and tamas which +cannot manifest themselves owing to the preponderance of +the sattva.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This notion of pure contentless consciousness is immediate +and abstract and as such is at once mediated by other necessary +phases. Thus we see that this pure contentless universal +consciousness is the same as the ego-universal (<i>asmitāmātra</i>). +For this contentless universal consciousness is only another +name for the contentless unlimited, infinite of the ego-universal. +A quotation from Fichte may here be useful as a comparison. +Thus he says in the introduction to his <cite>Science +of Ethics</cite>: “How an object can ever become a subject, or +how a being can ever become an object of representation: +this curious change will never be explained by anyone who +does not find a point where the objective and subjective +are not distinguished at all, but are altogether one. Now +such a point is established by, and made the starting point +of our system. This point is the Egohood, the Intelligence, +Reason, or whatever it may be named.”<a id='r26'></a><a href='#f26' class='c014'><sup>[26]</sup></a> The <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, +II. 19, describes it as <i>liṅgamātram mahattatvaṃ sattāmātre +mahati ātmani</i>, and again in I. 36 we find it described as the +waveless ocean, peaceful infinite pure egohood. This obscure +egohood is known merely as being. This mahat has also +been spoken of by Vijñāna Bhikshu as the manas, or mind, +as it has the function of assimilation (<i>niścaya</i>). Now what +we have already said about mahat will, we hope, make it +<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>clear that this mahat is the last limit at which the subject +and the object can be considered as one indistinguishable +point which is neither the one nor the other, but the source +of both.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This buddhi is thus variously called <i>mahat</i>, <i>asmitāmātra</i>, +<i>manas</i>, <i>sattva</i>, <i>buddhi</i> and <i>liṅga</i>, according to the aspects +from which this state is observed.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This state is called mahat as it is the most universal thing +conceivable and the one common source from which all other +things originate.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now this phase of sattva or pure shining naturally passes +into the other phase, that of the Ego as knower or Ego as +subject. The first phase as mahat or asmitāmātra was the +state in which the sattva was predominant and the rajas and +tamas were in a suppressed condition. The next moment +is that in which the rajas comes uppermost, and thus the +ego as the subject of all cognition—the subject I—the +knower of all the mental states—is derived. The contentless +subject-objectless “I” is the passive sattva aspect +of the buddhi catching the reflection of the spirit of +purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In its active aspect, however, it feels itself one with the +spirit and appears as the ego or subject which knows, feels +and wills. Thus Patañjali says, in II. 6: <i>dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva +asmitā</i>, i.e. the seeming identity of the seer +and the perceiving capacity is called asmitā-ego. Again in +<cite>Bhāshya</cite>, I. 17, we have <i>ekātmikā saṃvidasmitā</i> (knowledge as +one identical is asmitā) which Vācaspati explains as <i>sā ca +ātmanā grahītrā saha buddhirekātmikā saṃvid</i>, i.e. it is the +feeling of identity of the buddhi (mind) with the self, the +perceiver. Thus we find that the mind is affected by its own +rajas or activity and posits itself as the ego or subject as +activity. By reason of this position of the “I” as active +it perceives itself in the objective, in all its conative and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>cognitive senses in its thoughts and feelings and also in the +external world of extension and co-existence; in the words +of Pañcaśikha (II. 5) thinking the animate and inanimate +beings to be the self, man regards their prosperity as his own +and becomes glad, and regards their adversity as his own +and is sorry. Here the “I” is posited as the active entity +which becomes conscious of itself, or in other words the +“I” becomes self-conscious. In analysing this notion of +self-consciousness we find that here the rajas or element of +activity or mobility has become predominant and this predominance +of rajas has been manifested by the inherent +sattva. Thus we find that the rajas side or “I as active” +has become manifested or known as such, i.e. “I” becomes +conscious of itself as active. And this is just what is meant +by self-consciousness.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This ego or self-consciousness then appears as the modification +of the contentless pure consciousness of the mind (<i>buddhi</i>); +it is for this reason that we see that this self-consciousness is but +a modification of the universal mind. The absolute identity +of subject and object as the egohood is not A part of our +natural consciousness, for in all stages of our actual consciousness, +even in that of self-consciousness, there is an element +of the preponderance of rajas or activity which directs this +unity as the knower and the known and then unites them as +it were. Only so far as I distinguish myself as the conscious, +from myself as the object of consciousness, am I at all conscious +of myself.</p> + +<p class='c007'>When we see that the buddhi transforms itself into the ego, +the subject, or the knower, at this its first phase there is no +other content which it can know, it therefore knows itself +in a very abstract way as the “I,” or in other words, the ego +becomes self-conscious; but at this moment the ego has no +content; the tamas being quite under suppression, it is +evolved by a preponderance of the rajas; and thus its nature +<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>as rajas is manifested by the sattva and thus the ego now +essentially knows itself to be active, and holds itself as the +permanent energising activity which connects with itself all +the phenomena of our life.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But now when the ego first directs itself towards itself and +becomes conscious of itself, one question which naturally +comes to our mind is, “Can the ego direct itself towards +itself and thus divide itself into a part that sees and one that +is seen?” To meet this question it is assumed that the +guṇas contain within themselves the germs of both subjectivity +and objectivity (<i>guṇānāṃ hi dvairūpyaṃ vyavasāyātmkatvam +vyavaseyātmakatvaṃ ca. Tattvavaiśāradī</i>, III. 47); +the guṇas have two forms, the perceiver and the perceived. +Thus we find that in the ego the quality of the guṇas as the +perceiver comes to be first manifested and the ego turns +back upon itself and makes itself its own object. It is at this +stage that we are reminded of the twofold nature of the +guṇas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is by virtue of this twofold nature that the subject can +make itself its own object; but as these two sides have not +yet developed they are still only abstract and exist but in an +implicit way in this state of the ego (<i>ahaṃkāra</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Enquiring further into the nature of the relation of this ego +and the buddhi, we find that the ego is only another phase +or modification of the buddhi; however different it might +appear from buddhi it is only an appearance or phase of it; +its reality is the reality of the buddhi. Thus we see that when +the knower is affected in his different modes of concepts and +judgments, this too is to be ascribed to the buddhi. Thus +Vyāsa writes (II. 18) that perception, memory, differentiation, +reasoning, right knowledge, decision belong properly to mind +(buddhi) and are only illusorily imposed on the purusha +(<i>grahaṇadhāraṇohāpohatattvajñānābhiniveśā buddhau varttamānā +purushe adhyāropitasadbhāvāḥ</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>Now from this ego we find that three developments take +place in three distinct directions according to the preponderance +of sattva, rajas or tamas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>By the preponderance of rajas, the ego develops itself +into the five conative senses, vāk (speech), pāṇi (hands), +pāda (feet), pāyu (organ of passing the excreta) and upastha +(generative organ). By the preponderance of sattva, the +ego develops itself into the five cognitive senses—hearing, +touch, sight, taste and smell; and by a preponderance of +tamas it stands as the bhūtādi and produces the five tanmātras, +and these again by further preponderance of tamas +develops into the particles of the five gross elements of earth, +water, light, heat, air and ether.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now it is clear that when the self becomes conscious of +itself as object we see that there are three phases in it: (i) +that in which the self becomes an object to itself; (ii) when +it directs itself or turns as the subject upon itself as the object, +this moment of activity which can effect an aspect of change +in itself; (iii) the aspect of the consciousness of the self, +the moment in which it perceives itself in its object, the +moment of the union of itself as the subject and itself as the +object in one luminosity of self-consciousness. Now that +phase of self in which it is merely an object to itself is the phase +of its union with prakṛti which further develops the prakṛti in +moments of materiality by a preponderance of the inert +tamas of the bhūtādi into tanmātras and these again into the +five grosser elements which are then called the <i>grāhya</i> or +perceptible.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The sattva side of this ego or self-consciousness which was +hitherto undifferentiated becomes further differentiated, +specialised and modified into the five cognitive senses with their +respective functions of hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell, +synchronising with the evolution of the prakṛti on the tanmātric +side of evolution. These again individually suffer +<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>infinite modifications themselves and thus cause an infinite +variety of sensations in their respective spheres in our conscious +life. The rajas side of the ego becomes specialised as the active +faculties of the five different conative organs.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is another specialisation of the ego as the manas +which is its direct instrument for connecting itself with the five +cognitive and conative senses. What is perceived as mere +sensations by the senses is connected and generalised and +formed into concepts by the manas; it is therefore spoken +of as partaking of both the conative and the cognitive aspects +in the <cite>Sāṃkhya-kārikā</cite>, 27.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now though the modifications of the ego are formed +successively by the preponderance of sattva, rajas and tamas, +yet the rajas is always the accessory cause (<i>sahakāri</i>) of all +these varied collocations of the guṇas; it is the supreme +principle of energy and supplies even intelligence with the +energy which it requires for its own conscious activity. Thus +Lokācāryya says in his <cite>Tattvatraya</cite>: “the tāmasa ego +developing into the material world and the sāttvika ego +developing into the eleven senses, both require the help of the +rājasa ego for the production of this development” (<i>anyābhyāṃ +ahaṃkārābhyām svakāryyopajanane rājasāhaṃkūraḥ sahakārī +bhavati</i>); and Barabara in his <cite>Bhāshya</cite> writes: “just as a +seed-sprout requires for its growth the help of water as +instrumental cause, so the rājasa ahaṃkāra (ego) works as the +accessory cause (<i>sahakāri</i>) for the transformations of sāttvika +and tāmasa ahaṃkāra into their evolutionary products.” +The mode of working of this instrumental cause is described as +“rajas is the mover.” The rājasa ego thus moves the sattva +part to generate the senses; the tamas part generating the +gross and subtle matter is also moved by the rajas, agent of +movement. The rājasa ego is thus called the common cause +of the movement of the sāttvika and the tāmasa ego. Vācaspati +also says: “though rajas has no separate work by itself +<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>yet since sattva and tamas (which though capable of undergoing +modification, do not do their work) are actionless in +themselves, the agency of rajas lies in this that it moves them +both for the production of the effect.”<a id='r27'></a><a href='#f27' class='c014'><sup>[27]</sup></a> And according as the +modifications are sāttvika, tāmasa or rājasika, the ego which +is the cause of these different modifications is also called +vaikārika, bhūtādi and taijasa. The mahat also as the source +of the vaikārika, taijasa and bhūtādi ego may be said to have +three aspects.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now speaking of the relation of the sense faculties with +the sense organs, we see that the latter, which are made up of +the grosser elements are the vehicle of the former, for if the +latter are injured in any way, the former are also necessarily +affected.<a id='r28'></a><a href='#f28' class='c014'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>To take for example the specific case of the faculty of hearing +and its organ, we see that the faculty of hearing is seated in +the ether (<i>ākāśa</i>) within our ear-hole. It is here that the power +of hearing is located. When soundness or defect is noticed +therein, soundness or defect is noticed in the power of hearing +also. When the sounds of solids, etc., are heard, then the +power of hearing located in the hollow of the ear stands in need +of the resonance produced in the ākāśa of the ear.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This sense of hearing, then, having its origin in the principle +of ahaṃkāra, behaves like iron, and is drawn by the sounds +originated and located in the mouth of the speaker acting +as loadstone, and transforms them into its own successive +modifications (<i>vṛtti</i>) and thus senses the sounds of the +speaker. And it is for this reason that for every living +creature, the perception of sound in external space +in the absence of defects is never void of authority. +Thus Pancasikha also says, as quoted in <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, +III. 41:</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>“To all those whose organs of hearing are situated in the +same place (at different times) the ākāśa sustaining the sense +of hearing is the same.” The ākāśa, again, in which the power +of hearing is seated, is born out of the soniferous tanmātra, and +has therefore the quality of sound inherent in itself. It is by +this sound acting in unison that it takes the sounds of external +solids, etc. This then proves that the ākāśa is the substratum +of the power of hearing, and also possesses the quality of +sound. And this sameness of the situation of sound is an +indication of the existence of ākāśa as that which is the substratum +of the auditory power (<i>śruti</i>) which manifests the +sounds of the same class in ākāśa. Such a manifestation of +sound cannot be without such an auditory sense-power. +Nor is such an auditory power a quality of pṛthivī (earth), +etc., because it cannot be in its own self both the manifestor +and the manifested (<i>vyahṅgya</i> and <i>vyañjaka</i>), <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, +III. 41. It is the auditory power which manifests all sounds +with the help of the ākāśa of the sense organ.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The theory of the guṇas was accepted by many others +outside the Sāṃkhya-Yoga circle and they also offered their +opinions on the nature of the categories.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There are thus other views prevalent about the genesis of +the senses, to which it may be worth our while to pay some +attention as we pass by.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The sāttvika ego in generating the cognitive senses with +limited powers for certain specified objects of sense only accounted +for their developments from itself in accompaniment +with the specific tanmātras. Thus</p> + +<p class='c007'>sāttvika ego + sound potential (śabda-tanmātra) = sense +of hearing.</p> + +<p class='c007'>sāttvika ego + touch potential (śparś-tanmātra) = sense of +touch.</p> + +<p class='c007'>sāttvika ego + sight potential (śrūpa-tanmātra) = sense of +vision.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>sāttvika ego + taste potential (vasa-tanmātra) = sense of +taste.</p> + +<p class='c007'>sāttvika ego + smell potential (gandha-tanmātra) = sense of +smell.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The conative sense of speech is developed in association +with the sense of hearing; that of hand in association with the +sense of touch; that of feet in association with the sense of +vision; that of upastha in association with the sense of taste; +that of pāyu in association with the sense of smell.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Last of all, the manas is developed from the ego without +any co-operating or accompanying cause.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Naiyāyikas, however, think that the senses are generated +by the gross elements, the ear for example by ākāśa, the touch +by air and so forth. But Lokācāryya in his <cite>Tattvatraya</cite> holds +that the senses are not generated by gross matter but are +rather sustained and strengthened by it.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There are others who think that the ego is the instrumental +and that the gross elements are the material causes in the +production of the senses.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The view of the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> is, I believe, now quite clear +since we see that the mahat through the asmitā generates from +the latter (as differentiations from it, though it itself exists +as integrated in the mahat), the senses, and their corresponding +gross elements.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Before proceeding further to trace the development of +the bhūtādi on the tanmātric side, I think it is best to refer +to the views about the supposed difference between the Yoga +and the views of the Sāṃkhya works about the evolution of +the categories. Now according to the Yoga view two parallel +lines of evolution start from mahat, one of which develops +into the ego, manas, the five cognitive and the five conative +senses, while on the other side it develops into the five grosser +elements through the five tanmātras which are directly +produced from mahat through the medium ahaṃkāra.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>Thus the view as found in the Yoga works may be tabulated +thus:—</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_059a.jpg' alt='Prakṛti Mahat or Asmitāmātra Asmitā Tanmātras--5 11 senses 5 gross elements' class='ig001'> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The view of the Śaṃkhya works may be tabulated thus:--</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_059b.jpg' alt='Prakṛti Mahat Ego 11 senses 5 Tanmātras 5 gross elements' class='ig001'> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The place in the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> which refers to this genesis +is that under <i>viśeshāviśeshaliṅgamātrāliṅgāni guṇaparvāṇi</i>, II. +19. There it says that the four bhūtas are ether, air, fire, +water and earth. These are the viśeshas (specialised modifications) +of the unspecialised modifications the tanmātras of +sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. So also are the cognitive +senses of hearing, touch, eye, tongue, and nose and the conative +senses of speech, hand, feet, anus and the generative organ. +The eleventh one manas (the co-ordinating organ) has for its +object the objects of all the above ten senses. So these are +the specialised modifications (<i>viśeshas</i>) of the unspecialised +(aviśesha) asmitā. The guṇas have these sixteen kinds of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>specialised modifications (<i>viśeshapariṇāma</i>). The six unspecialised +modifications are the sound tanmātra, touch +tanmātra, colour tanmātra, taste tanmātra and smell tanmātra. +These tanmātras respectively contain one, two, +three, four, and five special characteristics. The sixth +unspecialised modification is asmitāmātra. These are the +six aviśesha evolutions of the pure being, the mahat. The +category of mahat is merely a sign beyond the aviśeshas and +it is there that these exist and develop.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In this <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> the fully specialised ones, viśeshas, +the grosser elements are said to have been derived from the +tanmātras and the senses and manas, the faculty of reflection +are said to have been specialised from the ego or +asmitā. The tanmātras, however, have not been derived from +the ego or asmitā here. But they together with asmitā are +spoken of as the six slightly specialised ones, the five being the +five tanmātras and the sixth one being the ego. These six +aviśeshas are the specialisations of the mahat, the great +egohood of pure Be-ness. It therefore appears that the six +aviśeshas are directly derived from the mahat, after which the +ego develops into the eleven senses and the tanmātras into the +five gross elements in three different lines.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But let us see how <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> explains the point here:—</p> + +<p class='c007'>“But like the senses the tanmātras are also special +modifications of the ahaṃkāra having specially modified +characteristics such as sound, touch, etc., why, therefore, are +they not mentioned as special modifications (<i>viśeshas</i>)? The +answer is that those only are mentioned as special modification +which are ultimate special modifications. The tanmātras are +indeed the special modifications of the ego, but they themselves +produce further special modifications, the bhūtas. The +aviśeshas are explained as the six aviśeshas. The tanmātras +are generated from the tāmasa ahaṃkāra gradually through +sound, etc. The category of mahat which is the ground of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>all modifications, called also the buddhi, has six evolutionary +products called the aviśeshas. Though the mahat and the +prakṛti may also be regarded as the root-causes out of which +the tanmātras have evolved, yet the word aviśesha is used +as a technical term having a special application to the six +aviśeshas only.” The modifications of these are from the +buddhi through the intermediate stage of the ahaṃkāra, as +has been explained in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, I. 45.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus we see that the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> says that the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> +is here describing the modifications of buddhi in two distinct +classes, the aviśeshas and the viśeshas; and that the mahat +has been spoken of as the source of all the aviśeshas, the five +tanmātras and the ego; strictly speaking, however, the +genesis of the tanmātras from mahat takes place through the +ego and in association with the ego, for it has been so described +in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, I. 45.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Nāgeśa in explaining this <cite>Bhāshya</cite> only repeats the view +of <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now let us refer to the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> of I. 45, alluded to by +the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>: “The gradual series of subtler causes +proceeds up to the aliṅga or the prakṛti. The earth atom +has the smell tanmātra as its subtle cause; the water atom +has the taste tanmātra; the air atom the touch tanmātra; +the ākāśa atom the sound tanmātra; and of these ahaṃkāra +is the subtle cause; and of this the mahat is the subtle +cause.” Here by subtle cause (<i>sūkshma</i>) it is upādānakāraṇa +or material cause which is meant; so the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> further +says: “It is true that purusha is the subtlest of all. But +yet as prakṛti is subtler than the mahat, it is not in that sense +that purusha is subtler than prakṛti for purusha is only an +instrumental cause of the evolution of mahat, but not its +material cause.” I believe it is quite clear that ahaṃkāra +is spoken of here as the <i>sūkshma anvayikārana</i> of the tanmātras. +This anvayikāraṇa is the same as upādāna (material +<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>cause) as Vācaspati calls it. Now again in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> of +the same <i>sūtra</i> II. 19 later on we see the liṅga or the mahat is +the stage next to prakṛti, it is differentiated from it though +still remaining integrated in the regular order of evolution. +The six aviśeshas are again differentiated while still remaining +integrated in the mahat in the order of evolution (<i>pariṇāmakramaniyama</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>The mahat tattva (liṅga) is associated with the prakṛti +(aliṅga). Its development is thus to be considered as the +production of a differentiation as integrated within the +prakṛti. The six aviśeshas are also to be considered as the +production of successive differentiations as integrated within +the mahat.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The words <i>saṃsṛshṭa vivicyante</i> are the most important +here for they show us the real nature of the transformations. +“<cite>Saṃsṛshtā</cite>” means integrated and “<i>vivicyante</i>” means +differentiated. This shows that the order of evolution as +found in the Sāṃkhya works (viz. mahat from prakṛti, ahaṃkāra +from mahat and the eleven senses and the tanmātras +from ahaṃkāra) is true only in this sense that these modifications +of ahaṃkāra take place directly as differentiations of +characters in the body of mahat. As these differentiations +take place through ahaṃkāra as the first moment in the +series of transformations it is said that the transformations +take place directly from ahaṃkāra; whereas when stress +is laid on the other aspect it appears that the transformations +are but differentiations as integrated in the body of the +mahat, and thus it is also said that from mahat the six aviśeshas—namely, +ahaṃkāra and the five tanmātras—come out. +This conception of evolution as differentiation within integration +bridges the gulf between the views of Yoga and the +Saṃkhya works. We know that the tanmātras are produced +from the tāmasa ahaṃkāra. This ahaṃkāra is nothing but the +tāmasa side of mahat roused into creative activity by rajas. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>The sāttvika ahaṃkāra is given as a separate category producing +the senses, whereas the tamas as bhūtādi produces the +tanmātras from its disturbance while held up within the +mahat.<a id='r29'></a><a href='#f29' class='c014'><sup>[29]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Nāgeśa in the <cite>Chāyā-vyākhyā</cite> of II. 19, however, follows +the Sāṃkhya explanation. He says: “The five tanmātras +having in order one, two, three, four and five characteristics +are such that the preceding ones are the causes of the succeeding +ones. The śabdatanmātra has only the characteristic of +sound, the sparśatanmātra of sound and touch and so on.... +All these tanmātras are produced from the tāmasa ahaṃkāra +in the order of śabda, sparśa, etc.” This ignores the interpretation +of the <cite>Vyāsā-bhāshya</cite> that the tanmātras are differentiations +within the integrated whole of mahat through the +intermediary stage of the tāmasa ahaṃkāra.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VI<br> <span class='c013'>EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>The order of the evolution of the tanmātras as here referred +to is as follows:—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in2'>Bhūtādi (tāmasa ahaṃkāra)</div> + <div class='line in6'>|</div> + <div class='line in4'>Śabdatanmātra</div> + <div class='line in8'>|</div> + <div class='line in6'>Sparśatanmātra</div> + <div class='line in10'>|</div> + <div class='line in8'>Rūpatanmātra</div> + <div class='line in12'>|</div> + <div class='line in10'>Rasatanmātra</div> + <div class='line in14'>|</div> + <div class='line in12'>Gandhatanmātra</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The evolution of the tanmātras has been variously described +in the Purāṇas and the Smṛti literature. These divergent +views can briefly be brought under two headings: those which +derive the tanmātras from the bhûtas and those which derive +them from the ahaṃkāra and the bhûtas from them. Some +of these schools have been spoken of in the Barabara Muni’s +commentary on the <cite>Tattvatraya</cite>—a treatise on the Rāmānuja +Philosophy—and have been already explained in a systematic +way by Dr. B. N. Seal. I therefore refrain from repeating +them needlessly. About the derivation of the tanmātras all +the other Sāṃkhya treatises, the <cite>Kārikā</cite>, the <cite>Kaumudī</cite>, the +<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, the <cite>Sūtra</cite> and <cite>Pravacana-bhāshya</cite>, the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span><cite>Siddhāntacandrikā</cite>, <cite>Sūtrārthabodhinī</cite>, the <cite>Rajamārtaṇḍa</cite> and +the <cite>Maṇiprabhā</cite> seem to be silent. Further speaking of the +tanmātras, Vijñāna Bhikshu says that the tanmātras exist +only in unspecialised forms; they therefore can be neither +felt nor perceived in any way by the senses of ordinary men. +This is that indeterminate state of matter in which they can +never be distinguished one from the other, and they cannot +be perceived to be possessed of different qualities or specialised +in any way. It is for this that they are called tanmātras, i.e. +their only specialization is a mere thatness. The Yogins +alone perceive them.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now turning towards the further evolution of the grosser +elements from the tanmātras, we see that there are great +divergences of view here also, some of which are shown +below. Thus Vācaspati says: “The earth atom is produced +from the five tanmātras with a predominance of the smell +tanmātra, the water atom from the four tanmātras excepting +the smell tanmātra with a preponderance of the taste tanmātra, +and so on” (I. 44).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus here we find that the ākāśa atom (aṇu) has been +generated simply by the ākāśa tanmātra; the vāyu atom +has been generated by two tanmātras, śabda and sparśa, +of which the sparśa appears there as the chief. The tejas +atom has been developed from the śabda, sparśa and rûpa +tanmātras, though the rûpa is predominant in the group. +The ap atom has been developed from the four tanmātras, +śabda, sparśa, rûpa and rasa, though rasa is predominant +in the group, and the earth or kshiti atom has been developed +from the five tanmātras, though the gandha tanmātra is +predominant in the group.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> agrees with Vācaspati in all these +details, but differs from him only in maintaining that the +ākāśa atom has been generated from the śabda tanmātra +with an accretion from bhūtādi, whereas Vācaspati says +<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>that the ākāśa atom is generated simply by the ākāśa +tanmātra.<a id='r30'></a><a href='#f30' class='c014'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Nāgeśa, however, takes a slightly different view and says +that to produce the gross atoms from the tanmātras, an +accretion of bhūtādi as an accompanying agent is necessary +at every step; so that we see that the vāyu atom is produced +from these three: śabda + sparśa + accretion from bhūtādi. +Tejas atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + accretion from bhūtādi. +Ap atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + rasa + accretion from +bhūtādi. Kshiti atom = śabda + śparśa + rūpa + rasa + +gandha + accretion from bhūtādi.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I refrain from giving the <cite>Vishṇu Purāṇa</cite> view which has +also been quoted in the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, and the view of a certain +school of Vedāntists mentioned in the <cite>Tattva-nirūpaṇa</cite> and +referred to and described in the <cite>Tattvatraya</cite>, as Dr. B. N. +Seal has already described them in his article.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We see thus that from bhūtādi come the five tanmātras +which can be compared to the Vaiśeshika atoms as they +have no parts and neither grossness nor visible differentiation.<a id='r31'></a><a href='#f31' class='c014'><sup>[31]</sup></a> +Some differentiation has of course already begun in the +tanmātras, as they are called śabda, śparśa, rūpa, rasa and +gandha, which therefore may be said to belong to a class akin +to the grosser elements of ākāśa, vāyu, tejas, ap and +kshiti.<a id='r32'></a><a href='#f32' class='c014'><sup>[32]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>The next one, the paramāṇu (atom), which is gross in its +nature and is generated from the tanmātras which exist in +it as parts (<i>tanmātrāvayava</i>) may be compared with the +trasareṇu of the Vaiśeshikas. Thus the <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> says: +“this is called paramāṇu by the Vaiśeshikas. We however +call the subtlest part of the visible earth, earth atoms” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>(IV. 14). The doctrine of atoms is recognised both in the +<cite>Yoga-sūtrās</cite> (I. 46) and the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> (III. 52, IV. 14, etc.).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Whether Sāṃkhya admitted the paramāṇus (atoms) or not +cannot be definitely settled. The <cite>Sāṃkhya-kārikā</cite> does not +mention the paramāṇus, but Vijñāna Bhikshu thinks that +the word “<i>sūkshma</i>” in <cite>Kārikā</cite>, 39, means paramāṇus +(<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, IV. 14). Though the word paramāṇu is not +mentioned in the <cite>Kārikā</cite>, I can hardly suppose that Sāṃkhya +did not admit it in the sense in which Yoga did. For it does +not seem probable that Sāṃkhya should think that by the +combination of the subtle tanmātras we could all at once +have the bigger lumps of bhūta without there being any +particles. Moreover, since the Yoga paramāṇus are the +finest visible particles of matter it could not have been +denied by Sāṃkhya. The supposition of some German +scholars that Sāṃkhya did not admit the paramāṇus does +not seem very plausible. Bhikshu in <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 52, +says that the guṇas are in reality Vaiśeshika atoms.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The third form is gross air, fire, water, etc., which is said +to belong to the mahat (gross) class. I cannot express it +better than by quoting a passage from <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, IV. 4: +“The <cite>Bhāshya</cite> holds that in the tanmātras there exists the +specific differentiation that constitutes the five tanmātras, +the kshiti atom is generated and by the conglomeration of +these gross atoms gross earth is formed. So again by the combination +of the four tanmātras the water atom is formed and +the conglomeration of these water atoms makes gross water.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>“It should be noted here: since the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> holds that the +tanmātras of sound, etc., are of the same class as the corresponding +gross elements it may be assumed that the combining +tanmātras possess the class characteristics which are made +manifest in gross elements by hardness, smoothness, etc.” +Bhikshu holds that since Sāṃkhya and Yoga are similar (<i>samānatantra</i>) +this is to be regarded as being also the Sāṃkhya view.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>There is, however, another measure which is called the +measure of parama mahat, which belongs to ākāśa for example.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now these paramāṇus or atoms are not merely atoms of +matter but they contain within themselves those particular +qualities by virtue of which they appear, as pleasant, unpleasant +or passive to us. If we have expressed ourselves +clearly, I believe it has been shown that when the inner and +the outer proceed from one source, the ego and the external +world do not altogether differ in nature from the inner; both +have been formed by the collocation of the guṇas (<i>sarvamidaṃ +guṇānāṃ sanniveśaviseshamātram</i>). The same book which in +the inner microcosm is written in the language of ideas has +been in the external world written in the language of matter. +So in the external world we have all the grounds of our inner +experience, cognitive as well as emotional, pleasurable as well +as painful. The modifications of the external world are only +translated into ideas and feelings; therefore these paramāṇus +are spoken of as endowed with feelings.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is another difference between the tanmātras and the +paramāṇus. The former cannot be perceived to be endowed +with the feeling elements as the latter. Some say, however, +that it is not true that the tanmātras are not endowed with +the feeling elements, but they cannot be perceived by any save +the Yogins; thus it is said: <i>tanmātrāṇāmapi parasparavyāvṛttasvabhāvatvamastyeva +tacca yogimātragamyam</i>. The tanmātras +also possess differentiated characters, but they can be perceived +only by the Yogins; but this is not universally admitted.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now these paramāṇus cannot further be evolved into any +other different kind of existence or tattvāntara.<a id='r33'></a><a href='#f33' class='c014'><sup>[33]</sup></a> We see +that the paramāṇus though they have been formed from +the tanmātras resemble them only in a very remote way and +are therefore placed in a separate stage of evolution.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>With the bhūtas we have the last stage of evolution of the +guṇas. The course of evolution, however, does not cease here, +but continues ceaselessly, though by its process no new stage +of existence is generated, but the product of the evolution +is such that in it the properties of the gross elements which +compose its constitution can be found directly. This is what +is called <i>dharmapariṇāma</i>, as distinguished from the <i>tattvāntara-pariṇāma</i> +spoken above. The evolution of the +viśeshas from the aviśeshas is always styled tattvāntara-pariṇāma, +as opposed to the evolution that takes place among +the viśeshas themselves, which is called <i>dharmapariṇāma</i> or +evolution by change of qualities. Now these atoms or +paramāṇus of kshiti, ap, tejas, marut or ākāśa conglomerate +together and form all sentient or non-sentient bodies in the +world. The different atoms of earth, air, fire, water, etc., +conglomerate together and form the different animate bodies +such as cow, etc., or inanimate bodies such as jug, etc., and +vegetables like the tree, etc. These bodies are built up by +the conglomerated units of the atoms in such a way that they +are almost in a state of combination which has been styled +<i>ayutasiddhāvayava</i>. In such a combination the parts do not +stand independently, but only hide themselves as it were in +order to manifest the whole body, so that by the conglomeration +of the particles we have what may be called a body, +which is regarded as quite a different thing from the atoms +of which it is composed. These bodies change with the different +sorts of change or arrangement of the particles, according +to which the body may be spoken of as “one,” “large,” +“small,” “tangible” or “possessing” the quality of action. +Some philosophers hold the view that a body is really nothing +but the conglomeration of the atoms; but they must be +altogether wrong here since they have no right to ignore the +“body,” which appears before them with all its specific +qualities and attributes; moreover, if they ignore the body +<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>they have to ignore almost everything, for the atoms themselves +are not visible.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Again, these atoms, though so much unlike the Vaiśeshika +atoms since they contain tanmātras of a different nature as +their constituents and thus differ from the simpler atoms of +the Vaiśeshikas, compose the constituents of all inorganic, +organic or animal bodies in such a way that there is no break +of harmony—no opposition between them;—but, on the +contrary, when any one of the guṇas existing in the atoms +and their conglomerations becomes prominent, the other +guṇas though their functions are different from it, yet do not +run counter to the prominent guṇas, but conjointly with them, +help to form the specific modification for the experiences of +the purusha. In the production of a thing, the different +guṇas do not choose different independent courses for their +evolution, but join together and effectuate themselves in the +evolution of a single product. Thus we see also that when +the atoms of different gross elements possessing different +properties and attributes coalesce, their difference of attributes +does not produce confusion, but they unite in the +production of the particular substances by a common +teleological purpose (see <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 14).</p> + +<p class='c007'>We thus see that the bodies or things composed by the +collocation of the atoms in one sense differ from the atoms +themselves and in another are identical with the atoms +themselves. We see therefore that the appearance of the +atoms as bodies or things differs with the change of position +of the atoms amongst themselves. So we can say that the +change of the appearance of things and bodies only shows +the change of the collocation of the atoms, there being always +a change of appearance in the bodies consequent on every +change in the position of the atoms. The former therefore +is only an explicit appearance of the change that takes place +in the substance itself; for the appearance of a thing is only +<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>an explicit aspect of the very selfsame thing—the atoms; +thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: <i>dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ, +dharmivrikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā prapañcyate</i>, i.e. a +dharma (quality) is merely the nature of the dharmin +(substance), and it is the changes of the dharmin that are +made explicit by the dharmas.<a id='r34'></a><a href='#f34' class='c014'><sup>[34]</sup></a> Often it happens that +the change of appearance of a thing or a body, a tree or a +piece of cloth, for example, can be marked only after a long +interval. This, however, only shows that the atoms of the +body had been continually changing and consequently the +appearance of the body or the thing also had been continually +changing; for otherwise we can in no way account for the +sudden change of appearance. All bodies are continually +changing the constituent collocation of atoms and their +appearances. In the smallest particle of time or kshaṇa the +whole universe undergoes a change. Each moment or the +smallest particle of time is only the manifestation of that +particular change. Time therefore has not a separate existence +in this philosophy as in the Vaiśeshika, but it is only +identical with the smallest amount of change—viz. that of +an atom of its own amount of space. Now here the appearance +is called the dharma, and that particular arrangement of +atoms or guṇas which is the basis of the particular appearance +is called the dharmin. The change of appearance is therefore +called the dharma-pariṇāma.<a id='r35'></a><a href='#f35' class='c014'><sup>[35]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Again this change of appearance can be looked at from +two other aspects which though not intrinsically different +from the change of appearance have their own special points +of view which make them remarkable. These are <i>lakshaṇa-pariṇāma</i> +and <i>avasthā-pariṇāma</i>. Taking the particular collocation +of atoms in a body for review, we see that all the subsequent +changes that take place in it exist in it only in a latent +way in it which will be manifested in future. All the previous +<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>changes of the collocating atoms are not also lost but exist +only in a sublatent way in the particular collocation of atoms +present before us. For the past changes are by no means +destroyed but are preserved in the peculiar and particular +collocation of atoms of the present moment. For had not the +past changes taken place, the present could not appear. The +present had held itself hidden in the past just as the future +is hidden within the present. It therefore only comes into +being with the unfolding of the past, which therefore exists +only in a sublatent form in it.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is on account of this that we see that a body comes into +being and dies away. Though this birth or death is really +subsumed the change of appearance yet it has its own special +aspect, on account of which it has been given a separate name +as lakshaṇa-pariṇāma. It considers the three stages of an +appearance—the unmanifested when it exists in the future, +the manifested moment of the present, and the past when it +has been manifested—lost to view but preserved and retained +in all the onward stages of the evolution. Thus when we say +that a thing has not yet come into being, that it has just come +into being, and that it is no longer, we refer to this lakshaṇa-pariṇāma +which records the history of the thing in future, +present and past, which are only the three different moments +of the same thing according to its different characters, as +unmanifested, manifested and manifested in the past but +conserved.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now it often happens that though the appearance of a +thing is constantly changing owing to the continual change +of the atoms that compose it, yet the changes are so fine and +infinitesimal that they cannot be marked by anyone except +the Yogins; for though structural changes may be going on +tending towards the final passing away of that structure and +body into another structure and body, which greatly differs +from it, yet they may not be noticed by us, who can take note +<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>of the bigger changes alone. Taking therefore two remarkable +stages of things, the difference between which may +be so notable as to justify us in calling the later the dissolution +or destruction of the former, we assert that the thing has +suffered growth and decay in the interval, during which the +actual was passing into the sublatent and the potential was +tending towards actualization. This is what is called the +avasthā-pariṇāma, or change of condition, which, however, +does not materially differ from the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma and can +thus be held to be a mode of it. It is on account of this that +a substance is called new or old, grown or decayed. Thus +in explaining the illustration given in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, III. 13: +“there is avasthā-pariṇāma. At the moments of cessation +the potencies of cessation become stronger and those of +ordinary experience weaker.” The <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> says: +“The strength and weakness of the two potencies is like the +newness or oldness of a jug; growth and decay being the +same as origination and decease, there is no difference here +from <i>lakshaṇa-pariṇāma</i>.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is now time for us to examine once more the relation of +dharmin, substance, and dharma, its quality or appearance.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Dharmin, or substance, is that which remains common +to the latent (as having passed over or <i>śānta</i>), the rising +(the present or <i>udita</i>) and the unpredicable (future or <i>avyapadeśya</i>) +characteristic qualities of the substance.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Substance (take for example, earth) has the power of +existing in the form of particles of dust, a lump or a jug by +which water may be carried. Now taking the stage of lump +for examination we may think of its previous stage, that of +particles of dust, as being latent, and its future stage as jug +as the unpredicable. The earth we see here to be common +to all these three stages which have come into being by its +own activity and consequent changes. Earth here is the +common quality which remains unchanged in all these stages, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>and so relatively constant among its changes as particles, +lump and jug. This earth therefore is regarded as the +dharmin, characterised one, the substance; and its stages +as its dharma or qualities. When this dharmin, or substance, +undergoes a change from a stage of lump to a stage +of jug, it undergoes what is called <i>dharma-pariṇāma</i> or change +of quality.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But its dharma, as the shape of the jug may be thought +to have itself undergone a change—inasmuch as it has now +come into being, from a state of relative non-being, latency +or unpredicability. This is called the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma of +the dharma or qualities as constituting a jug. This jug is +again suffering another change as new or old according as +it is just produced or is gradually running towards its dissolution, +and this is called the avasthā-pariṇāma or change of +condition. These three, however, are not separate from the +dharma-pariṇāma, but are only aspects of it; so it may +be said that the dharmin or substance directly suffers the +dharma-pariṇāma and indirectly the lakshaṇa and the avasthā-pariṇāma. +The dharma, however, changes and the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma +can be looked at from another point of view, +that of change of state, viz. growth and decay. Thus we see +that though the atoms of kshiti, ap, etc., remain unchanged, +they are constantly suffering changes from the inorganic to +plants and animals, and from thence again back to the inorganic. +There is thus a constant circulation of changes in +which the different atoms of kshiti, ap, tejas, vāyu and +ākāśa remaining themselves unchanged are suffering dharma-pariṇāma +as they are changed from the inorganic to plants +and animals and back again to the inorganic. These different +states or dharmas (as inorganic, etc.), again, according as they +are not yet, now, or no longer or passed over, are suffering +the lakshaṇa-pariṇāma. There is also the avasthā-pariṇāma +of these states according as any one of them (the plant state +<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>for example) is growing or suffering decay towards its dissolution.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This circulation of cosmic matter in general applies also to +all particular things, such as the jug, the cloth, etc.; the order +of evolution here will be that of powdered particles of earth, +lump of earth, the earthen jug, the broken halves of the jug, +and again the powdered earth. As the whole substance has +only one identical evolution, these different states only happen +in order of succession, the occurrence of one characteristic +being displaced by another characteristic which comes after it +immediately. We thus see that one substance may undergo +endless changes of characteristic in order of succession; and +along with the change of characteristic or dharma we have the +lakshaṇa-pariṇāma and the avasthā-pariṇāma as old or new, +which is evidently one of infinitesimal changes of growth and +decay. Thus Vācaspati gives the following beautiful example: +“Even the most carefully preserved rice in the granary +becomes after long years so brittle that it crumbles into atoms. +This change cannot happen to new rice all on a sudden. Therefore +we have to admit an order of successive changes” (<cite>Tattvavaivśāradī</cite>, +III. 15).</p> + +<p class='c007'>We now see that substance has neither past nor future; +appearances or qualities only are manifested in time, by virtue +of which substance is also spoken of as varying and changing +temporally, just as a line remains unchanged in itself but +acquires different significances according as one or two zeros +are placed on its right side. Substance—the atoms of kshiti, +ap, tejas, marut, vyoman, etc., by various changes of quality +appear as the manifold varieties of cosmical existence. There +is no intrinsic difference between one thing and another, but +only changes of character of one and the same thing; thus the +gross elemental atoms like water and earth particles acquire +various qualities and appear as the various juices of all fruits +and herbs. Now in analogy with the arguments stated above, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>it will seem that even a qualified thing or appearance may be +relatively regarded as substance, when it is seen to remain +common to various other modifications of that appearance +itself. Thus a jug, which may remain common in all its +modifications of colour, may be regarded relatively as the +dharmin or substance of all these special appearances or +modifications of the same appearance.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We remember that the guṇas, which are the final substratum +of all the grosser particles, are always in a state of +commotion and always evolving in the manner previously +stated, for the sake of the experience and final realisation of +the parusha, the only object or end of the prakṛti. Thus the +<cite>Bhāshya</cite>, III. 13, says: “So it is the nature of the guṇas that +there cannot remain even a moment without the evolutionary +changes of dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthā; movement is the +characteristic of the guṇas. The nature of the guṇas is the +cause of their constant movement.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Although the pioneers of modern scientific evolution have +tried to observe scientifically some of the stages of the growth +of the inorganic and of the animal worlds into the man, yet +they do not give any reason for it. Theirs is more an experimental +assertion of facts than a metaphysical account of +evolution. According to Darwin the general form of the +evolutionary process is that which is accomplished by “very +slight variations which are accumulated by the effect of natural +selection.” And according to a later theory, we see that a new +species is constituted all at once by the simultaneous appearance +of several new characteristics very different from the old. +But why this accidental variation, this seeming departure from +the causal chain, comes into being, the evolutionists cannot +explain. But the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine explains it +from the standpoint of teleology or the final goal inherent in all +matter, so that it may be serviceable to the purusha. To be +serviceable to the purusha is the one moral purpose in all +<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>prakṛti and its manifestations in the whole material world, +which guide the course and direction of the smallest particle +of matter. From the scientific point of view, the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala +doctrine is very much in the same position as +modern science, for it does not explain the cause of the +accidental variation noticed in all the stages of evolutionary +process from any physical point of view based on the observation +of facts.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But it does much credit to the Pātañjala doctrines that they +explain this accidental variation, this <i>avyapadeśyatva</i> or +unpredicability of the onward course of evolution from a +moral point of view, that of teleology, the serviceability of the +purusha. They found, however, that this teleology should not +be used to usurp the whole nature and function of matter. +We find that the atoms are always moving by virtue of the +rajas or energy, and it is to this movement of the atoms in space +that all the products of evolution are due. We have found +that the difference between the juices of Coco-nut, Palm, Bel, +Tinduka (Diospyros Embryopteries), Āmalaka (Emblic Myrobalan) +can be accounted for by the particular and peculiar +arrangement of the atoms of earth and water alone, by their +stress and strain; and we see also that the evolution of the +organic from the inorganic is due to this change of position of +the atoms themselves; for the unit of change is the change +in an atom of its own dimension of spatial position. There is +always the transformation of energy from the inorganic to the +organic and back again from the organic. Thus the differences +among things are solely due to the different stages which they +occupy in the scale of evolution, as different expressions of the +transformation of energy; but virtually there is no intrinsic +difference among things <i>sarvaṃ sarvātmakaṃ</i>; the change of +the collocation of atoms only changes potentiality into +actuality, for there is potentiality of everything for +every thing everywhere throughout this changing world. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>Thus Vācaspati writes: “The water possessing taste, +colour, touch and sound and the earth possessing smell, +taste, colour, touch, and sound suffer an infinite variety +of changes as roots, flowers, fruits, leaves and their +specific tastes and other qualities. The water and the +earth which do not possess these qualities cannot have +them, for we have proved that what is non-existent cannot +come into being. The trees and plants produce the varied +tastes and colours in animals, for it is by eating these that they +acquire such richness of colour, etc. Animal products can again +produce changes in plant bodies. By sprinkling blood on it a +pomegranate may be made as big as a palm” (<cite>Tattvavaiśaradī</cite>, +III. 14).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Looked at from the point of view of the guṇas, there is no +intrinsic difference between things, though there are a thousand +manifestations of differences, according to time, place, form +and causality. The expressions of the guṇas, and the manifestations +of the transformations of energy differ according to +time, place, shape, or causality—these are the determining +circumstances and environments which determine the modes +of the evolutionary process; surrounding environments are +also involved in determining this change, and it is said that +two Āmalaka fruits placed in two different places undergo two +different sorts of changes in connection with the particular +spots in which they are placed, and that if anybody interchanges +them a Yogin can recognise and distinguish the one +from the other by seeing the changes that the fruits have +undergone in connection with their particular points of space. +Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: “Two Āmalaka fruits having the +same characteristic genus and species, their situation in two +different points of space contributes to their specific distinction +of development, so that they may be identified as this and +that. When an Āmalaka is brought from a distance to a man +previously inattentive to it, he naturally cannot distinguish +<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>this Āmalaka as being the distant one which has been +brought before him without his knowledge. But right knowledge +should be competent to discern the distinction; +and the sūtra says that the place associated with one +Āmalaka fruit is different from the place associated with +another Āmalaka at another point of space; and the Yogin +can perceive the difference of their specific evolution in +association with their points of space; similarly the atoms also +suffer different modifications at different points of space which +can be perceived by Īśvara and the Yogins” (<cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, +III. 53).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Vācaspati again says: “Though all cause is essentially all +effects yet a particular cause takes effect in a particular place, +thus though the cause is the same, yet saffron grows in +Kāśmīra and not in Pāñcāla. So, the rains do not come in +summer, the vicious do not enjoy happiness. Thus in accordance +with the obstructions of place, time, animal form, and +instrumental accessories, the same cause does not produce the +same effect. Though as cause everything is essentially everything +else, yet there is a particular country for a particular +effect, such as Kāśmīra is for saffron. Even though the +causes may be in other countries such as Pāñcāla, yet the effect +will not happen there, and for this reason saffron does not +manifest itself in Pāñcāla. So in summer there are no rains and +so no paddy grows then” (<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, III. 14).</p> + +<p class='c007'>We see therefore that time, space, etc., are the limitations +which regulate, modify and determine to a certain extent the +varying transformations and changes and the seeming differences +of things, though in reality they are all ultimately +reducible to the three guṇas; thus Kāśmīra being the +country of saffron, it will not grow in the Pāñcāla country, +even though the other causes of its growth should all be +present there;—here the operation of cause is limited by +space.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>After considering the inorganic, vegetable and animal +kingdoms as three stages in the evolutionary process, our +attention is at once drawn to their conception of the nature of +relation of plant life to animal life. Though I do not find any +special reference in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> to this point, yet I am +reminded of a few passages in the <cite>Mahābhārata</cite>, which I think +may be added as a supplement to the general doctrine of +evolution according to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala philosophy as +stated here. Thus the <cite>Mahābhārata</cite> says: “Even the solid +trees have ether (ākāśa) in them which justifies the regular +appearance of flowers and fruits. By heat the leaves, the +bark, flowers and fruits become withered, and since there is +withering and decay in them, there is in them the sensation of +touch. Since by the sound of air, fire and thunder the fruits +and flowers fall away, there must be the sense of hearing in +them. The creepers encircle the trees and they go in all directions, +and since without sight there could not be any choice +of direction, the trees have the power of vision. By various +holy and unholy smells and incenses of various kinds the trees +are cured of their diseases and blossom forth, therefore the +trees can smell. Since they drink by their roots, and since they +get diseases, and since their diseases can be cured, there is the +sense of taste in the trees. Since they enjoy pleasure and +suffer pain, and since their parts which are cut grow, I see life +everywhere in trees and not want of life” (<cite>Sāntiparva</cite>, 184).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Nīlakaṇṭha in his commentary goes still further and says +that a hard substance called vajramaṇi also may be called +living. Here we see that the ancients had to a certain extent +forestalled the discovery of Sir J. C. Bose that the life functions +differed only in degree between the three classes, the +inorganic, plants and animals.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These are all, however, only illustrations of dharma-pariṇāma, +for here there is no radical change in the elements +themselves, the appearance of qualities being due only to the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>different arrangement of the atoms of the five gross elements. +This change applies to the viśeshas only—the five gross +elements externally and the eleven senses internally. How +the inner microcosm, the manas and the senses are affected by +dharma-pariṇāma we shall see hereafter, when we deal with +the psychology of the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine. For the +present it will suffice to say that the citta or mind also suffers +this change and is modified in a twofold mode; the patent in +the form of the ideas and the latent, as the substance itself, in +the form of saṃskāras of subconscious impressions. Thus the +<cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: “The mind has two kinds of characteristics, +perceived and unperceived. Those of the nature of ideas are +perceived and those inherent in the integral nature of it are +unperceived. The latter are of seven kinds and may be +ascertained by inference. These are cessation of mental states +by samādhi, virtue and vice, subconscious impressions, +change, life-functioning, power of movement, and energy” +(III. 15).</p> + +<p class='c007'>This dharma-pariṇāma as we have shown it, is essentially +different from the satkāraṇavāda of the aviśeshas described +above. We cannot close this discussion about evolution +without noticing the Sāṃkhya view of causation.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have seen that the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala view holds that +the effect is already existent in the cause, but only in a +potential form. “The grouping or collocation alone changes, +and this brings out the manifestation of the latent powers of +the guṇas, but without creation of anything absolutely new or +non-existent.” This is the true satkāryyavāda theory as +distinguished from the so-called satkāryyavāda theory of the +Vedāntists, which ought more properly to be called the +satkāraṇavāda theory, for with them the cause alone is true, +and all effects are illusory, being only impositions on the cause. +For with them the material cause alone is true, whilst all its +forms and shapes are merely illusory, whereas according to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine all the appearances or effects +are true and are due to the power which the substance has of +transforming itself into those various appearances and effects +<i>yogyatāvacchinnā dharmiṇaḥ śaktireva dharmaḥ</i> (III. 14). +The operation of the concomitant condition or efficient cause +serves only to effect the passage of a thing from potency to +actualisation.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Everything in the phenomenal world is but a special +collocation of the guṇas; so that the change of collocation +explains the diversity of things. Considered from the point of +view of the guṇas, things are all the same, so excluding that, +the cause of the diversity in things is the power which the +guṇas have of changing their particular collocations and thus +assuming various shapes. We have seen that the prakṛti +unfolds itself through various stages—the mahat called the +great being—the ahaṃkāra, the tanmātras called the +aviśeshas. Now the liṅga at once resolves itself into the +ahaṃkāra and through it again into the tanmātras. The +ahaṃkāra and the tanmātras again resolve themselves into the +senses and the gross elements, and these again are constantly +suffering thousands of modifications called the dharma, +lakshaṇa, and avasthā-pariṇāma according to the definite law +of evolution (<i>pariṇāmakramaniyama</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now according to the Saṃkhya-Pātañjala doctrine, the +śakti—power, force—and the śaktimān—the possessor of +power or force—are not different but identical. So the prakṛti +and all its emanations and modifications are of the nature of +substantive entities as well as power or force. Their appearances +as substantive entities and as power or force are but +two aspects, and so it will be erroneous to make any such +distinction as the substantive entity and its power or force. +That which is the substantive entity is the force, and that +which is the force is the substantive entity. Of course for all +practical purposes we can indeed make some distinction, but +<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>that distinction is only relatively true. Thus when we say +that earth is the substantive entity and the power which it has +of transforming itself into the produced form, lump, or jug +as its attribute, we see on the one hand that no distinction is +really made between the appearance of the earth as jug and +its power of transforming itself into the jug. As this power of +transforming itself into lump or jug, etc., always abides in the +earth we say that the jug, etc., are also abiding in the earth; +when the power is in the potential state, we say that the jug +is in the potential state, and when it is actualised, we say that +the jug has been actualised. Looked at from the tanmātric +side, the earth and all the other gross elements must be said +to be mere modifications, and as such identical with the +power which the tanmātras have of changing themselves into +them. The potentiality or actuality of any state is the mere +potentiality or actuality of the power which its antecedent +cause has of transforming itself into it.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VII<br> <span class='c013'>EVOLUTION AND CHANGE OF QUALITIES</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>Prakṛti, though a substantive entity is yet a potential power, +being actualised as its various modifications, the aviśeshas and +the viśeshas. Being of the nature of power, the movement by +which it actualises itself is immanent within itself and not +caused from without. The operation of the concomitant +conditions is only manifested in the removal of the negative +barriers by which the power was stopped or prevented from +actualising itself. Being of the nature of power, its potentiality +means that it is kept in equilibrium by virtue of the opposing +tendencies inherent within it, which serve to obstruct one +another and are therefore called the āvaraṇa śakti. Of course +it is evident that there is no real or absolute distinction between +the opposing force (<i>āvaraṇa śakti</i>) and the energising force +(<i>kāryyakarī śakti</i>); they may be called so only relatively, for +the same tendency which may appear as the <i>āvaraṇa śakti</i> of +some tendencies may appear as the <i>kāryyakarī śakti</i> elsewhere. +The example chosen to explain the nature of prakṛti and its +modifications conceived as power tending towards actuality +from potentiality in the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> is that of a sheet of +water enclosed by temporary walls within a field, but always +tending to run out of it. As soon as the temporary wall is +broken in some direction, the water rushes out of itself, and +what one has to do is to break the wall at a particular place. +Prakṛti is also the potential for all the infinite diversity of +things in the phenomenal world, but the potential tendency of +all these mutually opposed and diverse things cannot be +<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>actualised together. Owing to the concomitant conditions +when the barrier of a certain tendency is removed, it at once +actualises itself in its effect and so on.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We can only expect to get any effect from any cause if the +necessary barriers can be removed, for everything is everything +potentially and it is only necessary to remove the particular +barrier which is obstructing the power from actualising itself +in that particular effect towards which it is always potentially +tending. Thus Nandī who was a man is at once turned into a +god for his particular merit, which served to break all the +barriers of the potential tendency of his body towards becoming +divine, so that the barriers being removed the potential +power of the prakṛti of his body at once actualises itself in the +divine body.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> (III. 14) mentions four sorts of concomitant +conditions which can serve to break the barrier in a +particular way and thus determine the mode or form of the +actualisations of the potential. These are (1) ākāra, form +and constitution of a thing; deśa, place, (3) kāla, time; thus +from a piece of stone, the shoot of a plant cannot proceed, for +the arrangement of the particles in stone is such that it will +oppose and stand as a bar to its potential tendencies to +develop into the shoot of a plant; of course if these barriers +could be removed, say by the will of God, as Vijñāna Bhikshu +says, then it is not impossible that the shoot of a plant might +grow from a stone. By the will of God poison may be turned +into nectar and nectar into poison, and there is no absolute +certainty of the course of the evolutionary process, for God’s +will can make any change in the direction of its process +(<i>avyavasthitākhilapariṇāmo bhavatyeva</i>, III. 14).</p> + +<p class='c007'>According to the Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala theory dharma, merit, +can only be said to accrue from those actions which lead to a +man’s salvation, and adharma from just the opposite course +of conduct. When it is said that these can remove the barriers +<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>of the prakṛti and thus determine its modifications, it amounts +almost to saying that the modifications of the prakṛti are +being regulated by the moral conditions of man. According +to the different stages of man’s moral evolution, different kinds +of merit, dharma or adharma, accrue, and these again +regulate the various physical and mental phenomena according +to which a man may be affected either pleasurably or +painfully. It must, however, be always remembered that the +dharma and adharma are also the productions of prakṛti, +and as such cannot affect it except by behaving as the cause for +the removal of the opposite obstructions—the dharma for +removing the obstructions of adharma and adharma for those +of dharma. Vijñāna Bhikshu and Nāgeśa agree here in +saying that the modifications due to dharma and adharma +are those which affect the bodies and senses. What they mean +is possibly this, that it is dharma or adharma alone which +guides the transformations of the bodies and senses of all +living beings in general and the Yogins.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The body of a person and his senses are continually decaying +and being reconstructed by refilling from the gross elements +and from ahaṃkāra respectively. These refillings proceed +automatically and naturally; but they follow the teleological +purpose as chalked out by the law of karma in accordance with +the virtues or vices of a man. Thus the gross insult to which +the sages were subjected by Nahusha<a id='r36'></a><a href='#f36' class='c014'><sup>[36]</sup></a> was so effective a +sin that by its influence the refilling of Nahusha’s body and +the senses was stopped and the body and senses of a snake +were directly produced by a process of refilling from the gross +elements and ahaṃkāra, for providing him with a body in +which he could undergo the sufferings which were his due +owing to the enormity of his vice. Thus by his vicious action +<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>the whole machinery of prakṛti was set in operation so that he +at once died and was immediately reborn as a snake. In +another place Vācaspati “the virtuous enjoys happiness” as +an illustration of the cause of dharma and adharma as +controlling the course of the development of prakṛti. We +therefore see that the sphere of merit and demerit lies in the +helping of the formation of the particular bodies and senses +(from the gross elements and ahaṃkāra respectively) suited to +all living beings according to their stages of evolution and +their growth, decay, or other sorts of their modifications as +pleasure, pain, and also as illness or health. Thus it is by his +particular merit that the Yogin can get his special body or men +or animals can get their new bodies after leaving the old ones +at death. Thus <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> says: “Merit by removing the +obstructions of demerit causes the development of the body +and the senses.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>As for Īśvara I do not remember that the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> or the +sūtras ever mention Him as having anything to do with the +controlling of the modifications of the prakṛti by removing the +barriers, but all the later commentators agree in holding him +responsible for the removal of all barriers in the way of prakṛtis +development. So that Īśvara is the root cause of all the +removal of barriers, including those that are affected by merit +and demerit. Thus Vācaspati says (IV. 3): <i>Īśvarasyāpi +dharmādhishṭhānārthaṃ pratibandhāpanaya eva vyāpāro</i>, i.e. +God stands as the cause of the removal of such obstacles in the +prakṛti as may lead to the fruition of merit or demerit.</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> and Nāgeśa agree in holding Īśvara responsible +for the removal of all obstacles in the way of the evolution of +prakṛti. Thus Bhikshu says that God rouses prakṛti by +breaking the opposing forces of the state of equilibrium and +also of the course of evolution (IV. 3).</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is on account of God that we can do good or bad actions +and thus acquire merit or demerit. Of course God is not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>active and cannot cause any motion in prakṛti. But He by His +very presence causes the obstacles, as the barriers in the way of +prakṛti’s development, to be removed, in such a way that He +stands ultimately responsible for the removal of all obstacles +in the way of prakṛti’s development and thus also of all +obstacles in the way of men’s performance of good or bad +deeds. Man’s good or bad deeds “puṇyakarma,” apuṇyakarma, +dharma or adharma serve to remove the obstacles +of prakṛti in such a way as to result in pleasurable or painful +effects; but it is by God’s help that the barriers of prakṛti are +removed and it yields itself in such a way that a man may +perform good or bad deeds according to his desire. Nīlakaṇṭha, +however, by his quotations in explanation of 300/2, <cite>Śāntiparva</cite>, +leads us to suppose that he regards God’s will as wholly +responsible for the performance of our good or bad actions. +For if we lay stress on his quotation “He makes him do good +deeds whom He wants to raise, and He makes him commit bad +deeds whom He wants to throw down,” it appears that he +whom God wants to raise is made to perform good actions and +he whom God wants to throw downwards is made to commit +bad actions. But this seems to be a very bold idea, as it +will altogether nullify the least vestige of freedom in and +responsibility for our actions and is unsupported by the +evidence of other commentators. Vijñāna Bhikshu also says +with reference to this śruti in his <cite>Vijñānamṛta-bhāshya</cite>, III. 33: +“As there is an infinite <i>regressus</i> between the causal connection +of seed and shoot, so one karma is being determined by the +previous karma and so on; there is no beginning to this chain.” +So we take the superintendence of merits and demerits (<i>dharmādhispṭhānatā</i>) +by Īśvara to mean only in a general way the +help that is offered by Him in removing the obstructions of the +external world in such a manner that it may be possible for a +man to perform practically meritorious acts in the external +world.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>Nīlakaṇṭha commenting on the Yoga view says that “like +a piece of magnet, God though inactive, may by His very +presence stir up prakṛti and help His devotees. So the Yoga +holds that for the granting of emancipation God has to be +admitted” (<cite>Śāntiparva</cite>, 300/2).</p> + +<p class='c007'>In support of our view we also find that it is by God’s +influence that the unalterable nature of the external world +is held fast and a limit imposed on the powers of man in +producing changes in the external world. Thus Vācaspati in +explaining the Bhāshya (III. 45) says: “Though capable of +doing it, yet he does not change the order of things, because +another earlier omnipotent being had wished the things to be +such as they were. They would not disobey the orders of the +omnipotent God.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Men may indeed acquire unlimited powers of producing +any changes they like, for the powers of objects as they +change according to the difference of class, space, time and +condition, are not permanent, and so it is proper that they +should act in accordance with the desire of the Yogin; but +there is a limit to men’s will by the command of God—thus +far and no further.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Another point in our favour is that the Yoga philosophy +differs from the Sāṃkhya mainly in this that the purushārtha +or serviceability to the purusha is only the aim or end of the +evolution of prakṛti and not actually the agent which removes +the obstacles of the prakṛti in such a way as to determine its +course as this cosmical process of evolution. Purushārtha is +indeed the aim for which the process of evolution exists; for +this manifold evolution in its entirety affects the interests of +the purusha alone; but that does not prove that its teleology +can really guide the evolution on its particular lines so as to +ensure the best possible mode of serving all the interests of the +purusha, for this teleology being immanent in the prakṛti is +essentially non-intelligent. Thus Vācaspati says: “The +<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha is not also the prime +mover. God has the fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha as +His own purpose, for which He behaves as the prime mover. +The fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha may be regarded +as cause only in the sense that it is the object in view of God, +the prime mover.”<a id='r37'></a><a href='#f37' class='c014'><sup>[37]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>The Sāṃkhya, however, hopes that this immanent purpose +in prakṛti acts like a blind instinct and is able to guide the +course of its evolution in all its manifold lines in accordance +with the best possible service of the purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Pātañjala view, as we have seen, maintains that +Īśvara removes all obstacles of prakṛti in such a way that this +purpose may find scope for its realisation. Thus <cite>Sūtrārthabodhinī</cite>, +IV. 3, of Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha says: “According to +atheistic Sāṃkhya the future serviceability of purusha alone +is the mover of prakṛti. But with us theists the serviceability +of purusha is the object for which prakṛti moves. It is merely +as an object that the serviceability of the purusha may be said +to be the mover of the prakṛti.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>As regards the connection of prakṛti and purusha, however, +both Sāṃkhya and Pātañjala agree according to Vijñāna +Bhikshu in denying the interference of Īśvara; it is the +movement of prakṛti by virtue of immanent purpose that +connects itself naturally with the purusha. Vijñāna Bhikshu’s +own view, however, is that this union is brought about by God +(<cite>Vijñānāmṛta-bhāshya</cite>, p. 34).</p> + +<p class='c007'>To recapitulate, we see that there is an immanent purpose +in prakṛti which connects it with the purushas. This purpose +is, however, blind and cannot choose the suitable lines of +development and cause the movement of Prakṛti along them +for its fullest realisation. Prakṛti itself, though a substantial +entity, is also essentially of the nature of conserved energy +existing in the potential form but always ready to flow out +<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>and actualise itself, if only its own immanent obstructions are +removed. Its teleological purpose is powerless to remove its +own obstruction. God by His very presence removes the +obstacles, by which, prakṛti of itself moves in the evolutionary +process, and thus the purpose is realised; for the removal of +obstacles by the influence of God takes place in such a way +that the purpose may realise its fullest scope. Realisation of +the teleology means that the interests of purusha are seemingly +affected and purusha appears to see and feel in a manifold way, +and after a long series of such experiences it comes to understand +itself in its own nature, and this being the last and final +realisation of the purpose of prakṛti with reference to that +purusha all connections of prakṛti with such a purusha at once +cease; the purusha is then said to be liberated and the world +ceases for him to exist, though it exists for the other unliberated +purushas, the purpose of the prakṛti with reference to +whom has not been realised. So the world is both eternal and +non-eternal, i.e. its eternality is only relative and not absolute. +Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says the question “whether the world will +have an end or not cannot be directly answered. The world-process +gradually ceases for the wise and not for others, so no +one-sided decision can be true” (IV. 33).</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span> + <h2 class='c005'>BOOK II. ETHICS AND PRACTICE</h2> +</div> +<h3 class='c012'>CHAPTER VIII<br> <span class='c013'>MIND AND MORAL STATES</span></h3> + +<p class='c006'>The Yoga philosophy has essentially a practical tone and its +object consists mainly in demonstrating the means of attaining +salvation, oneness, the liberation of the purusha. The +metaphysical theory which we have discussed at some length, +though it is the basis which justifies its ethical goal, is not +itself the principal subject of Yoga discussion, and is only +dealt with to the extent that it can aid in demonstrating +the ethical view. We must now direct our attention to these +ethical theories. Citta or mind always exists in the form of +its states which are called vṛttis.<a id='r38'></a><a href='#f38' class='c014'><sup>[38]</sup></a> These comprehend all the +manifold states of consciousness of our phenomenal existence. +We cannot distinguish states of consciousness from consciousness +itself, for the consciousness is not something separate +from its states; it exists in them, passes away with their +passing and submerges when they are submerged. It differs +from the senses in this, that they represent the functions and +faculties, whereas citta stands as the entity containing the +conscious states with which we are directly concerned. But +the citta which we have thus described as existing only in its +states is called the kāryyacitta or citta as effect as distinguished +<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>from the kāraṇacitta or citta as cause. These +kāraṇacittas or cittas as cause are all-pervading like the +ākāśa and are infinite in number, each being connected with +each of the numberless purushas or souls (<cite>Chāyāvyākhyā</cite>, +IV. 10). The reason assigned for acknowledging such a +kāraṇacitta which must be all-pervading, as is evident from +the quotation, is that the Yogin may have knowledge of all +things at once.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Vācaspati says that this citta being essentially of the +nature of ahaṃkāra is as all-pervading as the ego itself +(IV. 10).</p> + +<p class='c007'>This kāraṇacitta contracts or expands and appears as our +individual cittas in our various bodies at successive rebirths. +The kāraṇacitta is always connected with the purusha and +appears contracted when the purusha presides over animal +bodies, and as relatively expanded when he presides over +human bodies, and more expanded when he presides over the +bodies of gods, etc. This contracted or expanded citta appears +as our kāryyacitta which always manifests itself as our states +of consciousness. After death the kāraṇacitta, which is always +connected with the purusha, manifests itself in the new body +which is formed by the āpūra (filling in of prakṛti on account +of effective merit or demerit that the purusha had apparently +acquired). The formation of the body as well as the contraction +or expansion of the kāraṇacitta as the corresponding +kāryyacitta to suit it is due to this āpūra. The Yoga does +not hold that the citta has got a separate fine astral body +within which it may remain encased and be transferred along +with it to another body on rebirth. The citta being all-pervading, +it appears both to contract or expand to suit +the particular body destined for it owing to its merit or demerit, +but there is no separate astral body (<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, +IV. 10). In reality the karaṇacitta as such always remains +vibhu or all-pervading; it is only its kāryyacitta or vṛtti +<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>that appears in a contracted or expanded form, according +to the particular body which it may be said to occupy.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Sāṃkhya view, however, does not regard the citta +to be essentially all-pervading, but small or great according +as the body it has to occupy. Thus Bhikshu and Nāgeśa in +explaining the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, “others think that the citta expands +or contracts according as it is in a bigger or smaller body, +just as light rays do according as they are placed in the jug +or in a room,” attributes this view to the Sāṃkhya (<cite>Vyāsabhāshya</cite>, +IV. 10, and the commentaries by Bhikshu and Nāgeśa +on it).<a id='r39'></a><a href='#f39' class='c014'><sup>[39]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>It is this citta which appears as the particular states of +consciousness in which both the knower and the known are +reflected, and it comprehends them both in one state of consciousness. +It must, however, be remembered that this citta +is essentially a modification of prakṛti, and as such is non-intelligent; +but by the seeming reflection of the purusha it +appears as the knower knowing a certain object, and we +therefore see that in the states themselves are comprehended +both the knower and the known. This citta is not, however, +a separate tattva, but is the sum or unity of the eleven senses +and the ego and also of the five prāṇas or biomotor forces +(<cite>Nāgeśa</cite>, IV. 10). It thus stands for all that is psychical in +man: his states of consciousness including the living principle +in man represented by the activity of the five prāṇas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is the object of Yoga gradually to restrain the citta +from its various states and thus cause it to turn back to its +original cause, the kāraṇacitta, which is all-pervading. The +modifications of the kāraṇacitta into such states as the kāryyacitta +is due to its being overcome by its inherent tamas +and rajas; so when the transformations of the citta into the +passing states are arrested by concentration, there takes +<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>place a backward movement and the all-pervading state of +the citta being restored to itself and all tamas being overcome, +the Yogin acquires omniscience, and finally when this citta +becomes as pure as the form of purusha itself, the purusha +becomes conscious of himself and is liberated from the bonds +of prakṛti.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Yoga philosophy in the first chapter describes the Yoga +for him whose mind is inclined towards trance-cognition. In +the second chapter is described the means by which one with +an ordinary worldly mind (<i>vyutthāna citta</i>) may also acquire +Yoga. In the third chapter are described those phenomena +which strengthen the faith of the Yogin on the means of +attaining Yoga described in the second chapter. In the fourth +chapter is described kaivalya, absolute independence or +oneness, which is the end of all the Yoga practices.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The <cite>Bhāshya</cite> describes the five classes of cittas and comments +upon their fitness for the Yoga leading to kaivalya. +Those are I. <i>kshipta</i> (wandering), II. <i>mūḍha</i> (forgetful), III. +<i>vikshipta</i> (occasionally steady), IV. <i>ekāgra</i> (one-pointed), +<i>niruddha</i> (restrained).</p> + +<p class='c007'>I. The <i>kshiptacitta</i> is characterised as wandering, because +it is being always moved by the rajas. This is that citta +which is always moved to and fro by the rise of passions, +the excess of which may indeed for the time overpower the +mind and thus generate a temporary concentration, but it +has nothing to do with the contemplative concentration +required for attaining absolute independence. The man +moved by rajas, far from attaining any mastery of himself, +is rather a slave to his own passions and is always being +moved to and fro and shaken by them (see <cite>Siddhānta-candrikā</cite>, +I. 2, <cite>Bhojavṛtti</cite>, I. 2).</p> + +<p class='c007'>II. The mūḍhacitta is that which is overpowered by +tamas, or passions, like that of anger, etc., by which it loses +its senses and always chooses the wrong course. Svāmin +<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>Hariharāraṇya suggests a beautiful example of such concentration +as similar to that of certain snakes which become +completely absorbed in the prey upon which they are about +to pounce.</p> + +<p class='c007'>III. The vikshiptacitta, or distracted or occasionally +steady citta, is that mind which rationally avoids the painful +actions and chooses the pleasurable ones. Now none of these +three kinds of mind can hope to attain that contemplative +concentration called Yoga. This last type of mind represents +ordinary people, who sometimes tend towards good but +relapse back to evil.</p> + +<p class='c007'>IV. The one-pointed (ekāgra) is that kind of mind in which +true knowledge of the nature of reality is present and the +afflictions due to nescience or false knowledge are thus attenuated +and the mind better adapted to attain the nirodha +or restrained state. All these come under the saṃprajñāta +(concentration on an object of knowledge) type.</p> + +<p class='c007'>V. The nirodha or restrained mind is that in which all +mental states are arrested. This leads to kaivalya.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Ordinarily our minds are engaged only in perception, +inference, etc.—those mental states which we all naturally +possess. These ordinary mental states are full of rajas and +tamas. When these are arrested, the mind flows with an +abundance of sattva in the saṃprajñāta samādhi; lastly +when even the saṃprajñāta state is arrested, all possible +states become arrested.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Another important fact which must be noted is the relation +of the actual states of mind called the vṛttis with the latent +states called the saṃskāras—the potency. When a particular +mental state passes away into another, it is not altogether +lost, but is preserved in the mind in a latent form as a saṃskāra, +which is always trying to manifest itself in actuality. +The vṛttis or actual states are thus both generating the +saṃskāras and are also always tending to manifest themselves +<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>and actually generating similar vṛttis or actual states. +There is a circulation from vṛttis to saṃskāras and from them +again to vṛttis (<i>saṃskārāḥ vṛttibhiḥ kriyante, saṃskāraiśca +vṛttayaḥ evaṃ vṛttisaṃskāracakramaniśamāvarttate</i>). So the +formation of saṃskāras and their conservation are gradually +being strengthened by the habit of similar vṛttis or actual +states, and their continuity is again guaranteed by the strength +and continuity of these saṃskāras. The saṃskāras are like +roots striking deep into the soil and growing with the growth +of the plant above, but even when the plant above the soil +is destroyed, the roots remain undisturbed and may again +shoot forth as plants whenever they obtain a favourable +season. Thus it is not enough for a Yogin to arrest any +particular class of mental states; he must attain such a habit +of restraint that the saṃskāra thus generated is able to overcome, +weaken and destroy the saṃskāra of those actual states +which he has arrested by his contemplation. Unless restrained +by such a habit, the saṃskāra of cessation (<i>nirodhaja saṃskāra</i>) +which is opposed to the previously acquired mental +states become powerful and destroy the latter, these are +sure to shoot forth again in favourable season into their +corresponding actual states.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The conception of avidyā or nescience is here not negative +but has a definite positive aspect. It means that kind of +knowledge which is opposed to true knowledge (<i>vidyāviparītaṃ +jñānāntaramavidyā</i>). This is of four kinds: (1) The thinking +of the non-eternal world, which is merely an effect, as eternal. +(2) The thinking of the impure as the pure, as for example +the attraction that a woman’s body may have for a man +leading him to think the impure body pure. (3) The thinking +of vice as virtue, of the undesirable as the desirable, of pain +as pleasure. We know that for a Yogin every phenomenal +state of existence is painful (II. 15). A Yogin knows that +attachment (<i>rāga</i>) to sensual and other objects can only give +<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>temporary pleasure, for it is sure to be soon turned into pain. +Enjoyment can never bring satisfaction, but only involves a +man further and further in sorrows. (4) Considering the non-self, +e.g. the body as the self. This causes a feeling of being +injured on the injury of the body.</p> + +<p class='c007'>At the moment of enjoyment there is always present +suffering from pain in the form of aversion to pain; for the +tendency to aversion from pain can only result from the +incipient memory of previous sufferings. Of course this is +also a case of pleasure turned into pain (<i>pariṇāmaduḥkhatā</i>), +but it differs from it in this that in the case of pariṇāmaduḥkha +pleasure is turned into pain as a result of change or pariṇāma +in the future, whereas in this case the anxiety as to pain is +a thing of the present, happening at one and the same time +that a man is enjoying pleasure.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Enjoyment of pleasure or suffering from pain causes those +impressions called saṃskāra or potencies, and these again +when aided by association naturally create their memory and +thence comes attachment or aversion, then again action, and +again pleasure and pain and hence impressions, memory, +attachment or aversion, and again action and so forth.</p> + +<p class='c007'>All states are modifications of the three guṇas; in each one +of them the functions of all the three guṇas are seen, contrary +to one another. These contraries are observable in their +developed forms, for the guṇas are seen to abide in various +proportions and compose all our mental states. Thus a Yogin +who wishes to be released from pain once for all is very sensitive +and anxious to avoid even our so-called pleasures. The +wise are like the eye-ball. As a thread of wool thrown into +the eye pains by merely touching it, but not when it comes +into contact with any other organ, so the Yogin is as +tender as the eye-ball, when others are insensible of pain. +Ordinary persons, however, who have again and again suffered +pains as the consequence of their own karma, and who again +<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>seek them after having given them up, are all round +pierced through as it were by nescience, their minds become +full of afflictions, variegated by the eternal residua of the +passions. They follow in the wake of the “I” and the +“Mine” in relation to things that should be left apart, +pursuing threefold pain in repeated births, due to external +and internal causes. The Yogin seeing himself and +the world of living beings surrounded by the eternal flow +of pain, turns for refuge to right knowledge, cause of the +destruction of all pains (<cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 15).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thinking of the mind and body and the objects of the +external world as the true self and feeling affected by their +change is avidyā (false knowledge).</p> + +<p class='c007'>The modifications that this avidyā suffers may be summarised +under four heads.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I. The ego, which, as described above, springs from the +identification of the buddhi with the purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'>II. From this ego springs attachment (<i>rāga</i>) which is +the inclination towards pleasure and consequently towards +the means necessary for attaining it in a person who has +previously experienced pleasures and remembers them.</p> + +<p class='c007'>II. Repulsion from pain also springs from the ego and is +of the nature of anxiety for its removal; anger at pain and +the means which produces pain, remains in the mind in consequence +of the feeling of pain, in the case of him who has felt +and remembers pain.</p> + +<p class='c007'>IV. Love of life also springs from the ego. This feeling +exists in all persons and appears in a positive aspect in the +form “would that I were never to cease.” This is due to the +painful experience of death in some previous existence, which +abides in us as a residual potency (<i>vāsanā</i>) and causes the +instincts of self-preservation, fear of death and love of life. +These modifications including avidyā are called the five +kleśas or afflictions.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>We are now in a position to see the far-reaching effects of +the identification of the purusha with the buddhi. We have +already seen how it has generated the macrocosm or external +world on the one hand, and manas and the senses on the other. +Now we see that from it also spring attachment to pleasure, +aversion from pain and love of life, motives observable in +most of our states of consciousness, which are therefore called +the <i>klishṭa vṛtti</i> or afflicted states. The five afflictions (false +knowledge and its four modifications spoken above) just +mentioned are all comprehended in avidyā, since avidyā or +false knowledge is at the root of all worldly experiences. The +sphere of avidyā is all false knowledge generally, and that of +asmitā is also inseparably connected with all our experiences +which consist in the identification of the intelligent self with +the sensual objects of the world, the attainment of which seems +to please us and the loss of which is so painful to us. It must, +however, be remembered that these five afflictions are only +different aspects of avidyā and cannot be conceived separately +from avidyā. These always lead us into the meshes of the +world, far from our final goal—the realisation of our own +self—emancipation of the purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Opposed to it are the vṛttis or states which are called +unafflicted, aklishṭa, the habit of steadiness (<i>abhyāsa</i>) and +non-attachment to pleasures (<i>vairāgya</i>) which being antagonistic +to the afflicted states, are helpful towards achieving true +knowledge. These represent such thoughts as tend towards +emancipation and are produced from our attempts to conceive +rationally our final state of emancipation, or to adopt suitable +means for this. They must not, however, be confused with +puṇyakarma (virtuous action), for both puṇya and pāpa +karma are said to have sprung from the kleśas. There is no +hard and fast rule with regard to the appearance of these +klishṭa and aklishṭa states, so that in the stream of the klishṭa +states or in the intervals thereof, aklishṭa states may also +<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>appear—as practice and desirelessness born from the study +of the Veda-reasoning and precepts—and remain quite distinct +in itself, unmixed with the klishṭa states. A Brahman being +in a village which is full of the Kirātas, does not himself +become a Kirāta (a forest tribe) for that reason.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Each aklishṭa state produces its own potency or saṃskāra, +and with the frequency of the states their saṃskāra is +strengthened which in due course suppresses the aklishṭa +states.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These klishṭa and aklishṭa modifications are of five descriptions: +pramāṇa (real cognition), viparyyaya (unreal cognition), +vikalpa (logical abstraction and imagination), nidrā +(sleep), smṛti (memory). These vṛttis or states, however, must +be distinguished from the six kinds of mental activity mentioned +in <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 18: grahaṇa (reception or +presentative ideation), dhāraṇa (retention), ūha (assimilation), +apoha (differentiation), tattvajñāna (right knowledge), abhiniveśa +(decision and determination), of which these states +are the products.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have seen that from avidyā spring all the kleśas or +afflictions, which are therefore seen to be the source of the +klishṭa vṛttis as well. Abhyāsa and vairāgya—the aklishṭa +vṛttis, which spring from precepts, etc., lead to right knowledge, +and as such are antagonistic to the modification of the +guṇas on the avidyā side.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We know also that both these sets of vṛttis—the klishṭa +and the aklishṭa—produce their own kinds of saṃskāras, the +klishṭa saṃskāra and the aklishṭa or prajñā saṃskāra. All +these modifications of citta as vṛtti and saṃskāra are the +dharmas of citta, considered as the dharmin or substance.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IX<br> <span class='c013'>THE THEORY OF KARMA</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>The vṛttis are called the mānasa karmas (mental work) as +different from the bāhya karmas (external work) achieved in +the exterior world by the five motor or active senses. These +may be divided into four classes: (1) kṛshṇa (black), (2) +śukla (white), (3) śuklakṛshṇa (white and black), (4) aśuklākṛshṇa +(neither white nor black). (1) The kṛshṇa karmas +are those committed by the wicked and, as such, are wicked +actions called also adharma (demerit). These are of two +kinds, viz. bāhya and mānasa, the former being of the nature +of speaking ill of others, stealing others’ property, etc., and the +latter of the nature of such states as are opposed to śraddhā, +vīrya, etc., which are called the śukla karma. (2) The śukla +karmas are virtuous or meritorious deeds. These can only +occur in the form of mental states, and as such can take place +only in the mānasa karma. These are śraddhā (faith), vīrya +(strength), smṛti (meditation), samādhi (absorption), and +prajñā (wisdom), which are infinitely superior to actions +achieved in the external world by the motor or active senses. +The śukla karma belongs to those who resort to study and +meditation. (3) The śuklakṛshṇa karma are the actions +achieved in the external world by the motor or active senses. +These are called white and black, because actions achieved in +the external world, however good (śukla) they might be, +cannot be altogether devoid of wickedness (kṛshṇa), since +all external actions entail some harm to other living beings.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>Even the Vedic duties, though meritorious, are associated +with sins, for they entail the sacrificing of animals.<a id='r40'></a><a href='#f40' class='c014'><sup>[40]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>The white side of these actions, viz.: that of helping others +and doing good is therefore called dharma, as it is the cause +of the enjoyment of pleasure and happiness for the doer. The +kṛshṇa or black side of these actions, viz. that of doing +injury to others is called adharma, as it is the cause of the +suffering of pain to the doer. In all our ordinary states +of existence we are always under the influence of dharma +and adharma, which are therefore called vehicles of actions +(<i>āśerate sāṃsārikā purushā asmin niti āśayaḥ</i>). That in which +some thing lives is its vehicle. Here the purushas in evolution +are to be understood as living in the sheath of actions (which +is for that reason called a vehicle or āśaya). Merit or virtue, and +sin or demerit are the vehicles of actions. All śukla karma, +therefore, either mental or external, is called merit or virtue +and is productive of happiness; all kṛshṇa karma, either +mental or external, is called demerit, sin or vice and is +productive of pain.</p> + +<p class='c007'>(4) The karma called aśuklakṛshṇa (neither black nor +white) is of those who have renounced everything, whose +afflictions have been destroyed and whose present body is the +last one they will have. Those who have renounced actions, +the karma-sannyāsis (and not those who belong to the +sannyāsāśrama merely), are nowhere found performing +actions which depend upon external means. They have +not got the black vehicle of actions, because they do not +perform such actions. Nor do they possess the white +vehicle of actions, because they dedicate to Īśvara the fruits +of all vehicles of action, brought about by the practice of +Yoga.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Returning to the question of karmāśaya again for review, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>we see that being produced from desire (<i>kāma</i>), avarice (<i>lobha</i>), +ignorance (<i>moha</i>), and anger (<i>krodha</i>) it has really got at its root +the kleśas (afflictions) such as avidyā (ignorance), asmitā +(egoism), rāga (attachment), dvesha (antipathy), abhiniveśa +(love of life). It will be easily seen that the passions named +above, desire, lust, etc., are not in any way different from the +kleśas or afflictions previously mentioned; and as all actions, +virtuous or sinful, have their springs in the said sentiments of +desire, anger, covetousness, and infatuation, it is quite enough +that all these virtuous or sinful actions spring from +the kleśas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now this karmāśaya ripens into life-state, life-experience +and life-time, if the roots—the afflictions—exist. Not only is +it true that when the afflictions are rooted out, no karmāśaya +can accumulate, but even when many karmāśayas of many +lives are accumulated, they are rooted out when the afflictions +are destroyed. Otherwise, it is difficult to conceive that the +karmāśaya accumulated for an infinite number of years, +whose time of ripeness is uncertain, will be rooted out! So +even if there be no fresh karmāśaya after the rise of true +knowledge, the purusha cannot be liberated but will be +required to suffer an endless cycle of births and rebirths to +exhaust the already accumulated karmāśayas of endless lives. +For this reason, the mental plane becomes a field for the +production of the fruits of action only, when it is watered by +the stream of afflictions. Hence the afflictions help the +vehicle of actions (karmāśaya) in the production of their +fruits also. It is for this reason that when the afflictions are +destroyed the power which helps to bring about the manifestation +also disappears; and on that account the vehicles of +actions although existing in innumerable quantities have no +time for their fruition and do not possess the power of producing +fruit, because their seed-powers are destroyed by intellection.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>Karmāśaya is of two kinds. (1) Ripening in the same life +<i>dṛshṭajanmavedanīya</i>. (2) Ripening in another unknown +life. That puṇya karmāśaya, which is generated by intense +purificatory action, trance and repetition of mantras, and +that pāpa karmāśaya, which is generated by repeated evil done +either to men who are suffering the extreme misery of fear, +disease and helplessness, or to those who place confidence in +them or to those who are high-minded and perform tapas, +ripen into fruit in the very same life, whereas other kinds of +karmāśayas ripen in some unknown life.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Living beings in hell have no dṛshṭajanma karmāśaya, for +this life is intended for suffering only and their bodies are +called the bhoga-śarīras intended for suffering alone and not +for the accumulation of any karmāśaya which could take effect +in that very life.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There are others whose afflictions have been spent and +exhausted and thus they have no such karmāśaya, the effect of +which they will have to reap in some other life. They are thus +said to have no adṛshṭa-janmavedanīya karma.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The karmāśaya of both kinds described above ripens into +life-state, life-time and life-experience. These are called the +three ripenings or vipākas of the karmāśaya; and they are +conducive to pleasure or pain, according as they are products of +puṇyakarmāśaya (virtue) or pāpa karmāśaya (vice or demerit). +Many karmāśayas combine to produce one life-state; for +it is not possible that each karma should produce one or +many life-states, for then there would be no possibility of +experiencing the effects of the karmas, because if for each one +of the karmas we had one or more lives, karmas, being endless, +space for obtaining lives in which to experience effects would +not be available, for it would take endless time to exhaust the +karmas already accumulated. It is therefore held that many +karmas unite to produce one life-state or birth (jāti) and to +determine also its particular duration (āyush) and experience +<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>(bhoga). The virtuous and sinful karmāśayas accumulated in +one life, in order to produce their effects, cause the death of the +individual and manifest themselves in producing his rebirth, +his duration of life and particular experiences, pleasurable or +painful. The order of undergoing the experiences is the order +in which the karmas manifest themselves as effects, the +principal ones being manifested earlier in life. The principal +karmas here refer to those which are quite ready to generate +their effects. Thus it is said that those karmas which produce +their effects immediately are called primary, whereas those +which produce effects after some delay are called secondary. +Thus we see that there is continuity of existence throughout; +when the karmas of this life ripen jointly they tend to fructify +by causing another birth as a means to which death is caused, +and along with it life is manifested in another body (according +to the dharma and adharma of the karmāśaya) formed by +the prakṛtyāpūra (cf. the citta theory described above); and +the same karmāśaya regulates the life-period and experiences +of that life, the karmāśayas of which again take a similar course +and manifest themselves in the production of another life and +so on.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have seen that the karmāśaya has three fructifications, +viz. jāti, āyush and bhoga. Now generally the karmāśaya +is regarded as ekabhavika or unigenital, i.e. it accumulates in +one life. Ekabhava means one life and ekabhavika means the +product of one life, or accumulated in one life. Regarded +from this point of view, it may be contrasted with the vāsanās +which remain accumulated from thousands of previous lives +since eternity, the mind, being pervaded all over with them, +as a fishing-net is covered all over with knots. This vāsanā +results from memory of the experiences of a life generated by +the fructification of the karmāśaya and kept in the citta in the +form of potency or impressions (saṃskāra). Now we have +previously seen that the citta remains constant in all the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>births and rebirths that an individual has undergone from +eternity; it therefore keeps the memory of those various +experiences of thousands of lives in the form of saṃskāra or +potency and is therefore compared with a fishing-net pervaded +all over with knots. The vāsanās therefore are not the results +of the accumulation of experiences or their memory in one life +but in many lives, and are therefore called anekabhavika as +contrasted with the karmāśaya representing virtuous and +vicious actions which are accumulated in one life and which +produce another life, its experiences and its life-duration as a +result of fructification (vipāka). This vāsanā is the cause of +the instinctive tendencies, or habits of deriving pleasures and +pains peculiar to different animal lives.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus the habits of a dog-life and its peculiar modes of +taking its experiences and of deriving pleasures and pains are +very different in nature from those of a man-life; they must +therefore be explained on the basis of an incipient memory in +the form of potency, or impressions (saṃskāra) of the experiences +that an individual must have undergone in a previous +dog-life.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now when by the fructification of the karmāśaya a dog-life +is settled for a person, his corresponding vāsanās of a +previous dog-life are at once revived and he begins to take +interest in his dog-life in the manner of a dog; the same +principle applies to the virtue of individuals as men or as +gods (IV. 8).</p> + +<p class='c007'>If there was not this law of vāsanās, then any vāsanā would +be revived in any life, and with the manifestation of the +vāsanā of animal life a man would take interest in eating +grass and derive pleasure from it. Thus Nāgeśa says: “Now +if those karmas which produce a man-life should manifest the +vāsanās of animal lives, then one might be inclined to eat +grass as a man, and it is therefore said that only the vāsanās +corresponding to the karmas are revived.”</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>Now as the vāsanās are of the nature of saṃskāras or +impressions, they lie ingrained in the citta and nothing can +prevent their being revived. The intervention of other births +has no effect. For this reason, the vāsanās of a dog-life are at +once revived in another dog-life, though between the first dog-life +and the second dog-life, the individual may have passed +through many other lives, as a man, a bull, etc., though +the second dog-life may take place many hundreds of years +after the first dog-life and in quite different countries. The +difference between saṃskāras, impressions, and smṛti or +memory is simply this that the former is the latent state +whereas the latter is the manifested state; so we see that the +memory and the impressions are identical in nature, so that +whenever a saṃskāra is revived, it means nothing but the +manifestation of the memory of the same experiences conserved +in the saṃskāra in a latent state. Experiences, when +they take place, keep their impressions in the mind, though +thousands of other experiences, lapse of time, etc., may +intervene. They are revived in one moment with the proper +cause of their revival, and the other intervening experiences can +in no way hinder this revival. So it is with the vāsanās, +which are revived at once according to the particular fructification +of the karmāśaya, in the form of a particular life, as a man, +a dog, or anything else.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is now clear that the karmāśaya tending towards fructification +is the cause of the manifestation of the vāsanās already +existing in the mind in a latent form. Thus the Sūtra says:—“When +two similar lives are separated by many births, long +lapses of time and remoteness of space, even then for the +purpose of the revival of the vāsanās, they may be regarded as +immediately following each other, for the memories and +impressions are the same” (<cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, IV. 9). The <cite>Bhāshya</cite> +says: “the vāsanā is like the memory (smṛti), and so there +can be memory from the impressions of past lives separated by +<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>many lives and by remote tracts of country. From these +memories the impressions (saṃskāras) are derived, and the +memories are revived by manifestation of the karmāśayas, and +though memories from past impressions may have many lives +intervening, these interventions do not destroy the causal +antecedence of those past lives” (IV. 9).</p> + +<p class='c007'>These vāsanās are, however, beginningless, for a baby just +after birth is seen to feel the fear of death instinctively, and +it could not have derived it from its experience in this +life. Again, if a small baby is thrown upwards, it is seen +to shake and cry like a grown-up man, and from this it may +be inferred that it is afraid of falling down on the ground and +is therefore shaking through fear. Now this baby has never +learnt in this life from experience that a fall on the ground will +cause pain, for it has never fallen on the ground and suffered +pain therefrom; so the cause of this fear cannot be sought +in the experiences of this life, but in the memory of past +experiences of fall and pain arising therefrom, which is +innate in this life as vāsanā and causes this instinctive +fear. So this innate memory which causes instinctive fear +of death from the very time of birth, has not its origin in +this life but is the memory of the experience of some +previous life, and in that life, too, it existed as innate +memory of some other previous life, and in that again as +the innate memory of some other life and so on to beginningless +time. This goes to show that the vāsanās are without +beginning.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We come now to the question of unigenitality—ekabhavikatva—of +the karmāśaya and its exceptions. We find that +great confusion has occurred among the commentators about +the following passage in the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> which refers to this +subject: The <cite>Bhāshya</cite> according to Vācaspati in II. 13 reads: +<i>tatra dṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya</i>, etc. Here +Bhikshu and Nāgeśa read <i>tatrādṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya +<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>niyatavipākasya</i>, etc. There is thus a divergence of meaning +on this point between <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> and his follower Nāgeśa, +on one side, and Vācaspati on the other.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Vācaspati says that the dṛshṭajanmavedanīya (to be +fructified in the same visible life) karma is the only true karma +where the karmāśaya is ekabhavika, unigenital, for here these +effects are positively not due to the karma of any other +previous lives, but to the karma of that very life. Thus these +are the only true causes of ekabhavika karmāśaya.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus according to Vācaspati we see that the adṛshṭajanmavedanīya +karma (to be fructified in another life) of unappointed +fruition is never an ideal of ekabhavikatva or unigenital +character; for it may have three different courses: (1) It may +be destroyed without fruition. (2) It may become merged in +the ruling action. (3) It may exist for a long time overpowered +by the ruling action whose fruition has been +appointed.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Vijñāna Bhikshu and his follower Nāgeśa, however, say that +the dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (to be fructified in the same +visible life) can never be ekabhavika or unigenital for there +is no bhava, or previous birth there, whose product is being +fructified in that life, for this karma is of that same visible life +and not of some other previous bhava or life; and they agree +in holding that it is for that reason that the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> makes no +mention of this dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma; it is clear that +the karmāśaya in no other bhava is being fructified here. +Thus we see that about dṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma, +Vācaspati holds that it is the typical case of ekabhavika karma +(karma of the same birth), whereas Vijñāna Bhikshu holds +just the opposite view, viz. that the dṛhṭajanmavedanīya +karma should by no means be considered as ekabhavika since +there is here no bhava or birth, it being fructified in the same +life.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (works to be fructified +<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>in another life) of unfixed fruition has three different courses: +(I) As we have observed before, by the rise of <i>aśuklākṛshṇa</i> +(neither black nor white) karma, the other karmas—<i>śukla</i> +(black), <i>kṛshṇa</i> (white) and <i>śuklakṛshṇa</i> (both black and +white)—are rooted out. The śukla karmāśaya again arising +from study and asceticism destroys the kṛshṇa karmas without +their being able to generate their effects. These therefore can +never be styled ekabhavika, since they are destroyed without +producing any effect. (II) When the effects of minor actions +are merged in the effects of the major and ruling action. The +sins originating from the sacrifice of animals at a holy sacrifice +are sure to produce bad effects, though they may be minor and +small in comparison with the good effects arising from the +performance of the sacrifice in which they are merged. Thus +it is said that the experts being immersed in floods of happiness +brought about by their sacrifices bear gladly particles of the +fire of sorrow brought about by the sin of killing animals at +sacrifice. So we see that here also the minor actions having +been performed with the major do not produce their effects +independently, and so all their effects are not fully manifested, +and hence these secondary karmāśayas cannot be regarded as +ekabhavika. (III) Again the adṛshṭajanmavedanīya karma (to +be fructified in another life) of unfixed fruition (<i>aniyata vipāka</i>) +remains overcome for a long time by another adṛshṭajanmavedanīya +karma of fixed fruition. A man may for example +do some good actions and some extremely vicious ones, so that +at the time of death, the karmāśaya of those vicious actions +becoming ripe and fit for appointed fruition, generates an +animal life. His good action, whose benefits are such as may +be reaped only in a man-life, will remain overcome until the +man is born again as a man: so this also cannot be said to be +ekabhavika (to be reaped in one life). We may summarise the +classification of karmas according to Vācaspati in a table as +follows:—</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span> +<img src='images/i_112.jpg' alt='Karmāśaya Ekabhavika Anekabhavika Niyata Vipāka Aniyatavipāka Adṛshṭajanmavedanīya Dṛshṭajanmavedanīya Adṛshṭajanmavedanīya (Destruction) (Merged in the effect of the major action.) (To remain overcome by the influence of some other action.)' class='ig001'> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Thus the karmāśaya may be viewed from two sides, one +being that of fixed fruition and the other unfixed fruition, and +the other that of dṛshṭajanmavedanīya and adṛshṭajanmavedanīya. +Now the theory is that the niyatavipāka (of fixed +fruition) karmāśaya is always ekabhavika, i.e. it does not +remain separated by other lives, but directly produces its +effects in the succeeding life.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Ekabhavika means that which is produced from the +accumulation of karmas in one life in the life which succeeds +it. Vācaspati, however, takes it also to mean that action +which attains fruition in the same life in which it is performed, +whereas what Vijñāna Bhikshu understands by ekabhavika +is that action alone which is produced in the life immediately +succeeding the life in which it was accumulated. So according +to Vijñāna Bhikshu, the niyata vipāka (of fixed fruition) +dṛshṭajanmavedanīya (to be fructified in the same life) action +is not ekabhavika, since it has no bhava, i.e. it is not the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>production of a preceding life. Neither can it be anekabhavika; +thus this niyatavipākadṛshṭajanmavedanīya action is neither +ekabhavika nor anekbhavika. Whereas Vācaspati is inclined +to call this also ekabhavika. About the niyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya +action being called ekabhavika (unigenital) +there seems to be no dispute. The aniyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya +action cannot be called ekabhavika +as it undergoes three different courses described above.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER X<br> <span class='c013'>THE ETHICAL PROBLEM</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>We have described avidyā and its special forms as the kleśas, +from which also proceed the actions virtuous and vicious, +which in their turn again produce as a result of their fruition, +birth, life and experiences of pleasure and pain and the +vāsanās or residues of the memory of these experiences. +Again every new life or birth is produced from the fructification +of actions of a previous life; a man is made to perform +actions good or bad by the kleśas which are rooted in him, +and these actions, as a result of their fructification, produce +another life and its experiences, in which life again new +actions are earned by virtue of the kleśas, and thus the cycle +is continued. When there is pralaya or involution of the +cosmical world-process the individual cittas of the separate +purushas return back to the prakṛti and lie within it, together +with their own avidyās, and at the time of each new creation +or evolution these are created anew with such changes as are +due according to their individual avidyās, with which they +had to return back to their original cause, the prakṛti, and +spend an indivisible inseparable existence with it. The +avidyās of some other creation, being merged in the prakṛti +along with the cittas, remain in the prakṛti as vāsanās, and +prakṛti being under the influence of these avidyās as vāsanās +creates as modifications of itself the corresponding minds for +the individual purushas, connected with them before the last +pralaya dissolution. So we see that though the cittas had +<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>returned to their original causes with their individual nescience +(<i>avidyā</i>), the avidyā was not lost but was revived at the +time of the new creation and created such minds as should +be suitable receptacles for it. These minds (buddhi) are +found to be modified further into their specific cittas or mental +planes by the same avidyā which is manifested in them as +the kleśas, and these again in the karmāśaya, jāti, āyush and +bhoga, and so on; the individual, however, is just in the same +position as he was or would have been before the involution +of pralaya. The avidyās of the cittas which had returned to +the prakṛti at the time of the creation being revived, create +their own buddhis of the previous creation, and by their +connection with the individual purushas are the causes of the +saṃsāra or cosmic evolution—the evolution of the microcosm, +the cittas, and the macrocosm or the exterior world.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In this new creation, the creative agencies of God and +avidyā are thus distinguished in that the latter represents +the end or purpose of the prakṛti—the ever-evolving energy +transforming itself into its modifications as the mental and +the material world; whereas the former represents that +intelligent power which abides outside the pale of prakṛti, +but removes obstructions offered by the prakṛti. Though +unintelligent and not knowing how and where to yield so +as to form the actual modifications necessary for the realisation +of the particular and specific objects of the numberless +purushas, these avidyās hold within themselves the serviceability +of the purushas, and are the cause of the connection +of the purusha and the prakṛti, so that when these avidyās are +rooted out it is said that the purushārthatā or serviceability +of the purusha is at an end and the purusha becomes liberated +from the bonds of prakṛti, and this is called the final goal of +the purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The ethical problem of the Pātañjala philosophy is the +uprooting of this avidyā by the attainment of true knowledge +<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>of the nature of the purusha, which will be succeeded by the +liberation of the purusha and his absolute freedom or independence—kaivalya—the +last realisation of the purusha—the +ultimate goal of all the movements of the prakṛti.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This final uprooting of the avidyā with its vāsanās directly +follows the attainment of true knowledge called prajñā, in +which state the seed of false knowledge is altogether burnt +and cannot be revived again. Before this state, the discriminative +knowledge which arises as the recognition of the distinct +natures of purusha and buddhi remains shaky; but when by +continual practice this discriminative knowledge becomes +strengthened in the mind, its potency gradually grows stronger +and stronger, and roots out the potency of the ordinary states +of mental activity, and thus the seed of false knowledge +becomes burnt up and incapable of fruition, and the impurity +of the energy of rajas being removed, the sattva as the manifesting +entity becomes of the highest purity, and in that state +flows on the stream of the notion of discrimination—the +recognition of the distinct natures of purusha and buddhi—free +from impurity. Thus when the state of buddhi becomes +almost as pure as the purusha itself, all self-enquiry subsides, +the vision of the real form of the purusha arises, and false +knowledge, together with the kleśas and the consequent +fruition of actions, ceases once for all. This is that state of +citta which, far from tending towards the objective world, +tends towards the kaivalya of the purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the first stages, when the mind attains discriminative +knowledge, the prajñā is not deeply seated, and occasionally +phenomenal states of consciousness are seen to intervene in +the form of “I am,” “Mine,” “I know,” “I do not know,” +because the old potencies, though becoming weaker and +weaker are not finally destroyed, and consequently occasionally +produce their corresponding conscious manifestation +as states which impede the flow of discriminative knowledge. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>But constant practice in rooting out the potency of +this state destroys the potencies of the outgoing activity, +and finally no intervention occurs in the flow of the +stream of prajñā through the destructive influence of +phenomenal states of consciousness. In this higher state +when the mind is in its natural, passive, and objectless +stream of flowing prajñā, it is called the dharmamegha-saṁādhi. +When nothing is desired even from dhyāna arises +the true knowledge which distinguishes prakṛti from purusha +and is called the dharmamegha-samādhi (<cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, +IV. 29). The potency, however, of this state of consciousness +lasts until the purusha is finally liberated from the bonds +of prakṛti and is absolutely free (kevalī). Now this is the +state when the citta becomes infinite, and all its tamas being +finally overcome, it shines forth like the sun, which can reflect +all, and in comparison to which the crippled insignificant light +of objective knowledge shrinks altogether, and thus an +infinitude is acquired, which has absorbed within itself all +finitude, which cannot have any separate existence or manifestation +through this infinite knowledge. All finite states +of knowledge are only a limitation of true infinite knowledge, +in which there is no limitation of this and that. It absorbs +within itself all these limitations.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The purusha in this state may be called the emancipated +being, jīvanmukta. Nāgeśa in explaining <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, +IV. 31, describing the emancipated life says: “In this +jīvanmukta stage, being freed from all impure afflictions and +karmas, the consciousness shines in its infirmity. The +infiniteness of consciousness is different from the infiniteness +of materiality veiled by tamas. In those stages there could +be consciousness only with reference to certain things with +reference to which the veil of tamas was raised by rajas. +When all veils and impurities are removed, then little is left +which is not known. If there were other categories besides +<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>the 25 categories, these also would then have been known” +(<cite>Chāyāvyākhyā</cite>, IV. 31).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now with the rise of such dharmamegha the succession +of the changes of the qualities is over, inasmuch as they have +fulfilled their object by having achieved experience and +emancipation, and their succession having ended, they cannot +stay even for a moment. And now comes absolute freedom, +when the guṇas return back to the pradhāna their primal +cause, after performing their service for the purusha by +providing his experience and his salvation, so that they +lose all their hold on purusha and purusha remains as he is +in himself, and never again has any connection with the +buddhi. The purusha remains always in himself in absolute +freedom.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The order of the return of the guṇas for a kevalī purusha is +described below in the words of Vācaspati: The guṇas as +cause and effect involving ordinary experiences samādhi and +nirodha, become submerged in the manas; the manas +becomes submerged in the asmitā, the asmitā in the liṅga, +and the liṅga in the aliṅga.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This state of kaivalya must be distinguished from the state +of mahāpralaya in which also the guṇas return back to +prakṛti, for that state is again succeeded by later connections +of prakṛti with purushas through the buddhis, but the state +of kaivalya is an eternal state which is never again disturbed +by any connection with prakṛti, for now the separation of +prakṛti from purusha is eternal, whereas that in the mahāpralaya +state was only temporary.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We shall conclude this section by noting two kinds of eternity +of purusha and of prakṛti, and by offering a criticism of the +prajñā state. The former is said to be perfectly and unchangeably +eternal (<i>kūṭastha nitya</i>), and the latter is only +eternal in an evolutionary form. The permanent or eternal +reality is that which remains unchanged amid its changing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>appearances; and from this point of view both purusha +and prakṛti are eternal. It is indeed true, as we have seen +just now, that the succession of changes of qualities with +regard to buddhi, etc., comes to an end when kaivalya is +attained, but this is with reference to purusha, for the changes +of qualities in the guṇas themselves never come to an end. +So the guṇas in themselves are eternal in their changing or +evolutionary character, and are therefore said to possess +evolutionary eternity (<i>pariṇāminityatā</i>). Our phenomenal +conception cannot be free from change, and therefore it is +that in our conception of the released purushas we affirm +their existence, as for example when we say that the released +purushas exist eternally. But it must be carefully noted +that this is due to the limited character of our thoughts and +expressions, not to the real nature of the released purushas, +which remain for ever unqualified by any changes or modifications, +pure and colourless as the very self of shining intelligence +(see <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, IV. 33).</p> + +<p class='c007'>We shall conclude this section by giving a short analysis +of the prajñā state from its first appearance to the final release +of purusha from the bondage of prakṛti. Patañjali says that +this prajñā state being final in each stage is sevenfold. Of +these the first four stages are due to our conscious endeavour, +and when these conscious states of prajñā (supernatural +wisdom) flow in a stream and are not hindered or interfered +with in any way by other phenomenal conscious states of +pratyayas the purusha becomes finally liberated through the +natural backward movement of the citta to its own primal +cause, and this backward movement is represented by the +other three stages.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The seven prajñā stages may be thus enumerated:—</p> + +<p class='c007'>I. The pain to be removed is known. Nothing further +remains to be known of it.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This is the first aspect of the prajñā, in which the person +<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>willing to be released knows that he has exhausted all that +is knowable of the pains.</p> + +<p class='c007'>II. The cause of the pains has been removed and nothing +further remains to be removed of it. This is the second stage +or aspect of the rise of prajñā.</p> + +<p class='c007'>III. The nature of the extinction of pain has already +been perceived by me in the state of samādhi, so that I have +come to learn that the final extinction of my pain will be +something like it.</p> + +<p class='c007'>IV. The final discrimination of prakṛti and purusha, the +true and immediate means of the extinction of pain, has been +realised.</p> + +<p class='c007'>After this stage, nothing remains to be done by the purusha +himself. For this is the attainment of final true knowledge. +It is also called the para vairāgya. It is the highest consummation, +in which the purusha has no further duties to +perform. This is therefore called the kārya vimukti (or +salvation depending on the endeavour of the purusha) or +jīvanmukti.</p> + +<p class='c007'>After this follows the citta vimukti or the process of release +of the purusha from the citta, in three stages.</p> + +<p class='c007'>V. The aspect of the buddhi, which has finally finished its +services to purusha by providing scope for purusha’s experiences +and release; so that it has nothing else to perform +for purusha. This is the first stage of the retirement of the +citta.</p> + +<p class='c007'>VI. As soon as this state is attained, like the falling of +stones thrown from the summit of a hill, the guṇas cannot +remain even for a moment to bind the purusha, but at once +return back to their primal cause, the prakṛti; for the +avidyā being rooted out, there is no tie or bond which can +keep it connected with purusha and make it suffer changes +for the service of purusha. All the purushārthatā being +ended, the guṇas disappear of themselves.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>VII. The seventh and last aspect of the guṇas is that they +never return back to bind purusha again, their teleological +purpose being fulfilled or realised. It is of course easy to +see that, in these last three stages, purusha has nothing to +do; but the guṇas of their own nature suffer these backward +modifications and return back to their own primal cause and +leave the purusha kevalī (for ever solitary). <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, +II. 15.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Vyāsa says that as the science of medicine has four divisions: +(1) disease, (2) the cause of disease, (3) recovery, (4) medicines; +so this Yoga philosophy has also four divisions, viz.: (I) +Saṃsāra (the evolution of the prakṛti in connection with the +purusha). (II) The cause of saṃsāra. (III) Release. (IV) +The means of release.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of these the first three have been described at some length +above. We now direct our attention to the fourth. We have +shown above that the ethical goal, the ideal to be realised, +is absolute freedom or kaivalya, and we shall now consider +the line of action that must be adopted to attain this goal—the +<i>summum bonum</i>. All actions which tend towards the +approximate realisation of this goal for man are called kuśala, +and the man who achieves this goal is called kuśalī. It is +in the inherent purpose of prakṛti that man should undergo +pains which include all phenomenal experiences of pleasures +as well, and ultimately adopt such a course of conduct as to +avoid them altogether and finally achieve the true goal, the +realisation of which will extinguish all pains for him for +ever. The motive therefore which prompts a person towards +this ethico-metaphysical goal is the avoidance of pain. An +ordinary man feels pain only in actual pain, but a Yogin who +is as highly sensitive as the eye-ball, feels pain in pleasure +as well, and therefore is determined to avoid all experiences, +painful or so-called pleasurable. The extinguishing of all +experiences, however, is not the true ethical goal, being only +<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>a means to the realisation of kaivalya or the true self and +nature of the purusha. But this means represents the highest +end of a person, the goal beyond which all his duties cease; +for after this comes kaivalya which naturally manifests itself +on the necessary retirement of the prakṛti. Purusha has +nothing to do in effectuating this state, which comes of itself. +The duties of the purusha cease with the thorough extinguishing +of all his experiences. This therefore is the means of +extinguishing all his pains, which are the highest end of all +his duties; but the complete extinguishing of all pains is +identical with the extinguishing of all experiences, the states +or vṛttis of consciousness, and this again is identical with the +rise of prajñā or true discriminative knowledge of the difference +in nature of prakṛti and its effects from the purusha—the +unchangeable. These three sides are only the three aspects +of the same state which immediately precede kaivalya. The +prajñā aspect is the aspect of the highest knowledge, the +suppression of the states of consciousness or experiences, +and it is the aspect of the cessation of all conscious activity +and of painlessness or the extinguishing of all pains as the +feeling aspect of the same nirvīja—samādhi state. But when +the student directs his attention to this goal in his ordinary +states of experience, he looks at it from the side of the feeling +aspect, viz. that of acquiring a state of painlessness, and as +a means thereto he tries to purify the mind and be moral +in all his actions, and begins to restrain and suppress his +mental states, in order to acquire this nirvīja or seedless state. +This is the sphere of conduct which is called Yogāṅga.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of course there is a division of duties according to the +advancement of the individual, as we shall have occasion to +show hereafter. This suppression of mental states which +has been described as the means of attaining final release, +the ultimate ethical goal of life, is called Yoga. We have +said before that of the five kinds of mind—kshipta, mūḍha, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>vikshipta, ekāgra, niruddha—only the last two are fit for the +process of Yoga and ultimately acquire absolute freedom. +In the other three, though concentration may occasionally +happen, yet there is no extrication of the mind from the +afflictions of avidyā and consequently there is no final release.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XI<br> <span class='c013'>YOGA PRACTICE</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>The Yoga which, after weakening the hold of the afflictions +and causing the real truth to dawn upon our mental vision, +gradually leads us towards the attainment of our final goal, +is only possible for the last two kinds of minds and is of two +kinds: (1) samprajñāta (cognitive) and (2) asamprajñāta +(ultra-cognitive). The samprajñāta Yoga is that in which +the mind is concentrated upon some object, external or internal, +in such a way that it does not oscillate or move from +one object to another, but remains fixed and settled in the +object that it holds before itself. At first, the Yogin holds +a gross material object before his view, but when he can make +himself steady in doing this, he tries with the subtle tanmātras, +the five causes of the grosser elements, and when he is successful +in this he takes his internal senses as his object and last +of all, when he has fully succeeded in these attempts, he +takes the great egohood as his object, in which stage his object +gradually loses all its determinate character and he is said +to be in a state of suppression in himself, although devoid of +any object. This state, like the other previous states of the +samprajñāta type, is a positive state of the mind and not a +mere state of vacuity of objects or negativity. In this state, +all determinate character of the states disappears and their +potencies only remain alive. In the first stages of a Yogin +practising samādhi conscious states of the lower stages often +intervene, but gradually, as the mind becomes fixed, the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>potencies of the lower stages are overcome by the potencies of +this stage, so that the mind flows in a calm current and at +last the higher prajñā dawns, whereupon the potencies of +this state also are burnt and extinguished, the citta returns +back to its own primal cause, prakṛti, and purusha attains +absolute freedom.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The first four stages of the samprajñāta state are called +<i>madhumatī</i>, <i>madhupratīka</i>, <i>viśoka</i> and the <i>saṃskāraśesha</i> +and also <i>vitarkānugata</i>, <i>vicārānugata</i>, <i>ānandānugata</i> and +<i>asmitānugata</i>. True knowledge begins to dawn from the first +stage of this samprajñāta state, and when the Yogin reaches +the last stage the knowledge reaches its culminating point, +but still so long as the potencies of the lower stages of relative +knowledge remain, the knowledge cannot obtain absolute +certainty and permanency, as it will always be threatened +with a possible encroachment by the other states of the past +phenomenal activity now existing as the subconscious. +But the last stage of asamprajñāta samādhi represents the +stage in which the ordinary consciousness has been altogether +surpassed and the mind is in its own true infinite aspect, +and the potencies of the stages in which the mind was full of +finite knowledge are also burnt, so that with the return of +the citta to its primal cause, final emancipation is effected. +The last state of samprajñāta samādhi is called saṃskāraśesha, +only because here the residua of the potencies of subconscious +thought only remain and the actual states of consciousness +become all extinct. It is now easy to see that no mind which +is not in the ekāgra or one-pointed state can be fit for the +asamprajñāta samādhi in which it has to settle itself on one +object and that alone. So also no mind which has not risen +to the state of highest suppression is fit for the asamprajñāta +or nirvīja state.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is now necessary to come down to a lower level and +examine the obstructions, on account of which a mind cannot +<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>easily become one-pointed or ekāgra. These, nine in number, +are the following:—</p> + +<p class='c007'>Disease, languor, indecision, want of the mental requirements +necessary for samādhi, idleness of body and mind, +attachment to objects of sense, false and illusory knowledge, +non-attainment of the state of concentrated contemplation, +unsteadiness and unstability of the mind in a samādhi state +even if it can somehow attain it. These are again seen to be +accompanied with pain and despair owing to the non-fulfilment +of desire, physical shakiness or unsteadiness of the limbs, +taking in of breath and giving out of it, which are seen to +follow the nine distractions of a distracted mind described +above.</p> + +<p class='c007'>To prevent these distractions and their accompaniments it +is necessary that we should practise concentration on one +truth. Vācaspati says that this one truth on which the mind +should be settled and fixed is Īśvara, and Rāmānanda +Sarasvatī and Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha agree with him. Vijñāna +Bhikshu, however, says that one truth means any object, +gross or fine, and Bhoja supports Vijñāna Bhikshu, staying +that here “one truth” might mean any desirable object.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Abhyāsa means the steadiness of the mind in one state +and not complete absence of any state; for the Bhāshyakāra +himself has said in the samāpattisūtra, that samprajñāta +trance comes after this steadiness. As we shall see +later, it means nothing but the application of the five means, +śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi and prajñā; it is an endeavour +to settle the mind on one state, and as such does not differ +from the application of the five means of Yoga with a view to +settle and steady the mind (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 13). This effort +becomes firmly rooted, being well attended to for a long time +without interruption and with devotion.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now it does not matter very much whether this one truth is +Īśvara or any other object; for the true principle of Yoga is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>the setting of the mind on one truth, principle or object. But +for an ordinary man this is no easy matter; for in order to be +successful the mind must be equipped with śraddhā or faith—the +firm conviction of the Yogin in the course that he adopts. +This keeps the mind steady, pleased, calm and free from +doubts of any kind, so that the Yogin may proceed to the +realisation of his object without any vacillation. Unless a +man has a firm hold on the course that he pursues, all the +steadiness that he may acquire will constantly be threatened +with the danger of a sudden collapse. It will be seen that +vairāgya or desirelessness is only the negative aspect of this +śraddhā. For by it the mind is restrained from the objects of +sense, with an aversion or dislike towards the objects of sensual +pleasure and worldly desires; this aversion towards worldly +joys is only the other aspect of the faith of the mind and the +calmness of its currents (<i>cittaprasāda</i>) towards right knowledge +and absolute freedom. So it is said that the vairāgya +is the effect of śraddhā and its product (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 20). +In order to make a person suitable for Yoga, vairāgya +represents the cessation of the mind from the objects of sense +and their so-called pleasures, and śraddhā means the positive +faith of the mind in the path of Yoga that one adopts, and the +right aspiration towards attaining the highest goal of absolute +freedom.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In its negative aspect, vairāgya is of two kinds, apara and +para. The apara is that of a mind free from attachment to +worldly enjoyments, such as women, food, drinks and power, +as also from thirst for heavenly pleasures attainable by +practising the vedic rituals and sacrifices. Those who are +actuated by apara vairāgya do not desire to remain in a +bodiless state (<i>videha</i>) merged in the senses or merged in the +prakṛti (<i>prakṛtilīna</i>). It is a state in which the mind is indifferent +to all kinds of pleasures and pains. This vairāgya +may be said to have four stages: (1) Yatamāna—in which +<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>sensual objects are discovered to be defective and the mind +recoils from them. (2) Vyatireka—in which the senses to be +conquered are noted. (3) Ekendriya—in which attachment +towards internal pleasures and aversion towards external +pains, being removed, the mind sets before it the task of +removing attachment and aversion towards mental passions +for obtaining honour or avoiding dishonour, etc. (4) The +fourth and last stage of vairāgya called vaśīkāra is that in +which the mind has perceived the futility of all attractions +towards external objects of sense and towards the pleasures +of heaven, and having suppressed them altogether feels no +attachment, even should it come into connection with them.</p> + +<p class='c007'>With the consummation of this last stage of apara vairāgya, +comes the para vairāgya which is identical with the rise of +the final prajñā leading to absolute independence. This +vairāgya, śraddhā and the abhyāsa represent the unafflicted +states (aklishṭavṛtti) which suppress gradually the klishṭa or +afflicted mental states. These lead the Yogin from one stage +to another, and thus he proceeds higher and higher until the +final state is attained.</p> + +<p class='c007'>As vairāgya advances, śraddhā also advances; from +śraddhā comes vīrya, energy, or power of concentration +(<i>dhāraṇā</i>); and from it again springs smṛti—or continuity of +one object of thought; and from it comes samādhi or cognitive +and ultra-cognitive trance; after which follows prajñā, +cognitive and ultra-cognitive trance; after which follows +prajñā and final release. Thus by the inclusion of śraddhā +within vairāgya, its effect, and the other products of śraddhā +with abhyāsa, we see that the abhyāsa and vairāgya are the +two internal means for achieving the final goal of the Yogin, +the supreme suppression and extinction of all states of +consciousness, of all afflictions and the avidyā—the last state +of supreme knowledge or prajñā.</p> + +<p class='c007'>As śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi which are not different +<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>from vairāgya and abhyāsa (they being only their other +aspects or simultaneous products), are the means of attaining +Yoga, it is possible to make a classification of the Yogins +according to the strength of these with each, and the strength +of the quickness (<i>saṃvega</i>) with which they may be applied +towards attaining the goal of the Yogin. Thus Yogins are of +nine kinds:—</p> + +<p class='c007'>(1) mildly energetic, (2) of medium energy, (3) of intense +energy.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Each of these may vary in a threefold way according to the +mildness, medium state, or intensity of quickness or readiness +with which the Yogin may apply the means of attaining Yoga. +There are nine kinds of Yogins. Of these the best is he whose +mind is most intensely engaged and whose practice is also the +strongest.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is a difference of opinion here about the meaning of +the word saṃvega, between Vācaspati and Vijñāna Bhikshu. +The former says that saṃvega means vairāgya here, but the +latter holds that saṃvega cannot mean vairāgya, and +vairāgya being the effect of śraddhā cannot be taken separately +from it. “Saṃvega” means quickness in the performance +of the means of attaining Yoga; some say that it means +“vairāgya.” But that is not true, for if vairāgya is an effect +of the due performance of the means of Yoga, there cannot be +the separate ninefold classification of Yoga apart from the +various degrees of intensity of the means of Yoga practice. +Further, the word “saṃvega” does not mean “vairāgya” +etymologically (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 20).</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have just seen that śraddhā, etc., are the means of +attaining Yoga, but we have not discussed what purificatory +actions an ordinary man must perform in order to attain śraddhā, +from which the other requisites are derived. Of course +these purificatory actions are not the same for all, since they +must necessarily depend upon the conditions of purity or +<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>impurity of each mind; thus a person already in an advanced +state, may not need to perform those purificatory actions necessary +for a man in a lower state. We have just said that Yogins +are of nine kinds, according to the strength of their mental +acquirements—śraddhā, etc.—the requisite means of Yoga +and the degree of rapidity with which they may be applied. +Neglecting division by strength or quickness of application +along with these mental requirements, we may again divide +Yogins again into three kinds: (1) Those who have the best +mental equipment. (2) Those who are mediocres. (3) Those +who have low mental equipment.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the first chapter of Yoga aphorisms, it has been stated +that abhyāsa, the application of the mental acquirements of +śraddhā, etc., and vairāgya, the consequent cessation of the +mind from objects of distraction, lead to the extinction of all +our mental states and to final release. When a man is well +developed, he may rest content with his mental actions alone, +in his abhyāsa and vairāgya, in his dhāraṇā (concentration), +dhyāna (meditation), and samādhi (trance), which may be +called the jñānayoga. But it is easy to see that this jñānayoga +requires very high mental powers and thus is not within easy +reach of ordinary persons. Ordinary persons whose minds are +full of impurities, must pass through a certain course of +purificatory actions before they can hope to obtain those +mental acquirements by which they can hope to follow the +course of jñānayoga with facility.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These actions, which remove the impurities of the mind, +and thus gradually increase the lustre of knowledge, until the +final state of supreme knowledge is acquired, are called +kriyāyoga. They are also called yogāṅgas, as they help the +maturity of the Yoga process by gradually increasing the +lustre of knowledge. They represent the means by which +even an ordinary mind (<i>vikshiptacitta</i>) may gradually purify +itself and become fit for the highest ideals of Yoga. Thus the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span><cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: “By the sustained practice of these yogāṅgas +or accessories of Yoga is destroyed the fivefold unreal +cognition (<i>avidyā</i>), which is of the nature of impurity.” Destruction +means here disappearance; thus when that is destroyed, +real knowledge is manifested. As the means of achievement +are practised more and more, so is the impurity more and more +attenuated. And as more and more of it is destroyed, so does +the light of wisdom go on increasing more and more. This +process reaches its culmination in discriminative knowledge, +which is knowledge of the nature of purusha and the guṇas.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XII<br> <span class='c013'>THE YOGĀṄGAS</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>Now the assertion that these actions are the causes of the +attainment of salvation brings up the question of the exact +natures of their operation with regard to this supreme attainment. +Bhāshyakara says with respect to this that they are the +causes of the separation of the impurities of the mind just as an +axe is the cause of the splitting of a piece of wood; and again +they are the causes of the attainment of the supreme knowledge +just as dhaṛma is the cause of happiness. It must be +remembered that according to the Yoga theory causation is +viewed as mere transformation of energy; the operation of +concomitant causes only removes obstacles impeding the +progress of these transformations in a particular direction; no +cause can of itself produce any effect, and the only way in +which it can help the production of an effect into which the +causal state passes out of its own immanent energy by the +principles of conservation and transformation of energy, is by +removing the intervening obstacles. Thus just as the passage +of citta into a happy state is helped by dharma removing +the intervening obstacles, so also the passage of the citta into +the state of attainment of true knowledge is helped by the +removal of obstructions due to the performance of the +yogāṅgas; the necessary obstructions being removed, the +citta passes naturally of itself into this infinite state of +attainment of true knowledge, in which all finitude is +merged.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>In connection with this, Vyāsa mentions nine kinds of +operation of causes: (1) cause of birth; (2) of preservation; +(3) of manifestation; (4) of modification; (5) knowledge of a +premise leading to a deduction; (6) of otherness; (7) of +separation; (8) of attainment; (9) of upholding (<cite>Vyāsabhāshya</cite>, +II. 28.)</p> + +<p class='c007'>The principle of conservation of energy and transformation +of energy being the root idea of causation in this system, +these different aspects represent the different points of view +in which the word causation is generally used.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus, the first aspect as the cause of birth or production +is seen when knowledge springs from manas which renders +indefinite cognition definite so that mind is called the cause of +the birth of knowledge. Here mind is the material cause +(<i>upādāna kāraṇa</i>) of the production of knowledge, for knowledge +is nothing but manas with its particular modifications as +states (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 18). The difference of these positive +cause from <i>āptikāraṇa</i>, which operates only in a negative way +and helps production, in an indirect way by the removal of +obstacles, is quite manifest. The <i>sthitikāraṇa</i> or cause +through which things are preserved as they are, is the end +they serve; thus the serviceability of purusha is the cause of +the existence and preservation of the mind as it is, and not +only of mind but of all our phenomenal experiences.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The third cause of the <i>abhivyaktikāraṇa</i> or manifestation +which is compared to a lamp which manifests things before +our view is an epistemological cause, and as such includes all +sense activity in connection with material objects which +produce cognition.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Then come the fourth and the fifth causes, vikāra (change) +and pratyaya (inseparable connection); thus the cause of +change (<i>vikāra</i>) is exemplified as that which causes a change; +thus the manas suffers a change by the objects presented to it, +just as bile changes and digests the food that is eaten; the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>cause of pratyaya<a id='r41'></a><a href='#f41' class='c014'><sup>[41]</sup></a> is that in which from inseparable connection, +with the knowledge of the premise (e.g. there is smoke in the +hill) we can also have inferential knowledge of the other (e.g. +there is fire in the hill). The sixth cause as otherness (<i>anyatva</i>) +is that which effects changes of form as that brought about by +a goldsmith in gold when he makes a bangle from it, and then +again a necklace, is regarded as differing from the change +spoken of as vikāra. Now the difference between the gold +being turned into bangles or necklaces and the raw rice being +turned into soft rice is this, that in the former case when +bangles are made out of gold, the gold remains the same in +each case, whereas in the case of the production of cooked +rice from raw by fire, the case is different, for heat changes +paddy in a far more definite way; goldsmith and heat +are both indeed efficient causes, but the former only effects +mechanical changes of shape and form, whereas the latter +is the cause of structural and chemical changes. Of course +these are only examples from the physical world, their causal +operations in the mental sphere varying in a corresponding +manner; thus the change produced in the mind by the +presentation of different objects, follows a law which is the +same as is found in the physical world, when the same object +causes different kinds of feelings in different persons; when +ignorance causes forgetfulness in a thing, anger makes it +painful and desire makes it pleasurable, but knowledge of its +true reality produces indifference; there is thus the same kind +of causal change as is found in the external world. Next +for consideration is the cause of separation (<i>viyoga</i>) which is +only a negative aspect of the positive side of the causes of +transformations, as in the gradual extinction of impurities, +consequent upon the transformation of the citta towards the +attainment of the supreme state of absolute independence +<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>through discriminative knowledge. The last cause for consideration +is that of upholding (<i>dhṛti</i>); thus the body upholds +the senses and supports them for the actualisation of their +activities in the body, just as the five gross elements are the +upholding causes of organic bodies; the bodies of animals, +men, etc., also employ one another for mutual support. Thus +the human body lives by eating the bodies of many animals; +the bodies of tigers, etc., live on the bodies of men and other +animals; many animals live on the bodies of plants, etc. +(<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, II. 28). The four kinds of causes mentioned +in Śaṅkara’s works and grammatical commentaries like that +of Susheṇa, viz.: utpādya, vikāryya, āpya and saṃskāryya, +are all included within the nine causes contained mentioned by +Vyāsa.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The yogāṅgas not only remove the impurities of the mind +but help it further by removing obstacles in the way of attaining +the highest perfection of discriminative knowledge. Thus +they are the causes in a double sense (1) of the dissociation of +impurities (<i>viyogakāraṇa</i>); (2) of removing obstacles which +impede the course of the mind in attaining the highest development +(<i>āptikāraṇa</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Coming now to the yogāṅgas, we enumerate them thus:—restraint, +observance, posture, regulation of breath, abstraction, +concentration, meditation and trance: these are the +eight accessories of Yoga.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It must be remembered that abhyāsa and vairāgya and +also the five means of attaining Yoga, viz.: śraddhā, vīryya, +etc., which are not different from abhyāsa and vairāgya, are +by their very nature included within the yogāṅgas mentioned +above, and are not to be considered as independent means +different from them. The parikarmas or embellishments of +the mind spoken of in the first chapter, with which we shall +deal later on, are also included under the three yogāṅgas +dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi. The five means śraddhā, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>vīryya, smṛti, samādhi and prajñā are said to be included +under asceticism (<i>tapaḥ</i>) studies (<i>svādhyāya</i>) and devotion to +God of the niyamas and vairāgya in contentment.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In order to understand these better, we will first give the +definitions of the yogāṅgas and then discuss them and +ascertain their relative values for a man striving to attain the +highest perfection of Yoga.</p> + +<p class='c007'>I. Yama (restraint). These yama restraints are: abstinence +from injury (ahiṃsā); veracity; abstinence from theft; +continence; abstinence from avarice.</p> + +<p class='c007'>II. Niyama (observances). These observances are cleanliness, +contentment, purificatory action, study and the making +of God the motive of all action.</p> + +<p class='c007'>III. Āsanas (posture). Steady posture and easy position +are regarded as an aid to breath control.</p> + +<p class='c007'>IV. Regulation of breath (prāṇāyāma) is the stoppage of +the inspiratory and expiratory movements (of breath) which +may be practised when steadiness of posture has been secured.</p> + +<p class='c007'>V. Pratyāhāra (abstraction). With the control of the mind +all the senses become controlled and the senses imitate as it +were the vacant state of the mind. Abstraction is that by +which the senses do not come in contact with their objects +and follow as it were the nature of the mind.</p> + +<p class='c007'>VI. Dhāraṇā (concentration). Concentration is the steadfastness +of the mind applied to a particular object.</p> + +<p class='c007'>VII. Dhyāna (mediation). The continuation there of the +mental effort by continually repeating the object is meditation +(dhyāna).</p> + +<p class='c007'>VIII. Samādhi (trance contemplation). The same as above +when shining with the light of the object alone, and devoid as +it were of itself, is trance. In this state the mind becomes one +with its object and there is no difference between the knower +and the known.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These are the eight yogāṅgas which a Yogin must adopt for +<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>his higher realisation. Of these again we see that some have +the mental side more predominant, while others are mostly +to be actualised in exterior action. Dhāraṇā, dhyāna and +samādhi, which are purely of the samprajñāta type, and also +the prāṇāyāma and pratyāhāra, which are accessories to them, +serve to cleanse the mind of impurities and make it steady, and +can therefore be assimilated with the parikarmas mentioned +in Book I. Sūtras 34–39. These samādhis of the samprajñāta +type, of course, only serve to steady the mind and to assist +attaining discriminative knowledge.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In this connection, it will be well to mention the remaining +aids for cleansing the mind as mentioned in <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite> I., +viz. the cultivation of the habits of friendliness, compassion, +complacency and indifference towards happiness, misery, +virtue and vice.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This means that we are to cultivate the habit of friendliness +towards those who are happy, which will remove all jealous +feelings and purify the mind. We must cultivate the habit +of compassion towards those who are suffering pain; when +the mind shows compassion (which means that it wishes to +remove the miseries of others as if they were his own) it +becomes cleansed of the stain of desire to do injury to +others, for compassion is only another name for sympathy +which naturally identifies the compassionate one with the +objects of his sympathy. Next comes the habit of complacency, +which one should diligently cultivate, for it leads +to pleasure in virtuous deeds. This removes the stain of envy +from the mind. Next comes the habit of indifference, which +we should acquire towards vice in vicious persons. We should +acquire the habit of remaining indifferent where we cannot +sympathise; we should not on any account get angry with +the wicked or with those with whom sympathy is not possible. +This will remove the stain of anger. It will be clearly seen +here that maītrī, karuṇā, muditā and upekshā are only +<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>different aspects of universal sympathy, which should remove +all perversities in our nature and unite us with our fellow-beings. +This is the positive aspect of the mind with reference +to abstinence from injuring ahiṃsā (mentioned under yamas), +which will cleanse the mind and make it fit for the application +of means of śraddhā, etc. For unless the mind is pure, +there is no scope for the application of the means of making +it steady. These are the mental endeavours to cleanse the +mind and to make it fit for the proper manifestation of +śraddhā, etc., and for steadying it with a view to attaining +true discriminative knowledge.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Again of the parikarmas by dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and saṃprajñāta +samādhi and the habit of sympathy as manifested +in maitrī, karuṇā, etc., the former is a more advanced +state of the extinction of impurities than the latter.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But it is easy to see that ordinary minds can never commence +with these practices. They are naturally so impure +that the positive universal sympathy as manifested +in maitrī, etc., by which turbidity of mind is removed, +is too difficult. It is also difficult for them to keep the +mind steady on an object as in dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and +samādhi, for only those in advanced stages can succeed +in this. For ordinary people, therefore, some course of +conduct must be discovered by which they can purify their +minds and elevate them to such an extent that they may be +in a position to avail themselves of the mental parikarmas or +purifications just mentioned. Our minds become steady in +proportion as their impurities are cleansed. The cleansing +of impurities only represents the negative aspect of the +positive side of making the mind steady. The grosser impurities +being removed, finer ones remain, and these are removed +by the mental parikarmas, supplemented by abhyāsa or by +śraddhā, etc. As the impurities are gradually more and more +attenuated, the last germs of impurity are destroyed by the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>force of dhyāna or the habit of nirodha samādhi, and kaivalya +is attained.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We now deal with yamas, by which the gross impurities +of ordinary minds are removed. They are, as we have said +before, non-injury, truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, and +non-covetousness; of these non-injury is given such a high +place that it is regarded as the root of the other yamas; +truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, non-covetousness and +the other niyamas mentioned previously only serve to make +the non-injury perfect. We have seen before that maitrī, +karuṇa, muditā and upekshā serve to strengthen the non-injury +since they are only its positive aspects, but we see now +that not only they but other yamas and also the other niyamas, +purity, contentment, asceticism, studies and devotion to +God, only serve to make non-injury more and more perfect. +This non-injury when it is performed without being limited +or restricted in any way by caste, country, time and circumstances, +and is always adhered to, is called mahāvrata or +the great duty of abstinence from injury. It is sometimes +limited to castes, as for example injury inflicted by a fisherman, +and in this case it is called anuvrata or restricted ahiṃsā +of ordinary men as opposed to universal ahiṃsā of the Yogins +called mahāvrata; the same non-injury is limited by locality, +as in the case of a man who says to himself, “I shall not +cause injury at a sacred place”; or by time, when a person +says to himself, “I shall not cause injury on the sacred day of +Caturdaśī”; or by circumstances, as when a man says to +himself, “I shall cause injury for the sake of gods and Brahmans +only”; or when injury is caused by warriors in the +battle-field alone and nowhere else. This restricted ahiṃsā +is only for ordinary men who cannot follow the Yogin’s +universal law of ahiṃsā.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Ahiṃsā is a great universal duty which a man should +impose on himself in all conditions of life, everywhere, and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>at all times without restricting or qualifying it with any +limitation whatsoever. In <cite>Mahābhārata Mokshadharmādhyāya</cite> +it is said that the Sāṃkhya lays stress upon non-injury, +whereas the Yoga lays stress upon samādhi; but +here we see that Yoga also holds that ahiṃsā should be the +greatest ethical motive for all our conduct. It is by ahiṃsā +alone that we can make ourselves fit for the higher type of +samādhi. All other virtues of truthfulness, non-stealing only +serve to make non-injury more and more perfect. It is not, +however, easy to say whether the Sāṃkhyists attached so +much importance to non-injury that they believed it to lead +to samādhi directly without the intermediate stages of +samādhi. We see, however, that the Yoga also attaches great +importance to it and holds that a man should refrain from all +external acts; for however good they may be they cannot +be such as not to lead to some kind of injury or +hiṃsā towards beings, for external actions can never be +performed without doing some harm to others. We have seen +that from this point of view Yoga holds that the only pure +works (śuklakarma) are those mental works of good thoughts +in which perfection of ahiṃsā is attained. With the growth +of good works (śuklakarma) and the perfect realisation of +non-injury the mind naturally passes into the state in which +its actions are neither good (śukla) nor bad (aśukla); and +this state is immediately followed by that of kaivalya.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Veracity consists in word and thought being in accordance +with facts. Speech and mind correspond to what has been +seen, heard and inferred. Speech is for the purpose of transferring +knowledge to another. It is always to be employed +for the good of others and not for their injury; for it should +not be defective as in the case of Yudhishṭhira, where his +motive was bad.<a id='r42'></a><a href='#f42' class='c014'><sup>[42]</sup></a> If it prove to be injurious to living beings, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>even though uttered as truth, it is not truth; it is sin only. +Though outwardly such a truthful course may be considered +virtuous, yet since by his truth he has caused injury to another +person, he has in reality violated the true standard of non-injury +(<i>ahiṃsā</i>). Therefore let everyone first examine well and +then utter truth for the benefit of all living beings. All truths +should be tested by the canon of non-injury (<i>ahiṃsā</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Asteya is the virtue of abstaining from stealing. Theft is +making one’s own unlawfully things that belong to others. +Abstinence from theft consists in the absence of the desire +thereof.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Brahmacaryya (continence) is the restraint of the generative +organ and the thorough control of sexual tendencies.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Aparigraha is want of avariciousness, the non-appropriation +of things not one’s own; this is attained on seeing the defects +of attachment and of the injury caused by the obtaining, +preservation and destruction of objects of sense.</p> + +<p class='c007'>If, in performing the great duty of non-injury and the other +virtues auxiliary to it, a man be troubled by thoughts of sin, +he should try to remove sinful ideas by habituating himself to +those which are contrary to them. Thus if the old habit of +sins opposed to virtues tend to drive him along the wrong +path, he should in order to banish them entertain ideas such as +the following:—“Being burnt up as I am in the fires of the +world, I have taken refuge in the practice of Yoga which gives +protection to all living beings. Were I to resume the sins +which I have abandoned, I should certainly be behaving like +a dog, which eats its own vomit. As the dog takes up his own +vomit, so should I be acting if I were to take up again what I +have once given up.” This is called the practice of <i>pratipaksha +bhāvān</i>, meditating on the opposites of the temptations.</p> + +<p class='c007'>A classification of sins of non-injury, etc., may be made +according as they are actually done, or caused to be done, or +permitted to be done; and these again may be further divided +<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>according as they are preceded by desire, anger or ignorance; +these are again mild, middling or intense. Thus we see that +there may be twenty-seven kinds of such sins. Mild, middling +and intense are each again threefold, mild-mild, mild-middling +and mild-intense; middling-mild, middling-middling and +middling-intense; also intense-mild, intense-middling and +intense-intense. Thus there are eighty-one kinds of sins. But +they become infinite on account of rules of restriction, option +and conjunction.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The contrary tendency consists in the notion that these +immoral tendencies cause an infinity of pains and untrue +knowledge. Pain and unwisdom are the unending fruits of +these immoral tendencies, and in this idea lies the power which +produces the habit of giving a contrary trend to our thoughts.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These yamas, together with the niyamas about to be +described, are called kriyāyoga, by the performance of which +men become fit to rise gradually to the state of jñānayoga by +samādhi and to attain kaivalya. This course thus represents +the first stage with which ordinary people should begin their +Yoga work.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Those more advanced, who naturally possess the virtues +mentioned in Yama, have no need of beginning here.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus it is said that some may begin with the niyamas, +asceticism, svādhyāya and devotion to God; it is for this +reason that, though mentioned under the niyamas, they are +also specially selected and spoken of as the kriyāyoga in the +very first rule of the second Book. Asceticism means the +strength of remaining unchanged in changes like that of heat +and cold, hunger and thirst, standing and sitting, absence of +speech and absence of all indications by gesture, etc.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Svādhyāya means the study of philosophy and repetition of +the syllable “Aum.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This Īśvarapraṇidhāna (devotion to God) is different from +the Īśvarapraṇidhāna mentioned in <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, I. 23, where it +<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>meant love, homage and adoration of God, by virtue of which +God by His grace makes samādhi easy for the Yogin.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Here it is a kind of kriyāyoga, and hence it means the +bestowal of all our actions upon the Great Teacher, God, i.e. +to work, not for one’s own self but for God, so that a man +desists from all desires for fruit therefrom.</p> + +<p class='c007'>When these are duly performed, the afflictions become +gradually attenuated and trance is brought about. The +afflictions thus attenuated become characterised by unproductiveness, +and when their seed-power has, as it were, been +burnt up by the fire of high intellection and the mind +untouched by afflictions realises the distinct natures of +purusha and sattva, it naturally returns to its own primal +cause prakṛti and kaivalya is attained.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Those who are already far advanced do not require even +this kriyāyoga, as their afflictions are already in an attenuated +state and their minds in a fit condition to adapt themselves +to samādhi; they can therefore begin at once with jñānayoga. +So in the first chapter it is with respect to these advanced men +that it is said that kaivalya can be attained by abhyāsa and +vairāgya, without adopting the kriyāyoga (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 2) +kriyāyogas. Only śauca and santosha now remain to be +spoken of. Śauca means cleanliness of body and mind. +Cleanliness of body is brought about by water, cleanliness of +mind by removal of the mental impurities of pride, jealousy +and vanity.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Santosha (contentment) is the absence of desire to possess +more than is necessary for the preservation of one’s life. It +should be added that this is the natural result of ceasing to +desire to appropriate the property of others.</p> + +<p class='c007'>At the close of this section on the yamas and niyamas, it +is best to note their difference, which lies principally in this +that the former are the negative virtues, whereas the latter are +positive. The former can, and therefore must, be practised at +<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>all stages of Yoga, whereas the latter being positive are attainable +only by distinct growth of mind through Yoga. The +virtues of non-injury, truthfulness, sex restraint, etc., should +be adhered to at all stages of the Yoga practice. They are +indispensable for steadying the mind.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is said that in the presence of a person who has acquired +steadiness in ahiṃsā all animals give up their habits of enmity; +when a person becomes steady in truthfulness, whatever he says +becomes fulfilled. When a person becomes steady in asteya +(absence of theft) all jewels from all quarters approach him.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Continence being confirmed, vigour is obtained. Non-covetousness +being confirmed, knowledge of the causes of +births is attained. By steadiness of cleanliness, disinclination +to this body and cessation of desire for other bodies is +obtained.</p> + +<p class='c007'>When the mind attains internal śauca, or cleanliness of +mind, his sattva becomes pure, and he acquires highmindedness, +one-pointedness, control of the senses and fitness for the +knowledge of self. By the steadiness of contentment comes +the acquisition of extreme happiness. By steadiness of +asceticism the impurities of this body are removed, and +from that come miraculous powers of endurance of the body +and also miraculous powers of the sense, viz. clairaudience +and thought-reading from a distance. By steadiness of +studies the gods, the ṛshis and the siddhas become visible. +When Īśvara is made the motive of all actions, trance is +attained. By this the Yogin knows all that he wants to know, +just as it is in reality, whether in another place, another body +or another time. His intellect knows everything as it is.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It should not, however, be said, says Vācaspati, that +inasmuch as the saṃprajñāta is attained by making Īśvara +the motive of all actions, the remaining seven yogāṅgas are +useless. For the yogāṅgas are useful in the attainment of that +mental mood which devotes all actions to the purposes of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>Īśvara. They are also useful in the attainment of saṃprajñāta +samādhi by separate kinds of collocations, and samādhi +also leads to the fruition of saṃprajñāta, but though this +meditation on Īśvara is itself a species of Īśvarapraṇidhāna, +saṃprajñāta Yoga is a yet more direct means. As to the +relation of Īśvarapraṇidhāna with the other aṅgas of Yoga, +Bhikshu writes:—It cannot be asked what is the use of the +other disciplinary practices of the Yoga since Yoga can be +attained by meditation on Īśvara, for meditation on Īśvara +only removes ignorance. The other accessories bring about +samādhi by their own specific modes of operation. Moreover, +it is by help of meditation on Īśvara that one succeeds in +bringing about samādhi, through the performance of all the +accessories of Yoga; so the accessories of Yoga cannot be +regarded as unnecessary; for it is the accessories which +produce dhāraṇa, dhyāna and samādhi, through meditation +on God, and thereby salvation; devotion to God brings in His +grace and through it the yogāṅgas can be duly performed. So +though devotion to God may be considered as the direct cause, +it cannot be denied that the due performance of the yogāṅgas +is to be considered as the indirect cause.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Āsanas are secured when the natural involuntary movements +cease, and this may be effected by concentrating +the mind on the mythological snake which quietly bears the +burden of the earth on its head. Thus posture becomes +perfect and effort to that end ceases, so that there is no movement +of the body; or the mind is transformed into the infinite, +which makes the idea of infinity its own and then brings about +the perfection of posture. When posture has once been +mastered there is no disturbance through the contraries of +heat and cold, etc.</p> + +<p class='c007'>After having secured stability in the Āsanas the prāṇāyāmas +should be attempted. The pause that comes after a deep +inhalation and that after a deep exhalation are each called a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>prāṇāyāma; the first is external, the second internal. There +is, however, a third mode, by means of which, since the lungs +are neither too much dilated nor too much contracted, total +restraint is obtained; cessation of both these motions takes +place by a single effort, just as water thrown on a heated stone +shrivels up on all sides.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These can be regulated by calculating the strength of +inhalation and exhalation through space, time or number. +Thus as the breathing becomes slower, the space that it +occupies also becomes smaller and smaller. Space again is of +two kinds, internal and external. At the time of inhalation, +the breath occupies internal space, which can be felt even in the +soles of hand and feet, like the slight touch of an ant. To try +to feel this touch along with deep inhalation serves to lengthen +the period of cessation of breathing. External space is the +distance from the tip of the nose to the remotest point at +which breath when inhaled can be felt, by the palm of the +hand, or by the movement of any light substance like cotton, +etc., placed there. Just as the breathing becomes slower and +slower, the distances traversed by it also becomes smaller +and smaller. Regulations by time is seen when the +attention is fixed upon the time taken up in breathing by +moments, a moment (<i>kshaṇa</i>) is the fourth part of the +twinkling of the eye. Regulation by time thus means the fact +of our calculating the strength of the prāṇāyāma the moments +or kshaṇas spent in the acts of inspiration, pause and respiration. +These prāṇāyāmas can also be measured by the number +of moments in the normal duration of breaths. The time +taken by the respiration and expiration of a healthy man is the +same as that measured by snapping the fingers after turning +the hand thrice over the knee and is the measure of duration of +normal breath; the first attempt or udghāta called mild is +measured by thirty-six such mātrās or measures; when doubled +it is the second udghāta called middling; when trebled it is the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>third udghāta called intense. Gradually the Yogin acquires +the practice of prāṇāyāma of long duration, by daily practice +increasing in succession from a day, a fortnight, a month, etc. +Of course he proceeds first by mastering the first udghāta, then +the second, and so on until the duration increases up to a day, +a fortnight, a month as stated. There is also a fourth kind of +prāṇāyāma transcending all these stages of unsteady practice, +when the Yogin is steady in his cessation of breath. It must +be remembered, however, that while the prāṇāyāmas are being +practised, the mind must be fixed by dhyāna and dhāraṇā to +some object external or internal, without which these will be of +no avail for the true object of Yoga. By the practice of prāṇāyāma, +mind becomes fit for concentration as described in the +<i>sūtra</i> I. 34, where it is said that steadiness is acquired by +prāṇāyāma in the same way as concentration, as we also find +in the <i>sūtra</i> II. 53.</p> + +<p class='c007'>When the senses are restrained from their external objects +by pratyāhāra we have what is called pratyāhāra, by which +the mind remains as if in its own nature, being altogether +identified with the object of inner concentration or contemplation; +and thus when the citta is again suppressed, the senses, +which have already ceased coming into contact with other +objects and become submerged in the citta, also cease along +with it. Dharaṇa is the concentration of citta on a particular +place, which is so very necessary at the time of prāṇāyāmas +mentioned before. The mind may thus be held steadfast in +such places as the sphere of the navel, the lotus of the heart, +the light in the brain, the forepart of the nose, the forepart of +the tongue, and such like parts of the body.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Dhyāna is the continuance or changing flow of the mental +effort in the object of dharaṇa unmediated by any other break +of conscious states.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Samādhi, or trance contemplation, results when by deep +concentration mind becomes transformed into the shape of the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>object of contemplation. By pratyāhāra or power of abstraction, +mind desists from all other objects, except the one on +which it is intended that it should be centred; the Yogin, as +he thus abstracts his mind, should also try to fix it upon some +internal or external object, which is called dhāraṇā; it must +also be noticed that to acquire the habit of dhāraṇā and in +order to inhibit the abstraction arising from shakiness and +unsteadiness of the body, it is necessary to practise steadfast +posture and to cultivate the prāṇāyāma. So too for the +purpose of inhibiting distractions arising from breathing. +Again, before a man can hope to attain steadfastness in these, +he must desist from any conduct opposed to the yamas, and +also acquire the mental virtues stated in the niyamas, and +thus secure himself against any intrusion of distractions arising +from his mental passions. These are the indirect and remote +conditions which qualify a person for attaining dhāraṇā, +dhyāna, and samādhi. A man who through his good deeds or +by the grace of God is already so much advanced that he is +naturally above all such distractions, for the removal of which +it is necessary to practise the yamas, the niyamas, the āsanas, +the prāṇāyāma and pratyāhara, may at once begin with +dhāraṇā; dhāraṇā we have seen means concentration, with +the advancement of which the mind becomes steady in +repeating the object of its concentration, i.e. thinking of that +thing alone and no other thing; thus we see that with the +practice of this state called dhyāna, or meditation, in which +the mind flows steadily in that one state without any interruption, +gradually even the conscious flow of this activity +ceases and the mind, transformed into the shape of the object +under concentration, becomes steady therein. We see therefore +that samādhi is the consummation of that process which +begins in dhāraṇā or concentration. These three, dhāraṇā, +dhyāna and samādhi, represent the three stages of the same +process of which the last one is the perfection; and these three +<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>are together technically called saṃyama, which directly leads +to and is immediately followed by the samprajñāta state, +whereas the other five yogāṅgas are only its indirect or remote +causes. These three are, however, not essential for the asamprajñāta +state, for a person who is very far advanced, or one +who is the special object of God’s grace, may pass at once by +intense vairāgya and abhyāsa into the nirodha state or state of +suppression.</p> + +<p class='c007'>As the knowledge of samādhi gradually dawns through +the possession of saṃyama, so is the saṃyama gradually +strengthened. For this saṃyama also rises higher and higher +with the dawning of prajñāloka or light of samādhi knowledge. +This is the beginning, for here the mind can hold saṃyama or +concentrate and become one with a gross object together with +its name, etc., which is called the savitarka state; the next +plane or stage of saṃyama is that where the mind becomes one +with the object of its meditation, without any consciousness +of its name, etc. Next come the other two stages called +savicāra and nirvicāra when the mind is fixed on subtle +substances, as we shall see later on.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XIII<br> <span class='c013'>STAGES OF SAMĀDHI</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>Saṃprajñāta samādhi (absorptive concentration in an object) +may be divided into four classes, savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra +and nirvicāra.</p> + +<p class='c007'>To comprehend its scope we must first of all understand the +relation between a thing, its concept, and the particular name +with which the concept or thing is associated. It is easy to +see that the thing (<i>artha</i>), the concept (<i>jñāna</i>), and the name +(<i>śabda</i>) are quite distinct. But still, by force of association, +the word or name stands both for the thing and its concept; +the function of mind, by virtue of which despite this unreality +or want of their having any real identity of connection they +seem to be so much associated that the name cannot be +differentiated from the thing or its idea, is called vikalpa.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now that state of samādhi in which the mind seems to +become one with the thing, together with its name and +concept, is the lowest stage of samādhi called savitarka; it is +the lowest stage, because here the gross object does not appear +to the mind in its true reality, but only in the false illusory way +in which it appears associated with the concept and the name +in ordinary life. This state does not differ from ordinary +conceptual states, in which the particular thing is not only +associated with the concepts and their names, but also with +other concepts and their various relations; thus a cow will +not only appear before the mind with its concept and name, +but also along with other relations and thoughts associated +<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>with cows, as for example—“This is a cow, it belongs to so +and so, it has so many hairs on its body, and so forth.” This +state is therefore the first stage of samādhi, in which the mind +has not become steady and is not as yet beyond the range of +our ordinary consciousness.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The nirvitarka stage arises from this when the mind by its +steadiness can become one with its object, divested of all other +associations of name and concept, so that it is in direct touch +with the reality of the thing, uncontaminated by associations. +The thing in this state does not appear to be an object of my +consciousness, but my consciousness becoming divested of all +“I” or “mine,” becomes one with the object itself; so that +there is no such notion here as “I know this,” but the mind +becomes one with the thing, so that the notion of subject and +object drops off and the result is the one steady transformation +of the mind into the object of its contemplation. This state +brings home to us real knowledge of the thing, divested from +other false and illusory associations, which far from explaining +the real nature of the object, serves only to hide it. This +samādhi knowledge or prajñā is called nirvitarka. The objects +of this state may be the gross material objects and the +senses.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now this state is followed by the state of savicārā prajñā, +which dawns when the mind neglecting the grossness of the +object sinks deeper and deeper into its finer constituents; +the appearance of the thing in its grosser aspects drops off +and the mind having sunk deep, centres in and identifies itself +with the subtle tanmātras, which are the constituents of the +atoms, as a conglomeration of which the object appeared before +our eyes in the nirvitarka state. Thus when the mind, after +identifying itself with the sun in its true aspect as pure light, +tends to settle on a still finer state of it, either by making the +senses so steady that the outward appearance vanishes, or by +seeking finer and finer stages than the grosser manifestation of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>light as such, it apprehends the tanmātric state of the light +and knows it as such, and we have what is called the savicāra +stage. It has great similarities with the savitarka stage, while +its differences from that stage spring from the fact that here +the object is the tanmātra and not the gross bhūta. The mind +in this stage holding communion with the rūpa tanmātra, for +example, is not coloured variously as red, blue, etc., as in the +savitarka communion with gross light, for the tanmātric light +or light potential has no such varieties as different kinds of +colour, etc., so that there are also no such different kinds of +feeling of pleasure or pain as arise from the manifold varieties +of ordinary light. This is a state of feelingless representation +of one uniform tanmātric state, when the object appears +as a conglomeration of tanmātras of rūpa, rasa or gandha, as +the case might be. This state, however, is not indeterminate, as +the nirvitarka stage, for this tanmātric conception is associated +with the notions of time, space and causality, for the mind +here feels that it sees those tanmātras which are in such a +subtle state that they are not associated with pleasures and +pains. They are also endowed with causality in such a way +that from them and their particular collocations originate the +atoms.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It must be noted here that the subtle objects of concentration +in this stage are not the tanmātras alone, but also other +subtle substances including the ego, the buddhi and the +prakṛti.</p> + +<p class='c007'>But when the mind acquires the complete habit of this +state in which it becomes identified with these fine objects—the +tanmātras—etc., then all conceptual notions of the +associations of time, space, causality, etc., spoken of in the +savicāra and the savitarka state vanish away and it becomes +one with the fine object of its communion. These two kinds +of prajñā, savicāra and nirvicāra, arising from communion with +the fine tanmātras, have been collocated under one name as +<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>vicārānugata. But when the object of communion is the +senses, the samādhi is called ānandānugata, and when the +object of communion is the subtle cause the ego (<i>asmitā</i>), the +samādhi is known as asmitānugata.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is a difference of opinion regarding the object of the +last two varieties of samādhi, viz. ānandānugata and asmitānugata, +and also about the general scheme of division of the +samādhis. Vācaspati thinks that <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite> I. 41 suggests the +interpretation that the saṃprajñāta samādhis may be divided +into three different classes according as their objects of +concentration belong to one or other of the three different +planes of grāhya (external objects), grahaṇa (the senses) and +grahītṛ (the ego). So he refers vitarka and vicāra to the plane +of grāhya (physical objects and tanmātras), ānandānugata to +the plane of grahaṇa (the senses) and asmitānugata to the plane +of grahītṛ. Bhikshu, however, disapproves of such an interpretation. +He holds that in ānandānugata the object of +concentration is bliss (ānanda) and not the senses. When the +Yogin rises to the vicārānugata stage there is a great flow of +sattva which produces bliss, and at this the mind becomes one +with this ānanda or bliss, and this samādhi is therefore called +ānandānugata. Bhikshu does not think that in asmitānugata +samādhi the object of concentration is the ego. He thinks +that in this stage the object of concentration is the concept of +self (<i>kevalapurushākārā saṃvit</i>) which has only the form of ego +or “I” (<i>asmītyetāvanmātrākāratvādasmitā</i>).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Again according to Vācaspati in addition to the four varieties +of savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra and nirvicāra there are two +varieties of ānandanugata as sānanda and nirānanda and two +varieties of asmitānugata as sāsmita and nirasmita. This +gives us eight different kinds of samādhi. With Bhikshu there +are only six kinds of samādhi, for he admits only one variety +as ānandānugata and one variety as asmitānugata. Bhikshu’s +classification of samādhis is given below in a tabular form (see +<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>Vācaspati’s <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite> and <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 17, 41, 42, +43, 44).</p> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_154.jpg' alt=''samprajñāta' class='ig001'> +</div> +<p class='c007'> (with association of + name and concept + of the tanmātras) 4. nirvicāra (without association of name, etc.)'</p> + +<p class='c007'>Through the nirvicāra state our minds become altogether +purified and there springs the prajñā or knowledge called +ṛtambharā or true; this true knowledge is altogether different +from the knowledge which is derived from the Vedas or from +inferences or from ordinary perceptions; for the knowledge +that it can give of Reality can never be had by any other +means, by perception, inference or testimony, for their communication +is only by the conceptual process of generalisations +and abstractions and these can never help us to affirm +anything about things as they are in themselves, which are +altogether different from their illusory demonstrations in +conceptual terms which only prevent us from knowing the true +reality. The potency of this prajñā arrests the potency of +ordinary states of consciousness and thus attains stability. +When, however, this prajñā is also suppressed, we have what is +called the state of nirvīja samādhi, at the end of which comes +final prajñā leading to the dissolution of the citta and the +absolute freedom of the purusha.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>Samādhi we have seen is the mind’s becoming one with an +object by a process of acute concentration upon it and a continuous +repetition of it with the exclusion of all other thoughts +of all kinds. We have indeed described the principal stages +of the advancement of samprajñāta Yoga, but it is impossible +to give an exact picture of it with the symbolical expressions of +our concepts; for the stages only become clear to the mental +vision of the Yogin as he gradually acquires firmness in his +practice. The Yogin who is practising at once comes to know +them as the higher stages gradually dawn in his mind and +he distinguishes them from each other; it is thus a matter +of personal experience, so that no teacher can tell him +whether a certain stage which follows is higher or lower, for +Yoga itself is its own teacher.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Even when the mind is in the samprajñāta state it is said +to be in vyutthāna (phenomenal) in comparison with the +nirodha state, just as the ordinary conscious states are called +vyutthāna in comparison with the samprajñāta state; the +potencies of the samprajñāta state become weaker and weaker, +while the potencies of the nirodha state become stronger and +stronger until finally the mind comes to the nirodha state and +becomes stable therein; of course this contains within itself a +long mental history, for the potency of the nirodha state can +become stronger only when the mind practises it and remains +in this suppressed condition for long intervals of time. This +shows that the mind, being made up of the three guṇas, is +always suffering transformations and changes. Thus from the +ordinary state of phenomenal consciousness it gradually +becomes one-pointed and then gradually becomes transformed +into the state of an object (internal or external), when it is +said to be undergoing the samādhi pariṇāma or samādhi +change of the samprajñāta type; next comes the change, +when the mind passes from the samprajñāta stage to the state +of suppression (<i>nirodha</i>). Here also, therefore, we see that the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>same dharma, lakshṇa, avasthāpariṇāma which we have +already described at some length with regard to sensible objects +apply also to the mental states. Thus the change from the +vyutthāna (ordinary experience) to the nirodha state is the +dharmapariṇāma, the change as manifested in time, so that +we can say that the change of vyutthāna into nirodha has not +yet come, or has just come, or that the vyutthāna state +(ordinary experience) exists no longer, the mind having transformed +itself into the nirodha state. There is also here the +third change of condition, when we see that the potencies of +the samprajñāta state become weaker and weaker, while that +of the nirodha state becomes stronger and stronger. These are +the three kinds of change which the mind undergoes called the +dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthā change. But there is one +difference between this change thus described from the +changes observed in sensible objects that here the changes are +not visible but are only to be inferred by the passage of the +mind from one state to another.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It has been said that there are two different kinds of qualities +of the mind, visible and invisible. The visible qualities whose +changes can be noticed are conscious states, or thought-products, +or percepts, etc. The invisible ones are seven in +number and cannot be directly seen, but their existence and +changes or modifications may be established by inference. +These are suppression, characterisation, subconscious maintenance +of experience, constant change, life, movement and +power or energy.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In connection with samprajñāta samādhi some miraculous +attainments are described, which are said to strengthen the +faith or belief of the Yogin in the processes of Yoga as the +path of salvation. These are like the products or the mental +experiments in the Yoga method, by which people may +become convinced of the method of Yoga as being the true one. +No reasons are offered as to the reason for these attainments, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>but they are said to happen as a result of mental union +with different objects. It is best to note them here in a +tabular form.</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <th class='btt bbt c016' colspan='2'>Object of Saṃyama.</th> + <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Saṃyama.</th> + <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Attainment.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(1)</td> + <td class='c018'>Threefold change of things as dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthāpariṇāma.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>Saṃyama.</td> + <td class='blt c019'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(2)</td> + <td class='c018'>The distinctions of name, external object and the concept which ordinarily appears united as one.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the sounds of all living beings.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(3)</td> + <td class='c018'>Residual potencies saṃskāra of the nature of dharma and adharma.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of previous life.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(4)</td> + <td class='c018'>Concepts alone (separated from the objects).</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of other minds.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(5)</td> + <td class='c018'>Over the form of body.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Disappearance (by virtue of perceptibility being checked).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(6)</td> + <td class='c018'>Karma of fast or slow fruition.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of death.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(7)</td> + <td class='c018'>Friendliness, sympathy, and compassion.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Power.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(8)</td> + <td class='c018'>Powers of elephant.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Power of elephant.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(9)</td> + <td class='c018'>Sun.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the world (the geographical position of countries, etc.).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(10)</td> + <td class='c018'>Heavens.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the heavenly systems.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(11)</td> + <td class='c018'>Pole star.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of its movements.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(12)</td> + <td class='c018'>Plenus of the navel.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the system of the body.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(13)</td> + <td class='c018'>Base of the throat.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Subdual of hunger and thirst.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>(14)</td> + <td class='c018'>Tortoise tube.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>Saṃyama.</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Steadiness.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(15)</td> + <td class='c018'>Coronal light.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Vision of the perfected ones—the knowledge of the seer, or all knowledge by prescience.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(16)</td> + <td class='c018'>Heat.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of the mind.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(17)</td> + <td class='c018'>Purusha.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Knowledge of purusha.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c017'>(18)</td> + <td class='c018'>Gross nature subtle pervasiveness and purposefulness.</td> + <td class='blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='blt c019'>Control over the element from which follows attenuation, perfection of the body and non-resistance by their characteristics.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt c017'>(19)</td> + <td class='bbt c018'>Act, substantive appearance, egoism, pervasiveness and purposefulness of sensation.</td> + <td class='bbt blt c016'>„</td> + <td class='bbt blt c019'>Mastery over the senses; thence quickness of mind, unaided mental perception and mastery over the pradhāna.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c007'>These vibhūtis, as they rise with the performance of the +processes of Yoga, gradually deepen the faith <i>śraddha</i> of the +Yogin in the performance of his deeds and thus help towards +his main goal or ideal by always pushing or drawing him +forward towards it by the greater and greater strengthening +of his faith. Divested from the ideal, they have no value.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XIV<br> <span class='c013'>GOD IN YOGA</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>After describing the nature of karmayoga, and the way in +which it leads to jñānayoga, we must now describe the third +and easiest means of attaining salvation, the bhaktiyoga and +the position of Īśvara in the Yoga system, with reference to a +person who seeks deliverance from the bonds and shackles of +avidyā.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Īśvara in the Yoga system is that purusha who is distinguished +from all others by the fact of his being untouched by the +afflictions or the fruits of karma. Other purushas are also in +reality untouched by the afflictions, but they, seemingly at +least, have to undergo the afflictions and consequently birth +and rebirth, etc., until they are again finally released; but +Īśvara, though he is a purusha, yet does not suffer in any way +any sort of bondage. He is always free and ever the Lord. +He never had nor will have any relation to these bonds. He is +also the teacher of the ancient teachers beyond the range of +conditioning time.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This nature of Īśvara has been affirmed in the scriptures +and is therefore taken as true on their authority. The +authority of the scriptures is again acknowledged only because +they have proceeded from God or Īśvara. The objection that +this is an argument in a circle has no place here, since the +connection of the scriptures with Īśvara is beginningless.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is no other divinity equal to Īśvara, because in the +case of such equality there might be opposition between rival +<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>Īśvaras, which might result in the lowering in degree of any +of them. He is omniscient in the highest degree, for in him is +the furthest limit of omniscience, beyond which there is nothing.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This Īśvara is all-merciful, and though he has no desires to +satisfy, yet for the sake of his devotees he dictates the Vedas +at each evolution of the world after dissolution. But he does +not release all persons, because he helps only so far as each +deserves; he does not nullify the law of karma, just as a king, +though quite free to act in any way he likes, punishes or +rewards people as they deserve.</p> + +<p class='c007'>At the end of each kalpa, he adopts pure body from his +sattva, which is devoid of any karmāśaya, and thus communicates +through it to all his devotees and dictates +the Vedas. Again at the time of dissolution this body +of pure sattva becomes submerged in prakṛti; and at the +time of its submersion, Īśvara wishes that it might come forth +again at the beginning of the new creation; thus for ever at +each new creation the pure sattva body springs forth and is +submerged again into prakṛti at the time of the dissolution +of the universe.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In accepting this body he has no personal desires to satisfy, +as we have said before. He adopts it only for the purpose of +saving mankind by instructing them as to knowledge and +piety, which is not possible without a pure sattvamaya body; +so he adopts it, but is not affected in any way by it. One who +is under the control of nescience cannot distinguish his real +nature from nescience, and thus is always led by it, but such is +not the case with Īśvara, for he is not in any way under its +control, but only adopts it as a means of communicating +knowledge to mankind.</p> + +<p class='c007'>A Yogin also who has attained absolute independence may +similarly accept one or more pure sattvamaya nirmāṇa cittas +from asmitāmātra and may produce one citta as the superintendent +of all these. Such a citta adopted by a true Yogin by +<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>the force of his meditation is not under the control of the +vehicles of action as is the case with the other four kinds of +citta from birth, oshadhi, mantra and tapas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The praṇava or oṃkāra is his name; though at the time of +dissolution, the word of praṇava together with its denotative +power becomes submerged in the prakṛti, to reappear with +the new creation, just as roots shoot forth from the ground in +the rainy season. This praṇava is also called svādhyāya. By +concentration of this svādhyāya or praṇava, the mind becomes +one-pointed and fit for Yoga.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now one of the means of attaining Yoga is Īśvarapraṇidhāna, +or worship of God. This word, according to the commentators, +is used in two senses in the first and the second +books of the Pātañjala Yoga aphorisms. In the first book it +means love or devotion to God as the one centre of meditation, +in the second it is used to mean the abnegation of all desires +of the fruits of action to Īśvara, and thus Īśvarapraṇidhāna +in this sense is included under kriyāyoga. This dedication of +all fruits of action to Īśvara, purifies the mind and makes it +fit for Yoga and is distinguished from the Īśvarapraṇidhāna +of the first book as the bhāvanā of praṇava and Īśvara in this +that it is connected with actions and the abnegation of their +fruits, whereas the latter consists only in keeping the mind in +a worshipful state towards Īśvara and his word or name +praṇava.</p> + +<p class='c007'>By devotion (bhakti) Īśvara is drawn towards the devotee +through his nirmāṇa citta of pure sattva and by his grace he +removes all obstructions of illness, etc., described in I. 30, 31, +and at once prepares his mind for the highest realisation of his +own absolute independence. So for a person who can love and +adore Īśvara, this is the easiest course of attaining samādhi. +We can make our minds pure most easily by abandoning +all our actions to Īśvara and attaining salvation by firm and +steady devotion to Him. This is the sphere of bhaktiyoga by +<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>which the tedious complexity of the Yoga process may be +avoided and salvation speedily acquired by the supreme grace +of Īśvara.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This means is not, however, distinct from the general means +of Yoga, viz. abhyāsa and vairāgya, which applies to all stages. +For here also abhyāsa applies to the devotion of Īśvara as one +supreme truth and vairāgya is necessarily associated with all +true devotion and adoration of Īśvara.</p> + +<p class='c007'>This conception of Īśvara differs from the conception of +Īśvara in the Rāmānuja system in this that there prakṛti and +purusha, acit and cit, form the body of Īśvara, whereas here +Īśvara is considered as being only a special purusha with the +aforesaid powers.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In this system Īśvara is not the superintendent of +prakṛti in the sense of the latter’s remaining in him in an +undifferentiated way, but is regarded as the superintendent +of dharma and adharma, and his agency is active only in the +removal of obstacles, thereby helping the evolutionary +process of prakṛti.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus Īśvara is distinguished from the Īśvara of Saṅkara +Vedānta in this that there true existence is ascribed only to +Īśvara, whereas all other forms and modes of Being are only +regarded as illusory.</p> + +<p class='c007'>From what we have seen above it is clear that the main +stress of the Yoga philosophy is on the method of samādhi. +The knowledge that can be acquired by it differs from all +other kinds of knowledge, ordinary perception, inference, +etc., in this that it alone can bring objects before our +mental eye with the clearest and most unerring light of +comprehensibility in which the true nature of the thing is at +once observed. Inferences and the words of scriptures are +based on concepts or general notions of things. For the +teaching of the Vedas is manifested in words; and words are +but names, terms or concepts formed by noting the general +<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>similarities of certain things and binding them down by a +symbol. All deductive inferences are also based upon major +propositions arrived at by inductive generalisations; so it is +easy to see that all knowledge that can be acquired by them is +only generalised conceptions. Their process only represents +the method by which the mind can pass from one generalised +conception to another; so the mind can in no way attain the +knowledge of real things, absolute species, which are not the +genus of any other thing; so inference and scripture can only +communicate to us the nature of the agreement or similarity +of things and not the real things as they are. Ordinary +perception also is not of much avail here, since it cannot bring +within its scope subtle and fine things and things that are +obstructed from the view of the senses. But samādhi has +no such limitations and the knowledge that can be attained +by it is absolutely unobstructed, true and real in the strictest +sense of the terms.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of all the points of difference between Yoga and Sāṃkhya +the admission of Īśvara by the former and the emphasis given +by it to the Yoga practice are the most important in +distinguishing it from the latter. It seems probable that +Īśvara was traditionally believed in the Yoga school to be a +protector of the Yogins proceeding in their arduous course of +complete self-control and absorptive concentration. The +chances of a person adopting the course of Yoga practice for +the attainment of success in this field does not depend only on +the exertions of the Yogin, but upon the concurrence of many +convenient circumstances such as physical fitness, freedom from +illnesses and other obstacles. Faith in the patronage of God in +favour of honest workers and believers served to pacify their +minds and fill them with the cheerful hope and confidence +which were so necessary for the success of Yoga practice. +The metaphysical functions which are ascribed to Īśvara +seem to be later additions for the sake of rendering his position +<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>more in harmony with the system. Mere faith in Īśvara +for the practical benefit of the Yogins is thus interpreted by a +reference to his superintendence of the development of +cosmic evolution. Sāṃkhya relied largely on philosophical +thinking leading to proper discrimination as to the difference +between prakrti and purusha which is the stage immediately +antecedent to emancipation. There being thus no practical +need for the admission of Īśvara, the theoretical need was also +ignored and it was held that the inherent teleological purpose +(<i>purushārthatā</i>) of prakṛti was sufficient to explain all the +stages of cosmic evolution as well as its final separation from +the purushas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We have just seen that Sāṃkhya does not admit the existence +of God, and considers that salvation can be obtained only +by a steady perseverance in philosophical thinking, and does +not put emphasis on the practical exercises which are +regarded as essential by the Yoga. One other point of +difference ought to be noted with regard to the conception of +avidyā. According to Yoga, avidyā, as we have already +explained it, means positive untrue beliefs such as believing the +impure, uneternal, sorrow, and non-self to be the pure eternal, +pleasure and the self respectively. With Sāṃkhya, however, +avidyā is only the non-distinction of the difference between +prakṛti and purusha. Both Sāṃkhya and Yoga admit that +our bondage to prakṛti is due to an illusion or ignorance +(avidyā), but Sāṃkhya holds the akhyāti theory which +regards non-distinction of the difference as the cause of +illusion whereas the Yoga holds the anyathākhyāti theory +which regards positive misapprehension of the one as the +other to be the cause of illusion. We have already referred to +the difference in the course of the evolution of the categories +as held by Sāṃkhya and Yoga. This also accounts for the +difference between the technical terms of prakṛti, vikṛti and +prakṛti-vikṛti of Sāṃkhya and the viśesha and aviśesha of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>the Yoga. The doctrine of dharma, lakshaṇa and avasthāpariṇāma, +though not in any way antagonistic to Sāṃkhya, is +not so definitely described as in the Yoga. Some scholars +think that Sāṃkhya did not believe in atoms as Yoga did. +But though the word paramāṇu has not been mentioned in the +<cite>Kārikā</cite>, it does not seem that Sāṃkhya did not believe in +atoms; and we have already noticed that Bhikshu considers +the word sūkshma in <cite>Kārikā</cite> 39 as referring to the atoms. +There are also slight differences with regard to the process +involved in perception and this has been dealt with in my +<cite>Yoga philosophy in relation to other Indian systems of +thought</cite>.<a id='r43'></a><a href='#f43' class='c014'><sup>[43]</sup></a> On almost all other fundamental points Sāṃkhya +and Yoga are in complete agreement.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span> + <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XV<br> <span class='c013'>MATTER AND MIND</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>In conclusion it may be worth while saying a few words as to +theories of the physical world supplementary to the views +that have already been stated above.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Gross matter, as the possibility of sensation, has been +divided into five classes, according to their relative grossness, +corresponding to the relative grossness of the senses. Some +modern investigators have tried to understand the five bhūtas, +viz. ākāśa, marut, tejas, ap and kshiti as ether, gaseous heat and +light, liquids and solids. But I cannot venture to agree when +I reflect that solidity, liquidity and gaseousness represent only +an impermanent aspect of matter. The division of matter +from the standpoint of the possibility of our sensations, has a +firm root in our nature as cognising beings and has therefore a +better rational footing than the modern chemical division +into elements and compounds, which are being daily threatened +by the gradual advance of scientific culture. This carries with +it no fixed and consistent rational conception as do the +definitions of the ancients, but is a mere makeshift for understanding +or representing certain chemical changes of matter +and has therefore a merely relative value.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There are five aspects from which gross matter can be +viewed. These are (1) sthūla (gross), (2) svarūpa (substantive), +(3) sūkshma (subtle), (4) anvaya (conjunction), (5) arthavattva +(purpose for use). The sthūla or gross physical characteristics +of the bhūtas are described as follows:—</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>Qualities of Earth—Form, heaviness, roughness, obstruction, +stability, manifestation (vṛtti), difference, support, +turbidity, hardness and enjoyability.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Ap—Smoothness, subtlety, clearness, whiteness, softness, +heaviness, coolness, conservation, purity, cementation.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Tejas—Going upwards, cooking, burning, light, shining, +dissipating, energising.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Vāyu—Transverse motion, purity, throwing, pushing, +strength, movability, want of shadow.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Ākāśa—Motion in all directions, non-agglomeration, non-obstruction.</p> + +<p class='c007'>These physical characteristics are distinguished from the +aspects by which they appeal to the senses, which are called +their svarūpas. Earth is characterised by gandha or smell, +ap by rasa or taste, tejas by rūpa, etc. Looked at from this +point of view, we see that smell arises by the contact of the +nasal organ with the hard particles of matter; so this hardness +or solidity which can so generate the sensibility of gandha, is +said to be the svarūpa of kshiti. Taste can originate only in +connection with liquidity, so this liquidity or sneha is the +svarūpa or nature of ap. Light—the quality of visibility—manifests +itself in connection with heat, so heat is the svarūpa +of fire. The sensibility of touch is generated in connection +with the vibration of air on the epidermal surface; so this +vibratory nature is the svarūpa of air.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The sensibility to sound proceeds from the nature of +obstructionlessness, which belongs to ākāśa, so this obstructionlessness +is the svarūpa of ākāśa.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The third aspect is the aspect of tanmātras, which are the +causes of the atoms or paramāṇus. Their fourth aspect is +their aspect of guṇas or qualities of illumination, action, +inertia. Their fifth aspect is that by which they are serviceable +to purusha, by causing his pleasurable or painful experiences +and finally his liberation.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>Speaking of aggregation with regard to the structure of +matter, we see that this is of two kinds (1) when the parts are +in intimate union and fusion, e.g. any vegetable or animal +body, the parts of which can never be considered separately. +(2) When there are such mechanical aggregates or collocations +of distinct and independent parts <i>yutasiddhāvayava</i> as the +trees in a forest.</p> + +<p class='c007'>A dravya or substance is an aggregate of the former type, +and is the grouping of generic or specific qualities and is not a +separate entity—the abode of generic and specific qualities +like the dravya of the Vaiśeshika conception. The aspect of an +unification of generic and specific qualities seen in parts united +in intimate union and fusion is called the dravya aspect. The +aggregation of parts is the structural aspect of which the side +of appearance is the unification of generic and specific qualities +called the dravya.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The other aggregation of yutasiddhāvayava, i.e. the +collocation of the distinct and independent parts, is again of +two kinds, (1) in which stress may be laid on the distinction of +parts, and (2) that in which stress is laid on their unity rather +than on their distinctness. Thus in the expression mango-grove, +we see that many mangoes make a grove, but the +mangoes are not different from the grove. Here stress is laid +on the aspect that mangoes are the same as the grove, which, +however, is not the case when we say that here is a grove of +mangoes, for the expression “grove of mangoes” clearly +brings home to our minds the side of the distinct mango-trees +which form a grove.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of the gross elements, ākāśa seems especially to require a +word of explanation. There are according to Vijñāna +Bhikshu and Nāgeśa two kinds of ākāśa—kāraṇa (or primal) +and kārya (atomic). The first or original is the undifferentiated +formless tamas, for in that stage it has not the quality of +manifesting itself in sounds. This kāraṇa later on develops +<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>into the atomic ākāśa, which has the property of sound. +According to the conception of the purāṇas, this karyākāśa +evolves from the ego as the first envelope of vāyu or air. The +kāraṇakāśa or non-atomic ākāśa should not be considered +as a mere vacuum, but must be conceived as a positive, +all-pervasive entity, something like the ether of modern +physicists.</p> + +<p class='c007'>From this ākāśa springs the atomic ākāśa or kāryākāśa, +which is the cause of the manifestation of sound. All powers +of hearing, even though they have their origin in the principle +of egoism, reside in the ākāśa placed in the hollow of the ear. +When soundness or defect is noticed therein, soundness or +defect is also noticed in the power of hearing. Further, when +of the sounds working in unison with the power of hearing, the +sounds of solids, etc., are to be apprehended, then the power of +hearing located in the hollow of the ear requires the capacity of +resonance residing in the substratum of the ākāśa of the ear. +This sense of hearing, then, operates when it is attracted by +the sound originated and located in the mouth of the speaker, +which acts as a loadstone. It is this ākāśa which gives penetrability +to all bodies; in the absence of this, all bodies would be +so compact that it would be difficult to pierce them even with +a needle. In the <cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite> II. 12, it is said that eternal +time and space are of the nature of ākāśa. So this so-called +eternal time and space do not differ from the one undifferentiated +formless tamas of which we have just spoken. +Relative and infinite time arise from the motion of atoms in +space—the cause of all change and transformation; and space +as relative position cannot be better expressed than in the +words of Dr. B. N. Seal, as “totality of positions as an order of +co-existent points, and as such it is wholly relative to the +understanding like order in time, being constructed on the +basis of relations of position intuited by our empirical or +relative consciousness. But there is this difference between +<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>space order and time order:—there is no unit of space as +position (<i>dik</i>) though we may conceive time, as the moment +(<i>kshaṇa</i>) regarded as the unit of change in the causal series. +Spatial position (<i>dik</i>) results only from the different relations +in which the all-pervasive ākāśa stands to the various finite +objects. On the other hand, space as extension or locus of a +finite body, or deśa, has an ultimate unit, being analysable +into the infinitesimal extension quality inherent in the guṇas +of prakṛti.”<a id='r44'></a><a href='#f44' class='c014'><sup>[44]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'>Citta or mind has two degrees: (1) the form of states such +as real cognition, including perception, inference, competent +evidence, unreal cognition, imagination, sleep and memory. +(2) In the form in which all those states are suppressed. +Between the stage of complete outgoing activity of ordinary +experience (<i>vyutthāna</i>) and complete suppression of all states, +there are thousands of states of infinite variety, through which +a man’s experiences have to pass, from the vyutthāna state to +the nirodha. In addition to the five states spoken of above, +there is another kind of real knowledge and intuition, called +prajñā, which dawns when by concentration the citta is +fixed upon any one state and that alone. This prajñā is +superior to all other means of knowledge, whether perception, +inference or competent evidence of the Vedas, in this, that +it is altogether unerring, unrestricted and unlimited in its +scope.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Pramāṇa, we have seen, includes perception, inference and +competent evidence. Perception originates when the mind or +citta, through the senses (ear, skin, eye, taste and nose) is +modified by external objects and passes to them, generating a +kind of knowledge about them in which their specific characters +become more predominant.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Mind is all-pervasive and can come in touch with the +external world, by which we have the perception of the thing. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>Like light, which emits rays and pervades all, though it remains +in one place, the citta by its vṛttis comes in contact with the +external world, is changed into the form of the object of +perception and thus becomes the cause of perception; as the +citta has to pass through the senses, it becomes coloured by +them, which explains the fact that perception is impossible +without the help of the senses. As it has to pass through the +senses, it undergoes the limitations of the senses, which it +can avoid, if it can directly concentrate itself upon any object +without the help of the senses; from this originates the +prajñā, through which dawns absolute real knowledge of the +thing; unhampered by the limitations of the senses which +can act only within a certain area or distance and cannot +cognize subtler objects.</p> + +<p class='c007'>We see that in ordinary perception our minds are drawn +towards the object, as iron is attracted by magnets. Thus +Bhikshu says in explaining <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> IV. 17:—</p> + +<p class='c007'>“The objects of knowledge, though inactive in themselves, +may yet draw the everchanging cittas towards them like a +magnet and change them in accordance with their own forms, +just as a piece of cloth is turned red by coming into contact +with red lac.” So it is that the cittas attain the form of anything +with which they come in touch and there is then the +perception that that thing is known. Perception (<i>pratyaksha</i>) +is distinguished from inference, etc., in this, that here the +knowledge arrived at is predominantly of the specific and +special characters (<i>viśesha</i>) of the thing and not of its generic +qualities us in inference, etc.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Inference proceeds from inference, and depends upon the +fact that certain common qualities are found in all the members +of a class, as distinguished from the members of a different +class. Thus the qualities affirmed of a class will be found to +exist in all the individual members of that class; this +attribution of the generic characters of a class to the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>individual members that come under it is the essence of +inference.</p> + +<p class='c007'>An object perceived or inferred by a competent man is +described by him in words with the intention of transferring +his knowledge to another; and the mental modification, which +has for its sphere the meaning of such words, is the verbal +cognition of the hearer. When the speaker has neither +perceived nor inferred the object, and speaks of things which +cannot be believed, the authority of verbal cognition fails. But +it does not fail in the original speaker, God or Īśvara, and his +dictates the Śāstras with reference either to the object of +perception or of inference.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Viparyyaya or unreal cognition is the knowledge of the unreal +as in doubt—a knowledge which possesses a form that does +not tally with the real nature of the thing either as doubt or as +false knowledge. Doubt may be illustrated by taking the case +of a man who sees something in dim light and doubts its nature. +“Is it a wooden post or a man?” In nature there is either +the wooden post or the man, but there is no such fact or entity +which corresponds with doubt: “Is it a wooden post or a +man?” Knowledge as doubt is not cognition of a fact or +entity. The illusion of seeing all things yellow through a +defect of the eye (as in jaundice) can only be corrected when +the objects are seen in their true colours. In doubt, however, +their defective nature is at once manifest. Thus when we +cannot be sure whether a certain thing is a post or a man, we +know that our knowledge is not definite. So we have not to +wait till the illusoriness of the previous knowledge is demonstrated +by the advent of right knowledge. The evil nature of +viparyyaya is exemplified in avidyā nescience, asmitā, +rāga, etc.<a id='r45'></a><a href='#f45' class='c014'><sup>[45]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>Viparyyaya is distinguished from vikalpa—imagination—in +this, that though the latter is also unreal knowledge its nature +as such is not demonstrated by any knowledge that follows, +but is on the contrary admitted on all sides by the common +consent of mankind. But it is only the learned who can +demonstrate by arguments the illusoriness of vikalpa or +imagination.</p> + +<p class='c007'>All class notions and concepts are formed by taking note +only of the general characters of things and associating them +with a symbol called “name.” Things themselves, however, +do not exist in the nature of these symbols or names or +concepts; it is only an aspect of them that is diagrammatically +represented by the intellect in the form of concepts. +When concepts are united or separated in our thought and +language, they consequently represent only an imaginary plane +of knowledge, for the things are not as the concepts represent +them. Thus when we say “Caitra’s cow,” it is only an +imaginary relation for, strictly speaking, no such thing exists +as the cow of Caitra. Caitra has no connection in reality with +the cow. When we say purusha is of the nature of consciousness, +there is the same illusory relation. Now what is here +predicated of what? Purusha is consciousness itself, but in +predication there must always be a statement of the relation of +one to another. Thus it sometimes breaks a concept into two +parts and predicates the one of the other, and sometimes +predicates the unity of two concepts which are different. Thus +<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>its sphere has a wide latitude in all thought-process conducted +through language and involves an element of abstraction and +construction which is called vikalpa. This represents the +faculty by which our concepts are arranged in an analytical or +synthetical proposition. It is said to be <i>śabdajñānānupāti +vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ</i>, i.e. the knowledge that springs from +relating concepts or names, which relating does not actually +exist in the objective world as it is represented in propositional +forms.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Sleep is that mental state which has for its objective +substratum the feeling of emptiness. It is called a state or +notion of mind, for it is called back on awakening; when +we feel that we have slept well our minds are clear, when we +have slept badly our minds are listless, wandering and +unsteady. For a person who seeks to attain communion or +samādhi, these desires of sleep are to be suppressed, like all +other desires. Memory is the retaining in the mind of objects +perceived when perception occurs by the union of the cittas +with external objects, according to the forms of which the +cittas are transformed; it retains these perceptions, as +impressions or saṃskāras by means of its inherent tamas. +These saṃskāras generate memory, when such events occur as +can manifest them by virtue of associations.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Thus memory comes when the percepts already known and +acquired are kept in the mind in the form of impressions and +are manifested by the udbodhakas or associative manifestors. +It differs from perceptions in this that the latter are of the +nature of perceiving the unknown and unperceived, whereas +the former serves to bring before the mind percepts that have +already been acquired. Memory is therefore of percepts +already acquired by real cognition, unreal cognition, +imagination, sleep and memory. It manifests itself in dreams +as well as in waking states.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The relation between these states of mind and the saṃskāras +<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>is this that their frequency and repetition strengthens the +saṃskāras and thus ensures the revival of these states.</p> + +<p class='c007'>They are all endowed with sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain) +and moha (ignorance). These feelings cannot be treated +separately from the states themselves, for their manifestations +are not different from the manifestation of the states themselves. +Knowledge and feeling are but two different aspects +of the modifications of cittas derived from prakṛti; hence +neither can be thought separately from the other. The fusion +of feeling with knowledge is therefore here more fundamental +than in the modern tripartite division of mind.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In connection with this we are to consider the senses whose +action on the external world is known as “perceiving,” +“grahaṇa,” which is distinguished from “pratyaksha,” which +means the effect of “perceiving,” viz. perception. Each sense +has got its special sphere of work, e.g. sight is of the eye, and +this is called their second aspect, viz. svarūpa. Their third +aspect is of “asmitā” or ego, which manifests itself through +the senses. Their fourth aspect is their characteristic of guṇas, +viz. that of manifestation (<i>prakāśa</i>), action (<i>kriyā</i>) and retention +(<i>sthiti</i>). Their fifth aspect is that they are set in motion +for purusha, his experiences and liberation.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is indeed difficult to find the relation of manas with the +senses and the cittas. In more than one place manas is +identified with cittas, and, on the other hand, it is described +as a sense organ. There is another aspect in which manas is +said to be the king of the cognitive and motor senses. Looked +at in this aspect, manas is possibly the directive side of the ego +by which it guides the cognitive and conative senses in the +external world and is the cause of their harmonious activity for +the experience of purusha. As a necessary attribute of this +directive character of manas, the power of concentration, +which is developed by prāṇāyāma, is said to belong to manas. +This is the rajas side of manas.</p> + +<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>There is another aspect of manas which is called the anuvyavasāya +or reflection, by which the sensations (ālocana) are +associated, differentiated, integrated, assimilated into percepts +and concepts. This is possibly the sāttvika side of manas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is another aspect by which the percepts and concepts +are retained (<i>dhāraṇa</i>) in the mind as saṃskāras, to be +repeated or revealed again in the mind as actual states. This +is the tamas side of manas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In connection with this we may mention ūha (positive +argumentation), apoha (negative argumentation) and tattvajñāna +(logical conclusion) which are the modes of different +anuvyavasāyas of the manas. Will, etc., are to be included +with these (<cite>Yoga-varttikā</cite>, II. 18). Looked at from the +point of view of cittas, these may equally be regarded as the +modifications of cittas.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The motives which sustain this process of outgoing activity +are false knowledge, and such other emotional elements as +egoism, attachment, aversion, and love of life. These +emotional elements remain in the mind in the germinal state +as power alone; or they exist in a fully operative state when a +man is under the influence of any one of them; or they +alternate with others, such as attachment or aversion; or they +may become attenuated by meditation upon opposites. +Accordingly they are called respectively prasupta, udāra, +vicchinna or tanu. Man’s minds or cittas may follow these +outgoing states or experiences, or gradually remove those +emotions which are commonly called afflictions, thus narrowing +their sphere and proceeding towards final release.</p> + +<p class='c007'>All the psychic states described above, viz. pramāṇa, +viparyyaya, etc., are called either afflicted or unafflicted +according as they are moved towards outgoing activity or +are actuated by the higher motive of emancipation by +narrowing the field of experiences gradually to a smaller and +smaller sphere and afterwards to suppress them altogether. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>These two kinds of motives, one of afflictions that lead towards +external objects of attachment and aversion or love of life, and +the other which leads to striving for kaivalya, are the sole +motives which guide all human actions and psychic states.</p> + +<p class='c007'>They influence us whenever suitable opportunities occur, +so that by the study of the Vedas, self-criticism or right argumentation, +or from the instruction of good men, abhyāsa and +vairāgya may be roused by vidyā. Right knowledge and a +tendency towards kaivalya may appear in the mind even +when a man is immersed in the afflicted states of outgoing +activity. So also afflicted states may appear when a man is +bent upon or far advanced in those actions which are roused +by vidyā or the tendency towards kaivalya.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It seems that the Yoga view of actions, or karma, does not +deprive man of his freedom of will. The habit of performing +particular types of action only strengthens the corresponding +subconscious impressions or saṃskāras of those actual states, +and thus makes it more and more difficult to overcome their +propensity to generate their corresponding actual states, and +thus obstructs the adoption of an unhampered and free course +of action. The other limitation to the scope of the activity of +his free will is the vāsanā aspect of the saṃskāras by which he +naturally feels himself attached by pleasurable ties to certain +experiences and by painful ones to others. But these only +represent the difficulties and impediments which come to +a man, when he has to adopt the Yoga course of life, the contrary +of which he might have been practising for a very long +period, extending over many life-states.</p> + +<p class='c007'>The free will is not curbed in any way, for it follows directly +from the teleological purpose of prakṛti, which moves for the +experience and liberation of purusha. So this motive of +liberation, which is the basis of all good conduct, can never be +subordinated to the other impulse, which goads man towards +outgoing experiences. But, on the other hand, this original +<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>impulse which attracts man towards these ordinary experiences, +as it is due to the false knowledge which identifies +prakṛti with purusha, becomes itself subordinate and loses its +influence and power, when such events occur, which nullify +false knowledge by tending to produce a vision of the true +knowledge of the relation of prakṛti with purusha. Thus, +for example, if by the grace of God false knowledge (avidyā) +is removed, true knowledge at once dawns upon the mind and +all the afflictions lose their power.</p> + +<p class='c007'>Free will and responsibility for action cease in those life-states +which are intended for suffering from actions only, +e.g. life-states of insects, etc.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span> + <h2 class='c005'>APPENDIX<br> <span class='c013'>SPHOṬAVĀDA</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>Another point to be noted in connection with the main +metaphysical theories of Patañjali is the Sphoṭa theory which +considers the relation of words with their ideas and the things +which they signify. Generally these three are not differentiated +one from the other, and we are not accustomed to +distinguish them from one another. Though distinct yet they +are often identified or taken in one act of thought, by a sort of +illusion. The nature of this illusory process comes to our view +when we consider the process of auditory perception of words. +Thus if we follow the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> as explained by Vijñāna +Bhikshu we find that by an effect of our organs of speech, the +letters are pronounced. This vocal sound is produced in the +mouth of the speaker from which place the sound moves in +aerial waves until it reaches the ear drum of the hearer, by +coming in contact with which it produces the audible sound +called dhvani (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 17). The special modifications +of this dhvani are seen to be generated in the form of letters +(<i>varṇa</i>) and the general name for these modifications is nāda. +This sound as it exists in the stage of varṇas or letters is also +called varṇa. If we apply the word śabda or sound in the +most general sense, then we can say that this is the second +stage of sound moving towards word-cognition, the first stage +being that of its utterance in the mouth of the speaker. +The third stage of śabda is that in which the letters, for +example, g, au, and ḥ, of the word “gauḥ” are taken together +<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>and the complete word-form “gauḥ” comes before our view. +The comprehension of this complete word-form is an attribute +of the mind and not of the sense of hearing. For the sense +of hearing senses the letter-forms of the sound one by one as +the particular letters are pronounced by the speaker and as +they approach the ear one by one in air-waves. But each +letter-form sound vanishes as it is generated, for the sense +of hearing has no power to hold them together and comprehend +the letter-forms as forming a complete word-form. The +ideation of this complete word-form in the mind is called +sphoṭa. It differs from the letter-form in this that it is a +complete, inseparable, and unified whole, devoid of any past, +and thus is quite unlike the letter-forms which die the next +moment after they originate. According to the system of +Patañjali as explained by the commentators, all significance +belongs to this sphoṭa-form and never to the letters pronounced +or heard. Letters when they are pronounced and +heard in a particular order serve to give rise to such complete +ideational word-images which possess some denotation and +connotation of meaning and are thus called “sphoṭas,” or that +which illuminates. These are essentially different in nature +from the sounds in letter-forms generated in the senses of +hearing which are momentary and evanescent and can never +be brought together to form one whole, have no meaning, and +have the sense of hearing as their seat.</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>The Vaiśeshika view.</cite>—Saṅkara Miśra, however, holds that +this “sphoṭa” theory is absolutely unnecessary, for even the +supporters of sphoṭa agree that the sphoṭa stands conventionally +for the thing that it signifies; now if that be the +case what is the good of admitting sphoṭa at all? It is better +to say that the conventionality of names belongs to the letters +themselves, which by virtue of that can conjointly signify a +thing; and it is when you look at the letters from this aspect—their +unity with reference to their denotation of one thing—that +<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>you call them a pada or name (<cite>Upaskāra</cite>, II. 2, 21). So +according to this view we find that there is no existence of a +different entity called “name” or “sphoṭa” which can be +distinguished from the letters coming in a definite order within +the range of the sense of hearing. The letters pronounced and +heard in a definite order are jointly called a name when they +denote a particular meaning or object.</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>Kumārila’s view</cite>:—Kumārila, the celebrated scholar of the +Mīmāṃsa school, also denies the sphoṭa theory and asserts +like the Vaiśeshika that the significance belongs to the letters +themselves and not to any special sphoṭa or name. To prove +this he first proves that the letter-forms are stable and eternal +and suffer no change on account of the differences in their modes +of accent and pronunciation. He then goes on to show that the +sphoṭa view only serves to increase the complexity without +any attendant advantage. Thus the objection that applies to +the so-called defect of the letter-denotation theory that the +letters cannot together denote a thing since they do not do it +individually, applies to the name-denotation of the sphoṭa +theory, since there also it is said that though there is no sphoṭa +or name corresponding to each letter yet the letters conjointly +give rise to a sphoṭa or complete name (<cite>Ślokavārttika</cite>, Sphoṭavāda, +śl. 91–93).</p> + +<p class='c007'>The letters, however, are helped by their potencies (saṃskāras) +in denoting the object, or the meaning. The sphoṭa +theory has, according to Kumārila and Pārthasārathi, also to +admit this saṃskāra of the letters in the manifestation of the +name or the śabda-sphoṭa, whereas they only admit it as the +operating power of the letters in denoting the object or the +thing signified. Saṃskāras according to Kumārila are thus +admitted both by the sphoṭa theorists and the Kumārila +school of Mīmāṃsa, only with this difference that the +latter with its help can directly denote the object of the +signified, whereas the former have only to go a step +<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>backwards in thinking their saṃskāra to give rise to the +name or the śabda-sphoṭa alone (<cite>Nyāyaratnākara</cite>, Sphoṭavāda, +śl. 104).</p> + +<p class='c007'>Kumārila says that he takes great pains to prove the nullity +of the sphoṭa theory only because if the sphoṭa view be +accepted then it comes to the same thing as saying that words +and letters have no validity, so that all actions depending on +them also come to lose their validity (<cite>Ślokavārttika</cite>, Sphoṭavāda, +śl. 137).</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>Prabhākara.</cite>—Prabhākara also holds the same view; for +according to him also the letters are pronounced in a definite +order; though when individually considered they are +momentary and evanescent, yet they maintain themselves +by their potency in the form of a pāda or name, and thus +signify an object. Thus Śāliknātha Miśra says in his <cite>Prakaraṇa +Pañcikā</cite>, p. 89: “It is reasonable to suppose that since +the later letters in a word are dependent upon the perception +of a preceding one some special change is wrought in the letters +themselves which leads to the comprehension of the meaning +of a word.... It cannot be proved either by perception or by +inference that there is any word apart from the letters; the +word has thus for its constituents the letters.”</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>Śabara.</cite>—The views of Kamārila and Prahhākara thus +explicated are but elaborate explanations of the view of Śabara +who states the whole theory in a single line—<i>pūrvavarṇajanitasaṃskārasahito’ntyo +varṇaḥ pratyāyakaḥ</i>.</p> + +<p class='c007'>“The last letter together with the potency generated by +the preceding letters is the cause of significance.”</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>Mahābhāshya and Kaiyaṭa.</cite>—After describing the view of +those who are antagonistic to the sphoṭa theory it is necessary +to mention the Vaiākaraṇa school which is in favour of it; +thus we find that in explaining the following passage of +Mahābhāshya,</p> + +<p class='c007'>“What is then a word? It is that which being pronounced +<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>one can understand specific objects such as those (cows) which +have tail, hoofs, horns, etc.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Kaiyata says: “The grammarians think that denotation +belongs to words, as distinct from letters which are pronounced, +for if each of the letters should denote the object, there +would be no need of pronouncing the succeeding letters....”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The vaiyakaraṇas admit the significant force of names as +distinguished from letters. For if the significant force be attributed +to letters individually, then the first letter being quite +sufficient to signify the object, the utterance of other letters +becomes unnecessary; and according to this view if it is held +that each letter has the generating power, then also they +cannot do it simultaneously, since they are uttered one after +another. On the view of manifestation, also, since the letters +are manifested one after another, they cannot be collected +together in due order; if their existence in memory is sufficient, +then we should expect no difference of signification or meaning +by the change of order in the utterance of the letters; that is +“<i>sara</i>” ought to have the same meaning as “<i>rasa</i>.” So it +must be admitted that the power of signification belongs to +the sphoṭa as manifested by the nādas as has been described +in detail in <cite>Vākyapadīya</cite>.</p> + +<p class='c007'>As the relation between the perceiving capacity and the +object of perception is a constant one so also is the relation +between the sphoṭa and the nāda as the manifested and the +manifestor (<cite>Vākyapadīya</cite> 98). Just as the image varies +corresponding to the variation of the reflector, as oil, water, +etc., so also the reflected or manifested image differs according +to the difference of the manifestor (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 100). Though +the manifestation of letters, propositions and names occurs at +one and the same time yet there seems to be a “before and +after” according to the “before and after” of the nāda +utterances (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 102). That which is produced through the +union and disunion (of nādas or dhvanis) is called sphoṭa, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>whereas other sound-perceptions arising from sounds are +called dhvanis (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 103). As by the movement of water +the image of a thing situated elsewhere also appears to adopt +the movement of the water and thus seems to move, so also +the sphoṭa, though unchanging in itself, yet appears to suffer +change in accordance with the change of nāda which manifests +it (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 49). As there are no parts of the letters themselves so +the letters also do not exist as parts of the name. There is +again no ultimate or real difference between names and +propositions (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 73). It is only in popular usage that they +are regarded as different. That which others regard as the +most important thing is regarded as false here, for propositions +only are here regarded as valid (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 74). Though the letters +which manifest names and propositions are altogether different +from them, yet their powers often appear as quite undifferentiated +from them (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 89). Thus when propositions are +manifested by the cause of the manifestation of propositions +they appear to consist of parts when they first appear before +the mind. Thus, though the pada-sphoṭa or the vākya-sphoṭa +does not really consist of parts, yet, as the powers of letters +cannot often be differentiated from them, they also appear +frequently to be made up of parts (<cite>Vāk.</cite> 91).</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>The Yoga View.</cite>—As to the relation of the letters to the +sphoṭa, Vācaspati says, in explaining the <cite>Bhāshya</cite>, that each +of the letters has the potentiality of manifesting endless +meanings, but none of them can do so individually; it is only +when the letter-form sounds are pronounced in succession by +one effort of speech that the individual letters by their own +particular contiguity or distance from one another can +manifest a complete word called the sphoṭa. Thus owing to +the variation of contiguity of distance by intervention from +other letter-form sounds any letter-form sound may manifest +any meaning or word; for the particular order and the +association of letter-form sounds depend upon the particular +<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>output of energy required in uttering them. The sphoṭa is +thus a particular modification of buddhi, whereas the letter-form +sounds have their origin in the organ of speech when they +are uttered, and the sense of hearing when they are heard. It +is well to note here that the theory that the letters themselves +have endless potentiality and can manifest any word-sphoṭas, +according to their particular combinations and recombinations, +is quite in keeping with the main metaphysical +doctrine of the Pātañjala theory.</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>Vākya-sphoṭa.</cite>—What is said here of the letter-form sounds +and the śabda-sphoṭas also applies to the relation that the +śabda-sphoṭas bear to propositions or sentences. A word or +name does not stand alone; it always exists as combined with +other words in the form of a proposition. Thus the word +“tree” whenever it is pronounced carries with it the notion +of a verb “asti” or “exists,” and thereby demonstrates its +meaning. The single word “tree” without any reference to +any other word which can give it a propositional form has no +meaning. Knowledge of words always comes in propositional +forms; just as different letter-form sounds demonstrate by +their mutual collocation a single word or śabda-sphoṭa, so the +words also by their mutual combination or collocation demonstrate +judgmental or propositional significance or meaning. +As the letters themselves have no meaning so the words themselves +have also no meaning; it is only by placing them +side by side in a particular order that a meaning dawns in +the mind. When single words are pronounced they associate +other words with themselves and thus appear to signify a +meaning. But though a single word is sufficient by association +with other words to carry a meaning, yet sentences or +propositions should not be deemed unnecessary for they serve +to specialise that meaning (<i>niyamārthe anuvādaḥ</i>). Thus +“cooks” means that any subject makes something the object +of his cooking. The mention of the subject “Devadatta” and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>the object “rice” only specialises the subject and the object. +Though the analysis of a sentence into the words of which it is +constituted is as imaginary as the analysis of a word into the +letter-form sounds, it is generally done in order to get an +analytical view of the meaning of a sentence—an imaginary +division of it as into cases, verbs, etc.</p> + +<p class='c007'><i>Abhihitānvayavada and Anvitābhidhānavāda.</i>—This reminds +us of the two very famous theories about the relation +of sentences to words, viz. the “Abhihitānvayavāda” and the +“Anvitābhidhānavāda.” The former means that words +themselves can express their separate meanings by the function +abhidhā or denotation; these are subsequently combined into +a sentence expressing one connected idea. The latter means +that words only express a meaning as parts of a sentence, and +as grammatically connected with each other; they only +express an action or something connected with action; in +“sāmānaya”, “bring the cow”—“gām” does not properly +mean “gotva” but “ānayanānvitagotva,” that is, the bovine +genus as connected with bringing. We cannot have a case of a +noun without some governing verb and vice versa—(Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha, +Cowell).</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>The Yoga point of view.</cite>—It will be seen that strictly +speaking the Yoga view does not agree with any one of these +views though it approaches nearer to the Anvitābhidhāna +view than to the Abhihitānvaya view. For according to the +Yoga view the idea of the sentence is the only true thing; +words only serve to manifest this idea but have themselves no +meaning. The division of a sentence into the component word-conceptions +is only an imaginary analysis—an afterthought.</p> + +<p class='c007'><cite>Confusion the cause of verbal cognition.</cite>—According to +Patañjali’s view verbal cognition proceeds only from a +confusion of the letter-form sounds (which are perceived in +the sense of hearing), the śabda-sphoṭa which is manifested +in the buddhi, and the object which exists in the external +<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>world. These three though altogether distinct from one another +yet appear to be unified on account of the saṅketa or sign, so +that the letter-form sounds, the śabda-sphoṭa, and the thing, +can never be distinguished from one another. Of course +knowledge can arise even in those cases where there is no +actual external object, simply by virtue of the manifesting +power of the letter-form sounds. This saṅketa is again defined +as the confusion of words and their meanings through memory, +so that it appears that what a word is, so is its denoted +object, and what a denoted word is, so is its object. +Convention is a manifestation of memory of the nature of +mutual confusion of words and their meanings. This object +is the same as this word, and this word is the same as this +object. Thus there is no actual unity of words and their +objects: such unity is imaginary and due to beginningless +tradition. This view may well be contrasted with Nyāya, +according to which the convention of works as signifying +objects is due to the will of God.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span> + <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2> +</div> + +<ul class='index c003'> + <li class='c020'><i>abhihitānvayavāda</i>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> + <li class='c020'>abhiniveśa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>abhivyaktikāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li class='c020'>abhyāsa, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Absorption, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Abstraction, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Accessories, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Accidental variation, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>acit</i>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Actual, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Actuality, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li> + <li class='c020'>adharma, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>adhikārin, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> + <li class='c020'>adṛshṭajanmavedanīya, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>adṛshṭa-janmavedanīya karma</i>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> + <li class='c020'>advaita, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Advaita-Brahmasiddhi</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Afflictions, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n., <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Agent, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Aggregation, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Agreement, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ahaṃkāra, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ahaṃkāra-sāttvika, rājasa, tāmasa, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ahiṃsā, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā</cite>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + <li class='c020'>akhyāti, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aklishṭa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aklishṭavṛtti, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>aliṇga</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>anādisaṃyoga</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>anāśrita</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>anekabhavika, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Anger, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>anirvācyā</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aniyatavipāka, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aniyatavipāka-adṛshṭajanmavedanīya, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> + <li class='c020'>antaḥkaraṇa, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>anukāreṇa paśyati</i>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li> + <li class='c020'>anupaśya, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li> + <li class='c020'>anuvrata, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>anuvyavasāya, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>anvaya, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>anvayikāraṇa, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>anvitābhidhānavāda</i>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> + <li class='c020'>anvitābhidhānavāda, Yoga view, near to, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>anyābhyāṃ ahaṃkārābhyām svakāryyopajanane rājasāhaṃkāraḥ sahakārībhavati</i>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> + <li class='c020'>anyathākhyāti, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>anyatvakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>anyonyamithunāḥ sarvve naishāmādisamprayogo viprayogo vā úpalabhyate</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aṅga, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aṇu, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ap, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ap atom, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'>apara vairāgya, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aparigraha, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>apavarga</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li> + <li class='c020'>apoha, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Appearance, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> + <li class='c020'>apuṇya karma, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Aristotle, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>artha</i>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> + <li class='c020'>arthavattva, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>arthena svakīyayā grāhyaśaktyā vijñānamajani</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li class='c020'>asamprajñāta, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li> + <li class='c020'>asamprajñāta samādhi, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Asceticism, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>asmitā, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>asmitā-ego, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>asmitāmātra</i>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>asmitānugata</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>asmītyetāvanmātrākāratvādasmitā</i>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Assimilation, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Association of ideas, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>asteya, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Astral body, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aśukla, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aśuklākṛshṇa, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Atheistic, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Atomic change as unit of time, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Atoms, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>; + <ul> + <li>continual change, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Attachment, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Avariciousness, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>avasthā, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> + <li class='c020'>avasthāpariṇāma, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Aversion, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>avibhāgaprāptāviva</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li class='c020'>avidyā, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>; + <ul> + <li>its definition, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> + <li>uprooting of, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>avidyā of yoga and Sāṃkhya, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aviśesha, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>aviśesheṇopashṭambhakasvabhāvāḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li class='c020'>aviveka, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>avyapadeśyatva</i>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>avyavasthitākhilapariṇamo bhavatyeva</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>ayutasiddhāvayava</i>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>ādisamprayoga</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ākāra, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ākāśa, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ākāśa, two kinds of, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ākāśa atom, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>; + <ul> + <li>Bhikshu and Vācaspati on, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>ākāśa tanmātra, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ālocana, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>āmalaka, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ānanda, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>,154</li> + <li class='c020'>ānandānugata, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>āptikāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'>āpūra, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>āpyakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'>āsana, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> + <li class='c020'>āśaya, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>āśerate sāṃsārikā purushā asminniti āśayaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'>āvaraṇa śakti, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> + <li class='c020'>āyush, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Barabara muni, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'>bāhya karma, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Beginningless, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Behaviour, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Bel, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Benares, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>bhakti, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>bhaktiyoga, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>bhava, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>bhavishyadvyaktikamanāgataṃanudbhūtavyaktikamatītam svavyāpāropārūḍhaṃ varttamānaṃ trayaṃ caitadvastu jñānasya jñeyam yadi caitat svarūpato nābhavishyannedaṃ nirvishayaṃ jñānamudapatsyata tasmādatītamanāgataṃ svarūpato’stīti</i>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Bhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> + <li class='c020'>bhāvanā, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Bhikshu, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n., <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n., <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>bhoga</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li> + <li class='c020'>bhoga-śarīra, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Bhoja, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Bhojavṛtti, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li> + <li class='c020'>bhrama, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>bhūta, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'>bhūtādi, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>; + <ul> + <li>accretion from, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Biological, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Birth, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Body, sattvamaya, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Bondage, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Brahmacaryya, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Brahman, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Breath, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Breath regulation, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>buddheḥ pratisaṃvedi purushaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span><i>buddhi</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Buddhist, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Buddhists, their theory of <i>sahopalambhaniyama</i> refuted, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Caitra, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Caraka, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Caste, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Categories of existence, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Category, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Caturdaśī, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Causal activity, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Causal operation, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Causal transformation, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Causality, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Causation, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>; + <ul> + <li>Sāṃkhya view of, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Cause, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>; + <ul> + <li>nine kinds of, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Cessation, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Change, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>; + <ul> + <li>Buddhist and Yoga idea contrasted, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n.;</li> + <li>units of, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Changeful, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Characterised, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Characteristic, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Chāyā-vyākhyā</cite>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Chemical, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Chowkhamba, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Circumstance, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>cit, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>citta, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>; + <ul> + <li>different forms of, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</li> + <li>different states of, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</li> + <li>its nature, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'><i>cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṃ sannidhimātropakāri dṛśyatvena svaṃ bhavati purushasya svāminaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>cittaprasāda</i>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Clairaudience, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Class-characteristics, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Cleanliness, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Coco-nut, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Co-existence, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Cognitive states, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Coherent, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Collocation, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Commentary, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Compassion, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Complacency, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Compounds, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Conceived, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Conceiver, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Concentration, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Concept, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Conceptual, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Concomitant causes, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Condensation, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Conscious-like, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Consciousness, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Consciousness contentless, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Conscious states, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Conservation, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Contact, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Contemplation, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Contentment, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Continence, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Contrary, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Co-operation, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Cosmic evolution, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Cosmic matter, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Country, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Creation, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Critique of Judgment</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Critique of Practical Reason</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Critique of Pure Reason</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Davies, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Decision, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Demerit, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Denotation, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>deśa, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Descartes, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Desire, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Determinate, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Determined, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Determiner, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Devotion, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dhāraṇā, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dharma, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dharmamegha-samādhi, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>dharmapariṇāma</i>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dharmin, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span><i>dharmisvarūpamātro hi dharmaḥ, dharmivikriyā eva eshā dharmadvārā propañcyate</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dharmī, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>dhātu</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>dhṛtikāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dhyāna, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Difference, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Differentiated, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Differentiation, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dik, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Discrimination, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Distractions, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Doubt, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>drashṭā dṛśiṃātraḥ śuddho’pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dravya, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n., <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Droṇa, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>dṛgdarśanaśaktyorekātmateva asmitā</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dṛk, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>dṛkśakti</i>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dṛshṭajanma karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>dṛshṭajanmavedanīya</i>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> + <li class='c020'>duḥkha, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>dvesha, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Earth, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Effect, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Efficient cause, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ego, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>; + <ul> + <li>a modification of buddhi, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li> + <li>evolution in three lines from, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> + <li>three kinds of, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Egohood, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ego-universal, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ekabhavika, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ekabhavikatva, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>ekāgra</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ekātmatā, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>ekātmikā saṃvidasmitā</i>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ekendriya, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Elements, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Emancipation, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Energy, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Enjoyment, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Equilibrium, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Error, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Eternal, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Eternity, two kinds of, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ethics, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> + <li class='c020'>European, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Evolutes, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Evolution, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>; + <ul> + <li>as change, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</li> + <li>as change of qualities and as derivation of categories, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>;</li> + <li>definite law of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</li> + <li>its limitations by time and space, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li> + <li>measured by units of spatial motion, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li> + <li>of manas, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> + <li>of the senses, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> + <li>of categories, difference between Sāṃkhya and Yoga view, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>–62;</li> + <li>of similars, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Evolutionary process, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Exhalation, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Existence as capacity of effecting, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Expiratory, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Extension, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Externality, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> + <li class='c020'>External reality, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>; + <ul> + <li>Buddhist objection to, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> + <li>has more than a momentary existence, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li> + <li>its ground, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li> + <li>not due to imagination, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>;</li> + <li>not identical with our ideas, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>External world, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>; + <ul> + <li>refutation of Buddhist objections, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c003'>Faith, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Fichte, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Fisherman, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Force, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Freedom, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; + <ul> + <li>of will, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Friendliness, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Future, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Gaṇḍa, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c020'>gandha, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>gandha-tanmātra, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Gauḍapāda, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Generalisation, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Generic, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>ghaṭāvacchinna ākāśa</i>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Gītā</cite>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Gītābhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Goal, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>God, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Gold, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> + <li class='c020'>grahaṇa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>grahaṇadhāraṇohāpohatattvajñānābhiniveśā buddhau varttamānā purushe adhyāropitasadbhāvāḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> + <li class='c020'>grahītṛ, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>grāhya, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Gross elements, derivation of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + <li class='c020'>Grossness, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>guṇā eva prakṛtiśabdavācyā na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>guṇānāṃ hi dvairūpyaṃ vyavasāyātmkatvam vyavaseyātmakatvaṃca</i>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>guṇānāṃ paramaṃ rūpaṃ na dṛshṭipathamṛcchati, yattu drshṭipathaṃ prāptam tanmāyeva sutucchakaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>guṇas, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'>guṇas, three classes, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; + <ul> + <li>as causal effect, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> + <li>evolution of the cognitive and conative senses and tanmātras, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> + <li>identity of qualities and substances, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</li> + <li>relative preponderance of, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> + <li>special affinity of each class, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> + <li>special behaviour of each class of, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> + <li>their atomic qualities consistent with their all-pervasiveness, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.;</li> + <li>their common purpose, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> + <li>their co-operation, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> + <li>their mode of combination, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> + <li>their mode of mutual operation, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</li> + <li>their mode of evolution, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> + <li>their nature as feelings, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li> + <li>their twofold nature, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li> + <li>their threefold course of development, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> + <li>their want of purpose in the state of equilibrium, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> + <li>two classes of their evolution, <i>aviśesha</i> and <i>viśesha</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c003'>Hariharāraṇya, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Heaven, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekāśritaṃ liṅgaṃ sāvayavamparatantraṃ vyaktaṃ viparītamavyaktaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Hibiscus, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>hiṃsā, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>History of Hindu Chemistry</cite>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> n., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Horn of a hare, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Hume, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Idealistic Buddhists, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ignorance, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Illumination, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Illusion, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.; + <ul> + <li>of Yoga and Sāṃkhya, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Illusive, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Imagination, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Immanent purpose, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Independence, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Indeterminate, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>India, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Indra, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Inertia, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Inference, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Infra-atomic, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Infra-atoms, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Inhalation, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Injury, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Inorganic, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Inspiratory, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Intellection, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Intelligence, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Intelligence-stuff, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Iron, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Īśvara, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>; + <ul> + <li>removal of barriers, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Īśvarakṛshṇa, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Īśvarapraṇidhāna, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>Īśvarasyāpi dharmādhisṭhānārthaṃ pratibandhāpanaya eva vyāpāro</i>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> + <li class='c003'><i>janmamaraṇakaraṇānāṃ pratiniyamādayugapat pravṛtteśca purushabahutvam siddhaṃ traiguṇyaviparyyayācca</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span><i>japāsphaṭikayoriva noparāgaḥ kintvabhimānaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>jāti</i>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Jealousy, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li> + <li class='c020'>jīva, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'>jīvanmukta, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li> + <li class='c020'>jīvanmukti, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> + <li class='c020'>jñāna, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> + <li class='c020'>jñānayoga, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Judgmental, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li> + <li class='c003'>kaivalya, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kalpa, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Kant, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Kapila, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> + <li class='c020'>karma, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>; + <ul> + <li>its classification and divergence of views, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>–113</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>karma-sannyāsin, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'>karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> + <li class='c020'>karmayoga, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li> + <li class='c020'>karuṇā, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Kaumudī, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kāla, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kāma, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kāraṇa, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kāraṇacitta, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>kārikā</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Kārya, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kārya vimukti, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kāryya citta, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kāryyakarī śakti, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Kāśmīra, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>kevalapurushākārā saṃvit</i>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kevalī, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kirātā, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kleśa, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> + <li class='c020'>klishṭa, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'>klishṭavṛtti, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Knowable, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Knower, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Knowledge, different kinds of, differentiated, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Known, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>kriyā</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kriyāyoga, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>krodha, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kṛshṇa, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kṛshṇa karma, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>kṛtārthaṃ prati nashṭamapyanashṭaṃ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n., <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇabhaṅguram</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇapracayāśraya</i>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇapratiyogi</i>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>kshaṇatatkramayornāsti vastusamāhāraḥ iti buddhisamāhāraḥ muhūrttāhorātrātrādayaḥ. sa tvayaṃ kālaḥ vastuśūnyo’pi buddhinirmāṇah</i>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>kshipta</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kshiti, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kshiti atom, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kuntī, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>kuśala, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kuśalī, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> + <li class='c020'>kūṭastha nitya, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c003'>lakshaṇa, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c020'>lakshaṇa-pariṇāma, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Latent, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>laukikamāyeva</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>liberation, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Light, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Limitation theory, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c020'>liṅga, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>liṅgamātram mahattatvaṃ sattāmātre mahati ātmani</i>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>lobha</i>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Locke, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Lokācāryya, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Lotus, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> + <li class='c003'><i>madhumatī</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>madhupratīka</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Magnet, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li class='c020'>mahat, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>; + <ul> + <li>its potential existence in prakṛti, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Mahābhārata</cite>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> n., <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c020'>mahāpralaya, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c020'>mahāvrata, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>maitrī, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>manas, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Manifested, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> + <li class='c020'>mantra, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Many, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span><cite>Maṇiprabhā</cite>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> + <li class='c020'>marut, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Mass, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Material cause, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Matter, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'>mānasa karma, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> + <li class='c020'>mātrā, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li> + <li class='c020'>māyā, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ vidyāt māyinaṃ tu maheśvaraṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>māyeva</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Mechanical, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Meditation, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Memory, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Mental, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Mental states, analysis of, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Merit, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Metaphysics, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Method of agreement, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>; + <ul> + <li>of difference, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Mind, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>; + <ul> + <li>its seven qualities, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Mind-modification, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>; + <ul> + <li>-transformations, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'><i>moha</i>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Mokshadharmādhyāya</cite>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Moment, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Momentary, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Moral, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Moral ideal, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Movement, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> + <li class='c020'>muditā, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>mūḍha</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Nahusha, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Naiyāyika, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Name, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>; + <ul> + <li>and thing, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Nandī, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>na tu kshaṇātiriktaḥ kshaṇikaḥ padārthaḥ kaścidishyate taistu kshaṇamātrasthāyyeva padārthaḥ ishyate</i>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Naturalism and agnosticism</cite>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Natural selection, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nāgeśa, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>nāsadāsīt na sadāsīt tadānīm</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>nāstyasataḥ saṃbhavaḥ na cāsti sato vināśāḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nectar, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nescience, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>; + <ul> + <li>its different forms, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a> n.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>nidrā, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nihilists, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>niḥsaṅge’pi uparāgo vivekāt</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>niḥsattāsattam niḥsadasat nirasat avyaktam aliṅgam pradhānam</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>niḥsattāsattaṃ, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirasmitā, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirmāṇa citta, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirānanda, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirodha, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>nirodhaja saṃskāra</i>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirodha samādhi, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>niruddha</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirvicāra, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirvīja, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirvīja samādhi, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'>nirvitarka, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'>niścaya, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> + <li class='c020'>niyama, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> + <li class='c020'>niyata vipāka, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> + <li class='c020'>niyatavipākadṛshṭajanmavedanīya, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nīlakaṇṭha, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Non-being, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Non-covetousness, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Non-discrimination, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Non-distinction, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Non-existence, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Non-injury, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>; + <ul> + <li>its classification, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Non-stealing, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Noumenon, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Observance, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>oṃkāra, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Omniscience, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li> + <li class='c020'>oshadhi, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Pain, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Palm, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Pantheism, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Pañcaśikha, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>parama mahat, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> + <li class='c020'>paramāṇu in Sāṃkhya and Yoga, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>para vairāgya, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'>parikarma, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pariṇāma, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>pariṇāmaduḥkhatā</i>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>pariṇāmakramaniyama</i>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pariṇāmi, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pariṇāminityatā, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Past, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Patañjali, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Patent, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pāda, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Pāñcāla, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pāṇi, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pāpa karma, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pāpakarmāśaya, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Pātañjala, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pāyu, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Perceived, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Perceiver, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Percept, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Perception, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Permanent, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Phenomena, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Phenomenal, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Philosopher, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Philosophical, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Physical, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Physical, Chemical and Mechanical Theories of the Ancient Hindus</cite>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Plant: its possession of life and senses, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Plato, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Pleasure, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Plurality, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>–29, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Poison, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Posture, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Potency, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>; + <ul> + <li>destroying other potencies, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Potential, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Potentiality, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Potentials, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Power, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pradhāna, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c020'>prajñā, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>; + <ul> + <li>its seven stages, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>–120</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>prajñāsaṃskāra, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c020'>prajñāloka, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li> + <li class='c020'>prakāśa, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>prakṛti, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n., <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>; + <ul> + <li>as undifferentiated cosmic matter, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li> + <li>as equilibrium of dharma and dharmī, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>;</li> + <li>avidyā and vāsanā lie merged in it, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;</li> + <li>different views of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> + <li>different from avidyā, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li> + <li>evolution of the second category of asmitā, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> + <li>its difference from māyā, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li> + <li>its difference from purusha, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</li> + <li>its first evolutionary product, mahat, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> + <li>its goal, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> + <li>its identity with guṇa reals, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li> + <li>its relation with guṇas, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> + <li>its similarity with purusha, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</li> + <li>Lokācāryya’s view of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> + <li>nature in the state of equilibrium, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> + <li>refilling from, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> + <li>roused by God, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</li> + <li>Venkaṭa’s view of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>prakṛtilīna, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>prakṛtivikṛti</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>prakṛtiṛityucyate vikārotpādakatvāt avidyā jñānavirodhitvāt māyā vicitrasṛshṭikaratvāt</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> + <li class='c020'>prakṛtyāpūra, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pralaya, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pramāṇa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>praṇava, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'>prāṇāyāma, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>prasupta, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>pratipaksha bhāvanā</i>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>pratisambandhī</i>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>pratiyogī, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>pratyāhāra, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pratyaksha, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pratyaya, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>pratyayakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>pratyayaṃ bauddhamanupaśyati tamanupaśyannatadātmāpi tadātmaka iva pratibhāti</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>pratyayānupaśya</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Pravacana-bhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span><i>prāmāṇyaniścaya</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Pre-established harmony, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Present, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Presentative ideation, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Presentative power, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Pride, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Primal, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Primal cause, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li class='c020'>pṛthivī, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Psychological, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Psychology, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Psychosis, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li class='c020'>puṇya, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> + <li class='c020'>puṇya karma, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> + <li class='c020'>puṇya karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Purāṇa, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Purification, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Purificatory, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Purity, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>purusha, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a> n., <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>; + <ul> + <li>arguments in favour of its separate existence, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> + <li>contrast with vedantic Brahman, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</li> + <li>different from the mental states, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</li> + <li>fulfilment of its objects, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> + <li>its connection with prakṛti real, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> + <li>its final separation from prakṛti, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li> + <li>its permanence, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> + <li>its plurality, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>–30;</li> + <li>its reflection in the mind, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> + <li>its relation with concepts and ideas, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> + <li>its similarity with sattva, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> + <li>meaning determined from the sūtras, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</li> + <li>nature of its reflection in buddhi, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>purushārtha, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> + <li class='c020'>purushārthatā, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>; + <ul> + <li>its relation with avidyā, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>pūrvadeśa, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.</li> + <li class='c003'>rajas, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Rarefaction, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + <li class='c020'>rasa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></li> + <li class='c020'>rasa-tanmātra, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ray, P. C., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> n., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Rādhā, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>rāga, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Rājamārtaṇda</cite>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>rājaputtravattattvopadeśāt</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c020'>rājasa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Rāmānuja, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Realisation, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Reality, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Reals, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Reason, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Reasoning, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Rebirth, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Reflection, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Reflection theory, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Release, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Religious, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Reperception, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Restraint, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Retention, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Right knowledge, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> + <li class='c020'>rūpa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>rūpa tanmātra, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ṛgveda, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ṛshi, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>ṛtambharā, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c003'><i>sadṛśapariṇāmā</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sahakāri, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sahopalambhaniyama</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sahopalambhaniyamaś ca vedyatvañca hetū sandigdhavyatirekatayānaikāntikau</i>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sahopalambhaniyamādabhedo nilataddhiyoḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Salvation, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>samādhi, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>; + <ul> + <li>classification of, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>samādhipariṇāma, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li> + <li class='c020'>samāna tantra, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> + <li class='c020'>samprajñāta, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> + <li class='c020'>samprajñāta samādhi, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sampratyaya</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>saṃghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyyayādadhishṭhānāt purusho’sti bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṃ pravṛtteśca</i>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>saṃsāra, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> + <li class='c020'>saṃskāra, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>saṃskārāḥ vṛttibhiḥ kriyante saṃskāraiśca vṛttayaḥ evaṃ vṛttisaṃskāracakram aniśamāvarttate</i>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li> + <li class='c020'>saṃskāraśesha, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>saṃskāryyakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>saṃsṛshṭā vivicyante</i>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>saṃvega</i>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li> + <li class='c020'>saṃyama, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>saṃyoga</i>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>sannyāsāśrama, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'>santosha, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li> + <li class='c020'>saṅketa, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sarasvatī Rāmānanda, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sarvaṃ sarvātmakaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c020'>satkāraṇavāda, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c020'>satkāryyavāda, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sattva, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sattvapurushayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sattvapurushayoratyantāsaṅkīrṇayoḥ pratyayāviśesho bhogaḥ parārthatvāt svārthasamyamāt purushajñā, nam</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li class='c020'>savicāra, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>; + <ul> + <li>prajñā, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>savitarka, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sā ca ātmanā grahītrā saha buddhirekātmikā saṃvid</i>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sāmānya guṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Sāṃkhya, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n., <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>; + <ul> + <li>Jaina influence on, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a> n.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Sāṃkhya-kārikā</cite>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> n., <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sāṃkhya-Pātañjala, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sāṃkhya philosophy, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Sāṃkhya-sūtra</cite>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Sāṃkhya-Yoga</cite>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a> n., <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sāṃkhyists, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sānanda, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sāttvika, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sāttvikaahaṃkāra, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Science of Ethics</cite>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Seal, Dr. B. N., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> n., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>–169</li> + <li class='c020'>Seeming reflection, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Seer, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Self, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Self-consciousness, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Self-control, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Self-intelligent, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Self-subsistent, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sensation, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sense, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sense faculties, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sense organs, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Senses, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>; + <ul> + <li>divergent views about their evolution, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Separation, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Sex restraint, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Shashṭitantraśāstra</cite>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c020'>siddha, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Siddhānta-candrikā</cite>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Siddhāntaleśa</cite>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sign, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Simultaneous revelation, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sins, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sleep, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li> + <li class='c020'>smṛti, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Social, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Soul, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sound, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Space, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>; + <ul> + <li>as relative position, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Space order, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sparśa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sparśâtanmātra, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Specialised, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Specific, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sphoṭavāda, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>–187; + <ul> + <li><cite>Kumāril’s view</cite>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>;</li> + <li>Mahābhāshya and Kaiyaṭa, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li> + <li>Prabhākara, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li> + <li>Śabara’s view, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li> + <li><cite>Vaiśeshika view</cite>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li> + <li>Vākya-sphoṭa, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> + <li><cite>Yoga view</cite>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Spinoza, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Spirits, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Spiritual principle, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sthiti</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sthitikāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sthūla, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>sthūlavishayaka, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Strength, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Studies, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Subconscious, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sub-latent, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Substance, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>; + <ul> + <li>its nature, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Substantive entities, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Substratum, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Succession, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>summum bonum</i>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Susheṇa, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sutucchaka</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sūkshma</i>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>sūkshmavishayaka, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>sūkshmavṛttimantaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sūtra, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Sūtrārthabodhinī</cite>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> + <li class='c020'>svarūpa, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>svādhyāya, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Svetāśvatara</cite>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sympathy, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śabda, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>śabdajñānānupātī vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śabda-tanmātra, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>śabdādīnām mūrttisamānajātīyānām</i>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>śakti, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śaktimān, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Śaṅkara, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śānta, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Sānti-parva</cite>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śāstra, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śauca, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śīla, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śraddhā, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śruti, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śukla, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śukla karma, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śukla karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> + <li class='c020'>śuklakṛshṇa, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Śūnyavādi Buddhists, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>svalpasaṅkaraḥ saparihāraḥ sapratyavamarshaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṃyogaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li class='c003'><i>tadartha eva drśyasya ātmā</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>tadabhāvāt saṃyogābhāvo hānaṃ taddṛśeḥ kaivalyaṃ</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li class='c020'>taijasa, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tamas, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tanmātra, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tanmātras, evolution of grosser elements from, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>; + <ul> + <li>their difference from paramānus, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li> + <li>their evolution, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</li> + <li>their relation to ahaṃkāra, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>tanmātrāvayava, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>tanmātrāṇāmapi parasparavyārvṛttasvabhāvatvamastyeva tacca yogimātragamyam</i>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tanu, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>tapaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tapas, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>tasmāt svatantro’rthaḥ sarvapurushasādhāraṇaḥ svatantrāṇi ca cittāni pratipurushaṃ, pravarttante</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Taste, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>tatradṛshṭajanmavedanīyasya niyatavipākasya</i>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tattva, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tattvajñāna, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Tattva-kaumudī</cite>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> n., <a href='#Page_103'>103</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Tattva-nirūpaṇa</cite>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Tattvatraya</cite>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a> n., <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> n., <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_9'>9</a> n., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a> n., <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> n., <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tattvāntara, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>tattvāntara-pariṇāma</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tāmasa, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tāmasa ahaṃkāra, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>te vyaktasūkshmā guṇātmānaḥ ... sarvamidaṃ guṇānāṃ Sanniveśaviśeshamātramiti paramārthato guṇātmānaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tejas, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>tejas atom, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Teleological, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Teleology, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Temptation, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Theft, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Theists, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>Theories, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Thing, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Thing-in-itself, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Thought, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Time, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>; + <ul> + <li>as discrete moments, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li> + <li>as unit of change, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</li> + <li>element of imagination in, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li> + <li>unit of, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> + <li>order, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Tinduka, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Trance, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>; + <ul> + <li>Trance-cognition, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Transcendent, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Transformations, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> + <li class='c020'>trasareṇu, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>triguṇamaviveki vishayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṃ prasavadharmi vyaktaṃ tathā pradhānaṃ, tadviparītastathā pumān</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Truth, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Truthfulness, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>Tulyajātīyātulyajātīyaśaktibhedānupātinaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> + <li class='c003'>udāra, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>udbodhaka, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li> + <li class='c020'>udghāta, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> + <li class='c020'>udita, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ultimate state, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unafflicted, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Understanding, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Undetermined, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Undifferentiated, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unindividuated, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Universe, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; + <ul> + <li>a product of guṇa combinations, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Unknowable, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unmanifested, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unmediated, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unpredicable, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unreal, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unspecialised, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unwisdom, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Upanishads, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> + <li class='c020'>upastha, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> + <li class='c020'>upādāna, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li> + <li class='c020'>upādāna kāraṇa, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li class='c020'>upekshā, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>utpādyakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'>uttaradeśa, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>ūha, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c003'>vaikārika, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vairāgya, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vaiśeshika, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vaiśeshika atoms, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vaishṇava, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vanity, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vaśīkāra, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vastupatitaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vastusāmye cittabhedāt tayor vibhaktaḥ panthāḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Vācaspati, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a> n., <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vāk, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Vākyapadīya</cite>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vāsanā, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>; + <ul> + <li>contrasted with karmāśaya, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Vāyu, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vāyu atom, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vedas, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vedānta, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vedāntism, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vedāntists, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vedic, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vehicles of actions, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Venkaṭa, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Veracity, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Verbal cognition, cause of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>; + <ul> + <li>view of Nyāya, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>vibhu, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>vibhu parimāṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>vibhūti, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vibhūtipāda, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vicāra, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vicārānugata, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vicchinna, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vice, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>videha</i>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vidyā, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vidyāviparītam jñānāntaraṃ avidyā</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Vijñanāmṛta-bhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vijñāna Bhikshu, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vikalpa, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vikārakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vikāryyakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vikṛti</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span><i>vikshipta</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vikshiptacitta, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vipāka, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> + <li class='c020'>viparyyaya, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>viprayoga</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Virtue, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Vishṇu Purāṇa</cite>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li class='c020'>viśesha, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>viśeshapariṇāma</i>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>viśeshāviśeshaliṅgamātrāliṅgāniguṇaparvāṇi</i>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> + <li class='c020'>visokā, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vitarka, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vitarkānugata, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>viyoga</i>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'><i>viyogakāraṇa</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vīryya, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vomit, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Vṛtti</cite>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vyaṇgya, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vyaṅjaka, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vyatireka, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vyavasāyātmakatva</i>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vyavaseyātmakatva</i>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Vyāsa, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a> n., <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> n., <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> n., <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a> n., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a> n., <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a> n., <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vyoman, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> + <li class='c020'>vyutthāna, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>vyutthāna citta</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li> + <li class='c003'>Ward, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a> n.</li> + <li class='c020'>Wicked, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> + <li class='c020'>World-phenomena, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> + <li class='c020'>World-process, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + <li class='c003'><i>yadyaliṅgāvasthā śabdādyupabhogaṃ vā sattvapurushānyatākhyātim vā purushārtham nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na sāmyāvasthā syāt</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Yama, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Yatamāna, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>yathā rathādi yantradibhiḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>yathāyaskāntamaṇiḥ svasminneva ayaḥsannidhīkaraṇamātrāt śalyanishkarshaṇākhyam upakāram kurvat purushasya svāminaḥ svam bhavati bhogasādhanatvāt</i>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>ye cāsyānupasthitā bhāgaste cāsya na syurevaṃ nāsti pṛshṭhamiti udaramapi na gṛhyeta</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Yoga, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>; + <ul> + <li>its points of difference with Sāṃkhya, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>–165</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Yoga metaphysics, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Yoga philosophy in relation to other Indian systems of thought</cite>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Yoga system, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Yoga theory, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> + <li class='c020'>yogāṅga, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> n., <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a> n., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li class='c020'><cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> n., <a href='#Page_6'>6</a> n., <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> n., <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> n., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> n., <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> n., <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a> n., <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Yogins, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>; + <ul> + <li>nine kinds of, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'><i>yogyatāvacchinnā dharmiṇaḥ śaktireva dharmaḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Yudhishṭhira, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> + <li class='c020'><i>yutasiddhāvayaba</i>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></li> +</ul> + +<hr class='c021'> +<div class='footnote' id='f1'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. See Ward’s <cite>Naturalism and Agnosticism</cite>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f2'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Vācaspati’s <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite> on the <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, III. 47.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f3'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. <cite>Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāshya</cite>, I. 120.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f4'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. It is indeed difficult to say what was the earliest conception of the +guṇas. But there is reason to believe, as I have said elsewhere, that guṇa +in its earliest acceptance meant qualities. It is very probable that as the +Sāṃkhya philosophy became more and more systematised it was realised +that there was no ultimate distinction between substance and qualities. +In consequence of such a view the guṇas which were originally regarded +as qualities began to be regarded as substantive entities and no contradiction +was felt. Bhikshu in many places describes the guṇas as substantive +entities (<i>dravya</i>) and their division into three classes as being due to the +presence of three kinds of class-characteristics. This would naturally mean +that within the same class there were many other differences which have not +been taken into account (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 18). But it cannot be said that +the view that the guṇas are substantive entities and that there is no difference +between qualities and substances is regarded as a genuine Sāṃkhya view +even as early as Śaṅkara. See <cite>Ghābhāshya</cite>, XIV. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f5'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. See <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite> on Patañjali’s <cite>Yoga-sūtras</cite>, II. 18, and Vācaspati’s +<cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite> on it.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f6'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. See Bhikshu’s <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 18.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f7'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. <cite>History of Hindu Chemistry</cite>, Vol. II, by P. C. Ray, p. 66.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f8'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. The usual Sāṃkhya terms as found in Iśvarakṛshṇa’s <cite>Kārikā</cite>, having +the same denotation as aviśesha and viśesha, are <i>prakṛtivikṛti</i> and <i>vikṛti</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f9'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 19.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f10'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 19.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f11'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, II. 19.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f12'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. <cite>Tattvatraya</cite>, p. 48 (Chowkhamba edition), Benares.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f13'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Bhikshu in his <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite> explains “<i>māyeva</i>” as “<i>laukikamāyeva +kshaṇabhaṇguram</i>” evanescent like the illusions of worldly experience.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f14'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. <cite>Siddhāntalleśa</cite> (Jīveśvara nirūpaiṇa).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f15'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. Princess Kuntī of the Mahābhārata had a son born to her by means of +a charm when she was still a virgin. Being afraid of a public scandal she +floated the child in a stream; the child was picked up by the wife of a +carpenter (Rādhā). The boy grew up to be the great hero Karṇa and he +thought that he was the son of a carpenter until the fact of his royal lineage +was disclosed to him later in life.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f16'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. <cite>Kārikā</cite> 17.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f17'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. Gauḍapāda’s commentary on <cite>Kārikā</cite> 17.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f18'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. Purusha is a substance (<i>dravya</i>) because it has independent existence +(<i>anāśrita</i>) and has a measure (<i>vibhu parimāṇa</i>) of its own. So it always +possesses the common characteristics (<i>sāmānya guṇa</i>) of substances, contact +(<i>saṃyoga</i>), separation (<i>viyoga</i>) and number (<i>saṃkhyā</i>). Purusha cannot be +considered to be suffering change or impure on account of the possession of +the above common characteristics of all substances. <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 17.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f19'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. Thus the <cite>Bhāshya</cite> says: <i>bhavishyadvyaktikamanāgataṃanudbhūtavyaktikamatītaṃ +svavyāpāropārūḍhaṃ varttamānaṃ trayaṃ, caitadvastu +jñānasya jñeyaṃ yadi caitat svarūpato nābhavishyannedaṃ nirvishayaṃ +jñānamudapatsyata tasmādatītamanāgataṃ svarūpato’ stīti</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f20'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, IV. 14.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f21'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. <i>Vastusāmye cittabhedāt tayor vibhaktaḥ panthāḥ.</i> <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, IV. 15.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f22'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. “<cite>Tattvāntara-pariṇāma</cite>” means the evolution of a wholly new category +of existence. Thus the tanmātras are wholly different from the ego from +which they are produced. So the atoms are wholly different from the tanmātras +from which they are produced, for the latter, unlike the former, have +no sense-properties. In all combinations of atoms, there would arise thousands +of new qualities, but none of the products of the combination of atoms +can be called a tattvāntara, or a new category of existence since all these +qualities are the direct manifestations of the specific properties of the atoms.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f23'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, III. 52, says that the smallest indivisible part of a +thing is called a paramāṇu. Vijñāna Bhikshu in explaining it says that +paramāṇu here means guṇa, for if a thing say a stone is divided, then the +furthest limit of division is reached when we come to the indivisible guṇas. +But if the prakṛti is all-pervading (<i>vibhu</i>) how can the guṇas be atomic? +Bhikshu says (<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 52) in reply that there are some classes +of guṇas (e.g. those which produce mind <i>antaḥkaraṇa</i> and <i>ākāśa</i>) which +are all-pervading, while the others are all atomic. In Bhikshu’s interpretation +a moment is to be defined as the time which a guṇa entity takes to +change its own unit of space. Guṇas are thus equivalent to the Vaiśeshika +paramāṇus. Bhikshu, however, does not deny that there are no atoms of +earth, water, etc., but he says that where reference is not made to these atoms +but to guṇa atoms for the partless units of time can only be compared with +the partless guṇas. But Vācaspati does not make any comment here to +indicate that the smallest indivisible unit of matter should mean guṇas. +Moreover, <cite>Yoga-sūtra</cite>, I. 40, and <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, I. 45, speak of <i>paramāṇu</i> +and <i>aṇu</i> in the sense of earth-atoms, etc. Even Bhikshu does not maintain +that paramāṇu is used there in the sense of atomic guṇa entities. I +could not therefore accept Bhikshu’s interpretation that paramāṇu here +refers to guṇa. Paramāṇu may here be taken in the sense of material +atoms of earth, water, etc. The atoms (paramāṇu) here cannot be +absolutely partless, for it has two sides, prior (<i>pūrvadeśa</i>) and posterior +(<i>uttaradeśa</i>).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f24'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. Bhikshu regards the movement of a guṇa of its own unit of space as +the ultimate unit of time (<i>kshaṇa</i>). The whole world is nothing else but a +series of <i>kshaṇas</i>. This view differs from the Buddhist view that everything +is momentary in this that it does not admit of any other thing but the +<i>kshaṇas</i> (<i>na tu kskaṇātiriktaḥ kshaṇikaḥ padārthaḥ kaścidishyate taistu +kskaṇamātrasthāyyeva padārthaḥ ishyate</i>. <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 52).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f25'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. There is a difference of opinion as regards the meaning of the word +“<i>kshaṇapratiyogi</i>” in IV. 33. Vācaspati says that it means the growth +associated with a particular <i>kshaṇa</i> or moment (<i>kshaṇapracayāśraya</i>). +The word <i>pratiyogī</i> is interpreted by Vācaspati as related (<i>pratisambandhī</i>). +Bhikshu, however, gives a quite different meaning. He interprets <i>kshaṇa</i> as +“interval” and pratiyogī as “opposite of” (<i>virodhī</i>). So “<i>kshaṇapratiyogī</i>” +means with him “without any interval” or “continuous.” He holds +that the sūtra means that all change is continuous and not in succession. +There is according to his interpretation no interval between the cessation +of a previous character and the rise of a new one.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f26'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. Nothing more than a superficial comparison with Fichte is here intended. +A large majority of the texts and the commentary literature would +oppose the attempts of all those who would like to interpret Sāṃkhya-yoga +on Fichtean lines.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f27'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. <cite>Tattvakaumudī</cite> on <cite>Sāṃkhya-kārikā</cite>, 25.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f28'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. <cite>Tattvavaiśāradī</cite>, III. 41.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f29'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. This was first pointed out by Dr. B. N. Seal in his <cite>Physical, Chemical +and Mechanical Theories of the Ancient Hindus</cite> in Dr. P. C. Ray’s <cite>Hindu +Chemistry</cite>, Vol. II.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f30'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, I. 45.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f31'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. I have already said before that Bhikshu thinks that the guṇas (except +the all-pervading ones) may be compared to the Vaiśeshika atoms. See +<cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, III. 52.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f32'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. Cf. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>—“<i>sabdādīnāṃ mūrttisamānajátīyānāṃ</i>,” IV. 14.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f33'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, II. 19.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f34'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. <cite>Vyāsa-bhāshya</cite>, III. 13.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f35'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. <i>Ibid.</i></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f36'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. Nahusha an earthly king became Indra the king of the gods by the +fruition of his virtues, but on account of gross misdeeds fell from Heaven +and was turned into a snake.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f37'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. <cite>Tattravaiśāradī</cite>, IV, 3.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f38'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. I have translated both citta and buddhi as mind. The word buddhi +is used when emphasis is laid on the intellective and cosmical functions of +the mind. The word citta is used when emphasis is laid on the conservative +side of mind as the repository of all experiences, memory, etc.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f39'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. If this is a Sāṃkhya doctrine, it seems clearly to be a case of Jaina +influence.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f40'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. Compare Pañcaśikha, <i>svalpasaṇkaraḥ saparihāraḥ sapratyavamarshaḥ</i>, +<cite>Tattvakaumudī</cite>, 2.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f41'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. Pratyaya is explained in <cite>Yoga-vārttika</cite>, II. 28, as <i>sampratyaya</i> or +<i>prāmāṇyaniścaya</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f42'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. Yudhishṭhira led falsely Droṇa to believe that the latter’s son was +dead by inaudibly muttering that it was only an elephant having the +same name as that of his son that had died.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f43'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. This book has, however, not yet been published.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f44'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. Dr. Ray’s <cite>Hindu Chemistry</cite>, Vol. II, p. 81.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f45'> +<p class='c007'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. Avidyā manifests itself in different forms: (1) as the afflictions +(<i>kleśa</i>) of asmitā (egoism), rāga (attachment), dvesha (antipathy) and +abhiniveśa (self-love); (2) as doubt and intellectual error; (3) as error of +sense. All these manifestations of avidyā are also the different forms of +viparyyaya or bhrama (error, illusion, mistake). This bhrama in Yoga is +the thinking of something as that which it is not (<i>anyathākhyāti</i>). Thus we +think the miserable worldly existence as pleasurable and attribute the +characteristics of prakṛti to purusha and vice versa. All afflictions are due +to this confusion and misjudgment, the roots of which stay in the buddhis +in all their transmigrations from one life to another. Sāṃkhya, however, +differs from Yoga and thinks that all error (<i>avidyā</i> or <i>bhrama</i>) is due only to +non-distinction between the true and the untrue. Thus non-distinction +(<i>aviveka</i>) between prakṛti and purusha is the cause of all our miserable +mundane existence. Avidyā and aviveka are thus synonymous with +Sāṃkhya.</p> +</div> + +<div class='pbb'> + <hr class='pb c002'> +</div> +<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + + <ul class='ul_1 c003'> + <li>Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + + </li> + <li>Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. + </li> + </ul> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74250 ***</div> + </body> + <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.57e (with regex) on 2024-07-23 17:51:48 GMT --> +</html> + |